Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Unit I
Definition of Management information system-MIS support for planning organizing and controllingstructure of MIS-Information for decision making
Concept of system-Characteristic of system-System classifications-Categories of information system
strategic information system and competitive advantage
Unit II
Computers and information processing-Classification of computer-Input device-Output device-Storage
device-Batch and online Processing-Hardware, Software Date base Management system
Unit III
System analysis and design-SDLC-Role of system analysis-Functional information system-Personnel,
Production, Material and marketing
Decision support system-Definitions-group decisions support system-Business process out sourcesdefinition and functions
Unit IV
Introduction to Tally - Introduction to software accounting. Computer Application through Accounting
Package Tally - (Latest Version) Preparation of following records on Tally (with inventory) (A)
Creation of company, Group, Ledger Accounts, Feeding of Accounting data Receipts, Payments,
Purchase, Sale, Contra, Journal, Credit Note and Debit Note. (B) Inventory Information Groups, Items
and Valuation. (C) Generation of various Accounting Reports - Creating accounts - Feeding opening
balances - Chart of accounts - Capital Current assets Current liabilities Investments Loans
Miscellaneous Sales Purchase Direct / Indirect income / expenses
Unit V
Purchase and Sales - Purchase / Sales order - Receipt note - Purchase / Sales bills - Debit / Credit note
Journal, Voucher , VAT Bills, service tax , FBT applications,
Reference:
1. Management Information System Sadagopan
2. 2)Management Information System CSV Murthy
3. Tally Financial Accounting Program Current Volume Tally Press
4. Tally for Beginners Tally Press
5. Tally9-Slef Study Training Kit www.swayam-education.com
COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS
Unit III
Computers and information processing Classification of Computer input device output device
storage device Batch and online processing Hardware, Software Database Management System
WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
The term Computer is derived from the term Compute which
means to reckon or to calculate something. Initially human being used
computers just to do arithmetic calculations. That is why; they have
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Computer is a device that transforms data. Data can be anything like marks obtained by you in
various subjects. It can also be name, age, sex, weight, height, etc. of all the students in your class
or income, savings, investments, etc., of a country.
Computer i) accept data ii) store data, iii) process data as desired, and iv) retrieve the stored data as
and when required and v) print the result in desired format.
TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE SPEED OF COMPUTERS
Milli Second
One thousand instructions/second
Micro Second
Million Instruction/Second
Nano Second
Thousand Million Instructions/Second
Pico Second
Millions Million Instruction/Second
Computers are very fast
The unit of measurement of Computers Speed is MIPS (Million Instructions Per Second)
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
Speed
Computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations that we take hours to
complete. Suppose if you have to calculate and write a report of average monthly income of say 1500
persons manually, it will take at least one or two weeks if you work hard but for the computer, it will be
less than 5 minutes to calculate and some extra time to print depending on the printer you use. You will be
surprised to know that computer can perform millions (1,000,000) of instructions and even more per
second. Therefore, we determine the speed of computer in terms of microsecond (10-6 part of a second) or
nano-second (10-9 part of a second). From this you can imagine how fast your computer performs work.
Accuracy
The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed with the same
accuracy. The accuracy level is determined on the basis of design of computer. The errors in computer are
due to human and inaccurate data.
Diligence or consistency
A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for hours without
creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a computer will perform every
calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this capability it overpowers human being in routine type of
work.
Versatility
It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may use your computer to
prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory management or to prepare electric bills.
Power of Remembering
Computer has the power of storing any amount of information or data. Any information can be
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Size wise like micro Computer, Mini Computer, Mainframe Computer or Super Computer
Purpose wise classification
Computers can be classified into General Purpose and Special Purpose computers.
General Purpose Computers
These are nothing but the computers which we are using for our daily use. Here, different software
of different purposes can be executed one after another like executing Ms-Word, then Ms-Access,
Oracle application, Visual BASIC application, Payroll Application, Inventory Control Application,
Financial Accounting System, DTP applications etc. with the same computer. This is not
specifically allotted for any special or designated purpose.
Special Purpose Computers
These are dedicated for some specialized tasks. Mostly they will be used for the purpose for which
they are dedicated. CT Scanners, Endoscope, equipments (using computers) used for doing Laser
operations computers dedicated for launching for rockets and missiles etc., are some examples.
Type wise classification
Computers can be classified into Analog, Digital or Hybrid Computers.
Analog Computer
Analog Computer works with the qualitative data or physical force. Some physical force is used to
operate analog computer.
For ex., in the case of Thermometer, the physical force is heat of human body. The mercury kept
inside the thermometer will be expanding in proportion to the heat of human body. To have correct
measurement, one must use good quality instrument. Otherwise the result is highly unpredictable.
In the case of spring balance or normal balance, the physical force is gravitation force of the earth.
In the case of Speedo meter, the speed of rotation of wheel is the physical force. In the case of
mechanical watch, the physical force is tension of the spring which rotates the teeth wheel.
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Digital Computer
Digital Computers work with quantitative data. There is some element of counting number of low
or high pluses (Electronic pulses or low voltage or high voltage) emitted by electronic components
which will be represented normally by 0s & 1s and also the output in On-Off signal.
Most of the computers available to-day is digital computers and now we use the term
Computers to refer digital computers only.
Some crude examples for digital computers are digital watches, Digital EB meters, Glucose
meters, digital thermometers etc.,
Hybrid Computers
It is a a combination of both Analog & Digital Computers. A part of the processing is done by
Analog computer and a part by digital computers. A hybrid computer combines the benefits of both
Analog Computers and Digital Computers. It provides greater precision that can be attained with
Analog Computers and the speed and greater control by Digital Computer. It can accept input data
in both analog and digital form. It is used for simulation applications. Now, in most of the big
concerns entire production process will be carried on by hybrid computers wherein human
intervention is very low and only few staffs will be maintained just to observe what is going on.
Only in the case of emergency they will stop the machine and report the matter to the management
and they dont know what is going on in between. Examples are laparoscope, CT scanners,
endoscopes etc.
Size wise classifications
Computers can be classified into micro Computer, Mini Computer, Mainframe Computers and Super
Computers.
Micro Computers
Micro Computers are General purpose computers. It is an outcome of 4th generation with the birth of
Microprocessor. A Microprocessor is called as the miniature of chips. Computers size, cost, weight
etc., has reduced to a greater extend. Microcomputer is at the lowest end of the computer range in terms
of speed and storage capacity. Its CPU is a microprocessor. This is a single user oriented system.
When they were introduced, they were costing around 1.5 lakhs to 5 lakhs. Initially they came with two
8 inch floppy drives and used CP/M operating system which is Character User Interface based
operating system. The first microcomputers were built of 8-bit microprocessor chips. The languages
used at that time were only BASIC, COBOL, Fortran and lower end text editors.
Now, micro computers are so powerful and it can be called as micro computer, PCs, Workstations,
Clients or Nodes.
In Personal Computers (PCs), Pc-Dos or Ms-Dos or OS2 operating system is used. Now, we are using
multi-user operating systems like UNIX and Linux operating system in PCs. With the introduction of
Windows operating system GUI concepts, Multi-tasking, multi-programming concepts were introduced
in PCs. Other most common modern micro computer is Apple computer which is using GUI operating
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Automatic operation is carried on due to stored program concept. So, frequent Manual
intervention is very low. Multi-usage of the same program is also possible which are not possible in the
case of manual mechanical computers.
Highly Reliable and do Complex Operations
Mechanical can perform only limited arithmetic operations and we can not fully depend on the
results given by them whereas the results of digital computers are more versatile and can perform logical
operations also. By writing relevant programs we can execute even complex arithmetic operations.
HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
In olden days, human being used fingers in their hands and legs. to count. When they felt the
insufficiency of fingers, they tried to use stones and pebbles and they found it very inconvenient to carry
wherever they go.
During 3000 BC, Chinese & Japanese used ABAUS mechanical calculator which is still widely
used in Asia. Meanwhile in Asia, the Chinese were becoming very involved in commerce with the
Japanese, Indians, and Koreans. Businessmen needed a way to tally accounts and bills. Somehow, out of
this need, the abacus was born. The abacus is the first true precursor to the adding machines and computers
which would follow.
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Then Napiers Bones was developed in the year 1617. John Napier, a Scotsman, invented logarithms
which use lookup tables to find the solution to otherwise tedious and error-prone mathematical
calculations. Logarithm is a technology that allows multiplication to be performed via addition. The magic
ingredient is the logarithm of each operand, which was originally obtained from a printed table. But Napier
also invented an alternative to tables, where the logarithm values were carved on ivory sticks which are
now called Napier's Bones.
The Slide Rule was first built in England in the year 1630. In 1960's, it was used by the NASA
engineers of the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs which landed men on the moon. . The slide rule
works on the basis of Napiers rules for logarithms. It was used until 1970s
Pascal designed the first mechanical calculator (Pascaline) based on gears. It performed addition
and subtraction. In 1642 Blaise Pascal, at age of 19 invented the Pascaline as an aid for his father to collect
tax. Pascal built 50 of this gear-driven one-function calculator (it could only add) but couldn't sell many
because of their exorbitant cost and because they really weren't that accurate (at that time it was not
possible to fabricate gears with the required precision). Up until the present age when car dashboards went
digital, the odometer portion of a car's speedometer used the very same mechanism as the Pascaline to
increment the next wheel after each full revolution of the prior wheel.
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Leibniz's Stepped Reckoner (have you ever heard "calculating" referred to as "reckoning"?)
In 1801 the Frenchman Joseph Marie Jacquard invented a power loom that could base its weave
(and hence the design on the fabric) upon a pattern automatically read from punched wooden cards, held
together in a long row by rope. Descendents of these punched cards have been in use ever since
(remember the "hanging chad" from the Florida presidential ballots of the year 2000?).
Jacquard's technology was a real boon to mill owners, but put many loom operators out of work.
Angry mobs smashed Jacquard looms and once attacked Jacquard himself. History is full of examples of
labor unrest following technological innovation yet most studies show that, overall, technology has
actually increased the number of jobs.
In the year 1822, Charles Babbage developed Differential Engine. With this machine, he
compiled statistics of life and saved around two years of processing time but he was unable to develop this
machine successfully.
In the year 1833, he conceived the idea Analytical Engine. According to him this machine will be
using punched cards for storage purpose and working with steam engines. Babbage called the two main
parts of his Analytic Engine the "Store" and the "Mill", as both terms are used in the weaving industry. The
Store was where numbers were held and the Mill was where they were "woven" into new results. In a
modern computer these same parts are called the memory unit and the central processing unit (CPU). He
was the first person who gave the concepts of storage, processing and input and output. Still we are
following the same concept. So he is called as Father of Moedern Computers
The following diagrams will illustrate this:
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If you compare the above two diagrams, one can understand that still we are following the concept
of Charles babbage and we are unable to deviate from the his idea even after lot of developments in
computer field. That is why he is called as Father of Modern Computers.
Babbage is largely remembered because of the work of Augusta Ada (Countess of Lovelace) who
was the first computer programmer. She was fascinated by Babbage's ideas and through sending and
receiving letters and meetings with Babbage, she learned enough about the design of the Analytic Engine.
While Babbage refused to publish his knowledge for another 30 years, Ada wrote a series of "Notes"
wherein she detailed sequences of instructions she had prepared for the Analytic Engine. The Analytic
Engine remained inbuilt (the British government refused to get involved with this one) but Ada earned her
spot in history as the first computer programmer. Ada invented the subroutine and was the first to
recognize the importance of looping.
A step towards automated computing was the development of punched cards, which were first
successfully used with computers in 1890 by Herman Hollerith and James Powers, who worked for the US.
Census Bureau. They developed devices that could read the information that had been punched into the
cards automatically, without human help. Because of this, reading errors were reduced dramatically, work
flow increased, and, most importantly, stacks of punched cards could be used as easily accessible memory
of almost unlimited size. Furthermore, different problems could be stored on different stacks of cards and
accessed when needed. Herman Hollerith's technique was successful and the 1890 census was completed
in only 3 years at a savings of 5 million dollars. Hollerith was the first American associated with the
history of computers. He was also the first to make a bunch of money at it. His company, the Tabulating
Machine Company, became the Computer Tabulating Recording Company in 1913 after struggling in the
market and merging with another company that produced a similar product. The company hired a
gentleman named Thomas J. Watson in 1918 who was primarily instrumental in turning the company
around. In 1924, the company was renamed International Business machines (IBM) Corporation.
A closer look at the Census Tabulating Machine
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Aiken thought he could create a modern and functioning model of Babbages Analytical Engine. He
succeeded in securing a grant of 1 million dollars for his proposed Automatic Sequence Calculator; the
Mark I for short from IBM. In 1944, the Mark I was "switched" on. Aiken's colossal machine spanned 51
feet in length and 8 feet in height. 500 meters of wiring were required to connect each component.
GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
First Generation computers used vacuum tubes as electronic components for circuitry and Magnetic
Drum for storage. They were very big in size. They were costlier. Power consumption is heavy. They
produced heavy noise but the speed of processing is very slow.
First Generation Started with the introduction of ENIAC [Electronic Numerical Integrator And
Calculator] in the year 1946 by , John P. Eckert, John W. Mauchly , and their associates at the Moore
school of Electrical Engineering of University of Pennsylvania. Main purpose of developing ENIAC
was to assist the Word War II by preparing Firing Table to decide at what velocity, at which direction,
at which force, at which height if bombs exploded, heavy calamity could be effected to the enemy.
ENIAC Features
1. It was using 18,000 valves 70,000 resistors and 5 million soldered joints.
2. It was weighing around 30 tons and occupied around 300 cu. Ft.
3. It computed at speeds 1,000 times faster than the Mark I was capable of only 2 years earlier
4. It could do nuclear physics calculations (in two hours) which it would have taken 100 engineers
a year to do by hand.
5. The system's program could be changed by rewiring a panel.
6. It consumed about 180,000 watts of electrical power.
7. It had punched card I/O, 1 multiplier, 1 divider/square rooter, and 20 adders using decimal ring
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counters , which served as adders and also as quick-access (.0002 seconds) read-write register
storage.
8. Used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory
9. Very Big, consumed more space.
10. Very expensive to operate & maintain.
11. Used more electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.
12. Relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming language understood by computers,
to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time.
13. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.
The First Stored Program Computer was EDSAC [Electronic Discrete Storage Automatic Computer] in
1949. The first American Stored Program Computer was EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable
Automatic Computer) by John von Neumann in 1950. Ecker and Mauchly produced UNIVAC I
(UNIVersal Automatic Computer) in 1951. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered
to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951. Then UNIVAC II came into existence.
Characteristics of First Generation computers:
1. Used valves for data processing and storage.
2. They had a memory size of 20 bytes and speed of 5 mbps.
3. They produced heavy noise
4. They consumed enormous power.
5. They generated lot of heat due to the used of more valves.
6. They were very slow and unreliable.
7. They used punched cards for data storage.
8. They used binary language.
Second Generation - 1959-1964: Transistors
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The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.
IBM 1620: Its size was smaller as compared to First Generation computers and mostly used for
scientific purpose. IBM 1401: Its size was small to medium and used for business applications.
CDC 3600: Its size was large and is used for scientific purposes.
Third Generation - 1965-1970: Integrated Circuits
This is very important generation and lot of activities happened in computer field during this
generation. The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third
generation of computers. ICs are called as miniature of Valves and Transistors i.e., several
valves and transistors functions were put into a small IC. In 1958, Jack Kilby who is an
engineer with Texas Instruments, developed the Integrated Circuit (IC). The
Integrated Circuit combined three electronic components onto a small silicon
disc, which was made from quartz rock. Scientist later managed to fit more
components on a single chip, called semiconductor. As a result of it, more
components were able to squeeze onto the chip and thereby computers became ever smaller. Transistors were
miniaturized and placed on silicon chips which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers. Semiconductors
are nothing but ICs which used to conduct the electronic signals partially. Instead of punched cards and printouts, users
interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system,
which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory.
Another third generation computer development included the use of an OS (operating system) that allowed
computers to run multiple programs together with a central program that monitored & coordinated the
memory of the computer.
Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their
predecessors. Mini computers were developed during this period. During this period BASIC [Beginners All purpose Symbolic
Instruction Code] language was developed by Prof. John Kemny and Thomas Kurtz in the year 1964 for the benefits of
beginners and students. Till then, programming was meant for experienced programmers and scientists. This gave birth to
multiprogramming and Timesharing concepts.
us are using Fourth Generation Computers for our day-to-day activities. With the improvement in the IC
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IC had had to be manufactured to serve a special purpose, now a single microprocessor could be
manufactured & then programmed to meet any number of demands. Soon everyday household items such
as Televisions, Music Systems, Washing Machines, Micro Ovens, and Automobiles incorporated
microprocessors.
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the
Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life
as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks,
which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the
development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.
Integration Types
Small scale integration
Up to 100 devices on a chip
Medium scale integration
100 - 3,000 devices on a chip 100
Large scale integration
3,000 - 100,000 devices on a chip
Very large scale integration
100,000 -100,000,000 devices on a chip
Ultra large scale integration
Over 100,000,000 devices on a chip
Japans Ministry of International Trade and Industry in 1982. The term fifth generation was stretched out
to convey the system as being a leap beyond existing computer machines. But the fifth generation
computer system (FGCS) project of Japan was failed since the Ministry of International Trade and Industry
( MITI ) of Japan stopped funding for it. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial
intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in
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SYMBOL
POWER
OF 2
0
Byte
Kilobyte (1 Thousand)
KB
Megabyte (1 Million)
MB
Gigabyte (1 Billion)
GB
Terabyte (1 Trillion)
TB
Petabyte (1
quadrillion)
PB
Exabyte (1 quintillion)
EB
Zettabyte (1 sextillion)
ZB
Yottabyte (1 septillion)
YB
10
2
20
2
30
2
40
2
50
2
60
2
70
2
80
2
Number of bytes
1
1,024
1,048,576
1,073,741,824
1,099,511,627,776
1,125,899,906,842,624
1,152,921,504,606,846,976
1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424
1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176
overlays. At the start of the program, first overlay was loaded into memory. When it finished, loads
next overlay. Programmers must manage overlays between memory and disk. He was responsible
to find it from disk and load it to memory. It was difficult for programmers.
In 1961, a group of researchers from Manchester established automatic overlay management
system called virtual memory.
Virtual memory is organized into "pages". A page is the memory unit typically a few Kbytes in
size. It is mostly 4-Kbytes. You can learn page size by typing page size command. When a program
references to an address on a page not present in main memory, a page fault occurs. After a page
fault, the operating system seeks for the corresponding page on the disk and loads it onto main
memory by using a page replacement algorithm such as LRU. We can start a program when none
of the program is in main memory. When the CPU tries to fetch the first instruction of the program,
it gets a page fault, because the memory doesn't contain any piece of the program in the main
memory. This method is called demand paging.
If a process in main memory has low priority or is sleeping, that means it won't run soon. In this
case, the process can be backed up on disk by the operating system. This process is swapped out.
The swap space is using for holding memory data.
Processes use virtual addresses for transparency. They don't know about physical memory. CPU
has a unit called Memory Management Unit which is responsible for operating virtual memory.
When a process makes a reference to a page that isn't in main memory, the MMU generates a page
fault. The kernel catches it and decides whether the reference is valid or not. If invalid, the kernel
sends signal "segmentation violation" to the process. If valid, the kernel retrieves the page process
referenced from the disk.
SECONDARY STORAGE
You are now clear that the operating speed of primary memory or main memory should be as fast as
possible to cope up with the CPU speed. These high-speed storage devices are very expensive and hence
the cost per bit of storage is also very high. Again the storage capacity of the main memory is also very
limited. Often it is necessary to store hundreds of millions of bytes of data for the CPU to process.
Therefore additional memory is required in all the computer systems. This memory is called auxiliary
memory or additional memory or attached memory or secondary memory.
In this type of memory the cost per bit of storage is low. However, the operating speed is slower than that
of the primary storage. Huge volume of data are stored here on permanent basis and transferred to the
primary storage as and when required. Most widely used secondary storage devices are magnetic tapes and
magnetic disk.
1.Magnetic Tape: Magnetic tapes are used for large computers like mainframe computers where large
volume of data is stored for a longer time. In PC also you can use tapes in the form of cassettes. The cost of
storing data in tapes is inexpensive. Tapes consist of magnetic materials that store data permanently. It can
be 12.5 mm to 25 mm wide plastic film-type and 500 meter to 1200 meter long which is coated with
magnetic material. The deck is connected to the central processor and information is fed into or read from
the tape through the processor. It is similar to cassette tape recorder.
Magnetic Tape
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Compact: A 10-inch diameter reel of tape is 2400 feet long and is able to hold 800, 1600
or 6250 characters in each inch of its length. The maximum capacity of such tape is 180
million characters. Thus data are stored much more compactly on tape.
Economical: The cost of storing characters is very less as compared to other storage
devices.
Long term Storage and Re-usability: Magnetic tapes can be used for long term storage
and a tape can be used repeatedly with out loss of data.
2.Magnetic Disk: You might have seen the gramophone record, which is circular like a disk and coated
with magnetic material. This is a Random Accessing Device. That is, here you can pick out any files or
records at random or your choice immediately and accessing time will be low to access any record or file
you require. These are non-volatile storage device. Magnetic disks used in computer are made on the same
principle of gramophone record player. It rotates with very high speed inside the computer drive. Data is
stored on both the surface of the disk. Magnetic disks are most popular for direct access storage device.
Each disk consists of a number of invisible concentric circles called tracks. Information is recorded on
tracks of a disk surface in the form of tiny magnetic spots. The presence of a magnetic spot represents one
bit and its absence represents zero bit. The information stored in a disk can be read many times without
affecting the stored data. So the reading operation is non-destructive. But if you want to write a new data,
then the existing data is erased from the disk and new data is recorded.
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Hard Disk
A hard disk drive (often shortened as "hard disk", "hard drive", or "HDD"), is a non-volatile storage
device which stores digitally encoded data on rapidly rotating platters with magnetic surfaces.
Strictly speaking, "drive" refers to a device distinct from its medium, such as a tape drive and its
tape, or a floppy disk drive and its floppy disk. Early HDDs had removable media; however, an
HDD today is typically a sealed unit which is called as Winchester Disk. Here the hard disk will be
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A Cylinder is nothing but same numbered concentric circle or track of nth the sides. ie. 1st
track of head 0 and 1st track of head 1
Floppy Disk: It is similar to magnetic disk discussed above. The floppies are made up of thin,
flexible polythene film on which high quality magnetic oxide is coated. Since it is flexible in
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8 Floppy
5 Floppy
3 Floppy
Floppy Disk
3.Optical Disk:
CD ROM and DVD are optic readable media, contrary to hard disks, floppy disks and tapes, which
are magnetic. The optic storage media are read with a very thin and very precisely aimed laser beam. They
supplement the magnetic media.
They have clear advantages in the areas of data density and stability: Data can be packed much
more densely in an optic media than in a magnetic media. And they have much longer life span. It is
presumed that a magnetic media, such as a hard disk or DAT (digital audio tape) can maintain their data
for a maximum of five years. The magnetism simply fades away in time. Conversely, the life span of optic
media is counted in tens of years.
Let us take a closer look at these disks, which are becoming increasingly popular for all types of
information, education and entertainment.
With every new application and software there is greater demand for memory capacity. It is the necessity
to store large volume of data that has led to the development of optical disk storage medium. Optical disks
can be divided into the following categories:
1.
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Courtesy : http://computer.howstuffworks.com/cd-burner1.htm
A CD player guides a small laser along the CD's data track.
In conventional CDs, the flat areas, or lands, reflect the light back to the laser assembly; the bumps deflect
the light so it does not bounce back.
What the CD Player Does: Tracking
The hardest part is keeping the laser beam centered on the data track. This centering is the job of
the tracking system. The tracking system, as it plays the CD, has to continually move the laser outward.
As the laser moves outward from the
center of the disc, the bumps move past
the laser faster -- this happens because the
linear, or tangential, speed of the bumps is
equal to the radius times the speed at
which the disc is revolving (rpm).
Therefore, as the laser moves outward, the
spindle motor must slow the speed of the
CD. That way, the bumps travel past the
laser at a constant speed, and the data
comes off the disc at a constant rate.
Data read from CD-ROM
Data are usually read from the CD-ROM at a constant speed. The principle is called CLV (Constant
Linear Velocity). It implies that the data track must pass under the read head at the same rate, whether in
inner or outer parts of the track. This is accomplished by varying the disk rotation speed, based on the read
head's position. The closer to the center of the disk is the faster the rotation speed. In the music CD, data
are read sequentially. Therefore, rotation speed variation is not necessary. The CD-ROM disk on the other
hand has to read in random pattern. The read head must jump frequently to different parts of the disk.
Therefore, it forever has to change rotation speed. You can feel that. It causes pauses in the read function.
That is a disadvantage of the CD-ROM media. Also the faster versions can be rather noisy.
The construction of a CD
The CD itself is made up of one continuous track about 0.5 microns wide and around 5km in
length. This track is a small groove spiralling round and round the CD from the centre to the edge. The
materials used to make a CD are at the top we have the label, then a layer of acrylic, a layer of aluminium
ad finally a thicker layer of plastic to protect the CD.
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A computer is only useful when it is able to communicate with the external environment. When
you work with the computer you feed your data and instructions through some devices to the
computer. These devices are called Input devices. Similarly computer after processing, gives
output through other devices called output devices.
For a particular application one form of device is more desirable compared to others. We will
discuss various types of I/O devices that are used for different types of applications. They are
also known as peripheral devices because they surround the CPU and make a communication
between computer and the outer world.
Input Devices
Input devices are necessary to convert our information or data in to a form which can be
understood by the computer. A good input device should provide timely, accurate and useful
data to the main memory of the computer for processing followings are the most useful input
devices.
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This is a sequential accessing device where in the information are entered in the form
of punching holes on cards
The IBM 80-column punching format, with rectangular holes, eventually won out
over the competing UNIVAC 90-character format, which used 45 columns (2
characters in each) of 12 round holes. Punch cards were widely known as just IBM
cards, even though other companies made cards and equipment to process them. The
rectangular bits of paper punched out are called chad (recently, chads) or chips (in
IBM usage).
IBM punch card format
The IBM card format held 80 columns with 12 punch locations each, representing 80
characters. The top two positions were called zone punches, 12 (top) and 11. These
often encoded plus and minus signs. The remaining ten positions represented (from
top to bottom) the digits 0 through 9.
Originally only numeric information was coded, with 1 or 2 punches per column: digits
(digit [0-9]) and signs (zone [12,11] sometimes over-punching the Least Significant
Digit). Later, codes were introduced for upper-case letters and special characters. A column
with 2 punches (zone [12,11,0] + digit [1-9]) was a letter; 3 punches (zone [12,11,0] + digit
[2-4] + 8) was a special character. The introduction of EBCDIC in 1964 allowed columns
with as many as 6 punches (zones [12,11,0,8,9] + digit [1-7]). For computer applications,
binary formats were sometimes used, where each hole represented a single binary digit (or
"bit").
Information are entered by punching holes on cards using coding for each characters
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A card punching machine was used to punch information on cards. A Card verifier
should be used to verify the information punched on card. With out verifying the
information punched on a card, we cannot use it in a card reader. A Card sorter is
used to arrange the cards in the desired sorting order. A card Reader will be used to
read information on cards. There will a passage in a card reader for the flow of cards.
On the top that passage, there will be 12 source of light and at the bottom there will
be 12 photo cells. When the card is flowing inside the passage the light will be
following on the respective photocell and that cells where light falling will be
activated and this is considered as 1. If the cells are not activated, It will be
considered as 0. In this way all information will be sent to the computer in binary
format.
1. They are very costlier i.e., a card may cost 50 paise and only 80 characters can
be entered in a card. If you want to enter 80000 characters you have to use
1000 cards. So, the total cost will be Rs.500. A floppy will be costing only Rs.
25 where you can enter 1.2MB information. A 4 MB pen drive will be costing
Rs. 500 only.
2. Cards are not reusable where as the floppies or pen drives are reusable. If you
make any mistake, the card is not reusable. You have to take fresh card and reenter the information on it.
3. The cost of maintaining the cards will also be a prohibitive one. You have to
protect them from dust, moisture and insects.
4. They occupy huge storage space but now we are having Floppy disks, Hard
disks, CDs, DVDs, Pendrives etch which may not occupy a lesser amount of
space.
2. Magnetic Tape discussed earlier
3. Magnetic Disk discussed earlier
Floppy Disk
Hard Disk
4. Optical Disk discussed earlier
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5. Keyboard: - This is the standard input device attached to all computers. The layout of
keyboard is just like the traditional typewriter of the type QWERTY. It also contains some
extra command keys and function keys. It contains a total of 101 to 104 keys. A typical
keyboard used in a computer is shown in Fig. 2.6. You have to press correct combination of
keys to input data. The computer can recognise the electrical signals corresponding to the
correct key combination and processing is done accordingly.
The Maltron Keyboard
The Maltron keyboard is designed to lessen user fatigue and perhaps carpal tunnel
syndrome. Note the angles of the keys and the many keys that are operated with your
thumbs.
6. Mouse: - Mouse is an input device shown in Fig. 2.7 that is used with your personal
computer. It rolls on a small ball and has two or three buttons on the top. When you roll the
mouse across a flat surface the screen censors the mouse in the direction of mouse
movement. The cursor moves very fast with mouse giving you more freedom to work in
any direction. It is easier and faster to move through a mouse.
7. Scanner: The keyboard can input only text through keys provided in it. If we want to
input a picture the keyboard cannot do that. Scanner is an optical device that can input any
graphical matter and display it back. The common optical scanner devices are Magnetic Ink
Character Recognition (MICR), Optical Mark Reader (OMR) and Optical Character Reader
(OCR).
8. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): - This is widely used by banks to process large
volumes of cheques and drafts. Cheques are put inside the MICR. As they enter the reading unit the
cheques pass through the magnetic field which causes the read head to recognise the character of the
cheques.
9. Optical Mark Reader (OMR): This technique is used when students have appeared in
objective type tests and they had to mark their answer by darkening a square or circular
space by pencil. These answer sheets are directly fed to a computer for grading where
OMR is used.
10.Optical Character Recognition (OCR): - This technique unites the direct reading of
any printed character. Suppose you have a set of hand written characters on a piece of
paper. You put it inside the scanner of the computer. This pattern is compared with a site of
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Pixels. The screen image is made of pixels (tiny dots), which are arranged in
rows across the screen. A screen image consists of between 480,000 and
1,920,000 pixels.
Refresh rate. The screen image is "refreshed" many times per second. Refresh
rates are measured in Hertz (HZ), which means "times per second".
Color depth. Each pixel can display a number of different colors. The number
of colors, which can be displayed, is called color depth. Color depth is
measured in bits.
Video RAM. All video cards have some RAM. How much depends on the
desired color depth. Video cards usually have 1, 2 or 4 MB RAM for normal
usage.
These concepts are central to the understanding of the video system. Since the CRT screens
are still by far the most common, they will form the basis for this review.
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3. Terminals: It is a very popular interactive input-output unit. It can be divided into two
types: hard copy terminals and soft copy terminals. A hard copy terminal provides a
printout on paper whereas soft copy terminals provide visual copy on monitor. A
terminal when connected to a CPU sends instructions directly to the computer.
Terminals are also classified as dumb terminals or intelligent terminals depending upon
the work situation.
4. Printer: It is an important output device which can be used to get a printed copy of the
processed text or result on paper. There are different types of printers that are designed
for different types of applications. Depending on their speed and approach of printing,
printers are classified as impact and non-impact printers. Impact printers use the
familiar typewriter approach of hammering a typeface against the paper and inked
ribbon. Dot-matrix printers are of this type. Non-impact printers do not hit or impact a
ribbon to print. They use electro-static chemicals and ink-jet technologies. Laser
printers and Ink-jet printers are of this type. This type of printers can produce color
printing and elaborate graphics.
In Dot-matrix printer There will be 5 X 7 as shown below or 7 X 9 matrix of pins will be
there in the printer head. This is shown below.
When any character is to be printed the pins forming that letter will be projecting and
others will not be projected. In the above Picture the pins in black are forming letter X and
others are not projected. If the printer head is hammering on the paper through inked
ribbon, character X will be formed.
This can print at the max. of 300 characters per second. You can print charts, Graphs and
special characters using this printer.\
5. All input devices other than cards are acting as output devices.
Multimedia Technology
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Merges capabilities of computers with televisions, VCRs, CD players, DVD players, video and
audio recording equipment, music and gaming technologies.
intervention.
Nanotechnology refers to the creation of materials, devices and systems at a scale of 1
to 100 nanometers (billionths of a meter).
SOFTWARE
WHAT IS SOFTWARE?
As you know computer cannot do anything without instructions from the user. In order to do
any specific job you have to give a sequence of instructions to the computer. This set of
instructions is called a computer program. Software refers to the set of computer programs,
procedures that describe the programs, how they are to be used. We can say that it is the
collection of programs, which increase the capabilities of the hardware. Software guides the
computer at every step where to start and stop during a particular job. The process of software
development is called programming.
You should keep in mind that software and hardware are complementary to each other. Both
have to work together to produce meaningful result. Another important point you should know
that producing software is difficult and expensive.
SOFTWARE TYPES
Computer software is normally classified into Three broad categories.
Utility Software
Application Software
System software
In some books it is mentioned as 2 types of Software say Application Software (by combining
Application Software & Utility Software) & System Software.
Utility Software : Utility software I a set of programs to carry out some common tasks or
activities which is not pertaining to any particular organization. This is developed by some
programmers or organization with the intention of having common usage for all who are in
need of that software like Word processors, Ms-Office Package, Foxpro etc.
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Application Software: Application Software is a set of programs to carry out operations for a
specific application of an organization developed for its own usage by its own programmers or
by outsiders for its own use . For example, payroll is an application software for an
organization to produce pay slips as an output. Other examples are Billing system, Accounting,
Producing statistical report, Analysis of numerous data in research, Weather forecasting, etc. .,
for a particular organisations use only which cannot be used by others or with some
modifications only others can use.
System Software: You know that an instruction is a set of programs that has to be fed to the
computer for operation of computer system as a whole. When you switch on the computer the
programs written in ROM is executed which activates different units of your computer and
makes it ready for you to work on it. This set of program can be called system software.
Therefore system software may be defined as a set of one or more programs designed to
control the operation of computer system.
System software are general programs designed for performing tasks such as controlling all
operations required to move data into and out of the computer. It communicates with printers,
card reader, disk, tapes etc. monitor the use of various hardware like memory, CPU etc. Also
system software are essential for the development of applications software. System Software
allows application packages to be run on the computer with less time and effort. Remember
that it is not possible to run application software without system software.
Development of system software is a complex task and it requires extensive knowledge of
computer technology. Due to its complexity it is not developed in house. Computer
manufactures build and supply this system software with the computer system. DOS, UNIX
and WINDOWS are some of the widely used system software. Out of these UNIX is a multiuser operating system whereas DOS and WINDOWS are PC-based. We will discuss in detail
about DOS and WINDOWS in the next module.
So without system software it is impossible to operate your computer. The following picture is
shown in Fig. 3.1 relation between hardware, software and you as a user of computer system.
Relation between hardware, software.
LANGUAGE
WHAT IS A LANGUAGE?
A language is a system or style of communication between human being. Some of the basic
natural languages that we are familiar with are English, Hindi, Tamil, French etc. These are the
languages used to communicate among various categories of persons.
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You must have heard names like FORTRAN, BASIC, COBOL etc. These are programming
languages. So instructions or programs are written in a particular language based on the type of
job. As an example, for scientific application FORTRAN and C languages are used. On the
other hand COBOL is used for business applications.
Programming Languages
The programming languages can be divided in to 3 languages:
High Level Languages
Low Level Languages &
Machine language.
HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES
Assembly language and machine level language require deep knowledge of computer hardware
where as in higher language you have to know only the instructions in English words and logic
of the problem irrespective of the type of computer you are using.
Characteristic features of High Level Languages.
They use words and alphabets of any one of the natural language. So, anybody with
little amount of knowledge about computer languages and computers can easily
understand.
They are Machine independent. The programs written for a system can be entered in
any other system and then complied to execute the program.
They are maintaining one to many ratios at the time of converting into machine
language.
They are having their own Input, Output, and File handling commands.
COBOL, BASIC, FORTRAN, Pascal etc. are examples of High Level Languages
Higher level languages are problem-oriented languages because the instructions are
suitable for solving a particular problem. For example COBOL (Common Business
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They use some Symbolic codes and it very difficult even for an efficient programmer
to write programs.
They are Machine dependent. The programs written for a system can not be entered in
any other system to execute.
They are maintaining one to one ratio at the time of converting into machine language.
They are not having their own Input, Output, and File handling commands. You have
to fetch data directly from registers and memory.
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Higher Level Language --> (Compile) ---> Program --> Machine Language Program
A compiler can translate only those source programs, which have been written, in that language
for which the compiler is meant for. For example FORTRAN compiler will not compile source
code written in COBOL language.
Object program generated by compiler is machine dependent. It means programs compiled for
one type of machine will not run in another type. Therefore every type of machine must have
its personal compiler for a particular language. Machine independence is achieved by using one
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An interpreter is another type of program translator used for translating each and
every line of higher level language into machine understandable format.
Each and every line of source program will be transferred into machine
understandable format and execute. Once first line is loaded in the memory,
translated, and executed, second line will be loaded in the memory and so on. Once
one line is executed and another line is loaded in the memory existing line will be
erased from the memory. So, unlike Compilers, the interpreters will be executing
source program in to line by line.
This consumes more memory because to execute your program you must load
interpreter and source program and in the process of translation it will generate object
version.
Execution of the source program will take long time because each end every line is to
be translated into object version. If you are having a chain of execution or looping,
each and every statement must be loaded, translated and executed in the chain. If you
are having more number of cycles f execution, it will take lot of time to execute your
program.
The only benefit here over compiler will be error detection. If there is any error in a
line, that line will be listed on the screen. Unless until you correct all errors in that
line, the control will not go to next line. So, debugging is very easy.
Advantages
E
E
Disadvantage
The disadvantage of interpreter is that it is time consuming method because each time a
statement in a program is executed then it is first translated. Thus compiled machine
language program runs much faster than an interpreted program.
COMPUTER NETWORK
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LAN transmits data with a speed of several megabits per second (106 bits per second).
The transmission medium is normally coaxial cables.
LAN links computers, i.e., software and hardware, in the same area for the purpose of
sharing information.
Usually LAN links computers within a limited geographical area because they must
be connected by a cable, which is quite expensive.
People working in LAN get more capabilities in data processing, work processing and
other information exchange compared to stand-alone computers. Because of this
information exchange most of the business and government organizations are using
LAN.
Main benefit of LAN is, an organization can share all resources available to it to all
computer users.
Major Characteristics of LAN
every computer has the potential to communicate with any other computers of the
network
high degree of interconnection between computers
easy physical connection of computers in a network
inexpensive medium of data transmission
high data transmission rate
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Advantages
The reliability of network is high because the failure of one computer in the network
does not effect the functioning for other computers.
Addition of new computer to network is easy.
High rate of data transmission is possible.
Peripheral devices like magnetic disk and printer can be shared by other computers.
Disadvantages
If the communication line fails, the entire network system breaks down.
Use of LAN
Followings are the major areas where LAN is normally used
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3. Centralised Information: In modern computerised environment you will find that big
organisations go for centralised data storage. This means if the organisation is spread
over many cities, they keep their important business data in a single place. As the data
are generated at different sites, WAN permits collection of this data from different sites
and save at a single site.
Examples of WAN
1. Ethernet: Ethernet developed by Xerox Corporation is a famous example of WAN.
This network uses coaxial cables for data transmission. Special integrated circuit chips
called controllers are used to connect quipment to the cable.
2. Aparnet: The Aparnet is another example of WAN. It was developed at Advanced
Research Projects Agency of U. S. Department. This Network connects more than 40
universities and institutions throughout USA and Europe.
Difference between LAN and WAN
LAN is restricted to limited geographical area of few kilometers. But WAN covers
great distance and operate nationwide or even worldwide.
In LAN, the computer terminals and peripheral devices are connected with wires and
coaxial cables. In WAN there is no physical connection. Communication is done
through telephone lines and satellite links.
Cost of data transmission in LAN is less because the transmission medium is owned
by a single organisation. In case of WAN the cost of data transmission is very high
because the transmission medium used are hired, either telephone lines or satellite
links.
The speed of data transmission is much higher in LAN than in WAN. The
transmission speed in LAN varies from 0.1 to 100 megabits per second. In case of
WAN the speed ranges from 1800 to 9600 bits per second (bps).
Few data transmission errors occur in LAN compared to WAN. It is because in LAN
the distance covered is negligible.
NETWORK TOPOLOGY
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The term topology in the context of communication network refers to the way the computers or
workstations in the network are linked together.
According to the physical arrangements of workstations and nature of work, there are three
major types of network topology. They are star topology, bus topology and ring topology.
4.5.1 Star topology
In star topology a number of workstations (or nodes) are directly linked to a central node (see,
above Fig.). Any communication between stations on a star LAN must pass through the central
node. There is bi-directional communication between various nodes. The central node controls
all the activities of the nodes. The advantages of the star topology are:
The major disadvantage of star topology is that failure of the central node disables
communication throughout the whole network.
Bus Topology
In bus topology all workstations are connected to a single communication line called bus. In
this type of network topology there is no central node as in star topology. Transmission from
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The disadvantage of bus topology is that any break in the bus is difficult to identify.
Ring Topology
In ring topology each station is attached nearby stations on a point to point basis so that the
entire system is in the form of a ring. In this topology data is transmitted in one direction only.
Thus the data packets circulate along the ring in either clockwise or anti-clockwise direction.
The advantage of this topology is that any signal transmitted on the network passes through all
the LAN stations. The disadvantage of ring network is that the breakdown of any one station on
the ring can disable the entire system.
Mesh Topology
In mesh topology, nodes are interconnected to one another in a mesh structure. Mesh topology
is very reliable because it can provide alternative routes in forwarding a message from a
sending node to its destination node. But it is more difficult to manage and more expensive.
Mesh topology is supported by the new home monitoring system based on ZigBee technology.
The most recent development in community (municipal) Wi-Fi network, mesh topology is used
to share a broadband Internet connection. The new specification of WiMAX Broadband
Wireless Access (BWA) also supports mesh topology.
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A client-server network has a node (Mostly higher end configuration) that functions as a server which
provides resources (e.g. programs, disk, printers) for other nodes (client computers) and manages clients
access to the network resources. Corporate networks are typically client-server with one or more servers
that store corporate information and employees' computers as clients.
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LAN (Local Area Network) is a network that connects computers, peripherals and other devices within a
building (e.g. office, home) or in a limited area. Typical LAN coverage is about 50 to 300 meters. LAN is
also known as campus network. Most LANs today are implemented using Ethernet. Wireless LAN using
Wi-Fi technology also grows in popularity as an alternative to Ethernet.
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Gateway
Gateway functions to connect two completely different networks. It performs protocol translation.
Although gateway is considered a Layer 7 device in many publications, it actually works across the seven
layers of the OSI Model. In Internet Telephony, a gateway connects the VoIP network to the PSTN.
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Figure: Gateway
VoIP/PSTN Gateway performs protocols and signaling translation,
so a VoIP-enabled phone or PC can communicate with a regular phone.
Network Components - Summary
The following table explains network components along with their functions and the corresponding layers
in the OSI Model. Click each component name for a more detailed explanation.
Network
Component
Functions
converts a computer message into electrical/optical signals for transmission
across a network.
Network
Adapter
Figure: Network Adapters
Internal or external network adapter attaches a computer (desktop PC or laptop)
to a LAN.
puts a message (baseband signal) on a carrier for efficient transmission;
takes the baseband signal from the carrier.
Modem
(Modulator
demodulator)
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Repeater
(Regenerator)
Figure: Repeater
A repeater extends the reach of transceivers 1 and 2.
Note: Transceiver is transmitter and receiver.
Bridge
Figure: Bridge
A network bridge enables communication between two computers at different
networks.
connects computers in a network; receives a packet from a sending
computer and transmits it to all other computers.
Hub
Figure: Hub
When A sends to C, the Hub receives signal from A and retransmits it to both B
and C.
Only C then processes the signal.
Switch
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Figure: Switch
When A sends to C, the Switch receives signal from A and only retransmits it to
C.
B doesn't receive the signal
connects computers in a wireless network; connects the wireless network to
wired networks; connects it to the Internet.
Access Point
Router
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Brouters
connects a home network to the Internet; hides all computers in the home
network from the Internet.
Residential
Gateway
Gateway
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Figure: Gateway
VoIP/PSTN Gateway performs protocols and signaling translation,
so a VoIP-enabled phone or PC can communicate with a regular phone.
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Define how to interpret signals, identify individual computers, initiate and end networked
communication, and manage information exchange across network medium
Network Software
Network operating system (NOS) controls which computers and users access network
resources
o Include both client and server components
o Popular NOSs include Windows Server 2003, Windows XP, Windows 2000, Windows
NT, and Novell NetWare
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Use search engine, such as Yahoo! or Google, to find Web sites with specific
information
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A
A
A
A
A
A
.com
Commercial organizations or businesses
.edu
Educational institutions
.gov
Government organizations (except military)
.mil
Military organizations
.netNetwork service providers
.org
Other organizations, usually nonprofit
Country-Specific Domains
A
A
A
A
.au
Australia
.fr
France
.uk
United Kingdom
.in
India
For complete, geographically organized list of country top-level domain names, visit
www.norid.no/domenenavnbaser/domreg.html
Making an Internet Connection
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from
150
to
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Darknet: a private network that runs on the Interne but is only open to users who belong to
the network.
Domain names consist of multiple parts, separated by dots, which are red from right to left.
o Top-level domain
o Name of the organization
o Name of the specific computer
Top-level domain: the rightmost part of an Internet name; common top-level domains are
.com, .edu, .gov
Name of the company: the next section of the Internet name
Name of the specific computer: the next section of the Internet name
Internet Address example
The World Wide Web is a system of universally accepts standards for storing, retrieving, formatting,
and displaying information via a client/server architecture.
n Not the same thing as the Internet
n Home page
n Uniform resource locator
Home page: a text and graphical screen display that usually welcomes the user and explains the
organization that has established the page.
Uniform resource locator: the set of letters that points to the address of a specific resource on the
Web
controls the creation, maintenance (Editing, Listing, Printing, Deleting etc.), and
the use of the database of an organization and its end users.
It allows organizations to place control of organization-wide database
development in the hands of database administrators (DBAs) and other
specialists.
DBMSes may use any of a variety of database models, such as
o Sequential file organization model
o Random file organization model
o Index sequential File Organization Model
o Hierarchical file organization model
o the network model or
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o relational model.
In large systems, a DBMS allows users and other software to store and retrieve
data in a structured way. It helps to specify the logical organization for a
database and access and use the information within a database.
Master file where fixed and semi-fixed information which will never or
occasionally changing will be stored. Here, the records will be having
Master, Product Master, Employee Master etc.
Transaction File where information of frequently changing in nature will
be maintained like Marks information of each examination, Salary
Information of each month, Product movement information etc.
Table Files contain the reference data used in processing transactions,
Updating master files, or producing output.
Report File are temporary files which contains processed data for taking
printout when printing time is not available and should be sent in queue
to printer.
Work File is a temporary file in a system. It has neither the long-term
character of a master file nor the input nor output character of a
transaction or report file. One common use of a work file is to pass data
created by one program to another.
Program File contains instructions for the processing of data which may
be stored in other files or resident in main memory. The instructions may
be written in a highlanguage, Machine language, or a job control language.
Text File contains alphanumeric and graphic data input using a text
editor, or may be stored in such a way that it can be processed by several
users.
may be backup files to ensure that the duplicate is available
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Each and every record will be stored with a record number which is called
as record key and you are expected to keep that record key in memory
otherwise you cannot access the record.
This Direct Access does not require the system to start from the beginning
ie., from first record.
Since the record key here is numeric, we can not fetch any record using
primary key or any other keys using alphanumeric coding. For an
example, if you want to know the details of an employee or a product,
know what record number you have given to a record while doing data
processing. Whereas, it is easy to predict a records first two or more keys
and fetch our desired records. This facility is not available in Direct
Access file organization.
Here, the accessing can be both sequential and random using record key.
In this file organization, Index of records includes a record key and
storage address for a record.
Two separate files are maintained. One is indexed file where an index of
records stored in a sequential file will be maintained. By using the index
any record can be fetched easily from the sequential file with lesser
amount of time. Another file is, sequential file which is similar to our
sequential files, where in the records will be stored sequentially.
The main benefit of Index sequential file organization over direct file is the
retrieval of a record using a key field. Here, the key field will be primary
key becuae in index sequential files the key field should be a unique one.
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be very difficult to Maintain. Even for small or one time usage also you have to
write programs.
Since lot of programs are to be written, it will take longer time to finish of a
software
For any operation, you have to write programs. With out using programs , one
cannot access any information from records.
The files and programs are not independent. We have to define the data structure
within the program itself. So, if there is any change in structure, the program
should be modified. If several programs are using the modified file, then all those
programs are to be modified.. this is a tedious process.
set of programs to access that data. It is software that is helpful in maintaining and
utilizing a database.
A DBMS consists of:
A collection of interrelated and persistent data. This part of DBMS is referred
to as database (DB).
A set of application programs used to access, update, and manage data. This
part constitutes data management system (MS).
A DBMS is general-purpose software i.e., not application specific. The same
DBMS (e.g., Oracle, Sybase, etc.) can be used in railway reservation system,
library management, university, etc.
A DBMS takes care of storing and accessing data, leaving only application
specific tasks to application programs.
DBMS is a complex system that allows a user to do many things to data as shown in
Fig. below. From this figure, it is evident that DBMS allows user to input data, share
the data, edit the data, manipulate the data, and display the data in the database.
Because a DBMS allows more than one user to share the data; the complexity
extends to its design and implementation.
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Features of DBMS
Structure of DBMS
An overview of the structure of database management system is shown in Fig.
below. A DBMS is a software package, which translates data from its logical
representation to its physical representation and back. The DBMS uses an
application specific database description to define this translation. The database
description is generated by a database designer from his or her conceptual view
of the database, which is called the Conceptual Schema. The translation from the
conceptual schema to the database description is performed using a data
defi
or textual design interface.
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Objectives of DBMS
The main objectives of database management system are data availability,
data integrity, data security, and data independence.
Data Availability
Data availability refers to the fact that the data are made available to wide variety
of users in a meaningful format at reasonable cost so that the users can easily
access the data.
Data Integrity
Data integrity refers to the correctness of the data in the database. In other words,
the data available in the database is a reliable data.
Data Security
Data security refers to the fact that only authorized users can access the data.Data
security can be enforced by passwords. If two separate users are accessing a
particular data at the same time, the DBMS must not allow them to make
con icting changes.
Data Independence
DBMS allows the user to store, update, and retrieve data in an efficient manner.
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DBMS provides an abstract view of how the data is stored in the database.
In order to store the information efficiently, complex data structures are used to
represent the data. The system hides certain details of how the data are stored and
maintained.
Database System Applications
Databases are widely used. Here are some representative applications:
Banking: For customer information, accounts, and loans, and banking transactions.
Airlines: For reservations and schedule information. Airlines were among the first to
use databases in a geographically distributed manner terminals situated around
the world accessed the central database system through phone lines and other data
networks.
Universities: For student information, course registrations, and grades.
Credit card transactions: For purchases on credit cards and generation of monthly
statements.
Telecommunication: For keeping records of calls made, generating monthly bills,
maintaining balances on prepaid calling cards, and storing information about the
communication networks.
Finance: For storing information about holdings, sales, and purchases of financial
instruments such as stocks and bonds.
Sales: For customer, product, and purchase information.
Manufacturing: For management of supply chain and for tracking production of
items.
Human resources: For information about employees, salaries, payroll taxes and
benefits, and for generation of paycheques.
Evolution of Database Management Systems
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Conference on Data System Languages formed Data Base Task Group (DBTG)
in 1967. DBTG specified three distinct languages for standardization. They are
Data Definition Language (DDL), which would enable Database Administrator
to define the schema, a subschema DDL, which would allow the application
programs to defi
(DML) to manipulate the data.
The network and hierarchical data models developed during that time had the
As an impact of Codds paper, System R project was developed during the late
h Laboratory in California. The project was
developed to prove that relational data model was implementable.
In 1979, Codd himself attempted to address some of the failings in his original
work with an extended version of the relational model called RM/T in 1979
that represents the
real world more closely have been loosely classified as Semantic Data
Modeling.
In recent years, two approaches to DBMS are more popular, which are
Object-Oriented DBMS (OODBMS) and Object Relational DBMS (OR- DBMS).
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1970.
Edgar Codd, from IBM created the Relational Data Model.
In 1981 Codd received the Turing Award for his contributions to database theory.
1976.
Peter Chen presented Entity-Relationship model, which is widely used in database
design.
1980.
SQL eveloped by IBM, became the standard query language for data- bases. SQL
was standardized by ISO.
1980s and 1990s.
DBMS.
Classification of Database Management System
The database management system can be broadly classified into
(1) Passive Database Management System and
(2) Active Database Management System
Passive Database Management System.
Passive Database Management Systems are program-driven. In passive database
management system the users query the current state of database and retrieve the
information currently available in the database. Traditional DBMS are passive in
the sense that they are explicitly and synchronously invoked by user or application
program initiated operations. Applications send requests for operations to be
performed by the DBMS and wait for the DBMS to confirm and return any possible
answers. The operations can be definitions and updates of the schema, as well as
queries and updates of the data.
Active Database Management System.
Active Database Management Systems are data-driven or event-driven systems. In
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active database management system, the users specify to the DBMS the
information they need. If the information of interest is currently available, the
DBMS actively monitors the arrival of the desired information and provides it to
the relevant users. The scope of a query in a passive DBMS is limited to the past
and present data, whereas the scope of a query in an active DBMS additionally
includes future data. An active DBMS reverses the control flow between
applications and the DBMS instead of only applications calling the DBMS, the
DBMS may also call applications in an active DBMS. Active databases contain a
set of active rules that consider events that represent database state changes, look
the result of a database predicate or query, and
take an action via a data manipulation program embedded in the system. Alert is
extension architecture at the IBM Almaden Research, for experimentation with
active databases.
File-Based System
Prior to DBMS, file system provided by OS was used to store information. In a filebased system, we have collection of application programs that perform services for
the end users. Each program defines and manages its own data. Consider
University database, the University database contains details about student,
faculty, lists of courses offered, and duration of course, etc. In File-based
processing for each database there is separate application program which is shown
in Fig. below.
One group of users may be interested in knowing the courses offered by the university.
One group of users may be interested in knowing the faculty information. The
information is stored in separate files and separate applications programs are written.
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Duplication of data leads to wastage of storage space. If the storage space is wasted
Advantages of DBMS
There are many advantages of database management system. Some of the advantages
are listed later:
1. Centralized data management.
2. Data Independence.
3. System Integration.
Centralized Data Management
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Data independence means that programs are isolated from changes in the
way the data are structured and stored.
Physical data independence means the applications need not worry about how
should work with a
logical data model and declarative query language. If major changes were to be
made to the data, the application programs may need to be rewritten. When
changes are made to the data representation, the data maintained by the DBMS
is changed but the DBMS continues to provide data to application programs in
the previously used way.
Reduced in DBMS.
Activated in DBMS.
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3. Data inconsistency
Avoided in DBMS.
4.
Achieved in DBMS.
5. Data integrity
Necessary for efficient Transaction.
6. Support for multiple views
Necessary for security reasons.
Data redundancy means duplication of data. Data redundancy will occupy more
Support for multiple views means DBMS allows different users to see different
views of the database, according to the perspective each one requires. This
concept is used to enhance the security of the database.
Standard Institute/
Standards Planning
The distinction between the logical and physical representation of data were recognized
framework for database
systems. This framework provided a three-level architecture, three levels of abstraction
at which the database could be viewed.
Need for Abstraction
The main objective of DBMS is to store and retrieve information e ciently; all the users
should be able to access same data. The designers use complex data structure to
represent the data, so that data can be e ciently stored and retrieved, but it is not
necessary for the users to know physical database storage details. The developers hide
the complexity from users through several levels of abstraction.
Data Independence
Data independence means the internal structure of database should be unaffected by
changes to physical aspects of storage. Because of data independence, the Database
administrator can change the database storage structures without affecting the users
view.
The different levels of data abstraction are:
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It is concerned with the physical storage of the information. It provides the internal
view of the actual physical storage of data. The physical level describes complex lowlevel data structures in detail.
Logical Level
Logical level describes what data are stored in the database and what relationships
exist among those data.
Logical level describes the entire database in terms of a small number of simple
structures. The implementation of simple structure of the logical level may involve
complex physical level structures; the user of the logical level does not need to be
aware of this complexity. Database administrator uses the logical level of abstraction.
View Level
View level is the highest level of abstraction. It is the view that the individual user of
the database has. There can be many view level abstractions of the same data. The
different levels of data abstraction are shown in Fig. below.
Database Instances
Database change over time as information is inserted and deleted. The collection of
information stored in the database at a particular moment is called an instance of the
database.
Database Schema
The overall design of the database is called the database schema. A schema is a
collection of named objects. Schemas provide a logical classification of objects in the
database. A schema can contain tables, views, triggers, functions, packages, and other
objects
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A schema is also an object in the database. It is explicitly created using the CREATE
urrent user recorded as the schema owner. It can also be
implicitly created when another object is created, provided the user has IMPLICIT
SCHEMA authority.
A Mapping is a translation from one schema to another.
Data Models
Data model is collection of conceptual tools for describing data, relationship between
data, and consistency constraints. Data models help in describing the structure of
data at the logical level. Data model describe the structure of the database. A data
model is the set of conceptual constructs available for defining a schema. The data
model is a language for describing the data and database, it may consist of abstract
concepts, which must be translated by the designer into the constructs of the data
definition interface, or it may consist of constructs, which are directly supported by
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the data definition interface. The constructs of the data model may be defined at
many levels of abstraction.
Hardware
The hardware can range from a single personal computer, to a single mainframe, to a
network of computers. The particular hardware depends on the requirements of the
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organization and the DBMS used. Some DBMSs run only on particular operating
systems, while others run on a wide variety of operating systems. A DBMS requires a
minimum amount of main memory and disk space to run, but this minimum
configuration may not necessarily give acceptable performance.
Software
The software includes the DBMS software, application programs together with the
operating systems including the network software if the DBMS is being used over a
network. The application programs are written in third-generation programming
BOL, FORTRAN, Ada, Pascal, etc. or using fourth-generation
language such as SQL, embedded in a third-generation language. The target DBMS
may have its own fourth-generation tools which
through the provision of nonprocedural query languages, report generators, graphics
generators, and application generators. The use of fourth-generation tools can improve
productivity significantly and produce programs that are easier to maintain.
Data
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Procedure
Procedures are the rules that govern the design and the use of database. The procedure
may contain information on how to log on to the DBMS, start and stop the DBMS,
procedure on how to identify the failed component, how to recover the database,
change the structure of the table, and improve the performance.
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istrator, people who design the application program, database designer and the people
who interacts with the database, database users.
-end server in a local or global network, offering
services to clients directly or to Application Servers.
Database Administrator
Database Administrator is a person having central control over data and programs
accessing that data. The database administrator is a manager whose responsibilities
are focused on management of technical aspects of the database system.
The objectives of database administrator are given as follows:
1. To control the database environment
2. To standardize the use of database and associated software
3. To support the development and maintenance of database application
projects
4. To ensure all documentation related to standards and implementation is upto-date
The summarized objectives of database administrator are shown in Fig. below.
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The control of the database environment should exist from the planning right
through to the maintenance stage. During application development the database
administrator should carry out the tasks that ensure proper control of the
database when an application becomes operational. This includes review of each
design stage to see if it is feasible from the database point of view. The database
administrator should be responsible for developing standards to apply to
development projects. In particular these standards apply to system analysis,
design, and application programming for projects which are going to use the
database. These standards will then be used as a basis for training systems
analysts and programmers to use the database management system efficiently.
Responsibilities of Database Administrator (DBA)
The responsibility of the database administrator is to maintain the integrity,
security, and availability of data. A database must be protected from accidents,
such as input or programming errors, from malicious use of the database and
from hardware or software failures that corrupt data. Protection from accidents
that cause data inaccuracy is a part of maintaining data integrity. Protecting the
database from unauthorized or malicious use is termed as database security. The
responsibilities of the database administrator are summarized as follows:
1. Authorizing access to the database.
2. Coordinating and monitoring its use.
3. Acquiring hardware and software resources as needed.
4. Backup and recovery. DBA has to ensure regular backup of database, incase
of damage, suitable recovery procedure are used to bring the database up
with little downtime as possible.
Database Designer
Database designer can be either logical database designer or physical database
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designer. Logical database designer is concerned with identifying the data, the
relationships between the data, and the constraints on the data that is to be
stored in the database. The logical database designer must have thorough
understanding of the organizations data and its business rule. The physical
database designer takes the logical data model and decides the way in which it
can be physically implemented. The logical database designer is responsible for
mapping the logical data model into a set of tables and integrity constraints,
selecting speci c storage structure, and designing security measures required on
the data. In a nutshell, the database designer is responsible for:
1. Identifying the data to be stored in the database.
2. Choosing appropriate structure to represent and store the data.
Database Manager
Database manager is a program module which provides the interface between
the low level data stored in the database and the application programs and
queries submitted to the system:
The database manager would translate DML statement into low level le
system commands for storing, retrieving, and updating data in the
database.
Integrity enforcement. Database manager enforces integrity by checking
consistency constraints like the bank balance of customer must be
main
.
Security enforcement. Unauthorized users are prohibited to view the
information stored in the data base.
Backup and recovery. Backup and recovery of database is necessary to
ensure that the database must remain consistent despite the fact of
failures.
Database Users
Database users are the people who need information from the database to
carry out their business responsibility. The database users can be broadly
classified into two categories like application programmers and end users.
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Specialized end users write specialized database application that does not t
into data-processing frame work. Application involves knowledge base and
expert system, environment modeling system, etc.
Naive End Users
Naive end user interact with the system by using permanent application
program Example: Query made by the student, namely number of books
borrowed in library database.
Data Dictionary
A data dictionary, also known as a system catalog, is a centralized store of
information about the database. It contains information about the tables, the fields the
tables contain, data types, primary keys, indexes, the joins which have been
established between those tables, referential integrity, cascades update, cascade delete,
etc. This information stored in the data dictionary is called the Metadata. Thus a data
dictionary can be considered as a file that stores Metadata. Data dictionary is a tool for
recording and processing information about the data that an organization uses. The
data dictionary is a central catalog for Metadata. The data dictionary can be integrated
within the DBMS or separate. Data dictionary may be referenced during system design,
programming, and by actively-executing programs. One of the major functions of a true
data dictionary is to enforce the constraints placed upon the database by the designer,
such as referential integrity and cascade delete.
Metadata
The information (data) about the data in a database is called Metadata. The Metadata
are available for query and manipulation, just as other data in the database.
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1. Storage manager.
2. Query processor.
Storage Manager
Storage manager is responsible for storing, retrieving, and updating data in the
database. Storage manager components are:
1. Authorization and integrity manager.
2. Transaction manager.
3. File manager.
4. Bu er manager.
Transaction Management
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The area into which a block from the le is read is termed a bu er. The management of
buffers has the objective of maximizing the performance or the utilization of the
secondary storage systems, while at the same time keeping the demand on CPU
resources tolerably low. The use of two or more buffers for a file allows the transfer of
data to be overlapped with the processing of data.
Buffer Manager
Buffer manager is responsible for fetching data from disk storage into main memory.
Programs call on the buffer manager when they need a block from disk. The requesting
program is given the address of the block in main memory, if it is already present in the
buffer. If the block is not in the buffer, the buffer manager allocates space in the buffer
for the block, replacing some other block, if required, to make space for new block.
Once space is allocated in the buffer, the buffer manager reads in the block from the
disk to the buffer, and passes the address of the block in main memory to the
requester.
Indices
Indices provide fast access to data items that hold particular values. An index is a list
of numerical values which gives the order of the records when they are sorted on a
particular eld or column of the table.
Database Architecture
Database architecture essentially describes the location of all the pieces of information
that make up the database application. The database architecture can be broadly
classi ed into two-, three-, and multitier architecture.
Two-Tier Architecture
The two-tier architecture is a clientserver architecture in which the client
database server processes the SQL statements and sends query results back to
the client. The two-tier architecture is shown in Fig. 1.9. Two-tier client/server
provides a basic separation of tasks. The client, or rst tier, is primarily
responsible for the presentation of data to the user and the server, or second
tier, is primarily responsible for supplying data services to the client.
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Presentation Services
Presentation services refers to the portion of the application which presents data to
the user. In addition, it also provides for the mechanisms in which the user will interact
with the data. More simply put, presentation logic defines and interacts with the user
interface. The presentation of the data should generally not contain any validation
rules.
Business Services/objects
Business services are a category of application services. Business services
are
derived from the steps necessary to carry out day-today business in an organization.
These rules can be validation rules, used to be sure that the incoming information is of
a valid type and format, or they can be process rules, which ensure that the proper
business process is followed in order to complete an operation.
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Through standard tiered interfaces, services are made available to the application. A
single application can employ many different services which may reside on dissimilar
platforms or are developed and maintained with different tools. This approach allows a
developer to leverage investments in existing systems while creating new application
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which can utilize existing resources. Although the three-tier architecture addresses
performance degradations of the two-tier architecture, it does not address division-ofprocessing concerns. The PC clients and the database server still contain the same
division of code although the tasks of the database server are reduced. Multiple-tier
architectures provide more flexibility on division of processing.
Multitier Architecture
A multi-tier, three-tier, or
N -tier implementation employs a three-tier logical
architecture superimposed on a distributed physical model. Application Servers can
access other application servers in order to supply services to the client application as
well as to other Application Servers. The multiple-tier architecture is the most general
clientserver architecture. It can be most difficult to implement because of its
For example, in the diagram shown in Fig. above, the client application looks to
Application Server #1 to supply data from a mainframe-based application. Application
Server #1 has no direct access to the mainframe application, but it does know, through
the development of application services, that Application Server #2 provides a service to
access the data from the mainframe application which satis es the client request.
Application Server #1 then invokes the appropriate service on Application Server #2
and receives the requested data which is then passed on to the client.
Application Servers can take many forms. An Application Server may be anything from
custom application services, Transaction Processing Monitors, Database Middleware,
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DBMS
Some of the popular DBMS vendors and their corresponding products are given Table
below
Vendor
IBM
Microsoft
Open Source
Product
DB2/UDB
DB2/400
Informix Dynamic Server (IDS)
Access
SQL Server
DesktopEdition(MSDE)
MySQL
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PostgreSQL
Oracle DBMS
RDB
Adaptive Server Enterprise (ASE)
Adaptive Server Anywhere (ASA)
Watcom
Summary
The main objective of database management system is to store and manipulate the data
in an e cient manner. A database is an organized collection of related data. All the
data will not give useful information. Only processed data gives useful information,
which helps an organization to take important decisions. Before DBMS, computer le
processing systems were used to store, manipulate, and retrieve large les of data.
Computer le processing systems have limitations such as data duplications, limited
data sharing, and no program data independence. In order to overcome these
limitations database approach was developed. The main advantages of DBMS approach
are program-data independence, improved data sharing, and minimal data
redundancy. In this chapter we have seen the evolution of DBMS and broad
introduction to DBMS.
The responsibilities of Database administrator, ANSI/SPARK, two-tier, three-tier
architecture were analyzed in this chapter.
Review Questions
1. What are the drawbacks of le processing system?
The drawbacks of file processing system are:
Duplication of data, which leads to wastage of storage space and data
inconsistency.
Separation and isolation of data, because of which data cannot be used together.
No program data independence.
2. What is meant by Metadata?
Metadata are data about data but not the actual data.
3. Define the term data dictionary?
Data dictionary is a le that contains Metadata.
4. What are the responsibilities of database administrator?
The responsibilities of the database administrator are summarized as follows:
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Backup and recovery. DBA has to ensure regular backup of database, incase
of damage, suitable recovery procedure are used to bring the database up with
little downtime as possible.
5. Mention three situations where it is not desirable to use DBMS?
The situations where it is not desirable to use DBMS are:
The database and applications are not expected to change.
Data are not accessed by multiple users.
6. What is meant by data independence?
Data independence renders application programs (e.g., SQL scripts) immune to
changes in the logical and physical organization of data in the system.
Logical organization refers to changes in t
or tuples does not stop queries from working.
umn
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A Database is a collection of related data. Here, the term data means that
known facts that can be record. Examples of database are library information
system, bus, railway, and airline reservation system, etc.
11. Define DBMS.
DBMS is a collection of programs that enables users to create and maintain a
database.
12. Mention various types of databases?
The diff
Multimedia database
Spatial database (Geographical Information System Database)
Real-time or Active Database
Data Warehouse or On-line Analytical Processing Database
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Database schema is nothing but description of the database. The types of schemas
that exist in a database complying with three levels of ANSI/SPARC architecture are:
External schema
Conceptual schema
Internal schema
Entity
Introduction
Peter Chen first proposed modeling databases using a graphical technique that
humans can relate to easily. Humans can easily perceive entities and their
characteristics in the real world and represent any relationship with one another. The
objective of modeling graphically is even more profound than simply representing these
entities and relationship. The database designer can use tools to model these entities
and their relationships and then generate database vendor-specific schema
automatically. EntityRelationship (ER) model gives the conceptual model of the world
to be represented in the database. ER Model is based on a perception of a real world
that consists of collection of basic objects called entities and relationships among these
objects. The main motivation for de ning the ER model is to provide a high level model
for conceptual database design, which acts as an intermediate stage prior to mapping
the enterprise being modeled onto a conceptual level. The ER model achieves a high
degree of data independence which means that the database designer do not have to
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worry about the physical structure of the database. A database schema in ER model
can be pictorially represented by EntityRelationship diagram.
Relationship
A relationship is an association of entities where the association includes one entity
from each participating entity type whereas relationship type is a meaningful
association between entity types. The examples of relationship types are:
Teaches is the relationship type between LECTURER and STUDENT.
OMER.
Treatment is the relationship between DOCTOR and PATIENT.
Attributes
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ER Diagram
Example of ER diagram
Let us consider a simple ER diagram as shown in Fig. 2.1.
simple attributes
which are associated with the STUDENT are Roll number and the name. The
attributes associated with the entity CLASS are Subject Name and Hall Number. The
relationship between the two entities STUDENT and CLASS is Attends.
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Strong Entity
Strong e
Example
Consider the example, student takes course. Here student is a strong entity.
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In this example, course is considered as weak entity because, if there are no students to take a particular
course, then that course cannot be offered. The COURSE entity depends on the STUDENT entity.
Weak Entity
Weak entity is one whose existence depends on other entity. In many cases, weak entity does not
have primary key.
Example
Consider the example, customer borrows loan. Here loan is a weak entity.For every loan, there
should be at least one customer. Here the entity loan depends on the entity customer hence loan is a
weak entity
Weak Entity
Attribute Classification
Attribute is used to describe the properties of the entity. This attribute can be broadly
classified based on value and structure. Based on value the attribute can be classified
into single value, multi-value, derived, and null value attribute. Based on structure, the
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The elements in ER diagram are Entity, Attribute, and Relationship. The different types
of entities like strong, weak, and associative entity, different types of attributes like
multi-valued and derived attributes and identifying relationship and their
corresponding symbols are shown later.
Multi-valued Attribute
In the case of multi-value attribute, more than one value will be associated with that
attribute.
Representation of Multivalued Attribute in ER Diagram
Examples of Multi-valued Attribute
1.
hence skills
associated to an employee are a multi-value attribute.
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Moreover a staff can be an expert in more than one area, hence area of specialization is
considered as multi-valued attribute.
Derived Attribute
The value of the derived attribute can be derived from the values of other related
attributes or entities.
represented by dotted ellipse.
Representation of Derived Attribute in ER Diagram
Example of Derived Attribute
1. Age of a person can be derived from the date of birth of the person. In this
example, age is the derived attribute.
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Not applicable
Example
In application forms, there is one column called phone no. if a person do not
have phone then a null value is entered in that column.
Composite Attribute
Composite attribute is one which can be further subdivided into simple attributes.
Example
Consider the attribute address which can be further subdivided into Street name,
City, and State.
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Relationship Degree
Relationship degree refers to the number of associated entities. The relationship
degree can be broadly classified into unary, binary, and ternary
relationship.
Unary Relationship
The unary relationship is otherwise known as recursive relationship. In the
unary relationship the number of associated entity is one. An entity related
to itself is known as recursive relationship.
Captain of
PLAYERS
PERSON
WIFE
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Binary Relationship
In a binary relationship, two entities are involved. Consider the example; each staff will
be assigned to a particular department. Here the two entities are STAFF and
Ternary Relationship
In a ternary relationship, three entities are simultaneously involved. Ternary
relationships are required when binary relationships are not sufficient to accurately
describe the semantics of an association among three entities.
Example
Consider the example of employee assigned a project. Here we are considering
ECT, and LOCATION. The relationship is
assigned-to. Many employees will be assigned to one project hence it is an
example of one-to-many relationship.
Quaternary Relationships
Quaternary relationships involve four entities. The example of quaternary relationship
the four entities are
PROFESSOR, SLIDES, COURSE, and STUDENT. The relationships between the entities
are Teaches.
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Relationship Classification
Relationship is an association among one or more entities. This relationship can be
broadly classified into one-to-one relation, one-to-many relation, many-to-many
relation and recursive relation.
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For each strong entity type say E, create a new table. The columns of the table
are the attribute of the entity type E.
For each weak entity W that is associated with only one 11 identifying owner
relationship, identify the table T of the owner entity type. Include as columns
of T, all the simple attributes and simple components of the composite
attributes of W.
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For each binary 11 relationship type R, identify the tables S and T of the
name given to the relation is generally the same as the entity type.
Each simple attribute of the entity type becomes an attribute of the relation.
The identifier of the entity type becomes the primary key of the corresponding
relation.
Example 1
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EntityRelationship Model
This diagram is converted into corresponding table as
Here,
Entity name = Name of the relation or table.
In our example, the entity name is PLAYER which is the name of the table
Attributes of ER diagram=Column name of the table.
In our example the Name, Nation, Position, and Number of Grand slams won which
forms the column of the table.
Converting Composite Attribute in an ER Diagram to Tables
When a regular entity type has a composite attribute, only the simple component
attributes of the composite attribute are included in the relation.
Example
In this example the composite attribute is the Customer address, which consists
of Street, City, State, and Zip.
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When the regular entity type contains a multi-valued attribute, two new relations are
created.
The first relation contains all of the attributes of the entity type except the multi-valued
attribute.
The second relation contains two attributes that form the primary key of the second
relation. The first of these attributes is the primary key from the first relation, which
becomes a foreign key in the second relation. The second is the multi-valued attribute.
Mapping Multivalued Attributes in ER Diagram to Tables
A multivalued attribute is having more than one value. One way to map a
multivalued attribute is to create two tables.
Example
-valued attribute,
since an EMPLOYEE can have more than one skill as fitter, electrician, turner, etc.
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Weak entity type does not have an independent existence and it exists only through an
identifying relationship with another entity type called the owner. 46 2 Entity
Relationship Model
For each weak entity type, create a new relation and include all of the simple attributes
of the identifying relation as
a foreign key attribute to this new relation. The primary key of the new relation is the
combination of the primary key of the identifying and the partial identifier of the weak
entity type. In this example DEPENDENT is weak entity.
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Here, we have two entities CUSTOMER and ORDER. The relationship between
CUSTOMER and ORDER is one-to-many. For two entities CUSTOMER and ORDER, two
tables namely CUSTOMER and ORDER are created as shown later. The primary key
CUSTOMER ID in the CUSTOMER relation becomes the foreign key in the ORDER
relation.
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The first step is to create three relations, one for each of the two participatingentity
types and the third for the associative entity. The relation formed from the associative
entity is associative relation.
Sometimes data models will assign an identifier (surrogate identifier) to the associative
entity type on the ER diagram. There are two reasons to motivate
1. The associative entity type has a natural identifier that is familiar to end user.
2. The default identifier may not uniquely identify instances of the associative entity.
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The primary key attributes Patient ID, Physician ID, and Treatment Code become
foreign keys in PATIENT TREATMENT. These attributes are components of the primary
key of PATIENT TREATMENT.
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Normalisation
What is Normalization?
Normalization is a formal process for determining which fields belong in which
tables in a relational database.
Through normalization a collection of data in a record structure is replaced by
successive record structures that are simpler and more predictable and therefore
more manageable.
Normalisation is carried out for the following reasons.
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Normalization ensures that you get the benefits relational databases offer.
Design Vs Implementation
Designing a database structure and implementing a database structure are different
tasks.
Cons of Normalizing
You cant start building the
database before you know what the
user needs
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the road
Validates your common sense and
intuition.
Avoid redundant fields.
Insure that distinct tables exist
when necessary.
Terminology
Primary Key
? Company Name is an obvious candidate for the primary key. Yet, this is a bad idea,
even if the Company Name is unique.
Not only do you have to change this record, you have to update every single related
record since the key has changed.
Another common mistake is to select a field that is usually unique and unchanging.
Consider this small table:
[People]
Social Security Number
First Name
Last Name
Date of birth
In the United States all workers have a Social Security Number that uniquely identifies
them for tax purposes. Or does it? As it turns out, not everyone has a Social Security
Numbers change, and some people have more
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The correct way to build a primary key is with a unique and unchanging value.
Functional Dependency
Closely tied to the notion of a key is a special normalization concept called functional
dependence or functional dependency. The second and third normal forms verify that
your functional dependencies are correct.
So what is a functional dependency?
It describes how one field (or combination (composite) of fields) determines another
field. Consider an example:
[ZIP Codes]
ZIP Code
City
County
State Abbreviation
State Name
ZIP Code is a unique 5the other fields. For each ZIP Code there is a single city, county, and state abbreviation.
These fields are functionally dependent on the ZIP Code field. In other words, they
belong with this key. Look at the last two fields, State Abbreviation and State Name.
State Abbreviation determines State Name, in other words, State Name is functionally
dependent on State Abbreviation. State Abbreviation is acting like a key for the State
Name field. Ah ha! State Abbreviation is a key, so it belongs in another table. As well
see, the third normal form tells us to create a new States table and move State Name
into it.
2NF Eliminate Redundant Data - If an attribute depends on only part of a multivalued key, remove it to a separate table.
3NF Eliminate Columns Not Dependent On Key - If attributes do not contribute to a
description of the key, remove them to a separate table.
BCNF Boyce-Codd Normal Form - If there are non-trivial dependencies between
candidate key attributes, separate them out into distinct tables.
4NF Isolate Independent Multiple Relationships - No table may contain two or more
1:n or n:m relationships that are not directly related.
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5NF
ONF Optimal Normal Form - a model limited to only simple (elemental) facts, as
expressed in Object Role Model notation.
DKNF Domain-Key Normal Form - a model free from all modification anomalies.
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