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GOPHERING
Gophering, used frequently in small mines, is really not a method, but consists of
following the high-grade ore wherever it goes. The miner uses only the support
necessary. It is very difficult to picture this system. Gophering frequently harms the
ore body for further mining because it causes zones of weakness in the ore,
particularly so if some systemized mining method is to be used later.
GLORY-HOLE
The glory-hole system, frequently used in the past, has been almost completely
replaced by the sublevel long-hole or open-pit type of mining. A glory-hole was just
a cavity in the earth continually enlarged by mining. Generally there was very little
system used, and the miners often worked under large exposures of back or roof.
The size of the cavity was often extended to the point where caving was started,
and the project was abandoned.
DRUM SHEARER
Drum shearer has two cutting wheels that can be positioned from the roof to the
floor of coal. The shearer moves on the tracks on the conveyor frame while the
wheels cut and load the coal on the conveyor, Fig. 5 & 19.
After the drum shearer has gone by a section of supports the positioning
cylinders are actuated, pushing the face conveyor the width of shearer cut closer to
the face. The supports are moved one at a time after the face conveyor is in its new
position.
The canopy of one support is lowered slightly from the roof, and the positioning
cylinder is actuated which pulls the support toward the conveyor. When in position,
the canopy is again raised and pressurized against the roof. The roof rock is allowed
to cave in the space left vacant by the support that was moved. Fig. B.
shuttle car (typically about 5 to 7 ton per load), which travels to a discharge point
where coal is unloaded onto a rail car or belt conveyor.
CONTINUOUS ROOM-AND-PILLAR MINING
In this method the excavating and loading operations are carried out by a single
machine.
Excavating of the coal is accomplished by a rotary or chain-driven cutter head,
eliminating the need for blasting at the face. Coal production rates per man shift are
typically about 20 % greater by the conventional mining system, and the manpower
requirements are reduced from about a 10-to 11-man crew at the face to 8 men.
Overall, these crews represent about one-third of the total work force required for all
phases of the mining operation. Relative to conventional mining, continuous mining
concentrates the required manpower and thus reduces the total man-hour exposure
at the working face.
LONG-WALL MINING
Long-wall mining differs from room-and pillar mining in that miner roof supported
hydraulically along the face and is then allowed to collapse after extraction. The
main entries are mined and supports are placed as shown in figure 3-5. The coal is
removed in slices perpendicular to the entries by a cutting machine riding on an
armoured face conveyor. After a mining pass the hydraulic supports are advanced
and the overburden in then allowed to collapse behind the face. The coal cutting
machine may either use a rotary cutter head (shearer) or may operate through a
plowing action (coal plow). The mined coal falls onto the armoured face conveyor
and is transported out of the mining panel on a conveyor system. In this system the
cutting, loading, haulage, and support functions are closely integrated. Ventilation is
provided by through the panel entries at either end of the mining face. Long-wall
faces may up to 1,000 feet in length.
Only long-wall mining has the inherent capability of providing significant
improvements in productivity. While mechanized long-wall mining accounts for 9o %
of common market coal production, only 3 % American production comes from this
system 20 years after its introduction in this country. This is mainly due to the fact
that capital requirements are much higher for long-wall mining than for
conventional or continuous mining operations. However, there are several
advantages of long-wall mining:
1. A productivity potential approximately twice that of conventional or continuous
mining operations.
2. Inherently safer conditions (few collapse-related accidents).
3. Lower material costs.
However, successful long-wall mining requires good seam continuity and a roof
which will cave (collapse) in the required manner.
SHORT-WALL MINING
The entry and face layout for short-wall mining is conceptually similar to that in
long-wall mining, but uses a shorter face length of 100-200 feet, and uses
continuous mining equipment similar to that used in room-and-pillar mining. Thus,
instead of the highly integrated system used in long-wall mining, coal cutting and
loading is achieved by a continuous mining machine, haulage is usually carried out
by shuttle cars, and face support is provided by hydraulic chocks, similar to the
props used in long-wall systems. This method has many of the advantages of longwall system, though it does not have the potential for such high productivity. A
major advantage is the use of similar equipment to room-and-pillar methods, thus
reducing the initial capital cost for initiating a short-wall face in a room-and pillar
mine.
Figure 3-4. The conventional and continuous methods of room-andpillar underground coal mining
As these headings are blind, i. e., not open to the level above, it is necessary to
break into the neighboring stopes for ventilation C. Air is circulated through the
stopes by fans in these connections.
The system shown is actually a combination of timber and pillar methods. Narrow
pillars separate the stopes, which would be called rooms if the deposit were
horizontal, but two or three rows of timber stulls in the stope help to support the
center until the stope is mined B, and C. These stope face can be 70 feet or more in
width, depending on the strength of the ground.
ANGGLE OF REPOSE
A question may arise as to how steep the stope must be for the ore to run by
itself. Theoretically, ore will run if the slope is steeper than the angle of repose of
the broken rock. The angle of repose is the angle (measured from the horizontal)
that the sides of a pile of the material assume naturally. For broken rock this angle
is close 40. Therefore, if the ore is hard, it should run of its own accord at angles
exceeding 40, but if it contains much clay, it may require steeper angle.
Production rates per man shift compare favourably with those of other
underground mining system; this is regarded as a low-cost underground method.
The basic requirement is firm strong walls, which will stand unsupported over large
spans.
Removing ore from a flat-lying stope by slushers pulling ore to a chute can be seen
on Plate 5-19.
entries are up to and sometimes over 500 feet apart, and the long wall face extends
between the entries. It is necessary to have an air circulation system in a coal mine
to dilute any explosive gases with fresh air to eliminate the explosion hazard.
BLOCK CAVING
Some ore caves readily, and if the ore body contains enough tonnage, the blockcaving method may be used. After the stope is developed, the ore breaks of its own
accord; it does not have to be drilled and blasted. Caving is a large-production lowcost method. If an opening is large enough, it will eventually cave, even in the
firmest and strongest rock, but a caving system of mining requires that the ore or
rock will cave over a small unsupported area.
SLUSHER DRIFTS
A common method of developing a block of ore for mining consists of first driving
a slusher drift in the ore A, and B. Slusher drifts are spaced at suitable intervals in
the block to produce efficient caving above the fingers and are usually spaced so
two or three cars in the ore train can be loaded at the same time. There may be as
many as five slusher drifts under each block. Slusher loading of cars is shown in
Plate 5-19 C, G
From the slusher drift, finger raises are driven to the undercut level C, and D. The
tops of the finger raises are connected by cross cuts and drifts E, and F, the
crosshatched portion in F represents the supporting pillars, which keep the overlying
ore from caving. The tops of the finger raises are drilled and blasted to a funnel
shape G and H. The supporting pillars are drilled and blasted when the raises are
enlarged or immediately afterward in sequence H, 1 to 11. As blasting of the raises
and pillars progresses, the stope begins to cave, see cross section, I, and J.
CAVING ACTION
When the broken ore is pulled from the back of the stope by drawing ore from
the raises, cracks form and the ore still in place tends to break by its own weight
and fall to the pile of broken ore. Because the ore increases in volume when broken
ore, when the broken ore will soon fill up to the back, which in turn gives support to
the back and thus stops the caving. The more rapid the rate of draw the more rapid
the caving action. Too rapid a draw of one finger may cause overlying waste to
come through the stope and into a finger. Therefore, all of the fingers must by
carefully draw to insure even caving action and to prevent overlying waste from
coming through the fingers before all of the ore is pulled out.
RILL OR INCLINED
CUT-AND-FILL STOPES
Efficiency in a horizontal cut-and-fill stope requires a slusher and scraper or other
type of ore mover. Before the widespread use of slushers and scrapers, the rill stope
was devised to use gravity to move the ore and to emplace the supporting waste
fill. This system is seldom used today, but in special situations in a small mine this
system could be used efficiency. Mining equipment may be at a premium in a small
operation, and slushers and scrapers may not be available.
THE RILL STOPE
The rill stope is developed either by driving a raise at each end or by utilizing the
raise of the previous stope A and driving a raise at the other end. The lower corners
of the stope are mined, and waste is brought down from the level to fill the corners
B. The waste flows in and stops at its angle of repose. When the ore is broken, it
slides down the top of the waste pile into drift or into a chute F.
In this system, a center 8-post raise is required, but it is usually brought up as
the stope is mined C. A cut is started in ore and is taken up from the center raise D.
The ore is held in by timber stops placed against the timbers of the raise. The
miners work from the pile of broken ore. After the cut is completed, left side D, the
ore stops in the center raise pulled out and the ore slide into the ore pass. When all
of the ore has been removed, the stops are permanently placed against the center
raise and waste is run into the stope from the level above E.
Common practice is to mine in one side of the stope while the other side is being
emptied of ore and filled with waste D, and E. After one has been filled with waste,
mining will start on that side, while the other side is being drawn of ore and filled
with waste.
The ore must be strong enough to support itself over the long opening. The walls
should stand over the unsupported height until fill can be placed. The ore should
run well at the angle of repose and should be free of sticky clay.
HORIZONTAL
CUT-AND-FILL STOPES
In a cut-and-fill stope, a cut of ore is mined and waste is brought in to support
the walls of the mined-out portion of the stope. Plate 8-12 shows this method
developed by lateral driven in the foot-wall and crosscuts driven into the ore zone at
interval A. From the crosscuts, raises are driven in ore to the level above. A drift is
driven in the ore to connect two crosscuts at the bottom haulage level. When the
drift connecting the two crosscuts is completed B, mining is started, and the mineout portion is filled with waste or mill tailings. A series of benches is drilled and
blasted across the stope C from one raise to the other, which completes a cut. The
broken ore is removed from the stope after each blast. After the cut across the
stope has been completed, the remaining broken ore is scraped out of the stope to
the ore pass on the left side of the sketch D. After the ore has been scraped out,
waste rock is dumped down the raise on the right from the level above. The waste is
scraped in to mine- out portion by the slusher E. The waste is not piled completely
to the back, as room is needed for expansion of blasted ore, mining of stope
progresses upward F.
The cut-and-fill method can be used only if the ore is fairly firm and the walls will
stand unsupported until waste fill is brought in.
SAND FILL BY SLURRY
Sand or mill tailings are now commonly used instead of waste for support in cutand-fill stopes. Sand can be brought into the stope as a. water slurry in pipe line.
This reduces the scraping required in the stope. The sand fills all voids and forms a
tight compact support after the water has drained away. Stopes of this type are
shown in Plate8-14 C, and D. It is also shown in Figure 6-7.
As a general rule, a floor is not built on top of the waste fill to keep the ore and
waste separated. Repeated building and removing of a floor would cost more than
the value of any ore lost in the waste fill.
To cut down on the amount of timber required, and to provide a better overhead
structure in recent years, cemented sand-fill has often been used. For narrow veins,
up to twelve feet wide, the system shown in B has been successfully used. Actually,
it is similar to the horizontal cut-and-fill technique, except that after the cut has
been completed, heavy caps or stulls are placed on the floor or the cleaned out cut.
They are wedged and pinned firmly in place. Commonly a foot of unbroken ore is
left on top of the cut as shown in B to protect the timber when the solid ore below is
blasted. These may be from three to eight feet apart, but usually 5 feet. Lagging or
wooden planks are installed on top of the heavy caps or stulls, and the zone is
prepared for filling. The rock bolts shown in B are usually installed as the cut is
being made to keep the hanging wall in place.
The bottom three feet or so of the sand fill is mixed with cement as the zone is
being filled. This tends to put a firm hard material over the timber, and the rest of
the zone is then filled with ordinary sand fill to the overlying cap and filled zone. The
method requires much more timber preparation than the ordinary un-timbered cutand-fill. But when ground gets unstable, timber frequently must be used with
conventional cut-and-fill for support. Even with timber, caves occur; consequently
some operators feel the underhand system has merit because caves are usually
eliminated or reduced.
WIDER UNDERHAND STOPES
When the pillar or ore zone is wider as shown in C, and D, the caps or stulls
required are too long for support. A special method for wider underhand stopes was
developed by the International Nickel Company of Canada (INCO) and their system
is shown in C, and D. In this process the stope is started from the top, and as the
ore is mined out the space above is filled with cemented sand fill material. A scissor
set, developed by INCO, is shown D. In this method, hardened fill instead of loose
ore zone is overhead. Safety in these stopes has been good. When underhand
mining is resumed under a scissors mat, post are not required for support. The
absence of posts increases the efficiency of mucking equipment.
COMBINATION TIMBER AND SAND FILL
The Magma Copper Company in Arizona reports efficient mining of very weak ore
and wall rock by a combination of timber and sand fill method. The mining plan is
similar to a top slice stope, but instead of a timber mat, cemented sand fill is used
to fill in the void. The plan is to catch the overhead timber posts and stringers with
posts on the mining floor to keep them in place. After a mining cut has been
completed, it is filled with cemented sand about three feet thick, and the rest of the
cut is filled with ordinary hydraulic sand fill.