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    Remote Sensing of The Environment PDF

    Transféré par

    risyanto

    Droits d'auteur :

    © All Rights Reserved
    Téléchargez comme PDF, TXT ou lisez en ligne sur Scribd
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    sur 648

    SECOND EDITION

    Prentice Hall Series


    in Geographic
    Information Science

    KEITH C. CLARKE,
    Series Editor

    Remote Sensing
    of the Envi onment
    An Earth Resource Perspective

    'Three Gorges Dam, China

    John R. Jensen

    prentice-Hail Series
    in Geogra phIc
    lofor lion Science

    KEITH C. CLARKE.
    Series Advisor
    un

    In

    II

    !i" 0

    R n

    rn III~ ( n I . IIr I'llmo lnt ,."


    r ut on ,

    ( I

    II C\'\\"OOl(1 rncliu
    II

    uphic Info rmau

    111n, ntal \
    (,/\ 4 'P'

    Fxplormg th

    I J/l

    In'

    Ediuon

    Ill).! .

    1/

    01/

    (I(i,

    lin r. Intrr Iii tion 10 &

    11111 .11Ie/un DI rita lmav P,

    ung,

    11m

    P! and Tc hntque: of
    s\c I/ Hll'

    am.

    I Remote

    Earth R

    p<
    (Ill

    P r I

    (/1"10 'TtlI'll.

    and

    din n

    nd Ill! n

    (III .

    oJ Edi n

    /t'(I

    Thematic

    Third

    til'

    v (} 'nlpllll

    1I1

    I 'isua i: 1l1I/1,

    Lihrar.

    or

    . un rr ~

    IUl:in/.:-in-Publicarion Data

    ' li t

    iro nment : n anh resourc pe rs pc rive J hn R. J


    I f II en In e : phi inti rma i n - Olen c)
    e and index.

    '/1

    mol

    . 'n

    nd d.

    n mg.

    ducatio Inc.

    All n iln re crv 'J oN,l pMI f'thi: " nllk mil. he repr duced, in any rorm or hy,lIl)
    the pu Ii. her
    Pea. nn l'runti I r. II r\l i~ ,I trtulem Irk 01 P 'arson l:ducaliClIl. Inc.
    Priutcd in the lJllllcd Sl,lles of Amcri 'lJ
    10

    l< 7 (,5 I

    ., I

    ISBN 0- 13-18 8 50-8

    1I1l:.lIlS,

    without pernnssron m \ riun ' from

    Remote Sensing of the E viro ment


    An Earth Resource Perspective
    Second Edition

    John R. Jensen
    L i

    '(?1'

    in' 0

    outh

    orofino

    ppcr addle Ri cr. J

    7-1-.- '

    Brief Content

    1 Remot nsin oj III

    tram en ti Radiati

    2 ,I

    3 Hi
    4

    'n ironm 111


    11 Principles

    of -4 'I'; II Photography and Aerial Pial arm

    (01:\

    am ras, FiJI r.,

    ri II Photograpl. ' - . nt ee Point.

    5
    6 Phot

    J I II

    11m 1

    I tim

    luterpretation

    r nun tr

    7 , 11I1t;

    11'01 RemOI

    \" tems

    1 _

    13 R ' 11/( 'te 'ell. ing the Uri ail Land. 'cape

    14 R unot

    443

    ensing of oils , I iinerali ; and G somorpho

    15 II/ Sit" pe tral Re 1 tanc Measurement


    0111'

    Index

    In

    .0

    'R

    5 c

    using lnformatk n

    J' 1

    5/)7

    Content
    Ir

    r, c
    \

    ironm nt

    / Limltatio

    isin D

    10

    R qtn

    tm

    10
    p

    nt.

    10 /11/(

    . . 47

    '
    ,
    48
    .' ... ... .. .. 48
    ." , ,
    _1
    I
    5

    'I

    - I.j

    hapr e r 3 Hi tOI

    Ph

    lII~lUr

    . Ill" erl II I Phulo Jmphy und Aerial Plat furm '


    ,.,
    Photograph _, ...... . . .. .. .. . .... . ...... .... ,..
    f 19b' and ( 'olor
    .. . ... . .. ......... ... . . .
    /11 Camer Obscura
    . . . .. .
    Im 'CIlIWI/ of Ls, IJf-.\ nsltivL' Emu lsio n and Metho 1\. o] Perman m (,
    N .\ 1tI~ tit ' lmag .
    . ... " " " ..
    II I

    ,lph: trorn en I Platfbrms, .


    'Irntthop! . ". . . . . .. ..
    / I lucr Tlutn- fir Fligh t L illg B lloons

    vii

    "

    "

    "

    (JI
    .. ( J
    II

    tl ~

    ()

    viii
    ()~'TE"'T

    um l , bt'm(i
    ... .

    . . . . . . . . . . 71
    .. . 7I
    ~

    ..... . . 7

    76

    '"',

    ha p lcr4 -

    I' iint ,

    'en i

    . rnt: . f ill r a nti . ilm. . . . . . J

    \)1
    .. I

    ... 92

    ....'
    .... I

    Fttt, r

    .. . 107

    - . . JO
    ..... I I
    .. ... .. . 11 1

    . .. .
    '"

    . 1_2
    . 1_4
    . 124

    .... .... . ...... .

    ... 1_5
    . 12_

    hupt er : - Ele men ts of Visulll lm a ge Jnt crp rctutlo n . .... . .. . .... . . . . . . . . . . .. .. ) 27


    IntI' duction . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
    . .. . .... . .. 127
    The lerial/R 'Riuflal I'ersp I 1'(

    ,. . 128
    Three-Diniensionat Dep th I JI' J'I.'tqJ!i(}!I . . , .. . . . . . ... . ..... 12X
    Obtulutni; Kno: '/ d!Sf! /1<:I'I/I/(1 O",. I1/iI/1{111 rI.I'II(// Ill''', eptio , .
    129
    II/SInd al l niag e N" 1'f1l'l1(///11 '/ulilge I)c'lc";,m / tocmneunn io , . . . . .
    .
    , 130

    Clement.

    or 1111. ge lntcrprcretion

    Me thods of Se arch

    . .

    " . . . .. . . . .

    ..

    . . . ..

    Usin C ,!I{/({'1'tI1 lnformatinn .

    . . "

    ( 'III/ I 'e , , I e-IIC/! I! 1'/(/"11 ('

    n't

    ,I /I/Iri -coll cep t .

    . . . .

    . . . . . . .

    ,..

    "

    . .... . . . 130
    .

    . . 144

    . . .. ..... . .. . I 4
    . . I .. . . .. . . . . . 14

    Phfllognllllllll'll') .. ... .. .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . )-t9


    rtical , eri: I Ph Il grnphj .
    .'
    I 0
    Fid uci al la rks and Pnncipall' in! ..
    . ..... . 1'2
    il:oll\l~lry
    vert ic I erial Phot graph .
    .
    153

    hup te r ) -

    r hghtl i

    C llf

    , TF~

    '

    ?:~

    -., -~

    .......

    .. _ ) I

    '''111 /1

    ,- -,
    J

    em II RI

    ..

    U/I / 1

    . .... ....... 2 1

    ._ 1
    . 19
    I In

    m m n
    lid I

    kl

    11

    on
    "III/('171

    IUlII}

    I
    17
    . 3_1
    "

    . . . . . . . . . , 23
    huttle l11/aging Rudar : IR , . IR B. m ( tnd Topography \lis, i,11/ . . . ~_
    R. W AR.. tT and IDAf, AT-~ '.
    Lt
    Europ 01 1 Space igenc; R5- / and J;!?S .... ......... :26
    Europ an Spo c tgen y 1~'II\ 'i w, ""..If(
    .. ..... . . . . . . . . . ' _Ii
    R I AR lnicrfcrome try
    .
    .
    ...........
    32X
    lilt " .'lIYJI/I~fI"ic Top o truphic ;II l/lll lifl l;. . ........
    . .. 32
    interferometric Velocity Mappmg
    .
    2<1
    Passive licrowave R .rnotc : cnslng ..
    ,
    :. 0
    Passin' Microwav Radiometers
    . .. .
    ,,30
    C hu ptc r 111 - LI DAR Remote Sensinu ......... ... . . . . . . . . .. . .. . ... .......... J. LJ DAR Principles. . . . .. ..
    . .
    U D. I R L iser mid , anmn .1'.'0' III .
    Lll. AR L ~ tr 1.0 alU11/
    l.ll. AR Antenn a Attitud: tUrien tatlan )....
    LlD. IR Post -Pro esstng a/ MII/lifl ! Returus ,
    1:"\11'0 it ion lIt Fir. 'J. lntcrmediat and/or La: I Refilm f
    M.
    . 'traction u Bare-Earth Di uat Terrain 1ft I. I .
    \ccurac) of UDAR lea .urem nt . .. ,

    xil

    o 'TENT '
    om rnunicat ions and I u liu es . . . . . . .. .. .
    Urban Digita l Elevati II M lid C reation . , . . . . .
    ~k tt: roloa ical Dala .
    ..
    l ' r a ll .Hydro logj
    .
    'ri rie: I Em ir nm III 1 A rea
    . " menlo
    DL" S ] r Em erne n ' Rc pon se . .

    en ill "

    or ~ oil. ,

    . -l 49

    , .. , .

    . _ _. _, . ,
    .. .
    . . , . " '"

    ,.

    9
    .. -19

    . . .. . . . . . . .. .. .
    . . . ,.

    . .:- 0
    .. . . . .. 00

    nd , '{lin rphulo '\ , . ,


    . . . .. .. ..

    -0"
    '0
    .. - 9

    1
    . 51

    .. :L
    I

    \1m

    In

    W I'<!

    . . .:- 1"
    .... 'q .

    1.\

    unci Pall rn

    C hllP1CI' IS - / 11 , it Refl ectan ce Ieu surem cnt . . .. . .... ... . .... . . . .... , . . 569
    ' pc rral Re flecta nce of a Material . .
    " .,
    5in
    RdtrellCl' Materia l . . . . . . . . , , . , . .. . .
    . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. ,
    571

    lllumination

    onsidcrati ns . .

    . .. . . . . . . . . . . ,

    III Sitn . f11! tra l Re lectanc Measur enu mt LJ. i llg . 11/(//'/111111I 1/1(/( ;1111
    III Slt .~i ectral Rejlec /IIII e M (!o .\'lIn/IWI1! sin 1 An{f; I I! 1/I/I/II/I1(/ / iO I/ .

    Soil Ta.nJI//JI/lY .. , .. .. , . .. .. . , .. ' . ... .. ... .... .


    ...
    Chuructcri tics or the Sp ec trorudiumcre r sed to Obtain /11 Sit Retlccuuicc ,

    / carat Region oj Interest

    Ap p end l 'lude: .

    . .

    . 573

    -1 74
    , .. 574

    "

    . . .. . . . . . . . . . 5 74
    , . . . . . . . . . . . .: 6
    . . .. .. 57
    .. 5 6
    . , .5 7
    5

    _. . . . ., .. . _

    ' c n s i ll ~

    ln furunui un
    .

    ",. . ,

    .. 5 7 1

    Spect ral Resolution . , . . . . . .. . ,. .,... .


    .
    .I'c ' tral Samp ling /11/ 'Tal . . . .
    , . ...
    ' IJ[~ t ro m et e r /)e s;gn {Jilt} D mu ' 011(" !WII '/1 'eel, . . . . . . .
    Vie ll'lII}: Geomeu and Fiel I o /lie w ... . .. . . . .
    utdldat 'p 1!(' ( rO rI1 J i OIll L'fcrs
    u urce, of Remot e

    ."

    "7 1

    579

    PR ..

    I:

    10 uu lizc the- remotef sensed da ta In i t: full p tcruial, it


    musi l c interpreted correctly, This r iquire: an lind ' r, tanding
    01 110\\ cllcrg. intern 'IS \\ ith the 111m , hen: nil I terrain,
    how r .motc sensin YSICll1S fun ' 11011. and how to ex trac t
    us ul In
    iauon I m the rem 11' n., r datu,

    nm

    Each cha pter in l id'


    lcsigncd I make

    III U:I r.ll l n th I w r . P ' "I III


    rnplcx pnnc rpl s C as 10 under sl nd,

    1 ,1'11 chupter c 11 1111ll~ a subsuu ui vc '....renee l ist.

    od

    appendix contains lnternct addresses tOI many or the


    ou 'C of rcmc I ' ensing intonnm ion and
    publi md privatc : ou rc of'rem ielv c nsed da ta

    1\ 11

    I!l O 1 imp rt 101

    ch
    1

    10

    the

    R mot nstn o lilt En ironm Ill. The h)


    rc ully Id i om ' ill ,,; u lind rem ote ~~I1S111l! data

    ondu -

    m. and

    ! remot en ing -.
    n epts
    rc , fully defined ,
    ranee curv 1:. f
    select d marcnal- re introd uced . Lmphasis is placed on

    mininuving the effe IS of aunospheric . eaucring


    mizc the remote sensi ng . Ignal l'n III the I irrain.

    maxi-

    'haptcr -r ." " /Iis/It'elm / I? unot enslng S: stems. lul uS! ectral remote ensing termin logy is define 1. The mnj r
    types Il l' remote sensing ill trumenr nrc described lonu

    rM \ 1

    _lin

    Igm flCllnll) updaltd Illformal inn on lhe mlN ilTlpOl"bill rnn"lc ....:mol"! system
    ~ IC'nSol'f ~crns are
    dlK\l~.aI
    .~ .

    MIo:h

    ali

    D'~llillGloho:'~

    World\'ic>o I .nd It

    \SA', Lao.b.II [);lUI ConllnUII)' \It

    \F'OFS"

    IOO ~

    n..: USGS Glob.N tm.,Il;;<U_

    _cd 10 hdr 51uJo:nl$ Ioo:atc ,..nou

    1)"J'l:!'

    iInd

    "o,~-,n

    .ino .... b

    Il\U'l>

    of mnol.: ~

    Tho-t'WkIllntnvnJ Ro:-".. Sm.u~ Th.. ch.ipla


    de.o:nbn 00'" ..urf....-.e lo:mpo:nturo: m.:IpplOg IS performed
    ailll thmll..l in fL'llfo:\i I'C'mol': ~n~mg The hl~l<>ry of uee-

    mil mtr.am1 remote s.:nslO1! induob lOon: IOf"mlilllon on


    Hn1o:II.:I', c'JIl"rimml. Tho:rm:1I IO fnm! radi..lion proper110, raJlilhon la... s, and 11fTM'l';l'tM:no: ... Indn.....re wmmariled. TlIC drumal temperature charactel'l~ll\$of vegetation,
    wlL 1'00;1., ... al .. r, aoo urban rhc'l<>I1lCf\.>1 an,: mlnlduccd . The
    tllara<.:ICfNks oflho.rmalmfrar~",,' .nning m slIUme ms and
    f(l(\llard Iot"'in~ infnu:d CFlIR) ~son. are peescmed. 1\<:\\
    am:f1Ift lhcTm.:l1 mfrared n:mOI( sensing S>SI~-mS ;JR' inuudoco:d ~h I" the ( 'anaoh,1n Tho:nnal "irt>omc: Bruadb:md
    I~ I HRil and the Thcrmlll A.lIhomc S~hic
    llUl,~ HASh
    CIIW: ~udll:S ~ pro. tdo:d. ,ncludmg:
    lIlIpping.unm to:mpn;llllre In Orq;on. mlPr"nl! loCptlC un!.
    ~ 10 '\C. monltoong indUllnal roof f\IOI;.. turc in Ne,
    ... mOfllliwmg agricultura.l planl Wl:IoS d~ oilys.

    c /tupfn' \I ,~< IlI'" IIIId I'uun'f' ,U1('7mR1>'f' R...,.,.. Snl'mg,

    ph,
    :rial
    am-

    =
    i

    of

    'J~

    =1
    ilm

    ,or
    dfc

    "r

    "'"

    ..r
    ~

    mg

    : ()f

    '"n

    d'lloltallnT.lln ml'dcl\ Atlmt:lOn "al'\oll 8'\('1'1 10 Iho: IlSCfulDn.1. o f LID AR inh:m.lly d&til.

    Sr._,n,: of 1~'Jret.t.. ,..... PhotOS)"IItbcsl3;


    mtrod....-.ed. The <.-haplCf Iho:rI idmtilin Ibo:
    donunant f~OB ('Ofllmlhng k3f rcikc~ in lh.: \Dlble.
    no:ar.infrua1, and mlddle-mlnred 1'"11(11l' l'ftbf: ${l'XUUm,
    Tho: bio.hm:llo.ul reflectance dl~flbulion funo:1ltln tUROn
    O:OIk:cp1 h ,Ji",~ The ImportaQl'C' uf undc:rstandm~ Iho:
    t emponl phcnologio:al C)'dc of Itt.: "'q.."CUIH" n Iypo.~ undo."I'

    Cllupla' 11

    <-1IupIt',. ,~

    TIl-',

    nolog) , F.lTlphlI~i~ bo pllC>:don 00" llDAR ....-rlIOno functioa


    and on ('<lTaCtlOg u:so:fu l inforrnollion from lin:t-. inlCtlnCdiare., and ~ n:tum l.l O.AR oilll A cue stud) docum.:nb
    III.: w lht) of 1l1l:\R 10 PfO\'\de dcbikd dlJ1UllCllrlao:e and

    ,<'"

    Tk IuRory o f ..u\e m~"~c n:-m"te loO:IlSI"I ~ ~'I<:\\o:d


    \kthod!. of IClldmI! and ro:<.~l... ml J'UlloC of mt('fml>~H.o
    ~. Ifl: ~td. A Ik'" Iabk summatun lbe c~
    ISta " f the most Imponani F.lIr1h-urhning S)-ul.hdic Ap:rIlm: RIdan . Imf'Ol1anl r.tdar 1)~~"'f'II pamd~TS w.;h as
    fn:qu.:I'IC)', polamallon, pullC' length, deprt'SSion angle. look
    dtm:hOll, ino:id<:nl anglo:, and ."'nl,mng... and ground-r.lngc
    lmao:t' l!wmctT) arc d i..... u~-.:d The nla.l0 r (n \lmnmcnta l
    factors intl u.:n.:inl! a':lh c mi.: r",,,a,,,' bach.:allcr arc prelI...rn.'ll, in.:l\lding: surf;....... rm q,;hn.:" . ':"l11l'le.\ diclc..-tric
    wn'lo1l1l. o1,ul th... curd inal dl"c<;t . Sccli"n~ on the res p"ns.: of
    vc\tc11l11111l. surtaee "".ll.'r, .tnd urhm pheno mena hi active
    mi... wwll H' ...tWl gy are . xl' ;\lIded. f\e \\ inli>Tlllllt i"n i~ pmViJlxl lllll,ul Illl: ('alladi'lll KA\)AI~SAT-l ;md -2; lhl' F un ...
    !"'<'UII Spa.e Age".:)"s EKS I ,md -2, lin.! 1' 1\\ i~a l "SA K; and
    "iAS ,A'~ TR MM \li.:n l\\a \'.: Imager and ShUlll... Kada r
    Topograph> I\hssion I SRT~n Th.....eo:tion Oil a~1i\e micro
    ",1\( inlcr fcmmelry inc ludes 111."" lJuh and Tanl a llla S RTM
    eu101'lcs Pa.,~i\c mlcro... a\( r.:n1l' t... scn<ing 11\ di!iCllsscd
    "lib 0<:" .uta on ,",ASA', AduIICC'd ""icw"'a\e Scilnning
    Radi"lTId~"I' (A~ISR-EI,

    .w.u.ng. Thi~ C'OnIplo:t....ly

    n.:w

    .Iti-

    c...,.... III 1.I1HR R"-I!

    'J ~

    dlaplCf Illtmd~ lhe fund.1mtr'1w princTJ'1el of remote

    ""

    ~ \hU\g

    light D..1 hon and Rmgmg IlinAR) toch-

    Re",.,'~

    funda~la1J an:-

    rrt..:~tigali.," i e m('ha$il~, Tho: section tin I"I;:mOlC l>Clbingdo:m cd ......gelalinll md, ces now illl.ludo..., lTIorethan I......nty of
    lhe mfKt \\ ldel)' adopttd atgomhms There i~ new informali" n \'" IIw: nunhtlC'a r n:-bllOn.JJil' t>t:1...eee the S,mple Rat iol
    ind.::\ and II..: ~onnali/ed DilTen:no: VC'1!ctallOll Inde..
    Il'tOD\'I). lbc uSC' of
    e I) sensed lbll for cornJ'Uung
    bnd'lClpt: ec.. k.) lTI<.'lOO and for aisUnl/. m the I>""-';Smrnl 01 hrod"<.'n1I)' an: ifltrodUCf:d. A _ ' \'al>C ""ud~ dtx:umen", 00" s.oulh "mean agno:ullu~ can hot: monllorcd to
    pn:dld aplcul1unl Walei' demand.

    R'ITI\"

    awr,.,. I:. R,,_..

    s.."UI~ Q
    f !lUIa' Hus dwpto:r mtrodIKes Itovo dtr~ono:tlC ~ il'llcl'1lcb wuh Iho: ..'aid'
    wrf~. 1IUhwrf~_ and the bNt<WTl at. I funo:hon of IIoI\CIenglh Tho: IITIpK1 uf organic le.g., ehlororh) lll.-nd Of innt'pmc tc , ., lU!IJ'Ct1'kd ~lmcnt' ItlItmal In Ihc .....Cf

    column .'" "f'C\."'tr.1l n:-Iln:lant:t: IS dlscu~f>C'd fI~hl of lho:


    It1O>I imJ'tll'Unl alo:"nlttms u:w:d 10 me-........, ph)'lopla.nJ..lon
    al>undano:c in ""I.,. an: 00\Il prO\l&:d " """" ......."'1100
    r...'.-i.....,s ,m l'rm emrnls in Nlh)m~'1ric m al'ping u.\ing pas.
    )I\C IlfIIlo:all1lCTt;l1 phnl:ography) and itcme n:molc s.:nsing
    tSO,",,,R and Lll> Alt ) Rcmotc ..... n\ ing rnclhllds fur muniluring wale r ..urfn.:( Icmro:r.alUrc.l'rccil' ilallon, .-lc rl,o;"lo; <lnd
    duuds, \1' aICr \J lltlr, ;IllU snllW ar c prc""nle u. [h... ma joTsa l
    e llite n:molC s~ n' lIlg ,yM cms ll~~U 10 1t\~IlS 11rt' l'~C'an l:ol ut
    nTl 11<"1 sn mm "ri7ed.

    Ch"I', ..r I J. H,'mole .'0"",1';'1,1{ II,, {Irh.m J."",Ar",,,,.

    I( o: mole
    SCll_1I1g c , lrad Inn u l' urban inlonml1 illl1 IS n"... I' ln,cd in Ihe
    cunlc,t
    the Nal iUllal Sl'alia l 1),11:1 Infras1Tuo:l urc t f\ S lJ I"
    Urban Sf'J li,d. ~pc.:tral, "0,.1 l.:mf'Ur.l1 rcsu lull.lIl cumidcratiOf1ll arc llllmdllCCd. Thc rn,"it im""Ranl lanti Ul>C and ur
    I"r>d ('0\'('1' b~~lfkali...n scllcmo:~ arc no....
    id.-.l. Man y
    _
    1'1"ll\I"It 1)-scm.o:d Im,,~."S
    TeSldcnu.1 I, commcrdal.
    II1duslnaJ. u OIn"f'Olt<lI l<" ' , communkallOll.\, and IIhllllCS land
    lIS(' Ire pro~ ,&:d Tht: u.... of "",ft-eopy pbotut;r:llmlT>ctr) and
    llDAR for nlr'lCtinj; ~mmsKJN,1 IOlonnaltoa ID

    "r

    "r

    rro..

    xvi

    I'I{EFA

    ur 1:1n an:' S IS prescn tcd .


    LL... surf c 'mapping nd

    ere 'II C new .

    lion. on Imp rvi-

    no, I hill ( clin lion

    Acknowledgments

    to r l'h oto rrarn m \1') c Re mot e ensvrncn can I -og raphe r.. ieocano Intern.1 1 e ntre. Inc. and Iay lor " Franci . Inc. urunte d
    [le nt il ' 1011 lor the uurh r l( ex tract '0 iyriglucd m mcri 11
    I rom article. I' ll lished in Photngr munrtrt ~ I/g/llt' ' r lllg &
    R -tnutc Sell. /11 ',Ih \I.,,"w ! () RcnuueS. -nsing, Man ual (J{
    'olor Aerta! l'lnungraph; ( ;"11( '01'10 lnternatiuna l, and
    m e .can So

    III

    t)

    l a \l( n 0 1

    111Ierl/{/flWwl,lo /lrlltllll/P , "' 0 [ ' St'I/.\/IIg.

    John I{ Jcm -n

    niversuy of outh ar ilina

    CO 'T Io:

    ix

    I' ~

    Meas rernent on Single crtical erial Ph 10' ph. .. _. _.....


    - .
    .s 01 , 01 a I erucal Aer ial L'l totugra pl: Un'I' t Ol ' I Tcrram . . ,
    '
    ale oJ I I crticul Aerial Photog ruph I 'r Vclriu II' rra tn , .
    l le: ht .\ 1<: surem ent fi : "II Smg l f rial Photo ' nil}" .
    _..
    ere S pre leas remcn t of Obj Cl rleight Ir li rnun J ,
    n
    ..
    ..
    f /11/11.11I1 1IIL11 I I H un ar , I tlV( 0lll

    ,:'111: und l lci

    l " ' Ol (

    -reo

    I il I F. le
    I'h

    15

    h l

    II II ( I I' I
    rtho h l nil P' 111 1'me' at ur

    1.
    I

    I _

    16..
    1
    .1

    UPI' App llf! I to Aerial l'hotogr Iph,l


    (,p it .I ...ri II PI" l ogmpll, - l lo f)r

    rion Mode

    I':'

    ntal m d Vern a/ '"'JIm J (UI I I


    I Ph I l f " '11"11 II ( thr Rc mo t

    It-

    . or

    I "',

    dIU . .

    ... 1-,
    ,-I. I

    "mll \ I"ct I

    I
    , 1
    'h ph' ; haiti pc rr J Rem te : 11 ing . y,1 III
    I g il J uJu
    I I DOl
    ol lc tion
    IJ; ,ilal lm I Je' Termtn Iltlf!l
    RII o t

    . .

    J
    . I
    I

    .I

    luhi pe
    I lmagrng L; sing Dis
    Earth R. ourc Tc ChIlO loK I' 01 lluc (Jilt! 111,' Lan lWI ('/1 II
    IOAA \/1111111' tral Scann r . L'11 '01 :' .. .. .. .
    _. .. . - IWI \ IAU L and
    II :':> " H '; l 1'/I1" l Id, Fi ItI tlJ f i, l\ ' / (I I' ( etl Jl7~ )
    ~" r ll l' .\IlIlti_1' > tral l (1/111" /-"
    lulti pect al Imaging L sing LU Il:,H Arm _.
    Sl' T CI/.\'OI' .1 stems .,
    ln it, 1I1 R ' II/ (}( C msiug . ,1:1(1!Jll. 1
    idvanced po t!lO I7I L' Thermal EIIIIS.W

    . III

    ' ,

    IQ

    _1:! I ,
    _20
    . . ~2_
    .. __ 3
    . --)

    m el N -flcction Rudiometcr (A. TER) . 23 \


    \fulli"lIIgl ' IlIIag illg ..../ .'C'fm mdioll/ le'I" ( ,\fl. ' /{ ) , . . , . . . .. . . . ... . ... _3_
    I <.'n ', I I II~h -Re.WJ IIII/()/1 L ine /I ' rray RL'/IJO! iS: nsi ng ....).. \ U' I1IS _ , , , . 2""
    (ilia ' III ' "p.:<.: l rlllllcl ry .im Linear and Arcn Array . . . .,
    . . . . . , .. . 13
    , 1I1'1J1JI'llt' Vlsib! Infrared IlIIw:!iI/,l.! ~/)t'('/ I'OIII ('II!/ 'I .-l l'lN IS)
    . 24 1
    'Ollll JiJU I irborn e Sf e trog rap lt ic IlIIag L'r 151)( , . , ' . " . " _. , " . . . 024 1
    Moder: N CSO{W ;'fl/l III/aging Sp tetrameter (1\1 ){ IS . . ,
    , . . - 241
    I/l

    igilal FI'lIIl1

    lIm ' ras Based on A rea Arrays . . . , , . ,. .


    Sl/Iil lf-/I I/'IIItI! lJig /w / ! / 1(/ n l l c ctio n : l .ci ca /(' ().IYS(('I/I .\ 1~'lIIcrg(' S('II.WII"
    Lw, ' fo n uat Digt tn] Dalrt Collvctian: /.11 1)( utal \todlllol' '(//1/('/'(1 . _ .

    , ., . 14<1
    , , ,

    . 2<1

    - - .

    2 ~5

    Larg e-fo rmat Dlgital Dat I Collectio n. Vexcel ]: 'ltrat; 'alii has"r/ 01 1 I -a /11'/"(/.1'.1' . 2,1'1
    ha Jl! '1' H- Ther mal Infra red Remote Se nsi ng
    249
    HI l( ry .C'Jhernial IIII' . red Rem te CII. ing
    .............. . . ~50
    T herm al lnf ired Rudiutiun Properties .
    . 2: 2
    Kin ' I II' He II. Temp erature, Radiant 1:1/L'1 '.\ '. and /{lldillfl l 1'/ II
    . _52
    t ll,tlm.!. 0 Trans errins: HI'II . . . . .
    . . . . Ih n al lnfrnrcd Arm pheric \ indov s, .
    . _5
    0

    T rermal Ra Iiati n L \\
    I

    m- Baltzm mn La .

    . . . , ... _54
    _. . . . . .

    . . _5 .

    ribil-dcx
    .s in
    006.
    50106 .

    "",.

    IDF
    ailmer,

    ,""

    "reo
    o lar
    .SA

    t:
    ~,.

    iGS

    leal
    ico-

    able
    <:15.

    ,ag-

    nd

    'tin.

    to n
    .nc.
    .aI"
    nan

    ,,"

    1,'1-

    ,r

    tair
    oni
    ses
    ec.cr-

    Remote Sensing of the Environment

    cie rnisrs ob serve nature. male measurements. and me n ;llh:m pt 10 ace..., .,l or
    reject hypoth eses co ncerning these phenome na. Tho:data collection may talc
    place direct ly in the field ( re ferred 10 as In .W I' or m-l'f<J<'t, data .:" II...- cuom, or
    at some remote dist ance from the subj ect maun [re ferred [0 as ro:m"lc .<e""
    ing of lh.. em iroruno:nt).

    In situ Data Co ll ectio n

    One form of it! Jitu data <'01111011 involves tile loCk-nti_' going out in the fidd
    and questioning the phenomena of interest . F C'. ..ample. a census cnom...ralor may go door 10 door. as king people 'lue-,llons "ho:.ml tbcrr age. "'-"'. educalio n, inco me. etc. These data an: recorded and used I" dccumem the
    de mog raph ic characteristics oflhe popul:lli('lll.

    0'

    Co nversely, a scientist may U~ a /r,,,,,,iuar o r other i" $IlU measuremen t


    d.... vice at the ~tudy site to male measurements T ransdu ce rs are usually
    placed in direct phys ical co ntac t w ith the object of interest. \l an y' diflcrcnt
    tyT'~"S of tran sducers are available . For exa mple. a sci....mist coul d usc a therm omci cr 10 meas ure the tempe rature ofthc air. soil. or \\ atcr: <In anemomet er
    tn measure w ind speed; or a psychrom eter to ITlC3Sun' air hu midity_ Th e data
    recorded hy the trdnsd uccrs may he a n a nalog e lectrical sign~11 \\ ith \o ltage
    variations related to th..- uuc nsiry ofthe property being IlIC;lsured. O ften the.....
    an alog s igna ls are trans formed into digit al ~ a l ue~ uSing analog-to-digital (Ato-Ol con version procedures. In ~'il/l data collection us ing transducers
    relieves the scientist of m<lTwt onous data collection oncn in inclement
    wea ther. Also. the scientist can dis trib ute the transducers at important pcogr"phic locanens thrll ugho ut thc study Mea. allnwing the sallie lype of mea sure mc nt to be ob taine d at man y locations at the saruc time. Somelim cs data
    from the transducers are tclemc te red clcctrouically to a cC!llml cottccuon
    p(J im for rapid .... valu ation and archiving re.g.. Tc illet et al.. :ZOo:n
    Two examp les of in suu data co llecti on arc dcmonvtrutcd in Fi",urc \ - I. Le;lt~
    a rea-inde x ( LA I) r ncasurerncn ts arc being collect ed by a sci.' mi';l al a study
    site using a hand held cepl" metcr in Figure l - !u. Spectra l reflectance mea , urelllcnt, of' vcg etatio n arc b.;:ing obtained ;11 a study , il., usinga handhel d
    spcctroradiom ct.... r in Figu re I-lb. LA I and , peelral rctlcctaucc measurements obtained in the field may be used to ca librate LAI und , pe ctra! rctlcctallce mea surements collected by a remnte sCllsing system located on un
    aircraft o r satellite [Jensen er al., 2005,.

    (}lA l' .

    lit .\";11l

    ~:I{

    Rem ot e Sen sing 01th e Envi ro n men t

    'lea~urclIll'nl

    detec tor

    a, l.ea f-area-ind ...,

    ( L\I )mea.~u rcmcnl

    using a ceptomctcr.

    Ftgu'e 1-1

    b. Specsrul rcll ..x tancc measurement


    using a spectrvradil 'mc1Cf.

    /I, .<1/1, I In-I'III<:'<') da!.! ;m: <.... kc(c"<i in tit.: fiel d. ,j A ....; ""II"! ;~ c"U, 1;ng lo:a('aRa-1I1dn eLAI I mca",rnn""l~ "f w> b<.-ans
    (GILn,... '",n f.. ' ''''''''jlll u' '''1l iI ceprometcrthat rncasllJ"C$ fhc numh.. of~"'Jlln<..:h.. lhal f"l'iS IhmUllh til.: "'1 lC1a1 ion cllIlOpy.
    Tn.. Ilk .asUrt.'mt"fl1l. are made J"" "bo"" the eat>I.'Pl' ""d on 1M Ilmuod hdol" til.: c.Il'''I'), Tltc in >1"" L\l mClll'u remetlr\ rna)
    k u!oC'l! wcahhOllC LA ! estimates d...r i...."d from '''mole >C1lSOf data b ) SJX"I.'tral relkct.u,,t" mcaw . c:m."nt, from \ e..'CUlion are
    ""mil colk"'cd u.sing a \ f'<'.\.trorad,omc,cr locescd 3Pl"' " ,mdldy' 1 m abo, " tlK> canopy. rhe' II! xii" "f"Xlral rcll""l3.n<:e mea~u .....mcn h may ...... usc..J to calibrate the sp;:clral rdkcu,n('<' m....' un:mcnls obL.1i",,-d f'om a rcmo'lC""' '''''ll S)M~"'.

    Data colkX'1ion hy ....i... nli~b in the: lic ld o r hy instru ments


    placed in the lield provid e much of' tbc data for physical. hiuk-grcal. and social scie nce research. I Inw("vcr, it is import a nt
    1" rememb er lhat no matter bow careful the scie nt i~l is, error
    may be introduced d uring thc ill >1/1/ data-cell ecdon process
    First. the sci... mist in Ihc field can be imr",il'(,. This means
    that unless great cure is excrcis ...d. the: scie ntist can actually
    cha nge ihc c h a r".:t<:r i s t ic~ or thl: phenomcnnn being measnrcd during th.. d ala-eolle"'lion process. For example, a sci ,'ntis l coulJ lean out "I' a boal I" obtain a surface-water
    sample fr om a lake, Unfortu nall.'ly,thc utovemcut of'thc hom
    uuo the urea may have suncd up the water col umn in the
    vicinity "I' the water sample. resulting in an unrc prcscntativc, or h"''''d. sa mple. Sim ilarly, a scientist collecting a
    sp<:c tra l rcJlI:..'rane e r<:nJi ll)C could inadvertently st ...p on the
    sample sue. d bturh ing the vegetation canop y' prior to data
    co ll"-';lion.
    Scienri-as may also collect Jala in the fid d using biased procedures. Th is lIltwdo.:es III</JIO,I-",,>J,UW! .'rmr. II could

    ill\ olve the usc nf a bia sed sampling d.:sig n or the systematic. imprope r usc o f a pi..-cc of equipme nt. Finally, the /II
    situ data -cnltc..'lio ll llIea' utcmelll device may be c alibrated
    incorre ctly, This can result in serious measurement error.
    Inln JsiH' ill Si l ll data colle ction , couple d with human
    method-produced error and measure llJclll-J.:vic.: nuscali,
    bnnion. all contribute 10 ill .\ i / 1/ dala-collection error. Therefore, il i. n misnomer 1" refer 10 il/ , 1111 d.ua asgmllmi 1m/II
    data. Instead. we shuu ld simply refer 10 it ns ill ,1iIJl RI\J/mJ
    /'('k,rll,,<' <I"'eI, a c'know kdging Ihut it cornu i ns error.

    Remote Sensing Dala Collecllon

    Fortunate ly, 11 is abo l"I>ssible 10 collect informarion aboul


    an ohj eel lIT geo g rap hic a rc" from a dIStant vant.,g... point
    us ing ft.'moll' "''I.Img instrumems IFigure l-:!). Remote scns-

    Remote Sensi ng Data Collection

    Rem ot e Sl' nsi nl: :\l casur{'ment

    ing <.lata collec tion was o rigin'llly per formed using cameras
    mounted in s uborbital aircraft. PlwllIJ!rmm,wln' "as defi ned
    in the C3r1)" editions o f Ih.: Mml/l<l' of Phowgr.m"',,'lry: as:
    the art or sc ience o f no tain ing reliable measu rement
    b~' mea ns of pholo~ral'hy ( Aml."riea n Society of
    Phvl og r<lmmel ry. I'>IS::!; 1')(>6 ).

    Orl'o ilal
    platform

    Ph"'''gr"phu' InI,'rpl'l'I<llmn is de fined as:

    lilt: act of examimng " hOl og raphi c imag es for the


    purpose o f idenll fylllg obj s'\:b and Judging their signilieanceICol\\ ell. \%O}.

    Sut>orhual
    pla tform

    Remote ,""I.~i~ " a~ fonnall) defined ,,)' the American SocifOf I'h<'l ogram ml."ll'y and Remot e Se nsmg ,AS r RSI as:

    cl~'

    I~ measure ment or

    Suhomllal
    platform
    Remote

    acq uis ilion of ;nf"nllatinn o f


    scene prope rty uf an obJ1 o r phenomenon. by a
    recording dc\ ice thool b 001 in phys ica l or intimat c
    co ntact "'ith lhe obje..... or phen o menon un der ~Iud)
    (Colwell , 19l1.l1

    s...n~in i!
    m~lrumen l

    II
    altitude 3oo\<'
    ~rouno.l k...d

    ("'(i Ll

    fleld-cf-view (IFOV j
    ,,((hI.' sen ....r system

    'm-

    n an

    :<11;-

    ere111h
    lind

    O bject. area. or
    materials with in the
    ground-projected IFOV

    I
    1_

    1)_

    diameter (If Ill...


    ground- proj ected In )\'

    A remOle sc'l1s mg on'lmm" nl coll''''l' ;nfomm,;on

    ."
    )m l

    " hI' lli an " hj ,,,,l or phen om enon within lhe ;nstanl.3ne"us-ficlJ...r, icw (Ir OV) of tho:
    s)'''I<'m
    \\ ;111.'1'\ k in!! III tll,,"'l I'h~'sic" 1 ... on lac t w ilh;1. r ile
    ,emo'''' ..., ",mll in, lrument " My I'<: located Just a
    rl'" met<'Ba!><',,' lhe gr...,,,,. /Ind'or onboard an air-

    'ns -

    craft

    ,<"1'S""

    Of

    smellI!e platform,

    In 1'11': 1':. AS PRS ado plcd a cumhincd defi nuion o f pholO-granunetry and re mote ecnsm g:
    Ph<'l ogrnmmetl) a nd re mote o;cnsing are the art. science. an d tec hnology (If o"lam ing reliable info nnalion abou t physIcal ohjL'Cls and the environm ent.
    through the pn....'s'S.s of recording, measuri ng and
    interpreting imagery a mi d igital rvprc.....nla l ions o f
    erh:l);) p;llle01s derived fru m nlJn-,:Ol1la.:1 sens or
    systems (C'l l" .-II. l ')<H),
    BIll ,,here did ib c 11." 01\ 1\''''''''' Icm mg co me fro m"! The
    actual co in ing of th c term g' -c, had .. ll\ an unpllhh~ ll<'d paper
    in the earl y ] 'J( ,()s by Ihe sla lr o f rh.. U fficc of Naval
    Research Geography Branch (Pruitt. 1 ~7 l)~ Fuss ell d al..
    19R6 ). Evely n L Pruitt \I ;l S the author uf'th c paper. S h.. was
    assisted hy stall' m emb er Waller H. Ha ilo:y. Aeria l photo
    interp retat ion had become very im p ortant in World War 11.
    The spa.... ag.: \la" jll "t gelling unde r w ay with the 1')~ 7
    lilu n~'h "f .\ rJUm iA (U.S.S. R.J. the 1<) ~ ll launc h o f /:'xplol1'" I
    (U.s .). >lnd the cotlccuon Ill' photography trom th.. then
    secret CORONA program initiated in 1960 (Table 1- 1), In
    addit ion. the Geography Branch of O NR W:IS expandi ng its
    rc search usi ng instrumen ts other than came ras tc.g .. sca nnc rs, radiometers ) and uno rcgum s Ill' Ihe ctcctromagnctic
    spectrum bey-vnllthc vi_ink lind ncar-infrared r..gio ns tc.g ..
    thermalm frared, microwa ve ). Thus. m Ihe tate I<,lSOs it had
    bec ome upparenttharrhc prdh "photo" was be ing stretched
    100 far in view o r the fact th at me rool \\ Urd. l'hOl~ruJ,hl.

    - 1

    cu ' PU R

    Iil<'ra lly me ans "to write w ith [visible] lig ht" (C"I,, <:II.
    I'N7l_ Evelyn Pnnn (1~7<)) 'HOle:

    The ,",'hole field was in Ilux and it .... as d illicu l1 for


    the G.:ograph)" Program to kilt," whic h way 10
    rnove. II "as finally decided in 1%0 .0 tale the
    problem III the i\dvisnry Comm ittee. Walter II .
    Ba iley and I p"!Hk' rcd a )"nl; t imc 11I1 how to present
    the situation :mll Oil what '0 ,;all tho: broad er fidd
    thai IH: fdt slw uld be encompassed in a program to
    rep lace lOC aerial photointcrprctan on project . T he
    term phot..>gr..ph' ....as too limited because it did nol
    c01 cr the: fCj1 ions in the clccttomagncnc spectrum
    beyond the "visih!c' range, and rt " as III these nonvis ihle frequencies lhal the fulure Ill' intc rpretarion
    se emed to lie. "tw rial" wa s ,dSll tou lilllitcd in view
    o fthe p\>t" uti"l ltlr scd nl: the Earth from space.
    Th e term t'l:motc .fcn<mg was promoted in a series o f ~ympo
    sia sponsored hy ():\ R at the Willow Run l.ah...raiones ofthe
    Univcrsuy of \l ,,-hi ~an in cullJuIlI.1io n with the f'ational
    Research Couuctl rhronghour thc [%Os and early 19i1hi. and
    has 1>0......'1 In usc ever since (Estes and Jcns~' n . 199 81

    Maximal/M inimal De finitions

    x umerous othcr definuions of remote ~nsing ha vc been


    proposed. ln fact . Colwell (19~41 suggests lhat "one measu re of the newness of a science. or of tm' rajuduy wilh
    whic h u is developing is to hoc fo und in the preoc..c upalioll of
    its sc icnusrs with m,IlICTS oftcrm illol"gy." Sno w have propos ed a n all-e n~(\l1\p."s i J1g "'"xilllill Je/i/lllilll!:
    RemOle scns ing ,s the acquIring uf J:lI:! about an
    ooJ<=ct ",ilhoult\J\IChinll it
    Such a definition is short. sImple . general. and memorable.
    Unfortunately, it excludes linlc trom lhe province of remote
    sensing I Fuss..ll el al., l\j~6 1. II ell.-o mpasses virtuall y all
    rClllot.. se nsing de.... kcs. ind ud ing ca meras. 0p lieal.m ec han,
    ical ~c;t[lIlcrs. linear and area a rrays . lasc rs. radar syst,-ms.
    sonar. sclslI101!raphs. lIra.... imel.'I'S. magnetom.:I.' rs. and s.:inIillati...n e(.unl<'f>.
    Oth,'I"S ha\c sugg.'st.:d a more r'lCused, mmml<ll Jefinilwn of
    remOl,' ~cnsing lhat adds "illah 1kr 3lkr qlJ:l lilicr in an
    an.:mpl I... make I:l:'nail! lltm o llly I<:g ilimmc fllnclions arc
    incl,ulc<l iII l h~' I ~'rnl 's deli nilion. Fnr e~a m ph::
    Rem,)tc sensi ng is lhe nOllennta.:t rIXurding of
    mformaliun ITorn Ihe ullra,'inkl. \I~ible. in fra..w.

    Re mote Sensing o t t he Env iron ment

    and microwave regions of the elect romagnetic spevtru m to)' mean, of mstrumeuts suc h as came ras.
    scanners. Ia-"<,,rs. linear arrays. and/or area am)s
    loca ted on platforms such as aircraft or spacecraft.
    and thc: analysis of acqeired info rmation hy means
    of visual and dig ital image proc cssm gRob ert (ir cen at NA SA' s Jet I'ro pulsum Lab (JPL) _, uggc,
    Ihal the 1~'rmll'''hJle measurvmeet mi ght he use d instead
    ....." '0'<' S<''''IJI~ beca use data ...b rained using the ne,," hyp.
    sJlCctral remote sensing s~'-.tems are so accurate (Rohhil
    1'N91, Each c Ftbe defimuons arc correct in an appropri.
    context. [ I is usefulto hrie lly discus, comp..lnenb uf the
    rcmore sc nsing dc linitions

    Remote Sl' nsinj!: Ar l aud/ur

    S ci(' n~' c '~

    S.:i,' n e~ : A ",1.'11"" is de fined as a broad field uf hum;


    kno...led ge concerned wnh fads held Il"Igclhe r by ,'""cipl
    lrub). Sc ientists discover and test facts and pnnciples I
    the scientific method. an on.k:rl~ s)sh~11I of solving prll
    kms SCicnl,sls gcner~lI} f,..,IIh:lt any subjcct that hUI1I3I
    ca n study by uSIng the scientifi c method and other sp c ci
    ru lcs o f thinking may he call ed a sc ience. The scicnc_
    incllid.' I ) mothcmaticx and logic, 2 f I' h\'.,- kul _" -ience.l-. sue
    as physics and ehernistry, JI bioluX""11 ...-i"nn'5. suc h as bo
    any and 700[O!!Y. and 4 . the social $(i<'l'''''', such as geogn
    phy.xiolog). and anth"'p"I"'lIY ( Figure 1-3). lnte resun gl
    ""TIlI.' persons do not consider mathematics and logic 10 t
    sciences. Butthc fiekls of know ledge associated with IlUlII
    emetics and log ic art' ~tt~'h valuable I,,,,!.< fo r science Ihal II
    cunnor ignore them. Thc human race's l'arli c~l lJ uc~lilll
    were concerned with "how mallY" alld "what belouge
    tcgcthc r: They slruggkJ 10 c c um. 10 .:bss ify, to thin k sy~
    rcenancatly. and 10 describe exactly. In many respects. Ih
    stale of dcvelcpmer u of a science is indicated hy l.hc UM:
    mak~ cf mathemat ics. A science seems 10 begm wuh sirr
    pic mathematics to mca -arre. then ....orks toward rnore corr
    plcx mathematic s 10 explain.

    R"I1\OI,' Wl1s ing is a luo lllr kchniq lle simil ar 10 mmh"m al


    in . Using sophisticaled Sl"Usurs to measure lhc amn unt 0
    cl.-.:u...m agnelic en.:rgy ex iling an OOJC':I or geographic are
    fro m a distance and then c'ltrnctmg \aluable inf" rm:lliOi
    fn>m lh.. dala using mathematically and statist ica lly basa
    algori lhms is a .fc i ,,"'iji<" act i\ily n: usscl l Cl al.. 1<)86)
    R~'molC" s..nsing funclions 111 han nony "" ilh othcr S,....,graph i,
    in li'rma lioll scie nces (oflc ll rdcrTcd 10 as (;ISdm<",,)
    in d ~llli llg cartography. sur-'ey ing. and geog raphic ;nf(lffiW
    lilln sys lems (filS) (C urT;m. 19Si ; C larkc. 2UU]; JellSen
    20051_ Oahlhocrg and Jcn....n 119X6 ) and Fisher <lnd Linden
    t,,:rg t I '1.~91 \ ugge;,lt.>d a mCKk! \\ he~ lhere is inl.:ractior

    Remote Sens ing Data Co ll ec ti o n

    .',.

    I.
    :l.1~ l hcmo.li<:.

    a oo l ..gic
    ~'SI S

    ad of
    yper-bins,

    m ate

    these
    SUit I

    SIl.~2

    T,~ - -.
    FIQU<e , """

    .rman
    jple.f
    es b~'

    prob-

    m ans
    xx ial

    cnccs

    i"qJre 1-3

    InlC'faclloo m<><lel dcpiClIng the rdalionsh,J' of tho:


    ~~ aphie ," formalloo sci<:nc~ (n:mol.. ....nsing.
    ~CO!T4pllle

    ,nrormanoo systmu., nrtosraphy; and

    $lIl'H)mg) a~ lho:y fdal" 10 nlil,h"" IOl' ics and logic


    .td me, phY"'uol. btol0tllClll...oo sociat sciences.

    such
    s botc s re -

    ileto> em remlllo:' '''I1,i llg. canography. surveying. and G IS.

    ingly.

    "Acre 110 subdisc ipline domina tes and a ll are recognized as


    bal' ing uni'lue yet o\crlapping areas uf k now kdg.: and intelk\.tIal activity Ihey are used in physical. biological. and
    socal science research ( Figure 1-3).

    ,,""

    113 1h

    at we
    'lions
    mged

    ( svs-

    s. the
    use it
    s imcom -

    emarmt o f
    : area
    ration
    based
    91(6).

    aphic
    ?nCl:) .

    erm a-nscn.
    ndcnIC1l0 n

    Tho: o.k."Velopmo.....\il1

    ~1:Cl>

    ( Woll~. 1975~ Jensen

    a,

    The I!IC0f) of scw ucc , ugg~""h that scientific disc ip lin\"i go


    Ihrough f\JUT clas sic ..Jeveloprucma l , lage ,. Wo lt,,'r ( 197 51
    )U[:l;~Med lhal the growth o f a ~ci ent i r'lc ..jiscipli nc. such as
    fl:m,,'le sensing, that has its own tcch ni'lucs. methodologies .
    end intellectua l uricntmion seems to follo w the sigmo id or
    logistk (' IlT\C illustrated in Figu re 14. The growt h sta ges o f
    ~: i~nll lk field arc: Singe I - a prchminnry growth periO(j
    "itn smallmcrcmcms of lit"'raHl re; Sial'" 2 - a pcriod of
    exponcnua l growth when the numbe r of publications doubles u regular imcrvals: Stag... 3 - a p... nod wh... n the rate o f
    growth begins 10 dccline hut annua l incre ments remai n eo nstsnt;and Stage -l - a final per iod when the rate o f grow th
    IlJI'i1wacncs zero. Thc characteristic s o f a scholarly fie ld durm~ each of the ' Iag... ~ nmy he hric t1y described as fo llow s:
    Swge I - lillie or no socia l orguni/at ion; Stage 2 - g rou p~
    cfcollaborators and ... xisicnce of invisible colte g.:s. ette n in
    the iixm of ad hoc ins murcs, r..-scarch units. etc.. Stage 3 IrL'ml$ing specialization a nd increasing comrov crsy: and
    "tJge ~ ~ dl,:d lllC in membership in hoth eo lJahoralors and
    m,'~i~k colleges.

    of a ..:i~....ltlk d,;c;phne

    '*"" Dahlbeq:,

    1~8JI

    L:sing Ihis logic. it may he suggested lhal remote sensi ng is


    in Stage- 2 of a scientific field. c 'JlC'riem;inj? exponenti al
    gro\l,th vince Ihe mid I'H>Os wilh the number of pulllical ion~
    doubling. at regular inlcl"'oa l~ Kolwell. 19.... 3; C rac kne ll and
    Hayes. 199 3; Jensen. 200 5 ). Emprricalevidenc e is pr.......,nlL-d
    in Tallie 11. inc-Iudi ng: I) the Ilrl!a nil ation of man)" specialized institutes and c...-nlers of excellence associated with
    remote ""nSlng. 2) the orgamzanon o f nume rous professio nal l'(.cielics devo ted to remote !i<'nsing research. 3 ) 11Kpublication uf n uUl"'wn~ new ....ho larl) remote ,..:nsing journals. 4 \ sig nificant technological advanceme nt such as
    improv ed sensor syst ems and methods of image analysis,
    and 5) inten se self..c xurmnarion (e.g . Dehq anza da and
    Fiorini, :!lH1()) , We may toe ap proaching Siage 3 ,\ uh mcrcas illg specialization aud t h~'<>ret ic,,1 coutro vcrsy, However. lhe
    rate o f growth o f remote s~'nsiltg hol' nul begunto declin.:. III
    fact. there ha~ been a tremendous surge in Ihe number s o f
    persons speciali/ing in remote sensing and commercial
    firm s using remote sensing duri ng Ihe 19<)Os an d early :!OOOs
    ( Davis, 1\)'1<); i\S I'RS, :!(HI-l ), Sillilitic ant improve ments in
    the spatial resolution o fsa lcllite remote scnsinll (c.g.. more
    usefu l 1 x I III pilllChr<11l1a lic d,lta) has broug ht eve n more
    soc ial science GIS p ractit ion.., r; illl", the 10141. Hundreds of
    ne w peer..reviewed rennue ~ens i ng rese arch art ides arc publishcd cvery nwn lh.
    Ar t; Th e proc ess o f vivual photo or ima ge intc rprctaunn
    brings 10 bear nOI only sc i<' nlilio: I n(m ledge. hUI all of the
    backgro und that a JlCn<on has obtained through h i, or he r
    life time. Such learning ca nnot he measured, prog rammed. o r
    com ple tely understood. Thc syn erghm 01" combining scientific knowledge With real-w orld an:II)'SI expe rien ce allo ws
    tIK- interp reter 10 dew lnp lM.'uristic rule~ o f Ihumh to extract

    ':i.lo.

    --,

    Table H .

    .\1aj"f mi k"'l""~'" in rem ote sensing.

    ' .... . .d 17\'lh


    INl~.~" I. . . , ..._ ' ,

    ,-

    "".....,...........-1><.. "'.....,,__

    '>f'h<&'< N_", 1M.. fo",

    19 " ..
    0-'<

    ..

    I U 9. ~ \I '''''''''''''" ""_. _
    "" 1"'_
    ..,...............,
    I ~ W. ""n-Iw., F", , _
    .. '_C~I"r", _ " . _~,<"'OO<>O
    I _~S . 1 - . ( I<r\, " .... ~I
    "'<
    -.

    I' SI< ' ( ~ I < I " f _ _ .. ~


    1_ J_
    l 'la\ " .. ....-lI_ _
    )""'1 ~
    1111 . , I

    ,...""
    \bpI ..

    - ~

    "IfI &.. ........

    ....".....,.
    poN.- .. or\

    "qof_~"'~

    y ..... _ _ f

    ,..

    ,J"""

    ,<Okl._

    __ '" '
    ~

    ...,~

    ""'~

    .....

    . - ""'*"'~_

    ~ '"

    ,or..
    1~

    ' 4 ' <) 1 _

    ) foor ""'

    0, ( 1", ,1 _ .. ,'''''''''

    \ '. . -

    '",_<

    ... I\l.IO.h.:ra. . . . '_,....

    ' 91 ~

    10"' . L-.... .I I--""' ~A~AI

    '_ '1ouI><t><4 -

    1" -" _

    _Onl

    ,-

    {~/_ (.""!l._

    - .Ut:. R<_ - . . Sto.... ~ , __

    1_

    ~I

    sm-.

    I_ ' l _~ -...,.<Jatod l.li'"

    IU S" T. bo:

    A_,
    1.,..,.'[ r.._ _

    a. ~s...-.

    I_~~-.I~",h.- _-"' IM_

    - r ........ Spk;c

    l ...I. "

    '

    __

    r~t-ln~

    k<.' _16)

    ,:\lI,

    Ill"' . _...,.-,

    19) '

    .... , . " ,

    _ \r".,,1J lOot II pt.

    ,-

    c.J

    I....... IlAll-\,Jt
    l-"WO..... .." .."

    I ....:. K,.w.

    t.-h

    ~f'

    1_"

    ,.Ied to,' l ;""' ~


    r. lolw-<o>l..... _
    f,.
    n V! ""." by \\<mhcf ,,,,,11,. .. ,0..')1

    ~" ''''d

    I~l 1<.""" .

    ,.......

    w.,...".. I'<WfI

    i""".,_,/<
    . . .,

    19 <1 . l 'Io""" ..
    I~ '"', ..

    _..J>0Il<C>

    "il ..

    """1 by ...,1'''1)
    ..

    kt'roO"d IP""'~

    So"''''''', l '.I<.. l

    ."t>._ ....... .y".m


    ',",,0""""'''''''' ~

    1",,_<1<>.1,,,,, ........,. ..!


    19S5., I"l~ li S ( ....,.,,,. ~. II,,'" "",,,,n'"~I'''I"~m
    I"S" '" 1""" l'...,,,1
    A~"", 11-1 "", .. I

    If,"",..,n,;<

    1"'7 ........ ,.. Un,.", ...."'.......'V'. 'nol


    1,'" fU<, ~I
    ' '' ' 0 . I
    S'."" I.o"",t>! F,pI,_ I '<lIi'. (1m J I I

    ',,,,1

    I ...

    '''''l!''
    I""" . f I,,,IN",","'''''"'' .\',,,,,,,",,,,,,, "'" II..",,,,, !ie"'m~ ,off","",,,",..,.. A,"
    M h ,', MI
    I""" , . 1'Il'~ IJ< I. h""" . y r,,, A ~'i<l'~ ",, 1 Il,'", ,,,, s<n"n~. ( 1 _ ~ Il ') ""',,<
    1%' I. ",~h .." r ' "" ' '' I, "" """,,1
    pr"'''''<I n~
    I'''''', '1 "I1I ~"" W,IIo""Il,,,, 1,, 1'' ''''hlfY ...,.... ..."I,<J " ,,, HI\1

    1""0. - 1,,,,,,,,'1' 1t"n", l, S<n';"f 1.0" " !J,t' IIa ky IRob<tt , '01.. <111
    19"", . I'll - u-m
    pho" ,w .m .,.'ti< ode,,,,,,,,, "" r,,,,,,i'" .." okn"
    IW.", - [)i~;,.1 '''''~ """''''''' .~ ; " ''' '<~ .' I.AR ~ , l1" kd. v. 1<. ," ", ." LIlI' 1
    I""", . 1I\o." ti","", p f ,...... , nJ ,1""".1 ,,,f,,...,j >C'fI"'" ' 1"''''''
    1%" - 1')72 Vn' LoJ S,.,.. t OI :0 1-; " 'p, ....1"1< I"''l!'''.
    1""0 .11 "'" ,,/ /'I.""~"'I''''~'''''' 1" " 1'1
    l%l' I
    "',",~~ ""'''''l1 '"'''-'''''d !- b<tyn l'n,," _ ""'" V s . Ott"" 0'

    '0""'"

    "'

    I~"",,,,'h~1

    ,aI'.

    1% 1 y,., (..
    1o,....... 1lt~ h " ", ,,, ~ , 11,,,-1 ,,, "I""""
    1%1 I ~ b.l M rn;~ _,, _ _
    1""1 . l ...... \l",,1e l'"".. l,;11''''''o ,,'''''' ............h'''.' " ~, ll>< ""Ho<
    1'Ina SIl 1[ ~"''-"'...-d .. rr.... dnII l.yr><IolI ~""'" !""'O' Ion<fi""

    f'I "' "''''

    I""S ,,, 1'1(>10 O"n,...['<"


    I""S /SI'/IS ./<o.....d '" /'!>i.W_ _" " 11-* ....... ,"ll
    JIlt....
    .'kot"w~ ~I h _ . , . , I 1.""'><1)

    ' <'Of<''''

    ......... _

    ..... ,

    (("s.. ) ..-..I " ....

    w-;..... _ _ .~... I (""" ~S I'o "' '''')'1

    __
    1"'1. "A
    sron-~
    (Sr1io- 11
    1.... 1 Sf-< """"k 1_ -11 M...... 'SIIl
    '.\ 1
    I ~ ....... ~ . nc....... ' ' - ' atod "'SS ........ (' .' S.. l
    ~_~

    .l'o<J""' . ~ . _

    ,1.,_

    l...l11,_.,._ s.-..... .:nor u .


    1_ "

    19j..1 . ,\ _
    !>Do; "", 01 ". .......... , ("S1 ,r....d<.l
    19)1 . pr",""f<I'" " I< t _ c'''''I

    19"" .

    10S . tIl I ... 1_ (....-~. . 21


    10"S. _ " ' - _ . " ' - IA'>PI
    10"' - \ l fITflS.U.I l_thl"_Spa~)

    1_

    "...

    I .~"
    I"~ '

    -...0<

    _ " '.......... """""',..-.

    ,f_

    ..._ _

    "*

    1\l~Z

    """'..... "' "I'C"WlI< ,. "'...................., ...........

    1_ 1<.1',"""_"",, "" . ... ,."."._co,

    191.1. roru , _
    t - - . ...-r;
    19 14 "" " 11 _W'ol'..

    1 9~

    1971... "'

    10"'. . - 1l_""'_~.....
    1.......... .,.....
    1011 fRTS _l
    M-...", I,,' ~ .....11 \ Iaa:b<dl" "S.\)
    !> 10'" SljWo I'f"Wh'" ("ASA I
    101) . (_~"'k.-- j;,,,,,,,,,I( _
    .. liS "' ''' ~ 1

    1"1. n MOS' -...." ..... Ant Il M _


    10-1 . sr .\....T
    ("AH ~ """""_

    Ho......... ,1l 171

    , ....J _",. . . \I... ,....

    Rem ote Sensing 01 the En vi ro nment

    Table 11. c"nrill u,'d

    101110; .1..,

    l ll,:~ .......,..,

    ---

    L.-.-

    I ~ . :'\pon

    l . _

    '.....

    (>,l;I'l

    .. M'I"I'f1 r-h<..I,'1\"-\,

    ..... I--.Ilkb- ,SI IlI<Ir-t.d ,NA"-\'

    1_ SI'I.l! I _ _ ,S"-'l 1-"", 10<: I


    I''''" . ,-_"..,,-0>1 .....11 ,I"""""", 1 ...--.... (-...... 1
    I<W;I.

    ,r_...

    n,.l""" <Oo-.- '''''M ~ s.-.


    llol ,..1 ~ .n ...,,,,,

    f h(l:hl (<lM<r1

    """"""-'1' .'-. "r'F

    1 _ - l!ft<. tr" 1) <It"", I'"'


    'n ,
    I
    1.>J1n """"";,,. '"'" ,,-.., II,Ill,' 1l1

    101>1<

    """"",0(..

    ...... _"""""',.. '''''''I< .......

    I
    ~"s
    " S"'nlW ~'" (' ........ 1
    19'1fi<.I""..-d _,~'bYJ"<f'lPld<->lanol l.n)AIl _ .....
    1 ) SPIlT 1 _
    h<..I'Sp.1I lmap, 1"".1
    1
    1

    r,-,

    ,." ,.,.,j

    1 - ' M"..... '"


    I anh1 "'.\~A)
    1 f.IlS I 1",""bN lb .,...... Sr> A~."'~l

    I ""~ . IJ,~ t.",.I _ ~ .v",m~ IV..-...{,., ""'........ 1;",'


    1.... 1 - la......., .<1<.... "'" II<h.... ,....., (H 1 ~ A r, I",,)

    " n' l - ~ I ' rr J 1,"*"hoJ , SI ~ ' 7 h~, I"<l


    ~!ll"n. ' ''''~ I n~ K<klO( (SIR_t '~I '1A SA,
    IW'; 1l_ \ll.\Ks.\ r I l.w"Io<J 'l" "~ .. . 1
    1'lO' I llS-, 1."""l><.I ll'"""""''' 'ro<o A~,,'1"Y)
    I....~ . IllS-Ir r..",..h.d (l l n,) Il,kI.." Il<n, .. ....."' 8 r",gt>I1I 1
    1 'J'l~ . U ' Il' INA '" .. ~<ry oJ!u.iril.
    1A"'h" "
    I'''''' lt~,,""' "I/'.""'l:'"ph" /"",,.,..'I,,",,n. , . ,1 1:'1 lASI'KS,
    1''''-' ~''' 'yhml do .... n," " h.". ,,,hll (1 , ..,h W,,,~ . I"" ,)
    1'J'l~ \[ ,,,,,,,, L.. r l."... Fol,I, '""''' ''' '' I ...,h S",.." ,. b ,"'prll< l ' AS.-',
    1'lO! II,m",,} " I R,.""" ,' s,"""" . R,,,i,,, (ASPIlS,

    1"'3. Sr-'

    ".",[.,,1 ., ".'i, ....

    I" ," . Sf'< >1'~ I...".-h<d lS I" >1 1",.,<. Ir", ,)

    1'1'1< 1I..,m "'I ,~ II""",,,, ~C~""~ t:,;,."" ,<,,,,,.,( ,,-,. I 'II ~ ,


    I 'NO . b Old.., ? U M ' 1" In, hlSl ' NASA.- AI"" lSI
    I""" IKI"" " ",.... "," " 'h,,,,, ' ""' Ll~f"I<c 1""'1". " 11>< _, "I" !7 i
    241
    1- I'" '''iOS ~ I, "", I" J L' ,....... In~,"~, I"".,

    ""p'

    1'1'1'1 r... ", E..,b ,.h"", ,n~ 'j',""m I. " ",,,,,! ( "ASA I

    1_ . 1..,.",..,,, r..... hod 11....1 I!n,W' S" 1r0""" "'II, 1I


    lOO",_ :, ..

    "0<11
    100~
    1<Jo.U
    ;'1"1

    """"I ("'

    \l,U....., """".."
    ,~,
    . QI<~. n,,~ 1" h<..I (I I1~".l<i~...... I )
    . A_ F. ~I, ,~"'" "' F '1" .... '"'--ba/ "" ~ "'I
    . E",VIM I louno-h<d(l._
    "'~"""') '
    . ( oty,>.1 -.",1<d ,.... lI" ... - .
    I ,,"~ hm . inIro.l.a.od

    :lU' ""

    ;'1.11 0 11>\'"", . ,

    1>"",,_ InN IttM \(,1.

    1"" . 1

    cr....- (;I,,";""~ <l , ......... !o'-"''''l< ("-"1_...... PuN,"'J3, I... I

    "0014 - -...tojl""-"'w_.,,_',I! I ~ I .. SPIlS)


    :, .,~ - ~ "-'" _
    Ill...... ik>l'c '"'" 1 _ n.t do1a
    :'1J/Io, . C'lO n l'1 "" ; f ~ _
    atod'~"""' .'C0c0f1"

    b....,...,

    Remote sens ing Data Co llectio n

    ,alll3blc informauon fro m the lmag<:ry. It IS a Iect .hal some


    (0 other illl.a~" a n31Y'>ls because
    ~: II undcrsland the scientific principles better. 21 are
    IlIOn' .ndcl) traveled and have seen man) landscape objects.
    llld ~e<.lgI'3rhic areas, and/or
    .he)' can syn thesize scicntllie principles and real-world kno",lcd1!c 10 reach log ical
    and correct concl usions. Th us. remote sensing Im age ;nlt.-rpret.:uion is both an an a nd II science.

    image analysts an" S Upo.-riUf

    J,

    Informati" n ,\ h,m l a n Object or Ar ca

    ,1

    ,,1

    ,jI

    Sensors can " " lain w ry specific in formauon about an obj ec t


    rc.g.. the diameter of an oak tree cro wn I or the ge og raphic
    ~'lcnl of a phenomenon ( e.g . tho: P,-,I Y ~{llllll boundary IIf an
    entire <lOl l-.. forest ). T he electromagnetic energy emitte d of
    reflected fro m an object or ge og raph ic area is used us a surmg31.... fo r t he ac tual propcrt y under invcsngution. Thc elcc tromagncuc en ergy m ea sur emen ts must he turned into
    IIlfc,m latiuLl using visu al and..'or di gital image proce ss ing

    n:mol.. SI.'Il<i nll of liM: terrestri al Ea rth. usi ng !'en"o rs t hai are
    pla.:cd OIl whomllal alr-bn'a thing aircraft or ertsrta l satellite
    platforms placed in the ..-aCUUOlof space.
    Rc mole se ns ing:and d ig ilal image proc es sing techniques can
    also be used to analyze inner space. Fur example. an ele ctron
    microscope can I>e used to obta in photographs of ext remely
    small OhJ,'<:h on the skin. in the eye, ell'. An x-ray inst rument
    is a rC llIotc !>Cn"i ng syst em whe re the skin a nd muscle are
    like the atmosphere thai mllsl be po:nd ratcd . and the interi or
    bone or ot her mail er is the ubje..:1 u f intere"l.

    Remota Sensing Advantag es and Limitations


    Remote sensing lias several un ique advantages
    some lim ita tiun".

    i , well as

    techniques.
    Thl'lo~ t ru01 (>nl

    (S \'o!'.u)

    Rnoote sensing is performed usm g a n in!'tl\l rtll'nt. often


    rejencd to as a sensor: The maj orily o f
    sensing
    ilNlUments record E\ 1R Ih;t tlra \C l~ alii \e1u"' Ity of 3)( 10"
    m ~ I from lhe source. d jrectly throul,:h the vacu um of specc
    or indireclly by rel1ectiOfl or reradiation 10 the M.'I1S01', The
    t\l ll. repecscnts a very efficient high-~p<."'''Ii communications
    hnl b<1,,~"("n the sensor a nd the remote phcooOlenon, In fa..:1.
    \lot: know ofnuthing that travels faster tha n the speed of ligh t.
    ChangO'!> in the amount a nd properties of the EM R become,
    uP<Jn detection hy the sensor. a valua bk- sou re.. o f data for
    Il1I<.'l'J'I'CtlOg im port a nt propert ies o f Ihe phc nomenon te.g .
    temperatu re. co lor). O rner types o f forc ... field s may be use d
    in place o f "M R. "ueh as acou stic; (son nn wave s tc.g.. Dartnell and Ga rdncr. 2004 j . Ho we ver, the majority of re mote ly
    >l: il><'1.! data collected fur Earth resou rce apphcat lons is the
    result ot'sens ors that record clcctrornagncuc enc rgy.

    rctl11"'"

    Ren1l>le >ensing oc cu rs 'II a distance fro lll 111\,' uhject or area


    of intercs t. Im erest ingl y. Iher,,- is no clear di,l ln<;tion ahoul
    h\l" great this distance sh<luld be. Th.. illl..rven ing d istance
    clIIlld I>e I ~m. I m. 100 m. or murc than I rnilliull m from
    the ohJCC1 o r ~ rea of inleres t. Much of il.~lrullnmy is based UII
    I\'mIJle l\CJl<ing. In fill-'1. mllny of t he mO!-t innoval i\ e r,,- Olote
    ~ 1Og: ~y~h:ms and visual and digi la l Image proc~sing
    IIIetbods were vriginally de vc lopcd for remotc sensi ng e >.tr1l1e!'T~ri.a1 lan,heap<.'S sU\'h as thc muon. Man;. 10. Salum.
    lbpiler. ctc. This le\ l. howc , cr. is cooccm.."Ii pri marily' wilh

    Remote sens ing i, ",,,,f>lm,.il't' if t he se nso r ls passavcly


    rec..lrJ ll1g t~ eleclm ma l?lletic encrgy reflec ted from or e mit1,"Ii by Ihe p henom eno n of interest. Thi s is a vel)' important
    considcrauon, aspt'.,.,il'(' n:mote "..n"inJo! docs no t di ,l urb the
    obj ect or area of interest.
    Remot e sc n<ing devices an: programmed 10 00111 data ~ls
    tem alically, such a~ with in a single q x ',l in. frame of 'crtical
    aeria l photography Of a matrix (ra,lcr) o f l and'lat 5 Thematic Mapper data. This systemanc d.Jla co ll<.:t ion ca n
    remo\<, the sam pling bias introd uc....."Ii in so me /fI si," invesugations te.g.. Kara,ka C1 al., 2()O..l ).
    Remute so:nsirtg K i...nce Is a l",-, dift,=rc nt fro m cartography or
    G IS beca use these sciences rely on da la ota am ed hy oth ers.
    Rem ote sensing scie nce can pro vide fc ndamemal. new sc icmilie informannn. U nder cont ro lled cond itions. remer..
    sensing ca n prov ide fun da rncnt nl biop hysic a l inform ation.
    includi ng IS loc at ion ; e lev at ion or depth : bioma ss: tern per atu re; " lid moisture con tcm.fn this sense, re l1\ote sCl1~ing
    ~c ienCl' i, Illueh like ~ u rv cy ing. prtw idin J!, lil1u lamc ntal
    in formali'lIl that othcr sc k nn 's can usc whl'n C(lndud ing 51,,' i
    em ilie invest igations. Ho wever. unli kc muc h o f su", ey ing.
    Ihe renmlcly sensed data can Po: obtainc.l sy'tc matica lly' UHr
    \'CI)' larg. gcographic ar eas ra ther than J ust si ngle. poinl
    observa tions. In 1:1C1 , r,,-Olote se nsing -deri vcd infonnation is
    no" critical to Ihe su ccess fu l mode h ng of numc rous nalural
    (".g.. "aler,supp ly c>lima tion ; cUlro phicalion sludin;; IlOn
    poi nt W1JK C po llulion) arid cultural Ic.g.. la ud-usc con \ersion al the uman fring e; 1ll31...r-dcmand estimaliun;
    po pulalion C'S lim,1IionJ I"roce!;SCS ( Walsh et a l., 1Q99; Stow t:I
    al . lt.ltl3~ :"cmani ct al., 1003: Karasl.1 el a1.. 101141. A good

    example is the d igital ck\i1linn model that is so important in


    ""lOy <.palially-di>lnhutcd GIS motk ls , e l,,",e. ~OOII_ [>;gIla l Ck' 3Ii"n mode ls a rc- now produced main ly /Tom stereoscofliC lI11 ager) . lighl detec tion an d I1In ging ( L1 [)A R~ (e.g .
    '-h um:. 200 I: Ii udg;.o n ,'( nl., 2()(l.'h: ] 005l, rad io dCI' -c'liun
    a nd mngin g ( RA DAI{ ) measurement s. " I' interferometric
    sy nth et ic aperture radar I IFSA Rj imagery.

    Remo te sensing "den,'," has limitations . PcrhaP'> the grc-alc'l


    limitation is that it is often ovcrsokl. Nt-"",J" ...." s;lJg
    11
    p" ",ln'<J lhat will provide all the infonuanon ncc t.lcd 1" conduct physical, " i" logic-a l, or suci al 'CiCIKC research. It si m"I)' pro,idl'S some spaual. spec tral. and te mp ora l
    infoflll31iOll or \'3 Iu.: in a manner l llal we h<>pc is cfficlem
    and economical.

    i.,' ''"'

    Human heinllS ",'11.'<:1 the nw st

    appn>[l ri~ te

    remote

    a e mc te Sensing of lhe Env ironment

    War. the ""ar in Bosma. and the war o n terroris m. \I any c


    the accom plishments arc su m ma rized in Table I-I and i
    ('haplcr J l HistQl')" of Ae rial Photogra phy and Ae na ! Plat
    forms }, Basically . mil itary co ntracts to commercia l curnpa
    nies resulted in the M vc lopment of so phis ticate d elec tro
    optical mulus pcctra! f<'mot", s...nsing ~y,t em s and thc rm;l
    in frared and micro\v3\ e t ra da r r sensor systems w hnsc char
    acrensncs are summarized in Chapters 7. 1I. a nd 9. respcc
    uvely. Wh ile the majority of the remote scnsing system
    may haw been in itially de vel oped for m ilita ry rec...m nais
    sance applic a tions, the "y~lems an: also heavily used fo
    m nnilo ring the Earth's natura l resources.
    The re mote S<:llsi ng u~ tacollecti "n an d an alysis proccd ure~
    uvcd for 1:1Inh resource apphca uons arc often implemenk"in a s)">temalic fa.J1ion that c-an he termed the Wm,,'( Jewiin"
    I'n><"~5. The procedures. in the remote w lI,i ng proce ss an
    summa rized here and 1!1 Fig ure 1-5:

    ~cthi l l g

    ~yst e !l11\l

    c"l k ellb ... d"t ~ . sl'kld ly th... various res n hu i(>os of


    the n..mote scnSllr datd. ca librat", (he sensor, select th... platform that will ,arry the sensor. dcrcrm inc ...OC'Tl t he data w ill
    be collected, and ..pecify ho.l\\ the data arc processed Il uma n
    me thod- produced error mOl)' he introduced a. th... remote
    sensing in-arum c m and rmssion pa rameters are specified.

    Powerful actin" r...mol e sensor sys tems that emittheir ,m n


    ekctr')rn"gn.... ic r.t..h ation (c. g.. UDAR. RADAR . SO~r\ R )
    can be intrusiv ... and atlect the phcnomen,m h<- ing invesl;.
    l!all:'ll. Additional research is required to dt.tcrmin... h.......
    imrusivc these active sensor; can he.
    Remere se n"ing instrunu-ms ma> become uncalibmt cd,
    resultin g in uucalibratcd remote sensor data . Finall y, re mote
    se n....r data may be expe nsiv e to collect an d analyze. I in pe lili ly. Ihe info rmation ex tracted from Ihe renlnle SCnSl.lf data
    jusnfies 1h<' e ' p.'Tl!ie. lntercsllng ly. the Jo!l'\"',l lot expense in a
    typical remote o;,("nsing 1l1\'C.ti!U'llun is fCll" ,," elltrllincd
    image ana lys t. nnt re m"I'" scnsur da ta.

    The Remote Sens ing Process

    I lie hY P"lhe~i s I" he test...d i~ dc!ined using a specific type


    u f logic le.g .. inductive. dedu ctive ) and an ap pr. 'priale
    plUC.:ssing IIMKI..11 e.g .. dcrcrmmrstic. st(!<:haslic I.

    In situ and collatera l da ta 1lt.- .;r5S3r) to calibrate Ihe remote


    sensor da ta and/ or Judg e its geometric. radiomc tnc, and
    themat;, charactcrivtics arc ':lllle.: tcd.
    Re mo te sensor data are co llec ted pas si\ ely o r ac tively
    usin g .11131,'1: ord igilal r..-mote sc ns ing insnumenrs. Ideally
    attbe samc limt.,as the In "III data.
    111 .rifU a nd remutel) scnS<'d data a rc proc essed " s iug a l
    a na log un a),:.. proc..." ing. b} di gital imag e proccsving, c )
    modcling , ami d j u-dimcnsionnl visuaIizauon.

    :l.lctadala. processing lineage and lhe a, cu racy of the


    informat i(>f\ arc provsded and the rescus commun ica ted
    us ing image'S. graplt.s. sl<lt istical l<l blcs . GIS dal ah.ascs .
    SpIllial lkt:is;un Support Systems (SDSSf, ell.".
    It is u"efultu rev ic\\' the characte ristics u rt hcsl' rCl11vle sensing prO<.'<..",~ pfl>ccdu f<'~.

    Statement of the Problem


    SckntislS have been devel...ping pn."..-dur",s fur oolku;ng
    an d pnnlp ing r<:l11 otel y sells"d dal<l fur more tha n 150 ) can>.
    Th " lir s! phnt"J,:f~ ph frum an a~'fial platfonn (p (l' thcred 1>,1 1.
    100 11 1....3Su l>la ined in I ~ Sl\ I>y the Frenchma n ( iaspard Fl'Ii.\
    T..urnad lOll (\lho cnlled Illmsc lfN" dar j. Sil,tllltkant str iut:S
    in aerial phow gr::tphy and OIher fem"l': sensin!:! daLl colk-.:lion h1(lk place duri ng Wor ld \\-'ar I aoo II, the Kun:an ConIlid , the C uhan \{ i s~ i lc Cnsis, the Vietnam Waf. Ihe Gulf

    Sum et imes tbe genero l puhli c and e vcn dl ild rell I",uk at
    :lerial phulugf:lphy or nt he r re mu te sensur Ja t;\ and ..,t rad
    uscful in l',rm alion. r hey t~ p i c"U) t!o t his wi lhuul a I"rmal
    hypothes is III mint!. \Iore o llC'll than nu t. howe\cr, Ihc~
    intLrpret til<: imag,-ry iIM.mr~ tly 1:>..'C.1USC they do Il()I undo.".
    sta nd the nature of the remo te "",."sing sys tem II",-d 10 eollcl1

    The Remote Sens ing Process

    The Remot e Se nsing Pr ocess

    -.

    !<olal", ,,,,,,n l o f

    ()lIla

    the Problem

    (' ,, 11,'('1100

    DlII la -lot-l nform ation ('0 0'(.....00

    1'1'1:'. .. 01:0.1;00

    - '\na l"~ I\ h ua l) Image P/"fKh~i n ll


    ' In S itu 'h-.'",",,"''' Oh
    hel d h:.~ ...u:; fr om GI>S.
    lJ~ll1!t tho: t:I"m"msoJ
    biomass. reflectance}
    Im'IK" Int,'rpf'l'tafUm
    -.ell'C"1 '\ I,pru p ria le l, og;c
    (...IIt'uralu"Y Ic.g.. n;lkcl.clllce.
    - tnducuve and or
    o ll igitMl hnMge l'n"'e ~, itl e
    lea f area index )
    - [kducti, c
    Prcpr occ"ino:
    Tccbnol"gical
    - Radrom..rnc Correction
    ( '" th,tc r lll lllll a
    - Diguu l elevation models
    (I'"I11C IO.. (' ''rrcdi''n
    St'h,.'1,\ pJ1rlIll ria k I\l "'...1
    - Euhunccmcru
    S"ilmaps
    - rklcnnlr\ls!tc
    . 1' h"t"J!.r:ml111Clri<.' allaly,i~
    - Sllrtk i,d gc"lllg y mllpS
    Empirical
    Parumc uic. such as
    - l'vpubliLlII dCllSily. ciC.
    KJlowkd~chasld
    - M;L\ lmllln1ik.:lih,'Od
    l" f'oI:<'SS.h'I".,.-d
    Remot e Sen, illl:
    i\"np"r"l1ldri..:. su..:h a.s
    Stocha..'11C
    - Ani lk i,,1 neural n...lwork,
    - 1''' ''' I' 'c aoalng
    ~ ..nmetric, ,"ch as
    Frame camera
    - Expert ")'lems
    - \ 'ilkogral'h y
    h '(ll1uble II, p"' he, i,
    appro priate I

    nr

    .,

    - h am.: Call1Cf1I
    - S<:anlK'r!
    \ 1ull l"'fl'....lral
    - Il YT'er;rectr'l1
    L in.;aJ' :lIlJ atl.":l .tIT;lys
    \tulli~l

    IIH'':'I>(lel:lra l
    . .... cuvc

    - \li,-ro" a\ i: IRAD,-\R l

    Figure 1-5

    Ihc dna or appreciate the vertical or oblique perspective of

    'icienti\l\ whu usc remote sensing. o n the ether hand, ,HI.'


    ucully trained in the sci('//t~lic n/(,thod--n way of think ing
    about problems and solving them. They U~ a form al plan

    lllal has at lea st five clements: 1) !>la ti n g the problem. 1)


    rormmg the research hYJ'M1thcsis u.e.. a ptlssibk ex plnna1lolI ~ 3l observing and cxpcnmcming. 4) imerprcne g da ta.
    .and 5) dra..... ing conclusions . It is no t nec essary 10 folio w thi s
    I plan exact ly,

    The sciennfic me-thod is normally use d in conjunct ion with


    ell,

    ten meue t models that are ba sed on IWO primal)' types

    f1ogle.

    , I

    mducti\e logic

    SUli K'",

    l ~, i og hnl:agc
    \ n ' lI r ll l' ~ ' As""." m,'n r

    Ge "llIct ri..:

    - Radiomemc

    TIwl1l" lk
    - { 'halill" derecnon

    - ,\ 11:11" 10: lind [l igil;l l


    - Imilg,,;,

    Unrcctif... J
    - Onhoimag..':S
    . Ort horh')!l,nmps
    - Th cm mc nw.ps
    ( , I ~ d.t.laoo.~"
    ,\ nmw.lIv ns

    lI ~ voth ..."i,

    -It-' ling

    Accept " r reject hypothesis

    Scu:ntlsts gen..rally usc th.. remote si:nsing process " 11,'n " ' Ir<l<.'ling inform ation from remotely sensed data.

    lhell'rrain recorded in tile im agery.

    - Imag, ~ 1t'llIda l ll

    - Decision-tree dassili"o.
    Ma..-hu'IC Icam in ~
    - Simulati ons
    Ilypocrr.pt.-.::u.d an:tly"i,
    - Change oc1e,Ik>n
    :--bti"tin
    MOLkhng
    Spatial looddmg ~in~ GIS data l.'ni\':1rlatc
    \ tall i' analc
    S(-enc 1Tl<>Jelin~
    Scil:nr ilk g.....wi'l.la tiul ion
    - Gra ph
    - I. 2. 3, aoJ" Jnn.,.lh'..n'
    - 1, 2, and 3 dun ... nsions

    Pa,.,., i\(' digita l

    La".,.r I U UAIl.)
    Acou ."r ic (SO NAR I

    Info rmalion

    Models base d on deductive and/or induc tiv e logic can he


    further subdivided accordi ng to whether they arc pro ce ssed
    determinis ticul lv or \' 1(Jch(/\1i(,II(~I ' (J e rL"l'll, 10(5). Some sc ielit ists ext rac t new the ma tic information directly from
    remotely sensed im agery w itho ut ever expl icitly using
    ind uc t ive Of dcd uc nve logi c , T he y arc j us t interested in
    c\t rJl:ting info rmation from the itllJ ge ry using appropriate
    methods and tec hno logy, Th is technological appro ach is not
    as rigurous , but u i!-> co mmo n in applied remote ~eIl.HI1K. T he
    approa ch r un a lso genera te new knllw led gl'.
    Remote sen~ in !:! is used in bot h sc ie ntific unducnve and
    deductiv e) and tec hnologic al approach c,> to o btain know 1edge . T hcre is debate as to how rhe different types o f log ic
    used in rhe remote scnving process yiel d n...... scientific
    kno .... led ge ( c.g.. Fu ssell et al.. 19X6; Curran. 1987: Fisher
    and Limk nherg. 19 !19; Dobson , 11JlJ3: Skidmore. 2iI(1) .

    C II \PTF_R

    10

    Id entification of In situ and Remote Sensing Data

    Requiremen ts
    If a hypot hesis is formul ated using inductiv c and'or dedu ctivc logic. ;1 list of variables or observ ances are ide nnfled
    that will be used du ring the invest igat ion. In si tu ob wrv urion
    and'cr remote scnsinl; may be used to collect infor mat ion on
    the most important var iables.

    I,
    ,t

    Sc ientists usi ng remote sensing tec hno logy shou ld be well


    tra ined in fiel d an d laboratofv data-cotlecuon proced ures.
    For example. if a sc ientist wa nts 10 ma p the surface te mperat ure of a lake. it is usually nece ssary to collect som e accurate em pi rica l in .rimlake-temperature measu rements at the
    same lime the remote sens or data a re co llected. The i,! situ
    ob se rvations may be used 10 1) calib rate the remote sens or
    da ta, and/or 2 ) perfo rm an unbiased accuracy assessment o f
    the tin al resu lts t Cong alton and Green. 1(98). Remote sensing tex tbook s provide some information on field and labo ratory sampli ng tec hniq ues . The in ,~ ittl sa mpli ng procedures.
    however. are learned bcsr through formal COUfS<,.OS in the sciences (e.g. che mistry. bio logy. forestry. soils, hydro logy.
    meteo ro logy). It is a lso importa nt to know how to collect
    accu rately socioeconomic and demog raphic information in
    urban environments base d on tra ining in hu man gc og mphy,
    soc iology, etc.
    Mos t in suu data are no w co llected in conjunction wuh gtobal posi tioni ng sys tem /G I'S} .T, .l: dat a I Jensen and Cowen.
    1999 ). Sc ientists should know how to collect the G PS data at
    eac h in .~ ifu data-coll ectio n station and how to perform d ifferent ial correct ion til obt a in acc urate .r. y.
    coordinates
    ( Rizos. 20(1),

    C u llate ra l nala Requirements


    Many t imes collateral data t otten ca lled ancillary data),
    such as dig ual elevation models. soil maps. geology maps.
    poli tical bounda ry fi les, and block population stat istics. are
    o f value in the remote se nsing proce ss. Ideal ly. the spatial
    colla teral data reside in a G IS t C lar le-, 2(0 1).
    Remote Sl' nsinl: natll Requirements

    ,l

    O nce we ha ve a list o f variables. it is usefu l to determin e


    w hich ofthem can be remotel y se nsed Remo te se nsing can
    provid e informa tion on two differen t classes o f vari ables :
    biop"-n"iculand hybri<l.

    II

    Rillph)',ica l Variables: So me biophysi.:al \ a riables .:an be


    mcasur.:d d irectly by a rem ote se nsing sys lem. Th is mo::an s

    "

    Rem o te Sensing o f the Enviro nment

    thatthe remotely sensed dat a ca n prov ide fundame ntal bio logical an d/or p hysical (hi(/phr_~ ic(lIJ informa tio n directly.
    ge nerally wit hou t having to use ot her surroga te or anc illary
    data, Fo r example, a thermal infrared rem ote sensing system
    can reco rd the apparent tempera ture of a roc k OUICHlP by
    measuring the radia nt l'ne rgy exiting its surface. Simi larly. il
    is possib le to co nd uct remote sensing in a very specific
    reg io n o f the spec tru m and ide ntify the a moun t o f water
    vapor in lhe atmosphere . It is a lso possib le 10 mC:dSlITC soil
    moisture co ntent d irectly using micrnwave remote sensing
    techniques (E ngma n. 2(00 ). NASA's Mod erate Resolutio n
    Imag ing Spectrometer ( \ lO DIS) can be used to measure
    absorbed phc tosymh cticall y active radia tion (A PA R) and
    lea f area index ( LA I). T he precise .r .1' locatio n. and heigh t
    (:) of an obj ec t can be e xtrac ted d irectly from stere oscopic
    ae rial photogra phy. overlapping satellite ima gery te.g.,
    S POT ), ligh t detect ion a nd ranging (L! DA R) data , or interIcromc tric synthd ic aperture radar (I rS A R) imagery,

    Tabl e 1-2 is a list o f selected biophysical varia bles that ca n


    be remotely M:IISl-d and usefu l se nsors to acq uire the data.
    Characteristics of many of these re mot e sens ing systems are
    discussed in Ch apte rs 4, 7,~, and 9. Great stri des hale bee n
    made in remotely sens ing many of these biophysical verinblcs. They nrc important 10 the natio na l and imcmanonal
    effort under way 10 modelthe glo bal en vironment (Je nsen et
    nl.. 2002; Asra r. 2004 1.
    H) hrid ' -a ri ah lt...: The second general group of variables
    thai can be remotely sen sed inc lude hrl>riJ variables. created
    by sys tematica lly analy zing more than one biophysical veriable. For exa mple. by remotely se nsing a plant's ch lorop hyll
    absorption charactens rics. temperat ure. and mois ture co ntent. it might be possib le 10 model these dat a to detec t vegcunion stress. a hybrid var iable . The var iety of hyb rid
    var iables is large; conseque ntly. no uuc mpt is mad e to ide ntify the m. It is imponant to point o ut. ho we ver. that nomi na lscale land usc and la nd cover are hybrid vari ables. For
    e xample. the lan d cover ofa pa rticular area o n an image may
    be de rived hy evaluaun g several of the funda mental biophysica l variables at one time [e.g.. objec t location (.t .1').
    height (: ). lone a nd/o r col or, biomass. and pe rhap s temperaturc ]. So milch atte ntion ha s been placed on rernorcly sensing. this hyb rid I/ol/linill sca lc var iab le that the interval- o r
    mtio-sea lcd biophysical variable s we re largely neglec ted
    until the m id- I9XOs. Nomi nal-sca le land -use and land-cover
    mappi ng arc impo rta nt capabilities o f remo te sensing technology an d shou ld not he minimized, Many social and physica l sc ientis ts routinely use such data in thei r n:searl'h.
    Uowevc r. Iherl' is no"" a dramatic increase in the ex tra.:tion
    of inh:rval and ratio-sc<llcd h iophysica l data that are incor-

    2 __
    .J~IIIiIiiIIIiiI

    J'

    ,, ,
    "

    ~J

    The Remot e Sensi ng Process

    J io-

    Table 1-2.

    11

    I,

    :~

    Sd~c1C<J

    biu physic ai and hybrid varia bles and potentia l remote sen sing systems used to ob tain the intonuution.

    hlv,
    Biop hysical Variables

    'lory
    aem
    \ by

    "Ii\'

    -1{ '

    it

    .t,y.: Gl'od l" il' Co nt ro l


    .t.y L" clIlion fn Jlll O r thuc orrcctcd

    ~
    I I1);l gl'r~'

    .::).tcr
    lSOil

    y lion
    "
    lure
    i :a mJ

    , fr:[lt
    ,

    pic

    .g..
    I!L'r-

    ]C,m
    lata,

    I arc
    I<:CfI

    j,n.

    ,bnat

    Resolution Imaging Spectrometer). U DAl{. Canadian RA[)ARSAT I and 2


    ~ Tnl'''l: n ll' hylHll l h~ 111\'1Q '
    Uigilill Elevauun Mudel () E~ l )

    Digital n "thymdrie Mu,JeI ( DUM,

    <I

    and b)

    Canopy struc ture and height


    - Biomass derived from ve getation mdiccs
    - Leaf area index (LAn
    Atsorbed photosynthetically active radiation
    - Evapotranspirution

    ,-. ari -

    .. hvll
    ..

    - Culm aerial photography. La ndsat ETM '. IKONOS, Quick uird. Orbview-J.
    Orhimage Sea WifS. Advanced Spncebornc Thermal Em ission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER ). Mm.kr:ttc Resolution Imaging Spectrometer
    ( MOJ)IS ). ENVISAT, airborne hypcrspcctral tc.g., AVIRIS. HyMa p. CASI)
    - Sterecsccpic aeria l photo graphy, U DAR , H.A.J)j\RSAT, IFSAR
    - Color-infrared (C IR) aeri al photography, Landsat (TM. ET1\t "l, IKONOS.
    QllickBi rd. DrhView-J. Advanced Very High Resofunon Radio meter
    (A\" I mR l. Multianglc hll,lgin g Spcctroradiomctcr ( MISR I. airborne hyperspec tral systems ( e.g., AVIR IS. Hyl\l ap. CASI)
    - ASTER., AVlI RR. GO ES. Hypcriun, M ISR. 1'....1 0DlS. So.:;J\\/iFS. airborn e
    thermal in fr are d

    '~

    - (iI'S. ster eoscopic aerial photog raphy . LI DAR. 5 1'O T. RAOARSAT.


    IKONOS. Qu icl..Bird. Orbvicw.j , Shuttle Radar Topograp hy M ission
    (SRTM). Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar i IFSAR I
    - SONA R. bathy met ric UDAR. stereosc opic aeria l photograph y

    Vtl:elalio ll

    Pigments (c.g., chlorophyll

    ~:11 et

    .: hlcs
    J led

    Glohal Positioning Systems (GPS)

    - Analog and dig ital stereosco pic aerial photography, Space Imag ing

    IKONOS. ()i g ila I G l(~be QuickHird. Orbimage Orbvie w-J . French SPOT
    IIRV, Landsat (Thematic Mapper. Enhanced TM'). Indian IRS-lCD. Lurepcan ERS-I ;md 2. microwave and ENVISAT M ERI S. MO DIS ( Moderate

    ",.ific

    _~"riog

    Potenti al Remote Sens ing Systems

    SOli and R lIck \

    Mcisiure

    Mineral composition

    - Iaxonomy

    - ASTER. pa ssiv e microwave (SS M/ I). RAI1ARSAT. MISR , ALMAZ, land-

    sat (T M, f.T ~I+J, F.RS- l and 2. lntcrmap Star v


    ASTEH . MOD IS. hypcrspccual system s t e.g. AVI RIS, Hylvlap. CAS I)
    - High-resolution co lor and ("IR ae rial pbrnography, IIi room", hypc rspcctra l
    systems (c.g . AVIRIS. I lyMap. CASI)

    - Hydrothermal alteration

    Lan dsat (TM. EPvl '). ASTER. MODIS. uirhoruc hypcrs pcctrul (e.g .,
    AVIR IS. Hyx tap . CASI)

    Surfucc R " u~ llI1l's S

    - Aeria l photography. A LMAZ. ERS -I a nd 2. RADARS AT. Intcrmup Sta r Ji .


    IKON OS. Quick furd , AST F I{. EI\ VISAT ASAR

    Atll1o'llhe rc
    Aerosols (c.g . optical dcptb}
    - Clouds le.g.. fraction. optic al thickness )

    Precipitation
    Walcr \apor (p recipitab le wate r]

    -Dzune

    - M ISR. GOES , AVIIRR, I'I-IOOIS, CER ES , MO rl TI. MER IS


    - GOES. AVHR R. MODIS. MIS R, CER ES, l'I- l0P ITT. LJARS. M ER IS
    Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission (TRM f..1). GOES , AVHRR. SS~-IIl ,
    MERIS
    GO ES. MODIS .1'I-1ERIS
    - MO DIS

    \\ mer
    Color
    Surface hydrology
    Suspended minerals
    I'hlorcphyll/gclbsro ffc
    lhssolved organic man er

    - O d o r and (' IR aeria l photography, Landsat (T M , ETi'l--n . SPOT. IKONOS,


    Quic kfsh-d, Or bvicw-J . AS TER . S," WiFS. MODIS. air born e hypcrspc cuu l
    sy stems (c.g .. tW IRlS, I lyM;lp, CAS ll . ..W IIR It ( iOES, bathymetric
    UD,<\K. f..l ISR . (E KES. I f ypcrlon, TO PEX, P( lS EI[) ll ]\;. M ER IS

    ----~

    CfI.\P'TrR

    12

    --'''-"---''- -

    Remote sensin g of the En vironment

    Table 1-2 .

    B iophysical Variables

    Potent ial Remote sen sing Sys te ms

    Snnw lind Su Ice


    - Extent and characteristics

    Color and CIR aerial photography, AVI IRR, GOES, Landsat (TM, ETM "),
    SI'OT, Sea WiFS, IKON OS, Uuickbi rd. ASTER, MODI S, M ERIS, ERSI
    and 2, RADA RSAT

    ,"o ll-lInie Eff.'ch

    ASTE R, \1 ISR. Hyperion, .\;ID Ol S. airborne hypcrspcctral systems

    < Tem peratu re. gases

    KR Il F (bidirectional reflec tance

    ,i
    I
    I

    di~"1ri lxition

    function)

    ,, ~ Il S R,

    .\ IOOlS, C ERES
    Potenti al Remote sensing Sy stem s

    selected Hy brid Variables

    l. and u se
    - Commercial. residcnnal, transportation. etc.
    - Cada~tra l (property]

    - Tax mapping
    l.and Con"r
    A gric ulture, forest, urban. etc,

    " very high spati al resolution panchromatic, color and for CIR stereoscopic
    aerial photography, high spatialresoluuon satellite imagery 1 x I m :
    IKOl'\O S, QuickDird. Orb\,j..,w- J ), SrOT ( 2.5 ml , U DA R. high spatial r~'S{I
    lution hyperspeciral systems (e.g.. AV IRIS, HyMap. CASI}

    " Color and elR aerial photography, Landsat (MSS. TM, ETM ' ), S r OT,
    A ST ER. AVHRR , RA DARSAr"I KO:"lOS, (juid..Hird, Omvicw-j, U DA R,
    IFSAR. Sea WiFS , MOOl S, M ISR, MERIS. hypcrspcctral systems (e.g ..
    AVIR IS, HyMap, CAS I)

    \ 't'!:t'lllti" n

    - slrC"iS

    Color and ClR aerial pholography.lands.al (l ~l. ETM 'I, IKO ?"OS , QuickBird. OrbYk'w-), AVIIRR, S<:aWiFS. M ISR, aoms. ASTER, \ f ERIS. airboml." hyperspectral systems (l.".8". AVI RIS, lI y r.bp . CAS!)

    porated into qua ntitati ve models that can accept spatially


    dis tributed inforrna uon.

    matri x (raste r) of brighIness valu es obtai ned using a sca nner


    line ar array, o r area array] . A se lected list o f so me o f rh.
    mo st import ant remote senliing system s is presented in Tabl.

    Remote Sensing Data Collection

    1-3.

    Remo te ly se nse d data arc co llected using passive (I I' active


    remote sensing systems, Pw .\'irt' se nsors reco rd electromagnetic radia tio n that is reflec ted or cmiued from the terrain
    (Shippen. ::!Ot)4 1. For exa mple, cameras an d video recorders
    can be used 10 record visible and nea r-infra red energy
    reflected from the terra in. A mulnspectral scanner can be
    used 10 record the amount of the rmal radiant flu x ex iting the
    terrain . Actin' sensors such a s mic ro .....a ve (RAD..\ R J,
    L1DA R. o r SONA R bat he the terrain in machine-made electrom agn etic energy a nd then record the amo unt of rad iant
    flu x scattered back towa rd the senso r system.

    Remote se nsing sys tems collect analog (e .g.. hard-copy


    ae rial photography or video datu ) and /or di gita l duta [e .g.. a

    The amount o f electroma gnetic radiance. L (wans Illl s(l


    wat ts per me ter squared per sterad ian ). rec orded wi th in thl
    IF O V o f an op tical remote se nsi ng sys tem (e .g.. a pic nm
    demen t in a dig ita l ima ge ). iii a func tio n o f:
    L - f ( A,. :o; . ,-, ~" . o . p. n ,

    ( I-J

    where

    A - wa vele ngth (s pect ral respo nse meas ured in vericur


    bands o r at speci fic freq uen cies ). Wave leng th (}.) a nd fre.
    qucncy (\J ) may be used interch angea bly based ron thei r rclnnon shlp with the speed o r light (I") where c = }. x \J .
    J" p -

    .r. .1', :: locat ion of the pixe l lind its s ize {r, y):

    R 5
    The Remote Sensing Process

    13

    Selected remote sensing systems and their characteristics.

    Table 13.

    Resolution

    Spectral
    Middl eNear -

    Remote Sensing Systems

    Blue

    Psnchromattc tilm (black & white)

    i,

    ~ir-

    ~
    f e';

    } the
    ~t.lrc
    ,

    1,,)

    1jous

    !frc1~1a-

    Spatial

    Temporal

    Iml

    (d ay s)

    Varia ble

    0.4 - - - - - 0.7 nm

    Variable

    Variable

    CASt- 1500

    o.v 11m

    0.5

    Variable

    Variable

    0.25 - ;;

    v ariable

    var iable

    variable

    2.5 or 20

    Variable

    Variable

    Variable

    1100

    14 ,5hla y

    11 00

    14.5/d "y

    79

    16 -I X

    30 and 120

    16

    30 an d 00

    1(,

    15

    l(i

    20
    10

    Pointablc
    Point ahle

    71~

    0 .5/h r

    Digital Frame Cameras (CC O)

    11.40

    AVI R1S " irhome Vi sible I" fwr cd l11lil!.tin!Z Sl'c,;tr"m clcr OAO-

    2:h,mds -

    -1.0pm

    -224 001\.1$ -

    - - -2.5 u m

    lntcrmap Slar -.'!! X vband rada r

    satellite Sensors
    !'iOAA'! :W l l1m LAC

    NOAA- K. L. M

    Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS)

    Landsat ~ .1I1d 5 The matic Mappers (T M)

    Landsat 7 Enh anced 1M (ET M' ) - M U lt l S ~ClrJJ


    - Pauchnuuutic

    SPOT -tI!RV -

    0.51 -

    Multispectral

    I
    0 ') Ilm

    Panch romat ic

    0.5 1

    0.7.'1 IlI1l

    0.52

    0.72 urn

    Eu ropean Remote Sensing Satellite (fRS 1 and 2)

    VV polarization C- bam1 (5.3 Gi ll.)

    26 - 2R

    Canadian RA I1ARSAT (several modes!

    1111 polarization C vband (5 .3 Gi lL)

    9 -100

    1 -6days

    30

    Variable

    Shuuk Imaging Radar ( SIR -C )

    Sea-Viewing Wide f ield-of-View Sensor \SlaWiFS)


    MODIS _ Muderare Re."" luti" n Imaging.Speerro"'eler

    .3

    1130

    lJ.405 - - - - 3t, bands - - - _ 1 4. 3~5

    (l.SZ-

    ASTFR - Advanced Spaccbomc Therma l Emission


    and Rcl1edinn Radiometer

    MISR - Mu llian glc Ima g ing Spcctrokadiomc tcr

    p.m

    250. 500.
    WOO

    .3 hands - (l.Xf> urn

    1- 2

    6 bands -

    204 3 urn

    "
    30

    X.12 - .5 bands -

    11,1'111

    \)0

    16
    16

    275 an d

    1 -2

    I .h -

    wave

    Variable

    GOES Series (East and West}

    Infrared

    OJ - - -O. 1fl rn

    Color-infrared film

    (SWIRl

    Suborbita l Senso rs

    Color film

    R.d lntrared

    Green

    inlrared Thermal Mi cro-

    Nine CC D cameras in four hands (440 . 55n, C>7n, !o:(,O om )

    11 00
    NASA Topex/Poseidon - ,["Ol 'E X radar altimete r
    - POSEIDON single-frequency radiometer

    (lX. 21 . 37 GflJ:)
    (l J .6.5 GHz)

    Space Imaging IKON 0 5 - M uhispcctrul


    - Pan ch romatic

    OA5 - - - - - - O,l/

    Digital [i]oh<: QuiekR ird - :\1ult ispeC1l<l1


    Panchromatic

    0.45

    J I5,orK)

    10

    Pointublc

    urn

    0.9 um

    2.4.:10.6 1

    Point abtc

    O I.\ P"I I::R

    14

    t temporal inform ation. l.c.. whe n. how long. and how


    often the data" ere acquired;

    o". set of angles

    thm descr ibe l h~' geometric relationships


    between the radiation source (c.g.. thc Sumthe terra in target
    of illt,;orcslle.g. a corn tield). and the remote sens ing sy stem :

    P = polarization of back-scaucrcd

    CIll.Tg)

    Remote sensing of the Environme nt

    tor co mparmive purposes (Figure 1-63. c. and d). The ea


    era 's bandwidths were refined 10 record info rmat ion in me
    spec ific regions of' tbe spectrum (hand I = 45U - 515 n
    band 2 = 525 n05 nm: band 3 .. 64 0 - 690 nm: and barn
    "'" 750 - IJOO nm I. T here are gaps between the spectral sen
    ti\ itie s orthc detectors. Note that this digital camera sy st(
    is a lso sensi tive to reflec ted billc wavelength cncrgy.

    recorded by the

    sensor: and
    12 '" radiometric rcsohnion (p recision) a! which the data
    (c.g.. re flec ted, emiued. or back-scattered radia tio n ) arc
    record...d by the remote sensing sys tem .
    It is useful to bridly re vic-w cha racte nstics of the parameters
    associa ted .... ith Equatio n I- I :md ho w they influenc e the
    natu re of the re mote sensing data collected.

    Spl'Cl ra l l nfnr m a tio ll nn d Rl'Mllu lin li

    \.Ios l remote sensing invesuganons are based on developing:


    a dctcrmmisric rela tionship (i.e.. a model) bctw c...n the
    amount of electro magnetic energy re fl ected. e mitted. or
    hack-scuncrcd in specific hands or frequencies and the
    chemical. biological, and physical characterisucs o f the phcnomcna under invesugarion t e.g.. a com field canopy). Specfr"f rvsotut iU/I is the number and d imens inn t s il.e) ofspeci tic
    wavelength inte rvals (referre d to as bands or dl<lll/lel.~) in
    the electrcmagncnc spectrum to which a remote sensing
    instrument is scns ui ve.
    M ll ll i.\fH..'Cfm l remote: s....nsi ng systems reco rd ene rgy in rnultiplc bands of the elec tromagnetic spectrum. Fo r example. in
    the IQ7& and early 19~Os. the Landsat ...Iultis pcctral Scanne rs ( MSS) recorded remotely scns ed data o f muc h of the
    Earth tha t is still of sign ifica nt value for change derecrion
    stud ies. The bandw idths o f the four MSS ha nds arc d isplayed in Figure l-oa (band I = 500 - flOO nm; band 2 = bOO
    - 7(lO nm; ba nd J = 700 - 10100 nm; and band 4 = 10100 - 1. 1(ll)
    nm ). Th. nomin<11 si/e ofa band may hi.' larg... (i...... eoars... ).
    as with th... Landsatl\lSS near-infrared hand -I (lIOU - 1.100
    nm) or relat i\ely ~mal1er (i.e.. finer). as wilh th.' Land~al
    "'ISS ~a n d 3 p on - lIUI) nm ). T hus. I.;llld$at MSS band 4
    detector s rl"t:o rd ed :I rd atiwly la rge range o f rdkcted nearinfran.-d radiant l1u.\ (300 nm w ide t \\ hiJc Ihe \-lSS band J
    delectors recorded a much reduced range o f near-infrarcd
    radian t 110.\ (l Oll 11m w idl:),

    The lo ur multispectral bandwidths ao;;.sociated \\ ith the Pos iti\ e Sys tems A DA R 5500 d igila l frame camera a rc shol>. n

    The aforementioned terminology is I)'pically usaf


    describe a sensor"s IlOlI/in,,1 spectral resolution, Howcv cr.
    is d il1icuh to cr eate a de tector tbut h;l.s extremely sha rp han
    pass bound er!c s such as those shown in Fig ure l-oa. Rathe
    th... more precise me thod o f slaling band w itlth is to loo k
    the I) pica l Gaussian shape o f the detecto r sensitivity, such;
    the example show n in Figure 1-6b, T he analys t the n derc
    mines the f ull Width at Hnlf Maxi mum (F W Il ~ I). In th
    hypothctical example. the Landsat \-lSS ncar-infrared ba r.
    3 under invcsngauon iJ> s...nsi tivc to energy between 700 an
    !lOll nm.
    A hvperspectral remote sens ing instrument Iypieall
    acquires data in hund reds of spectral band s (Goet z. 200 2
    For exam ple. the Ai rborne Visible and Infrared lr nag in
    Spectrometer (AVIRISj has 22-1 bands in rh.. region fro l11 -10
    to 25U() nm spac ed just 10 nm apart based on the FWII\l cri
    tcria (Cl ark. 1999; NASA . 2006 1. An AVIRIS hypcrspecrra
    datacubc of a portion of t ill' Savannah River Site ncar A iken
    SC . is sho wn in Figu re 1-7. Ultraspectral rcmorc sen.\.ll1!
    involves data collection in many hundreds of ba nds.
    Certa in regi\lI1s or spectral band s of the ctc ctrom agncti.
    spec trum arc op timal for ob taini ng information on bio phys i.
    ca l parameters . The hands are normall y selectcd 10 I11ni
    mize the contra-a between the object o f interest and in
    bac kg round (i. c.. object-to-background cont rast), Card-Ill
    selec tion ofthe spectral ba nds m igh t improve th.. probability
    that th.. desired information will he extracted from the
    remo te senso r data.
    S pa lia l ln fo rrnat ion a nd H,esiliution
    ~loo;;.t remote sen sing sludi.s reCllrd the spa tial attributes o f
    ubj<:ets on tht: t<:frai n. For e'amp l.... each silver halid ... crystal
    in an ana log ae rial photograph and t:ach picture d c ml:11\ in a
    digi tal remote sensor image is loc ated at a spl'(;ifie loca tion
    in the image and ass l>cial('(J w ith specific x.X C()('lrdinal.-s on
    the gro und. Once recti Jied to a sla ndard map pfojl'l'tion. the
    sp;tlia l in lormalio n assoc ia ted with eac h s ilver ha lide erYlilal
    or pixel is of significa nt value because II allows the remOle
    sen sing-tleriv.-d infonnatioll to be u ~ed .... ith other sp alial

    ,..1
    I.

    ,,
    \

    The Remote Sens ing Process

    '5

    , j

    camnorc
    J nm:
    'nJ ~
    I,.-~ ns i

    Sl' lt:lr al Resulution


    100%

    infrared

    .,.

    ~ .,;

    --\J In
    J1"-"

    1).4

    0.5

    06

    I'o~iti ' e

    'Iand,

    nher,
    I ok at
    ~ has

    FWH .\I

    50%

    band -I
    1.1

    0.7 n,R 0.9 1.0


    ....ptclln ,\ 1),\ 1{ 5500

    0,6

    OM

    [cter-

    0.8

    0.7
    0.75 0 8
    W3\c! cnglhlm l

    O,l(~

    (1.7 - O X11m
    70n - soo 11111
    IOU 11m [",,,,[width

    0.'1

    11. PrcclW hand,,:.ss mCaS" !CllK111 o f a d~'\cdor h" , cl!


    011f ull Width al l lalf ...lax;IllUltl ! FWIl'v1 J ,-Tileri a ,

    ,rand

    ~,"d

    ~
    ~

    NIR

    , I this

    Maximum ink ll, i,y

    Near-

    '~f"lc m

    ...-

    0.9 1.0

    1.1

    Wavele~ b'1h.lJm

    ". ",ominal , !"" tra l r~,() I Uli"n

    "r the Landsat

    'v!u lll'l'C(l ral Scanner and Positive System,

    tally

    blue hand
    (45U- 5 15 nm)

    AnAl< 55(xl o.l i~i la) frame , "mem,

    pO"

    19m9

    1-100
    otI en-

    ~iclril l

    ~k,"-

    1llSlng.

    1I ~ 1 i<.:

    ~Ys i

    haxi--tl its
    (dill
    bility
    ) the

    Flflure 1-6

    ,
    ~,(l f

    ~slal

    a) The spec tral bandwidths of the four Landsat Multispectral St anner i ~l SS} hands (green . red o and IWOnear-infrared] comparcd wilb the bandwidths o r an ADAR 5500 digital frame camera. b) The true spe ct ral bandw idth is the width uf the Gaussian-s haped spectra l profil e at Full Widt h at HiLII' Maximum (FWHM ) intensity (Cla rk, 199 '1). This cxr ur mle has a spec tral
    bandwidth 0( 0.1 um {I00 nm) between 700 and llOO run. e) If desired, it i, possible to colle ct reflected energy in a single hand
    of the elcctrcrnago ctic spec trum (e .g ., 7.'i{J - 'l00 nm l. Thi, is a I x 1 It spatial resolutio n ADAI{ 5500 nca r-in frared im:lgl', d )
    Multispectral sensors wlleet data in mulnplc bands o f the spect rum (images courtesy \1 1' 1'<.lsitin: Sy ste ms. l nc.).

    -, in a
    Irion

    data in a GIS
    al., ~002 ).

    l~

    There i, a genera l relationship between the sile of an obj ect


    or area to be identifi ed and the spatial resolutio n of the
    remote sensing system. Spal ial resolution is a measure ctthc

    ~son

    the

    ;'~Sl<ll
    r ote
    llalial

    Of

    spatial decision support system {Jensen 1.'1

    smallest angular or linear separation between IWO objects

    thai can he reso lved by the remote sens ing system. The spatial resolution of aeria l photograph y muy be measu red by I )
    placing calib rated . parallel black and whit", l i lK'~ on tarps
    thai are placed in the fie ld, 2 ) obtaining aeri al photograp hy
    ofthe study area. and 3 ) co mput ing the number of rcsolvable
    lim' pairs prr millimeter in the photography, It is a lso possible to determine the spatial reso lut ion of ima gery by corn -

    _._

    ....

    ,.

    C II .-\PT F.R

    Rem ote sensing of the Environment

    spatial resolution as be ing HI x 10 m or 30 x 30 rn. Fo


    exa mple, Dig italG lobe' s Quid.:B ird has a nominal spatia
    reso h nion o f 01 x 6 1 em for irs panchromatic hand aI1112.4:
    x 2 .-1'" rn for the lo ur mult ispec tral ban ds . The Landsat :
    Enhanced T hematic Mappe r Plus (ET M ' ) has a nom ina
    spatial resolution (,I' 15 x 15 m for its punc hrum atic band am
    ]0 x 30 111 for xi.' o f its mult ispec tra l bands. Generally, th,
    sma ller the no min al spatial resol ution . the gr eater the spatia
    resolving powe r of the remote se ns ing system.

    .\ ir ho r nc ' hilll\' Infrared hna:.:in:.:


    Spectrum eter (.-\\'I R IS) J)al ill'uhe or th e
    S:l\3 I1 na h Rb er Sile: ncar ,\ ikclI. SC

    Figure I-X de p icts d ig ita l came ra imagery of an area 11


    Mec hanicsville. :\ .Y.. at reso nmons ran ging fm m 0,5)( 0.:
    m to 80)( 80 m . Note that there is no t a significant uilTerene.
    in the mterprctabilit y o f 0,5 x 0.5 m da ta. I x 1 m data . <l1lI
    even 2 x 2 m data . Ho w ever. the urban into rmanon conrcn
    decreases rap id ly w hen using 5 x 5 m imagery and is pracn
    rally useless lor urba n ana lysis at spatia l resoluuons la l)!:O:
    than 10 x 10 m. This is the reuson hi..torica l Landsat .\ I S~
    data (7 9 x 79 m ) are of little value for most urban upplica
    linn.. (Jensen and Co wen . l 'l ')'); Jensen ct :1 1., 20( 2 ).

    400 nm
    Near-infrared 11l1a~~' lin top " r the dma l'ubc
    is just olle of ~ 24 Ilands at 1f) 11 m n"mi nJ I
    band.... Idlh acquncd on July 20. 1m.

    Figure ' -7

    II) pcrspecual imagery of an area on the '\ilvannah


    River Sill.". SC oteamed t>y ,\:\SA's Airborne Vi~i
    blc/lnfrarcd Imaging Spectrometer (A\' IRIS). The

    nommalspatial ~ luaon is 3.4 x 3..4 m. The atmospllcre absorbs

    IllOI

    of the etecrromagncuc <.'1lcrgy

    '''''<IT 1,400 and 1.'X)O 11m. causing the dark bandc in


    the hypcrspcc tral datacubc.

    pUling its modulat ion tran s fe r func tion . whi ch is beyond the
    SCOpe of rlus Ie vt (Joseph. 20 (0).
    Man y satellite remote se nsi ng systems use opt ics that have a
    constant insta nta neous-field-of- view (lFO\') ( Fig ure 1-21.
    T herefore. a sensor system's 1/"'"in,,1 spatial resolution is
    define d ac the dimension in meters (or ft:l1 o f Ihe groundprojected IFO\' where Ihe diameter of the circle IV I on the
    ground is a functio n of the instamaneous-field-of-vicw IIl I
    times the alti tude (H I of the senso r abo ve ground level
    IAG I.HFigure 1-2 1:
    IJ

    !i x /{ .

    ( [ -2)

    "
    Pixe ls nrc normally represented o n co m puter sc reens and in
    hard -copy ima ges as rect an gles with length a nd v.idth .
    Th erdlJre . we typ ically descr ihe J. SCI1SI,r system ' s nom in;J 1

    ,\ useful heur istic rule o f thumb is that in order to detect ;


    fe atu re , the nomina l sp at ial resolutio n of the remote sltlsin,
    sys tem should be less than one-half the size of the fcat un
    measu red in its smalles t d imen sio n. For exa mple. ifwe wan
    10 identi fy the loca tion o f a ll m aple trees in a park. the mini
    mu m accepta ble spatial rcso hmon would be a pprcxima tef
    one-half the diamcncr o f the smallest map le In-c's em....n
    E'en this spanat rcso juno n. ho wever. w ill not guarantee sue
    cess if there is no differe nce bcrw ....... n the spectral response 0
    the maple tree (the object! and the soil or grass surreundim
    it [i.e. its bac kgro und).
    So me se nso r sys tems. suc h as LIDAR. do nOI complctef
    "map" the terrain surface. Rather, the surface is "s ampled
    u..ing la..cr pu lse s S":1It from the airc ratl at some no mina
    time interv al ( Raber et nl., 2002 ). T he grou nd-project..-d lase
    pulse may be ve ry sm all te.g .. 10 - 15 ern in diam eter ] witl
    sa mples located app rox imatel y e\el') 1 10 6 m on the ground
    Spatial resolution wou ld app rop riately de scribe the g round
    projec ted laser pulse te.g.. 15 ern I hutfllmplinJ! tI.'n~i~l I r.e.
    nu mber o f poin ts per unit a rea ) describes the fr eq uency o
    grou nd observations ( Hodgson et al. 2005I.
    Because .... e ha ve spatial informatio n abo ut the location 0
    each pix el (.1'.1'1 in the image matrix . it is also pos sible t,
    e xami ne the spatial relat io nship be tween a pixel and it
    neighbors. Therefo re, the amount o f spec tral autoc c rrclutior
    an d oth er spati al geosratistic a l measuremen ts can he dete r
    m ined bused nil the spatial informatio n inhe rent inth e illlilg
    cry (Wa b h l'l a1.. 1999 ; Jm scn, 2(05 ).

    - - --,.-, -

    The Remot e sens ing Pro cess

    ~or

    17

    S pa tia l Rcsolurfun

    !!fial

    IJ-....
    " 7

    \""

    ,"d

    ';! the

    ial

    ~ I in

    U.S

    t rc~
    ) IHHJ

    tent

    rcur pcr

    SS

    mg

    SJ'kllial Resolut ,,,,,

    o<e

    enlargc.J \.iI.....

    '"

    urn-

    tely

    In'lanlan<........'
    fiddor' l~

    " n.

    In 20

    c't:lcly
    Ied"
    inal
    user
    with
    nd.
    ndie.,
    of

    of

    Figure 1-8

    i~

    Io:termag-

    Imagery o r rcs idcntial housing nca r Mechanicsville. N,Y. obtained on June I. I 'N~ . at a nmmna l spati al resolution of 0.3 X
    0.3 lI1 (uppruxunatcly I x I JI) \Ising a d igital came ra (cUlll1ny o r Litten Emerge. Illc .l. l 1H: original data we re rcsamplcd 10
    derive the imagery with the simulated spat ial res olutions shown.

    Iempnr al l nfurm a tinn and Re..olulio n

    One of the valuable things about remot e sens ing science is


    IMl it ~lhta i ns a record of Earth land sca pes at a uniq ue
    moment in time. Multiple record s of the same la ndscape
    obtained through time can be used In identify processes a t
    work and to make predictions.

    e to
    Ilion

    ~o

    ~ lemporol resotunon of a remote sensing system g..nerally refers to ho" often the sensor records imagery of a parncular area. The temporal reso lution of the sensor system
    shown in Figure J-9 is every It< days. tdea tty. the sensor
    couins data repetitively to capture uniq ue discriminating
    charactcrisucs of the object under inn .'Slig<ltiun (Haack cr

    al.. I'N7 l. For example. agric uhu ra l crops have unique phenological cycles in each geog raphic region [disc ussed in
    Chapter I I I. To measure cpcc lfic agnc unura ! ..aria bles. it is
    nc'Ces:-a1) t,1acq uire remotely s..-nscd da ta at critica l dates in
    the phenological cycle (Johan nsen ct al.. 2003). Analysis of
    multiple..d ale image ry pro..-ides info rmation on how the ..ari al:01c:~ are changi ng through time. Change informa tion providcs ins ight into processes inllue ncing the development of
    the crop [Jensen et al.. 2(02). Fortunately. several satell ite
    sensor sysllms such as S POT. IKO:-':OS. lmageS at and
    QuickBird arc poinrablc . meaning that they can acq uire
    imagel')' off- nadir. Xadir is the point directly belo w the
    spacecraft. Th is dramatically increas es the probability that
    i m ~ l:1"' 1) will be obtained d uring a gro wing seaso n or d uring

    j
    "

    -,

    ;;

    ;; 1 \ 1'"1 ER

    18

    ",

    'Ic mpo rat Rcsolutton

    r
    ,"

    Remote Sensor Data Acqu isition


    June 17.

    Jul y J.

    2006

    2006

    2006

    1 1 1

    -,
    ,

    June I.

    Figure 1-9

    days

    '6

    Tho: tempo ral resolu tion ofa remote ,;cll~in~ s)s!cm


    refers 10 how often it records imagel')' of a particular
    area. This example depicts t he systematic coltecuon
    of data evC1)I 16 days. presumably at approximately
    the same" tune of day. Lan dsat Thematic Mappers 4

    and S had le-day revisit cycles.

    an emergen cy, How eve r, o ff-nadir oblique vie wing also


    introd uces bid irectiona l refl ectance d istr ibutio n function
    (BRUF) issu es. discussed in the ne xt section.

    ,
    ,
    I

    Ther e arc often tradc-o ffs associated wuh the var iou s resolutio ns that must he made when collecting remot e sensi ng.data
    ( Figure 1 10; Color Plate I-I). Ge nerally, the hig he r the tempor al resol ution requirement (c.g.. monito ring hurricanes
    e very half-hour). the low er the spatial reso lut ion requ ire.
    ment te.g., the NOAA GO ES weather sa te llite recor ds
    imag es w ith 4 x 4 10 8 x 8 lm pixel s ). Conversely, the hig her
    the spatial resol ution requi rement (e.g., monitoring urban
    land-usc with I x I m da ta l. tilt: lower the temporal reso lution requirement (c.g. ev ery I to 10 j ears}, For example.
    Figure 1 11 documents signi lka nt res idential and cornmcrct at land- usc dcvc lcprucm for an area ncar Arlama. GA .
    u, ing h igh spa tial reso lutio n ( I x I m) ac ria l phot ograph)'
    obtained in I'NJ and IlJ99 . So me applica tio n, such ' IS crop
    type or yiel d es tim at ion m ight requ ire rel at ively high temporal re solut ion data (e.g. mult iple images obtaine d du ring a
    growing season) and moderate spa tial resolut ion dna (e.g..
    150 x 150 m pixels). Emergency response ap plications rna)
    requ ire very high spatial a nd te mporal resolut io n data collection that ge nera tes treme ndo us am ounts o f data.
    An otlK' r :lSPl'CI o ftcmpom l informa tio n is 11lIw man y obscrvatio ns ar", recorded fmm a singh: pu Is.: o f enl' rgy that is
    d ircc h:d a t th.: Earth by an activc Sl'nSl' r such as L1DAR. For
    exam ple. mOSI U DAR sens ors l'm it onl' pu lsc of la~r
    energy and record multiple responses from Ihili pulse. \ 1t:a suri ng lhe time dilTerenccs bt:l\\ l'en mu ltiple r.:sponSl."S
    allows for Ihe det ...rm ination o f ohject h...igh ls and lerra in
    struct ure. A lso, the length oftimc rl'qui red lO emit an energy

    Remo te sensing of the Enviro nment

    sign al by an active sensor is re ferre d to <.I S the pulse 1l' !1}.


    Short pulse lengt hs allo w prec ise d istance u.c.. rang-c) m
    surcmcnt.
    Radiometeic I nfu rm a non and Rr<>ol ution
    So me remote sensi ng syst e ms reco rd the re flected. cmit t
    o r ba ck -scnu crcd electroma gn etic radia tion wi th more pre
    sion thun o the r sc n si l1~ sys te ms. Th is i ~ analogous to maki
    a measu remen t w ith n rulcr.H you want precisely to mcasr
    the lengt h o f an object. wou ld you rather use a ruler with
    or 1.024 subdiv isions on it?
    R<I<lwfII('lric resolution is de li ned as the sensitivity 01
    remote sens ing den..rctor to difference s in signal strength a~

    records the radia nt nu x reflected, emitted, or back-scatter


    from the ter rain. II de fine s the number o t'just drscri r ninal
    signal level s. The re for e. radiometric resolution can haH
    vigm flcan t impac t o n our abili ty tomeasure the properties
    scene objects. The Landsat I \1 ulti spe l'trnl Scanr
    launched in 19n recor d..-d re flected energy with a precis!
    o f 6-hi ts (values ranging from 0 to 63). Land sa1 4 and 5 n
    marie Map per sensors launc hed in IQX2 aOO IQK4. respc
    rivcly, reco rded data in 8 bits ( \ clues from 0 10 !55)( Figu
    1-12 ). Th us. the Land sat T\-l sensors had improved radi
    me tric re solution (sensitivity) when compared wi th the on
    ina! Lands ur \-lSS. Q uickls ird a nd IKON QS sensors rcc o
    informat ion in II b its (v alues fro m 0 10 1.(147 ). Se vera l nc
    sensor _~ystems hove Il-bit rad iom et ric resolution [valu
    ranging from 0 10 4 ,()9 S). Radiomet ric resolution is som
    nmcs referred to as the level of quantization. Ili gh radiomc
    ric rcsolcnon generally increases the probability th
    phe nom en a wil l be remotely sensed more acrcurat cly,
    Pula ri 1;11iu II

    III rorm III in n

    The polarization characteristics o f elect romagnetic energ


    reco rded by a re mote ~nsillg system a re a n impo rtant vat
    able that can be used in many Eart h reso urce inv'estiga liOl
    IC urnm et al.. 199XI. Suntighr is pola rized weakly. Howe ve
    \\ hen sunlight strikes a no nme tal objcct te.g .. gruvs. roresr. .
    co ncrete) it becomes depolarized and the incid ent energy
    scat tered differemialty. Generally. the more sm oo th the su
    face. the !:!water thl' polnrilation. It is possibk to usc po hlri;
    ing filters on pa ssivI: rl'mot e se nsing systems Ie.g. aeri;
    camerasl lO reco rd f'tlla ri/ed lighl ill vari ous ang lo:s. II is ills
    possibll' to Scl el'livcl)' ~nd ;ll1d I'l.'l:eive IXllari l ed c nc'l!
    using activ'e remote ~n.~ing sy,tems such as RADA R (e.g
    hori zontal S('nd., vert ical rccei\ -e - HV: venical send, hOOn..tal Tl'c ei\ l' - VII ; vert ical send. vcrti cal rl'l'c ive VV: ho r
    mnta l sl'nd. hori 7A1 nta l receive - 111 1). \1u lt iple-polari7e

    19

    The Remote Sensing Proc e ss

    S p a tia l and Te mporal Resolution for S ele cte d A pplications


    1(10

    Topog raphy
    10

    o.1

    ________ __ ~ :':.J!:~ ~I: ~ .1.6. ~~~ !~"::~~1

    ...........~!~::~ ~~~. ~.~~J. ~:: ~~.

    pI' a

    bSlt
    , cwJ
    hlc
    ca

    I
    ~

    J~ or
    nncr
    ~ i(l11

    ..........._~:~::l~~:~.~~~~v.~:!~~ .

    uur
    (LUll I

    0.000 1

    t hepee-

    -~~re

    JrllO-

    ~)rig.

    0.1 m

    1m

    ~ lIrd
    'fl ew

    !-Oues

    10

    III

    Nominal Spat ial

    Rgure 1-10

    nne-

    I kill

    1110 m

    IOkm

    IOOkm

    R~~o IUli\ln

    There arc spa tial and tempo ral rcsoh ninn c, ms ;"kr.ll;ons lhat TIlliS I he m ade fo r certain appllcationc (Color Plat e 1- 11_ A mo re
    de raile d bre akdo ..... n otthc spati al and temporal requirements for ur ban apphcauons is tound in Chapter 13.

    .mctthat

    I)i ~il:ll

    O rl lwphu lo s of:1II Area ncar Atlan ta. G A

    -,.rgy

    j,ri~ (lJl S

    -lvcr,

    -it.
    , or.
    'tv

    IS

    f~ur-

    'arizerial

    ~IS{l

    I ergy

    e,g..

    ,70n.
    ron~lcd

    a. 191J] onhophoto.
    Figure 1-1 1

    h. 199\) orthophor o .

    Pc nion s of digual-on hophoto -quarter-q uads (IXJVVf of all area near Atlanta. (lA _These dat a reside in the (korg i3 Spatia l
    Da ta Intrastrucurrc ditl:lbitsc ,md ar\;, use ful for rnouitoring lan d-usc change thro ugh l ime and the proCCSS of urbanization.

    f,
    C1IAP-n :R

    20

    Radfom etrlc Resulutien

    7-bit
    ...... (0 - 127)
    8-bit
    . 0 (0 - 2551
    ~,

    -',

    "

    9bit
    0 (0 511 )

    R gure 112

    Ill-bi t
    (0- 1023)

    The radiometric resolunoe ofa remote sensing S)"$tem I!> the sensitivity of its detectors to differences
    in sign al strength as they record tm: r:ad iant Il u ~ rc Ilecned. crrnucd, or eeck-sceue red from the terra in.
    The energy is normally q uantized during an analogto-digital (A' IOo l) l conversion process to X. 9. IU
    bits or more.

    RADA R imagery is an especially useful application o f pola r.


    izcd energy.
    .\ n ~ u l a r

    Infor ma l ion

    Remote se nsi ng sys tems reco rd ve ry specific angular characteristics associated with each exposed silve r ha lide crystal
    or pixel (Ba rnslcy, 19( 9), T he angula r cha racte ristics are a
    funct ion o f (F igu re [- l3 al:

    Re m ole Sensing of t he E nv ironment

    dimensional plOIS o f smooth co rdgra ss (-S,w rtilll1 otterniflo ra ) BRD F data collected at 8 a.m.. 9 a.m . 12 p.m . and -l
    p.m. on Ma rch 21, 2000. for band 624.20 nm. The on ly thi nH
    tha t changed betw een observations was the Sun's azimuth
    and ze nith angles. The azimut h and ze nith angl es of the
    specr roradiometer were held constant while viewing the
    smoo th co rdgrass. Ideally, the BRDI' plot s ....'ould he idcn ucal, suggest ing that it doc s not mailer .... hal time o f day we
    collect the remote sensor data becau se the spectral reflectance cha racterist ics fro m the smoo th cordgrass remain consta nt. [I is cle ar that this is not the case an d that the lime o f
    day in fluences the spec tral response. The Mu ltiang le Imaging Spectrometer (M ISR) onboard the Terra satellite was
    des igned to investiga te the BRD F phenomena. Reesearch
    con tinues on how to incorporate the BRU t" infcrmanon into
    the di gita l image processing sys tem to imp rove o ur understand ing of what is recorded in the remotely sensed imagery
    {Sundmcie r. 2000; Schil l et a l., 20( 4).

    A ngu lar info rma tio n is central to the usc of re mo te sensor


    dat a in photogrammet ric ap plications. Stereoscopic image
    analysis is based on the assumption that an obj eret on the tcrrain is remo tely se nsed from two an gles. Viewi ng t he sa me
    terrai n from two vamage points introduces stereoscopic parallax . which is the foundatio n lo r all stereoscopic photogra mmetric nnd radargrammctric ana lysis (Li gh t and Jensen,
    20( 2 ).
    S ubo r bital (A ir bor nI') Remote Sl' nsi ng S)'Sle ms

    the location in a three-dim ensional sphere o f the


    illumi natio n source (e.g.. the Sun for a pas sive sy ste m or
    the sensor itself in the case of RADAR, L1 DAR , and
    SONAR ) and its associa ted azimuth and zen ith angles.
    the orien ta lion of the terrain face t (]lixd) o r terrain cove r
    (e.g. vegetat ion) under investiga tion. and
    the loc ation of the subo rbita l or orb ital remot e sensi ng
    sys tem and its associated azi m uth and zen ith angles.
    There is always an an gle o f inc idence associated ~ ith the
    incom ing cne!');y that illumin ates the te rrain and an angle o f
    exi ta nce from the terrain to the sen sor system. Th is bidirecliol/a/nature o f remo te se nsing data co llectio n is know n to
    influence the spec tra l a nd polarization characteristics of the
    at-se nso r rad iance, L, reco rded by the remote sensing sysrem .

    A goniurtlt'lt'r ca n be used to doc ume nt the cha nges in atsensor radia nce. L. ca userd by changing the position o f the
    sensor and/or the source o f the illuminatio n (e.g., the Sun)
    (Figure l -1 3h). For exa mple. Figure 1-l3c present s three-

    High-quality photogrammetric cameras moun ted onboard


    a ircra ft co ntin ue to pro vide aerial photography for ma n)'
    Earth resou rce ap plication s. For example. the U.S. Geological Survey's Nationa l Aerial Photograp hy Prog ram (N APP)
    systematicall y collected 1:40.000-st'a le black-and- .... hite or
    colo r-infr ared aerial p hotogr aphy o f much o f the United
    Stat es every 5 10 10 ) cars " Some o f tht'S<." pho tc gr amm ctric
    data are now being collected using digital frame cameras. In
    addition. sophisticated remo te sensing sys tems are routinely
    moun ted on aircraft to provide high spatial and spectral reso lution remote ly sensed data . Exam ples include hyperspectral sensors suc h as NASA's AVIRIS. the Can ad ian Airborne
    Imag ing Spec trometer (C AS l). and the Austra lian lI y Map
    hypers pec tra l system . Th ese sensors can collect data on
    demand whe n disaste r str ikes t e.g.. oi l spills o r t1oods) if
    cloud-cover co nditions permit. The re are also nume rous
    radars. such as lnterm ap 's Star-3i. thm can be flown on a ircraft da y and night an d in inclement weather. Unfortuna tely,
    suborbital remote sensor data arc usually expensive to
    acquire per k m! "Also. atmo..pbcric tu rbule nce can ca use the
    dat a to have severe geom et ric d istortions that can be d ifficu lt
    to co rrec t.

    - --- r---r-"_~

    The Remote Sen sin g Proces s

    21

    ~i

    "'4

    j ing

    Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Fuuctlon

    I' th
    -II th'
    ~-r l i
    ~ wc

    "k

    Jion-

    ~ t of

    ---

    the

    ---

    '" df.,

    dE,

    ~un

    ~"
    a"sk
    0,

    lag-

    ~ was
    ITch
    into
    der-

    1"'b. Sandmcicr Field Goniometer.

    a. Angu lar relat ionships.

    Ilw r
    jage
    ter-

    uto-

    ,,

    ; 'I

    "0"

    . l-l , J .~~.--J

    ", J I~ "'"
    _____

    y~-

    BanJ 624.20nm

    8:00 a.rn.

    Hand 624.20 nm

    12:00 p.m.

    \'''''......

    r r.p, Jn1.(f

    Band 624.2Unm

    9;00 a.m.

    9,3U 1jI. //J. (r

    9,57.rljl,/ft9"I'

    Hand 024.20 nm

    4:110 p.m.

    0, ]9.0'(' tjI 14."1.1'

    0, 10.

    , 0'

    ired
    tri c

    "10
    t'ly
    d-

    F'
    bp
    00

    c. Comparison ofhowly three-dimensional plots of URDF for smoot h c ordg rass I Spanina a!l.,,,,ijlom) da ta
    collec ted at 8 a.m. 9 a.m.. 12 p.m., and'; p.m. 3 1 the boardwalk site o n vta rch 21 -22. 2UCIO. for hand fl2-1.20 nm .

    ) if
    ous

    , airely,
    ~

    (0

    the
    uh

    FiQUre 1-13

    OI l The concepts and paramet ers o f the bidirectiona l reflectance distn hution Iencti..... l HRllF) . A target is ba thed in irradiance
    (dE,1 fro m a ~f'<.'Clfic Sun le1lit h and azimu th angle. and lhe s<..n~"'f n....cords the radiance (JL ,) ~,iti ng tho:ta rget of interes t OIl a
    spec ific azim uth and zenith angle. b) Thc San dmeier Fiel d G..smorneter colJ...-cting smoolh cordgrass (Sf'<lrtitl<l "/fl?rnij]o,..,1
    I:lRDf measureme nts a t NImh Inle t. S('. Spc...-tral m<'a..uremenls an: m ade al Su n zenith an~le o f 8, and S un azrmuth an gle or
    'P, and 3 so..nsor zenith angle or view of 9 . and sensor azimuth ang le o f 'P. A GrR .l7Un spe..-tl'llr.ld iflffi<'le r. attached to the
    mo vm g !>I~ mounted o n the zcnuh arc. reco rd, tiM;- amo unl of radrence leav mg the targe t in 7~ ha nds al 7(, angles t'Sandmeier.
    2000; Sch ill CI aI. , 2(04 ). c) I iou d y lhJl,"('di me nsio nal plots ...f rm u r <lata .

    22

    Cu r re nt a nd Pr0l' 0 w d Sa tellite Rcmnte Se n..mg S) 'l>Icm s

    -'

    J,

    ;
    I

    J{C1110(l' sensing sys tems onboard !><llcllilcs provide highquality. relat ively inexpensive data per km~ . For example,
    the European Remote Snsing satctlues (ERS-I and 2) colICI;I26 x 2X m spatial resolution Ccba nd activ e microwa ve
    (RADA K) imagery of much of Earth, even through d ouds.
    Simi larly. the Ca nadia n S pace AgCIK'y RA I>A RSAT ob tains
    C-hand ac tive microwa ve imagery. The United States has
    progressed from muluspecrrat scanning systems (landsat
    ~ 1SS launched in 1972) 10 more:advanced scanning sy stems
    ( Land sat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus in 1(99). Th e
    Land Remote Se nsing Pol icy Act o f 1942 specified the
    future o f satellite land remote sensing prog rams in the
    Uni ted Stales (Asker, 1992; Jense n. 1(92), Unfo rtunately,
    Land sat (, with its Enhanced Thematic Map per did not
    achieve orbit when la unched on October 5. 1993. Landsat 7
    was launched on April 15, 1991), to relie ve the United States'
    land remote scnsing da ta ga p. Unfortun ate ly, it now has serious scan-l im: corrector problems. C hap ter 7 reviews the
    plans for the proposed Landsat Con tinu ity M ission . Mean .... bile. the French have pioneered the development oflinear
    array' remote sensing tec h nolo gy .... ith the launch of SPOT
    satellites I through :; in 19 S6. 1990. 1993, 1998, and 2002 .

    The lnrcmnional Gcosphe re- Biosphere Program IIGBP)


    and the Umred States G lohal Ch ange Research Program
    (USGCRP I call for scientific research 10describe and understand the interactive physical. chemical. and biological processes that regu late the lola I Eart h sys tem. Space-based
    remote se nsing: is an integ ra l part of'these research progra ms
    because it provides the on ly means of observing global ceosystems consistently' and synoplically. The National Ae ronautlcs and Space Administratiun (NAS A) Earth Science
    Enterp rise (ESE ) is the IWI11 C given tu the coordina ted plan
    to pro v ide the necessary satellite platform s and instruments
    and an Earth Observing System Data and tnformanc n Sysk'TTllfOSDlS). and related scientific research fur IG BI'. The
    Earth Observmg System (EOS) is a series of Earth-orbiting
    satcllucs that will pro vide global observations for 15 years
    or more. Th e first satellites were la unched in the b tl.' 19lJOs.
    EOS is complemented by miss ions and ins tru ments from
    international partners. For example, the Tropical Rainfall
    Mapping :'I.fission (TR" IM) is a joint NASNJapanese mis-

    sion.
    EOS Scie nce Plan : As rar and Dozie r ( 1994 ) co nceptual-

    ized 11100' remote sensing science cond ucted as part of


    NASA 's ESE. They suggested that the Earth COItSiSb of two
    subsystems. I) the physical climate, and 2) biogeochemical
    cycles. linked by the glo be! hydrologic cycle, as shown in
    Fig ure 1-14 .

    ';'Il APT U {

    Rem ote Se ns in g of the Environment

    Th e p"y.~il'a/ climate su bsystem is sensitive to nuct uatn


    in the Eart h's rud iauon balance . Huma n activities lu
    caused changes to the planet' s radiative hea ting mcchani
    Ihat riva l or exceed natura l change. Increases in greenhot
    gases between 1765 and 1990 have caused a radia tive fo
    ing of2.5 W m1. If th is rate is sus tai ned. it could result
    gloh.tl mean temperatu res increasing abou t 0 .2 10 05 C ,
    decade duri ng thc ne xt cent ury, Volcan ic eru ption s and t
    ocean's abil ity to absorb heat may impac t the projccuo
    Nevert heless, the following questio ns arc being add ress
    using remote se nsi ng (Asra r and Doz ier. 19(4):

    llow do clo uds. water va por, and ae rosols in the Hartl


    radia tio n and hea t budgets ch ange with inc rcas
    atmospheric greenhouse-gas co ncen trat ions?
    How do the oceans inte ract with the atmosphere in t
    tra nspo rt and uptake ofh eat"
    How do land-surfa ce properties suc h as snow and i,
    cover. evapotra nspir ation. urban-suburban land use. at
    vcgcrauon influence circulation?
    The Earth's biogeochenncal cycles haw a lso been change
    by human s. Atmos pheric carbon d ioxide has inc reased by ~
    percen t since IMS9. metha ne by more than 100 percent, ar
    ozone concentrations in the stratosphere have decrease
    causing inc reased level s of ultraviolet radiat io n to reach tt
    Ea rth's surface. G lobal change re sea rch is address ing It
    fo l l o w in~ q uestion s:
    What role do the oceanic and terrestrial components ofth
    biosphere play in the changing g loba l carbon budget?
    Wlwt are the eff ects on ruuural and managed ec osyste m
    of increase d carbo n dioxide and aci d depo s itio n. shiflin.
    precipitation pa tterns, and cha nges in soil erosion, rive
    chemistry. and atmospheric ozone concentrations'!

    The hydrolngic cycle links rhc physical climate and bio


    geoc hem ica l cycles. Th e p hase change of water between it;
    gaseous, liq uid. and so lid states involves storage and release
    of latent hea r. so il intl ucnces atmospheric circulation am
    globally redismbutes both water and heat (As rar and Doz ier
    1994). Th e hydro log ic cycle is the integ rati ng proce ss for tht
    flux es ofwatcr. en ergy, and che mica l clements among COlli
    poncuts uf the Earth system. Impo rtan t ques tions 10 be
    ad dressed incl ude these three:

    110 w w ill atmospheric va riabil ity, hum an activities. and


    cli mate change a ffect pat terns o r hu midit y, precip itati on.
    evapotranspiration. and soil moisture'!

    - --

    .
    ,,

    ,.

    The Remote Sen s ing Pro ce ss

    23

    Externa l

    Forcing

    Su n

    Volcan oe s

    Fun ctions
    cc
    ',th e

    Jns.
    t ied

    I'h:n ,k al Climate Sys lc m

    Hiu ~('och ('m ic al

    Marine
    bio-

    Oce an
    dyna mics

    '.

    Atm ospheric
    physics and
    dy na m ics

    ice

    aod

    energ y

    30

    and
    mo istu re

    od

    geo ch emistry
    Tropospheric
    chem istry ..

    Global moisture

    Terr est rial


    <d

    Cycles

    Terrestrial
    ecosystems

    Soil and wate r


    chemis try

    cd ,

    I the

    , the
    I

    C lilllale
    C ha nge

    Carbon l>iO\: id c and Other Trace Gases

    Land usc

    Water pollution

    nns
    ing

    Iluman Activities

    '"
    'oils

    as.c

    aod

    FfgU re '14

    The Earth system can be suhdiv idcd into I"''' eubsystcms-c-thc physica l climate s~st ...m and biogeochemical eyeles -s-that are
    linked b)' the glohal hydrologic cycle. Signiticanl changes I n the external forci ng functions and human activities have an impact on the physical climatesystem . biogeochemical cycles, and the J;1,,1xI1hydrolo gic c ycle. Examination of'these sub~ y ~ tcnH'
    and their linkages de fines tbe critical qucsuons that the NASA Earth Observing System ( EOS l is attempting 10 answer (adapled from Asrar and Dozier. 19'N).

    Howdoe s soi l moistu re vary in time and spac e?

    ,"d
    Ion.

    Can \\ c predict chaugcs in the g toba l hyd ro logic cycle


    using present and future observation systems and mod els"

    These a nd other resea rc h questions arc art iculated in


    r\ASI\'s current Earth System Science foc us areas (Asrar.
    2U(4 ). The mod els tbar address these research questions
    require sop hist icated rc motc sensing mea surements. To thi s
    end, the EO S Terra satctlit c wa s launc hed on December IK
    1\)I,l'}. It con tai n, tl ve remote sensing msrn nnc nrs ( MOD IS.

    - - -r

    24

    '('IIA P! t:R

    ASTI;.t. 1\11SR.CERES. and Mo prn ) designed to address


    nuny o f the resea rch topics (King. ::!nOJ). The [OS Aqua
    satellite was laun ched in May, 200 2. Th... vtodcratc Resolu tion Imaging Spectrom ete r (1\ 10 0 IS) has 36 bands from
    U.-I.I)5 1\1 14.3R5 um th.u colle ct data at 250 x 250 Ill. SOO x
    500 m. and 1 x 1 km spa tial reso lution s. \-lODI S vie ws the
    en tire s urface of the Earth "'\"'1) o ne 10 "'H ' da ys. makin g
    obse rvat ions in 36 spectral ba nds o f land - and ocea n-surfa ce
    tem pe rature. prima ry prod uctivity, land-surface cover,
    d ouds, a c rosols. water vapor. temperature profiles. 3 11 t!
    fires.

    .,I

    Remote Sen sing of the Envirooment

    multispectral bands (Table 13 ). Digita lG lo be. I


    launch ed <)uiekH ird on October 18, 200 I , '" ith a 61 x 6 1
    panc hro ma tic band a nd four 2.44 x 2A-4 m mu ltispec
    bauds. Orh imagc, Inc , launched OrbView-3 lin June:
    20n3. w ith I x I m panchro matic and 4 x 4 III muhispcc
    bauds.

    Remote Sensing Data Analysis

    Remote sensor data are analyzed using a variety of inu

    processing techniques IFigu rls 1-5 and I- IS), incl uding:


    n

    The Advanced Spaccbomc The r ma l Emission and Retl...' Cnon Rad iometer (AST ER ) has five bands in the thermal
    infrarc-d region between X and 12 u rn with 9O--m pixels. II
    also has three brood bands betwee n U.5 and U.9IJ III wnh 15*
    III pIxe ls and stereo capability, and six ba nds in the shortwave infrared region (1.6 - 2.5 flm ) with 30-m spatial reso lution. AST ER is the highest spatial rc....uution sensor
    system on the EOS Terra plat form and provides information
    on surface temperature that can be used to mod e 1 evapotran sp iration.
    The !\lultiangle Imaging SjX-ctroRadiom ct er (\1ISRl has
    nine sep.wol te chargc-couplcd-dcvi cc tCCD ) pus hbroom
    cameras to observe the Eart h in four spectra l bands an d at
    nine view ang les . II provides da ta on cloud s. atmospheric
    aerosols, and mult iple-angle view s of the Earth's desert s.
    vegetation, and ice cover. Th c C louds and the Earth'.. Radiant EIl':ll!)' System (C ERES) co nsists o f two sca nning radiom crcrs that mea sure the Earth's radiat ion balance and
    provide cloud propert y estimates 10 assess the ir ro le in radiative fluxes from the sur face o f the Eart h 10 the top o f the
    atmosphere. Finally, the \kasurement s of Po llution ill the
    Troposphere (I\10 PITI ) scanning radiometer pro vide s
    informat io n on the d ismbution. tran spo rt. sou rces . and sinks
    o f carbon monoxide and methane in the troposphere.
    The National Po lar-o rbiting Op erationa l Em iro nmcn ta l Sate llite Syste m (NPOESS) Preparatory Project (1'\1'1') to be
    launc hed will ex te nd key EOS measurements in suppo rt o f
    long-term monitoring ofcli mate trends and g loba l hio logical
    prod uctivity unt il the I'\POE SS ca n be launched so metime in
    the fut ure, The NP I' will conta in MO DIS- like in.stTUnll'nts
    such as the Vis ible Infra red Imag ing Rad iometer Suite
    ( VIIRS I. With a liw-ye3r dl'Sig n life "'PI' .... ill pro\ ide dala
    pa.\ol the designed lili:l ime:- of E< )S Terra and Aqll/l s<JIell ites
    thro ugh the launc h ofN I'OESS (NO AA NPO ESS. 2 (1ll(1).

    I,.

    C o nllll ('rda l \ t' lId ur~ : Spa"e Imag ing. lTIC_. launched
    IKO :-.lOS2 on Septembl.'T 24, 1999 . The IKO )'\OS';! sensor
    system has a I x I III pa nch roma tiC band and four 4 x 4 III

    analog (\ isual ) image proc essing. and


    d igital image proc essing.
    Anal og and d ig ita l anal ysis ofremotely sensed data seck
    de tect an d ide ntify important phenomena in the scene. O n
    ide ntified. Ihl." phe nomena are usually measured, and I
    information is used in solving pro blem s (E stes et a l.. l q~
    Haack el al., I()lJ7}. Th us. both manual and digua l analyr
    ha ve the sa me gen era l goa ls. However. the attain ment
    these goals may follow d ifferen t pa ths.
    Hum an be ings arc adept at v isually interp reting image s pr
    duccd by certa in types o f re mote se ns ing devices , especial
    cameras . O ne cou ld ask . ' Why try to mimic o r impro ve l
    this capability?" Firs-t. there a re certain thresholds beyor
    I I hieh the human interp reter cannol detect jusl nonccab
    differences " in the imagery. For ex am ple. it is com mon!
    known that an a na lyst ca n discri minate ' lilly about nir
    shades o f gray \\ hen interpreti ng co ntinuous-tone. blad
    and-wh ile photo graphy. If the data we re or iginally recorde
    wi th 156 sh ade s of gray. there migh t he more subtle infomu
    tion presen t in till' image tha n the interp reter ca n ex tra,
    visually. fu rthe rmore. the interpreter brings to the task a
    the press ures of the Jay. making the inrerpretauon subject iv
    and gene rally unrcpc arab lc. Co nversel y. the results obtainc.
    by compurcr a rc repea table (even when wrongl], A lso, whel
    il comes to keeping track of a great amount ofdeta iled quart
    uranve informa tio n. such as the spec tral ch ara cteris tics of;
    vegeta ted field throug hout a grow ing season lo r crop idc nti
    flc.nlon purposes. the comp ute r is very lIdep t aI st(.ring allt
    man ipu lating suc h ted iou s info nnation a nd possibly m ak i n~
    a nlIlre de liniti\'e conclusion a" to wh:ll c rop is bei ng gro ..... n
    Th is is n(ll to say that d ig ita l image pmc cs sing is superior te
    visual image ana lysis . Rathe r. there Illay be times when f
    digi tal ap proa ch is beller suited t(lt he probl em al hand. O pti.
    mum res ulls an' oft<:n ac hiewd u~ing a synl."rgistic l''Ombination of oolh \'isua land dig ita l image processi ng.

    ------r-r--_.~_==

    ,.J_
    -= _

    1
    ,, ,

    The Remote sensing Process

    25

    Fundam rntallma~e .\nal~~i' Ta'''~

    Detect, lde nnfy . Measure


    Solve problems

    Applicauen oftbc ,H ulli concept


    Mu llisp',:dral- Mulufreq ucncy - Multipolarization
    - Mufurcmpora l Multiscalc . Mulndiscip hna ry
    I
    Usc of e "U,/ta ut IlIp"'/lI,ti""
    - Literat ure Laboratory spc.:tru - Dichotomous kc}'s - Pnor probabilities
    Fiel d training sires - Fiel d tes t s ites - Soil nmps - Surficial geology maps
    "na lu!: i \ 'i, u,111
    Im31.:C I'r uccl>sinl:

    "0
    nee
    the

    /:"Il'nlt'm\ oJ Im ug t' Int"rprt1uti,m

    (i1d~"ClIk tone tblacl.. to wh ite]

    ~3;

    sis

    Color (ROB - red , green. blue]

    of

    Height

    (~k\~IIOnl and

    depth

    ro Size (length. area. perimeter. volume)

    If lIy

    ,h "

    Shape

    "d
    hI<
    nly

    Texture

    inC'

    Pattern

    cklk d

    Shadow

    rmacr

    Site
    Association
    Arrangement

    ,"
    he

    lJi ~ihl l

    Im a g{" Process ing

    11"" '1111' 1"",,,,1.\ of Imu/:' !IlI.'rp r.'luri,m A rt"


    HxtrU("I..J IIr U,sl'd ill lJittiwlln",gt' J'r./(l;'u ;"X

    8 I" 12bll brighmcss values, Of scaled 10


    surface reflectance or emutance
    24-bit color loo k-up table display
    \lullibanJ RGB co lor compcsucs
    - Transforms tc.g., intensity, hue . .'Io1 Iurntionl
    Soft-copy rhOll>grdtnrnl:try. radargrammctry.
    RADAR interferometry, L1DAR, SO)'\AR
    Soft-copy pho togrammctry. radargrammctry,
    RAIlAR mrcrfcrcmctry
    So ft-copy pho togrammctry. radargrnmmctry.
    interferometry, landscape eco logy memes.
    object-oriented image segmentation
    Texture transforms. gcosratistical analysis.
    landscape ceo logy metric". fractal analy"is
    Autocorrelation. gcosratistica l unnlysis,
    landsc ape eco logy mentes. frac tal anulys is
    son-copy pluuograrumctry, radargr ammctry.
    mcus urcmcnt from rectified images
    Conte xtual. c:;.pcn "y"lcm. ne ural network anal}"is
    Cllnle :;.1Ual. expert syste m. ne ural network an alysis
    Contcxt uat.vx pcrt system. ne ura l network analysis

    ,,""

    hen
    an-

    Figure ' 15

    Anal'll; (\' i~uaIJ and digital image processing of'rcmorcly sensed data use the elements of image inlerpre lali(lll,

    f,
    li-

    ",d

    \ nJ ln ~

    (' huaJ I I ma ~(' rron"" in ~

    ing:

    ".

    .r a
    lO

    ,.

    na-

    Human beings usc the fundamental clements of image inte rpretation summarized in Figure 115. including grayscale
    tone. color, height Idcpth), size. shape. shade w, texture. site.
    esccuncn. and arrangement. The human mind is amazingly
    good at recogniz ing and associating these complex elements
    in an image or photograph because " e constantly process I a l
    profile \ ic.....s of Earth featu res every day and (b) images

    seen in book". magazines. the television and the Inle rnet.


    Furthermore. we are adept ar bringing to bea r all the kno..... t,
    edge in our persona l background and collateral information.
    we then con verge all this e vidence 10 ide ntify phenomena in
    images and judge the ir sign ificance. Precise measuremcm of
    objects (length. area. perimeter. volume, etc.) may be perlim n coJ using phorogra m m etric techniq ues app lied 10 either

    monosccpic (single- pho to ) or ste reos copic (1)\C'r1apping )


    images, Numerous hooks ha ve been w ritten o n how to pe r-

    26

    form visual image iruerprctation and pho[()grJmmc lric measurernern.


    There is a resurgence in the art and science of visual image
    inrerprctntiou as the d igital remote se nsor sys tems provide
    mcreavingly higher spatial resolu tion imagl'ry. M any people
    arc d isplaying IKO :-.rO S I x 1 m and Qu ick Rird 61 x 61 em
    imagery on the computer screen and then visua lly interpreting the data. 'lhe data arc also often used as a base map in
    G IS proj ects (Clar ke. 200 1).

    Scient ists have made significa nt advances in d igilul image


    processi ng of remo tely sensed data for scientific visualize lion and h)[IOlh,.-sis le5ting Ie.g . E!.h..~ and Jens...n. 1\)9~ ;
    Towns hend a nd Justice. 2002; Kraak . 200 3). Th e me thods
    arc summar ized in Donuay et a1. (2(l()I l. Hossle r or al.
    (2002), Jensen (1005 ). and others . Digita l imago: processing
    no w makes use of many elements o f image iruerprctanon
    using the techniques summarized in Figure I-IS. The major
    types of dig ua l image p rocessing incl ude image prep rocessing (radiometric and geom et ric corrccnonj. image enhance memo pat tern recogn ition u.,ing inferent ial statist ics.
    photogrammcm c image processing o f ste reoscop ic imagery.
    expert sys tem Idl"Cision- tree) and neural network image
    analysis. hypcrspccual data analysis, and cha nge detection
    (Figu re 15 ).

    Radiometric Cc r rcc uo n uf Rt'1II0ll' Sen-o r Data : Analog


    and dig ital remote ly sensed imagery may contain noise or
    erro r that was introduced ~y the sensor system (e.g. . electronic noise] or the environment tc.g.. atmospheric scariering of light into the sensor's field of view]. Advances hale
    been made in o ur anility to remove these dele terious effects
    through simple image normulizanou techniques and more
    advanced abso lute radiometric calibration of the data to
    scaled su rface refl ectance (for optical data}, Calibrated
    remote sensor data a llows imagery and de rivativ e products
    obt ained on diffe ren t dates to be c om pared (c.g., to measure
    the change in leaf area Inde x between two dares] . Funda mental Jigi tal imag e processing princl pk-s arc discussoj in
    Jensen (2005).
    Gl'o nu.' tr ie Co rrec tiun of n l'm lltc Sen so r Dat a; I\losl alia
    log and digital remote sensor dala are no\\ processt..'d so that
    indi\'idual piCIU rl' eleml'nts are in the ir proper pla nimet ric
    posi tions in a standa rd map pftljccl illll. This facilitates the:
    usc of the imagery :ll1d de rivatiw prod ucts in GIS or spatia l
    dt..~ is ion support syste ms.

    CIIA I' I ER

    Remote Sensing of the Environm en t

    I ma!);t' t:nlmnCClllcnl; Images ca n hc digita lly en hance d


    idemify subtle information in the analog or d ig ital image
    that might cthcrw ise be m issed, Significant irnprovemcn
    han ' bee n made in our abilit y to contras t stret ch and filt
    data ro enhance low a nd high fr...-qucncy components. edge
    and texture in the imagel') (e.g . E ~ ....on et al.. I 9QQ). I
    add ition, the remote sensor data can be linearl y and nonlu
    early transformed into information that is more highly corn
    luted \\ ith real-w orld phenomen a through pr incipr

    components analysis and various vegetation indices (To" !


    shend and Justice. 2002 1_
    Phnl ogramnH"t r y: Signi flc am advances have been made i
    tho: a na lysis of stereoscopic remote sensor data ohtainc
    from a irborne or sa tellite platforms using computer wor ksta
    tions and digi tal image processi ng pho rogrammctnc argo
    rithms (e.g .. Adams and Chandle r, 20(2). So ft-c op,
    p hotog mnnuctric workstations can he used 10 extract acc u
    rate digital elevation models I DEMs) rind d iffe re ntiall y cor
    rectcd orthophl'togra phy from the tria ngu lated aeria
    photogra phy or image ry (Light and Jensen. 2tl02; Linde!
    20ll] ). The tec hnology is revolutionizing the way OEMs ant
    onbophotos arc produced for rura l and urba n- subu rbcr
    applications.
    Parame t ric lnfurmarluu Exrrac tto n: Scien tists a tll'mpl in~
    to e xtrac t land-cover informatio n from remotely sensed data
    now rounnely specify ift hc classi fication is 10 be :
    hurt/, with disc rete mutually exclusive classes, or jil::'''
    where the propo rtions of materials within pixels arc
    extracted (Seong and Usery. 20t) I );

    based on ind ividua l pixels (referred 10 as a per-pixel


    d<t.I.I ((inlfio ll) or if it will usc obj ect-oriented image

    segmentatio n algorithms that take into account not on ly


    the spect ral characrerisucs of a pixel. bur also the spectral
    characteristics of contextual su rrounding pi",els. Th us, the
    algori thms la ke into accoun t spec tral and spalial
    infurrnation ( Herold et ai.. 200.\: Hod gso n cr al., 2003a;
    Tullis and Jensen. 2003 1.
    Once thcl>C issut..'S arc <ldd rcssed, it is a maner of detenni ning
    whc!her to USl' paramet ric, l1 vnparantetric, and/or non metrie
    c1as..iticatiol1 ll"Chniques . T he maximum likelihood classificat ion algori thm ellntinues to be the mos l widcly used para ml'1ric dass ification algorithm. lill fortunatl'ly, Ihe a lgorit hm
    requ irl's nonnal !y d istributed training duta in II b:mds (rurdy
    thc case) for com puti ng the class variance a nd covariance
    matr ict..-s. It is d ifficult to illcorpo ratl' noni magc categorical
    da ta into a maximum Iikclihood classification , Fortunately.

    ---The Remote sensing Process

    "..,

    'I

    27

    fuzzy maximum likel ihood cla ss ificat ion algorithms are


    nnw available (e .g., Foody, 1996) .

    rion about how indiv idual class ificatio n decisions were


    made (Zhang. and Wang, 2(03 ).

    \ onparaml.'l ric Informalinn Ea trecucn: Nonparame mc


    clustering algorithms, suc h as ISO DATA, continue 10 be
    used extensively in d ig ital image process ing resear ch.
    Unfortunately, such algo rithms de pend (10 how the seed
    raining data are extracted an d it is often d iffic ult ru labc f rhe
    clusters to turn them into informat ion class es. For these rcasonsthen.' has been a significant increase in the developm ent
    and useofartificial neu ral network s (ANN) for remo te sensing applicatio ns te.g.. Q iu and Jensen. ~OOS ) . The ANN docs
    net require normally d istri buted tra ining data . A NN may
    incorporate virtua lly any type o f spatia lly d istributed data in
    lkc1as-~ification. The only d rawback is thai some times il is
    diffic ult 10 dete rmine exactly how the- ANN cam... up .... ith a
    rcrtain co ncl us ion because the info rma tion is locked within
    \hev.cighls in the hidd ...n layer(s). Scientists are working on
    uys to extrac t hidden inform ation so that the rules used ca n
    be more formally stated. T he ability of an ANN to learn
    should not he unde restima ted.

    Ideall y. computers can derive the rules from tra ining data
    without huma n intervention . This is refe rred to as machineImming (Huang and Jensen, 1997: Jensen. 2oo 5 \. The analyst identifies represe ntative training areas. T he mach ine
    learns the panerns from these traini ng data. creates the- rules ,
    and USI.'S them to c1assif)"the remotely sensed data. The rules
    are available to docume nt how decisions were made.

    j;

    '<

    ,I.

    I',.
    "":"1-

    ."
    ],

    ,,,
    , ~

    e-

    yJy

    ,.

    ~I

    er.
    ,d

    en

    "Ila

    '0

    Iy
    ,1
    ho:
    ial

    "

    '"-.
    c

    na-

    venmetrte Inform at ion Extrectlcn: It is diffi cult to make


    a computer unde rsta nd and usc the heuris tic rules of thumb
    and knowledge thai a human expert uses when interpret ing
    an image. Nevertheless, there has been progress in the U~ of
    artificial intell igence (AI) to try to make computers do
    things that. at the moment. people do beuer. One area of A I
    that has great potential for image analysis is the usc ofex pert
    st...ms that place a ll the informa tion co ntained with in an
    Image in its proper co ntext with ancillary data and extrac t
    valuable information. Duda ct a l. (200 1) descri be various
    t~Jl(S ofexpert sys tem decision-tree classifiers as nonmetric,
    Paramet ric di g.i ta l image classifica tion techniques arc based
    primarily on sum mary staustics such as the mean. variance,
    IlId covariance matrices. Decision-tree or rule-based classifier; are not based on infe rential stat istics, but instead " let
    the data speak for itself ' [Guhcgan. 2( 03 ). In other words,
    thr data retains its precision and is not dumbed do wn by
    summarizing ir th rcugh means. etc. Decis ion-tree classifiers
    can process virtually any lype o f spatially distributed data
    and can incorpo rate prior probabilities (Mc lvcr and Friedl,
    ~2 ). There are three approac hes to rule creauon : 1) explicitly extracting know ledge and creati ng rules from experts. 2 )
    implicitly extracting variables a nd rules using cog niti ve
    methods ILloyd ct al., 20(2 ). and J) empir icall y generating
    rules from observed data and autom atic induction methods
    (Tullis and Je nsen, 20(3). The deve lopment o f a decision
    me using human- speci fied rules is time-co nsuming and diffcuh. However, it rewards the user with detailed info rrna-

    H)'pt'r'opel.'t ra l: Special software is required to process


    hypcrspect ral data obtai ned by imaging spcct romd iomcrers
    such as AVIRIS and t\IO! JIS. Kruse et al. II <N2). Landgre be
    and Hiehl t 2(06 ). Digital Research Sys tems (2006) and oth ers have pioneered the de velop ment of hypcrspccrral image
    analysis software. T he so n w are red uces the d imensi onali ty
    of the data (n umber of hands) to a ma nageable degree, while
    retaining the esse nce of the data . Under certain condiuons
    the software ca n be used tn co mpare the remotel y sensed
    spectral reflec tance curves with a library of spec tral re nee ranee CUn.l'S. Ana lysts arc also able to identify the type and
    proportion of diffe rent materia ls .... ithin an individ ual picture
    clemen t (referred to "s end-mem ber spectral mixture ana lysis) ( Lu and w cng , 2004; Platt a nd Goetz, 200-1).
    :\lndl'linl: Remote Sc n:> inl: Da ta Lsi ng a G IS A p prnac h:
    Remote ly se nsed da ta sho uld no t he a nalyzed in a vacuum
    without the benefi t of collateral information suc h as soi l
    maps. hyd rology. and topog raphy (Ramsey cr al.. 1995). For
    example, land-cover mapping using remotely se nsed data
    has been sig mtica ntly improved by inco rporat ing topo graphi c Information from dig ital terrain models and ot her
    G IS data (c.g. , Stow er al.. 20tH). G IS studies require timely,
    acc urate updating of the spat ially d istributed variable s in the
    database that remo te sensing. ca n provide (Clarke, 200 1).
    Remote sensing ca n benefit from ace...ss to accurate anci llary
    Informa tion to improve class ification accuracy and othe r
    types of modeli ng. Suc h syn...rgy is cr itical if successfu l
    expe rt syste m and neural network analyses are to be performed (Tullis and Je nsen . 2(03). A framework for model ing. the uncertainty betwe en remot e sensing and geographic
    infonnauo n sys tems was develo ped by Gahegan and Ehlers
    (2000 ).
    Scene ,\ l uth" ling: Strahler et al. (19 X(, ) descr ibe a frame w ork for modeling in re mote se nsing. Basica lly. a remote
    sensi ng model has three componel11s: I) a sce ne model.
    which specifies the form and nature of'the cnergy a nd matter
    with in the sce ne and their spat ial a nd tempo ral order: 2) an
    atmospheric mod el. whic h desc ribes the interaction betwee n
    the atmosphere and the energy en tering and being emitted

    26

    h ,

    "

    J
    "

    fro m the sce ne; and 3 ) a scusur mode l. \\ hich describes the
    behavior of the sensor in res pond ing to the en..::rgy tl uxcs
    incidcru on it and in producing the measurements that constitute the image. They suggc..t that the problem of scene
    mferencc. then. becomes a proble m of mode l inversion in
    which the order ill the scen e is reconstructe d fro m the image
    and the rem ote sensing mod el . For example. Woodcock er el.
    11997l inverted the Li-S rrah ter Canopy Reflectance .\loJd
    for mappi ng fo res t structure.
    Bas ically, successful re mote sensi ng modeling pred icts ho w
    much rad ia nt n ux ill certa in wavelengths shou ld exit a pa rticular object (e.g .. a coniter canopy] even \\ ubout ac tually
    scnsi ng the object. When the model's prediction is the same
    as the sensor's measu rement. the r.:!atiolls hip has he...n modele d co rrec tly. The sc ientis t rhcn has a gre ater apprec iation
    for cnc rgv-rnauer interac tions in the sce ne an d may he nble
    10 exte nd the logic to other regions or apphcauons wuh co nfidencc. The remote sensor data can thcn be used mo re effcc
    tivcl y in physica l dercrmimsuc models te.g., watershed
    runoff net prima ry produc tivity. and cvuputranspirat ion
    mode lsr thar arc so important for largc ecosystem modeling.
    Recent wor k allows one 10 model the utility of sensors with
    different spa tial resolut ions for particular app lications. such
    as urba n ana lysis (Collins and Woodcock. ](99 ).
    C ha nge nerocuun : Remotely sens ed da la obtai ned 0 11 multip lc dates can be used 10 iden tify the type and spa tial distribu tion of changes taking place m the landsca pe (Friedl et al.,
    2002; Zhun ct ul.. 20(2). T he change infor matiun provides
    valuable insight into the pI"OCf!,I'\TX ;]1 work (A lhc rti d al.,
    2()()...1; Auch cr a l.. 201).;). Change detect ion algorithms ca n
    be used on per-pixel and object-oriented (po lygon ) classificat ions. Unfortuna tely. the re is still no universally accep ted
    me thod of dete cting change or {If assessing the accu racy of
    chang e detect ion map products. Digital image pru~ cssing
    ch ango: detr:ction p ri nc i p l ~ ,ITo: d iscu s!'>Cd in Jenscn (20U5).

    C IIA I' T l: R

    Rem ote SensIng 01 the EnvIronment

    tographic theory or database topology de sign] o ften prod

    pour output prod ucts that do not communicate dlcc t i \ e1 ~


    tmage mapv offer scientists an ahemauve to line maps
    many cartograp hic ap plications. Thousa nds of sate!
    image map s have been prod uced from l and sat M
    (I :25 U,OOU and I ;SOU.Utll ) scale). T~t ( I ; mo.ooc sca le) E
    AVI IRR, and 1->100 15 da ta . Image maps at scale.. > ] :2t[
    arc possible using imagery with a spatial reso lution of :::,
    I III (Light and Jensen. ':WO.2 ,. Hecause image map produ
    ca n be prod uced fur 1I fraction o f the cosrof conventioi
    line ma ps, they provide the basis for a nat iona l map scr
    oriented toward the exploration an d economic developrm
    of the less-developed areas of the world. most of which ha
    nOI been marred at scales of I: ]00.000 or larger.
    Remote se nsor data lhat have bee n geomet ricall y rectified
    standard map projection are becoming indispensable
    most sophisticated G IS databases This is especially true
    ort hophoromaps. which ha ve the metric qualincs o f 1I Ii
    mar and the informnrion content o f an aerial pho tograph
    other type o f image.

    II

    Unfortunately, f'rror is introd uced in the remote sensing pr>


    cess and must he idenufied and report ed. Innovations
    erro r reduc tion include: I ) record ing the lineage o f the ope
    ations ap plied to the ori gin31 remote sensor data. 2) doc.
    mcnting the geometric (spatial) error and thematic tanribun
    error of the source ma terials, 3) im proving lege nd dt's igl
    es pec ially for change detection map produ cts deri ved fnn
    remote sensi ng. and 4) improved acc uracy assess ment. Th
    remote se nsi ng and G IS community should incorporate ted
    nologics thilt track all error in fina l map and image prod uct:
    Th is w ill resu lt in more accura te information being USN i
    the dccicion-rnakin g proce ss.

    Earth Observation Economics

    Information Presentation

    lnformation dc rin 'd from remote sensor dal a arc usua lly
    summarilcd 1Il> an cnhanced image. image map. onhophotumap. thematic ma p. 5Pilti:ll dataha~ li te. statis tic. or gra ph
    ( Figure 1 5 ). Thus. the lina l o Ulp ut products o ften Itl.]uire
    knowled ge of r\'nwt t' sensi ng. ~anog fa p hy. GI S. and spatial
    slat istics as \\c11 as the sy stemalie sc ience being imc"tigah:d
    (e.g.. soils. agrit'ulture, urt>::m studit's). Scienti5lS who undcrsta nd thc ruk s and syne rgislic rd at io n"hips o f the Icc hno logit's can produ ce OUl pul prod ucts thai COllllllullicatc
    e tlectively. Those who violatc lh ndam ental rules (c,g., car-

    T he National Researc h Coun ci l rt'c ogn ized Ihat thcre is lit


    ecunomic systt'm at play \loh.:n remote sensor data afe USC!
    for earth resou rcc managcmcnt ap plications (Figure 1- 16
    ( Miller ct al.. 10t)l)_ It co nsists of an infom u tio n dcl i\cf)
    sys lem wi th thrcc co rnpont'n1s: data co lkctinn. illl3gc pro
    cessing. and in l;'lnna tion co nsumer (user ).
    Thc data colkction system is composcd of commert'ial ven
    dors and public agcncies thaI OpC'ratc ren wtc scnsi ng sy..tem s. Privale ind ustry prov idcs inti lflna lion al mllrkcl va lue.
    Public agenc ies gc nt'ra lly pro v ide rt'mote se nsor d3la al thc
    cost of fulllilling a use r request (CO FUR ). Rcmolc sensing

    -------

    29

    Earth Obse r vation Ec on omic s

    ,J

    !.jIcc

    ..,-

    Remot e Sensing Ear th Ob servation Economics

    1for

    Information Delivery System

    Illite
    JifSS

    Platform and
    senso rs

    "d

    "
    A nalog (visual)

    and/or

    Radiant energy

    ucts

    (pho ton s)

    f}nlll

    , es

    (Use r )

    Knowledge gap

    Data collec tion

    - JlO!'
    ..- 1 x

    Information
    consumer

    d igital ima ge
    pro cessing

    Information

    Perceived

    I rem

    1_1-_

    , lave

    to
    't in
    e of
    l ine

    econo mic. social ,


    strategic,
    environmental.
    or politica l
    val ue

    Equi librium

    S Cos l
    Easy 10 use

    h 0'
    low high

    Difficu lt (0
    underst and

    ro-

    "',-'"
    -u-

    ts.

    ::d in

    Ftgure 1-1 6

    Remote Wfl~ing Earth observation economics . The goalrs 10mimmize the /cfl(''''/f!I1Ke g"p betweentbe Intc...mal i~>n
    delivery system. n:mo te sen sing experts. and the in form ation consu mer (user). The remote scnsmg-dcrivcd economic. socia l, strategic, environment al. and/o r pohncal mforma tion must be cosr-effecnve. and ('8.~y to use to achieve
    equilibrium tadaprcd from Miller et al., 2003).

    has been around since the 1960:.. There is an increasing


    number of experts that can usc analog and/or digita l image
    processing techniques til extract information from the imagery. f inally, then: is the information consumer (user) of the
    re mote sensing-derived information. The user generally
    needs information of economic . social. strategic. environmental and/or political value (Liverman ct al., 1998).
    In orderfor the revenues generated by the information dclivsystem to be sufficient to support the capita l and operating costs of the syste m. there musl be a balance
    tequslibriumj between the valu e o f the information. as perceived by the user (cons umer). and the revenue necessary to
    >UpflOn the system {Miller er at , 20tH, 2(03). The equilibrium has been achieved for airborne photogrammctnc a nd
    UD.-\ R mapping applications for several decades. Time will
    tell if the balance between perceived value and cost can be
    maintained in the spaccbomc case. Mergers arc occurring.
    On January 12. 2006, ORBIMAGE acquired Space lmagings assets and now functions as GcoEyc. Inc.. providing
    ety

    IKONOS, Orbview-z and Orbvicw-S image produc ts, GeoEye plans to launch a new sensor in 2007 with a spat ial resolution of 0.4 I x 0.41 III (Geo Eyc. 2006) ..
    Tho: equilibrium can also be impacted by remote sensing
    technology experts that do not have a good understanding of
    the user information requ irements. In fact. some remote
    sensing experts.. are often baffled as to why the consu mers
    don't embrace the remote sensing-derived information.
    What they fail to consider is that the consumers generally
    have no motivation to switch to remote sensing-derived
    infonn ation on economic. social. environmental. strategjc.
    or political attributes simply beC3U~ it is based on new technology. Furthermore. the co nsumers on the right side of the
    diagram often hal e lillie know ledge of remote sensing technology or of how it is used 10 derive information.
    Miller et al. (2001; 2003) suggest that this situation creates a
    knowledge gap between the remote sensi ng experts and the
    information consumers (user) (Figure 116). Bridging the

    _ _....

    ,r
    ,,

    30

    CR,W U :R

    Re mo te Sens ing o f th e Env ironment

    .~
    Organization of

    "
    -{

    ,
    I

    ~I

    ~,

    -',

    J
    "
    r,
    I

    Remote St'I B;II/: fll l ite EIII';rm",U'II /


    Chlljlh'r I.
    Rem e re Sl' lI ~i ll ~ !lf the Em'i"uIl 1l1l'ut
    11/ Situ Dura Collection
    Rem ote Scusiug Oat<J Collection
    The Remo te Sen sing Pro ce ss

    C hlllJIt>f 2.
    Ra d iation Principll"
    Conducnon, Convection. and Radiauon
    Energy-Matter lmc racuo ns in III", Atrnes phc rc
    En.:rgy-\1aner jnrcracuons wuh the TCITaIll
    [I tc l rom a~n {"l ic

    C hllptt"r J.
    Jli slor) flf .\ t'fl ll l l' h o t ll~ r a p h)' .JIId
    ..\ ,' rl llll'llltll,rl11 s
    His tory o f I'horograph y
    Pho tography from Aerial Platforms
    Photo-R econnaissanc e in \V\VI and WW II
    Col d Wa r Phuto -Recon nnisvancc
    Celestia l Sarcllihc Sentinels
    Unmanned ..\ er ial vehicle s

    C hap l('r ....


    Aeria l Ph"l o~rap h)
    vemca t and Oblique Vantage Po ints
    Aer ial Came ras
    Fihration and Films
    Planni ng Acnal Phutography Missitlm,

    C ha lll... r 5.
    Ell' ml'nfs of \ 'j"ua l lll1 a!:(' IlItl' rprcl:llioll
    Elements of Ima ge lntc rpretauo n
    Method s of Search

    Ch apter Cl.

    Phni ogramlllet r )
    FIi!!htline~ of Acnat Photogra phy
    lmag... Nomenclature
    Scale Height \ t easurcment on Smg je PhOl o~

    Ch ap ter- 7.
    :\1ult h pcctra! Renuue Sl' n , l ll~
    Multis pectr al D;1Ia Collec tion
    Discrct... Delector-, and Sunning .\1 i rro r~
    \l uh i'l'cclra l Imaging Usi ng Linear Arr ays
    Imaging Spectroscopy
    Digital Fra me Camcras
    Satellite PhOI(lgr.tph ie System s

    Stereosco pic Mcasurcment


    Orthophotos and Digital Elevation ~odcl s
    Ar...a Measurement

    C ha pte r K.
    Therm al Infra red Rcruute St'n,ing
    History
    Thcrmullnfrarcd Radiation Prope rties
    At mos phe ric Windows
    Th erm al Radia tion Law s
    Therma l Propert ies of Terrain
    Th ... rmullnfrurcd Data Co llection
    T IR Enviro nmental Co nsid era tions

    Cha p te r 9.
    Aclh (' and Pa", I,, ~ lic ro" l1 '"
    IIi"tOf)
    Acnv c Mic rowave System Co mpone nts
    RADA R Environ me ntal Conside rat ions
    SAR Remote Sensin g fro m Space

    R.\DA R lnrertcromctry
    Passive .'.1in o"" a' c Rcmo te Sensing

    Cha pt er In.
    I.IUAR Remote St'n ~in J:.
    Princ iple s (returns, den suy, iutcusity }
    Proc essin g to Create DEM. DS M. DTM
    ' Accuracy o f LI OA R-d\.'r ivcu pWdUt.' IS

    C ha pt er II.
    Hl'IlI"le Sensl n!: uf \"~('l lIl l o n
    Photosynlhl');b Funda me nta ls
    Spectral Cbaracrenstics o f vegetanon
    Tem po ral C haracteri stics of'Vegctauo n
    \ '~elat l o n Indices
    Landscape Ecology' Metrics
    Hiodiversiry and G A P Ana lysis

    Vegetation Change Detection

    ,,
    Figure 1-17

    B".. ~ organin llllll,

    ------ -

    --._---

    Earth Resou rce An al ysis Pers pec ti ve

    31

    O rgan ization of
    Remme Sensmg of th e Environment - continued

    -,

    C ha ple r 12.

    Chapt er- 1.&.

    R e mo te S('n ,i n ~ of " a ter


    Surface Warcr Uiuph)'si,,;al Characteristics
    Precipitation

    Re mme Se nsing Solils.'I in e ral s, and


    (;co nlo r p hulo !:)
    Soil Charucrerisncs allli Taxonomy
    Remote Sensing Soil Propenies
    Remote Sensing RClC b and Minerals
    Geology and (iet, m"'1"htlltlgy

    Aerosols and nuu Js

    f,

    Water Vapor and Snow

    Walc:: r-qu;)lity \ loJc1inl!

    ,r

    C 1H1llh 'r D .
    R emote S... nsin l: the I 'r -h a n Landscape
    Urban-Suburban Resolut ion Considcrunons
    Remote Sensing l .nnd Usc -Land Cover
    R...sidcunal
    Commercial and Services
    l ndusmaland Transportation
    Communications and Utilities

    C ha p ter 15.
    1,1 Sil/l Slll'l'tra l I{l'fll'l'tall fl' .\ It'llsu rl'ml'nt
    Spectral Reflectance of a Material
    llluminanon Considerat ions
    Radiometer Con vidcruricn s

    Urban Mo1'l etJrolog ical Data


    Critical Envi ronmental Area Assessment
    Di~1S1<."f Emergency Response

    Fig u re 1 17 Book organization Iconunccdj.

    Earth Resource Anal ysis Perspective


    gap is manda tory i f \\e arc [0 use re mote sensing 10 solve
    earth resource managemen t problem s. It is unlikely that the
    user commu nity can devote the time to learn the phys ics of
    remote sensing an d methods o f ana log and/o r d igital image
    pmcl'ssing and G IS modelin g necessary to produce useful
    ercrmauon. Conversely, there is considera ble iruc rcsr on the
    echnology side o f till.' problem to build J co mmu nication
    blidgc, Therefore, one .... ay ti l decrease the size of the knowledge gap is for the remote sensing technologists to work
    IIIIlfC closely .... it h the user com munities to understand thei r
    requirements. T his w illlead to more use fu l remote senvingd.:ri\l"tl infonnation of value to the user com munities.
    Ad,at'lCes in remote sensing image delivery systems hy
    commercial firm s suc h as Googfe. lnc .. and their Coogle
    bmh application are having a tremendous impact on the
    put>lic\ use: and apprcc ianon
    remote: sensor data [Fal-

    or

    loY. s. 2006).

    Rem ot e se ns ing is used fo r numerous applicunons suc h as


    mellinll image ana lys is (e.g.. .r-ruyiug a broken arm]. nond cstrucuvc evaluat ion o f products 011 an assembl y line, and
    analy sis of Eart h rCSlJUrClS. This hook /OCII.vt',\ on the an ami
    \'delll'l' o f <l/'flh 'i"K 1"f'IIW le .\';: /IX illK{i. I/' t ill' t'xtl'll("(iml of I/,\/!Jill Earth I"f'MJlm.C illforma/ion (F igure 1-17 ). Earth resou rce
    information is defined as any mformauon conce rning terresmal vegetation, soils. minerals. rocks. water, and urban
    infrastructu re as wel l as ce rtain atmospheric characteristics.
    Such informatio n may he usefu l for modeling the global ca rbon cycle. the biology a nd biochemistry of ecosystems.
    aspec ts of the g lobal .... atcr an d enl'rgy cycle. climate van-

    abiluy and prediction, atmospheric chem istry. characterisucs of the solid Earth. population estimation. and monitoring
    land-use change and natura l hazards {Jo hannsen et al.,
    200.\I,

    32

    Book Organization

    Asra r,

    (i

    Rem ote Sensing of the Environmer

    and J. Do/ i..-r, I'N 4. EO S: Sci ,'m'l! SlrUIt''!.I' .f(

    F." rrl. Oh""Tm): :':nkm, Wood buT)'. M.-\: American Ins

    "f Physics. _H 2 p.

    , 'i

    -,
    ,

    This chapter define d 11'rmS and pro vided a perspectiv e on


    how remote sens ing scien ce can be useful for Earth resource
    mvesugauons ( Figu re \ . 17 ). Chapter 2 introd uces princ iples
    of elec tromag netic radiation and how it is used 10 perform
    remote sens ing of the envirenmen r. Chapter 3 reviews t ill'
    his tory o f p hoto grap hy, lind aerial and sarcllnc pla tforms .
    Chaptcr -! introduces aerial photography, filtratio n. and film .
    Cha pter 5 prese nts the d e ments of image interpre tation.
    Cha pter 0 reviews princip les of phorograrnmetry used to
    ex trac t quantita tive in form atio n fro m aerial photography,
    Chapter 7 reviews op tical-mec han ical remote sensing S) Ste rns. <.'hnp ter x introduces therma l infrared remote sensing.
    Ch apter 9 re vic.... s acuv e I RA DAR) and passive microwave
    re mote se ns ing , C hapter ](J introduces remote sensing using
    tight detection and ranl;i ng IUDA R ) tech nology, Chapter 11
    des cribes how remot e sc n'iing is used 10 e xtract biophysica l
    c haracteris tics o f terre strial and aquatic vcgcrauo n. Ch,lpter
    12 pro vides insight into remo te sc osio g o f .... utcr, ice. an d
    snow as well as atmospheric wate r vapor and temperature.
    Chapter 13 demonstrates how re mote s.:nsing can pro vide
    uniq ue urba n/s uburban infrastructure information. Ch apte r
    14 desc ribes ho.... selec ted soil and minera l characteristics
    may be re mote ly se nsed and ho .... major ge omorphic features
    on the su rface o f the Eart h rna) be identified . Ch apter 15
    describ es ho w ill ~i/ll spectral re flectance mcasurcmcms arc

    obta ined ,

    Auc h. R. Tay lor. J. a nd \<i. Ace vedo. 20l14. Urh,m Gm..


    .-l ",<'ri...1II Cili(".
    Gfi"'I'~..I' ,,/
    S, L'rh<tm;:ulion. Ci~
    # 1252 , Washin gton : U.S. ( ico lo;;ica l Survey . 52 .

    u.

    Haruslcy. M. 1'1"". " Dil.lital Remotely Sensed Data and 1


    Characteristics, " in Longle y, P, E.. Good child, M, F., V
    wire. D. J . and D. W. Rhind ( Eds.). G""):mphical Inl"rmu
    SI".'t'mI. N Y,: Jo hn Wi k y. 45 1 -1/'0.
    Ho ssler. J. D.. Jensen. J. R.. .\ I c\la sler. R. H. and C. Rtzos . 2(
    .\ Iumml (1 (j,'ll'f'U,i(lf Sci"II<'(" & To:ch""fuj{l'. Lo nd on: I"a:
    .~ francis. 023 r .
    Clark. K. N . 1'1'1'1. -"p",lm.I'rol',\" 01 RocK.. <llId ,1111/('l"lll." ,
    l'I'illl"iI'J.:. ,,/ SI'.. ..troscopv . Denver: U.S . Geologic al Surv
    hup:/fspecla b,c r,u.,{;s,gul'. 51!! p.
    C larke, K .C.. 2()()I, CI'/fl/lg SI"rI"d '\'JIll Gl!oJ::mp hic In /i,m,
    Ii" " Snlemt. Upper Saddle Rive r: Prenuce-Han. 353 p.

    J, B. and C. E. w oodcock . I 'N':/ . -Geosrausncat Esnm


    lio n o f Resolu tion-Dependent var iance Jl\ Remotely ,",c nS(
    hl1 oie~. - Ph"u>xn1mm ,'lric F.lIgim t'n ng & R.'m"'.. S.II.lin,

    ("o lh n~,

    6)( I j:4 I - 50 .

    Col \\ell. R. 1\;. (i.d. ). 1'1M). ,\1<11111<11 "11'!wf<>grtlphic IIIIt'q'/'l'I,


    Ii,,,, , Falls Ch urch: AS r &K5.

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    Zhan, X.. Soh fberg, R..0\., Townshe nd. J. R. G.. Di:\I iceli , (
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    Fries, !OO!. "'xlect illn of Land Cove r Cha nges Us mg :\tl
    DIS 250 m 0:11:1:' N,mol, S'!JI,>iIlX of Emin"'mt'II!. 83:33E

    3.'W.
    Zhang. Q, and J. W;lI1g, 2003. " 1\ Rule-based Urba n La nd U!
    Inferr ing Me thod fo r Fine rl'sollilion Multispec tral Imagery.
    ('<IIlad i ulI j U"1'I/ul .~r R n l1l1{<, S'II" hl,>:. 29( I f: 1-13.

    ,l

    Wo lt er. 1. A. , 1'175. Tht' f :"'<'l"g mJ; Oiw'ipfine o!'C<Jn0I:r<ll'hy,

    Min neapohs : Univc rsuy (If Minnesota . Depa rtment or (t cography, unpublished d i s~e r1 al ion .

    ,
    n

    --Jomb-

    anopy
    fEEE

    Electromagnetic Radiation Principles

    '3

    {.14
    I

    ~f,i. C.,

    oc,i ,\-10~~

    -):336 -

    J)-

    ne rgy rec orded by a remote sensing sys tem unde rgoes fundamental inte raction s that shou ld be underst ood to p roperl y interpret the remotely sensed data.
    For example. if the energy being remotely sensed co mes from th e Sun, the
    energy

    'I II Usc

    ,! gcry,"

    is radiated by atomic parti cle s atthe so urce (the Sun).


    travels th roug h the vacuum o f space at th e speed of lighl ,
    interac ts with the Earth 's atmosphere.

    interac ts wit h the Earth's SurJiK~C,


    intera cts with th e Earth's atmosphere onc e aga in. and
    finally reache s the remote sensor, where it inter acts wi th various optics,
    f he rs. Iilm emu ls ions, or detec tors.
    It is instruct ive to ex am ine eac h o f these funda me ntal interactions that clectromag nctic ene rgy undergoes as it progr esses from its source to the remote
    sensing system dctecto rt s). Underst andin g these interactions helps image
    analysts extract useful information from the remotely sensed data Ic.g.,
    Tuominen and Pekkari nen. 20{)4 ),

    Conduction , Convection, and Radia tion

    ;
    I

    Energy is the ability IIId o work, In the process of doin g work. en ergy is o tten
    tran sferred from one body 10 anot her or from one place 10 an other. The three
    basic wa ys in whi ch energy can be transferred incl ude conduction, co n..-cction , an d radiation ( Figure 2- 1). Most peop le are fam iliar with conduction
    tha t occurs when one bod y (mo lecule or atom ) tran sfers its kine tic energy to
    unmh c-r by co lliding with it This is how a metal pa n is heated by a hot burner
    on II stove. In convection, the kineric energy o f bodies is transferred from o ne
    plac e to another by physically moving the bodies. A good example is the
    hea ting ofthe air ncar theground in the morning hours. The wanner air near
    the surfa ce rises. setting up convectional curren ts in the atmosphere, which
    may produce cumulus clouds. T he transfer of ene rgy by electromagnetic
    radiation is ( I f primary interest 10 remote sensing scie nce because it is the
    only form of energy trans fe r that cau tak e place in II vacuum such a-, the
    reg ion b.:IWC<:l1 lite Sun and the Earth .

    37


    Eleclromagnet lc Radiallan Principle s

    38

    I
    Ene rgy Tra nsfer
    Pulse
    of

    C o nd uc t io n

    warm

    ai r

    Pan
    in cont ac t
    with burne r

    b.

    Rad iat ion

    Suo

    Eanh
    Electro magnetic

    c.
    Figu re 2'

    wa ve

    En" rID' rna)' be tra ns ferred three wa ys : con d uction. convecnon, and radia tion . a) EnL"'1>Y rna) be co nduc ted directly fro m OII e
    objectto another as when a pan is in direc t physical contact ..... ith a hoc burner. " 11k Sun tcmes the Earth's surface with
    rno.liant C1ICrg.\' causing the ai r ncat th e gmu nd 10 increase in IL-l1l,,,..ratu rc. Tbe less den se err rises, c rcaun g co nvectional currents in the atmos phere. c) Electromagnetic en ergy In the lim n of'electromag nenc wa ves rna)' he uan srmneo through the veeuum o f space from the Su n to the Earth.

    Electromagn etic Radiation Models

    To unders tand how elect romagnetic radiatio n is cr eated.


    how it propagates through space. and how it interacts with
    other mailer. il is usefu l to desc ribe the processes using two
    differe nt mod els: the Wll l' e mod e l and the parncle model
    (Eng le rt et al.. 1994) .

    Wave Model of Electromagnetic Energy

    In the I Hf,(fs. James Cler k M axwel] ( 183 1- I H79) co nceprualizcd ele ctroma gnet ic radia tio n ( EM R) as a n electromag netic wav e that trave ls thro ugh space at the speed oflight. It
    tonk many years lo r scientis ts like Leo n Fouca ult and A lbert
    A. Michel son 10 determine the speed uf light, c, as
    29Q,792 ,4511 meters per sec ond (i.e., m SI ), or 11l6,2112.397
    miles Sl. Th ese valu es arc o ften ge nera lized to 3 x 1 0~ m s
    1. 300. 000 km s ol or 186,000 miles s". A useful relat io n for
    quick cal cu lations is thai light travels about I It per na nesec o nd ( 10. 9 s ) ( Rinker, 1999 1. Th e electromagnetic Wlll'e co nsis ts of two Iluctuanng fie lds-c-one electric and the ot her

    magnetic (Figure 2-2 ). The two vectors are at righ t angles


    (o rt hogona l) lO one ano the r. and both are perpend icular 10
    the d irection oftrav el.
    How is an ele ctromag netic wa ve c reated'! Electromagnetic
    is gcnc nncd wheneve r an ele ct rica l charge is
    accelerated . The wavele ngth ( A) o f the electromagne tic radiarion depends upon the leng th o f time tha t the charged part icl e is accele rated. Its frequen cy (v) depends on the numbe r
    of accclcnuions pl' r sec o nd. WIII't'lel/g t h is fo rmally defined
    <IS the mean d ista nce between co nsec utive max imu ms (or
    mi nim ums ) o r a roug hly per iod ic pattern ( Figures 2-2 and 2J l and i ~ no rmally measured in microm eters (}.1m ) or nanomerers ( nm ). Ffl! III/I'/!()' is the number of wavelengths that
    pass a point per unit lime. A wa ve that se nds one crest by
    every second (completing on e cycle ) is sai d to have a h equency o f one cyc le per second. o r o ne 11I:rt:. , abbre viated I
    liz. Freq uen tly used measures of'wcvclengrh an d freque ncy
    are fo und in Table 2-1.

    nuuauon

    The relatio nsh ip be tween the wavel ength (A) and freque ncy
    IV) o f electromagnetic radi ation is based on the fo llowi ng
    formula. where c is the speed of light (Roll. 2(00):

    ,
    ,

    39

    Electromagneti c Radi ati on Mod el s

    Electrumaanctic wave
    ~I

    Figure 22

    An elccwomaguctic wavc is composed of toot h electric and maJ!}wt i~' vectors that are llI1hot;"nal (at 'lO" angie'S ) to one another.
    The "'a \ c~ tnne! trom the source OIl the speed of hgh t (.' )< IU' m ~ 't .

    c ' A.\' .

    (!-l J

    ,. . ,.

    (22 )

    aturc j. The total emi tted radia tio n from a blackbody (.\{..)
    me asured in wall s per m ' ~ is proportional to the fourth power
    o f its absolute temperature (n measu red in kelv in (K). Th is
    is known ;I S the S'(:f;",~HlJ"=/II<11111 law and is ex press ed as
    ( RO IL 20 ( 0) :

    (:! -Jf

    ( 2-.4)

    ~.

    "d
    i. =

    ,.
    v

    Note that frequency is im'f/ w ly proponionalro wavelengt h.


    This n:latiollship I~ sho\.\ n diagrumrtuuicully in Fig ure 2-3,
    where the lllngl'l' the w:1YCkngl h. the lowe r the frequency :
    the shorter the wavelen gth , thc highe r t he frequency When
    eleuromagnetic radiauon pa,scs from one substanc e 10
    another; the speed of light and wavelength cha nge \\ hile the
    frequen cy! remains the same.

    All objects above ab solute zer o (- 27YC or 0 K) e mit clc cmimagnetic en ergy. incl ud ing water, so il, roc k. vegetation,
    and the surface o f the Sun. T he Sun rep resents the initial
    source of most o f the elec tromagnetic energy recorded b)"
    remote sensing systems (e xcept RADAR. UDAR. and
    SO\AR ) (figure 2-,-1; Color Plato: 2-1 ). We ma y think of rhc
    Sun as a 5770 (,000 K bl<ldbo r (a theoret ica l construct
    thai absorbs an d radiat es energy al the max imum possib le
    rate per unu are a at eac h v. a \e kn ~t h j},l for a given temper-

    whe re rris the Ste fa n-Boltzmann constant. 5.M197 x 10-" W


    m' ! K ~ . Th e irnportnnt thin g 10 remember is that the amount
    cf l"nergy emitted by an pbjct.: t such a s the Sun or the Earth

    is a function or its temperature. The g router the temperatu re.


    the greater the amount of radium ene rgy exiting the obj ec t.
    The umoum o f energy emitted by an object is computed by
    summi ng (i ntegrating ) the area under its curvc (Figure 2-5)_
    It is d ea r fmm this illust ration that the tota l em itted rad iation
    from the W OO K Sun is far greater than that e mitted by the
    J OO K Earth.
    In addiuon to comp uting the tot al amo unt o f energy exiting
    a theoret ical blac kbody s uch as the Sun. we can dete rrrune
    its domi nant wllwkngth (A....~ ) based on Wiel/ ~ di~l'lt1ci!
    /I/\"II( lu ll':

    (2 -5 )

    ,
    Electromagnetic Radiation Prin c iples

    40

    In verse KdatiUlhh ip lt erw eeu

    WaH'I\'II~lh

    a nd

    l:n'IjU l'II (,~'

    ,,
    (" r <"1 Of
    m a~ lmllm

    Trough or rrummurn

    -'

    ;~.~--, ---.'

    Relarr.el)'.Jlorter wa\elenglh
    -l
    J
    2
    1

    Figu re 2-3

    Ib is cross-....-cuon o f several ckctrumagn dic wac L"!> ilIu.traIL'S th,,' inverse rdalil,">hip between w3\c1cnglh 0.)antl fn."lucncl
    (v ) Th e longer the wavelength. rhc jower the frequency: Ihl." snort er the '" avc l...ngt h. lht' hig her the frequenc y. The amp htude
    of an elcctromagncnc wave is Ihe hciglu of the \\ ave crest ;,100 \1: Ihe u ndeturb.."tl posuron. Succe ssive wave crests alt" numbcrcd I. 1. J, a nd -I, An observer at the po sition of the clock R"l.'"nfd~ th... number or crests tha t pa vs by in a second. Tl1 i< 1'",.
    q ucnc y is measured in cycles PL'T ....-coud. ur 11<'1"/;:.

    Tmnsmission
    ul"rudiancn

    utthe speed
    of ligbt j "

    Figure 24

    The thc rm,muclcar fll~i'lfi taking pl;lC\' nn th... sur lace of'th e Sun yields a c"nt inll"u~ spectrum o f electromagncnc enefb'Y. I be
    5770 _ t>t ~ )() kelv in I K I tem pe rature of this prueess pru.Iut:,'lo a la rge amount of rd<l lh d ) ..hort wa velength enc rg~ tha t tra v..ls
    throug h the vac uum of spa,-e al the ,peed o f light . So me o r thi ~ t n" r!!) is inte rcepted toy the Ea rth. '" here it interacts with tile
    alnl"sph..-rc and su rface materials. Th e Eart h r..lkl' ls ",1111" "I' the ..ner~y d lrl'Ctl) bec k OUl IOspa ce Of it may ahso rb the s hon
    '" ;l\dcngth cnt:'fg>" and then ,...~mil il at a longer wavelength tatte r Slrah ler ,tnt! Stra h ler, l <IS~ )_

    ...
    Electro magnet ic Radiati on Models

    41

    WJ \ d <,n glh and frequency sta ndard units o f


    measuremen t.

    n:~ ...

    ,,'

    '--i , '

    .r

    Wavelength p..)
    kilomete r (k m)

    LOOOm

    meter trm

    I.Om

    millimeter (mill)

    O.OCII m - IO" lll

    ,,'

    .)
    "-\
    ,

    0.00000000 \

    '.

    Angstrom ( ..\ )

    10
    <:

    Frequen cy (cycle s per second)

    "

    kilohertz (kill)

    itude
    1'1111'0-

    ,,,, f-i .t- I- I

    2lNR kim K
    flnOIl K

    Ekrtromagncnc energy from the- Sun tra vels in II min utes


    across the intervening 93 mi llion m iles ( I ~ (J mi llio n km) (If
    ljIaCe to the Earth. As shown in Figure 2-5 . the Earth
    lIpprOlimatl.'s a 300 K (2rc ) blackbody and ha s a domin ant
    'l\ e1mgth at approximately 9.66 um:
    ~t.6

    . Th e

    , vels
    rh che
    short

    I.l

    - ~

    2~9:-< J.lrn K
    ]OO K

    "Ithough the Sun has a domina nt wa velength at OAt; um, il


    produces a continuous spectrum of electromagnetic radiacon rangi ng from very Sh1'l1. extremely hig.h-freljllcney
    gamma ami cosm ic waves to long, very-low -frequency radio
    waves (Figures 2-() and 2-7 ). The Earth intercepts only ,I

    ,-

    I(/}{) K

    IJl(ll U KXl.OIl(l '" 10"

    II'

    r,

    It

    '"

    1IKre.l; is a constant L't/ualin~ 2898 11m Kmd T is the absolute temperature in kelvin . There fo re. a, the Sun approxi illites a 6000 J..: blackbody. its dominant wavelength ti......, I
    1S 0A83 u rn:
    ='

    1\

    1.000.000 '" lit

    s fr ...

    (JA S3 ~ m

    -,',-

    ...

    ~,

    bclu(Hz)
    ency

    ,
    , .\

    "

    I-'- ~

    10,4 m

    J t ~ lO

    \\,

    0.0oo1 ... 10"" m

    IUn..me ter (nm l

    60011K Sll n

    o(~

    JOlI K Fan h

    A\\\ ,t

    K Dry ice

    ,
    m

    ~~~ 'r'
    100

    WOO

    \\ ... tlc lIJ,:l h. J.1 rn

    Figure 2-5

    Hl addlllJ~

    r,IJ iatil-n curles for sev eral obj ......., I,. in-

    eluding the Su n .111d Ihc Eart h. which ar pfll\ imale

    emn K and jnn K hL1d.h.J<.!ics. rcspccuvcly, The


    arl' a under each curve I1h l> ' be summed In o:nm[liite
    tIle' 1<11al r.uliant o:n<:rgy ( .\1,) c\ilinj.! each ob jec t
    ( f' qu<lli" n 2-4). TIms. u.e Su n pr"duces mnre rad iant c xuance than the L m h I>cO:ilU';': Jl" temperature
    is grea ter. '\ 1' the temperature of an ullJl'CI mcrca......s.
    il.. . dommant wa velengt h 0..... I shi n . . toward the
    "h" rt.. ,. . " 3\'ekn,L:lhli of Ihe lipo.:ctf\lTn.

    very small port io n of the elec tromagnetic energy produced


    by the Sun .
    A<; men tio ned in Chapter I. in remote- sensing resea rch wectteu SIll:dl) u part icular regi on ofthe elec tromagnetic spectrurn k.g.. red lig ht ) by ident ifying a begin ning and ending
    Voa Vl"kn g l h lor frequency] and then attaching a devc riptinn.
    This wav elength (or trcqucucy) irucrval ill the electro.nag-

    42

    ("11.-\ 1' 1 t: R

    Table 2-2.

    Electromagnetic Radiation Pri nciples

    Meth ods of describing the color SPCClnJnl (a h a r.;~"'>all . 1'11(1 I.

    Wavelength Descriptions

    Energy Descriptions

    (lLm)

    Frequen c y
    (Hz x 1 0 '~ )

    Wave
    Number
    ( ", e m")

    Electron Volt
    (e V) = 12401 A

    254

    O,~; 4

    11)( 2

    3t,l AIIIl

    4./N

    " ./l1>O

    .1M

    0 .306

    lUI}

    21.300

    3.39

    Violet (l imilf

    4 ,000

    400

    0.40

    75 0

    25.()()(l

    3.10

    Bill':

    4.500

    45 0

    11.45

    n.M

    22.21)(J

    2.75

    0,=

    5,000

    SilO

    051)

    b.OO

    :W.Ol,lO

    l AS

    ( ; reffi

    5.~UO

    5>0

    0.55

    5.-15

    IlC:!OO

    2.25

    Yellow

    5,800

    "0

    o.ss

    5.17

    17,240

    2.14

    Orang...

    (>,0110

    (,IMI

    tI.(>I )

    5.00

    16.70(}

    2.06

    .'"

    6.500

    650

    O.M

    -I.tll

    IS,4ilO

    I.q l

    Red ( tim in~

    7.(l/\(1

    70n

    u.m

    L~<j

    14.Jotl

    1.77

    Infra red , nc ar

    IO,OOll

    .oeo

    1.0

    l.OO

    10.000

    1.24

    .'11.00

    0 .10

    3.n

    0 ,11-11

    Ang st rom
    IA)

    Nanomet er
    (nm)

    Micrometer

    sv>

    2,537

    Llltravielct . ,...

    Colo....

    Ultraviolet.

    Infrared. far

    300.0110

    30,OOll

    --r}piCOI I values onl)': I... ... long '" avclcngth; ' ''' - shon wavelength . bt-: ' ac i limn ..Jcpen..b <'II tho: ot>.....rver. light inten' tl}. e~e adapuunm.
    and oth er factors . ' The wal'e number \ 1jI) is the number uf '" uves ill Hunit kllglh (u-ually p...r ern). There fore. 'r 1 I ;l.lcmj ~ w .ono I ;l.
    (jJm )

    I OO.OOO. OllO/ A(A ) in cm l .

    netic spectrum i~ commonly referred 10 as a bund, chw lJI"!.


    or region. The majo r subdivisions of visible light are ..urn rnnrized in Table 2-2 and presented diagra mmat ically in Figure 2-7 a nd COIM Plate 2-1. We ge nera lly th ink of visi ble
    lig ht as be ing compo sed ofenergy in the blue (0.4 - 0.:" um I.
    green {O.5 - O. t. u rn], and red (O.t. ~ 0.7 urm hands ofshe
    electro magnetic spectru m. Reflec ted ncar-infra red energy In
    the regio n from n.j to I .] urn is common ly used to expose
    b lack -and -white and color-infrarcd -sens u.ve 111m.

    Tho: m idd le-i n fra red reg ion [o ften referred (0 as the short
    ....avelc ngth in frared, S \VIRI inclu des energ) wit h a wavelen gth of 1.3 to J um. The thermal in frare d reg ion has two
    ve ry use ful bands at 3 10 5 um and ~ ro 14 u rn. Thc, m ic'ro....ave por uon o f the spectrum co nsists of muc h longer \"01\ elengths ( I rom - I m}, The rad io-...ave pornun o f t he

    spectrum may be subdivided into UHF. VI IF. radu ( !-I F). LF,
    and 1I1.1. freq uencies.
    The spectral resol ut ion of most remote .....nsing system-, is
    described in terms o f ban ds of'the electromagnetic spectrum,
    For cxamp le. the spectral d imc nston s of the four bands of
    the Landsat Muhispcc tral Scanner ( MSS) and SPOT High
    Resolution Visible (I IRV ) sen sors arc shown in F igu re 2-8.
    alon g with the ~ra tial rcsolu uon o f each ha nd for compari.
    so n. The exert Landsat MSS and S POT hand speciflcancns
    are provided in Cha pter 7
    Electre mugn etic energy may he de scribed not only in te rms
    ofw avelength and freq uency bULalso in pho ton ene rgy units
    suc h a s jo ules ( J) and electro n volts (e V). as sho wn in Fig ure
    2- 7. Se veral of the more important mass, en<;." rg~. and power
    convers ions arc summarizc-d in Table 1-3.

    43

    Electromagnetic Rad iatIon Models

    "
    ,I--+-+!H nrt-+
    .
    ,,.
    ,,
    -+
    r ++tlH
    ~,
    ,
    lJllrlI'lol<'l

    lt-

    ,It
    A

    Table 23,

    Sun-tll-Eartll ilkom ing short...avclcegth radiation from


    6000 I\: Sun wnh a oo minam
    "'8\ck ngth " f O.4X ~m

    .I

    .~

    Co nversion from Engli sh to 51 Units

    Eanh-ro-spcce
    eminoo Iong" 8\ ckn ll'lh
    r;uji:l1;on

    \1,l"-S. c",:rgy, and powe r conversions.

    l'rom

    300 K E:1l1h
    ...,lb a Jomil!Olnt
    ""a\ e1a1l1'lh

    , +-+H-+~ - (lf q MJim

    ,+++H _At-'+-+----1

    To l::~ I :

    '\ I uhi pl y :

    U,':

    new rons'

    pou nUs

    4.4-tS

    JOIJl~b

    fHUs<

    1055

    joules

    ClI k,ne'!

    4.184

    jo ules

    kilow alt-h~<

    3.6 ~ 100

    joules

    (OVI_ pou nd.sf

    1.3 ~6

    joules

    horsepower'

    745. 7

    00

    "
    FlQure 2-6

    rion,

    ) 0..

    100

    111e Su n approximates a (,l JOl) K blal;kOOd~' with a


    dominant a .:leng th oh bou t 0 ..11'\ ~ m _ Th e Earth
    epproxunat a JO() K bla.:ltotid y ... nh a dom inant

    I' a\'cknglh of about Q.t'(, p m The 00011 K Sun prod uces ap proxunately 4 1 ~. o f ils cn<:l"gy in the visiI:>Ic region fro m 0.4 10 0 .7 j.l m (h lue . grc...n. , " nJ fl.-d
    light). T11<." other S<J"I. of ih... l."ncrgy is in wavek nglhs s horter than hlue light ("'0.4 j.lm l and lo nger than red light (.>11.7 u nn. Our eyes are only
    M:ll~ i l i ,,: to light fnuu 0.4 1<10, 7 ~lll (after Stra hler
    and Strahler. l,>x'> J. Fortunately. II is possible to
    make remote sensor del ~'Clol'S sensitive 10 ellergy in
    lh...s... nunvisihl... r... gil'l)'; o f the spct:lmm .

    Conversion from 5 1to Eng lish Units

    To 1':...1:

    '\I ulliplF

    8, :

    urus

    Jou le'!

    O.()()(N5

    calori...s

    joules

    0.2390

    kilowa tt-hours

    jllu lc~

    ~.7 1l '\ 10.7

    Ioot-pounds

    joule'!

    0 .73 75

    hurs<:powl.'l

    wa tts

    0.00134

    "n"wl""; 1"r,,1," tlC\.'J <-d'" ~" "" k'a\" a rna, . or I kit I>y. t rn .. :

    ~j"u k:;' Ii",:" "r I n"" lUn '''hngl h" ,,,!,:h I mel"r
    ' Urll"h lh"rmul ul" l. <OJ III U; e""tll) r''<l ui,cd In rui,,, the {"rnf""l"alurc " I' I ""lmd " I' walell>y I ,k~r...... Fanrenhe tt.
    "~l, ,, il; ,n,''iY f'l.'q <url"l l" raj",

    "I'" 01'" I>y I d"li' "'' Cd,,,,",

    I . t.r,

    the lelll!",TlIlllr, "r 1 ki lc>gr.uu

    <~ il,'w,lllh",1" I ( ~~) j""k.

    The Partic le Mod el: Radiation from Atomic Struc tures


    ns is

    rum.
    Is of
    High
    2-R,

    p ari.io ns

    -rms
    mns

    gure
    vcr

    r':' " ".,,,d Ii>r I hUl l'.


    fr( ~'I-I" 'ILl"I: " 10<":,, " I' I 1"',,nJ ,,,,un ~ thwug b I Ii"Jl,
    'lInrM'I"'.. "r: ~~(I t; ~'I I".\", d , rcr ,,,,,,,,,.1 .

    In Oplich ( 17114 ). Si r Isaac New to n stated that lig ht was a


    uream of pan icl es. or corp uscl es. trave ling in straig ht lines.
    He also knew tha t lighl hud wa veli ke cha ractc nsrics bused
    en his work with g lass plates. Neverth eless. during the t w o

    a parncular kind of mailer {Fein berg, 1 <) ~ 5 ) , T hus . we


    somcumcs describe electromagnetic en ergy in terms o f its

    hundred yea rs before [<)1)5, ligh t was tho ugh t primarily as


    3 smooth and cont inuous wave. T hen . Albe n Einste in
    (187Q...- 1955 ) fo und lhal wh en lig ht interacts w ith e lect ro ns,
    it hil!o a ditlcrcru charac ter (I: i ~u re 2 1)). t ic concluded that
    when light interacts wi th rnauer. it behaves as tho ugh it is
    composed of many individua l bodies call ed photons, which
    -Jf!)' ouch pa rucle- hke pro pe rties as e nerg y and mo me ntum
    [Meadows, 1992 ). As a TCSUIt , most physicists today would
    an~wcr t he question. " \\ hat is Iighl "!"' "y say ing that light is

    1/11<1"'<1,

    or

    wuvcllk c prope rties. But wh e n the en ergy inte racts with mat-

    tcr, it is usctulro describe it as discrete packets o f energy. or


    [I is prucueal til re view how clecr romagnenc ene rgy
    is ge ne rated at the atomic level ; th is pro vides insight as 10
    how lig hl interac ts With matter.

    Ele ctrons ar e the tin y ncg ari vely cha rged particles that move
    around the posiuvely c ha rged nucle us (If an atom (Figure 1 10). Ato ms o f d ifferent subs tances arc made up of varying

    numbers ofelec trons arranged in different

    W:J y S .

    The inter-

    action between the pocmvely c harged nu cleus and the nega-

    44

    CH\ I'1 t :U

    Electromagn etic Radiati on Prin cip les

    Electromagnetic Spectrum and th e

    Photon Energ)' or Visible Ugh.

    Wavelength

    in meters ( Ill)
    10. 12

    Photon energ y of
    visible lig ht in
    electron volts (cV)

    Gamma

    Photon wavelength
    in nanometers ( 11m)

    ~.()

    and X-ray

    Ultraviolet

    3.5

    Su n

    U hrav ;0'"

    Ea rth

    3.10

    3.0

    Visible

    I (). f,

    Infrared
    10-1

    ,. o ~

    "(N'

    Vio let limi t

    2.75 -ISO

    Bl ue

    1.-1R 500
    2.25 550
    2.1-1 5RO

    Green

    2.U6
    1.9 1
    1.77

    Green limit

    Ydl{l"

    eoo

    Oranuc

    Red co
    Red limit

    650
    70 0

    1.5

    Ncar-in fra red

    1.24 IOOU
    1.0

    Micro wave and


    rad io waves

    0.-11

    J Ok-/;--

    -+ Far-infrare d

    10

    Figu re 2- 7

    0.5

    Til... CkClto l1l'lgndic spectrum and the rh"1<1I' ",n,' '1'Y "f\i~i h lc light. The Sun produc es a conunu ou-, spectrumof .'l1crgy from
    ~ a llll11a

    l1s in~

    rays

    ttl

    radio wave s 10m w nlil1l1all}' bathe th.. Eart h in

    "'Ilcr~y.

    I h... visibl c port ion o fthe spe ctrum ma y be me asured

    " 'lVcknglh l1l1C" "llfC'J in micrumctc rc or l\"n" mclc'rs. i.e., ~ Ill " r lUll) Ilr ele ctron VOII, leV),

    l i~ d)' cha rgvJ electron k...... ps th~' electron in orbit. Whik its
    orbit is not e xplici tly fi xed, each elec tron's r uction i ~
    restric ted to a defi nite range from the nucleus. The allowable
    orbital paths of clc-ctrons moving around an alum might be
    thoug t n of as energy classes or le vels (Figure 1-lOa l. In
    o rder tor an electron to climb 10 a higher class. work must be
    performed. 110.... C\ e r, unle ss a n a mount of c nerg) is available to move the elec tron up at least one energy le\ cl. it wil l
    acce pt nil \\I 'Tk. If a sutfici c nt a moun t of energy is received.
    the c lcxtron will jump to 01 nc w 1~~, c1 and the urom i~ said to
    he (' rcitcd (F igure 2- IOh). Once an elec tro n is in a higher
    orbi t. it PIISSt'ssc s pote ruialcn ergy. A tie r about I (r ~ secon ds.
    the electron 11\1 1> bad , to the atom's 10 west empty ener gy

    leve l or nrh il and gives 0 11" radiation (F igure 2-I Oc). The
    w evclcng jh of radiatio n gi\ en o il' is a function ofthe amount
    (If w ork dune o n the atom. i.c., the q uantu m of energy' il

    absorbed 10 cause the e lect ron ltI becorn e e xcited and move
    to a higher orbu.

    Elec tron orbits are like the rungs of a ladder. Addi ng energy
    moves the elect ron up the energy ladder; cm iuin g energy
    move'S it down . Howe ver, the elwl);)' ladder differs from an
    ordinary ladder in that its rungs are unevenly spaced . This
    means that the . . nc rgy all electronneeds to absorb. or 10 g ive
    lip. in o rder 10 jump from one orbit 10 the next may no t be the

    Is

    45

    Electromagnetic Radiation Model s

    10m

    Iligh Resolution
    Visihle IHRVj
    Sensor

    NIR

    si

    Alber-t Einstein

    SPOT 3

    Landsat
    79m

    7:

    Ncar-

    \iuhi~po:clrnl

    infrar ed

    ScannertMSS j

    band 4
    05

    0.6

    0.7 OJ'!

    U,'ll

    1.0

    1.1

    Wa\o:Icn~lh .lJ.m

    Fqure2-8

    UI

    ~d

    - from
    rsurcd

    Th C'
    roun t
    gy it
    nove

    The nom inal spcctn..1 !>dnd" idths o f the iJ>dis'idu.:t!


    bands of rh.. Land ....t MSS lind SI'() r III~.\" sen"'lf
    syMcms arc Mlmmari"l-d along the abscissa. The
    "JliIlial resoluuon of eac h individua l hand is , 00\\ n
    tin lhe ordinate ask

    same as ure t nerg> cha nge needed fo r some other step. Furlhmoorc. an electron docs nu l nec essa rily usc consecutive
    IUlIgs.ln~lead. it follows what ph ys ic ists call .\e!f'ctirl/1 rules,
    In man)' cases. an electron us.:s one seq uenc e of rungs as it
    climbs the ladder and another sequence as it descends [NaslaU, 1983: IQl(4). Th e energy that is left O\ 'Cr wh en the electrically charged elect ron moves from an e xcited state I Fig ure
    2lOb) to a de-excited state ( Figure 2-1 nc ) is emitted by the
    310m a, a single packet o f electro magnetic radiat ion , a pa ni cle-likeunit o f light ca lled a p l/uMI/. livery rime an electron
    jumps from a highlo r to a lo w er en ergy level. a phot on moves
    allay at the speed o f light ,

    Somehow an elec tro n rnu,t d isappear fro m its o rigin al orbit


    and reappear in its dest ination orbit ..... ithnut ever havin g to
    reverse any of the positions ill be tween. This process is
    tailed a 1/11'111111/11leap M ' 11/1/11(/ 111/ j IIlII fI , If Ihe- elecrron le:1ps
    flOm ils highest excite d sta te to till' groun d stare in a sing le
    leap. it will emir a single photon ot'cncrgy. [ I is a lsu possible
    for the electron to leap from an excited Moit to the ground
    nne in ,I series (If ju mps t c.g ., fro m ..\ to 2 to I ), I f it takes
    tw o leaps to gl't to the ground state. then eac h of'rhcsc jumps
    \I'ill emil photons o f somewhat less energy. The ene rgies
    emiued in the two jumps must sum to the total of the single
    large jump (Trcfll and Hazen. 1995),

    Frgure2-9

    \I hcn 11"~lem
    ('"ngr,-" )

    I II( N-l lj5511,'OUno:s~

    Libra!) of

    the frequency uf rad iatiun e\pre,s<."d by wave theory and the


    quantum is:

    12-6)

    wh ere (J is the energy of a quantu m meas ure d in joules. h is


    till: Planck constant (6 .626 x 1O ~4 J s], and v is the frequcncy ofthe radiat ion (Figure 2-11) Re ferring to Eq uation
    2-.\. we can multiply the equat ion hy h.h; or I, without
    dlil ng ing its value :

    he
    !Iv .
    Hy sUhSl illlting

    (2 -7)

    IJ

    for II V (from Equation 2-6), we can


    witha 4 u<UltUI11 ill' energy

    ex press the wa velength associa ted

    ,I, :

    A : he
    Q

    (1- 1<)

    '"
    Q

    he

    (2- 9 )

    erg}'

    l'rgy
    n an
    This
    gi ll,"
    e the

    " id s Bohr{ 1111\5-1'1(2) and Max Planck recognized the dismte nature ofexchanges o f radia nt energy and propo sed the

    of electr omagneti c radiation. Th is theory


    that energy is transferred in disc rete packers call ed
    qwnta or photons. as d isc ussed . Th e relationship between

    1pI01/Ilim theory
    Slale~

    r hus, we SC'e thai the ene rgy of a quant um is inversely proponional to its wavelength, i.c.. the longer the wavele ngth
    involved. the lowe r its energy content. T his inverse relation..hip is important to re mote sensing because it suggests tha t
    it is mo re d illicuh to detectlonger-wavelength .:nergy be ing
    emi tted at thermal infrared wavelcngths than those at shorter

    4.

    CJ l;\ PTt: K

    C rea tion

    Electromagnelic Radiation Principles

    or Lig ht from Atomlc r a rticles a nd th e Photoelectri c Effect

    i
    \

    Electron

    "(0

    J
    4

    /)~xdt/lljrm

    Excitation

    Grou nd st ate

    Photon of light is
    em itted when an
    elec tron drops from
    a higher energy state
    10 a lowe r energy state

    quantum lea p
    c.

    photon is a bsorbed

    b.

    Em iss ion o f
    <1 11 elec tron
    currying the

    of ligh t

    is absorbed

    same amount
    of energy

    3
    Pholo..J..ctric t:JJn:1
    d.

    Figure 2-10

    a-c) A phoion of elcc tromagneuc enefl!:} is emrued w hen an electron In an atom or molt,"('\Jled rops (rom a higher~ SlaU
    10 3 lower-energy stale. The light emilled (i.e. its w;l\ cknglh ) is a function of the changes in the .'ncrg)' levels of the outer.
    ' <l ienee electron. For cvarnplc. ye llow tiltht IS produ ced from a sodium vapor lamp In Figure 2 12. d) "bner ca n also be subj eered In such high te mperatures that electrons. "' hich normally move in Cllpt ur~-d. nonradiating o rbits. arc broken fr~'(: . \.Vh~'lI
    this happens.jhe atom re ma ins with a posuivc c harge equalto the ucgauvcly charged electron thal esca ped, The e lectron be.
    comes a free electron. and the atom is culled an ion . If another fr~"1: elec tron fi ll ~ lhe vacant CIl<.:lgy level created by the free
    electron. then radiation nom all wa vele ngths is prod uced. i.e.. a contin uous spectrum o f energy, Th... intense hear at the surface
    of'thc Sun produccsn conti nuous spectrum in th is marine r.

    visible wa ve lengths. In fact. it m ig ht be necessary 10 have


    the sensor loo k at or dwelllonge r on the parcel of ground if
    ..... e a re try ing 10 measure the longer .....avelength e nergy,
    S ubstance!' have color because of differences in their enl"TgY

    leve ls and the selection rules, Fur example. consider energized sodium vapor that produces a bright yellow light that
    is used in some street lamps. When a sodium vapor lamp is
    turned on. severalthousand volts of electricity ene rgize the
    vapor. The ou te rmo st e lectron in e ach ene rg ized atom of
    sodium vapor climbs to a highcr rung on the energy ladde r
    and then returns down tbc ladder in a certai n seque nce of
    ruugs.jhc lust two of wh ic h are 2. 1 eV apart ( Fig ure 2-12 ).

    The energy released in this la"t leap appears as a photon 01


    yello w light with a wa velength of 0 .58 u rn w ith 2. 1 eV 01
    eTk'tg) (~ a s"llU. I ~S 3) .

    Matter ca n he heated to such h igh temperatures tha t elccIrons. that normally move in captured. ronradianng ortnts
    break free. This is, ca lled the p hotoelectric e.Uec1 (J-"ig ure 2
    IOd). when this happens. the atom rema ins with a pll!>iti\e

    charge equal 10 the nega nv ely charged electron thai escaped


    The electron becomes a free electron and the atom is ca lled
    an ion . In the ultraviolet and visible (blue. green. and red)

    parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. radiation is prod uced


    by chang es in the e nergy le vels of rhe c urer valence clcr-

    47

    Atmospheri c Ene rg y-Matter Int era ction s

    " 'n'IIU I'II Q


    ( III )
    tW'U-

    w'-

    _I.

    I tr~"' -

    410

    "

    1O-!~-

    ",'-

    111"27_

    'll ' -

    llf!b-

    [07 _

    IO-H -

    Wl l _

    1O-!4-

    10'110 11>_

    10- 22 -

    10 " _

    w "ll _

    10

    U1"2O-

    11I 1 l _

    10- 19_

    12-

    10 14 -

    l oI ~-

    IO I~-

    1'-1"1 7_

    101(, _

    1
    10 " 1017_

    lU-I~-

    101~-

    10- 14_

    1lI1"'_

    10-'-'_

    lrr!U-

    , state

    outer.
    esuo,l.'hen
    ,n bee free
    rtacc

    In

    of

    Vo l'

    clcc-

    rbus
    re 2

    nive
    pcd.
    uled

    re-d)
    Ked

    -lec-

    Figure 2-11

    Lons ...

    ,,'

    IOOlmIOlm _
    lkm lhd ~ ,

    l oom IOm-

    ' m-

    ,=' mmArnm l-fu rnm I l1m - W"b m _

    rn . . . 1-&..1"" -

    10-' 1tJtI -

    A hso rptio n
    h' a tmn..phere

    ....,t",

    ItllJUl m -

    IOcm -

    10, 2] _

    "I)'P'" or
    r adia lion

    \ \ an-h."ngt h
    (A)

    ", -

    11.- 1

    10"11",1O 1Zm-

    "'.....

    ..........."" r

    In atoms and mo lecu les. electron orbual cha nges produce


    the shortest- wa vele ng th rad iat ion, molecule vibraucnal
    motion changes produce nc ar- and/or middle-infrared
    energy. and rota tiona l million changes produce long-wav e-

    ."1.TV

    ....
    I

    Radio

    window

    """"" ...

    t nrro...,.j

    I
    --_._--_
    .\I,i"'r
    . . . ... . . . . . .
    --....................

    Dpucal wind ow

    Ull,n",kt

    I
    X r. )

    C;..,,"'~ ra)'

    Th e eOl'ryy of (lU:lnta (photons) ranging from gamma ray, to radio W[l V':S

    Irons, The wavelengths of I."rlerl;Y produc ed arc a func tion (If


    Ihe particular orbitallevels ofthe electrons involved in the
    excitation process. If thc atoms abso rb enough energy In
    become ionized an d i f it Frce electron d rops in to fill rhc
    vacant energy level. then the radia tion g iven orr is unqu antired and a ('O/1/111I1IJ1/1' ,I'{'eelm lll is produced rather than <I
    band nr a series o f hand. " Every encounter o f o ne o fthe Ih:1;'
    electrons with a positively charged nucleu s causes rapid ly
    changi ng ele ctr ic an d magne tic fields, so that radiation at all
    wav elength s is produced The hot surface II I' the Sun is
    largdy a plasma in which radia tion o f all wavele ngths is
    produced. As previousl y shown in figure 2-7, the spectrum
    (Ifa plasma like the Sun i ~ co ntinuous.

    U l
    tn,..l.,:a>l

    In

    the elect romagnetic spectrum.

    length infrared or microwave radiation. More will he said


    about how therma l infrared radiation is produced and
    recorded hy remote sl'nsing systems in Chapter X(Thermal
    lnfrured Remote

    Sl; ns in~ ) .

    Atmosp heric Energy -Matte r Interaction s

    Ru<Ji'1II1 ene,xy is the capacity of radiation within a spectral

    band 10 do work, Onc e electromagne tic radiation is gc ncrated. it is propagated throug h the Earth 's atmosphere almost
    at the speed o f hg ht in a vacuum. Unlike a vacuu m in wh ich
    nothing ha ppens. how e ver. the atmosphere ma y affect not
    onl y the slX'~'d of radia l ion hut also its wavele ngth. its inren"it}. and its spec tral distri bution . T he electrom agnetic redia tion rna) also be diverted from its original d irection due 10
    refracuo n.

    49

    Atmospher ic Ene rg y -Matter Inte ract ion s

    ~-IU)

    ~JlCcd

    Incident
    rad iant l' IIC fg)'

    mU!> 1

    frac-

    ~a1er.

    liter's

    Optically
    IIK~ dense
    atmosphere

    f\nmlill III

    the surface

    .,

    0 ,. o;lral'''I,hnic a.:ro""ts
    nl ""index of
    refraction

    this laye r of
    the atmosphere

    energy

    of

    "

    I :Jn~

    ~-

    r2 )

    mill

    hum

    wi ll
    relaana-x o f

    I ( ~'"

    J.-c

    10 l m

    Il~ . ('{) 1. trJCC ga-e o;

    In

    Ga,

    atmosphere

    "

    le5s dense
    atmosphere

    .,
    Path of energy affected
    0)' atmospheric refract ion

    Rgure 213

    scalh:ringl

    11 10. lrorosrh.." ;C a..TO"<>I~

    TClTliin Surf.......,

    FIQure 2- 14

    Optically

    molcrul~ (R.3y....igh

    Op tically
    more de nse
    atmocphcrc

    nadc

    .tmosity).
    lcusc
    cuon
    high
    rrors
    svcd.

    "

    h OmogCIlC'OU5

    a-u )

    ehcrc
    ~ i lh a
    gated

    kt

    .,

    P-.llh \If

    that
    mcc.

    the
    D the

    ~II

    for

    Refraction in IhTlX" nonmrbulcr u 'lIOl" ,phcric layers. Th e irKldc nt energy is rem Fnuu iL, normaltra jl'Ch l ry liS it travels [rum on e atmospheric layer 1(\
    another. Snell's law call be u,."11 10 predict how
    mud! t>,.-ndin g willtnk c place. hascd on a knowleUI!-":" I the anl,:lc uf mcrdcncc Oil and the mdex or
    rcfr,1\:ti<>ll <>1' c<lc'h umue.phcric Ic\ d . III . .md " , .

    retlecnon in rh.u the direct ion associated with Sl'altcri ng is


    enprcdicrablc. whereas the direc tion of re flection (10 be
    detmed shortly) is prcdicrahlc. There arc essen tia lly three
    typ.;s Ill" scaucn ng : Ray lei gh, Mie. ,1IlU nons elc ct i vc sca ttering, Major subJ ivisiuns of the atmos phere and the types of
    molecules and aerosols tound in each laye r arc show n in Figure 2-1-IIMilkr an d Vcnnore. 20M). l'h... relative siLe o f the
    wavelength o f the indde1lt electromagnetic radiation. the
    diameter of the gases. water vapor, and 'o r dust wit h which
    the energy interac ts. and the I) pe of scattering lha t sho uld
    occur arc sunnuur izcd in Figure 2-15.
    Rm lel~h .1(..JII cr;flX totten referred [0.) as IIIfJ"CIII,lr .IC<1Il,:rIilg l occurs "hen the e ffect e diamet er of the mailer tus uall~ air mole cu k... suc h as o\yg<,n <I nd nitrogen in the
    IllIIOSphere l arc many t ime s sma ller Iusuall ) < 0.1) than the

    \lajor ~IINt i\i~ ions ofthe attuosp bere and the types
    of m,.kcuk.. and aerosols found in each la)er
    tadaptcd fmrn \tiller and vermorc. ~ OO~ I.

    wuvclcngih u r the inc iden t electromagnetic rad ial ion {Figu re


    1 -1 Sa I, Rayle ig h scatte ring i ~ named a fte r the English physil'i"l Lord R ,I~ lt~lgh . \\ hu offered the firs t coherent explanalion fu r it.:\ 11 "l:altering IS accomplis hed throug.h absorption
    and rc-cnussiou o f radi al ion hy atoms or molecules in the
    manner r rn iou..l;.' dcccnbcd in the section 011 radiation Imm
    atomic struct ures. II is impnss ih lc 10 predict the d irec tio n in
    w hich a srec i fic atom or molecule I I ill emil a phot on. he-nee
    scanenng. , he c lle!].y required to excite all atom is associatcd with powerful short -wavelength. high- fre quency ra dialion .
    T he lIppWX il11 alc' .uuoum of Rayleigh scattering in the at mosphere in opt ica l wa n-lengths (0 .4 - 0 ,7 pm) ma y be computcd 1I ,i llg the Ray le igll scauering c ross-se ction (1",)
    ulgurithrntCrackncll and lluycs. 19 ')3):
    I
    ~
    .~ 1r" (1/

    I}

    ~ .

    r:] .\v

    (2-U)

    A )

    " here 1/ " re fractive index . ,'1/ = num be r of a ir molecules pe r


    un it volume. a nd A " "awkngth . The amount of scartc ring
    IS in\ e rsd y rc kuc d It) the fourth powe r 1)1' the rad iation's
    " a\ clcngth. For cvamptc. uh ruvink t light at 0.] P ill is scattered ;lrrru" ill1 ald ~ 16 limes more than TN light at 0 .6 urn,
    i.e.. l fl. tl, I )J )~ - I t'>. B IIJ~'li gh l <It 0... Jim is sca ttered about 5
    times more than red light al 0 .6 um. i.c .. 10.6 0.-1 )4 '" 5.06.
    The a moun t of Rayleigh scattering expected thruughou t the
    visible spec trum 1O.-I -n.7pITI) is shown in Figure 2- 10.

    WllJJ !'J~lII P 311/.M/If'J\' ' ~P I U l:U :t ~a4d"\lW I I!

    '\I.! Ul llllnlWJ

    .10 RUIJ:'lllC.lS ,;141 S! -'J:'l4dsotUlr alll.lll l;\..'l.lFl Sllll~J"'S {sa ... :>110

    :".l 'J:>IC"

    6UIJ8neas

    J(J

    :'IJ:Jl{d<;<>U11r. :>\11 ,'1: lpllS :l'''llrl''qn~ r. Ul lllil~1

    ~I

    p.vd" ;14 1 01 '. l ' um n,'!:\ I: III 11{:1'II.lu p......lh :>\l l ill " I1I:J ;I\ll
    xepur S!4J. 'a"UI:I~ljIlS ejo ,\IISU;lP 1r.;'IIIJI) ;ll ll .!" ;'\lnSI:;l IU

    s~

    I II

    1111 1I011.1 "41.1.l0r.ll',1I ,;I4 J ' lj.11P UI 1I1 ,' J.11 l! p S! }l l~ 1

    10 p:>;>u s .1ljl pur S.:I Ill"'U:lP ii UU,1.ll lp .10 ar u t~IP:JW ;'Ili l


    'UI,.II P I:.I./,;IJ

    )0 X,;IPU! :'141 ~Ullndllloa 1l1!.\\ S,1\ 1.1S\lP1ll IIJ,1-"UO:l J;I \ ,~U sls-\1

    -eue ;I~CLU ~ rsour 1I!l[I 'Ja ,\ ;l\\ll ll '.1lOlI 11 l ll1p~n SI II ' sd ltj Sllt>11
    (l laJ .)UI;'> WOll O;l UI fi UlSll

    '/I llllllP,' lU

    II I ( 'H lIIS) ,' ,Wi d ;'J , CI

    m, 11 Imp uo ~pr.JpJJ o 1U1lOLU I! ,1lj l p~ p;'JJ d 01 :'I!'l!s snd S! 11 ,I II

    Sl ID :'M.l UlllPl:JP~1

    J~nl:'):ll.l

    \ 11SU,'P jll;ll :l.lP P .lll 1.) IIIOIIIl III Ulll!P;llU

    :>1I(l UIOJ./ s ;ls scd II 11:>1.1 " Illil l].I " ih ll plPq ;1111 <II "'J;lj:>J 11011

    -"IJ./I"H '.;>;>Illd .1'11'1 \ ~~lU UUI1.' IlJ.pJ 'J,'ll:,\1 11UU J lC ;l'tI I'A I !~ Uap
    lll;'ll ,'l.PP

    .10

    -x ,];'I ll:'>IL\\

    S;I:,>ulllsq ns SJ:>1lI1l<l.1U;l Illl P Il!!'IU :'l!I."IIll'lmu,lJ\


    ' 1 "Ill

    ~O l -c f S! lll11!1:'l I~\ n III IIlil1l .1 0 p:>.1d s "tU,

    11l11!p:>lU nl {<lJ:>lI"" ;lIII .10 ;I:>u:>I' I:'lUI .I" -"1;1\11l ,' Ill Plll~ :'" 1'1II~
    III lUlllP;llU.1" U(}II :>I:JJ "'J .\o xapu ~ ,11p SMIIII 'I ",UI)J I ' .' JI ~ j :'IJ " tll
    UO/JOflJ/al:J
    ~ II

    (1: 1-(: )

    ' n 111S

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    lI:lP ,' ", P'\J


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    5JOJJ;I Ull~ IC:I0 1 ,;1,,;1111 'J.1\:J\\OI I 'S:JI"1I1' :Jln:>l!

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    qllnj 111 p ap;!1;1p A<lJ.1U:J m O.t! P.lUU ll./ Q;l I!IUl U ~ Jtl J .) ll II\~ J
    UOIPI:.I./:Jl 0 1 a n p UOllC.)I,)1 U!

    SJ , lJJ,~ S I1 \l~ J;lS

    '( 10'1" 1 I~ ,'~ Jr.;l U

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    '(AI! ~u ;'OP U! klilu Cllj .1J'lUl ,1111 ' ,;1.' 11 111...1P " l[l J.1 1 1~,1Jfl .1ljl "'J,'lIJs
    >OIl/ IE' "'41

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    nm.uur-

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    1 /:-Z "llll 'I "" I ,\ ;!J., U:>


    ) 0 -\., I /: S~4 4J !1I" 'lll" ll ""'II:>.\ .I" lItll' l\ IJ I: ....n l'l'
    -ord sllll. -uedr 1\,' I';: :>11' 111.':'>','1' ,'Iplll '''lUl,l 0,"1

    1'1:1 ""41 U<l14wJ " NI:l,l!p:>JU I: ttl P I'lu' l .1111 II,,"p


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    \jll11j
    C Ul ''1WfI:l l<ll.hn Ultl!P'lS .10 IU" 11: p,VI:1J,' U,' 4'"''
    m \H'JP;'\I.' 1,,11111.'111" ,''II \ll.'IJ I>;lF' .I" '1 1'1.\ pw"
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    UI111p' ''' r III s:>P!lJr..J "tll~'l" III<1J.l l ll ;11I .1 " U<lIW:>J )

    ,,,ttlJ

    Z L'Z <lmOI;!

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    cue It! :J.:IUI'ISIP :'I1lJr.pJJu du AUr. JOJ :>J;l 4"SOlUIC ."Il llljiinoJ41

    p.:>1l!~I!JUJJ S! {fu.1U;'I .;oWII {U\, .{mll.1p lu.1J.1 11lP { P 4 ih l ~


    11Il!." lIa C.1 ' S.;o<;C;1.10 Sl a.';c l.l u S."I!J."IS .. s u .Il l 14iiOl .t ll:'lll lIC:>
    ;U;l4 d so w ll' IU;> ln q.Jn lll tl U I! Jell l ,1:>S ur:'l ;I I fl' t ,1m"!:! lU<lJ.-I

    '~fl U I ~ '11

    ur-z I

    I A U I ~ I"
    110"1-"'1 1

    :llIC1'Ull" ' !

    a" I~J.J.~ IU1

    XII 0 1 l ~wOU ,)uII .. pUll \1:.1 .1'/ 1 U;'I.1\\Pq :>['olw:: ,11.11.1') out ..

    :>tp pU I! UI)!PCJp JJO " '~ 1' 1I 1 ;llj l JO p nJl'u d "4 1("'1~1lV.1I:'l 14:11 1
    JO P.)Jd~ .:J41 lI;)4'\\ .:IfiuC4 .) IOU .......111 II ' 4 1:1u,)j ;l \f\\ .1'1l l u n

    -+-- lIqJ"

    jem u :>I) Iqii ll .l0 <'1u;mt"!:>.JJ u;I\ lii r- J'~


    ljj! I.I " 'Iwi s. lI;'1uS \ 4 p;lljlJ,'';;lI' :too.! Ull" Ih>lI:'lllJp}l

    '~"P:llJ

    ';l.'"!S ,\:'l u,;In t"!;>JJ ;!'Sn


    tm{1 S;llrl~

    ~ (\ ~ ~
    'y.' ,-

    ',{l N I."I!" J,14ii lll


    S.J:>lC" .10 ,;IS IW;'l:>q J;l111 " lIii lll Ul{1 \ 1I' ' IS anuu SI') \ 1~J I 14.k I
    Ja jl!\\ JuJ tT I p uc LJ Zo;:UI)( l"l S! :'Il ."lll u"nwll' ;\41 J~1 UI' !I
    .1CJ.I."I1Jo "':>pU! ,;141 ',;Ild u lrx:J J0:l ' 1 u m p J" II':>Jii :>ll "';1'\\[ 1'

    IV I ,/1'1"'1
    """II:>')"

    ismu UOIP I:.I,I ;lJ,I" '\::lpll l SII '."IJI~PJ:l4J 'uml1:'lIlA l~ UI 14"11.11>

    lI" I,-,,!J. >I'W1

    pcods ,;1 41 4 :'lc.'J J.:I.\."IU u ca ."I.1ucI' 'ln~ e U! ltrfl !l.lll p;l,'ds .11U

    saldpu!Jd uO! le!pel::t :m a u fi e w OJ l 3 a l3

    .'

    11Il'I"
    Uln l!,,~

    ""0

    ~'I l

    "I

    ' '1. I'''.... or " I


    V'"q 'II"J \tllll."',",
    J"'l'n~

    ul: OJ'I." \:> 1 ;:

    .. "''I ,f,J:>tI;> ',"""'1\'

    I,V) 'JIll' lim p ;>!"


    u~

    ;>;1U"'I) ,,,Pl."!

    d mp. l .mdp..\ 1II11 !lltIS P. II!


    ,""ppJr..-I,)! lUlIl\ lUUJ j Il jilr I JII UII,I II,lJ

    "
    I lJh~ 1

    /J

    ~ ,-u.1\

    g,

    H.)

    -,

    50

    0 1,\ )' 11:.1(

    I n h 'n,il, of Ra, leigh Scatt eri ng


    Var ies I n\'ero~l'l , " it h I.~

    Atm osph eric Scatter ing


    R:I,J('ilo:h Sca ll er in!:.
    <to

    I\li ~

    b.

    Elec trom agne tic Ra d iation Principle s

    Cia,; molecule

    1110

    2.75 2.5

    1.75

    2.25

    Energy in elect ron volts (eV )

    Sea tl erin !':

    '0

    Smoke. dust
    Photon of electromagnetic
    energy mo..Icled as J wale

    e.

    20
    Figure 2 15

    lyre of scattering is u functio n o f I ) I t\t~ wavele ng th


    of the incident radiant cncq;y and ~) the Sill: (If the
    gas molecule. dust particle. and/or ware V3fl'1I
    droplet cncocmcrcd .

    Most Rayle igh scaucrmg by gas molecules fal-l'S place in the


    atmosphere 2 10 8 kill above the ground IFigure 2-J 4J. Rayleigh scauenng is responsi ble for the blue appea rance (If the
    sky. Th e shorter violet an d blue wavelengths are more cffl cie mly sca uc red than the longe r o range a nd red wavelen gths . when we look up on a clou dless day and adm ire the
    blue sky. we ;In; w itnessing the prcf crcuual scaucr ing uf the
    sho rt-wa veleng th su nl ight , Ray leigh scattering is als o
    responsible for red sunsets , Since the 1I11lWSphCTC i ~ 1I thi n
    shell of gravitationally boun d gas su rrounding the solid
    Eart h. sunl ight mu st pass through :I longer slant pat h o f air at
    sunset lor sunrise ) than at noo n. S ince the vio let and blue
    wavelengths are scattered e ven mort: duri ng their now
    longer path through the ai r than whe n the Sun is ove rhead.
    what we SOX' when \'0 e 1001.. toward the sunset is the residue-sthe wavelengths of sun ligh t that arc hardly scattered away at
    a ll, especially the oranges and reds .

    Mie scattering [so metimes referred

    10 as non -mo lecu la r or


    aerosol particle sca ttering) takes place in the lower 4 .5 km of
    the atmos phere. whe re there may be many essentially sphcrlcul panicles present with d iame te rs appr oxirnntcly cqunl to
    the siz e ofthe wnv-clcng th ofthe inc ident e nergy (Figure 2
    15h). TIll: act ual si ze orthe pa r1 i de ~ muy range from 0.1 ttl

    OA

    G
    0.5

    YO
    0.6

    R
    0.7

    Figure 2 16 The intenSIfy ofRa)'leig:h scattenng varies 1O\'ersd}


    .... ith the fourth pow,;r of the w.rvclcnpth(A-4).

    10 t imes the wavelength of the inc id ent energy. f or visihle


    ligh t. the main scanenng age nts arc dust and othe r panicles
    Tall,!;ing h om a fe w tenths Ill' u mic romete r to several
    micrometers in dia meter. TIll' amount o f scatte r is greater
    than Rayle ig h scancr. and the wavelengths scauc rcd are
    lon ger. The greater the amount o f smoke and dust part icle..
    in the at mosp heric co lumn. the mor e that viole t an d blue
    light 'n il! he scaucrcd away and only the longer orange and
    red wavelength ligh t will rea ch our cyes. Pollution a lso contributes to beautiful sunsets and sunrises.

    vonsctecnve scattering lakes place in the

    lowest portions of
    the atmosphere where there art' particles > 10 rime, the
    \00 avelengt h of the incident electrom ag netic radiat ion (Figure
    2-150:). T his type of scattering is nonselec tive, i.e.. al l wave.
    length.. of lig ht are scaucrcd. nor just blue. g reen. or red.
    Thu ... the wate r d roplets and icc crysta ls tha t make up clouds
    and fog ban ks scatter al l wavelengt hs of visible lig ht equally
    well. causing the cloud 10 appe ar white. Nons ele ctiv e scattcring u f approxima tely eq ual pro po rtions uf blu e, green

    "

    51

    Atmospheric Energy - Mane r Interact io ns

    .lrld red light alwa ys appea rs J ~ while light to the cas ua l


    obsm-er. This is tho: reason why pUlling our nutornobilc high
    beams on in fi.)g only makes the problem \.I 0 1';<;: as we nons eeaivcly seanor c\ en morelight into our visual field of'vicw.
    ),:aJlwng is a very important considerat ion in remote sen,...
    lIII inves tigations. It can ~\<:rd) reduce' the in form ation
    roal<:nt of'remotcly sensed d313 10 the po inr rhnthe imagery
    ces connast and it becomes difficult [0 ditf...remiate one

    Chlo ro phyll in vcg ctauon absorbs m uch o f the inc ide nt blue
    and red light for photosy mhcnc purposes. Chapter In
    descnbc-, the imp ort anc e (,I' thc w chlorophyl l absorption
    bundx and thei r ru le whe n rem otely scnsinJ!: veg etation. Sunilarly, wa ter is an ex cellent abs orber of energy (C hapter II ).
    Many minerals have un ique abso rption characteristics in
    \ery specific portions o f the electro mag neti c spectrum that
    al low us to use remote sensing 10 identify them (Cha pte r I .l l,
    assum ing there IS no (1\ er lying \egelali\1ll \ Cla rk, 199') ),

    .:tljn., from another.


    ~bsOfPtion

    lbwrp li oll is the process by .... hich radiant energy is


    absorbed and convened into other fonns of energy. The
    Il>so.lfjIlion of the incident radiant energy may take place In
    the almosph~rc: or on the terrain. An absorption 00".1 is a
    mlC or

    avclc ngths (or frequencies] in the electromagnet ic


    spectrum ithin .... fnch radiant energy is absorbed by a cubsece. The effects of \\ atcr ( 1 1~O I. carbo n dioxide (C Ol )'
    ~Yl;Cf1 (0 ) , 070ne (O J)' a nd nitmuv oxi de C'.j:O ) on the
    lI3JI~m iss inn of light through fhe atmosphere a re s um manred in Figure 1-17 a, The cumulauvc effect of the absorption 1 the various const itue nts can cause the atmosphe re to
    "close down' completely in certain regions of the spectru m .
    This is bad for remote s":l1~ill g bec ause no <:llergy is a\ ailablc
    \(I be sensed. Conversely. in the visihle r on io n of the spectrum 10.4 - 0,7 um l, the atmos phe re doe, not absorb all o f
    th~ incident ene rgy but uunsmirs it rather e ffectively. Purtons of the spectrum thm tran sm it rad iant energy effect ively
    Brc called (jllllmp h,'r il' 11 ';11.1" 11'1'.

    '.

    isible
    -ricles

    ouds

    Absorption OCC UIT> when incident energy o f the same tr eqll CllCy as the resonant freque n..: y u f an ;Ilorll or mo kcuk is
    abSllfb..:d. produo: ing. an e \ cited stale. If inslead o f reradi at
    Ing a ph(lIOn o f the sante wa ve lengt h, the energy is t rll n ~
    fnmled inhl heat motion ami is suhseq llcnt ly rcraLli'ltcd at .1
    longer w3wlcngth, ahso rptiu n nee urs. Wh en dea ling wi th ;1
    med ium like air. anso rption am i !iCalt l'ring arc frl' qu ently
    mmbi ncd int(l all ('Xlilidioll em/fidel/f \ KOl!ecny, 20 03 I.
    Transmission is irl\'eNely rela ll'd to the e xt inc tion coeOi
    eirnllimes the l h i ('k n~' ~s of th..: layer. Cena in wa velen gths o f
    radialion arc a ff~'..: tcd far mure by absorpt ion lhan by ~aller
    ing. This is JMnin llarly t ru~' of inl'r:Hed a nd wavele ngths
    JIlmer than visi ble lig ht. The co rnhrnell d Tec h o f almo;p~rie absorpt i(>ll, Sl:alt..:ring, and rd l ectancc (from clo ud
    lOpS) can dram alically reduel' thl' am(lunt of solar rudiation
    reaching the Eanh 's ~u rface:1I sea le veL as shown in f igure

    ually

    Z17b.

    ~ n'ra l
    rcat~ r

    d are
    tiel es
    blue
    e an d
    con-

    os of
    the
    igun:

    '3VC~d.

    l-.ne~ reac hing the remote s..:nsing system must pass


    through the a tmosphere twice. Therefore. it is common to
    identify t\\tl dlllW\/,hl'ric trans mission C/H.fficil<nfS : one for
    ..:ocrg) com ing into the atmos phere (Te ) ar an incidence
    angle related to the source of the energy (e.g... the Sun). and
    one for Ihl' atmosphere that the Earth surface -reflected or
    emured en.:"!!y must p<lSS through to reach the remote sensor
    system fI, I. We .... ill M.'..: how important these tw 0 paramctcrs arc in the d iscus, inn on auuosphcnc correction later in
    this chapter.

    'T

    Reflec tance

    Rej7C'C'/( IIIH> is the process 'M hereby rad iation "bounces (111"
    an object like the to p o f a cloud, a water body, or bare so il.
    Act ua lly, the proc e ss is more complicated, involvin g rcradimio n of phot ons in unison by ato ms o r molec ules in a laye r
    approx unarcly o ne-hal f wavelength deer. Refl ec t ion exhibits fundament al characteristics that arc importa nt in remote
    sl'nsi ng . First. the inc ide nt radi ation, the re flecte d rad iat ion.
    and a vcrucalto tbe surface from whi ch Ihe a ngle-s or incidence and rc flccucn arc measur ed all lie in rhc same plane .
    Second, the a ng le of inciden ce an d th e angle o f refl ect io n
    (exil;uKe) ar" ilppro ximate !y eq ual, a ~ sho" n in Figure 2 IK

    r here art' various types o f re l1 e~, t i ng surl::lct:s. ,~il"cII1(lr


    when the ~ lI r tilc" fro m whi ch th" rad iat io n
    is re tlel' ted is essenlially ~ l11 o\lt h (i. e.. lnl' uverage su rface
    pro ti k height is s.'\'l'ra l tirnes smalle r than the wa vcl ..:n~'1h o f
    rad i:lIion striking the surfa..:c), Se\eral fcature s. such as ca lm
    wat.'r bodies, ael likl' nc<!r-I">I}i'''' .Ip .'c/d<lr n:fhTlors (Fig.
    ua ' 21 X:t, h l. II' there arc vcl)' li: w ripp les on the s ur face , the
    inciden t ..:nl'rg.y .... ill k a\c the " <Iter btldy at a n an gl..: cq ual
    and " prosite to the incident energy. We kno w Ihis occurs
    !'m m our pt." rso na l e \]X'rie n~'..:. If we shine a l1ash ligh t at
    n i ~h t (lll a tran'l llit poo l ofwat..:r, the lig.ht w ill boun.: e ofrthc
    su rl:1ce :md intn lh(" Irees across the way al an angle cq ual to
    and oppt1site fwm t h~' i n~' ident rad ial io n.
    rl'/le<l ioll ll\: ctrr~

    ~at

    I f t h~' surf~~-("

    COX"".

    the

    has a largo.' sutfa...e h...ight re lati \'(" to the si7(" of


    of the in..: idem energy, the re nCl:l..:d rays go

    \\ a v e len ~l h

    C11 -\rn:R

    52

    Electromag nellc Rad i atio n Princ ipl es

    ,)I

    ,~'"

    11M)

    e-I

    -e

    100

    .~

    '"
    .e
    c,

    "e

    "

    '"'
    0

    reo

    0'

    OJ 04

    0.6 Oll. I

    f>

    II.

    10

    wavelengthurn

    2UQU

    Su la r rad l~ I".m a t the

    lOp of the .nmo-pherc

    'sa,

    Sola r radrauon at

    "C3 1C\~1

    C'
    E ISOO
    ~

    ,.~
    o:

    O~ llfl

    10110

    II! )
    II !)
    I[ .,()

    11,:0
    Hf)CO~

    lip . CO,

    c
    Fig ure 2-17

    0.2

    0.4

    06

    OR

    10

    1.2 1.4 1.6 U


    waveleng th. um

    2.0

    22

    2.4

    2.6

    2.11

    3.0

    32

    01) -I he ab"'ll'plinn "f lhe Sun'~ incident clcctrceuagncnc CI\<:'f!t)" in til<.' rcgwn from 0.1 10 JO 11m by variuus a tmospheric ga~.
    Tile Ii!";! (Ollr graphs dcpiL'1 the ahsnrplil'll characncrisucs of ~:(). 0 2 Jnd OJ. ('01' .1I1tl ll~O. while the fin:r.l graphic depicts
    LIllO: cumulative result "rull these constnucnts I>cllllt III the atmosphere 31o ne II IllO:, The atmos phere c ssenuatly "dUM'~ <II'''''...
    in certain portions of thc spect rum \\ hile "a tmoxphcnc \\ mdow s" ""i~1 ill other region s,that lransnut in" idem energy c ffcctiv cly tuthe gro und. It is within these window s thai remere w n~ i ll g ~y~lt"m~ mustfunction. 11) The com bined effe cts of ~t1llmrh cric
    a bsnrpuo n, '>"lllering, and reflec tance reduc e Ilw amount or solar irrudi.mcc reachi ng the Earth's surfuc c at sea level.

    53

    Terrain Energy-Maner Interacti on s

    ,
    Angle or

    AIlgk"r

    Angle of

    l-._\ ilan

    hl<:l.kncc

    h iw",:c

    Smooth ....t<:1

    c. ~<'3f-pr;rrcct ,Jiffus<: 1"<:11""1:\or.

    d. Pcrtect drffu-c reflector. <>f

    La mbert tan surface.

    Figure 2 18

    vc~c

    The nature of specular and d ilru ~<, rctlccumcc.

    in many directions , depending on the orientatio n of the


    smaller reflecting surfaces. T his dlUil sl' re flec tion doc s no!
    yield a mirror image. but instead produc es diffused radiation
    (Figure 2-18c). Wh ile paper. while powders. and other maleria ls retlecr visible light in this diffuse manner. lf'the SUrt:1CC
    j~ very rough, then unpredictable scancri ng may occur. Lambert defined a perfectly di ffuse surface; he nce, the comlOOnl)' designated l.arnbcrtian .1'11/1;/("1' is one fo r wh ich the
    radiant nux leaving the surface is cons:.mt filr a ny angle of
    reflec tance ( Figurc 2-llld),

    ril ed in Ch ap ters 4 und 7, It b a lso pos sible 10 obt ain spe ctral
    reflectance mea surements o f the terrain tc.g., crops, soi l. and
    warcT } h ) ' hlllding a spcctromdiornctc r just a few centime ters
    abov e the ground a s shown in Figure J- I. Methods of
    ob tainin g in ,1"//1/ spectral rcncctnn cc measurements m e prescutcd in Chapter 15.

    Much Ill' the incident radi ant nux from the Sun is re fl..-cted
    from the lor o f clouds and lither materials in the urmosphcrc .
    A suh~lan tial amount (\1' this en..-rgy is reradiated back 10
    >p31.'e. As \\'1.' sha ll sec, Ihe spe cula r an d diffu se reflection
    pri ne-irks that ap ply to c loud.. also ap ply ItJ the terrain.

    The lime rate o f Flow of ene rgy 111110 , off o r. or through a surface is calle d m di<llIIj1"-1 (IP) and is meas ured in watt s (W)
    (Tallie 2-1). The characteristics of the radian t flux and what
    happen s to it as it imcrucrs v, ith the Earth's surface is o f ernical importa nce in remote se nsi ng. In fact, this is the fund ame maltocus o frn uch remote se nsing researc h. Hy carefully
    monitoring the ex act natu re o f the inco ming (incident) rad iant Ilux in selective wa velengt hs and how it inte rac ts with

    Spectral re flectance ma y be measured from great d istances


    \I.,ing multispectral remote ~cns i ng systems. Op tical rem ote
    sensing systems that record slX'ctral reflect ance arc summa-

    Terrain Energy Matter Interactions

    C1I,\ I"U :R

    54

    Table 2-4 .

    Electromagnetic Radiation Prin ci ples

    Radiometric corn:q>t s [Colw ell. 198:3).

    Name

    Sy mbol

    Units

    Concept

    Rad ia nt ,," erg;.

    joules.l

    Capac ity of radiat ion within a specified


    spectral band 10 do \Iood.

    Ib d ian t f1U \

    wan ... \\

    Time rail' o f no", of cnerg)' onto. ofT of. or


    throu.:h 11 sunace.

    Ihtl illlli nu x dc n, lly a t th e s u rfa ce


    trr ao tan cc

    wens per square met er.

    Radia nt Ilia inc iden t upon a surface 1'1:1'


    unit area of tha I surface.

    RlIdi :mt e xltance

    W m'l
    watts per square me ter,

    Radiant flux leavin g a surface per unit area

    WI11 ,2

    o f that s ur face.

    walls IX'T ~ 'lu arc m eter.

    Radiant intensity pe r unit of projected


    source area in a specified direction.

    Ra di a nce

    per steradian. W ro' ? s( l

    p,

    dimensionless

    dimL"flsionlc !>llo

    "'..........

    dimL"tlsionlcs.s

    '"'.

    the terra in, it is possible \0 learn impo rta nt info rmation a !'lllul
    the terrain.

    Radiometric quanutics haw been identified that a1l11\\ analysts tn keep a careful record o fthe incident and e xiring radio
    uut n ux (Table 2-4). We beg in with the simple radiation
    budge/ ('(/IW /iflll, w hich stmcs tha t the total nrnoum of rad io
    ant n ux in speci fic wave lengths 0, ) inc ident 10 thc te rrain
    ( lIl; ) must be accounted for by e valua ting the amoun t of
    tad i:lnt flux renee-ted fro m the surface (I,<n,,,,<'II). the
    amount of rad iant flux absorbed hy the surface ( $ w....to<d,I,
    and the amount of rad ian! flux transmitted through the sur-

    Hemispherical Reflectanc e, Absorptance. and


    rransmitrance

    Hemispherical retlecnmce (PAl is defined as the dimensionless ratio of rhc radium flux reflect ed from ,I surface III tbe
    radia nt tlux inc ident to it (Table 2-4 1:

    (2-15
    1It'l/Ii,fpherica l trtlll.\'IIIiu"",( ( t A) is de fined as the dtmcn.

    sion tess ratio of the radiant nux transmined thro ugh


    face to the rad iant flu x incid cm to it:

    face ( $ u.n>m,,,,J/

    sur-

    1 2. 1 ~ )

    It is important 10 not e that these: radiometric quamuics arc


    based on the amount of radiant energy incident to a surface
    from any angle in a hemisph ere {i.e.. a half of a sphere ).

    r.

    _"'~~
    ::::;:='C"",
    ,,,,.

    '"'.

    ( 2-16)

    tlermspherical ahsorptunce (u.) is defined by the dimensionless relationship:

    win Energy-Matter Interacti on s

    55

    Spectral Reflectance

    (j

    or Sefcc tcd ~ 13I ('ria l ~

    45

    ,/

    Con crete

    ......

    O.JS

    -.

    "

    ...-..
    ~.

    --

    'J<>

    "'- '"

    ,
    ~

    '.2<J
    IUS

    " '\ 1- -1-\

    , /
    i '
    I

    I,

    i ../I/

    I
    ,.

    /1 Cent iped e

    ,i

    gra.~ s

    '/

    '.

    /I

    0, 10

    -;f-1--I-I--+- + -I-+ --I--\-\"ft-- t- ~hf~:l~ -11"---1--+-/+', "1-+ 1" 1

    0.05

    0.00
    4(HI

    500

    ~no

    7011

    ~ [)!l

    'IlM'

    '1' '\;;ici31
    ' tutJ=.~I
    I' I
    1

    Ir

    warer

    Hllln I Hili W ill I WII 14UO I l OO I MKl 17(10 I ~ O\l 1'10ll zcoo 21011 2200

    nOll

    N OO 25110

    Wavelength (nOll

    Oq..re 2-t9 Spect ral retleetance curves for orl;lan-.-sub\Jrban phentlm....na in the reg ion 400 - 2.500 nm obtamcd using a handheld SJllXlro-radiometer (Chapter 15 d....scribes how

    jic nthe

    in"',, spec tral reflectance m<-'as lrremCIll~ arc collected ).


    (.::!.17)

    (2-I R)

    Ilese definitions imply that rad iant entOrgy mU~ 1 be coneoed. i.e. it is e ithe r returned back by reflc c-ucn. transmitltd through a mate rial. o r absorbed and transformed into
    10m", other form of energy inside the terr ain. The net effect
    llf ahsorprion of rad iation by mos t substances is that the
    energy is conve rte'1.1 into heat. ca using a subseq ue nt rise in
    ic: substance's temperature .
    - I ft )

    These radiometric quamiues arc useful for prod uc ing general stateme nts nbo ur the spectral re flecta nc e. absorpranc e.

    ten-

    md transmittance chara cte ristics of terrain fea tures. In fact.


    If..e take the simple hem ispherica l rcnectance equancn and
    muitiply it by 100. we ob tain an expression for percen t
    enecaoce (p;... I:

    P,....

    (2 -1 \))

    wh ich is often used in remote sensing research to describe


    the spectral rctlecumcc characteristics of various phcnor ncna. Examples of spectral percent reflectance curves for
    selected urban-suburba n phe nomen a arc shown in Fig ure 211/. Spectral reflectance curves provide no information about
    the absorption and transmittance of the radiant energy . Hut
    because many of the sens or sys t....ms such as ca m....ras and
    so me multispectral sca nners record on ly reflec ted energy,
    this information is still quite valuab le and ca n form the ba sis
    lo r obje ct identificatio n and assessme nt. Fur example. it is
    clear Imm Figure 2-19 that the Centipede grass reflec ts only
    uppro xirmn ely 3 to 4 percent of the incident red rad iant
    e nerg y ( O.1l - rl.7 I1m) while re flecting up to approximately
    35 percent of the incide nt ncar-infrared radiant n ux (0. 7 0.9 JI m). If we wanted to discriminate between grass a nd
    artilicial turf the idea l po rtio n of the spec trum to remotely
    sense in would be the ncar -infrared region because artificial
    turf rctlects o nly abo ut 5 percen t of the incident near-infra-

    .....

    56

    Ele ctromagnetic Radiation Principles

    1
    red en ergy , Thiv ....-ould cause a black-and-white infra red
    image of the terra in ttl display Centipcd<: grass," bnght
    tones a nd the unificialrurf in darke r tones .

    Hemispherica l re flec tance. tra nsmittance. and abso rpta ncc


    rad iome tric quanutics do nul provide infonn ation about the
    exact amount III' energy reac hing a ..pecitic area on the
    grou nd from a !opc:cific drrccnon or abou t the CJHKI a mou m
    of rad iant nu .\ c xuin g thl.' ground in a ce rtai n direction.
    Remo te sensing sys tems ca n be loc ated in space o nly at a
    single point in lime. and the y usually loo k on ly at a relatively
    small portion o f the Earth a t a singlo: instant. Therefore. it is
    impo rta nt 10 refi ne nu l' rad iometric measurement tec hniques
    so that more prec ise radiometric information ca ll he
    extracted from the rem otely se nsed data IDu cl a l.. 2002).
    Th is requires the introduction o fseve ral radiom etri c quantitics that provide prn gn: s.<O; I\d y more preci.... rad iome tric
    information.

    Radiant Fill' Deustty


    Radiant flux. lflA

    ,.

    ~\ 0, ";,"'.,.
    r
    .,

    EA - - -

    A rea, A

    Radiant Flux Density

    ~\ /I;, "~.
    Rad iant l1u:'(, $).

    h.

    A nat area (c. g.. I x I III in d imension ) be ing bathed in radiam tl ux ( If in spec ific .... :I\ ... lengths 0.) from the Sun is
    shown in Figure 2-1lJ. The amount of radiant nux nuerccptcd d ivided by the area of the: plane surface: is the ave rage
    rw limujlu,l d{'I1.\it:>~

    i'

    J f). = - A-

    \
    A rea. A

    Rgure 2- 20 The co ncept of radiant nux density for an area


    the surface of the Earth al/rra<li(ltlO.' i ~ a meaw
    of the amount of radiant nux incident upon a surface per urut area of she surface measured in Wal
    111 '). 1. Exum/ ,'" i~ a measure of the amount of ntdiantIlu x leaVinga surface per unit area ott be surf
    me..surcd ill Wall ' m'~,

    The amoun t "I' radian t tlux incident upo n a SUrnICe: per unit
    area ofthat sur face is called irrodiance (),):
    12-20 )
    Thc amount ofrudiuur flux le;l\Iing II surface pe r unit are a o r
    th,u surface is called t'xirwr,'(' (M,J
    (2-2 1)

    Both 4uulltitie s arc usuall y measu red in Watts pe r mete r


    sq uared (\\ ' m ~) ...vlrhough we do nOI ha ve info rrnauon 011

    the direct ion of euher the incom ing or ou tgoing radia nt


    energy Ii .e.. the en.:rgy c an come and go at an) angle
    throughoUI the entire hem isphere ]. \\ '" have now relined th c
    m",aSUfl,'I11Cm 10 inc lude inform ation ab out the Si ll.' 11f rhc
    slUdy are a of intercsr on the ground in 111 ~. Next we need to

    refine ou r radiomet ric measuremen t techniques to inc lude


    in torm.uion on what dirccuouthc rad ia nt [lux is lea ving the'

    sunlyurcn.
    I{a lliance
    Radia nce is the rno preci se remote sens ing rad iometric
    measurement. R,rdid""/! (I-J,, ) is the radiant intensity per unit
    o f projected source urea in a spe c ified direction. It is 111"a
    surcd in wans per II1l11' r squared per sterad ian ( W 111 ,1 sr I),
    The concept of radiance is bcs r understood by ev alua ting
    Figur e ~ 21 . First. the rad iant nu x lea ves the projected
    source urea in a spc cifl c dire ction toward the remote sensor
    W\: arc not concerned w ith any u rhcr raJi ant Ilux thar nught
    he lcuv ing the source urcn in any other d irec tion . We are
    imcrested only in the radium fl ux in certain wav elengths
    ( lfl~ 1 k a\ ing the projected SUII Ke are a (A ) withi n a certa in
    d irccuon (C IIS 8 ) and solid a ng le (H) (M ilman. IQ99l :

    57

    llmospheri c Energy-Mane r Intera ct io n s

    mtlucncc the rad iant nux once again before the energy is
    recorded b} the remote sens ing system.

    I{arlia nn ,

    Xormal
    10 surface

    Energy-Matt er Interact ion s at the Senso r

    0-

    Side view
    of source
    Ilea-A
    .'

    L.L-..;]
    "9Jre 22 1 The concept of r'hli"m"t' k a\ jng.l specific projected source area on the ground. in a sf'C'Citic direction.
    and withm a spccitic ~ulid angle.

    ,>'ta on
    :asurc
    lour-

    Wan s
    tradi_

    mace

    rludc

    glhe

    Ictric
    'unit

    mea-

    sr' ).
    uing
    ~h..-d

    uL = ~
    .tcos 9

    (2-22 )

    ODe way of visualizing thc solid ang le is to con sider wha t


    !Wwould see if you were in an airp lane loo king thro ugh a
    kbo:ope at the grou nd. Only the energy thai exhcd the tcrTJin and came up to and thro ugh thc te lescope in a specific
    lOId angle (measured In steradia nsj would he intercepted by
    IDe telescope and \ icw...d by your eye. Therefore. the so lid
    U1glc is like a rhrce-d imc nsionnl cone ( Of lUbe) that funn e ls
    edram nux trom a specific po int source on the terra in
    toward the sensor system. Hopefully, energy From the urmosphere or other ter rain features doc s not become scanered
    iMo the solid angle field of view and cornanunarc the radiant
    tlu\ from the area o f interest on the gro und. lj nfon unatcly,
    thi\ is not often the cas e because sca ttering in Ihe atmoljlhrn: and from ot her nearby areas on the groun d ca n coulrioote spurious spectral energy, which enters into the so lid
    IIIgJe field of vie w.

    Atmosp heric Energy- Matter Interactions

    Finally, energy-maucr interactions take place when 11K'


    cuc rgy reaches the rem ote senso r. I f 'lI1 aerial camera is
    being used. then the radiance wi ll intera ct w ith the ca mera
    filter. the optical g lass lens. an d finally the film emulsion
    with its light ..s ensitive silver hali de crystals. T he emulsion
    must then he de veloped and printed before an analog COP) i!>
    available fo r ana l}sis . Rather than storing a laten t image 011
    fihn. an o pticnl -rncchanical de tec tor w il l d igiml l}" record the
    number of photons in \el') specific wave le ngt h regions
    reaching. the sens or.

    Target and Path Radiance

    Idea lly. the radiance (/.) recorded hy the camera cr detector


    is a true function o frhc amount of radiance lcav ing the target
    ter rain w ithin the msmr nanc ous-field ..o f-view II f" OV) at a
    cpecitlc sol id angle. as prev io usly d iscu ssed . Un fo rtun ately,
    other radiant energy Illay ent er into the fiel d of \ icw from
    various other path s and introd uce confounding noise into the
    remer... sensing proc ess. The refore. addi tion al radiometric
    variable defini tions are needed to iden tify the major sources
    and paths o f th is energy (Cracknell and Hayes. IQQ3: Green.
    20(3). The cunables ere summarized in Table :!5. The van..
    (lUS path s and factors that det ermine the radia nce reac hing
    the remote sensor arc summarized in Figu re 2-22, including;
    Palh 1 contains spec tral solar irradianc c U:" ) tha t was
    atten uated ve ry little before illuminat ing the te rrain w ithi n
    the IFOV. No ticc in this c ase thai we ar c interested in the
    solar irmdinnc c from ;1 specifi c sol ar zenith allglc ( l:l,, ) an d
    that the am ou nt Ill' irra dia nce reachin g the ter rain is a
    func tion o f the atmos pheric trans mittance a t this ang lo;
    ( Til ). If a ll of the irradia ncc ma kes it to the ground. then
    the llt mospht;'"ric tra nsmitta nce (Ta ) eq uals o ne. If none of
    the irradiance makes it to the p ou nd. then the atmospheric
    transmittance is zero

    nsor,

    Path Z con ta ins spect ra l d iffuse SKY irrudia ncc (Ed) that

    l ight

    : an:
    Ig lhs
    rtain

    The radiant flux re flected or e mitted from the Earth's surface


    once again enters the atmosp here, where it inleracts wilh the
    l iuious gases, ",ale T v;lp"r, and pa rticu lates. Th us, atmn..
    spncric scattcring. ah snrp lion. rd1ectilln , a nd refracti o ll

    never eve n reaches the Ea rth's sur face (t he targ<.'t'study


    area r because (If sca ttering in the atmosphere.
    Unfort una tely. such energy is o ft en scatte red dire ct ly into
    the IFO V of lh<.' ~cn~(lr system _As r re vinu sly d iscussed,
    Rllyk igh sC<itk' ring 1'1' hlue light enntrihutes mm:h to this
    dilr use sky irmdi anc e. That is \.I hy the b lue han d image

    rC 11 ,.\I' I ~:H.

    58

    Electromagneti c Rad iation Princ iple s

    I
    Table 2-5 .

    Radiometr ic variables used in remote se ns mg .

    Radiometric Variab les

    " .. solar irradiance atthe top or the aunosp hcrc IW m-Z)

    E., .. spect ral solar irradia nce at the lOP o f the atmosphere
    ( 1,1,' m- l ..m' "}

    EJ

    .. diffuse sky irradiance (W m- 2)

    Ed.... '>PtraJ d itl'usc sky irradiance (W m -: ).lID- I)

    "",

    ,U, " the Jt'k'n"",rdn: nlam:e oflhc 3ImOSplk.'1C

    .,

    t:

    m-~)

    .. spectral global irradiance on the surface (W m- ).lm-I)


    l

    T .. normal atmospheric opticalthickness

    T(j

    ..

    Pmh 4 co ntains radiat ion that was reflect ed o r sca ttered b;.
    nearby ternnn ( P I.. ) covere d by snow, concrete. soil.
    wa ter. and/or veg.:iatio n into the IFOV of the senses
    system. The ene rgy doc s not actually illum inate the stud):
    area of interest. Therefore, if po...s jble, we wou ld like 10
    mi n imize its e ffects.

    Path 5 i-, ene rgy that \\ as also reflected from nea rby terrain
    into tho.' atmosphere. but the n scattered or reflected onto
    the stu dy area .

    , '" the upward n:lkclan<:e of the atmosphere

    E... gloo.l irradiance inciden t on the surface' ( \I.'

    refers tIl th is q uantity as the downward re flecta nce of tile


    atmos phere ( f J J J.

    T here fore. for a give n spectral interval in the electromagnetic spectrum (e'~ ").. 1 to J~ cou ld be 0.6 - 0.7 urn or red
    light I, the total sola r irradia nce rcaching the Earth j; s llr/lJt.l:.
    E . is an integrat ion of seve ral components :

    ,.

    aimospbenc transmittance at an angle Bto the aenuh

    9" '"' solar lCTlith angle

    E1>:1

    P x. .. re flectance from a neigh borin g area

    L .. tota l radia nce aith... sens or ( W m : Sf I)

    L T .. 101.<,1 radiance from the target o f inte re st toward the


    sensort w m 2 sr I)
    L, ... intrinsic radiance of the targe t (W m"2 Sf 1) (i.e.. what a

    (W m 2 p m -I). (2-23)

    A,

    8 ." = view an~ le (If the satellue sensor (or j;C3Jl angle)

    Pi.. .. surface target reflectance at a spec ific wavelength

    [, Ttl. co s 0t\ + Ed, ldA

    II is a fun ction o f the spectra l solar irra dia nce at the to p of


    the atmosphere ( E l m ultiplied by the at mospheric transmiuancc (TIJ ) at a"~cltain solar zen ith ang le (0 ) plus the
    co ntrihution ofspl'Ctral diffuse sky irradia ncc (E; ,).
    O nly a small amount o f this irradiancc is ac tually refl ected
    by the terra in in the d irectio n of the satel lite sensor system.
    If we assume the sur face o f Earth is a diffuse reflector (a
    Lam bcrtian su rface l. the total amo unt ofrad iance exiting the
    target study area (L r) toward the sensor is:

    handheld radiometer woul d record on till: ground without inter-

    vening unno sphcrc)


    Lp '" path rad iance from multiple scatte ring (W m- l sr- I)

    A,

    Lr -

    ~ fP A Ttl.(/': '" Tll"cos8" + E,,)di...

    (2. 24)

    A,

    produ ced I"ly a re mote se nsor syste m is oft en much bright er


    than any o f the other bands. It co ntai ns much unwanted
    diffu se sky irrudianc c th.n was inad vertently sca ttere d into
    the IFO V o f the sensor system. T he refo re, if pos sible . we
    wa nt to nunim ize its e ffects. Green (2 0D31 refers to the
    q uantity as the upward refl ecta nce o f the atmosp here
    ( E J u.. ).

    Path J contains energy Irc m the Sun that has undergone


    some Rayle igh, Mje. and/o r nonse lective scauering and
    pe rha ps some absorp tion a nd rcemission before
    illum inating the stud)' area. Thus, us spectral co mposition
    and polarization may he some wha t different fro m the
    energy rb.n reaches the ground from path 1. Gr..ren (2003)

    Th e average surface targe t re flectance (P,) is incl uded


    becau se the veg eta tion. soi l, and water w ithi n the IFO V
    se lect ively abso rb so me o f the inciden t energy, T here fo re.
    not a ll o f the energ y incident 10 the IFOV ( E g , ) lean's the
    1I:0 V. In e ffe ct. the terrain acts like a filter. selec tively
    abs or bing ce rtain wa velengths o f light wh ile refl ecting others . No te that the energy exiting the terrain is at an angle
    (8 v I. requi ring the usc o f an at mospheric tran sm ittance factor T6 . on ce aga in.

    It would be ~ ondcrful if the total radiance reco rded by the


    sensor, L$' equ ale d the rad ian ce returned from the target
    study area o f interest, L, . Unfo rtunately, L s ole- I., because
    there is ~0111e add itional rad ia nce frum d iffe rent pa ths that

    59

    Energy- Matter Interactions al the sen so r

    of the

    various Paths

    or

    Radiance Received h)'


    a Remot e Sensin g S) vtem

    cd by
    soi l,

    Remote

    sensmg
    sys tem

    ow,
    stud):
    ke to

    T('lill radiance
    at the se nso r
    Subr

    radiance

    rra in

    I"l

    L::J

    onto

    miagOJr red

    V uct'o

    Atmosphere

    2-23 )

    opof
    ra ns-

    s the

    x ted
    .tem.
    or ( a

    Reflectance from
    ne jghboring area,

    g the

    P,
    Figure 222

    -24 )

    ulcd
    OV

    e re,
    the

    .ely

    othigle

    fae-

    "

    mtnnsic valuabl.. spectra l information abou t Ihe target of interest. Conversely,


    the f><Jrh radiance (1.,.) from palhs 2 and 4 includes di O'u'e ,I.y irradian cc "r radiance from neig hboring areas on the g round,
    This path radiance generally introduces unwanted radromemc noise inthe remotely sensed data ami comphcates the image
    interpretation precess.

    R(Jdi(lnc(' (/' r) from path s l , J. lind 5 co ntains

    may fall within the II-'O V ofrhe sensor syste m detector ( Figure 222). This is often ca lled I't/lll radiance, Lp Thus. the
    loUl radiance recorded by the se nsor becomes:

    can impede OUT abi lity to obtain accu rate spectra l me asurements.

    (2-25)

    remove the contribut ion o f path radiance (I.p). Me thods fo r

    We see fro m Equation 2-25 and Figure 2-2 2 that the path
    rJdiance (L p ) is an intrusive (bad) compone nt of the total
    zmount of radiance recorded by the sensor system (I.x). It is
    COOlJ'OS'.-d o f rad iant energy primarily from the diffuse sky
    irradiance (Ed) fro m path 1 a s well as the reflectance fro m
    ne:trb )' ground areas p ... from pat h 4 . Path radia nce im rodUC(';; error to the remote sensing da ta-collection process, It

    i 1'J99 ). Radiative transfer model progra ms such as ~IODT


    RAN , Se cond Simulat ion of the Satellite Signal in the Solar
    Spectrum (toS). and others may be used 10 pred ict path radiancc on a particular day for a particular st udy area (c.g .. Matthew el al., 2000; lngpec , 2oo::!; vcrmorc et al . 2oo::!). Such
    in fo rmation can then be used to remove the path rad iance (L p )

    A great oral o f research has gone into dev eloping methods to


    co rnpuun g pa th rad iance are sum marized in Richards and J ia

    contribution to the rem ote sensing signal ( L.<) Ic.g., Research


    Sy stems. ::!U03; Green. :!OO3). Song cr al. (100 I ) and Jen sen

    El ectrom ag netic Radi ation Pri n ciples

    60

    (2IMlS) pro vide information abo ut when and how to rem ov e


    lho: do:kl o:ril'u ~ e ff...d ~ o f path radian ce. Th e process is commonly referred \0 <IS rad iometric co rrectio n.

    PmC'. A f).!orilhm .for \f" /f i.lpl?c l, ,,I. Hvperspectrol, and {"/.


    "U.'I"..-Iru l I", ,,g" ry 1'1. 404<,l: 1<,l'-J.-21l7 .
    \t Il ler. S. W. and E. vc rmorc. 2H02. .\'PO F.SS Vi.dNellnJf"<Jl"I?J

    Methods of collecting ill !iiIU spectral reflectanc e measuremcnts thai can be used 10 atmosphericall y correct remote
    sensor data arc prese nt...d in Cha pter 15.
    Refer ences

    I"'u g"r , Rudw(//,,'>:r Suite' : A lg urith", The'ur1!licuf BWi;j D<,,'u(//"",. \c r~i ..n 5. Lauham ; Raytheon. 83 p.
    \ 111I11ao. A. S.. 1'l'J'l , .\ fu lh,", uti,'ul Princrptes uf Ho:"'u l,' Sens/IIg A(<I4/11g I"f,'"""",.1m", Vo;.'.I' D,lt". Ann A rbor : Ann Arbor 1'T\"~s . _l7 p.
    Na'l~au ,

    K. I')In. Th, 1'In'., icr un. f Ch...m'.ury "fCol",. Th.. FI{


    NY.: Joh n Wile) .

    It.." ( /lu.,.'.. .. ,-C.,I"r.

    Col we ll. R. K. (Ed.). I')lB. 1I...."udl ul R",mu l. ' &m",);. 2nd ed ..


    Bethes da : .>\SI' . KS . 24 ~O p .

    Nassau , K. 1'1M . " The Physics o f Co lor," in Sc ic" ce )"or IYlt'4,

    ChIcago: Wo rld Honk .


    Crac knell, _\. P, and I.. W. Il a yo.'s. 1'193. - Atmos pheric Corr cc lio ns 10 Pa....ive Satelhte Remote- Sensing Data." Chapter R in
    Rom.'t" SO''''''';':. NY.: Ta yler & Fra ncis, l lt- 158.

    ,,,,,,>JII<'/W" '"

    Du. Y.. remer. P. M. and J . Ci hlar. ::!OO2. "Radiom etric :'>OlIrma lizario n of Mullilcm p<lral High-resolution Satellite Images
    w ith Quality (' '' nlm l for Land COVl"r Change Detec tion," Remo l.' f).'m"'J! .,f 1:",',""""""'. Ie! :113.
    Engll" M. IL Sc ully. M , O. and H . Walth er, I 'N.J. "The Dualny in
    Maller a nd Light: ' S('/"IJ/~tic Am <rlnm . 271( 6 ):S6-"'1.
    Fein berg, <1 . I <j X~ . -Ligju." in K. K. Holz \ Fd .J. Til l!' s",....'III" nl
    S"I<!IK<! : R,"",I, S<"I-,ill,~ u.f III.' Em 'lru"",clll. Znd Ed.. :-;Y.:
    John Wiley. 2-11.
    Green, R. 0 ., 2()03, " [lI1 w d uct i" n to Atmospheric Corrccuo u,"
    Ch apter 2 in el( "OR .V TlllrJri,j/. Bould e r: Analytica l Imaging
    and tt l"uph yslcs. I.LC, 12- IX.
    InSpl'C, 10m , ,'I CORA ./,11 V"lr:. U"i</". Bo ulder : ..v nalytic nl
    Imagmg a nd ( .... " physics. LLC. 7h p.

    knsc n, J. K.. 2 00 ~. Im m d/lcTllry /)i1-!i f<l 1 '''1<11-:'- I'ro n .... ill;: A


    H,'III" II! S,I/.IinX l'er ,''f'.T/Ilo' , Upper Saddle Rlvc r: Prc nuceHi/ II, 525 p.
    Konecny, G . 2fH).l. u".,;nto r""l lJ,m : Re"w!e Semin~. 1'11010Krumm..,,)' ",,,I GIS. 1\. Y.: Ta) lor s: Francis. 248 p.
    Ma tthe w. ~ L W. an d 1J en-authors. 2000. "Status o r Atmus pheric Correc tion USing a ~' O nT R A "'4 ba sc d Algorit hm," S f'lE

    1 ~ t>- JJ'l.

    Rl""l":lTc h " ) st em ~. 2110]. IL H SH- Fm l Li1l<' -of-.. ig h l A im...


    ' ph ..,.i, .4 ,,,, /n;".if "', ,<,c ,,,,1 II rp<',..-u hI . Boulder : Res.:arcll
    Sy~lem,. hnp:/I.... w.rsmc.co mrenvi Ilaash.asp.
    Rrcha rdv. J. A. a nd X. Ji 1'l 'N , R",,,,o l,' S>:Il. mg Dlgllu f Image

    1" ,,1.1';', :\ .Y.: Springer. Verlag. 363 pRinker, J. 1\.. 19<,1'1. l m " "IUdum to Sp"" 'frul R"" IllI'" Sen.,mg.
    Ale xand ria: U.S. Ar my Topographic Enginee ring Center. htt p:! i .... ww ,tee.army.m ii, rcrra iwdcscn tutor ial.

    ROll. II.. 201)(), " Physic al Principle s and Technical Aspects of


    Remote Sensmg: ' in Schultz. G. A. and E. T. Engma n (Eds.j.
    H,,"'o l, S" m IUK ill lIydm l01:..1'"'1,11~',j{<"r l/""ug ,m,,m. (k rli n:
    S pringer ,l h -3 '1.
    Song, C.. WouJ w d C. E.. S"lu, K. C. Lcnnc y, M. I'. and S. A.
    \1 a wm"'-:r, 21Xll. "Clnssificufion and C han ge Detection Us.
    ing Landsat 1M 1l,u a : Whe n and Ho w 10 Co rrect At mos ph e ric
    E ffcc t ~"''' N,'/IIolt S''JI, i,,~ ,,{ 1::''''/1)" "" ,,111. 75;2.10-24 4.
    l'rcfil. J and 1< . M. HH/ en . 1<,1"'5, The Scie nces: All tntegruted
    ,I/,{m ", ..h . NY.: Jo hn Wiley. 634 p.
    fuonunc u. S , an d A. Pckkarin cn. 1004 . "L oc al Radiom etri c

    Cor rect ion or Digital Aerial Photographs rot \1 uh i So urce


    Fo rest In ve nto ry," Rcm" ,,' S,'n.ling oj En vironmem. IN :72 - 82.

    r..

    vc rmcrc . E.
    EI Sulc ous. N. Z . an d C. O. Justice . 2002. " AI
    mosph c nc Correct ion of :'-.IOU IS [l ata in the Visible to Middle Infra red : F i r~t Kesulls.- H,'molt' S..lHing "f Envirnnmeru,
    8-3:'171 1 J.

    V I.

    ,n.'<J

    History of Aerial Photography and Aerial


    Platforms

    '0'.'/1.\'-

    Fif

    leClrn mllgnClic energy refl ected from the Ean h's surfac e may be recorded by
    a variety of remote sens ing sys tems. T he camera is still o ne o f the mos t rchablc and useful re mot e sensing instru ments. This c hap ter fi rst review s the history of ph otography. It then documents the development of suborbital

    plat lim ns used 10 obta in aerial photograph)'. Finally. a brief history of orbital
    aerial photograph y data co llect ion is pres ented.

    84.

    ' mo-

    "h

    '/11K.

    Hi story of Phot ography

    l'holugraphy w as an invention wa iling 10 happen from l R.B 10 1l\39 . Two of


    the technolog ical co mpon ents had been around for centuries . wai ting for the
    righl inve ntor to put every th ing together, includ ing: I ) a correct theo ry o f
    light and color, and j a recording instru ment (the came ra ob scu ra ). A ll th at
    was lacking was tbe invent ion of a light-sens itive em uls io n thaI cou ld be
    mad e permanent ( fi xed].

    ht-

    Ught and Color

    s of
    h .l,
    rlin:

    v. hitc light is composed of a ll co lors Unfortunatel y. Ari stotle's

    . A.

    Useric

    ned

    trl e
    .f CC

    82.

    A<.

    For more than a thousa nd ~ ears India's as trologers have taugh t that the Sun's

    belief IhJ.1all

    co lors are created by m ixing blac k and whitt" prevailed well intc rhe 17'h century I Woli n~ky, 1999). Even Leo nardo da Vinc i could not make up his min d,
    decl ar ing on different occasions rhar the re wer e six pr ima') colors - o r
    eight. It look the genius of Sir lcaac Newton to put lo nh the co rrect concept
    of light and color. In 1672 . whe n making public his New Tlwol) ' tlnour Light
    II"" Calours, Newton wrote,
    In till' bcgining o fthe yeare 1666 ... I procured me a Triang ular
    glassc prismc. to try therew ith lhe Cele brated Phaenernen a o f
    Co lours.
    l'\c v.w n found tha t in using the prism . he coul d dl spc rse w hite light into a
    spec tru m o f colors - red , orange . ye llow. gree n. b oe. indigo, nd vio let. Unlizing a secon d prism. he found tha t he co uld recombine thc colors into wh ite
    light. lie was the first to sc ient ifically document the ~
    1 natt~ ofliglu.
    His idea s helped la unc h the era of modem optics.

    lid'nt.

    61

    '-

    62

    Cll .\ PT F:R

    History of Ae rial Ph otography and Ae ria l Platfo rm s

    Figure 3-1

    A portable ca mera obscure focu sed rd k ,:k tl li;:h'


    from people Of land scapes throu gh a lens ( A I. 0,,10
    a mirror (ll J. and sub....-qucllll) onto OJ cle ar 1'1<1\<: or
    gl 'I"~ In The person then ..ketcbed the relanve
    J>Tupurt iulls and shape o f ObjLOClS 01110 transpan:m
    P.lpeT The camera obscura was an important tech nolo!!i....l stt.:ppll1;: stone in the dc\ clopmcnt of
    came ras and T'h"l~raph)' (a fter Ganot. 11(55).

    Ftgure 32

    Jo-eph Niccphore Nrepce t 1763- l1B31.

    Saon c. France. and reco rds the buil dings and vcgcrauor
    the co urtyard ( Figure 33 ). O n the len of the photogra pl
    the u ppe r loti of the Niepce family house; 10 the righ t i
    pear tree with a patc h of sky show ing thro ug h an uP<-'llill~
    the branc hes: in the middle is the slan ting mol'of the ham
    rhe ta r right is another w ing o f the house.

    The Camera Ob scura

    fundamental camera principl es were known as ea rly as the


    4'1> Cl.'nlury Be in C hina and in Greece, A device known lIS
    the camera obscuro ta dark cham ber) had long been utilized
    by art ists as a draw ing aid ( Figure 3. 1), Th e ca mera obsc ure
    uses a simple len s inserted into a box to focus images ofthe
    outside world onto a m irror and subsequently onto a plat e of

    glass. The p..-rson the n sketches the desired information ont o


    re lativ ely tran slucent paper (e.g., thin onionskin pa pe r ). In
    this way. the relat ive p roportions and shape o rl, hj~ets can be
    recorded , The problem facin g those w ho would invent phctog mp hy was how to captu re and preset...e the imag e on the
    glass [Fanton, 19S' .

    tovenuon of Light-Sensitive Emulsions and Methods of


    Perman ently Fixing the Image

    Joseph Nicephorc Nicpc c (1763- 1833) lived in Fra nce Ifigure )-2 ). lie prod uced the world's first photographic image
    of nature. circ a 11'26 {Gemsheim and Gem sbe im. l1J521. It
    was obtained from an upper \\ indow at his es tate "L c Gras"
    in the \' i llag~' o f Saint Loup de va renne . near Charlon -sur-

    Fhis is rhe li n<t successtut permanent photogra ph ti


    remotely sensed im<lge ). But how was the first phorogn
    Ju de a (a kind
    produced? Nicpcc d issolved b itum...n
    <lsp hnlt) in lavende r oil (a solvent used in varni shcs ). rl
    coated a sheet ofpewter (met al) with the mi xture . I lc phil
    the shec t in a canwru obsc ura a nd aimed the camera throe
    an open wind ow at his courtyard. He expo sed the sheet
    eighthours. T ill' shad ing ofthe b uild ing s is odd beca use
    the dive rse lighting ca used by the Sun travers ing ac ros s
    sky h om casr 10 wes t durin g t he e ight-h our exposure . In
    dent light from th.:: SUIl harde ned the bitume n of J udea
    brigh t ure a, and left it so ft in dark areas . Nicpce the n wast
    the plate with a m ixture of lave nder oil and wh ite pcrroicu
    This time it removed the soft bitu men tha t had not Ix
    struck by light. "The rcsu n was a permanen t direct POSil
    pic ture. in which the light s we re represen ted by bitu me n a
    the shades b)' bare metal" t Gcrnshc im and Ciemshc i
    ]l)5.:!). Nicpcc had foun d a way 10 remove the uncxpcr
    and sullltght-sensitive mate ria l so that the image stayed v
    iblc. Njepce ca lled it a hd ioxraph. from the Greek helios
    "S un" and grcll'''O.~ for " dr aw ing" (l ondo n and Up
    1 1J~~ I. Niepce d ied in IX3.l and was never able to appreci.
    the imp act thai photography would have on society.

    or

    p,

    63

    History 01 Photography

    First l' hotog ra pn

    'igu~e 3-3

    J<lM"ph ;-":i.:cphorc Nicpce look the world 's first phorcgraphic image in I !t2n of his estate courtyard. He

    used a camera (>bscura and a mclal plale of pewte r


    coaled with an emulsion o f bitu men of Judea la kind
    of asphalt). The exposu re last~-d d glu holm. The
    parts tl f the plate C\JlO!'<'d to lig ht hardened . Areas
    llull drd not rec eive light remain..d ...,ft. lit- removed
    III<.' unex posed so ft bitumen by " 3shing the plate in
    1,1\ endc r o il lind wnne P<'lro teum, 1his resulted In the
    first perm ane nt ph\lltlgr~phic image (Gernshcim and
    Gcms herm. 1<,1;2: ,C uernsbcrm Collection. Harry
    Ransom Humanit ies Research Center. University of
    Te~3~. Ausnn ; u~ \\ittlllcmli~,inn ).

    ion in

    aph is

    is a
    ing in
    .m. tc

    It

    ( i.c.,

    ?f'ljlh
    -rd of
    then

    laced
    -ough
    :,:1 for

    .sc o f
    .s the

    Inciea In
    [shed
    cum .

    Louis Jacques Mundo Dagucrre (l n n -I S5 1) wa s a scenic


    ani,l who created stage sets to r op eras and theate r (Fig ure 3~ ). lie and Niepce eOITl.'s pnllllcu oucn and bec ame bus iness
    partners in 11129. Alle r Nicpc c's death in 1833, Duguerrc
    continued experim enti ng w ith var iou s emu lsi nns and image
    "fixers." Oil Januar y 7. 1l(N . he presented the dague rrro/.Ipt' process to the Frenc h Academy o f Sc iences . The
    daguerreotype proces!> invol ved the fo llowin g steps (Quac kenbush. 19(,(); Newhall. I<,193; Londo n und Upton. 1( 94 ):

    "''"
    land

    , A polished surface o f si lver was plated onto a sheet of

    ieirn.

    The plate was made light_sens itive by e xposi ng it to the


    vapors from iodine crystal!> in a box . The , apor reacted
    with the silver. prod uci ng thc light -s cnsuivc compound
    silver iodide.

    utive

    oscd
    I YIS'.\' for

    PhotograrIJ of Lou is Jacques Maud e Dagc crrc


    (IiH7-IS51).

    t or landscape] had to rema in ' ery still . During exposure in


    the camera . the plate recorded a latent inl<l~e of the sce ne.
    which "'i1 S che mica lly prese nt but und etecta ble 10 the
    huma n eye .
    The laten t image wa s dev eloped by putt ing the: e xpose d
    plate in a box that had a d ish o f healed me rcu ry at the
    bouorn. Where many photun s o f ligh t had imp acted the
    plat e. the mercu ry vapur form ed a fro sty amalgam, or
    alloy, with the silver. T his amalga m made up the bright
    are as of the image. Wh ere lew photon s of light impac ted
    the plate. no amalg am was form ed. The p late W:l S th en
    plac ed in 11 hath o f W T1l111nn sa il (sod ium ch loride ). whi ch
    caused uuy une xposed silver iodide: to be come insensitive
    to furth er light actio n . The p late was then wa shed in wat er
    and dried. The result was a on e-o f-a-ki nd pos itive image.
    1\ few years later sod ium thio sulphate (hypo ). whic h
    Hersc hel had d iscove red in lX19. wa s us ed as the fi xative
    a gent instead ofsodiurn c hlor ide .

    copper.
    T his d irect positive proc ess yiel ded a sing le po sitive prin t

    oton.
    ci:1I1."

    Figure 3-4

    , Thephoto-sens itive plate was placed in a camera nbscura ,


    and an exposure was made. T he exposure (If the pla te o ften
    lasted several minutes. during which time the participants

    called a "Sun-d rawn miniature ... as the word "photograph"


    had no t bee n wined . Dagucrrc made it dear that he co nsi dered the invent ion to he his own. bu t agree d to trans fer it to
    the part nersh ip w ith Isidore Niepce (Josep h's son) "on co ndition that this new process shall bear the nam e of Dagu erre
    alone: it may. howeve r. only be published simu ltaneously
    wuh the first process. in orde r that the name of M . Joseph

    ....
    64

    CII ,\ I'n:R

    3~

    Histo ry of Aeria l Photography and Aerial Platforms

    Daguerreotypes

    a. Unite d Stares Capitol. J R.f6.


    Figure 3-5

    h. Presid c nt Abraham Lincoln, 1864.

    1);tgU...rre...'lypt.-So f :I) tho.' L n ilNI Sidle'SCa pilli] "nd h } Pr~"SI J"'nl A braluun Lincoln tc ou rt.. s~' of Library of Congress ).

    Nicc phorc Nicpcc Illa)' al w ays figure. as it should in this


    inventi.. m" \ 1..HUlIU.... IX(,71.
    The s..x rctary o f the I 11:11I.:h Ac ademy of Sciences marveled
    at Il agm'rrc 's inve ntion and stated tha i " It upsets a ll scientific rhccri ...s (If light and optics. and will revolutionive the
    an of drawing." Ot her imminent membe rs of the French
    Academy o f Sciences. such as Ale xande r Von Hum boldt
    /th e geographe r who conceived (11' ,11... "is ohn c"), \ erili ed 11K"
    importance o f the invention. T he daguerreoty pe process W ;IS
    purc hased hy ilK' t-rench gov ernm ... nt and borh Daguerre :and
    Isidore Nicpcc were gramed lifeti me pen sions. Daguc rrc
    wrote a 7IJ ra ge bookl et descr ibing t he dague rreotyp e process. which w as publi-hed in more tha n .10 editions an d J IStributcd thro ughout the world. A serious problem for earl ~
    phnlograp hers making d apucrre orypcs. however. "" as thai
    some of them went insane': a photographer exposed 10 the
    mercury fumes o vvr ,I prolonge d period of time could obtai n
    mercury poislming.

    In the United Sta tes, thousands of dagu crrcorypcs were


    made of landscape s and people by ..uch famo us phorog mphcrs as .\latlhc l-\ Brady. The daguerreotypes tha t remain
    today in the Library of Congress an: important historic al
    documents. Daguern:o ly pc<; (,I'the' United Suncs Capitol and
    President Abraham Linco ln an: sho wn in Figure J-5,

    Daguerreotype s recorde d ''''I)' fin", detail, and the public


    loved them, Unfonunmcly, there was no way of produci ng
    mu llipk copies exce pt by rephotographing the nriginal.
    What \\'a~ needed was .1 process where any number nf positive images could be made tro m a single CX p('lSUTe. In I SW,
    all I:nglishman named William Henry Fox Talbot (I :-\tlOIX?? ). ,, 1" 1 was II me mbe r of the Royal Soci ety {eq uiv alent
    III the Frenc h Acadc tuy o f Scie nces ), d iscove red that an
    im.rgc forme d un paper coated wuh silve r iodide. tho ugh
    barely visible, could he de veloped o r strengthened with galhe ucut and silver n itmil' . He used waxed, transparent paper
    l1ega ti \<: ~ , fixed in hypo, to make pos itive cop ies on silver
    chloride raper. Photog raphs made in this way did not equal
    daguerreotypes ill brilliancy or sha rpness. but the culntvpc
    (Gree k kulos Ior " bea utiful" <JIlU t ypos lo r " imp ress ion" )
    prlli.'ess made if p ossible to produce a numbe r of positiv e
    copies From thl' negative. talbot's Pel/cil III Nature ( IXM I
    "as the first boo k I II be illustrated with photographs.

    Talho l"s negmh e 'l"'"ili\l: process is basically the same one


    wo: usc today in rcrrcsma l and acr tal photog ra phy. Talbot
    con tend d that his process predated Dagucrrc's process and
    present -J his case 10 the Royal Slle;l'I). lnreresungly, when
    the famed astronomer Sir John F. W. I lcrschcl of England
    W;l S asked 10 co me to France and compare Daguerre's prtlce!>s wuh that of Talbot's. he replied, "I mu st tell you thai
    compared 10 Ihi.'SC masterpieces of Dagucrrc. Monsieu r Tal-

    65

    History of Photograph y

    ~ produces not hi ng hut vague. fo ggy thin gs . There i ~

    . .h difference betwee n these

    IwO

    as
    produces as there is

    berween the moon and the sun" (Ne wha ll. 19l(3). Hersche l
    11;0 introduced the word photographr instead o f Talbot's
    term " photogen ic drill>' ing" and co ined the te rms pvsiJin:

    and IIt'Kali l"".


    Photography was conside red miraculous atthe t ime because

    prior to 1839 il

    W;IS

    impossi ble 10 know CX;ll'tly what any

    person or place looked like without ac tua lly kno.... iog the

    reson or visiting the location. Ponrainnc wus available


    ooly 10 the we althy and "as subject to embellishment by the
    U1l'it. b en th e N-SI descriptio ns of faraway wo nders {If the
    ..orld .... ere still on ly .... ords. Photography allowed the co rnman and w oman to reach into th e tlow of lime. stop it
    fur an instant. and then preserv e that momen t for postent}.

    !lOll

    ubl ie
    ICing

    tmal.
    post839.
    gOO-

    In 11\5 1. the Englishman Frederick Sc ott Ar cher found Ihat a


    glass plate coated .... ith CfJII," Ii,m [nitroc c llulo..e dissol ved in
    (1fler and alcohol ) co uld be used as an e mulsion. lie devcloped a way to coarn g.1 3 ~ s plate with the s ubstance (Ne whall.
    l%!J), The plate was made sens itive by dipping it in silv er
    nit rate. The silve r ions combined with the iod ine ions to
    form hght-Sl.'l1sitivc iodide within th e collodion. The plat c
    \Io':lS exposed while.' still mo ist and then de veloped in pyrogallic acid, fivcd in hypo. and washed , The collodion In'l
    pia/(' process had to be pcrtorrncd on loc atio n. This requ ired
    a complete mobile dark roo m if photograph y was acqu ired in
    tbc field. From 1851 until 18SS this .... as the most popu lar
    form of photo graphy, co mpletely replac ing the dague rreotype and calo type processes.

    ale n t
    It

    an

    )ug h

    ga l.
    nper
    tlvc r
    qual
    ~I"f'('

    on")

    hive
    <-WI

    one

    lbo t

    '""
    he"
    and
    )fll.

    that

    Tal-

    In the J>rocl'(!,Jillg~ o f the Roya l Society in I X55. the no ted


    Sconisn physici st James Ckr" \1 axy,e ll (I X] 1- 1879 ) ( Fig.
    ure 3-6) made \\ hat is believ ed to he tbc earlie st suggcs tinn
    that objects coul d be rc produced in co lor by photograp hy
    His paper consists (If ,t basic discussion 011 the theory of
    color vision. Rde rring to early work s hy Thomas Young,
    wtom he sa ys see ms to have been thc flrst to understa nd
    'cew ton's suggt'st ion on the m ixin g of co lo rs, Max w ell
    males the followin g statement:

    This theory ofcolou r may be illustrated by a supposed


    case taken from the an of photo graph y. Let it he
    required to ascertain the co lours o f a lands cape . b~
    means of Impres sion, taken on a preparat ion eq uall y
    sensitive 10 rays flf every colo ur.
    Ld a plate o f r...d b<: placed helem: the ca m('ra and an
    impr...ssi<ll1t;lken T h... pOSItive ofthis will he transpa r<nt when:w r th... Tl.'d light has he"'l1 anun dan t in th...
    landscap.... and <' p'Il.lue wh...re it has be...n wanting. Let

    Figure 3-6

    Photograph of S....ouish physicisl James ("1erk M Ol \well ( 11\J1 - 11'7')).

    it now 0<: pUI in a magic lantern l i.e.. a projec tor)


    along. \\ uh the r cJ glass. and a red picture will he
    thrown on the scree n.
    Lei this operation be repeated .... -ith a g reen and violet
    glass and by mean s of three magic lantern s let the
    three images be superim posed o n the screen. The
    colour of uny point o n the screen wjl l thcn depend on
    that o f the correspo ndin g point of the la ndscape : and.
    b~ pwpo:rl) adJu' ling the intensities or the light. etc. a
    complcrc COP) of tho.' landscape as far as visible colou r
    is concerned. will he thrown on the screen ( Niven.
    11\9 () ).

    On May 17. I X61 . with the help of photographer Thomas


    Sulton. .Ma xwel l demonstrated this ,,,I<iiti le color combining
    technique. II c photographed a bow of mult icolored ribbon
    four times using nlack -und-whue film . Each exposure .... a~
    made through a diffcrcm filter : red tsulto-c yanidc of iron).
    green (coppe r chloridcI, blue (a mmoniaca l sulfate of copper). and ~ e1k..... [lemon-colored glass). l ie the n project ed
    light throu gh the red. g ree n. and blue Iihcred black -andwhite images and .... as able 10 recreate an image of thc how
    of multic olored ribbon . HI.' fo und that the yello w filter was
    unncc cssary. C hapt.:r ..J prov ides add itio nal inloTTTlation \ lf1
    additive color-comhining principles.
    G rea t impro vcm...rus in phutugraphy were realized after
    Richard 1.. ~l ad d ox , a I.ondo n physician and photo-mic rng-

    ,
    I

    66

    History of Aer ial Ph otography a nd Ae ria l Platforms

    raphcr. inve nted the dry -p late p rocess in IX7 !. whi ch used
    gela tin es the med ium for sus pending light -sensitive silver
    salts {Maddox. 1871) . Th is was grea tly supe rio r to the collod ion wet -plate process in tha t tile emulsio n was I ) much
    more scnsiuvc (approximate ly 60 time s faster than co lindion j. and 2) co uld he deve loped when the emulsion was
    d ry. II was nil longer necessary \0 have a wet labo rato ry
    nearby . The more scnsiuve emulsion was aIM) important
    because it stopped action more rap idly. grea tly imp rov ing
    the quality of dera il in terre strial and aerial photographs.
    Building on this logic, ro ll film was invented by Leon
    w am er kc in 1875.

    In 1873. Herm an Vogel discovered that by soaking sil.. . er


    hal ide emulsions in various dye s. he could ex tend thei r sen sitiv ity 10 longe r wavele ngths Sub sequent mvesngnnons
    revealed that dye s could be re ndered that ex tend emulsion
    se nsiuvity into the infrared port ion of the spect ru m (Th ompson, 19(6).
    Prior to I xxx . the gene ral public co uld bu y 3 ca mer a ami
    lilm. but the y had In know how to develop the film and pri n t
    the photog raph s. In 18RR. George Eastman revolutionized
    photography. Buildin g upon the work by Warncrkc, he used
    a ge latin emulsion in whic h hgh r-sens itive silver sa lts were
    suspend...-d. Thi s material .... as then co ated o n paper and prod uced in a ro ll fo rmat. This clea r. fl exible lilm support d id
    mu ch 10 advance an d increase the use fulness of photography
    (Tho mpso n. 111M). Ge orge Eastman fou nde d the Easunan
    Kodak Company and developed a photofinish ing system
    that lived up to the slogan, " You press the burton . we do the
    rest." The general publ ic bought the inexpe nsi ve box cam eras, ex posed 100 neg ativ es. an d sent the exposed 11 1m still
    inside the camera to Eas tma n's company. w here it \\ as pro cessed. The co mpany then sen t the 100 pri nts bac k to the
    custome r. a long wit h the camera and a new ro ll of film
    ins ide . Th is soun ds very much Iike the recycla ble cardboard
    or plastic came ras sold today !
    Finall y, in 192t Mannes and Godoucky patented the first

    pnrt o f their wo rk on mult ilayer film, which led In the mar keung of the three-layer color film Koda chrome in 1935
    1<.160).

    (~lcCam) .

    Photograp hy from Ae rial Platf orms

    Mankind ha s had till' desire to lly like a bird a nd have an


    aer ial perspective or bird's-cye view ofthe Earth lor a long
    lim e. Even our earli est myt ho logy is consumed with nig ht.
    For example, in Greek mythology Daedalus bu ilt wings of

    Figure 37

    A man-powered ornuhoprer. Flapping the arms ""


    ,>upl"O"'-'" 10 generate sufficie nt aerodynam ic liA
    sustain Ilig.ht. Experi meruation wuh ornithopie
    offcn resulted in se rious accidents.

    feathers and w ax for himself and his son. Icaru s . The


    esca ped fro m prison usin ~ the w ings . Unfortuna tely, lcaru
    became caught up in the j~IY of llying a nd flew 100 close t,
    the S UIl , T he wings melt ed , and he fe ll to Eart h. Th e Grcel
    hero Perse us used w inged sandals when he tle w 10 resco
    And rom eda t Lo pez. 1995). After dream ing about flying fo
    ce nturies. man kind's cre ativity even tually resulted in 1
    series of invcuuons that allowed us to escape gravity ani
    obtain an aeria l perspective. Some of the aer ia l platform
    mvem ...-d were more useful and sa te than othe rs.

    Ornithop ters

    Not su rprisi ngl y, the first rea l attempts at night invo lved
    peo ple tryi ng to imitate bird s. Th ey bu ilt flapp ing devices
    culled ornithapters (Figure 3-7 ). T hey j umpe d from high
    places stra pped to these devices and o fle n d ied. For example. in 1010 a monk named Eilmcr. equipped with a n omithoprc r, look o tT from a n abbey in Eng land and broke his
    kgs. Deni s Hulon ofFrance in 1536 tried lo lly usi ng w ings
    flapped by a sprin g. He d ied w hen the spring broke.
    Leonardo da Vinci 's notebooks wriuen between I -l K~ and
    15 14 co ntain designs ofomuhoptcrs and sim ple helico pters.
    We do not know if tl<1 Vinci actually bu ilt the d esign s. He did
    s uggest that the devices sho uld be tested over water tor
    sa fely.

    Lighterthan Air Flight Using Balloons

    The hot-air balloon was invented b ) " Joseph and Etien ne


    \tonl go ltier III 1710 in Fra nce ( Lop ez, 1995J . They burned
    stra w and wool ttl produ ce the less de nse a ir tha t lifted t he
    ba lloo n and basket 01T the g round. The first balloon passengcrs \"I ere animals . The first humans 10 ride in a Montgolfier

    67

    Photography trom Aerial Platf onn s

    '-

    - the mapping of the land from a series o f overlapping


    ae rial photographs (Nc\lo hal l, Iq6Q). Later in the mon th, he
    ascended in a captive balloon o ver Paris. li e suffered many
    failu res anempung 10 obtain an aer ial photogra ph. bec ause
    the gas esca ping from the mo uth of the balloo n desen sitized
    the collodion-coated glass pla tes he \loll.. using. li e fina lly
    achieved success over the Val de Bic vrc on the outskirts
    Puris when he wen t a lnn in a tethered balloon only X(l m
    ( ~ M H) above the gro und. ex p osed a photographic pla te , and
    then wus rap id ly hauled back dOl"" II 10 Earth . where he
    d ashed into an inn and deve loped the picture . ThC' world's
    li ,""t aeria l phot ogra ph no longer cxists but Nada r described
    u, contents:

    or

    .....as
    if! 10
    tcrs

    1 develop Ill) picture... Good luc k! There is something!... It cannot be denied: here right under me arc
    all of the three houses in the little village: Ihe farm. the
    inn and the police ..ration... You can d istmg ui..h perfcct ly u ddhery va n on the roa d whose dri ver has
    Slopped short before the balloon. and on the roof-tile s
    two .... hite pigeons who have JUSl landed there . Thus I
    was r ighl! {L , .\IIIIItI,-, 1Illl.l"lre. October 30. I!15K ).

    se to
    reck
    scue
    ~ for
    in a

    .n"
    urn s

    lved
    ices
    tig h

    am.mi-

    his
    ings

    okc.
    and
    .ers.
    did
    for

    FJgllre 3-8

    Photograph of Gaspard fdi\ Tournad1<lII t IS:!O


    l~ lo). the famous Parisia n photoprapher, HI.' calle d
    him..:l f:-J adar. He re h" is seenkneeling in a fr'lgilc
    hnlloou gondola. Ill' obtained the first uenalphorograph Irorn u balloo n in lSSK ucur Paris. Franc,-, nnd
    pate nted the aerial sur ve y as Il l' k n ll\'. it today. Unfcrtuuarcly. th.,
    "",rial photograph did not survive \ (" Roper- Viollet. l'ari s. I'rmwc; used with
    penniion I.

    Ii",

    balloon .....ere J. F. Pilatrc de Rozier and th... Marquis d' Arlandes..... ho flew over Paris. People whn ventured Into the;' sky

    -,n,
    no"

    the
    ;enfi ef

    In balloons otlcn

    referred to them-elv cs as

    1I('n"'<1I1'-'.

    Tile first-known aeria l pho tograph was obtained in 1X5X hy


    lhe Parisian pt1rtra il phol\lg raphcr and Jl',s~lunatc aC' runa ul
    Gaspard Felix TtlUnlachnn fhc ea lkd himsdf J\"ad<1r) ( Figure 3-1\). Toumac hon h:u1 a vision of w hal at' rial ph olog mphymighl COllt r ihUl e in the ttllu re . and on ( )dober 23. IX5X.
    he applied for a palen l for what we now cal l an aer ial SUf\CY

    Nadar himself referred III the photo graph as "a sim ple pesiuv c upon g la..S; made .... ith "detestable materials ." Ncvcnhc less, aer ial phot og raph y was ho m. Th e flrsr
    suc cessful aerial ph<ltoJ,!raphs thai \\1' ha ve a reco rd o f
    were r..x ordcd t\\O years later on October 13. 1860. fro m
    the tel hered balloon th"'f'!1 of the Air in the United Stares
    h)' Ja m..."'lo W. Black an d Samuel A . King from a hei ght of
    I,~OO (1 0\ cr Bos ton . \'l as !>ao.: h u~tts l Figure 3-9). The
    photograph s were obtained using wet collodion pla tes
    (Ten nant, 19{)3). Blac k was a pro fcs..iona l photog rapher
    from the linn of Black & Batbcldcr. King had his ow n
    photog rap hy bu siness - King & A llen. At the co nc lusio n
    ofrhc days ' ae rial plnuogruphy, King {I S60 j commented.
    Th is is onl y the precursor, no doubt, of nume rou s other

    expcnmcms : lo r no one ca n 1001.. upon thesc pic tures.


    ob tained hy aid {If the ba lloo n. with out bein g convmced th at the lime has come \lo he n \~ hal has been
    use-d .,nly for publi c amusement ca n be made to SC'f\ e
    some practical end.
    In Ju ly. IXfl3. Sir Oliver wcndcuHolmcs (a pho tograp hic
    student of Samuel King) photoin terpretcd the conren of
    this phott\l;raph for Til...AI/untie .\Iml1h1~' (f\C \lo hal l. 19(9);
    Boston . a" thL' L'al;lc and the w ild go.\s ... see it. is a ~ "'I)
    .li lk r...nl uhj eel ["rom th.....amc place as the solid ci ti/cn
    loob up .11 its caves and chimneys. The O ld South nnd

    ...
    C1IAl'rER

    68

    3~

    History of Ae rial P hot ogra phy and Aerial Platforms

    Fi r~ 1 ,\ r rilll I' hulflgra ph from .\


    C a ll1iH' 1i;III"ull ill lhl' United Slah',,; Uu'l oll. :\IA

    Figure 39

    A I" ,ni<lll "f ,m ae l i..1 f'h(Oll'~r.Jph o f 0.10\\ nto ...n


    Ilnshln , MA . uhtatned hy aer onauts JamC'S \\' . Hlac k
    and Samuel A. KlIlg Ih" l1 II h:l hcr"J balloon . I' ,In
    alutudc of I.::: uo Ii on tlctobc r 13. I l\Nl It is 1'1 clicvcd tobe the tirst J eri.l! photograph Ulk..,11 from a
    cap' i \ " h" II'Il'1l 111 the United S(;l l<'S and th.., ..art ic,[
    ",",ri"t ph.l!('gt"l'h still i n nisl<:lIc<:. II was ",hl<:lilted
    w ;1l1g J wet collodion pl.uc (use d" ith permission of
    til<; Slllith"'l1i"n lnsli llltillll. W;" hingl" n. Dt'; t:) ll
    151721.

    Tri nity Church arc 1\\' " Iundmurks lHH to be mistaken .


    W,lshinglnn SITn'[ , Iants across the pictur e as a nar row
    d dt. r-.li l ~ Strcc r winds as ifthe cow path which guvc
    it a name had been followed hy the builders ofits cornmereta! pa];h:es, Windo\\ s, chim neys, MId sky llg hl'
    utuuctrhc eye in the central parts ofrhc vie w, cxqu tsircly d ... fined , hl.'l\ ihkring in numbers.... i\S a liTh!
    ancm ptu 1\ onr he \\tllll... a remarka ble success: hUI
    grl." llcst interest is in shu wing II hal \\ C may hope IU
    see acco mplished in the same direc tion .

    us

    During the C ivil War in America. Union General ~ kC k lla n


    used balloons 10 observe Con fede rate AmlY posnrons and
    1IlIw cme nt. Fur c xamplc, in June. IXo2. the Union Ami)"
    used balloo ns t crhcred at an ahitudc o f 1.-100 11 10 gath...r
    illll' lIiglI1I... and draw maps o f the defenses of Rich mond.

    Figure 3 10 Tht' hI/H'I'i d balloon Ix-i ng tethered by Union


    1l (~ 'I" ,1\ th.. baulc " I' r air Oa b 0 11 Jun c I. 1861
    ( 11 ,~' [1

    non.

    with pcmus.s inn n f Ihl' Snurhsoruan lnsritu\\'a ,hillgl<,n. DC; N:: A-OJ71 0j.

    Virginia, lhe bnfloou 1I//I1'I'/(1 is sho wn tet he red hy Union


    1l"llI'P' on Ihc gnHmJ ut the banl c of Fair Oaks o n J une I.
    1:\62, in l'igure 3-10 ()uach'nbus h, 1% 0; Fisc her, 197 5).
    the /11/11:/,111 \\ as mtbll'l! USlllg a spe cial hyd rogcn-producill:": S) stern O' igure J- I I I, It i~ belie ved that sume aeria l photog rap hs we re ob tain cd h) lIhscrvc rs using tethe red
    balloons. Howev er. lUll a single C ivi l War ( IXbl-I Xb5)
    aerial photograph has sun ivcd t Colwell. 1<)97 ).

    \ kan \\ tl1k', In t.uropc . ( ;a~ fla rd I- e li'l. Tournac hon t J\adar )


    \\<l~ ~1111 acl i\ d) inHl h c J in bal loo n aerial photograph). In
    fact. he design...-d and built :J tremendous balloon called ie

    p'

    '9

    Pt<olography fr om Aerial Platform s

    ~re 3-11

    Tbe halloon/llffl'f'"/hemg inlh wd l>y usmg Fhad dens Lo we's I'"rtllhk hydll~<.'n 1!0I11t'T1iIing system duri ng the Ci \ II War batllc on air Uak~ lin June l. 1 };6~ tu-cd wilh pcnms., iun uf Ille Smnh....>11 i"n lnstuuuon. Wa, hil1 gton . IX"; #2,\03675 ).

    &ull/l Thc GianI ) in 11\63. The ba lloo n held :! \ O,OOO n ~ of


    ~<.. and us gondola consis ted literally ofa two-story house
    fined " ith three-decker beds, a bathroom. and \'\ en a print-

    ing press. The gondo la could l:Om ll lll at> ly house I :! pas s.:-nger,l1'\cw hall, I 'Jill) I. I\adar WH't C:

    mon
    Hfl2

    titu-

    The balloon Lt' Gnmf will be employed in various


    acrostutic photography... the results Ill" \.hlch will be
    so valuable li.!f all planispheric. cadastral, slrah:gical.
    and other surveys.
    Unfortunate ly, 111 October IXh] , the gigumic balloon
    descended too mpid ly. Nine ra ~sl'n gn'i aboard . includ ing
    \1,. Nadnr. we re :I111Hl'il kilk-d when the balloon was

    lion

    e I.
    75 I.

    ucho-

    dragged ~ 5 mites acros s the French countrvvidc. No aeri al


    photographs obtained from 1.1' (i1'<II11 have surv ived. UOWever, Kadar did slIl:c.:ssfull) nb tain oblique aerial photographs using perha ps the first aerial multiple-lens camera
    from the lIiPJI''1lm///,' Ua!/m m tethered 1,700 Ii above Paris
    in IIlM\ (Figure ]12).

    red
    OS)

    The dry-plate process pioneered 0) Richard xta dcox in 11'71


    \\ a~ 3 real boon to oh tainiug quality aerial phUh' l!rJ phs front

    ,,'
    '"
    Lc

    balloons because uo wct luboratcry \ \ J'i required in the OJ I


    Iocn gondola or nearby on the grou nd . and the emuls ion was
    much faster. n:s uhin g III te-e- irna g.: blur. This resu ncd in a

    Figu re 3- 12

    Ol> lil]llC photo graph " f Paris obtained hy Ga spard


    I'e h\ loumacbon 1:\'hJ.a n from the ffil'P<,Jro///<!
    1l"lh ~ ", 1<:111,'r,'d 1.711/1 n abovc the grou nd in Ikbl<
    ratt er I\,.."h.. n, l %<,ll.

    70

    His to ry o f Ae ria l P hotography and Aeri a l Pladonns

    Ph'

    --- ~

    Figure 3- 13

    A...na l photograph uf "S an r- runciscc in Ruins" obtai ned hy George R. l a wre nce after thl' April IK, 190n earthqua ke usingI
    011)-11> camera an' ld lCd In :1/,,,,,1;1',' "ir.,hip e"n~ isl i ng of 17 kites tethered fro m a ~ hip ill San Francisco Bay. The kites achi... ,,~
    an alutudc of 2.0(l() n above sea level tcoun ...,y Library of COllgres~: ~ lC- LTSZ 62- 16401 n).

    great deal of balloon aerial photography taking place duri ng


    the last few d c'Cades {If Ihe ninetee nth century, Gas ton Tis sandier publi shed the firs! man ual o n ai r phot ogra phy from
    balloon platfo rms. l.a "h Olographic 1'1/ !la/{mm [ New hal l.
    1969) .

    Aerial photography from tethered and free-flying balloons


    co ntinues tod ay, Stah ili7ing the balloon during the instant of
    expos ure continues to be a major problem. Also. untcr hcred
    balloons a rc at the mercy o f the pre vai ling wind. ma king it
    difficult to navigate the balloon ove r the inten ded landscape
    ~ C\ cnhclcss. ma ny scient ists an d gro ups continue to obtain
    aerial pholOgraphy usi ng balloons. A fe..... of the most act ive
    organizauons are iden tified in Appe ndix A.

    Lighter' than-Air Flight Using Kites

    Ca meras carried aloft by large kites haw also been USl"J to


    obtain aerial photography. Frenc hman A rthur Baun pioncc rcd the develo pment o f k uc ae rial photog rap hy. In UNO
    he published La I'JlOfOKra!,hic ~!I'rk",1I' ptlr ('erj~vlJ/lII1f. in
    which he o utlined the uses o f kite aeria l photograp hy for the
    explorer (to vie w the land !l<:yond) , the archaeologist (to
    loc ate ruins ), the milita ry uo reconnoiter]. and the agrom...
    mist ( tll loc ate \ ine diseases). Baun fd l thar the k ue wou ld
    bring aerial photography within the grasp o f the common
    man t Hanu. I!'O'JO; Tenna nt. I'JIB).
    Ge orge R. Law rence of Chicago was almost k illed twice trying to obtain ae rial phOl<lgraph" from capuv e balk-...lns. O n
    one occasion he fell 121.< It in a gondola from a balloo n sus-

    pcnded over the Chicago stockyard, and V,lb on ly !kI \ tIJ


    because the free-fa lling gondola la nd..-d on telegr aph v, ira
    Th erefore, it is not su rprisi ng that he switched 10 kite aerial
    phot ograp hy, ti t' often used as many as 17 kites in a connccrcd "train" ( althou~h live to 10 us ually su fficed ] to cart)
    alo ft ca meras we igh ing as much as 2.000 lbs. He call ed this
    collection of tethered kucs a Cupfil"t' Ain;}llp ( Bal er, 1 99-l ~
    A mo unt ha ng ing below the low est kite in the ser ies allowed
    him tn fill the camera in any direction before sending it up
    A system of booms, lines, and lead weigh ts p revented the
    camera (rum turning hor izontally while at the same time
    de creased the ca mera's tendency to sw ing. Law rence tripped
    the shu ucr by incorporating an ins ulated wi re into the steel
    kill." line. which was used to carry an e lect ric cu rrent 10 tbe
    camera ( f'\ewha lt, Il)h<): Bake r. 1994 I. Some of Lawrence's
    r no-a ce lcbratcd aeri al photograp hs were acquired si x weeks
    nrtcr the April IR. 1906. San Fra nc isco earthquake using 17
    of his kites at one time t l-'igu re 3- 1.'1. At first, ra in soaked the
    line a nd shorted out the commend 10 trip the shutte r. Then,
    the Sun cam e ou t an d dried the line , allowi ng the shutter 10
    function. Panoramic negativ es were acquired using a 49- 1b
    panoramic camera that held a celluloid-film plate 18.75 by
    018 in. Contact prints created fro m the negatives at rhc' time
    we re the larges t ever prod uced from an airbo rne platform.
    The cam era l'O\ crcd 160" in a single swee p of thc lens, prod ucmg extremely deta iled wide -angle pho tographs of the
    ruined cuy (Ba ker. 11)<)4 ).
    The utajur problem w ith kites and balloons is tltat they are
    not n:1\ igablc in lite strict se-nse o f the wo rd. Stilt , ma ny
    e xcellen t aeria l photogra phs hav e bee n obtained using the m.

    ;,m"graphy l rom Aeri a l Platfonns

    71

    id ly. creating less pressure thanthe slower air 110w ing below
    the wi ng . The higher pressure air below the wing e verts
    PTl'SSllfC upward. causing the wing to lift. Tilting the ... ing
    upwa rd w ill mcteese til<: aerodynamic lift even more. Howeve r. ifit is t ilted too mu ch. the aerodynam ic lift wi ll be to
    and the w ing (a nd a irc raft !) will stal l and fall (Lope z, 1(95).

    ....;..

    ..,:=::-===-=
    Figure 3 14

    Pi l-:l' Ull S

    UraS

    ~===== : 1~~>l;U1o(:el

    A II ing that is curved Ull the top and rela tively !lal
    onthe bottom creates w 'r'n(/n lllmi c fij i (a nee Lo pez,
    1 ~5 j.

    111m' i ~ an Internet user grou p de voted to obtain mg aerial


    phoItlSraphy u ~ ing: kites l Appo;:ndi1l. A).
    nved
    vires.

    Heavier-than-Air Flig ht Using Rock ets

    lC'rial
    conCarry
    j this

    99 4).
    ) wcd

    it up.
    :I the
    ti me

    PP<""
    steel

    e me
    lee 's
    ee ks
    g 17
    :l the
    ben.
    er to
    .9 1b
    5 by
    lime
    arm.
    pro " the

    arc
    tany

    rem .

    h en before airplanes were invented , aeria l phot ographs


    111m okaincd by rocketin g a ca mera into the sky and then
    It'trin jng lho: camera and lilm . In IllRl( La Narmy.' descri be d
    "photo roc ket" invented hy Ama dce Denisse. In UNl ,
    l udw ig Rahrmunu received a Ge rman pate nt for a phot o~raphic system that wa s shot into th e a ir us ing a roc ket or
    l3rt:e-caliber gun . The came ra returned to the gro und via
    rarn hute (~ e'" hall , 1969 1. In 1903. A lfred Maul patented a
    rocket camera . Aerial rhoIOk'1Olrh ~ from a rocket that
    echieved an altitude o f 2.00(1 II ... ere publ ished in the /IIu.~
    inned London .V('I"s on Dec ember 7. 1912 .
    Heavier-than-Air Flig ht Using Pigeons, Glid ers, and
    krcratr

    All heavier-than-air birds, gl iders. and airplanes achieve sustamed flight b used on t he principle o f aemdynamic fiji .
    Wind blowing ab ove and be lo w a wing will cuuse the \.ling
    to achieve aero dyn am ic lill ifthe \\ illg has the proper shape .
    ,\ fiat wing share fights air flow, causing dra g (resistance).
    ..Me a curved w ing shape tF jgure 3- 14 ) allow s a ir to 0(,\.1
    smoothl) aroun d u . A win g that is CUl"\- OO on th e top and
    almost tlat on the bottom creates ae rodynamic lili. Th e molecules of air passi ng ov er the top o f the \.I ing surfac e have a
    longer distance to travel and therefore mu st move more rap -

    In 1'1(13. Ju lius x eubronner pate nted a breast-mounted aerial


    camera fo r ca rrier pigeons that .....cighcd only 2.5 oz {Figure
    3- 15a.bl . An aruc te o f the day described the p igeon data co llecuon process:
    As a carrier p igeon. afte r sta rting. ,II first descr ibes a spiral
    line. it is qui te ea sy to take a numbe r o f , iews uf a given po rtion o f the ground from different points of v iew. After o nce
    determining the pos ition o f its cote (whi ch il recognises
    from a d istance upward oeo miles] the pigeon flies toward s
    its goal in a stra ight line and at the- un iform speed of an
    express tra m, so tha i the ro ute to he recorded photograph ica lly can be readily dcrcnnincd in adva nce {Sciell /ific Alii('/' n-an, JlJ09 j.

    Exposures were made auto mat ically at 30-second in terva ls


    (Q uac kenbush. I qW; Fischer. IQ75 ). Fo r obvious reasons.
    pi geo ns are nOI an idea l remote- sensing platform.

    George Cayley and

    John Stringfellow dra matica lly


    imp roved the- aerodynamic s and cont ro l mecha nisms of
    heavier-than -air gliders. Cayley' s coachman .....as the first
    person 10 succ essfully Il y in a gl ider in 1&53 . From I &Ql lo
    1K9f). a German c ivil engi nee r nam ed One Lilienthal co mplctc d near ly 2,(J()O glider flights. Sometimes he would g lide
    for more than 1.000 Ft. I I.: d ied in a g lide r tli ght in llNIi
    ( Lope z. lli'-JS ). An America n engi nee r na med Oc ta ve C hanute built o n Lilientha l' s design s and dramaticall y impro ved
    glidcr eonuol. lie wa s also a grea t suppo rter of thc aviation
    work o f Orv ille and wilbur \\ ri ghl.
    Orville and Wilbur Wr ig ht (Figu re 3-16) were fascinat ed
    with the co nce pt o f tli gbt. Initiall y they e xperimented with
    glideTl' al Kiuy 11;I\\'k. NC . wher e a consistent wind co uld he
    round and the on ly ob structions were sand du nes and the
    surf. Th ey hu ilt on the g lide r designs o f Lilien tha l an d Chanute and eventually designed thei r o... n gliders in 1900 . A
    pho tog raph o f one of the Weighl Brot hers lying prone in a
    g lide r in 1'ol1/2 is shown in Figure 3-173.

    72

    History 01 Aerial Photog raph y and Aerial Platform s

    a. Pigeons as remote sensing platforms.

    b. Aerial photograph obtained hy a pigeon .


    Fig u re 3- 15

    a ) A squadron of p i g<'(lH ~ <'qui pptxl with lightwe ight (appm ,i l1l;1ll'l y 2.5 I'll 70-mm aeria l cameras. bj Porli'ln of an ohliqllr
    acriul pll" tugra ph ubtain cd fmm a camera carried by a pi!!"' '' l, r lil' pig..-,'!! \ VI inp arc vjsibh: {-\-"' J)CLl l, d ll: s Museum. Munich
    Llcrrnany: LIS l' d with permission).

    Airer~rt

    In 1903, the Wright Brothe rs buih a I ~ - horselllw..er engine


    and the first opcrauonal airc raft propelle r. By the Ilip of a
    coi n, Wilbur Wr ight .... as given the ch ance to 11y the first
    heavier-than-air motor-driven machine on December 14.
    190 3. li e sta lled and era ..hed without injury. On Decembe r
    17. 190 3. at Kill Devil Hills at Killy Hawk . NC O rvill e
    Wright flew for 12 seconds ani! 120 ti (Figure 3 170 I. Both
    brot hers n ew severa l timers tha i da~, w ith Wilbur llying the
    longest dis tance of R52 ft. Manned heal icr-tban-a ir p owered
    ll ight had begun.

    T he Ilrig inal Wright Flyer was controlled by the pilot ly ing


    prone on tlw low er .... ing (f igure 3 17h ). Turns were made
    hy swi nging the body from one side to anot her. T his ca used
    the rudder III 1110\'1:: Hn d till: wings to bec om e wa rped . The
    p ilot ' s left hand co ntrolled the up and do wn mot ion (ascent
    ani! desce nt) of the air cra ft us ing an "elevator:' The pilot
    he ld on finuly to the aircraft with the r ig ht ha nd . No t surprising ly. no aerial photographs .... ere ob ta ined using the orig inal
    Wright Flye r bec ause all hands were required j ust to ma inbin control and keep from crashing. Th e Wright Brothers
    built a muc h improved airpl ane in ! 90 7 that allo w ed the
    pilot and a passenger III sit upright on the lower wing.


    73

    Pllotography from Aeri a l Platforms

    b. Wil bur Wriglu.

    a. <mille Wright.

    fi!,\Jre 3-16

    ()n ilk

    and Wilbu' \\ right were mstrumental


    ICsy o f WlJ..Ipc...ha ).

    In

    rhe <IC\ch'l"Tllt'nt of beav ter-than-air l!Ii,kn; ,md motor-d riven ..ircraft (coer-

    bliqu c
    tmich.

    lying
    made

    .1.

    Gli llcr.

    b. The Wrill Flyer.

    IU!>Cd

    The
    S!;1,:n1

    pilo t
    rpns-

    Figure 3-17

    al One nftbe \\ rlght Hrv lh<,....' In an uupo.....cred g liJ.:r at K i lt~ Ha""L. :'\C In 1'Xl1. bl The Wrigh t Fly........ <.1 a 12.hor5cpown
    engine an d sJ"'.'l:iall) dc signed propellers. Orville hklk the (i rsl successfu l hc avicr-than -air eng ine powered I1 lghl on December
    17.. 1'X13. Ii Ia~h:d 12 sc-.:""<1\ lind o;Ulcr..J 120 n l used \\ llll pcruus- aou ol"lhe SlIlllh""ni"l1 In,l iluli"". W~\h mglun OC) .

    ginal

    nai nuhers

    d the

    Ihe firs t time that an airplane was used as a plat form to


    ob!.a in ae rial photog raph y '" as in I'lOX. w hen Pa the motionpicture photograp he r L 1'. Bonvillain arcompani...-d Wilbur
    i'nghl. He took mot ion pictures 0\ er Cnm p d "Auvours. near

    I.~ Mm France. The (lr i ~ ill il l monon-picture film ha ~ not


    been IlH.JJ\d (Ne wha ll. J 9M I. but an enla rgement of one of
    the frame s (If the motion pict ure was published in a Fren ch
    magazine III 14011:.

    '3

    CII . \I ~r ER

    74

    a, Acriall'hotographcr and pilot.


    Ftgu re 3 18

    History 01 Aerial Photograph y and Aerial Platfo rms

    b. Aerial pholography in W\\ '1.

    :II An aeerial pho tographe r and pilo t in a Curtiss .0\ 11-13 airplane with (;r.l.t1c~ ca mera in 1915 . hI Elose-up \ ic... of a Worl d Vi
    l Curtiss I N-4 Jenny with the camera mount ed lin the right silk {llscd with I'l<:mtission uf tlu, SmilhsO llhJl1 lnsriuniou, Was'"
    il1glnn. DC; 1l2 n -417~2 and :!B-4 If,68. rcspccuv cfy).

    Photo-Reconna issance i n WWI and WWIl

    Numero us new airc ra ft co mpan ies came into existence fro m


    1907 10 1930. Many nf thc founder 's names arc still associatc d with United Stares ' aircraft co mpan ies tod ay ( Lopez.
    1( 95 ):

    Glenn Cu rtiss in ltX.I7 - Curtiss

    Aerial Photog raphy in World War I

    In order III take <In aer ia l photograph in the early years of


    Wo rld War I, il was necessary for the airman 10 point lhe
    handheld camera out the side of the plane. ma ke an exposure. and then change the plate before taking another phor
    g r..ph Came ras were initia lly strap ped to the photogra pher's
    ches t or attached to the side of the plan e ( Fig ure 3. 18ab,)
    Aerial photography was very dangero us d uty, especially in
    the early formati ve years.

    Wright Brothers in 1909 - eventually Curtiss-Wrig hl


    Glenn Martin in 19 12 -

    now Martin Marietta

    William Boe ing in IQI6 -

    Boe ing

    Dona ld Dou glas in 1920 -

    now McJ)(lOndl Do ug las

    Ala n Lockheed in IlJ2fl -c- now Loc khe ed-M artin

    John Northrop in 192Q -

    1'\on hrop

    Le k oy G rurnrna n in \9 29 - no w No rthrop.Grumman
    A ircra ft prod uced by these co mpanies und othe rs in Ger.
    many. Fra nce , and Brita in were used for military photoreconnaissance and ocher purposes in Wo rld Wa r I and
    World War II.

    Th e warti me usc o f aerial photography was not app recialo:d


    in the heginning (If the war, In tact, wo rld Wa r I trenc h map,
    deriv ed from phUlng raphs taken by the pilots 011 lhdr own
    initiati\e were at liht d ismissed as bei ng "a mos t d isgrace ful
    thing 10 have attempted" (New ha ll, 1 96~ ). Eventually, however. commanders learned the value of aerial reconnaissance
    and It completely cha nge d the milita ry tac tics used in World
    War I, First, aeria l phot ograph s were used h) ma ke rela tively
    accurate maps tor planni ng rmlnary strategy over poorl~
    mappe d terrain, A knowledge of existing a nd destroyed
    roads, barriers. and constriction po ints was very valuable lOr
    planning the movcmcm of troops an d materials. Second. I
    vast amoun t o r military material was simp ly impossible to
    co nceal trom t he aer ial ca mera len s (Quacke nbus h, 191>Oj,
    Troop movements and the stockpilin g of arms and supplies
    could be documen ted. For example. on August 22. 19 14,
    World wa r I Hruish reconnaissance aerial photography
    revealed a major change in dire ction o f the Ge r man fo rces

    PI

    .s

    ~Reco n na i s sa nc e

    In WWI and WWII

    75

    IL '....~ '

    ..
    Figure 3-20 Vertical acna 1ph"I,,~r<lph o f a \'-2 rocket launching

    ki war

    Was h-

    ~re

    3-19 V<n ic..l plll>lography o f World Waf I trenches in


    Europe. EuminllllOll of ~tcreoecopic photogra phy
    re vealed tho: IlX.ltiofl of men. gUll cmpl~... rncn ts,
    and am munition bunkers. Millio ns or men d ied in
    lrclk:h .... artarc durinll World War I (used with permission of the Smlth""ni,m tn-murion. washington. DC; Iil H-1 1711).

    facilil ) at Pccncmcodc in World War II. ]\'otl" the


    large circular earth revet ment around 11'00: launch fa cilit res J~.... igncd 10deflec t the t-iasl du ring lifto ff or
    10 min imilO: the d~"l mcti"ll during an acciden t.
    Th~
    f<l~lllli~.,.. '" ere ~'\ craually dO:SllTl)'l-d (cou n l'"S)
    of Fe lcrauou (II" American Sci<:nll~b, lmclligcnce
    Research f'rugram).

    Irs of

    11 the

    expo~O!O

    her's
    Sa b.)
    1y in

    ated
    naps
    own
    'cfu l
    owmce
    orld
    {ely

    crly

    y,"
    for

    '-'

    k1lancing on Par is. Th is umcly infon nation a llowed the


    ~Jlied army 10 fon ify its pos ition on the Marn e River and
    wid off the German adva nce to Paris (Lora . I"1451. World
    War I often co nsisted of trench war fare. Bunlc ficld trenc hes
    '-' in World \VaT I fo r au unk nown area nrc d isp layed in
    figIJr.- 3 Il.J. Trained phmo-irucrpretcrs rou tindy analyzed
    sereoscopic photogruphy o f trenches 10 loc ate gu n em place ments and ammunition dumps. By 19 1x, Frenc h acnal units
    ~ cre developing lind print ing ,is many as 10.000 ph oto[:T~ph ) each nigh t d uring perilids o f intense activity. Du ring
    !he Meuse-Argonne on cnstvc. 56.non aeria l phlltogr:'lphs
    sere made and delive red to American ];xpcditio nary Forces
    to four days. At the end or wor ld War I. Lieutenant Ed wa rd
    Steic henof the Photog raphic Section of the Ame rican Expcdilionary Force s stated.
    The consensus of e xpert opin ion , as e xpressed at tho.'
    various inter-Allied co nfe re nces on ae rial ph~l\(l g ra p h y.
    is that at leas t two -th irds of a ll milita ry in form ation is
    euhcrobraincd or verifie d hy aer ia l photogra ph y.

    : 10

    -o).

    the GCn11an Genera l Slall made a prophet ic state men t: "The


    nmion w ith the best photo- reco nnaissa nce w ill win the nex t
    war." By t<,l-H1, (ie ml<ln) led tho: II orld in military photorecon naissanc e. Fortunately, Gcmun phoro-irncrprctarion
    stagn ated a<; the war prog ressed. The United States had
    ulmostnocapalulity in m ilitllry phot o-mtcrprcuuion when it
    entered \\\lrld \\',H II ( Fjschcr, [ ( 7 5 ).I1" \\'l\'c r, B ri tish and
    Amer ican arri al photography data-collectio n and phot oimc rpretauon e a p'lh il i t i ~s improved qnic kty, After the
    retreat from the ma inland at Dunk irk in 19.jO, the Briti sh
    we re almost completely ('\II oil"fro m their normal sources of
    military inrclligcnccuud had 10 rely O il ae rial photography as
    their chic f source of infonua non. The pho to-ide ntification of
    Gcrm.m inva sion nargcs in canals near the co ast o f Fra nce in
    the sum mer of IlJ-\O constuutcd tho: maj or 0:\ idenco: thai an
    invasion of Englund woul d take place in less Ih:1I1-\8 hours.
    T he Brili sh launched suc h au ettecuv e air attac k o n t he invasion forces tha t Germ any wus fo rced 10 pos tpone the invasion and finally ttl abandon it (Q uack...nbush . 19( 0 ). Aeria l
    photograph y a lso assi, t..:d in the destruction o f German V-2
    ree ker fuc ilrucs lute in the war (Fig urc 3-10).

    Aerial Photograp hy in World War II

    lies
    14.

    .hy

    Ac:rial photo-rec onna issa nce p layed a significan t ro le in

    :cs

    World War II. In 19311. (j,:ncral W~t." von Fritsch, Chid o f

    \1lN rcc ormaicsa nce World War II airc ra ft had litt le de fense
    capability. Therefor e. they were often esc orted by figh te r
    aircraft. :-'Iillion s of recon nais san ce ae rial photographs " ere
    n htam ed d unn g W" rld W,lr II by mnd ilied a ircraft such as

    CIlA I' ITR

    76

    3--

    ,.

    Histor y of Aerial Photogr aph y and Aerial Platforms

    b.

    Fig u re 3-2 1 HI A 11-17 H ying Fortrco, ofthe U.S. xth Air Force In a lower gl\lup [lew underan uppe r grou p just as bombs wen: released
    01 The' ne xt (\""SUn- documcmc th.u the bomb crushed thwug h I1Il" port h"ri/ml1;l1 stabilizer of the Ill\\t'f aircra ft [us ed wi
    pcmuvcion <lr Ihe S mil hS<1I1ian ln- tnution. Wash ingto n. DC: /l.1,.\20il5\1 and :!OX 51. rcsllCClivd) I

    C o ld War Photo-Re connaissance


    the P .H:. In adduiou. hom hc rv ofte n ob tained acri.tl pI101O"
    graphs du ring hll ilibing raid s that w e re use d ill s ub se q uent

    bomb-damage assessment. Fnr exam ple. consider the nccident documemcd d uring a bombing and ae ria l reconnai ssauce missiono ver Berlin. Ger ma ny (Figtm: J -2I ah ). A. 3 17 Flying Fortress ofthe U.S. xrh 1\ lr Fo rce in 1I lo w er group
    flew un der an upper group just as bombs we re released. Th e
    fi rs t ae ria l rhtllO~rOJp h re ve als details abou t the 0 - 17 f1) ing
    Fo nr ess, such <IS se veral bom bs be ing released . clouds. and
    the Be rlin coumryodc below. The ne xt ex pos ure d ocuments
    that a bo m b c rashed thro ugh the po rt ho rizo ntu1 stabilizer of
    the lo we r airc raft, clea ri ng the way for subsequent nn m ns. It
    is unhkcly thai the darnuged 1j- 17 could have returned
    s.afel). Ge rmany introduced j CI airc ruft platfo rms nca r the
    end of Wor ld W3r II ( lio) lie. I'NJ I.

    Arter Wo rld \V:lr [ I. thc arm s rac e betweenthe U ni ted Sial,


    and the Sovie t Unio n caused the U.s. gov crtuuc nt to IhinL
    that there was a trem en do us bomber a nd/o r m issi le gar
    ( ireOJ I cl1l l' h;l~ is w as placed atthe highcst levels on develop
    i n~ tel'1lllol og y tt> collect informat ion. S imilarly. the Sovi
    tnio n desired info nnmirm about U.S. activuics. Any ae ri
    rcco un.ussancc lI\ c rllighl ofanother state w itho ul uuthortzanon W :lS cons idere d tn be au illega l and host ile act unle
    nauonal I l'MIc ~ agree d to 11 befor... hand. BUI. such overIlights were ;lhso lutd ) ess<:nlial j f thc Unite d States wa s t
    I n,m what wns lak ing place in the Soviet Union a nd oth
    CIlUn!rIt:S. Un itl'\ l States Pre s iden t Dwight Eise nhower
    approved thc U~ aeria l reconnaissance program in Dccc
    bcr 1954 t Brugioni and D<'J)lc. 19l)7 j . Subsequently. Presi
    dent Eisenhower all...n dcd the Fou r-Pow...r Surnrni

    ln,

    77

    ColdWar Phot o -Reco nn ai s sa nce

    Conference in Ge neva, Switzerl and, 1111 Jul y:! L 1 ~5 5 . and


    pr=lt-d wh.uthc prl'ss c \ cnt u:l lI~ culled the histori c Op en
    5i~ D
    oc trine. He ~u ggt' ~led that the absence of trust and
    Ihe prc~cncc o f" tcrr ibk \.\ capons" among )Iah;s provoked in
    lhe lIortd " fears and dan gers of su rprise attac k." To e1im i;tie those fears. he urged that rhc Sll\lel Un ion a nd the
    Unit<:d Stales provide "faciluics fur aerial photography 10
    koth<-r country" and co nduc mu tually supe....-ised rcco nws..<.arn:e overtlighrs. Fi"'t SCn CI.i.l1) of the Commun ist
    hrt~. Khruschcv. privalcl~ rejected the Ope n Skies Doct rine
    die same da) [ Hall. I'Nf>j Nevertheless. the concept had
    ~pm<n !ed

    .IiIsla fe\\ days later on Jul y 29 . 19:'5. Pres ide nt Eise nho wer
    pIlbhd~ annou nced plan s for la unching " small unmanned,
    bnh,ird ing satellites :.IS part 1' ( the U.S. parti cipatio n in
    dlt 1957-19:'1' lntem auo na t ( ,t,,'ph)'sical Year." The real
    /UPOSc, howev er. was 10 establish the principle in in tern elional la\\ of "freedom of space" \\ ith a ll that it implied for
    mlcgic reconnaieeo nce conducted at altitudes abov e the
    "urspace" 10 \I hich the st.ue, beneath claimed e xc lusive
    IOlcreignt)' ( ll all , 19%). In dTI.'t.,1. the Presid ent wa s layin g
    the groundwo rk for the already co nceived (,enelri, Reconll.J.ISWKe Balloon Proj...ct. a U2 suborbital airc ra ft project.
    l.I1d subsequent satellite orbi tal reconna issance .

    cvcr, [;,b le m European, Sevier, :.Ind Communist Ch inese ai r


    defen ses r",spllOlktl quickly and wcre nhle "1 sto p many of
    the balloo ns.
    On February 4, 19:'0, SmiCI Deputy Foreign Minis ter
    Andrc , A. ( if\lmyko protested to the U,S, Am bas sad or. O n
    Feb ruary 7, 11)5(1, anticipaung the SIH ic t res ponse. Pres iden t
    Eisen hower suggested 10 Sec retary of State John Foster
    Du lles that the operation be suspended and "we shou ld h.I11 d ie it so it wo uld not lvv l- as though w c had be c n ca ugh t w ith
    jam on our fmg...rs" t Day l'l a l.. l iNN). O n February 9. 19 :'0 .
    the SIl\ il'ls held a prcss conference an d dis p layed about 50
    balloons and instrument containers. The tnucd Stall'S sa id
    the y were weather balloons . II was a major emba rras-anem
    10 ihc Un itcd S' '' ' c, ( Day el al.. J99:S). Only 44 o f the -\...\s
    balloons wcr .... recovered . Ho we ver. rhc cameras on th c o;('
    bal loons ob tained 1 ~ . :SI ~ aerial phl11t'grarhs covering
    1,1 16 ...\4 9 mi l Ilf SOl ict aull ChineS\.' terrain . induJi ng thc
    very significcnt nuclear refining f:.l'ili ty at Do non ovo in
    Siberia IP",el-l",s, l IN? ), T h i.. marked the end ('If thiv early
    U.S . balloon rcconnaissancc program . Th e V::! airc raft
    recon naissance p rogra m was initiat ed j ust a few month s
    later, in July l<,l ~,., .

    U2 Airc raft Reconna issance Program

    Gene/fix Reconnaissan ce Balloon s

    leased.
    xl wuh

    Considerable re search \Ia s conducted b) 11K' U.S . A ir Forev


    and the ('ell! ral l ntcl l ig ~' nn' Ag en,'y (CI :\ I du ring 1954 and
    1955 on the ut ility of usi ng unmanncd ha ll\~lll " op.-rilting al
    v. ith ,'amenlS in their gn lldu las 10 obtai n
    [Cnmnaiss:lIll'e inlo nll:ltil' n o v\'r vas t gt~"gnl ph ic area s. Thi s
    '1ia, caliI'd the U raynad Prog ram , A Irial ha lloon \lias
    IJ unl'heJby th... Cl /\ I'wm SClllb nd, which dritlcJ acro,s lhe
    Sonel Union and \\'a , relr ie\\,d lwar SOUlh Kl, rl'U. Sim ilar
    roltlllHls w...re also laund1l'd lind rel'm<:red in lhc Unitcd
    States (Peebles . 19( 7).
    bi ~h 'lhitud.-s

    Slates
    th ink
    ~ ga p.
    le lo r )0\ 1<.'1

    aeria l

    orizamlcss
    o\er'as to
    olh ~'r

    lower
    :ce rnPrcs i-

    romil

    Ba!'l.>J on thl'st' sllt'l.:esses,the (j e nctri" l{ecl1l1l1a issanl'c BalPrujeet was initial...d in Od obcr 19;5. The g"al (,ft he
    program was to on lain cl1 mpkle pholl)gral' hic e' ln' rage o f
    Lire So\ iet laml ma ~ s nased on tht' prop,,~ ...d launc h and
    m::OI Cry of 2,5 00 lInm:mned h i ~ h , alt i l ud e balloon s . Prcsi,
    drn( Eisenhower g;I\ I,' appro\ a l l' lr Iht' laun ches (" beg in on
    Dect:mber
    1955 , !'WIlIJ anu;,ry Ill, 1956, through Fcbru II) 6, 1956. approxim<lldy 4..J1( b:Jll\luns Ih're launc hed
    ITom Scotland . ""orway, Wesl Ge mlany, and Turkey I Peebles, 1997 ). The go ndolas .... cr... I" be rctri...\ed by a ircra ft
    S'.JlioncJ in a large arc from O l-in:J wa lhrough Japan (0
    Ala,la Many of Ihe ea rly hall"on.. \l l.'rc rt'\:o \ ered_ How ,
    10011

    n,

    In Dec cmbcr 1954, Presid ent Eisenhower instructed the C IA


    to contract w uh l .ockheed ( in cooperation with the U.S. Ai r
    For ec ) 1,1 de velop " photo-rccounaisceucc jet aircraft ' hat
    could n ~ abov e the Sovicr L'nion 31 wi ll to document their
    military ~'<l r;, h il i t)'. This led h I th.: <: rl'a lion of Ihe selT.. . l
    l o,kh....:J Sl-unl- \\'\'rb {n,lllwll a n n <l smelly lo,a,i\l ll in
    the I II' AllTl,'r ('annon ~ ' r i r ) in Burnank, and later f'almda ll.".
    CA, wh, re ", Ily Johnson and h is ,'nt/i llc,'rs dew loped the
    ,11 1I l11i nurn L!2 airera ll ( R i~ h and J'lIIos. 1()<)4)
    l h... lHigi na l lJ2, w...re jl,lillk'd du ll hb cl- III pn:vcllt th...m
    frolll gli llling in llw Sun ( l'igu r... },22 ,,). II I."l)uld 11)' at
    70,l 11l(l n ano \ e se~l k ...d and ~"l. rns~' J, (,O(J n (lfh igh-reso lutioll lil m OIl,J sillgle lIIis~ ill ll. TIll: .:alllc r:.l \Ias de\ do ped by
    Dr. r..l win La nd, ill\ ...ntn r (lftht' Po laro id "" Illll'ra. The origina l U-2 p:lyload l'I,[\s iste, ln f lwn high,resolu' illn .:ameras llll... a ~pccial IOllg.fo.:al. I lIgth sPl'lti ng came ra able to
    reso lw ol-jecls two t(l tllr fee t ac ross from :I height o f
    70,000 h , and ' ht' ot her a tra, ki ng ca mer a Ihal could produc<
    a "'ollt i IlUOU~ l'tnp I,f lil Jlll, f Ill<: who le n ight pa th ( Rkh and
    J;lnns, J(lQ,ll. The tirst Russ i;lIl o ver tlight occu rred (In Ju ly
    -I, IQ5f>. It !ll(,k oi l" from Weisooden, Wesl Gemlan y w sur\ .:y SO\ iet na val sh ip~ a rds and sub mar ille co nstruc lio n. It
    owrllcw 1'" land , Bdonls.vi:J, \l osco w. Len ingrad . and the
    SOl iet Ba hi..: sta les I\IUl'h to the l' o nstemal ill!l of the "--\ mer-

    3~

    78

    History of Aerial Photograph y an d Aerial Platforms

    1
    Loc kheed U-2

    -'

    -3.

    U':! aircraft,

    b.

    Figure 3- 22

    at The Lockheed U-=: hlgh-alt ilud~ rccoenaissancc airc raft was de\doped at
    the Sl.unl. Wurb in Ilurbanl. and
    Palmdale. CA. for President Eisenh'''\Cr.nle prog ram "as Mlpc..... -iscd
    toy the Ccnrrallntclligence ,\ g('fl C)', h )
    I' rullc is (jaf) Powers in fro nt of ali-=:
    a ircT:lll tccurtesy Loc kheed .\!J rtin.
    Inc 1 1.'1 f\l;m y U-=:s arc: still in service
    :Is Ea rth res...urce ...beerv anon aircraft.
    III thl ~ " \ :Imple there is a U-2 in the
    foreground ..nd an ERl in the backgm ulll! in tli ghl near Sail Francisco.

    CA ieourtcs)
    Martin. Inc)
    1:.

    ~ ,\S /\

    and Lockheed

    ER-2 aircraft.

    leans, the Soviet rada r detected und tracked the first V-2 at
    its lksign altitude of 70.IHlO It (H:111. 19(/0 ).
    Soviet surface-to-a ir missiles and aircraft could nut touch
    the lJ- 2 for four yea rs. lnfonnanon provided from the V-2
    ll\w llig hts had a tremendous impact on our knowledge
    about the Soviet Union during the 195f)s and early !%Os.
    Howeve r. missile tCI'hm)logy continued 10 improve, and on
    May 1. \'.1(,0. a dus ter of 14 S:\-2 air-to-air missile s shol
    down V-2 pil111 Francis G ary Powers (Figu re J- 22b l. l k was
    interrogated IlIT 10 In 10 hours a day tor o l days . In August

    \960. SO \"j,:1 authorities staged a \\ iJd) publici zed. open


    trial that wa s design ed 1,1 emba rras s the United State s. They
    sentenced Fra ncis rla rv Powers to 10 years in a Sovie t
    prison : however. he \\ as exchanged after ~ I months for
    Soviet spy Rudolph Ab.: I. wh o \\as b.:in g held in the Lnitcd
    Slat~s(Ptl\\ ~rs. lIN?),

    Arter the Frnnci., Gary Powers incident. the U-l still providcd impunam strategic reconnaissance information
    Ih['(lugh\Hl! the world. For example. in July 1 96 1 .l h ~ dircclo r of the CIA sent a mc tuo 1'1 Pres ident John F. Kcnncd
    sa)ing rhat he believed the Soviets IH1Uld deploy med ium.
    rung s: ballistic miss iles (M ROM )j ust 90 miles from the U.
    mainland on Cuba: ex.:lell)' \\ hen wns un clear {Walte r, I<)Ql
    (ioldo.:r g. 1'-J'I3) . On Oc tober I). lW.2. President Kcrmc
    upprcvcd reconnaissance ni ghts ove r western Cuba usi
    hig h-altitude U-2s. Hurricane Ella kept the planes on the
    gn -und untilOctober I~ , \1)02, The photographs we re inter
    preted on October 15 and presented to President Ken ned y
    Octobe r 10. 1% 2 . " ponion o f one of the U-l photogra
    ..how n 10 President I\.ennl-dy is found in Figure 3-23a.
    ohlil.j ue ae ria l pho tograph ob ta ined by an RF l0 1 airc
    recorded \1RH\1 facilit ies near Sa n Cristo bal. Cuba.
    October 25. IQtt2 {Figure 3-2J h),

    5
    Cold War Pholo- Recon naissance

    79

    C u ba n :\li!>silc C r i ~ i! October. 196 2

    a Venical aerial photograph or s an Crt c obal. Cuba.

    b. Ohllq ue aerial pho tograph o f SlIM Cristobal, Cub a.

    I pm ration
    dir cc-

    mcdy
    fium-

    : u.s.
    19Q2:
    mc dy
    using
    -n the
    interdy un

    mphs
    a, An
    rrcraft

    Figure 3-23 ill A portion nfthe 1)-2 aerial photograph ofSan Cri ~I ,, "a1. tuba. shown to President John P. Kennedy by the U.S .'s top photcintcrprctcr Arthur C'. LUlldahl on October 16 . 191,2. The pho tograph was uhlai !ll'<J on Octobe r 14 , 19(,2, at an altitude of
    2 1J(H'1 m. h depicts missile trailers , a few launchers. lind l..-n ts thai wen: usedto prepare missiles and war heads for la unch.
    President Kenned y as ked. .\ ro: you sure?" "Mr. President," Lundahl replied..-t am as sure o f this as a plnuoimcrprcter can be
    sure o f anythi ng. And J think . sir, }'OlJ might a~'ll:'C' thaI " I." have not misled you on anyt hing we have refMln C'd 10 yo u. Yes, I
    am con vmeed they are m is~llc~~ ((Jru~i0n i. 19%1(U.S. Air Force photcgruph l, bl Low -oblique aerial photograph of'Mcdium
    Range Balli stic \I issik (MRHM) Launch Sill." I near San Cris tobal. Cu ba. ot>I;,ined on October 25, 1%2. hy low- flyin g RF_
    I OJ aircrall. Long m issile shel l('\" 1~'11 ~ and missile transport..~ an: \ isib le ( U.S. Air Forc e photograph; court esy Federation uf
    Americ an Scicnnsrsj.

    On October :!5. IQ61. Un ited Nat ions U.S. Ambassado r


    Adlai Stevenson challenged the Soviet Ambassador. Valerian A. Zorin. to de ny the U.S. charge that the Russians had
    installed offensive missile oases on Cuba. -rn dill:' course.
    sir, you will have your reply , Do not worry:' replied lorin.
    Stevenson respond ed. ..[ am prepare d til wai t unt il hell

    freez es over. if ihm 's your decision. I am also prepared to


    present the evidence in this room: ' Aerial photogr aphs on
    easel s wen: then broug ht in. and the peaceful Cuba n countrysidc in August was shown til contain missile facilities b y
    mid-Oc tober, Twemy- fuur hours later there were unmistakable signs of mis sile inssatl ario ns. President Kennedy then

    ...
    C1L\YI U {

    80

    His to r y of Aeri al Ph olo g rap hy a nd Aeria l Platforms

    Lock heed S H:-71

    F"tgu re 3-24

    Two view s o f the Lockheed SR.71 reconnaiss a nce aircraft . h can 11)' at i!T<';llo:r than 70.0110 It
    above sea le ve la nd achie ve ai ~roccJ~ greater than 2.(J()() m.p.h. (counCs) Lockheed .\ l.u tin. ln..:. ).

    init iale d a na va l blockade o f Cuba. A tlcr much po litical


    brin knmnxhip. Sov iet Premier Khruschc v relented 011 October l X, 1% 2, and the world retu rned fro m the brink of
    nuclear war.

    Interest ing ly. the de tail in the photographs was largely lost
    on the uneain..-d pn: si(knlial sia n: A uomcy General Robert

    F. Kennedy wrot e abo ut the ClA's e xplanat ion o f the photograp hs at the lirst emergency meeting: "I. fo r o ne. had 10
    lak e their .... ord for it. I ex amined the p ictu res ca refulI)'. and
    wh at I saw appea red 10 be no more than the clearing of a
    field for a farm or the basement of a house. I was relieved to
    hear later that this was tho: same reac tion of virt ua lly everyo ne at tho: meeting, incl ud ing Preside nt Kenn edy. Even a few
    days later, when more work had tak en place on the s ue. be
    remarked rhur it looked like a foot ball field" l Kenned y,
    19(9) .

    h igher than :IIlY other p lane. 11m it was slow. W,' needed
    replacemen t thai could Ily higt1l'T. farthe r, and Iavtcr," ,.
    Ke lly Johnson. T he Skunk Works subseq uently dcv cl
    the SR-7 1 ( Figurc 3-24), II wa, delivered to the tf .S.
    Fore... in lQ65, In 1'>7(1. it set the wur'ld speed and ahu
    records o f 2. 193 m .p.h. in level l1 ight at 85.126 ft. " ".
    exceeds the w loci t) of a 3n.flh rillc ou tlC1. lt is snllthe fu
    <:-;.t, hig h..-sl -Ily ing arrcratt in tho: ",odd as tar a ~ "e kuow..
    \-13eh-3 the glass of the coc kpit is blistering hot. 0 \
    6JXlO"F. The S R-7 1's ti m mission was in 1%5 over Ha
    the capital of xorth Vietnam, It l1C\\ dai l)' reconnaissa
    mi ss ion s o ver North vietnam and was never touc hed.
    S R-7 1 detected the So viet combat brigade in Cu ba in II) ,
    Th e SR7 1 curries on ly remote sensi ng and sig nal hue!
    gcncc equipment. Se veral arc still in usc altho ugh they hal
    been o tli eia lly reurcd num ero us rimes.

    Airborne Stealth Technology


    O ther Presidents have used the suborbital U-2 p latformas an
    intd ligen l'c asset. For example. I'n' sident Reaga n orde red
    U-2 o\l'"r Oigh b of N ica rag ua to i J~n ti f)' Soviet arms bu ildup
    in suppo rt o f rebe l forces. President Rush used U-2 assets III
    the G ulf War in 199 1. Pres ident C1inlon used them in tho: war
    in Bosn ia in 1998 -1 999. Specially mod ified U-2 airc ra ft arc
    also used to suppo rt va riou s ;>\ASA Eart h resource ldcsignatcd ER) remot e sensi ng proj ec ts ( Brugj(mi. 19X5 1

    The SR-71

    "We knew in 19 5:-:. two years be fore it hap pened. that til,'

    Rus:<i ans were go ing

    til

    shllo t dow n II U-2. Thl' U-2 e(luld l1y

    From 1975 to the present. the Lockheed Skunk works a


    other aeros pace co mpan ies thw ug houl the worl d havc dev
    oped we,llth tec hnology, A stea lth a irerall is co nstru cted
    co mputer-design ed facets of met al thai have spec ial sha
    and o rienranons dt'Signed to dctlccr mcorn tog radar wav
    away fro m thc sou rce o f rransmi ssicn o n the gro und or fr
    another plane in lit" a ir. In addinon, special co mposite mal
    rial is usually ap plied 10 the ain.:r.l11. which ah,orhs inctde
    radar t:nergy i Rich ami Janos. 11)94 ). The se co nditions mill
    the aircra ft rchuivcl y invisible 10 radar dete ction. The rada
    cross-section (signat ure) of a non-stealt h a irpl ane looks a~
    b ig as an l x-whcc l tractor trai ler. Conve rsely, the radar

    .,

    Satellite Remote sensing

    edcd a
    ,- said
    sloped
    S. A ir
    hitude

    whic h

    Figure 325 Various views of the Lockheed rll ' Nighthawk steal th nircrun . The unique fuselage geome try and c nc rgy-uhsorben t matc rials on the p lant' make it ditficnftto Ill'le,"' Oil couventiunal rada rs.

    IC.' fast ow. ,\ 1

    o\~r

    Hanoi .
    ssance
    d. Th e
    IQ79.

    inte lliY ha ve

    eoss-secuon ofan F-II ? is equivalent to that ofa small sl ...d


    lIlIIble. This stealth rapa hi lny was dramatically un veiled to
    !he world in the 1990 G ulf War when pr.. \'iously sec ret FI~airmti (F igure 3-25 1.... ere used to 11)' night rcccnnaislaDC\: and tacncal missions over Iraq a nd Kuwait. Stealt h
    rechnology was a lso used ex tens ively in the conni e! in Bos-

    niain lQl)X- I t)'W.

    film. bUI abo the f irst object 10 ret urn from space a nd be
    recovered in midair ( McDon ald. 1(9701), The age of space
    reconnaissance had begun , In just one mission it prcvidc-d
    mor e photographic coverage of the Soviet Union than all
    pre vious U-2 missions.
    Corona

    Sate llite Rem ote Se ns in g

    ks and
    devel:100'0.1 o f
    shapes
    W3 \" e5

    'f

    from

    , mu te-

    rcidcm
    s make
    e rad ar
    ~ks as
    radar

    The firstman-made satellite to) orbit the Earth .... as SfJII1I1ili. I,


    I:wocbed by I~ Soviet Union on October 24 , 1<)57, In a sin~Ic moment if effectively confirmed a world .... ide "open
    !kJe:;- policy for obj ects launched into orbi t. The United
    Slates initiated its Comll<l orbita l satellite recon naissance
    progra m in the late 1 95 ()~ ami began launc h ope rations o n
    February 21\. [959 . lt was managed j ointly by the CIA and
    the U.S. Air Force. TIlt' ti rst eig ht reconnaissanc e missio ns
    did not produce any imagery ( Md)ona ld, I ~N7 bl Howeve r.
    00 Aug.u~t 18. 1960. foo l ission 9009 was successful. Thi..
    lIiDth mission was recove red in midai r and beca me not only
    ~ fiN Corona to return trorn space .... irh reconna issance

    Keyhole (Kill \1 as the codeword assig ncd tothe U.S , s pace


    reco nna issance act ivities for th..., Corona. Argon , and Lanyard programs. T he KH abbreviation referred to the ca mera
    systems associa ted w ith th c'!;.C reco nnaissa nce progra ms,
    e.g.. KIII . KII-2. K H-3, and K U-4 w ere Coron a sensors:
    Aq!on'" ca mera .... as KH-5. and Lanyard's camera .....as Kl I
    6 . The in itial Corona spatial reso lutio n .....as 40 fI for Co rona
    K H ~ I in 19(,() and ev ent ua lly 45 10 (., n for K U-4 B in 1972
    ( Ruffner. 1\)\)5; \ilcDo nald. It)t) j b ).

    I hc first Co rona photo graph wa.. of the Mys Shrnidra Air


    Field ( Figur.: 3-2(>a ). All of the KII came ras had a focal
    length of ~4 inches . A ll KI I-4 sat ellites ( 1962 - 1Q72 ) conrained twin panoramic ca me ras that coul d obtain stereo..

    ('If , rn:H:

    62

    "'irsl C o m oa Sal tlli lt "ll"Con n.. i~~ .. nee rhmolilrllph


    Sh mid ta ,\ ir F!e ld . 11.S.S. R. o n . \ u ~ u ~l l K 19641

    .\ I ~ s

    Artist ' s Rt'lld il ion o f I h... Co ro n a KII -4H Came ra in

    H i~ hl

    History 01 Aerial Photography and Aerial Platform s

    Salem

    Despite thc ir gre at valu e , the early rec onna issa nce satelli
    were far from pcrtect. They returne d their images by
    chuung the film back to Earth in a capsule. so meti mes m.
    o r even we-cks a fter they were ta ken ( Figu re J-27 b)
    delay co uld be c ripp ling . Both the 1t}1l7 Si x- Day War
    Israel and the Sov iet inva sion o f Cz echoslov akia in 1%
    ended be fo re the United States co uld ob tain satellite image
    of the troub lc SP OIS t Richelson. 19l)2 ),
    It is importa urto po int out tha t bo th the Soviet Unio n and t
    United SIMes ini tiated their orbital space reconnais
    sysrcms in 1956 , 110 " ever, d UL' to its technologic a l superior
    ily, the United Stare s was able to attempt launching Co
    hcg inning in 19;Q while the Soviet's Zenit-2 program II
    first launched in 196 1. Rot h the Zcnir and Corona platfc
    met their design objecnves :IS reliable reconnaissance S~7
    terns o peratin g in an cnurely new orbital di mension IGorg
    1991). The la.sl Corona image .... , IS obtained (In May 3
    19 72. Over X()(),uno images were acqui red consis tin g
    approximately 2. 1 million feet of film in 39.000 calll
    (C larke . 1999 ).
    III 19(,7. President Lyndon Johnson addressed a gro up III
    ed uca tors,

    ,
    Figure 3 -26

    a) '1111: liPiI phmogmph colle cted hy Corona KI I-I.


    The spnti;d resolution was llrrnl\imalcly 40 It . hi
    Art ist's rcndiuon o f thl' inte rna l components of the
    Conma KII-4 R omi ta! platform (co uncsy Xationa l

    Reconnaissance Office).

    scopic photographs. An artist's renduron Il l' the KH-4H


    p lat form and internal component; is sho wn in Figure 3':!6b.
    Th e deta ils ofeach Corona laun ch fro m June 25. 1959. 10the
    final mission on May 25. 1972, are fou nd in .\ IcDo na ld
    ( 199 7b ). A Co rona KII-4 pa nchromanc photog raph obtained
    on Oc tober 20, 1964 . fo ur d ays a fter China's fi rst abov egro und nuclear t~ st at Lop Nor is shown in Figu re J27a.
    Corona played a major rule monitoring nuclea r proliferat ion.

    I wo uldn't wan t to be q uoted on this, but we 've spe nt


    thirty-Jive or forty billion doll ars (In the space prog ram. And if not hing else had come ou t of it exce pt
    the knowledge" c ' ve gained from space photograph) .
    il would be wo rth len times what the " ho le prog ram
    has cost . Without satellites. I' d be operating by gue ss.
    BUI to night INe know how many missiles the ene my'
    has. and il turned ou t our guesses were way otT. We
    were do ing thi ngs .... e didn't nee..1 to do . We we re
    bu ild ing thi ngs we d idn't need to build . we were ha rbori ng fears we d idn' t need to harbor (Richels on .
    I (j1J2; Walter. I li n ).
    Pre sident Jo hnson "';IS res po nding 10 cr itics that said h.., had
    spe nt Ii "-) muc h on th.. , space program a nd not enough on
    poverty,
    Onl) rece ntly ha~;t been made kno w n th'l l imagery from the
    Corona program were abo used for domestic map com pilanon an d upda ting. For ex ample, the U.S. (il;"ologic a l SUT\cy
    has use d the data 10 update the I :250,UOO and I :24.000- scalc
    map series 1~IcDlmald, 1997a; Cl arke , 19991. A domestic
    Corona image o f the Pentagon in Wash ington . DC is sho wn
    in Figure 3-2 7c .

    E"c
    iam
    pho

    Th,
    Co

    of
    rot

    0,

    H'

    SlIellile Remote S e ns ing

    h'

    83

    C o ro na

    " clliles
    Lllp

    para-

    I'h ol tl~r aph~

    of

    .' or. ( ' h illll, Ull ()\'luher 211.

    11J64

    s da ys

    Th"
    ar in
    196 8

    d the
    sauce
    pcrfororona
    m was

    "

    i fonns

    Figure 3-27

    sysIorgin.
    ay J I.
    tng o f
    i~'

    I cans

    )U p

    of

    s s.

    ere
    In ,

    gf on

    sm the

    KH-" vertical punchromauc


    I'h<lh't-",ll'h of Lor Nor, China, nhuvcground nuclea r te-a sire l 'll ( kll.","r 21J.
    [' 1(,4. ht Phctogruph of'the parachute " I' 11
    ( '" wru T"'...,lllwis>anc... said lite c;' I'_lIk
    !>cing C<l IJ!uR..J. The lilrn in the capsule
    " as 111.-n de veloped and photorrucrprctcd
    l ,.uu rt."l>~- Fcdcra uon of Arncncan S<: IL'1I Ii_lsI. "I I),mu"q i(" image of lh~' I','nlllg"n
    !II Wa >l llngl~.n_ DC rec ord ed hy C"lOna
    "' , ~~i(>fj I IHI on September :! ~. 1%7
    l ,-"U "'~~ L SGSI.
    :I) ( '''WIl ;l

    Image!) acquired by the ~r;II.:e: ha.~t:d nationa l imc l!igenre rccunuuissancc sys k l11s known .Is the Co rona.
    Argon. and Lanyard Mis sions shall. \I ithin I S months o r
    lhe ti'llt: llf l hl ~ order he \ kl.' l a ~ s i lied.

    ,,had

    caplure.

    h,'Culj\C Order xumbcr 12951. issued by Pres ide nt WillWIl I'hnton on February 22. 19'-15, changed 111,' world l}f
    phoc'''~h:llih: reconnaissance. T he or der direc ted:

    ny
    >II,

    1':

    [)~1"

    Ihc We b sire for hrowsin g and ohli1 ini ng d uplil.,;tlCS o r


    l owna film is fo und in Appcrxhx A. An t.'\Ct.'Jt t"11I overview
    Or~1r Corona prog ram and the porcminl utilit), of the d ata
    f,x Earth re~OUTCC analY!i i!i is found in Cl arke ( II.)'-It,l ).

    Ongoing Satellite Sentinels

    npilaUTVCy

    -sca le

    nc suc
    rho wn

    &

    Ic~

    and Kearney '\ rotc in D,:!,'",., ,\'.....1' ( 1991 ):


    Figure 328

    Saetlue data and airborne rolJa~ hav e replaced lhe: cavall) scout and the foot patrol a.s the commander's ...) I:S. . ..
    1\l lhoul:!h the fog of war was no t chmmarcd. General
    5o:hllartL,or fs view ufthe banleficfd ex cee ded anyt hing

    A ".tT<:huux ..o urh uf ": u,""ail Cit) O>lbp<.'<:l'-..I uf

    hOllsmg Ir.ll.ll aIT: r.t1i(U S "'a\"~ TA R ~ image reo


    l.:a",,-U under Ih.: h n:d"m of Inf"'lnalloo Act to
    Will iam \I. ,-\ rkin l.

    -,
    UI:\ I'HJ(

    84

    ."1':'".-. ......
    .': ".., .....
    ._. , . '

    ', '

    3~

    History o f Ae ria l Photography and Aeria l Platforms

    I ."

    i. ,a " I.\ ...l

    3. Zhawar Kili suspectcdtcrronst training camp in Afghanisl ~n,

    b. Shi ra phamlaccut ic" l planl in (he Suda n suspt-,<:l cd

    or I'md"cin~ chentical wcapOM

    Figu re 3-29

    f , amr h:s "I' Kc)-ho k J 21 KH-12 1Imagcl') . I ll.hawar Kill train ing camp in Afghamsran (spatial resolution was appro\imal
    10 '\ 10 e m ). hI Shira pharmaccuncal plant in th... Sudan. The'".,.."",dlile images w cr.. used by Scc rcrary of Slate William S
    Cohen in his debneflng 1I11 n- crm-e missile allad,s 1m Au g.". ! Il. I 'No( (court.....y "r h :de:raliu" of Ame rican Scientists. Im
    ligcnce RCloCanh Pro!;IOIm ).

    before possi ble . Th ere " as far less uncertainty n: g:mJing


    the en emy 's vulne rahiliries
    They called (he G ulf War a hvperwar bec au se so many dcc isio ns we re rolled o n satellite and a jrcra fl remote se nsi ng and
    sign a l intel ligence ( Wa lter. 14'12]. An exa mple of G ulf \ Var
    ima ge i (l te lli gc n~' e is founJ in Figure 328.
    In the United States.11 least four types o f sa telli k's 111m
    gather intelligence infurmation. Laf' rossc bat hes the Earth
    in m icrowaves (rad ar) and can resolv e throug h clo ud-c o ver
    I,bjeets less tha n th ree feet across. au gment ing the wurk o f
    the o pt ical remote se nsi ng satellucs when bad wc.nh cr
    block s the ir v iew. Optical satellite re mote sensing systems
    a rc far more powerful than the earl ier Co rona sys tems. II is
    gene rally believ ed that some optic al senso rs Can he used to
    re-so lve obj ects as small as (, in. across using linear o r are a
    array charg e-coupled-device (eC D) ICd llllllogy discussed in
    Ch ap ters -I and 7.

    Ferrets (signal intctligcnce satcuucs - SIG INTl li.,ten w ith


    "el)" scnsiuvc rece ivers to radio and mic rowave transmiscions. Even in the early" 1" 70.... a ferrer named Rhyo lite could
    record !>igna h tha t aimed Sm iet anJ Chinese miss ttcs and al
    the sa me rime monitor ac ma ny as 11,000 conversations
    goi ng on between telepho ne, and walkie- ta lkies . Tra.:" mg
    and Data Rela y Satd lilt: Sy ~t.: rn~ (T ORS ) orbit the glo be al

    22,300 mill'S above the eq uator in geostation ary orbi t j


    like Arthur C. Cla rke. the noted author, wrote abou t in III
    11".\ Jjor ld in 19-15 r Walrcr. 1'l92). They may be used
    transmit remote senso r data from satel lites 10 the ground.

    Irc. ny compliance. anus-comr ol agreements. and borde


    dispu tcs co nt inue It ' he monitored by nation s using hig h-rC'lohmcn imllgery o btaincd from sa tellite platforms ( Riche
    SIIl1. 19() () I. For cxurnplc. co nsider the KI I- 1:2 punch romau
    images of Zh awur Kili , a suspec ted terr orist training cum
    supp ort complex in Afg han islan ( Hg ure 3.2 '1a) , and I
    Shifa phanoaceutical plan t ill the Sudan. suspected o f pro
    dut"ing chemical \\l'apo ns ( Figure 329b). T hese satcllir
    images were used hy Secr etary ofStare William S . Coh en i
    his dc hric flng aft er cruise mi ssile atta cks by the Unite
    Suucs on Aug ust 20, I')')X.
    Fortunately. huma nkind has als o devoted some of i
    resou rces to placing remote sensi ng plat forms in space f
    peaceful, Earth-resource upphcarion .... T he most note wmt h.
    include Sk.r1u&. the Landsat Mulu spcc tral Sca nne r ( MS
    ( IQT!..! QX-ll, the Landsat Thematic \ t Jppcr series of satel
    1 1I~'" t l" X-J (0 preSl'"nl ). the Landsa t Enhanced Thcmari
    Mapper ' ( 1\)9q- pr~'sentl, the Space Shunl .... Phot ograph,
    Progra m (ongoing). and numerous meteorolo gica l sa tetlu
    (e .g.. U.S. GO ES a nd ..-\VIIRR. European .\IETEOSAT
    [ >': \"I SAT). ""SA's Earth Obscrv-ing System b unchcd it

    1'''

    85

    Unmanned Aer ia l Veh ic les

    I
    QuickUi rtl 111131:1.' or 110'101' , \1 A

    on -hoa rd <iI'S and forward-looking vid eog rcphy and/ or


    infrared ( FU R).

    Tactical and Endurance UAVs

    Th e Dcpa nmcm of Defen se (IX)D j has invested b ilficn s in


    the dev elopment o f unmanned aerial \ chic l es s ince the
    19SOs. The DOD w ant s UAVs 10 satis fy m ission un ique raetic al or endurance reconnaissance and surveillance tdesignared RQ -I) requiremen ts. Tactical UAVs func tio n within
    1 00 km o f thc ir lift o lTpo int and usua lly stay aloft for retetivel y brie f periods of time . Co nversely, endurance UAVs
    ca n trave l > 200 lorn a nd can stay a loft for many hours . So me
    UAVs can stay alo ft virtually undetectable due to their size
    for hou rs o n e nd, constant ly monit ori ng the same geogra phic
    area.

    m ately
    liam S.
    ~ Intel -

    330

    Panchrom auc (,1 x (,I em image of RosIOll. MA.


    collected by QllkU~lrd on December 27. 200 1. Circular high -ri st"'i ("I' Cti lllll UIl' [OfI Inner Hamor. The:
    Wharf a t Ro we can be seen In the Io1A er-rigbr hand

    corncr tcouncsy DigilalGlot>.:. lnc.),

    Uln:' sed 10

    firsl Earth-resource oriented (T~'n'u ) l>atcllitc in 1999 and the


    second (..11/11/1 ) in ~ 002 . Com merc ia! firms launc hed
    IKO~ OS 2 in 1l/W . Ima geSal in 14<N; QUil'kH ird in 200 1.

    "d.

    IIId OrbVicy, 3 in 2003 .:a 1l with nominal panchromat ic spa-

    lit j u st

    :'!Orde r
    jt -r cs-

    .icbclunatio
    camp
    sd the
    r protcllitc
    len in
    Inited

    if its
    :0: for
    orthy

    \ISS)
    satelmat ic

    a ph)'
    -llnes
    r and
    sd its

    tial resolution s (lf ~ 2 " 2 rn. Cha pter 7 provides detai ls about
    many ofthese re mote se nsing pla tforms and sensor systems.
    AQuickBird 6 1 x 6 1 em panchromat ic image of Boston.
    \1A is shown in Figure 3J O, Hig h spatia l re solution digital
    Imagery sudl ~s this coru ainv so much spat ial deta il that it
    be photo. interpreted as if it wer e a typica l analog aer ial
    photograph.

    .an

    Severa l o f the more im portant UAVs and their cha ract eristics are presented in Table 3 1. VAVs range from sma ll. light
    w c ight handh eld uni ts (e.g.. Desert H a....k is 32 in. long and
    0.5 Ihf,)10 run" ay-opera red behemoths tha t wei gh thou sa nds
    o f pounds {e.g.. Global 113y.lo is 44 .4 ft. lo ng and 25.600
    Ihs ). Mi litary UAVs arc cosuy but not as expensive as los ing
    hum an life or a more expensive aircraft. Each G loba l Hall, lo
    costs > S15 million . A Sil1t:\ k predator co sts $4.5 mill ion . A
    Shadow 200 co sts $)00,000. It. packa ge o f six De sert Hawk s
    cost $JOII.onn. Th ese figures arc suhjec t ttl cha nge.
    The Unite d SI:l1l'S' Pred ato r UAV wa s lIS l'(J in surveillance
    m iss ions o'er sensitive areas (If Bosnia in 1995 (Figure 33 Ia.b) a nd in f\ t'ghan istun and Operatio n Iraqi Frccdom. The
    smaller Shado w 20U is ano ther UAV used e xtens ively in
    Ope ration Iraq i f-reedom. Table ]- 1 depicts a so ldier with
    the U.S. A rmy IOlsI Military Inrclfigcncc Battali on gelling
    a Sharlow 201l VAV ready for a m issio n over Iraq on Septcmbcr 22 , l OO+'

    Unmann ed Aerial Vehi cl es

    It issad that many ofthe improvements in a nalog and dig ital


    eeria! phow graphy datu co llect ion and in tit... urt and science
    ofphoto-interp ret ation have tak en pla ce du ring World w ar I,
    World War II. the Kore a n " Car, the Vietn am War. the Gu lf
    War. the confli ct in Bosnia, and Dpe rauon Iraq i Freedom.
    ~ ofthe most impo rta nt rcecru advancem en ts has been the
    ese of /lI mlllnlu',1 acriul vehicles ( UAV , te.g.. \Ic I>aid and
    Oliver. 1997; Lock heed ~lani n , 1 0()0 ). Store expensive
    UAVs arc cont rolled from a ho me base by an ana lyst who
    jnows exal't ly "here rh... UAV is located at a ll limes throu gh

    Desert Hawk W:lS develo ped hy the Loc kheed Martin Skunk
    works. It is made ofmold-injected po lyp ropy lene foa m and
    is powered byan elect ric mete r driving a pushe r pro pel ler. It
    is laun ched hy two pe rson s. w ho attach a bungee cord to it.
    extend the cord to about 100 III and then simply let the UAV
    go . Desert Hawk 's operationa l a ltitude is 500 ft. ( 150 m j. It
    ca n cru ise tor nbout one hou r al a speed o f up to 57 mp h (n
    kill/h ), and its operationa l radi us is about 6 na utica l miles ( I I
    km), Desert Hnwk land s on its Kcvlar belly. Its payload consist ing l l f color ca meras fo r day or FUR fo r night -tim e survcillan cc. D es ert Hawk was used in Operation Iraq i
    Freedo m ( Loc kheed Martin. 2()()6 ).

    8.

    History 01Aerial Photography an d Aerial Platform s

    Predator Cnmanncd Aerial vchlctc (UA\ ") Illla~l'r~ lIf \ u~lI ..ca :\ mmun u ion Plaut

    ,J

    a.
    Figu re 33 1

    I'r<.'t!;ltor unma nned ncrial whicle l tJ \ V) f'fI."'I,ih ("l all.1 P'''I ~l r i)'' ... (b) '111;10:<'11 of'thc V"g",ca Ammunition !' lmH in ll 0'0llU
    John Pike, l cdcrauon of Amcnc.m :-'~i<'IllI,h. hH... lIig."l1c<.' lksc,lrl'h I>rn~rarn )_

    h:"llr ks~

    UAV Payload

    Jig.ital camera twhnulllg.y. An example of their imager)


    shown in fig ure .1 -31 _ Oct.} ils about the platform arc pro-

    11.k-1I
    lhc U\ V s summarized in Table J- I can carry payload,
    ranging from a row poun ds In 2.0011 pound". UAV.. ma~
    carry dig ital cameras. forward-looking infrared O I.UU .
    hype rspcctra l Sl'n"ors .nnd.or synthetic aperture radar sensor
    S) stent-, for all-weather capt.hilit)', IJA \ ', I) picalfy u-,c II ireless technology to tran smi t iJ1J;lgcs i ll rcahimc h I the horne
    has e. or 11K') store the imngcry on-board lh ing d.na recor ders.

    UAV Considerations

    U,\V h:chnolo~y represen ts a double-edged sword. On the


    one hand. Il\'nmltila~ UA\ ' ptallimm can be e-~prt'lally usclu i for low-cost remote ~e-n~illg data collection fur law
    enforcement, Earth-resource :malysi~. urban planning. l"11,;.
    For example. ~1,;1c nn ..lS h;J\ 0: li,r some ume equipped model
    airplanes and helicopters with li~hl\\ eight cameras I" obram
    qu al ity. high spatial resohnion al.'rial photography (c .g ..
    llmc klcy and Walk e r. 1')'J.h Jack..on aml Hardin (20US)
    doc um ented the 1I ~1,; of rclauvcly inexpe nsi ve mod el a irplanes to r co ll<.', ting large-scale ae ria l phowgr arh y !Ising

    In

    Chapter 4 ,

    UA\', ere also extremely use ful lor military recon naissance
    "The soldier ofthe future I I III hal e his ow n mec hani ca l !lin!
    which w ill pruv ide him with pic tures. sound and e ven sm ell.
    of \\ hat is invidc :1 hu ild ing or bun ker." .\.1 cDaid a nd Oli\ cr
    (I \)'171 predicted. T his is true today . Unfonunatcfv. the same
    technology C:l I1 be used to spy Oil thc gcncmt public or used
    to conduct illegal ac tivit ies suc h as monitoring the coruhucus around a bank prepa ra tor) tna rob bery or for indu strial
    l'~r i" lmg..:o when' one cu mpany spies 011 unor hcr. O ur genetanon o f remote .;;,:n"ing "tOilontis!s m ust he' careful how it utililes this nc" rem ote lo<tbin~ tc..- hnology (S lon.:.:!.c:r cl at
    I<)<J~).

    Commercial Remote Sensi ng Platf orms

    The majori ty nfnnnmilna ry commercial ae rial pho tograph)'


    ', co lk ,t,'d l" illg single-w ing r urcratt. More a ffluent photogramill ctric en ginee ring and remote sensing co mpan ies and
    nonmilita ry govcrmn cm agencies have access to jcr p lat.

    Commercial Remote sensing Platforms

    1K:Ie 3-t

    87

    Fharactcrisncs of several unm<lnll<.'d ill,,;al H'hides (UA\ '). The UAV imagl$ arc not tn scale relativ e to one another [images
    C'OUrt<'S)' of ( 0 1) . 2005 and NA S-\ VAV.20061.

    Vendor

    Unmanned
    Aeri al Vehicl e

    Endurance
    (ho urs)

    Weight
    (pounds)

    Alt itude (ft)


    Range (nm )

    40

    30.9

    20 ,000
    I.XIIO

    Aernsonde
    [Aerosonde Ro bot ic

    Height
    Length
    Wingspan
    (fee t)

    n.a.
    5.4

    9 .5

    Airtr311. LLC)

    2.5

    300

    Cypher
    [llmtrd Techno logi es !
    Sikorsky, lnc.)

    5 ,O(l(J

    ",

    6. 5

    500 n
    6.7

    2 5.600

    65. 000
    14.000

    ~rlllay,k

    ~~unl

    Bosni a

    . gcry

    works: lockheed \ lanin)

    IS

    rc pro-

    (;llIhalllay,k

    Teledyne Ryan. lnc.]

    "

    2
    n.a .

    n.a.

    n.a .
    32 in.
    52 in.

    n.a.

    4H
    116. 2

    rssunce

    aica l bir d

    ," smdb

    tI Oli ve r,
    ' he same
    t or used

    Ie condimdustrial
    u r ge n...r,-lV. it uti-

    rc r cI al.,

    terms

    uog raphj
    m photo-

    ames and
    jet plat-

    29

    6.500

    l'rednmr
    (General Atomics,
    Inc.)

    ~b.d(lw

    200
    (AAL lne.)
    (000, 2005)

    >4f1,OOO
    0 . .1.

    7.4

    3.
    M

    ::! 15

    15.000

    n.a.

    "

    1::!.75

    ~--~

    C11 \ rn:R

    88

    3~

    History of Aerial Photography and Aerial Platfonn s

    Digital Ae r ia l Ph otogr a phy Obt ained Using


    An In expen sive Un ma n ned Acr ial ve hicle

    Figure 3-32 i\ large-scale aerial photograph of a portion of S"ll lh !'a<l re Island, TX ulnained in .!005 using an mcxpcnsivc uruunrmcd ae
    vehicle. 1\ul <: the detailprese nt in the I'h"' o g raph s ufficientto idc m ify j et sl i",jcl l'ki docks . s mall boats. and aut ....mobiles. 11
    UAV sys tem usn! to collect Ihls image IS di~l,ls "'-' d in t.'hapter 4 ( coune,~ o f 1'~'1TY lI ardi n and Milfl Jad .MlIL. Dcpartmcmc
    Geo gra phy, Brigham Youn g Lniv crsity ).

    fo rm s . These types of pla rtorms normally can not lly as high


    or as fas t as m ilitary pla t form s, but they ure su fficie nt for
    acq uiring quality metric ae ria l photography and ot her types
    of rem ote sensor data for managing our cnies aml na lura l
    reso urces , Most o f rbc aircraft nnw ha ve onb ourd G PS that
    kl.'lp track of the uircm n 's e xact lo cation during remote
    sensi ng data collect ion .

    "'ng'.,:

    R<lyne, W. J ., 1'1'/3. Si/l'a


    A IInfUl)' oJl /I<' Unucd S(<ll~
    Ai,. r"n.c, :-;Y; Sim on & Schuster. 3M, p.
    Hrug roni. D. 1'1~ 5, " N ~\\ Role s for
    z vne, Oe1<lhl.r. ')4 -I0 I .

    Reeec, ~

    Ai r Fune .\Ia)!'

    Brug ioni. D. 1\ . I'NIl, " The A rt alit! Science of Phoru reconnab


    sa uce." Sciennfic American. 2J.l(3 ):78-85.

    Referen ces

    Bailey. R. and 1". Kearney. I'N I, "Combat


    Era:' V"/,,tu<, '...<' \n . l uly 22. 1')<,11.

    Hru"" io ni. D. A . lIutl F. 1. Doyle. IOW7. "Arth ur C , Luntlah


    Fo und er of lhe Image Exploitation Discipline." c,m m ,," 8.
    M,','n Iht' .'l,m I/lt' t:ll rrh. R. A , Mcl><mald t Ed . l, Hc t bl' ,.,f
    AS r & RS. 15'1-166.

    Ba ker, S.. 1'1'14, "San Francisco in Ruins : The 1'100 Aeri.rl Phulug rJ phs of Geurgl: R, LUIH enee: ' /"w '/, cufl<'. 101 (0 ):9 H .

    ('I.trke. A. C. 1'145. "Extra-terrestrtal Relays: C an Roc ket SI


    lio ns Gill: World-wide Rudie Coverage?" IOrd " n ' II " rid , 0
    tobc r, 305- 30'1.

    ..1"""-"'11'1'",. Ca /- I',,/,ml. Par-

    Cla rke. K_, 1999, I' ru/ ,'''' Corm/,I, s p...nso rcd by the Nation

    Bet ue, A ., IINIl, La Phm" Il'""l'hil'


    is: Ga uthier-Villars.

    Science Found,lt inn. Santa Barbara : UCSH bllp:II"' ...


    geog.ucsb.ed u - kclarke Corona Co ron a.t nml.

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    K en nedy. 11. . r . 1q6<J. Tlurle,m JJm.: A Mt' mu i r of the Cuban


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    Znd Ed.. Bethesda AS P&: KS. 3--4R.


    Ki ng. SA .. I l<nn. "The Late n idl ,'on Photog raphic Expert-

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    D. A.. 1. M. Logsdon a nd B. Latcfl, Eds .. 19'18. Eye in the


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    '0.

    ~Ac,ial

    WTl'.5(52):1.14-173 .

    98.

    Aerial Photography - Vantage Point,


    Cameras, Filters, and Film

    rote

    R,.

    first g lanc e it m ight appear that olltainin g a nd interpret ing aerial photography is a routine tas k because the tech no logy has been il\ ailuhlc for more than
    a cen tury, Th is is not the casco Important dec isions must be made to ensure
    that high -quality aerial photography is collected and interpreted properly
    (Narurnala m et al., 200:!) . ~ Ian~ orthese dec isions are base d on principles of
    optics and Ill'\.\ energy interacts with ligh t-sensitive materials, Some of thc
    most important issues ttl be addressed include:
    t

    vantage point te.g.. \ cnical. 10\.\ -obliq uc. h i ~ h-oh l i q ue ,.


    ph-

    came ra (c.g. an alog single - and mu ltiple -lens. digi ta l).


    flltrauon tc.g.. hale. mmus-blue.band-pnsv ti lle rs ). und
    film emulsion [blac k-a nd-w hite. blac k-a nd -white infra r...-d. color. and
    color-mtmrcd].
    The more tha t an image analyst knows about how an ae rial photograph \\:LS
    collected. th e better image uuc rprct cr h... or sh... will be . T his chapter also
    descnbcs how imag ...ry is di giti zed.

    Vertical and Oblique Vantage Points

    Aer ial photography may be obtained from vert ical or oblique van tage points
    depending upon project requirements .

    Vertical Aerial Photography

    A vertical photograph is obtain...-d when the ca me ra 's opt ical axis is within _
    of bei ng vertical (pe rpendicular) to the Earth 's le ve l surface [Figure 4-13).
    ,\ portion ofa vertica l black-and-white photograph o f the Goosenecks of the
    San Juan River in Utah is sho wn in Figu re 4-1 b. Th is aeri a l phorograph can
    be \ isuclly interpreted to extra ct de railed q ualuauvc in formation ab out the
    surface geology, geomorphology. and hydrology within the vcmcalficld ,)1'
    view. This aer ial photograph in conj unction wnh another overlapping ve rtica l
    aerial photogra ph o btained from a slightly different viewing po sition I ll a~' be
    analyzed using quantitative ph otogrammcrric principles [discussed in Charrcr 6 ) to derive the fo llow ing type s of'mtormarion:
    3~

    91

    92

    C l l Al'TEn

    Aeri al Photogr ap hy -

    Vantage Po int , Came ras , Filler s. an d Film

    Vertlcr

    v er uc et Al'rill.1
    Phot lll.:ra ph IIH:r
    I....\('1Tt rrain
    C.1JtlI.-ra
    fi lm pl.me

    Al' itude
    abm e grollnd
    le"e1 (AliL )

    Figure 41

    u] A vertical aerial ph\,tl'graph has ~.lQ of lilt (rom a ray perpendicular to the rerruin. b) A vertical aerial photograph of tbf
    Goosenecks of the San Juan River in Utah.

    planimetric (x..!" location)

    map.~

    of natural te.g. stream

    networ k. rock outcrops} and man-made features (e.g.


    trai ls, roads. bu ildi ng s);

    digilll' elevation models (DEM s).


    onhop hotograp hs (aerial photograp hs that are
    geometrically accurate in x.y).
    Reso urce mana gers so metimes forget thai the p lan imetric .

    consider the vertical aeri al phot ograph of Gu lfport. M i ~is


    sippi shown in Figure 4-2. wh ich docu ments \\ ind and Mom
    surge damage to the Grand Ca sino. A portion of the casino
    .....as broken uff and moved by the storm surge on to II igh\\a~
    90. Ship cargo containers from a nearby .... harf .... ere SlJl:\\1
    across the terr ain . A color version of this vertical aerial phetogruph is foun d in Color Plate 4-1.

    io

    0'

    Unfortuna tely. the general public is no r used to ,iewing tix'


    top s of objects s uch as bu ild ings . tree s. roads. etc . It takes
    co nsiderable p ractice and experience to e llicient ly and accuratel y interp ret a vert ical aer ial pho tograph of the terrain.

    C
    1

    Oblique Aerial Photog rap hy

    topographic, and (lnhophowrnaps used in almost all geegraphic information sys tems (G IS ) arc crea ted us ing funda menta l photogra mm ctric princip les ap plied to near-vertical
    ae ria l photog raphy (Je nse n et al., 2002; 2( 05 ). Fo r exam ple.
    the tf .S. Geolog jcal Survey 's 7.5-minute 1:24 .000 map
    series an d many d igital elevation models arc derived photogra mrnetrically ( Linde r. 2003}.
    Vertical ae ria l ph oto grap hy is co llected for a wide varie ty o f
    earth resource management and plan ning applications
    ( \.1ilkr er at. 2003; Pa ine and Kise r. :!O(3 ). For exam ple.

    An nh/iqlle or nhed aerial pJmlflt.:rlll'h is obt ained if fhe


    camera's opt ical axis dev iate s more than a few degrees from
    vert ical ( Wo lf and DeWill. 2()()()). It is ca lled a low-oblique
    aerial "ho!or,I"<I"h if the hor izo n i ~ not \ istb lc ( Figure 4-3a).
    A low -oblique pho tograph o r :I bridge ove r the Congaree
    River in South Carolina is shown in Figu re 4-J b. [I w a~
    acqu ired at an altitude of NlO 11 above ground 1<:\0:1. VisU31

    93

    Mical and Obliq ue Vant age PoI nts

    vertical Acrtat Photograph of Hurrtcane Katrina Ibma:,.:t'


    at G ulfp ort. 'I S. on ,\ U ~ Il ~ I .' ". 21105

    of tile

    {isaissto rm

    :asino
    zhway
    .trewn
    I pho..

    19 the
    takes
    aec u ~

    in.

    if the
    from

    ,lique
    l-3a ).
    ga rec
    wa s
    "sue!

    Figure 4-2

    A vertical aerial rhnl<l~r.lf'h of w inti 'InU storm SU~ .. tlam a ~c Ill" ( iultp<,rt. .\1 lsshs ippi cau....:d by Hurricane Katrina recorded
    nil August 30, :!OOS (courtesy 1'( ~O:\ :\ Rem" l'; S,'n,inl; Oil bam)

    Interpretation (If the photogra ph y ields det ailed info rmation


    about the bridge superstructure.
    AhW,h.oh!iqllt' aerial l'hofllxroph is obtain ed i f the horizon
    b visible (F igure 44a ). A hi gh-o blique photog rap h of the
    Grand Coorcc Darn in Wash ingto n is show n in Figure 4.-4b.
    This Impress ive 1940 oblique photograph represe nts a valuJblc historica l reco rd of the da m and the cult ural fun dscape
    lhat was created adj acent 10 the dam during ils constru ction
    toh{lu~

    the worker s.

    PNJ'le are generally bener able III p h\.t()-] n l~rprel oblique


    atrial photography than \ erucal aeri al ph"tograp hy because
    tilt) have a life time of experience look ing at the facad e
    (Side) of objects as they navigate in the ir daily environment.
    Obliqueaerial photogra phs record a fami liar faca de or side
    \.~ of the terrain . For exa mple. II is much easi er for most

    imag c analy sts to ide ntify features in the low-obliq ue ae rial


    phutog raph (If G ulfport. Mis~i~ s ipri (Figure 4 -5 ) than the
    vertical aeria l photog raph found in Figure 4-2. Note the
    detailed iuformuuon found in the sec tion o f the Gr and
    C:lsino sitting on Highway q!l andt he facade Il l" the Gran d
    Hote l in the bac kground. A co lor version of this low -o blique
    ac r!.. 1 photograph is found in Co lor Plate 4 -1.
    Durmg nnagc imerpretauon, ana lY'> ls sho uld o rie nt oblique
    phulug raphs so tha t the features of inter est appear in na tural
    perspective. Usually this will mea n th,11objects wit h height
    appear 10 lean away from the pe rson vie wing the image.

    Scicmivs and/or resource managers may live their en ure


    !i\ .:" and neve r extract q uamitauv c information fro m
    oblique aerial photography . The refore, ob liq ue aerial p hol\lgrarh y photogrammcrric principles will not hoc prese nted
    here . If it is nece ssa ry to ex tract q uanutauvc in forma tion

    4'

    94

    Aerial Phot og raph y -

    Vant age point, Ca meras . Filters. and Film

    L,," -o h liqu l' .\ e r ial


    I h"l "~ rap h ... er1.1'\ l'1 T err-ain

    Fid ,l
    u( ,i~"

    /{m w ,"

    " nlll , hown


    on """>l ''llr~ph

    Ftgu re 4 -3

    01 1:\ It,,, -obhq uc acn al photograph h tilted 0 (Will vertical. and the horizon is 1llJ( .... isil>lc. b) A low-oblique ac ria l ph.
    nf a t>ri<lg,' ,m the ( 'on ga~ River near ( '("Ilumb,a. Sl ', I be f'h<>Iogr.Jrh \\ 01' oh!:lln....1al an ..levalion o f a rrrn\ imald )
    t.oo l\ aho, ... ground Ic,,~ l. On e shoul tl 011\\ '-1):> ,ic \\ an Ilbli'1uc aer ial ph"'''''paph so lh.ll lhe important Icauscs suc h as
    Mdc fall :,"'ay IrfOITI 11K- . . icw cr.

    {!r.Jph

    I I illh-uh li'l ll" .-\ rr ill!


    l ' h " l n ~r ;l p h onor
    I.l'H I TI'nai"

    " . \ Je W

    110" "'",
    " ,I "'",,n

    on r""h\~r"f'II

    ~l'

    Figure 4 -4

    011 A hi ~ h-obl ll.J u, aer ial pho..'l,,!:,r.Jph is tilted > .1 (rum vertical. and III<: horizon is . . isiblc. h I . \ high .....bliquc aerial ph ,>t or.J
    I ~"
    I II. home-, ...... r.. built for .... llrkCf'o dllrin~ ~XlfI~ lruct ioll of tile dam .

    of the ( ir:md ('oul~'\' [>-.. m in Washington taken m

    95

    .lIIia1 cameras

    to" Obliq ue Acria l l'holOJ: ra p h uf H urr ica ne Katri na

    Aerial Cameras

    Damage .If (; ulfpnrt , ' IS. on .-\II~ u ~ I 311. 21HJ5

    One of the \ ery first box ca me ras made for co mmercia l purchase was develo ped tor Lo uis Dag ucrre in France by Samuel F. 13. J\.ILlr~C' . who invented the Morse code ( Figure 4-6 ).
    Whil e mod ern cameras arc much more sophist icated than
    this simple bo x came ra. they ne vertheless s hare certa in fundamcr ua ! cha racteristics . A good \\ uy to und erstand how a
    mo de m cam era fun ction s is to compare its com ponents w ith
    those oft he human eye ( Figure 4-7).

    Aerial Camera Components Com pared with the Eye

    phlllOmatdy

    FqJre 4-5

    as the

    A low-o blique aerial photograph of damage caused


    oy Horn canc Ka trina obtained on ,\ ugu.'> l 30. 2f105
    (COI.Ir1l'SY

    of USGS Coostal and Marine Goolot,')

    Progra m).

    Tho: light- sensitiv e n-tma in the hum a n eye is analogous to


    the light -sensiti\'elilm loc at ed at Ihefilm Illane at the back of
    the camera. Bo th the eye and the camera use a tons to focu s
    re flected lig ht from the rea l wor ld onto the retina or ti lm . In
    11K' eye . the amount o f ligh t allowed to illuminate the ret ina
    is controlled by the iris, which can ex pan d or comracr in dark
    or light co nd itions and hy the eyelid, wh ich nets as a shutter.
    Inthe camera , the amount o f light reaching the li lm plane is
    controlled by I) tho: ,\;=t' of the lens " / >('I 'IW'I.' fll N:lIil1g , and 2)
    a shnner. wh ich co ntrols the length of lime - exposure - that
    thl' lens ape rture re mains open and allows lig ht to pa ss
    through . Th e shutte r can be placed in the came ra lens assern hly o r just in front o f the til m at tho: hack o f the ca mera. in
    \\ hich case il is re ferred to as a focal pl(ll~' shutter.
    lI l' al "lan e a nd

    FqJre 4-6

    One of the first commercially available hm. camera...


    was created for Louis, Dagucrre by Samuel F. 13,
    MlJoP.'C , inH"fItor of tile \10l'1iC code.

    from oblique photograph)', consult the algorithms in thc


    .\f.,mlldl vj Ph"foW tlll/llldry (J\. k G lone. 2004 1. Th is discussion will focus 0 11 Ilbtainilig ncar-ve rtic al ae rial phot og raph )'
    and extracting both qua litative and q uantitat ive inform ati on .

    "'lIcll ll.(" n ~th

    The a rea in whic h the tilm is hel d flat during an exposure is


    call ed the ./fIca! plane or Jilm 1'11/1/1:'. When a camera is
    tilCUS<.'J at inlin ity, the distance from the rear nodal point uf
    till' lens to the film plane is known as thcJiwfI{ length , Some
    fo ca l- length lenses used for aerial map ping include xx mm
    13.5 in. ). 152 llllll (6 in ,I. 21 0 mill (8. 25 in. I. and 305 mm ( 12
    in.). Z OOIll lenses have a co nstant ly chang ing focal le ngth.
    Co nve rse ly. m" st met ric aerial came ras have a fixed focal
    length. suc h as 152 mm (6 in.]. Lon ger focal-le ngt h lenses .
    such as the J OS mm ( 12 in. ) lens, are especia lly useful for
    high-alurude aeri a l photogra phy dat a collect ion . Miluary
    photo-rec onna issa nce o perations co mmo nly employ lenses
    of 3 to 6 Ii 10 obtain de tailed photographs from ex tre mely
    high alt itud es o r to acq uire oblique photograp hs ac ross borde n;.

    ,
    C IIA r l ER

    96

    4-,

    Aerial Photog raphy - Vantage Poin t. Cameras, Filters. and Film

    Table 4 -1.

    hll~ malil>lla[

    series off/sto ps and shutter speeds.

    1{e1:IIi\e Apert ur e nrf lStoll


    Larger lens openings ------------- Smaller lens openings
    f l-- I A -Z -! .M --4 - - S .(' -II --- 11 - 1(' - -ZZ -JZ-- cl ~ .

    Shulter :-.,K'flI,
    Slower ------------------------------------ Faster
    1. 1f.!.li4+1 II- I If>. 1fJO..- l/tIO-- l 1ZS_ If.! <;O..160l-11l OlKl-I ,':!C
    U klc.
    Cam.-r:l

    1k, .. \XT1 l~~I""'i

    shutter

    r-Fig u re 4 -7

    Focal kn~lh

    not want 10 ha ve the image o f'a build ing sme ared across I
    ca mera film plane a s the aircraft moves forw ard . T herefor
    ae rial photo gr ap hy came ras generally have very fa st lenS\:
    that ca ll in e ffect "s to p action:' T he fast len ses arc o ften co
    pled wit h very se nsitive film (10 be discussed).

    - I

    :\ co m ra n so n of tit<; opucal comp"n,;ms or the si m -

    ple ca mera with those uf rhc human eye.

    Th e ratio o f lh~' camera lens focallength (j) to the diam eter


    (If the lens open ing (ell i ~ known as the j7slop:

    f sto p

    lens foca lleng! h


    ~ l
    d iameter o f lens opening
    d

    ( 4. 1)

    Th c ftSIOp ratio is o ft en use d to dl's ignlilc the rela tive apertu re seumg or .Iflet' d o f the camer a lens system. For exam p le.
    OJ camera w ith a focallength o f )00 mm and a maximu m lens
    d iam eter openin g of 10 mm (called .lidl a! w rllllt ' ) wou ld
    have an fl l 0 speed lens:
    [ 110 =

    IOU mm
    lu nun

    If the lens diameter at full ape rture were twice as large. say
    20 m m inst ead of 10 111m. the Ien s rat ing \H1U[J be 'p 5. Basica lly, the smaller the frating, the faster thc lens, i.c.. the
    more light ad mitted through the lens opening per unit of
    run e. In the previous na mplc. lhe.fl5 lees is said 10 be tas ter
    than the PIO lens. The aircraft is alwa ys mo ving during
    ae ria l photograp hy da ta co llection (e xce pt whe n u"ing a
    hel icopter or tethered ba lloon or l ite ). Therefore, it is impo rtant to be able to <lequire the photog ra ph very rapidly We do

    A complete syst em of apertures beginning: alfll ca n be


    duccd by mu ltiplying an y ape rture by I'" 14 2 136 (the sqUd
    mot of 2 ), which ) ields the succeeding smaller upert ure . F
    example. the seq uence of full-stop mcrem c ms is flJ,
    1.4 14 2. .P'1, f2.lQ~, r. fl5 .65t>. flX. fl l l , fll fl . on. ~
    ] 2. etc .. as shown in Table ~ - 1. Eac h lens opening in tIM
    series trans mits one -half as much lig ht as the precedin g len
    open ing (i ,e.,}l l<: tra ns mits o ne-halfas milch lig ht as jJ5.6;
    For e xample. if WI: " stop down" from flll W f 16. 'II
    dec rease bo th the apertu re (If the lens opening an d tb
    amount ofl ight rt'a ch ing the film plane by two . Conversef
    if \\C "stop up" from jll 6 to fill. .... e would inc rease u
    d ia met er of rhc lens dia phragm and the amount o f ligh l ilk
    rnmaring the film p lane by a facto r nf t w o . Thi .. ts ..hoy, n du
    grammatically in Figu r..:- 4--K. Th e lens speed is the l numb<
    of thc max imum effect ive d iamete r of the len s when the dis
    phra gm is ..... ide open (fu ll ape rture) . T hus , we haw an fl2.
    lens in Fig ure .r. x ( Lond on and Upto n. 199 4 ).

    Shutter Sp t't'd
    To ensu re tha t the film e mulsion receives the correct amour
    of light d uring an ex po..urc . the ae rial photographer mu
    se lect the correct re lationship be twee n the s jzc of the It'f
    aperture opening (i.e.. theflstop J and ho y, long the light
    allowed 10 illum inate the film p lane . The length of time tt
    sh utter is open is ca lled C_lJ'mun: time. 11 is co ntrolled by tl
    sh utte r mechan ism . Shutte r speeds on a ca me ra us ual
    range from " bul b," whic h lasts as lo ng as the plw tug raph,
    pushes the expos ure button , 10 I sec ond. 0,75. 0,5. 0 .2 5.
    WH, r.zoo, 1/400 . 115UO. 1/10 00, and 1/2.000 seconds. F,
    e xample. perh aps an idea l ae ria l photog raphy ex posure
    1:00 p.m. in the a fternoon in cl ear Su nligh t isf l6 at I !~ (
    second. If the sky above the aircraft sud denly becomes con

    97

    l.e!ial camera s

    C llnll'raf''''tops
    f'

    ss the
    cfore .
    enses
    cou.

    Why is it import ant to kno w about/ SlOps and shutte r speed s.


    when most o f the aer ial pho tog raphy you will e ver analyze
    win be acquired by enginee rs work ing fo r phologrammeulc
    engineering firms who pay meticulous attent ion to these
    paramete rs? First . high-st ratus clouds. cloud shadows. and
    Sun elevation d ifferen ces througho ut the day ca n ca use light
    10 fall off o r increase. resulting in underexposed or 0\ erex posed aeria l photog raphy. respectively. Proper adjustment of
    the 1'slOp and shutter speed can main tain proper exposure
    throughout the day. Sometimes it is necessary 10 rejec t a
    batch of aerial photography if it has bee n improperly
    exposed. Second, most persons ",..ho USl' aeria l photog raphy
    will at some time desi re to acquire their own phot ography
    even if il is obtained by poin ting a 35-m m came ra ou t the
    windo w of a light plane. Ar this lime you wil l need 10 select
    an o ptimum combmauo n of flslop and shutter speed to
    obtain a good exposure o Cthc terrain on film . It is also likel y
    that rela tive ly inexpen sive unmanned aeria l vehicles (U AVs)
    specifi cally des igned for obtaining aerial photography will
    soon be available. For exumplc. Hinckley and Walker ( 199 3)
    and Hardin and Jackson ( 2005 ) provide intormauo n on how
    11.1 acquire aer ial photography using low-a ltitude UAVs.

    f ,

    prol<:J uarc
    For

    Ie

    t"

    r l. /1
    ~2 . J1
    ~n the

    glens
    (15.6).

    fl. .... e
    d the

    :rsely.
    se the
    t iII un diaImbe r
    c dia -

    lOunt

    must

    ~ure

    4-8

    Thcfl"ill'f'5 for IIcame ra lens and the sire o f the rr ap<n ure llpcni n~s. In this <,>.ample. t hejiS IOPS fange
    from jn .'{/, to j!22..... it h lhe si/<' PI' the ape rtures
    vhown hy the while circles The lo wcstJistop has the
    largest opc nil1g and lets in the grl'al cS! amount of
    light. 111\' greater theft'u,p. the less light admitted.
    Eachjl'lllp II:(s in half tor dnu hlc) the light of the
    next sclling. For example. it talcs four circles the
    si..c Ill' Im jiS.n aperture to equalthe size of an.f2.K
    a....mun,' tali...r London and Upton. 1'N4).

    uall y
    rpher

    5. 1/
    . For
    re at

    1200
    co rn-

    Types of Aerial Cameras

    Seve ralty pes ofcarncras are often used to obtain aerial photography, including:
    single-lens mapping (metric) came ras;
    multiplc-lens (multiple- band} ca meras;

    lens
    tht is
    e the
    y the

    al L200-sc..:. but for some reason the pilot sa id that the


    pla ne 's spee d wou ld need 10 be Increased? The photographer
    wou ld the n .... ant to increase the shutter spee d 10 perhap!> II
    400 -Sf.."C so that blurring at the lilm plane would nor take
    place . This woul d e ffectively cut the exposure ti me in ha lf.
    The photographer would then have to compensate for this by
    uoubling the apertu re o fthe lens by go ing from.fl 16 tof l l.
    Hope fully, the new 1/41l0-see ex posure at)!l l would produce the des ired photographic results.

    pkldy overcast and allow.. muc h less light 10 illuminate the


    terr.l1n beto....... the aerial photog rap her migh r ha ve 10 increase
    dle amount of lig ht illuminating the film plane. lie could do
    lhis in one of two wa~ -s: I) oy increasi ng the size of the l'
    Slop. e.g., from J}I f> to fill. which would double the area of
    lheapcn ure openi ng, o r 2) by allow ing a lo nger ex posure ,
    e,g.. a I/ IOO-scc ex posure would double the le ngth of lime
    the aperture was open , Hopefully, e ither uf these adjustmons would result in an acceptable aerial photograph. But
    "hat if the phnln graphc:or alread y had n good exposure all I11

    misce lla neous ca meras.


    S inl:l e-L{' n~

    ,' Ia p pin!:: ( Ml'l r ic)

    C a ml'rll ~

    Single-lens metric canwrus obtain mos r orthc aer ial photography used to map the planimetric (x.y) locatio n of features
    and to derive topographic (con tour) maps, Th ese ,'ar lo -

    4,

    98

    Aerial Photography -

    Vantage Poinl, Cameras, Filters, and Film

    .\ " 310:':

    ~I clric

    Ca me ra

    FIlm
    Ma ga lllll:'

    . ~-

    Camera

    " " dy

    ,
    "

    len s C"Il\.'
    A'h cmbly

    "
    "

    l.cns rear
    "uJ al poiJl \

    ;: ::L:;t"I~~~'~;hmm

    'il",ncr

    l e'''' frum

    nuthl point
    b

    Figure 4-9

    a ) Systcm components o f a metric ca mera CO IIS;'l of I } vibnnion i, nbtinn clements, 2) fil m platen pre ssur e pla te. J ) llrilc
    unit. 4 1control uuu. 5) mill feed fullers. II I film t ake-up reel. 711ilm magazine. It) U l1c\po~d fum- supply reel, '11drive unu ,
    IH) forw ar d-monon compensation de vice. 11I m,nlHl. l ~ ) e xchangea ble universa l shutter, 1J) le ns cum: assembly. and 14 11cm.
    h I Profile \ rcw uf a metric camera and s)'sk lll clll11[lt'nl.'l1ls. \.,) Example (If a metric camera installed in the Iloor of an .lircraft
    compklc wilh (If'l:'r,t!llr ,on"1k and a terrain bnrc-sighnng instrurncm. d ) A plane with tw.. camera pons can e.'l.J>OM: tv. c types
    o f c:mul"luns ,II 1.'.\;\<.:(1) the same tim e. e _I!-. , .. lor and color-infrared film . 1'\ole th at In th iS phlllOgrap h 1""0 camera pon s and
    IW'1 retracted '" hn"ls are pr,'SCnl (c"uTt,-sy E. C'O)ot~ Enterprises.. Inc. \b ri l ~'n O'C cilinn. Z l Imaging).

    Xmphic' ca me ras arc cal ibrated III provide the highe st gee-

    metric and radiometric qual ity ae ria l photograp hy. They


    usua lly co ns ist o f a camera hnd ~ . lens co ne assem bly, shutte r, film fee d and uptake motorized transport assembly .II Ihi.'
    ti lm plane. and an aircraft mou nting p lat form . Filtc!"i s )
    placed in Irom of thc lens dctc mune the wav elengtte, of light
    that arc allo.... ed 10 illuminate 11ll: film pla ne . An artist's rcnditio n (If the internal co mpo nen ts of a metric camera is

    shoy.n in Figure: 4-9a. A profi le , ie.... of a typical menlo;


    ca mera is show n in Figu re 49b.
    In the U nited States, FedL'f31 Aviation Admm tseat fon I FA A)

    appro\ al is required to cui a hole in an airplane's fuselage to


    accom modate an aeria l ca mera. An example of a single camera mourned in the floor o f an airc rart fuse lage is sho .... n in
    Figure .J~Qc. tf two aerial came ras a rc mou nted in the aircraft

    99

    .&efial Cameras

    C a m e r a Ll'lI S
    ,\ n:;:l{' of vi ew

    -1,000 Ii -

    1.000 ft

    \'~\\. rh... greater tho:' am oun t of terrain I"h<>logr.l~ al a conSlaO! ahnude abcv e
    gr01.lnd Ie, cJ. Narrow l ~{r l. IM>rTna 1170"l. ...iU.:-a.l1;;k "XY I. "nd s\;p.:r", idc-ang l... (1 10") ko"<.",an: !X"1r.lYl.,J, !-l Usi ng the
    Mm e narro... (-lll" ) ang fe-ot-vrew camera 1e11 < :11 ' \\ 0 ditfcreu a llHUlk-; ",""ulb in dramaucally o.Ii l1i:Tl;nlllffiO,m h of terrain

    FgJre 4 10 a l The greater the camera lens ang k of

    !xing phoIugraph<.oJ.

    (figure ~- 'JtJ I. it is J"I" " ih k to e x pose 1"'0 I)-pes o f e rnul- io ns

    IIthe same rime tc.g.. color an d col ..lr-in fran:d) by sync h ronlling Ihe ca me ra s hu ucr re lea se mechanisms .

    proper amoum ofend la p to be ob ta ined fur o ver lapping ISIC


    reoscupic ) co vcrage .
    Al'rial came ras usua lly 1'\ 1'IIls,: fi lm that is 24 em 19 .5 in.:

    driv e
    e un it,
    ) lens.

    ircr aft
    types
    Is an d

    jerrie

    :Ar\ )
    gc 10
    cam -

    mm

    'em f!

    Thl' lens cone assembly is rhc most imp ortant part of the
    camera. It usually cnnsisls of a si ngle. expensive nndnplcdellll"' 1 It'll" tha t projects undis tortc d images o f the rc a !
    1I'011lJ onto the fil m plane . Till' multiple-clement lens is
    fixused at infinity because the airc raft typically tlics at thou..and, of meters abov e gro und leve l d uring dala collection ,
    Metric mapp ing cam eras usc \;l riolls lenses wi th differen t
    anf!lJlar fields of v iew. depending o n the miss ion requireI1I('nh . N llrnm ' camera lenses hJ\ c an angular Field 1'1' view
    of < 60. normal 60 - 75"'. W;dl'-'lIIg'" 75'
    100 '. ::md
    'wpt"r...vide-angle > WIl"'. The v ider me angula r field Ill'
    11('\0.. the greater the arnountof Earth recorded lin the li lm a t
    a gi\ C'n alutudc above grou nd level. The high o:r the altuudc.
    dle greater the am ou nt of Earth recorded on the film by eac h
    lens. These relationships arc summanz cd in Figure ... 10.
    ," It If//t'n',llon/('rer is u ~e;'d to e;'XpllSl' thl' ph" hlgrap hic lil m a t
    'i'CCilic intcl"\a ls of tim c Idc pend c nt upo n the ain;rali. al tiIud", aNn c grn und Ic \ ",I and sf'l'Cd) th:lI \\ III resu lt in thc

    w ide in m ils 2: 100 10 51)0

    n in

    le ng th, de pending upo n the

    thick ness ofthe film . Ind ividual ~ \ P,hurC~ arc typ ically v x
    <) In. (23 x 23 ern). At the ins tant <I f exposure. the film is held
    in place "f ilinst a fl at pla ten surtacc loca ted at t he toea!
    pi a Il l.'. vac uum pressure is ap pl ied to the film v ia the pla ten
    j ust priori" the instant of exp osure 10 remo ve any bubbles.
    hum ps. or irreg ularities in tbc une x po sed tilm. After e xposure. the vac uum is re leased a nd the driv e mecha nis m mov es
    Ill..: exposed film onto the tal c -up rcc! in preparation fur the
    ne xt e xposure.
    Depending on the vcloc uy o f the aucra fi II') and the a ircraft
    a ltitude above ground !e\l'l llll. the tihn nug ht be advanced
    _hghll) dcnng e vpos ur... to compensate lo r imag e motion.
    Special-pu rpo se imag o' II/u/;"n Hml/"'//\mion (I \ t (") ma ga linl'" move the 111m acro s.. the local plane anyw here fro m ()
    1iI ll4 mm per ....-con d. L'orrection is achi e \ed by sh ifting Ihc
    plalcn prl'!>sUf\' pla t.:' w ith th..: li lm attac hcd via \ aeuum in
    the tlig ht d ircrlilm in ,u:cordan,'C \\ ith a \ l.'locity-lo--hl' lg hl
    r<lti o 11'; 11 ) illlO the (llCill kng lh I,f lhe le ns. Th is greall)

    100

    ('II W I ER

    Importance

    Aeri al Photograph y -

    ur Fnn\ard

    Vanta ge Point. Cameras, Fil ters. an d A im

    Im age 'l otion C o m pensa tio n

    Aeti

    Mo:
    1<1/j,

    Kis

    infc
    ca l

    ,-,

    ar

    s
    y

    h . W ith compensatio n.

    a . Without compensatio n.
    Fig u re 411

    .I) " e rtic al aenal phnmgraph \.(.1 b;lCk).m.l sw irllllllll~ poo l Obl;lill..:.1 without r'.rv. ;lrd ImagO;' mot io n cum pensanon. 1\0\<: tbt
    rescluuon IMg.e l lyin g on the ground. Il) I'hnln gr.lr h nt-tailwd Wilh torv anl lllla~c motion compensation. More elements o ftlx
    resolution la~cl can be drscemed 'courtesy 1-. COyl'lC Lmcrpnscs. Inc. Marilyn rr'Cuihn n: 1, 1 Imag mg ).

    An nolation

    Figu re 4 12

    Annotation around the pc-nrnctcr of an al'rial l'h"h,~r'lrh is \ cry uuponunt. Tfu particular metric camera provides the following inf(ll'll18 tioo : 1) a grayS<:i1k shop \\ edge. 2 1 tll.llepad . .1 ) altimeter, ~ J lidue lal mar~ ~. 5) cloc k. 6 ) lens cone se ria l uu rubcr,
    7) f..K at length in mm. III fra me num be r. '>1mission name and dar.. ,m J IIII I\J l ig;n itln da ta (not \ i~ i hle). On ly one-half ofthis
    aeria l photograph of 1,,1 11l~ral Wo.:I ls. T X. is \ h ihk (c '''H1l'Sy I:. ('''yule l-nte rpri ses, Inc .. Ma ri lyn O'Cuihun: :t.J1 Imaging ).

    increases the q ualny o f the aeria l photography . An e xample


    o f lhe effectiveness o f utilili ng image mot ion compensa tio n
    and sla!'li1i13tinn is show n in Figu re -1--1 1, Nonce till'

    imp ruved J ""Ia il in the ae ria l pho tog rap h that wa s obt ained
    using image motion compcn....uio n

    c
    s
    I
    (

    11m

    Ier.al Cameras

    lbt lOOl.!crn metric ca meras provid ... J c tailed imag e <llIfI" tmr3round the Q x Q in. image area of the film {Paine and

    ..\irhornl' Il is:it al C a nWf:ls

    ~ I>t,'I'.

    2U(3 ). For example. nUl11l.TOUS t y p e s Ill' ancill ary


    f(l(lllatioll arc displayed a round the perime ter of the vernoJ arnJI photogra ph ( I f Minera l We lls. T X. show n in Figu re
    . I ~ A programm able liglu-eminlng diod e inside the ca mlI'lIt\poscd Il.'X I information onto tho: film . Important inferGlOOO present includes : I ) a grayscale step wedge used to
    OCkmline if a proper ex pos ure has been obtains..-U. :! ) a not e,. 1IIilere the aerial photograp he r ca n enter mission crit ical
    ;(tS in pencil if necessary, 3) altimeter. 4) ""hu e c ros s-ha ir
    &lucia! marks. 51d ock. (,l iens cone serial number. 7) focal
    'en t"ll inrum. 8 ) project frame number, t) m ission name and

    Digita l cam eras a rc revol utionizing airborne photogmuunct ric data collection. T he imaging sensor of a digita l camera is
    u, u<1 l1y a cha rge-cou pled de vice , CCDt or Complimemary
    1\h:ta l O.\ ide Semiconductor (C1\\0 5 ) co mputer chip. The
    censor detectors conve rt lif!ht into ele ctron s that ca n be mea su red and con ven ed imo a radi ometric inte ns ity valu e
    l~kG lone . 200-4). Digital cameras ma y be based on linear or
    IIrrll arrays of de tect ors (Figure -1- 14). Tallie -!-2 summ arizes
    the number of detectors found III so me of the commercial
    area arra y ch ips c urrently a \ ailu btc.

    dll~.nnd

    Digit al c.nucrus ut ilize a lens w ith its associa ted diaphragm


    to control the.f7sl11p, a , hull c-r to con trolthe lengt h o f expo sure . and a focusi ng device . However, the major diff erence
    is that instead o f using film . CC O line ar or area arrays arc
    located at the tilm pla ne. The le ns focuse s the light fro m the
    out side wo rld 011I0 the lmcar- or are-a-a rray ba nk o f d ..-tcctors . The photons o f l i~h t illunuuating each of the detect ors
    CJUSO: an electrical c harge to be produced that is directly
    related to jhe amoun t of mc idcru rad iant en ergy. Thi s an alog
    signal b then sampled ele ctronically and con ve rted into a
    d igita l " rightnl'ss value rang ing from K-bit (values from 0 255 ) to 12-I-it ~ values t"WlII 0 1,, 4 0\)5), The brigh tness va lues
    obtained frum till' analog-to-digital (A-to-D) conversion
    may b c, store d and read by co mputer sys te ms . The'CCOs m'l'
    Clcruall,l' nlOf'(' W:'n l' itive 1<1.\{,,'("Iral reflectance changes in the
    .\C,.//(. Illw / (II.' silver Jl<lliJ. crystals used ill con ventional

    10 ) navigation data (not visible). Hduciatmarks

    eediscusscd in Chapter 6,

    ole the
    15 of the

    s.."1lleI lm~ we analyze ae-rial photographs that a re- many


    !'W> old, lIaving. detai led ima ge annota tion info rma tion is
    >liliaIlto succc...sful in fonna tion extraction . es pecially if
    ;ophiSlicalrd pbotog rarnm ernc msnu me nts have to be cali!raIed or if the photograp hy will be used in co mputer so il~ pborogramm crry ap plications di scu ssed in C hap ter /l .

    Mnre infonnation can usual ly be obtained abou t the env iron ment from a study o f photographs taken si muhaucou- dy in
    ~"('!1I1 regions (bnnd s) n tthc elec rro magneric spec trum than
    fIt'm photog raphs tak en in an y single band. When cond uctIll!! multiband spec tra l rec on naissance (Colw ell. 19Q7)_ ea ch
    tftbe camerae simulta neo usly records photo~'faph" o f Ihe
    >lfIl( geog raphic area, but using d ifferent film and/o r filter
    _ inations. Fur example. a four-cam era lI asselblad 70I\lll1 configuratio n is show n in Figure -i- B a. Hy ca re fu l I)
    5tlecting the film and filter com b inations. spec ifi c wave length, of light rel1eeted from Ihe seelll' can he recorded by
    each of the C'lmlras.

    \lulliple-hand aeria l photogrJ ph y of CL'nlury Ci ty. Los


    (' A. is shown in F i~ u re 4- 1Jb. r\ otke the difl"t-rent
    iDfoonation recorded in the indi\ id ual bluc . ~ree n. rt.-d. a nd
    a:ar-infran.-d I'h,)!ogra l'hs . A natura l-looking el)lllf comJ"O" deofthe<le photograph~ can t>c I'rodu cetl by' ~i mu haneou,l~
    pruj.:l,.'ting blue light thro ugh th... blue pho tograph limo a
    screen, green light throu gh lhe green I'ho toj;rnl' h. Jnd rt'd
    light through lhe red phot og raph. A cn l\lf-i nfmred color
    Clll1lp(l,ile could be created b)-' simu llancllu sly proj e!.:t!ng
    blue light through thc grcen pholOgraph , grl'l'n light ( hf(l\l ~h
    the red photograph . a nd red Iigh l through thc llca r- infrarl-d
    pb:llQgraph. \lore will bc said aboul co lo r co m pos ites laler
    ill thisehapll'r.
    AIl~eks.

    ,1I0w_

    mb<:r,
    .fthis
    Ig).

    101

    (Il1lIlog l /t' r i"I I'Jm/ ng rap hy

    S ma ll-For mal Di~i1:l1 Ca me ra s: These ca meras ty pically


    ha w < 15 mcgapixcls (~I P) , For cv ernp le.the d igita l cam era
    show n in Figure +.1 5a is base d on an area ar ray with 3A5 6
    c~,l u m n~ and 130-4 row s y idding alm ost R MP ( rab le -!-2) .
    At lhl' in' tllni of exposure. th e caml'ra rap idly rec(lrd ~ three
    versions li t" lh..: s,'ene using inlerna l filtratiull . T he resul t is
    l' ne ilnage \>:I,ed S(lk ly o n td uo: light rdkcted fwm tn,' tC'rrJ in. alwtner Ila ~e d o n onl y green light re l1 l'1. t ~-d from Ihe terra in. ,lIId a li nJI image I'RlJuccd on ly fRlm rcflc ctcd " ..d
    light , Th e th ree ind iv iJ ua l blad:and.... nitc ima ges arc
    recorded in thl' ea me ra 's randum aCl'es" ffiCll1lll) (R .-\M ) and
    ca n t>e w lllr-..:umlJOSi k-d us ing add ili\'e wlor theo ry to prod uce a n'lluml .[oo ki ng color pholograph. It is a lso poss iblL'
    t,) mak e the detl'C,,' l\lrs !'.ensl tive tu near- infra red light.
    T his ine xp"' llsive VAV sho wn in Figure 4 - 15h con ta ins an
    inl,'rva l111l1clt.'r to nllla in phot ographs at speci lie inle rval s to
    obtai n the nccessary end-lap. 'n ,e ima ge s Jrc rdpidly stored
    on a dJ tJ reellfdcr, The o f'l'ral nr \lII Ihe gro und knows wher e
    Iht.' plano:" based \ln the use Ill' lin on board G I'S ant enna Inot
    :;ho" 11). Til<: 8 \IP uig ilJl camera ob ta ins vc: ry h igh resolu -

    ( II \ I'IH {

    ' 02

    Aer ial Ph o to g raphy -

    Vantage Poi nt. Camer as . Fitters , and Film

    ..

    '1ulti h :lnd , \l' r i ;l l l ' h () f o g r;) r h ~

    c. Green (0 5 (Ui

    d. Red (0.(, - 0,7 ~m)


    Fig u re 4 -13

    ~m )

    c. Ncar-infrared (0.7 I ,0 um I

    a I Four 7H-mm Hassclblud (a maas ;lrWl1gcd in a m"Llnl that rnay he installed in a specially designed ho le in the buuem " r ~
    iii rcra 1\ II j( urr C,lInCril~ ure C~ posed c1,'i:lr{lI1 lcall y ,tl c \ad I" the <nmc ins tant. Di fferent film and tl Iter cornhinuu ons may \Ie
    used in each canwru hoc) Multiple -band ,"erial p h "w~ r " Jlhy " r('em Uf) City'. Los ,'\ ngc lcs, CA. The lurgc panels inthe rJ r~ i n~
    lot we re used hI calibrate the photography. Nonc e lu,.... hri ~h llill" \ 'q :ctal illil is around th... curv ilinear hote l In the center {'I tIII
    blac k-and -.... hill' ncar-in frared photograph a nd h,,\\ d..rk it llp~ars in the blue. green. and re d photograph s.

    n.

    tion aerial photo graphy ( Figures " - [5cd ). As wuh any aircraft. g reat ca re mus t hi.' cx crci....d "hen using Ur\\ -s III
    ensure that they do nor crash caus mg inj ury to life and propcrt). This is no trivial mailer.

    'I ed iu m- fur ma l l )il:.i1a l ( anwra..: These ca meras arc usuall y base d on urea arrays w ith <lppru:>.:imaldy -t.OOO )< . . . oon
    u ck"CIP!"S (y ielding I f> MPI using Fa irchild CCD-tS(, or
    Kod ak KAl-"- IM O chips [ Table -t-21. Due to the rathe r limited numbe r o f pixe ls, the g.round eo \ crugc is not as !!(Iod a ~

    rradinonal large-f..jrrnat analog fram e ca me ra s. Nevertbekosso mcd ium- fc nnat d igitn l came ras have proven usefu l fl1
    many applicauons. T he Emerge Digital Sen....n Sysk,.
    ( l lSS I is a good exa mple of a medium-form at digital carnen
    (d iscus....d in Chapter 7).

    La rae-Fu r ma t UiJ.! il a l ("a l1l1.' ra..: These came ra.. surpa


    the performance of large-format ana log. fram e c ameras
    Some cameras such as Ihe Lcica Gco systems A irhtlmc Digual Sens or -to (A DS.....U) I ar c based I ," mul tiple linear arrays

    Hm

    /,erial Cameras

    ' 03

    So lid-Slate C ha rgeCoup led- Devices (CC Hs)


    Li near .-\ rr a)
    2048 d etecto rs

    Figure 4-14

    a) Enlarged view of a 204!! clement charl!...-couptcd-dcvice (CCD) linear array.


    b) Enlarl!cJ view ofa 3456 x 2 3114

    Tabl e 42.

    ~rc a 3fTay

    e CD,

    Cha racteristic s IIf several commercially available rhergc-couplcd-dcv icc (c e O) arrays (McCo lonc, 2004; Nikon. 2(05 ).

    Size

    0110m otnn

    ions may he
    lht pa rking
    -cnrcruf lIMo

    Ncvcrth eusefu l for


    or SY~I e: m
    iT,,1 camera

    ras surpass

    e cameras.
    rborne Digncar arrays.

    Vendor

    sensor

    (horizon tal x vertical)

    Pixe ls

    Sikon

    0 7.

    30m : x 2(K)(l

    (',,01 6,000

    Koilill

    DCS-4Nl

    3060 x 2036

    6.23 0 ,160

    Canon

    APS-C

    3456 x 2304

    7.% 2,624

    DAlS"

    D,\ LS,\ 4027

    -WOll x 2M2

    10 .709.376

    Kodal

    KA I-I WOII

    40011 )( 267:!

    1Il.7fN j 7n

    Nikon

    mx

    421;1; x 2K4S

    12.212.224

    Fai rchi ld

    CC04K6

    4 0 '11, x -j.O'l6

    16.777.21(,

    Kodak

    KAf - 16110

    40% x 4096

    16.77 7,216

    [) ALSA

    ITF-1 0 52M

    .5 ]4 4 )( -\I~l l;

    21, 4 11\,752

    Phill i ~

    DALS A-!)\l ('

    7168:>< 40%

    2Q.)hO.12 K

    !M E

    ('0)595

    92 1(,)('12[ 6

    1\4346.656

    The ADS-40 uses se ve ral forward. nadir. and ufl-looking lint.1I' arrays cons i ~t ing of 12_000 detector element s eac h (Figlire 4 15b). Other cameras. such as the lJl Ima ging Digital
    Modular Came ra \ DMC) and the Vcxccllargc-format d igita l
    cerera. arc based on the use o f mu ltip le area arrays. The ZJ
    I uses four 70(l() )( -fOOO arrays 10 ob tain panchromatic data
    and four 3(100 x 2000 arrays 10 ob ta in multi spectral data.
    The Vexccl d ig ita l camera uses 13 eC D arrays w ith 40 0U )(
    :'00 elements . C hara cteri st ics of the Emerge DSS. Leica
    AOS40. VI DMC. and the vcxcct large-format d igital camera are presente d in Chapter 7 (Multispectral Remote Se lls-

    ingS)"Slerns),

    Because of the: large number oflarge-format analog cam eras


    already in existence, digital ca meras ....i ll be used along with
    the tradi tiona l analog cameras for so me time. Eventually,
    howeve r, mos t photogrammc uic aerial pho tog rap hy will be
    obtained usmg large -forma t dig ital metric cameras
    tt\IcGlonc.2(04).
    .\ li se d l a ll ~ tlLl ~

    Ca me ra s

    There are 8 "ariel)' of relati vely simple, inexpe nsive cameras


    used bo th commercially and in a research mode that pro vide
    high-qual ity ae rial photography. Fo r e xam ple. extensi ve use
    is made o f 35mm ca meras mo unted inside a plane or hand-

    ( "!I Anl:H

    104

    ...

    Aer ial Photography -

    Vantage Point, Cameras, Filte rs . and Fil m

    Data recorder and


    mlcrva ll'ITl<:lcr

    01. UlUllJ,nllc u aeria l ,chick rlL'iClagc.

    C. Ctrru-, grove ncar \\e-~I<l'\I. T X .

    Fig ure 4 15

    b. Splcm components.

    d. Wale r treatm ent plant on South padre islan d . TX.

    OJ 1,'\11 unmanuc...r acnal " ..b ulc modified to carrya Ji~ltal came ra. hI Sy~h:rn C<J lllpo m:nls include a data reco rder. imcrval
    clef. ,IIuJ ( ii' S antenna (nOi shown). c and d j Exa mp les of n"r;;11 ph'lIngrap hy obtain..'<I using tho UAV [c ourtesy of Perry HaT
    and ~lJ.r'" Jackson. Dcpanmcm c f Gcugrap hy. Bri~hJI11 YIl UIl/C Univc rvity: 1I,IrJin andJackson ( 2( ~ 1 5 l l

    hel d by the ,o.;iciltisl to obtain aer ial photog raphy of sm all


    research M,',\S rw.uncr ct ;11.. [ l) l) 6 j, Suc h systems can pmvide excellent. incxpcnvivc aerial photo grap hy i f prop erty
    mounted, exposed, and proc essed .

    the colors iruc whitc light {fig ure 4- 19}. lie published
    research on till' properties of lig ht in ()fltick. in 1704 ( Fi
    4- 17hl.
    Add il i l 'f' ("11/(11" thvarv is based on wha t happens when ligh1

    Aerial Photography Filtration

    In 1666, Sir b;l..rc J"\ell ton l H14:!-17:! 7) (Figu re 4+17a). while


    cxpcruncuring \\ ith n pri sm . fo und that he co uld d ispe rse
    ..... hilt: light ;l1ltl a .'p t'(" /J"/l m u f colors [red, ora nge. yellow.
    green. blue . indigo, anJ \ iolct - ROYG BlV ) ( Figure 4-18 ).
    A co lor example o f wh at takes p lan ' whe n white light is
    directed through a prtsm IS pruv IJOO in Color Plate 4---.!a. Utilizing a s....cond prism , "1\'\1 Ion round tha t he could recombine

    mixed. ( 'u ll' r Platt' 4-2b reveals that white light consists of
    the colors of the visibl.... spectrum. Black is the abSl'IKC of
    these colors. Blue, green. and red arc the primary ("(//
    Ad diuvc ly comhunug green and red light c reates yell
    lig ht. Add invc ly c\\I11bi nin g blue and green light crea tes C~
    Addmvc ly enm hining bloc and red lig ht creates mag
    Yeilim . rnagctua, and C) an arc referred to a ~ camplemen
    ( olll".~ I......cause. when paired. they prod ucc wh ite light, t.
    yello\l plus bjuc, magenta p lus green, and cya n p lus
    Cotor rclauonchips art: summarized in Table 4 -3.

    1m

    105

    Aerial Photography Filtration

    I
    Large-fur-mar LCic':1C cusys te ms Airbone
    I}igita l St'no;or

    ~11

    ( A DS....U1)

    a, Sir I"lUC "<,.""Illn ( I f>.l2-17211


    -

    ~"'='"

    P PT I C KS:
    ... .1

    T REAT ISE
    ". T.'
    !l 11'I. E \:l n~ s . KF.F RACT IO....S
    I I' .-L l );I O :-;S """ COLO URS

    L 1 G H T. ,

    ~ ' ~: '~.H
    F!Qure 4 16

    111<: Lcic a G\"1),y,tcm, ADS_-1(1 digital camera uses


    mil1111"1c hnear atnl }' cun, i, ling of 12.(" "1detectors
    (cuu""") ur I .cica Gem) 'killS. !l1l'.I.

    (0 ' ""

    iS r l'l: lI'.s..,J

    rvalomHardin

    Tallie 43

    .hed his
    ( Figul\'

    Blu ~

    ,
    '0 "<>0" . ~-I

    ..- ..,.-..
    ~~

    H,~.
    '11""""'
    ,IO, . ,,_,
    .... 9

    ~.

    h. {), ,' llkl'. ~C \I ton's published


    on the rr"rl' rt k~ ,lfligh t,

    r ': ~': llrl'b

    Flg ure4- 17

    Blue :IIlJ red

    CUf'\'I IU1~; Figures,

    i Y,,-' <
    -

    Colo rs of
    light Absorbed

    M .' C; l' IT tTD I'1

    Ij'.." ...........
    ".. 1.. s,..,~ _~.".... ,

    l'hc color (If un ubje":l :I, seen in \\ hitc light.

    Color as Seen
    In White Light

    ..... . I/. ..J.__

    T~o TR.EAT ISE S

    Sir 1, :\;[(" Ncwtnn published ( )p ,il 'kI' in 170-!, This


    II<>I " eventually 1cJ to the inl cntion "fth..: rd lcetillg
    tetesl."'!," .

    lig ht is
    as or al!

    R,d

    Hluc and green

    llIue

    ;c of all

    colors,

    yellow
    :-s cya n.
    agen ta.
    ' /('mary

    ht, e.g.,

    us red

    \IJ~cnta

    (lillie and tc<ll

    Green

    f J1III (bIUl.' and grcc:n)


    Bod
    None

    Equa l proport ions of hluc.


    gree n, and red

    ..\ ddith e color theo ry is used In dispb y images 011 television


    screens and on compul.' r monitors. L II::h picture clement
    (r ixl'l) on a monitor -crecn uherc arc usually 4S0 ro ws oy
    5~5 lines of phcb l ';{lnsisls of three color guns blue.
    green. and red. Each colo r gun 's intensity in eac h pixel is
    modulated a<:.,lfljlng mthe amoun t (If primary color present
    in the scene be ing transmitted from the TV stuuon or from
    the computer central proces..ing: unit (Jense n. 200Sj. The
    resu lt I' a colo r vicua l dIsplay of the phenomena based on
    uddinv c color theory.

    106

    Aeria l Pho tography - Vantage Poi nt, Cameras , Filte rs , and Film

    , 11 ,\ 1' 1 H~

    1.2 11m

    W h ile

    Li~hl

    Separated Into

    ils Spl'('lral C u m p Un l' IlIS


    U!i i n~

    a Pr-ism
    O.7f.l.ffi
    (Ui

    um

    o.s !Jm
    Q.4 f.l.lll

    tUp m

    T
    ~

    T
    1

    ~.

    ~ '~

    ~~

    e,

    -ll

    rn ~m

    Agure 4- 18

    Wh ite hglncan I.... separated into it.!. spectral componcms usil1!1 a p ri~m , a, originally discove red by Sir Isaac NI."WlOn in 1661
    and publis hed in O, 'li""..< in 1704 . Only blue. green. and red light art:' visible 10 the human eye .

    Xewron 's Classic Experime nt


    Whil,' /igllt

    Prism 1
    Figu re 4-19

    Prism 2

    Screen

    A diagra mmatic rcprc.....m ali"n of Newton's d assil"cv pcnmcm in which white light i" decomposed into its spect ral coropo
    ncrus llsing one prism . and then recombined back into white light usi ng a second prism, before !wing projected onto a screea

    SlIbJrtlclil'e color tllCm:1' is based 0 11 the usc of pigments or

    dyes and not light. W~- use sub tractive co lor theo ry whe n we
    pain t o r wo rk w ith filters. For example. we know thai i f we
    m ix equ al propo rtions {I f blue. green. and red paint. we do
    not get white but o btain so me d ark gray col or. Subtractive
    color theory is based nn the usc ofrhe co mplementary color
    dyes - yellow. magen ta. and cyan. An exam ple of subrra crive color theory is found in Color Plate 4 2c. If we projected
    white light on to a translucer n filte r made ofydlow dye. the
    filte r wo uld subtrac t the blue light and allow the green and
    red lig ht 10 pass through. Simi larly. a magenta dye filter subtracts the green ligh t and allow s the b lue and red to be tran smined. A cyan dye filter subtracts the red light and allow s
    the b lue and green lighr m be transmined. Hut wha t if we
    supe rim posed 1.... 0 of these dye filters ':' If .... c superimpo..... J
    the magenta dye filter and ihc cyan dye filter , everything but

    blue light woul d be subtrac ted. Th is is bec ause the magcnu


    ti ller subtracts the green light whi le the cyan filter su btracu
    tile red l jght.Hwe superimposed the yellow a nd cyan flhcn
    on ly gree n light would be pe rcei ved . Finally, if we supcrimposed the yellow an d magenta dye fil lers, only red light
    would be pe rce ived , If all three of the sub trac tive dyes t yellow. magen ta. and cyan) we re used. they wo uld subtract [filter out I all ofthe white lig ht and we wou ld not percei ve any
    color: it .... uuld appear black. It will be demonstrated how
    subtract ive color dyes are used to create the colors we sec: in
    I I deve loped co lor negauves. and 2 ) co lor positive prints.
    A scientist can select ive ly record very spec ific wavelengths
    of ligh t reflected from the scene on to a photographic emulsion. Th is is done using specific filler and film comblrclion s. We will first investigate various filte r options.

    .lerial Phot ogra ph y Fil trat ion

    107

    I,h 'fl l'l"liu n

    BI~

    a.

    0..

    Red object 3t>s.orl>-< green


    .mJ blue li~b!, l,...h 1\.'.1,
    a
    ~ure

    Ked

    rilt,'r ;It-surf>., green

    ,,,,.I blue h~hl. I""h ..rd .


    b.

    420 ill A red 11hjn't absorbs mO,1 uf'thc hilie '111.1 green
    incident Iighl and reflects ruo of the red lightto.....nnl our eyes llr J remote sensing instrument. Il) A
    red filter looks red b.:C<lIIM.' II wlecli"'ly ab,orbs
    blue uud gl.:en light whil.: allowing red lighl h' be
    transmitted through it.

    pes. Sizes, and Colors of Filters

    in from of the camera lens docs exactly \\ hat


    na:nc unplies. i.e.. II filt~r" out certain wavelengths of
    ~ before they Colli reach the film plane and expose the
    To understand how filters work. consider \\hy a red
    of pap<r lol,lls red I figu re -I.-2tl J. Whit. IIg.h l. w nsistJl!! ofcqUJI proportions of blue. green. and red wav clcngrh
    ~'). illuminates a piece of red P.11'l1.'T The pa per abso rbs
    blueand green light bUI reflec t, the red li~hl. Therefo re .
    -:othing that absorbs [subtracts bot h blue and gree n light
    DId reflects red light will lll(lk r~d . Refe r III T'lhle 4-3 lilr a
    fJIlImal') llft he~e relat ionsh ips. Converse I}. if IH' Iwld a red
    filter ~I' til a \\h ile light. it w ill ap p.:ar rl'd to u.s he"' ;l u~,' it
    kt, t hrou ~ h (i.e .. tra ns mits) "n ly the red lig ht \\ hi!..: il
    lhsorbs both llll' hlue a nd gree ll ligh t. T his is tlK' key II' <Ill
    IIldcrslanding tlf plwlographic Jiltratio n. nfl..r., suhtract
    IO/l'I( (If lhe ligh t ret lee led from 1I scene heli m,' the lighl
    rtath,,;; the film in the ca m..:ra. Ge l intu th..' habi t u f lh inki ng
    Ifared tiher m't so much as Ol1l' Ihal l,"As red. but as nne
    Iwabsorb;; lsu htracts l hille and gn..'l:n hghl.
    Iihl'T placed

    I;llIg thiS logic. J ydlow filter a l>l"o rbs I>luc light and allows
    he transmiu.-d (lahll' 4- .'1. ()ur eyes
    ;me1\'C a mi.,!urc of red and green li~hl a~ yell'I\\ (i.e .. lhe
    lJfbluej. Due 10 Ray leigh s..:Jtll'rin!! lChaptl'r 2). hlue
    i. >o,:alll'fed in Ihe atmosphere I" a mut'h gre.ller degrrt
    either !:!rt'Cn or red Iighl and can thl'rl'fur..: C.lUSl' at'ri al
    ogr.tl'hy 10 n..'l:ord cons iderabl~ un\\ anted. sca llered
    light. Thlrel' lre . il is Cllffirnon Itl usc a yel low lilla to
    lI:ltcti\ d y remo\e !>()In..: of the seatter..:J rat h radiance

    vren and ml fighl \(l

    (l'spccially ullr:l\ iotcr and some blue hgh ll before it ever


    n..aches the emulsion. Thi~ mmus-htne jifl..-r \\ ill be , ho\\ n to
    be parucularlj important when collecting nca r-in frared
    aerial rhnlography.
    1\ 1""t aerial phu1o.lgmrhy is ac qu ired using at least one sta ndard filter, The spectral-rransmutance charactencncs of
    selected K, .....;tk wraucn lilters ..cr the wa velengt h interval
    200\tII.lOllllllllO.2 1.1 unu arc shown m Figu rc -t- j t . In
    mkhnon. a tran-uunauce curve for Ko..lak filters HFJ and
    wrauc n 12 are show n in Figures 4-11a and 4 -1 ~b. rcspc cl ive ly [ Kn..lak. I9')l) I. The se filters nrc important 10 aerial
    phlltlll!ra phy. Wh en l'ul ke ting natura ! color aer ial ph" tog: r;;ph y, il is de sirable to elim inate mu ch of the scancrmg o f
    ultraviolet rad ialion ca used by at mosp her ic huzc. For this
    PUlp l"': and lU "hWi n a mor e salisl;lChH) ' co lor bala nce. haze
    fi lters ( Ill') I\,"l'~' dev eloped thai absorb light shorter tha n
    400 nm. Si milar!), 1\ hen collecting color-in frared ae ria l
    r lit>lo gr:tphy. 1I yellow filte r is used. which suhtmctv a lmost
    all or lhe blue light (wJ\elengths short er than 500 nm ). Th is
    minus-blue tilrcr reduces the effec ts of at mospheric sca ucring and a ll,,\\, rhc proper l'n..:rgy 10 intcrllct with eac h o fthe
    film's layers, tu be discussed shortly . If do:~iTl'd. it is possible
    10 configure a camera ti lm filt er rombinanon so that it screelively records a \ 1.'1') specific oolld of rct lccred elcctromagnetic l'llerg~ on the film . This is called spectral band-pass
    (illlring. For example, if one wanted tn photograph on ly
    reflec t..J green light for a "pccitk aerial ph~lt\lgraphy
    project. :1 K<lliak wrancn 5,'01 filte r could be used (refer tu
    h guTl' 4-2 11.
    In addi tion III the normal flhcrs. pof'lI'i:ing tiln-rs may a lso
    he USl'd With al'ri:11 phnl tlb'T;l ph). To Undel'l'tllnd hlll-l p" laril.i n ~ fillers wllr k. il is neCeS,ar) 10 brielly rev iell' the nature o f
    lighl . R~'mellllll'r that an ekd TOmag neti,' qu anta n flig ht d isclI';s",d in C h,ljller 2 vlhw t"s III a ll di rec tions perpenlliculu
    to ils J il'l'cl io n uf lr;tlc! as !>hul'.n in Figu re 4-2J . When a
    quanta o f lighl hils :1 non me tall ic surface, tilt' vihra tion in
    on ly one dlre~'II(ln, or plane. is rdlected com p letely. Co n\..:rse ly. all vilmll ions ;Ire rctlc cled by a bare meta llic sur13Cl. :\011. dl'pc nd ing upon the angle at which lhe ca mera or
    ..'ur e~c~ a r~ \'i~win~ the IIhjett. \ ibratilln, in olhe r rlmll"S
    af~' reduet'd or eliminaled ~nmpldcly. T hi!> renee k'J lighl \ il>ra ting III only onl' plane - is called f'"f(JrI:"d light. The
    lighl fw rn a h lu.: ~k)' i, polarih-J b...'eaus~' it is rdleeteJ fw m
    nonmetallic p(lnie1c~ in th..: al lllOSph..:re. Li kewi~. ligh l
    re tl''l.1 cd fnlm .:I \\ heat 1l.:ld or a hody of water into Ihe field
    ...1' view ...1' a eamer.. is polilri/ed ~ince \\ heal and \I al<:r are
    nonmdallic.
    ~.}metlrnes II IS

    I",:ful to only \ iew a cenuin "angle" o f


    polarihJ light Iea\ ing the ~elle. Fo r e'( amrle. Fig ure 4-2-1.

    '108

    Aerial Photography -

    ClI \I'1 U~

    Vantage Point, Cameras, Filters. and Film

    Spectral-Transmittance Bar- C ha r ts for Selected wratten Filters


    Transmittance
    Wavelength

    Transmittance
    wavelength
    :00

    )00 _

    700 _

    'ItWllOO) II'"

    :!OIl

    soo ......

    Transmittan ce

    Wavelength

    <W />Illl '<WI ... . "00 1000 llUl

    ".\ .~

    ""

    .15

    '"
    2E

    ,
    ,.

    45 ~ :IIIJ

    ,,, _

    ': IIIJ

    ' 1(,

    ""

    II

    _ Ill]

    12
    13

    "
    iO

    lil A

    21 _ I I I I I J
    22

    lJA

    ITIIJ

    ,-

    o
    "'~'Y

    72lJ
    7J

    Ill]

    Tr~n,mll"

    1% hI 111,

    Tr:ms mia :> 10%

    75

    J2

    Ill]
    Figure 4 -2 1 Tran smis sio n characte ristic s o f ...:k"':k...J wr.mcn nncrs ( COUI1 ,:~y Eastman Kod ak Co.).

    4erial Photograph y Film s

    109

    0.1-

    -t-

    1- ,

    "

    li n Fil lt'r

    "

    .~
    ~

    :'i

    "

    ,.

    : - "j

    '00

    ]
    ]

    .. -

    ---

    b.

    -+7(1(1

    f>{X1

    I~

    sou
    ~t

    ::'UCl

    . . --

    ,,

    1011

    son

    -! -

    , ,.

    Wavelengt h (nlll)

    . .

    ,I

    a.
    11.1

    II .

    . .

    .. ,
    ,
    :;

    l-t-

    ....
    .
    .

    -1

    11M)

    ,..,..,
    . ,.

    -f

    ' 00

    ' 00

    ..

    i-'t-

    i600

    700

    SIlO

    " .l\ l.'lC'nl.",h In mJ

    4-22

    o lI<JU

    al Transrnin ancc ,h,;Jra..: k,.i~I1C~ of a IIFJ hale filter olkn ucc-d in :k'ri...1 phOlograph y_hI Transmittance characteri stics of a
    wrauen 12 (mlnus.hl lle! li ller used '" be n a..-q lll rin~ 1:" k>r- '11 frat~.,j pfl\>llll?taphy (cour1~"'y Eastman K.'<laJ. l"c.j.

    dcmon~lra l':S ho.... 3 Ill.lla rili ng Iilrcr placed in Inmt 1' 1' a
    csnera lens will pass the vibnuion (If a lig ht ray in j ust (Inc
    plane at a lime. Some filtc r-, ev en hav e han dles wi th whi ch
    10 adjust the filters so that tho:) pass Ihe light \ rbration ill a

    plane parallelto the handle.

    mi ts through it is then allowed to pass throug h the lens systern and illuminate the light-sc nsitiv e silv er halide crysta ls in
    the film em uls tou.
    Aeri a l Photography F ilm s

    III' the most widely used uppli<.: ali(}!1 S of poJariling lil ers is when photog rap h ing watcrbodics. II)' manipu lat ing

    O~C

    mepolarizing filter. it is possink to filter nut [he unwan ted


    rclkctions of so me types of polarized light reflected from
    me water su rface. This c an improve our ani lity 10 sec furthe r
    11[0 the water column. Po laro id g,lasw s worn t>y people are
    ~mply polarized filters thai pe rfo r m much the same fum>
    1ion.lntefCSling.ly, no one ev cr ask s uv wh et he r we want \ crllCIlly or borizo mall y polarized !!Ias<;cs. whi ch prov ide
    Jiffcrenl view s of the world to ou r ey es. Pola riz ed cn~-rg)
    .-ill also be un portam in a..::I I\ C m icrow ave ( rnJ ar , rem ote
    lellSing drscu..sed in Chapter 'I ,
    Ihes.f iltcrs al low us to sel ec tively filter out certa in type.. o f
    ligfn while allowing vel') ' spec ific wavelengt hv of
    tight to pas s through the filter. The ligh t that the filte r trans-

    lII.... anted

    Frlm is usually e xposed in n came ra mounted in a n aircra ft


    thai i.. 1I11l v ing relatively 1::lS1 (c. g., > ISO m.p.h. ). Fortunatcty, films ma de especially for ae rial pho tography ca n stop
    action and yield high-quality aeria l photngrdphy if 1) the
    pro pe r film/filter com bmcuon is used, 2) the aperture ope ning (fS!(lpl is appropriate. a nd J ] the len gth of the ex posure
    i ~ correct. Unfortunately, analysts sometimes arc forced to
    interpret unde rexposed ( toe dark : nor enough light was
    allo .... ed 10 create an e xpocurc } or overexposed ( IOO hrig ht:
    an exsc..-i ve a mou nt or Iig.ht .... a.. allowed to create an exposu re} aerial photography. Th e refore, il is important for
    pho to-interpreters to understan d the rundamemal natu re of
    fi lm emulsi nn s and thei r speed in o rder 10 properly interpret

    11 0

    (" II \'"' EN

    Aerial Photograp hy -

    Pul:uiud I J:.:llI

    Vantage Point Cameras . Alters, and Film

    V<'rt ic ;llI ~

    Light ray

    f' ulari ll'd U ~ h l

    - >

    - >

    Polarized

    light ray
    Vertical filter
    <I.

    IInri/llnlall~'

    h.
    Figure 423

    from nonructullir surfaces suc h ns atm"..phe rrc JX!rwater. tree... co;>n,:rdc. etc.

    aerial r 1w1ogr.lph) or 10 understand "hy prob lems occur ill


    ..om... aerial photog raphy,

    General Characteristics of Photographic Emulsions

    is the science of m<:asuring the scn, i,i\ it}' of

    rhOlo~ raph i .:

    materials (\-leGlonC'. 2nllll. II is used 10 cU IItrolthc operation s of " '(pos ing and pw ..:c",,,,ing photogra phic
    mate rial... Crosv-sccuon, through lo ur I) pical films I fig ure:
    ~ - 2 5)

    Vert ica l ti ller

    light clllcrillg thc ul'po.'r p ortion ,)1' the a lm"~rh<:r.


    is rmpotarived II l~ I'lllari.ll.-.J "hell it is rd lc ,'1C11
    lid~.

    S I'(/\'lfillll(' f r y

    Pularizcd I.i:::ht

    rc veal that the) con sist o f:

    ra) l:rbl containing Iig hl-!>l:ns itiYl: sihl:T hal i..Ie


    crys tals (..J,!!X whe re .\ . is the ha logen sy mbl ll) l' l11 ncdd eJ in
    a gel at in:

    .'11111/.1111/1

    a hase or \lll'/ JUr f ncu cnat thai n1<l ) he tranvpa rc-m (ac eta te
    film or gr' lss l o r ,'p.t<.1u c rpupcrt;
    a n IIJlli-hti/ulioll Jayc-r that ah..,)rh~ ltght tha t passes
    throug h the emulsion and the base 10 prevent reflection
    ba.. k 10 Ih......mulsion.
    Th e sc:ns iti\ il)' of a photographic cm ulsion is a funct ion Ill'
    the si / .... shape, and numbe r o f silver halide u')'.'I"l\ in Ih...
    l:mu lsion ]Xr uni l ;Irea and the \\ awlellglhlo uf light to \\ hic h
    lh.. grains are s.:ns iti\ .... This is re..ll ~i hcr. and al tlw llgh it is
    pr,'sent in rd al i...d y slll<l ll 4ualllities in a m il o f ti lm. il J oes
    aCl:ounl f(,r the n' fali \'c1) high co,,1 o f Ii1m ,

    To unde"'lanJ Ih.. relat io nship belween grol ln SITI: a mi de nsity. \ \1.' \\ ill dl:pie t a pi.....c orphotogrnrhll: n...gali, ... ti lm as

    Figure 4 24 a) \'.."11ic:Jlly p...lan l.<..... Iighl b all'-"......... 10 rthrouph J vertic ally !wlarih-d Ii Itt"!". h l ll nri",nta
    polarized light '" nOI all.." cd to pass throu gh !lit
    h, nJ<.: Jlly p" l"n /.\.J filter.

    h~ in g composeu of si mp ly silver halide crysta ls and supror.


    h' Kk ing (F igun: k!t>tJl. Film A has III sil ve r halide Cl')stak
    pe r un it d ista nce II hile Film 13 ha.. only SC"":11 crys tals. Al
    gra in si/'" inc reases. the tota l numbe r (If grains in the CI11U~
    sion per umt distance decreases. Ifa n cmul s ion is compos
    of gra ins one-hall a.. lar g... as thos ... in another c-mulsion.s
    will require approximately twice as mu c h lightto ex pose Jt.
    T herefore. Film B i.. said to he laster than Film A beca use il
    req uires k~ s 111,!l1l for prope r e \ p<'su re. Indcr the ~ann i1'f
    electron mic roscope. co nve ntiona l vilve r halid.. cl') slals
    appear as cubes. octa hedra (c ighl-sid..-J so lids ), Of irrcguIarly sha p.:d pebbles (Fi gur..: -t.26h). A!5I'. note thm th... cl)\l"
    lab arc not ullc xacrly the same size.

    t-a-ter li lm.. can be used ad vnutagct , usly when photog raphing objects that arc mov ing rapidly a..-ros-, the IiIIIl plane. ali
    in aeria l p hoto~.-raph y. Unfortunately, a s scnsinv uy an d gr:J1
    Silt' in..-rca...... Ihe res u h ing image becomes merc coats c. ani
    rc solution rsharpn ...ss M l' ris pness of the Image ) m Ol) be
    rcduccd Fil m resolution can hc t cst...d b)' phutograp hing I
    sta nda rd 1.....1 pattern that cons ists o f groups o f line pairs (parallcl lin...s " r varyi ng thick ntss st'pamted by lop;K'CS I:qual w
    th.. line Ihlc kn.:'ss ). An c.\ar n pk or a resolu tio n I.:'sl pallCTI.
    tall!l:t I" as sh(,,,,, n pn.:\ iously in Figu fe 4- 11 . The nUmhl:f of
    lin...s p.:r millimcler in the "ll1 all~1 lin... pall...rn thai Call
    d"':Jrly he d i"Cerncd on Ih... d"'Il.:!l.>p<.:d fil m is the r...solutioo
    o fl hl: tilm , It is common hi h.: lIhle to rcso lve ~5 to 100 lin.:
    pa i~ l'Il.'r millil!l..tcr on 1: 11l,1)lt( ) ~ealc a.:ria l ph utog rnphy
    po~ itlH' prin l~. T hi~ Iype uf spalial re..u lulio f! res u lts in
    ilt'rial phutugra phy \\ ilh 1''':1) high spal ial dct ai l.

    Ae,

    Ae!lal Photography Film s

    111

    Genera lized C russ-Secnons of Black- a nd-wh ite Pan ch rom atic,


    Black- and-While In fra red , Color . and Color-Infra red Film
    81:.1(...-a nd -\ \ h it e Film

    llI;u:I..;lnd-\\hill' Infrarl'tl Film


    "~ ..,hnlm. l i<:

    - bl"". tu""fI
    ~ ....r-infrllrnt

    and It'd sen<i" , C ('fIlul,l(lll


    of ... 1,,....... ti c<)sLl ls

    10

    pa~s

    lOnl.1 J1y

    ( 'Illur in fra re d . ilm

    l'urmul Colo r Fum


    tll \l~

    ugh th..

    'Io.'n, il'vc layer

    lYell" " dycl"m' inl.lla~crl

    ;":.,
    >'. -,',';.': :
    ... : ' ,. '+'

    .. '.' . :

    ' .~ +

    J\... r illr,.....d (alld blue ) sc" , ;liw


    I~ ycr

    [cyan dy,,j'>I1T1;" g lay.....]

    [yell .." dw t' >I1T1 lnl/. layc' l


    Ked l al...l I>hl<" K,,,,i ',,,,, layn-

    j""',cnta dye- rOIT",ng l~y~"'/ I


    K.d (and hl..... ><."11"1"" lay~'f
    lcy-an dye !',,",,;"!! l:aycr]

    up port

    . . r.

    Gn.." (d'.,j hi...., se,\>.;I;le layer

    't "'1" .. "'lerna ! jiller blO('k , blue h ~ht


    (;rffn land blue l ,,,,,,i n>',, l:J~ c r

    ry xrals

    """'II"" lay'C'f

    [""'g" nla .Jy". f"..,.,,,n~ uyCfJ

    l is. As
    emulrposed

    lio n. it
    sose it.
    ause

    Inn ing
    ryst als
    rrcg ue crys-

    .\ " I ;' h ~I"li"n

    1"'H

    <.

    Figure 425 GCllc rali7cd cross-a.:cl i"n s (If a l panchro mruic black -und-w hile lilm. III hlad.-anJwh ilc infra red film. c) norma l or natural
    co lor film. an.1 ,1\ color-in frared film

    graph-

    me. as
    J grain

    -c. an d
    lay he

    hing a

    s (par-

    lua l to
    sauc m
    ocr of

    )( can

    .hnion
    ~) lin e
    uaphy
    rhs in

    Blackand-White Photographic Emulsions

    JIlIl as the retina o f rhc hu man eye is. se nsit ive 10 dif ferent
    u leloml;lhs of light rang.ing, from " 11K' throug h red (0 ..,1. 0.: j.lml. il is possible fo r film man u facturer s to create blackmd-white photographic emu lsion s. that hav e the lo llo w ing
    Itll>ll l\ itics ( "kG lone. ~ ()( ).4I:

    Mhochromm ic em ulsion.. arc scnsmvc 10 blue and gree n


    ligl1l1oappm~i matcJ y 0 .0

    urn :

    J!I1II'ltromotic emu lsion s arc se nsitive 10 ultraviolet. btuc .

    green, and red light to approximately 11.7 um :


    _infra1l'd emuls ions arc sensiti ve 10 Hue. green. red.
    m ncar-infrared hghr ro ap pro ximurcly 0.9 urn.

    lhc lowe r wnvclcngjh-lirnit of ligh t scn- uivity is. approximalcly OJ ) I-l m und rt:~ lI lt ~ Irom the lighrubsorpuon c haractcristic s or rhc !!cbtiJ1llSMKiJ k d with the em ulsion.
    The spectra l s.:nsili\iIYo f vtaudard black-a nd-white primi ng
    paper, panc hrom atic film. and ncar-infrared film arc summ arized in Figure ,l. 27. The d iagram revea ls why it is JlO"s il'>le
    1O use a red "safe light" in a photographic darkroom. The
    prinuug paper is sim ply not se nsit ive 10 red light- Con versely. black-a nd-white panchromatic film reco rds ultraviulct, blue. green. and red re flected light Therefore, a haze
    filter [suc h a" the Kodak IIF J prev iously d isc ussed ) is often
    used 10 ke.:p ultraviolet and blue light from e\posing the
    fi lm. Panc hromatic film is the mosl Yo iJd) used black-and.... hnc ac nalfilm. as il prod uce s graytones that are expected
    and recog nized b) huma n beings. i.e .. wa te r is dark. sand Is
    .... hue . concrete is gray. clouds urc \\ hue . vt uch o f the ae rial

    Aer ial Photog raphy -

    112

    Electro n '-l icroscopc Photograph


    of Silver Halide C rystals

    Two Films with Different Sizes and


    Densities of Silver Helide C rvsrals

    Vantage Poin t. Came ras, Filters, and Film

    F ilm A

    I un it distance

    Film R

    QQQQQQQ
    I'"
    FlQure 4-26

    "' 1

    I unit d istance
    a.

    I ) Films A and R rq>res<:01 hypot hetica l pro files.oflwo mm~" ilh ditTcrt'1ll socs and densities of silver halide cry sta ls. bt,
    ekctrtlfl mic ru!>O: ur": photograph of actual sih cr halid e crys tals . 1'\,>1<: thaI the crystals ere nvl p...,.f~-':lly unifonn in size, ~
    or ~dng (ctlu"e~y Ea..... man Kodak Co.j.

    Spect ral Sens itivity of Selected Bla ck -a nd- Whil l'

    f ilms and Printing Paper


    Printing Pap er

    Infra red film

    Panch romatic film

    z-

    :~
    '~

    '"

    'J)

    .3

    HF3
    filter

    uv

    Uill':

    OAO

    Red

    Green

    0.50

    Reflective inlh m: J

    0.70

    0."

    o.sn

    O.9(J

    Wavel engt h. u r n
    F igu re 4-2 7

    S[">lXlrdl sc:nsili\'il)' ofblack-and-wtrire li lm and paper emulsions o ver the wavcl":lll,:th interval 0.35 - 0.9 u r nl,,:oollcsy Eastman Kodak Co.).

    pherography acquired for photogrammetric purpose s 10

    make planimetric and topographic maps is panchromat ic


    aerial photography. Typical panchrom atic aerial photogra-

    phy films marketed hy Eastman Kodak Company arc summa rizc d in Table 4-1 .

    and Rim

    113

    AHla l Photography Film s

    Table 4-4

    I:as tman !\(.tlal. aerial photography Iilms [courtesy Eastman !\(I<!a k Co.: all film name'S are tradem arked ).

    Characterisllcs

    Black-and-White Aerial R Ims

    ' _ 11...."'-.\ .\ [ RI)(; R \ P l ll l 11 1-112

    Ir...l_k- \ .\ [ f( }(; IU I' IIIC II ~I!

    ecrystals. h I ,~ n
    :n ill size. shape.

    Color Aerial Films


    i.rROCOl OR II

    " ~a 'i> r 2-U~

    ('...10.... ~,crs.aT film f.. \mo.- ,... ml",m'ah,">dor acnal m'f'I',ns and =onna;<<.3nce

    HROCIIRfI\IF " \ 1" 1-1-111

    \fIlOCltlU "n: II.. ~O_.l""


    U Il()Clt IU I \ I ~:

    l IS MI-.\'" ,-

    URlJ( 'Il Il'''I~: II Infran"d 2-1-1,\

    H,ghsl'<"Cd C"'' '''l>C'gal'' c tilm for I"" .alunidc 3m1 1phiM"!!"'rohY

    ---------...,

    ",.';:-:'--,.,.= = C1"UII
    = film
    = r,,, 10" =::=;,:::::;,c:::;:======-------.,
    10 n>ed", m-ah,h>dc marrina and

    +1H,gh...-p."C'd enlor

    I hl<,('--c'Ok... ~,

    I film, h,~h d,mcn,,,_l sUI'o, I'ly h... \<;:~'\au"n

    =on~'"""""c .

    <U"~'YS. cam,,~tl,,~..: d~'t<.-':hon. and

    Elin h rc"..,un;c ill' CSli~ali<lII'.

    , r ROCl UUI\ If. 1II nr... ......... r SO_Ll-l

    courtesy EaM-

    oany are sum-

    Similar '0 H~ 3 ; gre~lcr mr",red = I"'",,;c, -ui lal'ok ror ah illltk... "1'00.... l ~ll( Ml Ii.

    "black-and-\\ hil': panchromatic aerial photograph is show n


    m Figure 42Xa. A Hack-and -w hire nea r-infra red photo~ph ofthe same urea is show n in Figu re 4 -2Xh. Ca re mus t
    be exercised whe n interpreting ncar-infrared photogra phy
    because the camera has recor ded energy that is beyond our
    human Pt'rn~ pli{ln, Consequently. ce rtain tones might not
    represent what Wt' wo uld umicipate inthe imag e. For cxumpic, healthy green vegetation is dark on pan chromat ic pho \lIgraphy because it i1 hsor hs <I lmllst Xfl -90 pe rcent Ill' the
    incident blue, green. an d red radiant ene rgy for phutnsyu!hclic purposes. Conversely, hea lthy vegetation is hri ghl on
    lhe black-and-white ncar-inf rared photogra phy bec aus e il
    eflccrs -10- 70 percent of the incid ent ca r-infrurcd energy.
    human beings have very lillie idea how milch ncar-infrared
    radiant elll'rgy is reflected lT1l1TI commonplace materials
    such as vegetalion , water, and conc rete. There for e, we
    >hould constantly refe r to spectral re flectance cu rves (If
    ~ phenomena that sum mar ize how much green, red. an d
    aear-infraTt'U energy the se objects typically reflect t rcfc r to
    Chapter 2). In this mann er. we ca n understand and even predid 00" certain objc':l s in the real world w ill 1001. on infra red photography. It is instructive to review the proce ss
    .hertby simple black-and-white aerial photog rap hy negames and posili\ v prinl~ a re produced .

    C n' ;lI i n ~

    a lUac k -aud-\\hilc

    Acriall'hulu~ntph y'

    ,~ t'J.::l1 h l'

    Consider the simp I.: binary terrain de picted in Ffgc rc 4-29


    that consists of ca lm, non-t urbid ocean water and a sandy
    hear h with 1)(1 vegetation tHI it. Assu me thatthe silv er halide
    crys tals in the film in the ncr-ialcam crn arc sensitive to blue.
    green. and red light from 0.-1 - 0,7 p m. T he no n-tur bid ocea n
    wa ter \\Ou ld uhsorb mud! of the incident blue. gree n, and
    red radiant n ux from the Sun . Conversely, the sandy beac h
    wo uld re flect muc h of the Incident radian t flux . Some porlion of this ene rgy would be collected by the op tics o r the
    came ra lens a nd focused onto the silv er halide crystals at the
    film plane . When the required amount o fli ght ex poses a sil
    ver halide cry sta l suspe nded in the emulsion. the: entire cryst;11 becomes ex pos ed. regardle ss o f its si ze. Basically, the
    htlnll between the ilvcr and lite halide is weakened when sitvcr halide cry stals arc exposed 10 light. Notice in our example that there was s ufflci cru e ne rg y to expose the s ilver
    hal ide c rystals o n the Iclt side o f the li lm hut ins ufficient
    energy to expose the crystal s o n the right side of the film. An
    emuls ionthat has been expos ed 10 1ig ht co nt a ins an in\ isiblc
    image ofthe object ca lled the latent im"Kt'. To turn the latent
    image un the l.'mulsioll inlo a n e ~ti \ c. il mu sllx: dl...d vp"J.

    Aerial Ph otography - Va ntage Point, Ca me ras, Filters, a nd Film

    C"l1\JYfEH

    114

    Panchrumatlc

    Bl ilc l;-a ll d- \ \ h ill' l nrran 'lI

    h.

    a.
    Fig u re 4 -2 8

    Black -and-w hite IlllllchwlIMliC phlllngTa ph 'lf Th"li ",,,nil II:!) on the Hud , ,," River. :-- Y. Vq:o:tatiun i~ reco rded in lelltivcly <l ar~ tones because it absor bs much of the inc ide m green a m'! red cnc ll;)'. Som e green ;1Il1lred energy pasS('s through dx
    water co lum n and pm .... ido:s information on sU'I'I,"n dcd scduuenr pancms und submerged aquatic vegetation (V " ild cell'
    l 'llli,H,.r-,i" "m",irmw l tll A black-and- white nea r-in frared ph..." .. gra ph J ,'pu.: IS the [and-Iea l,Of inter face " e ll. O"''C2.usc IU!<r
    at.so rb!. m..".l of th e indde"Tlt nc ar- infra red o:nO:fg) CJus ing 11M appear dark. ConH:T.....ly. l!ld uous tree, on the isl.l.IId and
    \\ "tland vege tation (l cattail, T:1T'hu "1J-'~I1"'li,lil/; P ~ common r~-c..J. Phrc'!:""k' <1/1<. ) aro: hri ~ h l h~'\:311Sl' health y \'q~"'la\i~
    reflects muc h of the illl'idcll l ncar-infrared .'ncr f)' ( lkrglulld, 1'J<J'l ) I pleusc refer In t.'nlor Pla t... ~-~a h l.

    :I )

    ( .rutinn of 1I n .\ f rilll r h" t" !:n1l' h ic ~ c!:lIth l' b~


    and the n O{' \ d"r i n ~ S ih er lI a lidl" ('r~\IIII ~

    f.\ I"" in~

    {,I<'~r It ll~

    O'..c" ol
    " "r "t".. a flc
    .kwl"l'n\C"n t

    linl....,ham !lu,
    lra"ng """ seer><'
    ~"tHurbtd

    '.. .at
    t

    F'9u re 4 29

    ""c.m
    "I" ml'" ", uell " I the
    'dem r<id;anl !lu'

    l ",~

    or r.rotllm II".

    tea.Ul~

    II><' ....,,0.:
    S:mJy read,
    m",-II "r the

    f~ !l ~Cl>

    ""'ide"l ""ltM I

    nil.

    A diagrammat ic rcpn.....:l1latK\l1 "fhOl' 3 blac k-and-white negatiH' or a n "e call-b.:ach '-"':"'11(.' is .... posed and de veloped.

    film

    115

    AtrIal Photography Films

    C r eat ion u f a

    rtJ ~ i ti n'

    Pri nt (rum an

    A (' r ia ll' hntn~ nt Jlhy :'<I ('~a th t'

    "'q:.."~c ~ft,""
    <10:' d",,"'''nI

    l mJ., r:oJ
    1"l-~""8

    , llu'

    w l!!' lhe

    ""F:oI"'-"

    l ob of r.aJunt

    11 ~ ,

    1"<' ,..t/,Il ......" " It.:


    ""FA " ' -"

    F..1A'g<'f k."..

    Ln<k, ,,I..op<.-d

    in rete-

    .ugh the
    I celery.
    Ie water
    nd tidal
    geta tion

    1""""'If\a!,,,t'"

    fIhot ~ph ,,,

    pi"'""

    00000oo

    Figure 4 -30 Il iagrammillic representation (It' how a p,,~iti\e t"!\ad ,an,j.w hit" prim of the ocean-beach
    S<:<': I1~' is prod uced trom a developed negativ e.
    WhCll the latent imago: is develo ped with the proper chemicall,areas of the emulsion that were ~'.\Pl1S\:J 10 inte nse light
    um to free silver und become bla ck (dense or op aq ue). as
    eew n. Areas that received no light become cle ar if the su pport is the typic a1 tran sparen t plast ic film. The degree Ill'
    dark ness of the developed ncgmivc is a function of the tota l
    exposure i product o f illurrur mncc and CXp llSU rC lim e), which
    caesed the em ulsio n til form the latent imago:,
    ( rutin!: ,I l 'lI,hi H' '\ l'ri al l'hrtllll::r ilphif !'rint Irum :1
    81Ick.a lld \\ h ile ,' l'l.:utin '
    l\'hat good is a negat ive'! Most people do not photo-interpret
    beca use they arc a reve rsal o f both the tunc and
    geometry of the rea l " odd. as sho wn in Figu re -I-:!9. TheretOre, II is customary to pro d uce a positive print of the scene
    from !hi: negative I Figure -1 30 ), A P(J,\ ili ~'t' flr i", is produced
    b) placing the develo ped negative in nn enla rger with the
    (IlIU 1~ion side o f the neganv e facing me light source. White
    1It'I:(//lW J ,

    light is tra nsmitted throug h the negative. passed through the


    en larger lens, and onto photng ruphic paper th ai has its ow n
    silver I wli d~' crystal se nsitivity and film speed. In thi s cusc.
    the dense (d ark ) bench urea o n the negative nlfows w ry litt le
    radiant nux 10 pas s through the negative wh ile the clea r
    (occunt area I'll Ill l' llo:gnlivc allow s a lut nf radiant flu-e 10
    pass thro ugh it. The energy is focused thro ugh the le ns onto
    till' undeve loped photographic paper. a nd once again the
    individua l silver hal ide crys tals a re either compl etel y
    ex posed or une xposed . forr umg a laten t ima ge on the phot ogra phic paper- 1\111:1' development, the exposed ocean area
    becomes dark 011 the paper print and the sand beach area
    becomes hgfu. rh us. we now ha ve the correc t to ne an d
    geollletl') of the terrain in tho: form o f a pos itiv e pape r print
    that can hi.' visually interprete d . If we want a po suive film
    transparency ltl view, then posiuvc transparency- mate rial is
    subs tuu tcd for the pho tographic paper, This lypieall y creates
    an airphoto with unprove d fine detail and more gray tones.

    116

    C I f..\ I~r E: R

    AdlllnCl.'d Radlom otrjc

    C harll ('t('rhlic ~

    Aeria l Photog ra p hy -

    of Bla ck-and-

    Table 4 -5.

    Relano nshrp bet wee n Trausrmuancr. Op ac il:'. and


    1)c n~ ll y.

    \\ hil l." Him..

    or

    Tra ns mnta nce : The ability o f 11 portion a developed film


    to pass light is caned it:-> trunsmittance (T,) . A black portion
    o f the lil m may tram-m it no ligh t. \\ hill.' a clea r portion ofthe
    lilm may transmit almost 100 percent of the inc ident light.
    Therefore. the transm tn.mce at loca tion iJ in the ph' llograp h
    is (Mikhail 1:1 al., 2001):

    r'. ,

    Vantage Po in t, Cameras. Fille rs . and Film

    light passing throu gh the ij lm

    100ai incident light

    Percent
    Trans mittance

    o'.1 : _'
    T

    I. j

    U('" 'it)' : Transrmuance and opa cit y are t.... o good mea sure s
    of the dark ness of any portion of a dev eloped negative.
    However, psychologists have found that the human visuu1
    system doe s not res pond linearly to lig ht stimulation. bUI
    rather .... e respond logar ithm ically. Therefore. it is common
    to U!>C ( /c fU i l )' (D.). which is the common logar ithm of opacity. as our measure or cho ice:
    14-1 )
    If 10 percenl o f the light can hi: transmuted throug h a film at
    a certain L] toc auontransminancc is 1/ 10. o pac ity is 1'0 ,10
    or 10. and densit y is the co mmo n loga rithm o f 10 or LO.
    Table 4-5 summarizes the general relat ionship between
    transmittan ce. opac ity. and density values .

    Opa city

    Density

    T"

    0"

    0"

    lUll

    (4- 2 )

    Opacil y: There j" an inve rse relationsh ip be twee n transmitranee and ho.... op :ll.jue an are a on the film is. Something tha t
    is very opaque doc s no t tra nsm it light well. 0l'iJ dty (0,) is
    the recip roc al o f transmi ttance :

    Transmln ance

    0.00

    511

    0 .50

    fUO

    zs

    o.zs

    0.60

    '0

    0.10

    10

    \. 00

    \.0

    0.01

    100

    z.oo

    0. 1

    0.011 1

    ro eo

    3.00

    the tota l exposure of the film is plotted inlogurithmic un


    un the x-avis ( ~ kG lonc. 20(4 ). We w ill usc rela tive
    Expos ure un its instead o f ergs 'ern- or meter-candle-sec
    use d in phorometric science. Differe nt films hav c diffe rent
    log E curv es. but the shapes lire generally simi lar. consist!
    of' th rcc pans ~ the too, a straight-tine or linear section.
    the shou lder, The curves provide im porta nt in formari
    ubourthc fllrucmulsion.
    Unfortunately, e ven if no e xpos ure has been mad e ( e.g.,
    aerial photogra ph has not e ven been take n ye ti, there is .
    density alr eady presen t in the film . The d ensity of the uno
    posed emuls ion is catt ed fo.~ . There is a lso some dcnsi
    from the film base material. Gross fi Jg is the sum of
    une xpo sed de nsi ty from the fil m base and the emulsi\lI\fi
    th e gm,\ ,I'fill{ level is loc ated in the low e r position o f the tc
    and labe led D".", in Figure 43 1. In o rde r It, begin to create
    image of value in the pholOg.raph. .... e mus t hav e an e.'!X1S
    greater than lJ",w
    At [his poi nt it is use ful to gi \e a formal definition o f er
    (1. which is a funct ion of several factors prc\'iouslj:
    discussed , including jsstop ti.e.. I'dl, the amount of radi
    em' rgy co ming from the scene (\' j measured in Joules mm
    sec'. an d the ex posure time (I) in seconds :
    \ U Tt'

    C ha ra clrr i, tic C u r ve: Se\C'r31 va riables. such as the lengt h

    11 1" the exposure. length of lilm development, type o f film


    emulsion. and film SJK'c-d ca n cause differences in ho w a
    g rven obj ect is recorded on the ii lm and us de nsity. Therefore. it is impo rtamro understand the nature of the characteristic c urve of mill s a nd now this impac ts the creation of
    properly ex posed areas on the pho to graph ic ne gat ive.
    The characteristic curves of rwo hypothetica l blac k-andwh ite negative films. X and Y. a re shown in f igure 4-31.
    These arc called D loX E CWY l.'S where the de nsity ofthe portion o f the film under investig atio n is pinned on the y-axis
    (a lready in loga rithmic form. as previo usly discussed ) and

    r -

    4 (~ '

    (4-

    As e.\ POSUre beg ins. the de ns ity Increases curvilmea rly f


    poin t a to point h. Thi s is call ed the 101:' of the curve.
    objec ts are recorded w ith just th is leng th of e xpos ure. [
    maj be underexposed As the lenl,'1h of the exposu
    increases, there is a portion of the curve; from h to (' wh
    the increase in den sity Is nearly linea r with cllang<:s in t

    Hm

    117

    /,erial Photography Films

    C ha rac te r istic C urves of T" n Films


    Film Y

    Film );

    [) ma.'

    00

    1.30

    '.27- ::l---- - - - - -/
    c
    2.0

    00

    xo

    00

    1.0

    t c un its

    0'

    h e log

    0.'
    o.

    'second
    erem D

    0.1

    ]sisling

    on.

    -------_ .0

    03 abo ve
    gm-s lilg

    j,

    log E

    I
    a
    foe

    and

    marion

    0.9

    L.

    Relative Log Exp osure. 1."


    ~.g

    .. an

    s so m e
    : unex-

    fcnsity
    o f the

    :m/iJg.

    ngure 431 Ch..ractcri stic curves of two hypothetical black -and-whnc films. TI' \l1;ltain de nsities in the tk'\dupcd negative o r O.5. Film X
    req uires a relativ e log " " I'OSIIn: of 11.'1 units while Film Y reqUIres I.n unu-. Th" s _Film X bj<l,I/t'r than Film 'f. This me ans
    that IH' could ubl,tin the same dCllSi lics in Film X us ing a shorte r n'...." un: time. This ..could 1>0: very import ant if " c want to
    swp action when collecting aerial photography to obtain quality aeria l ph,.\ographs, Film X also hils a muc h Sleeper gamma
    (y). meaning lha l ;1pmd uc<:s a much greater r.lng<: (,1' d<:ll, ily nc.. l"l.lIlra,l) than Film Y in tbc linear (straight. lin.:l sectio n o f
    the n h'S E cu rve .

    fhc to e

    eute an
    posure

    , expo-

    io us ly
    adia m
    nun "

    I~ of exposure. This is ca lled the linear or straig ht-li ne part


    oflhe characteristic curv e. I ligh.q ua lity aerial phot ography
    TJ1.1y beobtained if the expo sure is made in the linea r portion
    trhe curvc and perha ps a small part of the toe. A, the lengt h
    of theexposure ti me Increases from {' to d. dens ity increases
    at a dcn l.'using curvilin ea r rate . Th is is t ill' shoulder o f the
    wve. The maxi mum den sity of the fi lm is f)~"u ' Objects
    recorded in the shoulde r o f the curve nrc usua lly m ....re:...-

    pol>scd.

    (4-5 )

    fro m
    ve. If
    , the y
    osu re
    A- here
    in the

    1k slope o f the linear section of the [) log E cu rve is called


    ~lII11ma
    and provides valuable in forma tion about the COl/lTal/ofthe film . The grcnter th e slope o f the line. jhe higher
    t!I~ gamma and the hig he r the contrast of the Ilhn. Nonce
    !hat films X and Y in Figure -\-) 1 ha ve signilica ntly different
    ~mas . If the sa me le ngth of exposure re.g.. 1.6 rereuve
    log Exposure units ) .... ere applied to both films. Film X
    .-culd have a greate r range o f dens ity (approximately :!.:!)
    _JUIt Film Y would only yield a den sity of a p p m x rrna tely
    OJ at this same ex posu re. Hopefully, Film X w ould pro vide

    (n

    con tinuu m of grays from white to black. wi th plenty of


    gray to nes in between II I this expos ure . Conversely, Film Y
    might nut have such a full r.mgc o f gra y tones at rhis expo sure. We o ften want to retain rhe su btle gray tones in aeria l
    phnlognlphy because mos t natural landscapes (soi ls, rock s.
    vcgcrauon. watcr l nrc relativ ely low in contras t.

    ;1 full

    This brings us (ofilm 1'I,{,t'/-1once agai n. So me film s arc: 11I0 re


    sensitive' toliglu than others . In ou r exam ple. it app ears that
    Film X is the ta-acr film . II requires a shorter exposure t ime
    to prod uce a wi der range of de nsity (a nd there fo re c o ntrast ).
    T his ca n be of vuluc fur eri al photog raphy because we may
    wa nt to "stnp" the act io n as the aircraft n ics above the terra in ur hu ndred s of miles per hour. Unfort unately. fast film s
    requ ire larger silver halide crystals that ca n als o reduce the
    spa tial resolution of the fi lm a nd impede o ur ahih ty 10
    resolve ubjl'c ts that arc spectrally differ ent yet spat ially near
    to one another. Convcrsety, h im Y would require a lon ger
    exposure \CI product' the same range of den s ity. It wo uld
    proba bl ~ be composed elf smaller silver hali de crystals. If

    ( ' Il,\ PU :R

    118

    Ae rial Ph otograp hy -

    Vantage Point Ca m eras. Fi lters, and Fil m

    film Y were properly e xposed. il m ight prcv ide high spmial


    reso funon and su btle grayscale info rmation. But if fi lm Y
    was no l fast en oug h 10 stuI' action. Inc resu h m ight be
    blurred aeria l pho tograph y. Obv iously there must be so me
    quantuonvc Wfl Y ofco mpa ring one film speed w ith anot her.

    and introd ucerd Kodacolor 400 Film . In 19X3. the Koda


    VR IOINl film was introd uced 10\ irh an .-\ S/\ of ](XJ().
    most sign ificam si ngle adv an ce in silv er ha lide tcch nol
    in more than 50 years.

    Every film speed system requires the selec tion of a .'p ced
    rOm! to compare the speed oftwn films . For aerial photograph y fi lms. lhe speed poin t is "density - 0.3 + de nsity above
    gross fog" I Kodak. 19X!! ). Th erefore. since gro ss lilg is O :!
    for borh bypotheuca l ae ria l films. the speed po int for both
    films is O..l'" O.:! = 0.5. as shown in Figure of 3 !. The 0.5
    de ns uy line ir ncrsccring the tw o films can he' used to determin e ho.... much fa ..rcr o m: film i.. tha n another. f {IT example.
    to prod uce a den sity o f 0.5 on Film X. appro xima tely 0. 1)
    unirs o f relative log Expos ure arc requ ired. To produce the
    sa me de n..uy (11.5) on Film Y. ap proximately 1.6 unus Ill' retarivc log: Exposure are required. Thus, Film X is faster than
    fi lm Y by approx imately 0 .7 relative log unuv of Expo sure.
    For eve ry 0 .3 log E, there is unefstup difference in eXpU1>Uf<.'
    (Kod<lk, IlJ88). Thus, these two films differ in speed by
    greate r than two Jlstops ( i.c., 0.7/11..1 = 2.33 j . I r we requi red
    a great rang e orimage densi ly in our plllllograph1> such as a
    valu e uf2.0 (i.c.. well-ex p osed blacks . white s. cud iurcrrncdiatc gray tones] but we had to hav e short e xposure ume-, 10
    stop action. as is common in ae rial photography.. then w e
    m ight wum III select Film X because it would provide the
    de ns ity range ..... e de sire w ith .1 much shorte r relativ e log
    Expos ure than Film Y. It i" poss ible to compute the exac t
    film spee d I FS) of an aeri alfilm usin g the formula ( Kodak .

    Aerial 1;\ p oslIl"c C OII/P I' h'I' C,IIl be use d to determine I

    If one mus t pl an an aerial pho tog raphy' mission, the hI

    1i)l(X):

    f""S

    3
    21:'

    ( 4 -6)

    where I: is the exposure measured in meter-candle -seconds


    ( ~1( 'S ) al lh..: p"im ,m the c h<ITac t l' ri ~ t i c curve where the dcnsity i~ 0.3 un ils abO\'..: D"" w(i,,,:.. g m~s fog). as disell s~cd .
    S\ lmetim~~ WI," a..:q llirt' han dh eld dl'rial photography u~ i l1g
    nUIla..:rial phutugmphy IiIms. Th..." SIX'l:d o f thc s...' lilms is
    delermin...'d by Ihl," Ame rican Standard.~ AssociatIOn (A SA l
    lilm s ~ sys tem that a , sign s a n umb..:r to a film that i ~
    approxi nl.Jtdy !"'qua l 10 thc illWfSC of thc shulter speed (i n
    s...,<:onds ) requi red for prOfl('r c 'tptlSure in good Sun lighr tor a
    l en~ ope mng 11ft Io . The re fore. if a film is pro perl ~ c.'tpvsc.:d
    in good Sunlig ht at Jl l6 and \1200 scw nd. it is d as~i licd as
    an ,\ SA 20() tilm (Wol f and [kWitt. 2fl()Oj. The on g lllal
    Kodaeo lur h im int rod uced in [\)42 1\<It! an ASr\ ,pecd o f
    j ust 2 5, That spccdjlllnpcd 10 ASA 32 in 1<)55 and to ASA
    Min 19(,) w ith the int rod uction or Koda co lor-X Film , In
    1'J77. K"d,lk improv ed Ko<l:!l;(,l,'r II Film lu all ASA of 100

    mos t appropriate lens apertu re (flSIOp) and s hutter spc


    once in forma tio n is pro vid ed o n the following variabl
    erfccti vc ac'rial film speed .. haze factor. spee d ofair...' ra ft, a
    tud e allo w g roun d Ic-\ el, latitude, and t ime of da y.

    llil:!iri1in J:, Hla ck -and - \\ hil e- l a nd (""Inr) F ilm


    Densitometry is the measurem ent of tran smi ssion or relT
    lion characterisucs o f objec ts ()T feat ures in photog ra
    images. The: den!i i(~ ID) ch aracteris tics uf a negativ e or
    itivc trans pare ncy film can be measu red us ing a densitc
    ter: The re are seve ral type s o f den s itcrneters. includi
    na rbcd ( Figure 4 -32 ) and drum mic rodcnsuomctcr s. vi
    dcnsitomcrcrs, and linc-nr or area array charge -couple
    dcvicc, dcnsuometers.

    ,\ l i,' r ut!,' n"itnll1 l'!l' r DiJ:iti /lUlnn : The chara cteristics 0


    ty pital /Jatht'd nncmdensitomcter Me show n in Figure 4-3
    Th is instr umcnt ca n mea sur e the den s ity charactcrisucs
    very small portions of a negat ive or positive transpa
    down 10 j ust I few micrometers in size. hence tile t
    mia1J(/.'/ullumt'1l'r. Basi call y, a known quan tity of lighl
    se nt from the lighl source toward the rece iver. If the
    encuu ntcrs a ' el) dense portion of the film. vc ryliule li~
    will be tra nsmuted to the receive r. If thc lighr encoumc
    very clea r portion of the fi lm, the n much ofrhe light will
    transmuted In the rece iver. Th e densitometer can o utput
    cbam crc ri...ti..:s at each iJ loc ation in the pho tograph in telTQ
    of tran smittance, opaciry , o r dcnvity, as p reviously dIS
    cussed. T he amount of light rec o rded by the recdv..:r is Illlll'
    Cllllllll'lIlly CllIlvcr1...' d into :t dig ital brigh tn...' ss va luc desi!
    n:lIed . HI:J,Awhi ch relc rs III the location in the phmograph l
    row i ami col umnj and "and k , "tthe end o f ..:aeh scan Jill
    the lighl suurce steps in Ih..: .I'd irectio n 5Ome ..\y 10sca n alOll
    a h nl." co nt iguous a nd parallel to the pre \'iou s o ne . As lb
    light sour!;..: is scanned ac ross the i m a g~, the ...'Ont inuo us 011
    put from the rccei\"er is eOIl\CTk'd to a sc ries of d iscrel
    numl.'r ieal \J lui."S o n a pixcl -by.pi.\e1 ba sis. Thi s ana log-u
    d igita l (:\-to- DI clm\"C~ ion proce ss res u lts in a mat rix I
    \"alll":s th;lI arc usua lly recont.-d in K-b it b~ti."S (n\l u..., s ra~
    ing from 0 10 255 ) or more (e,g .. 12-hit dala). T hl."se d<lla at
    then sto red 011 d isk \If tape fur futurc analysi s.

    lid

    dFllm

    ~erja l

    Pho tography Film s

    Koda co lor
    1000, the

    119

    reg istered three- band d ig iul data

    Flatbed Densitometer

    Sl.' 1

    for su b.....quent image

    processing .

    cchnology
    ( '0 101' Ii her .... hee l

    the Kodak
    rmine the
    {aer speed
    varia bles:
    t L'raJl, ulti-

    Bnghtnevs value
    in rhc diginzcd

    phOlograph
    RI' , ' I

    'J

    t b tb..'d
    surface

    ur rene etographic
    Ie o r posinxitomehcl uding
    rs. vid eo
    coup led-

    ics o f a
    rc 4 -32.

    isncs of
    sarcncy,
    10: term
    lig ht is
    10: light
    lc light
    nte rs a
    will be
    'Ill the
    terms
    } d isrrnorc
    desigaph at
    1 line,
    al{lng
    .5 the

    F90re 432 Schemalie of a flatbed microdcnsitomcter. A blacknnd-whirc negatiw or positiv e tra nsparency is converred from an anal(,!: photographic image into a
    single mumx or dij!itJI bnghtnoss value s. RI ;J,A' A
    "'<1101' negative or positive tr;losparenc~' is separated
    into three registered marne..~ based on the dens ity
    of the there dyes (ycll<:,w, ITI.lgenta. and cyan} found
    at eac h loca tion in the photo gra phy The s['Ol siJ:e
    that is analyzed during Ihe digitiLatioll procL'';'s may
    be as small as a few micrometers: hence the tcn u
    mwn>d"'II.'i/"ml'/,r.

    Scanning image ry at spot s izes < 12 u r n may resun in no isy


    digitized data. beca use the ~pot "i/(" approa ches the di mcn son of th(" film's silver halide crystals (Mc<jlone, ~0ll4).
    Table 4-6 summ arizes th c relationsh ip between cligitiJ:L'r
    lClnning spot size ( I H >V ) measured in dots per inch or
    lIlCromet("rs and the pixe l ground resolutio n at various
    \(,lie's of aeria l photo graph y or i ll\a~er), Fur simple photogrmunctri(" invesugauons, a va lue of hOl) o r l m.IY be USL'J
    bn:ause'l scann ing rcsul utioll l,f 6(JO D PI (42 IJm ) is n("ar to
    the g(.'(llllt tric aL'cu racy of mo st tlalbeJ sca nne rs (a nu ul 50
    ~m)( l i ndcr, 200] ). The ,1!l!urithms for ("on\'en ing fWIll Drl
    \)IU!I and \ ice veru an: presented in Table +.6

    ; Olll-

    c re te
    g.-IO-

    Ix of
    a ng I a re

    " simple Mad .and -", hile ph(ltogf3[lh ha ~ IInly a si ng le


    band, k=/ _lIowe vcr, w(" may nced to d ig iti/ c Cllln r phn tog .
    In such circ um"la necs . \\ (" usc three sp..'Cially
    ~igned filters Ihal clel(" n n il1e the am.lu llt of light trn nsmi tted by t ach o f th(" dy(" layl'rs in thl.' film t F i~u re 4- 321. T he
    Mgati n: or ['OSili\ e transparency i ~ scan n..-d three tim..:s (10. =
    I 2 and 1). eac h lime w ith a J i ll~rent Ii Iter. Thi s ext raet~
    Ipm1lIl informatio n fru m the rL'spt:eti\ e d yc l.-..yt'l1< fo und in
    roIor and color-infra red ao.' ria l p hotog raphy and resu lts in a

    .y.

    \ 'idt'u D i ~i lil :lt inn : It is po ssible 10 J ig iti/ e hard-copy


    image ry by; se nsing it through a video ca me ra and then perfonn ing an analo g -to-digital conv ersion on lhl' 525 lines by
    5 1~ row s o f data tha t are within the sta ndard field of vie.... (as
    es tablish ed by the National Television Syst em Co nunincc j.
    Video d igili/ing involve s fW:Ling and then d igiti7jng a
    frame (If ana log video camera input. A full fium c of video
    input call be read as rap idly as 1/30-sL"C. A hig h-s pee d ana log-to-d igital convener. known as a/ rutile grabber. digitizes
    the dau a nd stores the m in a buller memory, The memo ry i ~
    then read ny the hos t computer and the di gital information
    stored on d isk o r tape .
    Video d igit i":lliun o f hard -copy image ry is performed \ e!)
    r apidly, hU I the results arc not a lways use ful for dig ita l
    image processing purpose" . 1'0 1' exam ple, there ar e dra matic
    d rtfcrcnces in the radiometr ic scusiuviry and re pea tability o f
    \ ar iuus video came ras. " serious proble m is vjg ncning
    t light fall-n m away fro m the ce nte r o f the imag e be ing drgitized Thi s C;1I1 e ffect the spectra l signatures e xtrac ted from
    the scene. AI",). any d iston ion in the vidicon opt ica l syste m
    \\ ill be transferred to the dig ita l rem ote sensor data, making
    it ditli("llit to edge-ma tch be tw een adjacent imag es tha t hav e
    been d igitiz ed in this manner.

    Lin ear- and Arl'll A r r;I ~- C hll rj!l'- C ou p ll'Il. J){'\ kt (f TIl )
    Dil!it il aliull : Ad vance s in the personal co mp ute r indust!)
    have spurred the develop ment o f tlntbcd , desktop linear
    array diginzcrs based o n linear arra y ch arge-coupleddevices tha t ca n he used to d igitize ha rd-copy negative ...
    pa per prints. or transpare nc ies at JO(J 10 3.000 pixel s per inch
    ( I-'igurc .I-_1 .1 ah). T he hard-copy phot og rap h is placed nil the
    glass . T he J igili/L'r o ptical system illuminates an ent ire line
    of the hard -copy photograph at one time w ith a known
    amoun t o f light. A linea r arra y o f det ectors records tho.'
    .tmUUll t u f lig ht rdle("ted fro m or tra nsm ineJ thwu gh the
    phowgraph along tho: arra) ;lI1d p.:rliJrms an .\ -to- D L'On\-("rsio n. The re are linea r CC Ds \\ ith up h) 20 ,00 0 dements an d
    trilinl'ar CC Ds w ith ur to 14.000 d em L' nh ( ~1cG lllnL"
    2CMl4j. T he linea r array is ste ppeJ in th(" y d irect io n. and
    ano ther lin... o f data is dig it izL-d. It is po ss ibk 10 pu n..-hase
    USL'ful dL'sktl'p co lor sca nne rs for less tha n S300. "'an )' d igital image pHlc essing la bo.lratoric s llSt.' thLosc ine xpc nsi\-c
    dL' ~ k h'p d lgitil (,rs 10 co nvcn hartl-cupy reml ,td y sensed ltata
    intll a d igita l fom lat. Ik osk top sca nners pro\-idc surpr ising.
    good spatial precisi o n and a rcasonahk eharac to.'rist ie {'Ur\C
    whe n sca nni ng h lael -nnd-white images, A n optiona l "t ran silluminalcr" can be pun::hased to r the back light ing o f lilm
    (l' r J5-mm s lidc ) tn be scan ned. Un fo rtunate ly. mos l desktop

    ( ' I I,\I' !t.W

    120

    Ta ble 4-6 .

    Aerial Phot ography -

    Vant ag e Point, Cameras, Fillers. an d Film

    k elnnonsbip betw een d ,g ilil cr ins l;Hllane ' >Il> [k id "f \ k\\ ( IFO V ) 1l1O,: as uIl'd indou, per inch or micromete rs. and t he pil ei
    ground rc".,lul i"n ur \ uncus ....:a!cs " I' ph" lugmr hy.

    Pixel Ground Res olution at Various Sca les

    01Photog raphy (meters)

    Di g ilizer Detector IF OV

    Dols per inc h

    Micrometers

    1:40 ,000

    1:20 ,060

    1:9,600

    1:4 ,800

    1:2 ,400

    1:1 ,200

    ,,~

    254.00

    10. 16

    5.0S

    24 4

    1.22

    0.61

    0.30

    200

    127.1111

    5.011

    2.54

    1.22

    U.6 1

    n.jn

    n.15

    300

    1'4.6 7

    3.3'1

    1.6'1

    0.1<1

    0.4 1

    11.20

    0.10

    400

    ('.'-5 0

    2.54

    1.27

    0,(,1

    lu n

    0.15

    lUlll

    '~J

    50.1<0

    2.03

    1.02

    OAf)

    0.24

    e. u

    0.06

    soo

    42.34

    I.lw

    0. x5

    11,-1- 1

    n,20

    O. It)

    n,OS

    7UO

    30.2'1

    l AS

    0.73

    0.35

    0.17

    n.lW

    0.114

    '00

    3U 5

    1.27

    n.M

    0.30

    0.15

    O,OK

    0.(1.1

    ~~

    21l.23

    I. IJ

    0. 56

    0.27

    0.14

    n.07

    nm

    "'00

    25 m

    1.02

    0.5\

    0.2-1-

    0.12

    O.l)f>

    0.03

    1200

    2 1.17

    0 .1l5

    tl.-I 2

    0.20

    0.10

    0.05

    0.03

    151 Ml

    1{>.'4

    0.(i7

    0.3-1

    0.16

    U.OX

    0.f14

    (J,02

    20llO

    12.70

    U.51

    0.25

    0.12

    0.06

    0.03

    fUl:!

    .lOllIl

    X,-I7

    O. 3 .~

    0. I7

    unx

    o.u..:!

    o.rc

    0 .01

    4000

    td S

    0.2S

    0.13

    0 06

    0.03

    0.02

    0.001<

    Useful Scanning Conversions:


    1)1>1 = dots per inch; lim mic rom eters: I mchee;
    From Dl' Lto nucrorn cte rsurn " 1 2 .~ -I 1>P IIIIl.flfMI
    From nncromercrs to Dr l'
    0 1'1 (2.5-1 ~mJlO.OOO
    From inches to meters:
    \ 1 I x 0.11 254
    h um meters ro inches:
    I ' I x 3'1.37

    \1

    meters

    Computation of Pixel Ground Reso lutio n:


    PM "" pix e l ~Ile In meters ; [IF = pixel sii'e in fCi."I; S c pooh. scale
    Using DP I:
    1'\1 (Smr l)/39.)7
    1'1 .. (SiI>PI)/ 12
    Usini:! micrometers: I'\-f = i s x ~m)ll.OIKK)O I Pf = (S x um) 0.(I0000328
    For ...sample. if a I :6.000 scale ae rial photo graph is scan ned at SIlO DP!. the pixel Sill' will be (60110 500 ) 39.37 0.30-1)0( meter> per pixel
    or (t>lIOtJ SOO )' 12 - LOll fOOl per pixel. If a 1:'I.t>OO scale aerial photograph is scann ed at 50.1! um. the pixel ~I /~ will be
    (9.600 x SO.8)( 0 .000001) - OA'Ime!ers or (9.60lJ x SO.1l l\0 .OOOIl(132lt j " l .to feet per pixel.

    sca nners arc: designed tor :-1.:5 x I ~ in. originals. and most
    aerial photog raphs arc 9 x <) in. Under such conditions. the
    analy st must digit iu- the Q )( t) in. photogra ph in two sec tio ns
    (e .g . X.5 x t) in. and 0 .5 x t) in.) and then d igi tal ly mO\lI ;C the

    two pieces tog ether. TIle mosa ick ing process ca n inlroductJ
    mull geomet ric and radi ometric er ror,
    Linear array

    CC D~ arc used in many inexpenciv e !'Cannn",

    diguizcrs, such as the one show n i n Figure 4-3 t a. Arcaarra)'~

    121

    ilelial Photography Alm s

    Li near AHa) Ce D Fta tb od

    n i~il il {'r

    a.

    ~re

    4-33

    il)

    lucvpcnsivc de!>!..I,,!, linear alTJ ~ (T[) dlglti/""". h, An rmagc dlgllln'r

    ha~ec1"n

    area alTllY (,<.'llt<Xhnoltlg) tcou rtc ~y \<:'1.-

    eel. tnc.j.

    en)" are used

    in certa in digiuzers like the one sho\.\n in


    which diguizes from 160 dpi 10 3.000 dpi
    tppro'l.imatdy 160 gm to x.S umj ovcr a 10 x:O in. Image
    Rl1254 mm x SOX mm). The system scans thc film (lhe
    lItI~inal negative or pos iti \ e transpuren cyl as a sc rics of'rcctlIlg lliJr image seg ments, or tiles. It then illu minates and
    ;cam a f(',wall grid, w hic h is an array of precisely loc ated
    .-rosshalehcs elchcd into the glass of the film carrier. Th e
    ~ grid coordinate data are used 10 locate the 1::>;3l-1 oritlIlatlOf1 of me CCD camera during scanning and 10 gcomctFI~ ~-3 3 b,

    mil)' COIT~t cach dig iti/ed tile o f thc image rel ative to al l
    "Ihm . Rad iometric calibration algori th ms are then us cd 1"
    compensate lin uneven ill umination en ...ouutc red in any of
    !he tile regions. Wh cn scanning a color image, the sca nne r
    llIlpSOll a rectangular image section and capture-s that mfor-

    _ion sequentially wuh each Il l" lo ur color liltcrs rblac,


    red. and n... utral ) before il mo ves tu anoth cr section.
    \1051ether scanners digit i!:c an enti re im age with one color
    r,1:~r and then re peat the pro ccss with the oth cr color fih crs.
    Ihis can result in color l11isreg i~tra l io n and loss o f image
    ~lil), Area array dig itl7 illg lechno logy has obtained geeIlltIric accuracy er s 2 JII1I o......r 23 x :!3 em images when
    ~ at 25 um per pixel. and rep cala bilily of :::, J '1m .
    ~.

    Hupefully there is a rebtiu nsh ip bet w...... n th e brightn...ss

    \'lluctBI;J,k) or de ns ity 1/),) at an y particu l;lr loc at inn in the


    fikn and me energy rell~ted from th... reill-w~Jrld llbje-ct
    spec (0......' al lhe exa..:t Io..:ation. Sc i<:n1bls take ad\ antagl'
    ofthi~

    relationship hy I J maki ng careful i/l .~illl ohsr:rvat ions


    field. such as the am llun l of hio lllass li,r a I x I III s pul
    Ol1 lhe Earth lU":lIt...d al eJ, \'and lh...n 2) m... asu ring llll' bri gh tlltSS value (H I;.,.) or density of Ihe Ilhjtx ' t ;1\ thal l:'l.act Incal/OlI in the phntogmph using a d,mitome/cr. If "'Iwug h
    1III11'1(S an: k'cal ... d in Ih... field and in Ihe ph,)tography. it
    i~ the

    '.

    ay

    m:l) be po ssible to dev elop a corrclanon betwee n the realwor ld objcx-t space and the image spa c e. Th is is an important
    usc of digitl/cJ a.. ."rial photography.
    lli~ il i 7('d

    :\ali"n:!1 ..\ l' r i l, II' h nl u~ ra ll h y " rugn llll t:'\A )' I' )
    UllIa : Th e 1\: '\ 1'1' was initiat ed in 19S7 as a rcpla c...m... nt for
    the N;lt iul1 al lligh Altitu de Aerial Photography (NHAP )
    Progra m. The objccuve o f the :'\A PP \\ as to acq uire and
    arc hiv e phcuogruphic ":0\ c rage of the con tcrminuus United
    Sialcs at I :40.000 scale usin g cuhcr color-infrared or blackand-w hi ll" film, T he p hol ogrdp h) was acq uired at a n altitude
    ( If zooon n above ground bel (AG L ) with a o-in. foca llen gth mcr ric cxun c ra. The photogm phy wa s acqui re d ideally

    on a five-year cycle, resul ling in a nation..... idc photographic


    dat aba vc that is readi l) available thro ugh the EROS D at a
    C...ntcr in S ioux Falls, SO. or the Aerial Ph(llt~'fap hy Field
    Olliee in Salll.a ke Ci ty. UT (US(iS, 199 4}.
    Th is high spatial resolution N ,\P I' photog raph y re presc nts a
    wealth of information li ,r on-sc reen photo-mrerprcta non an d
    can bccomc a high-reoluuon basc map upon wh ich other

    GIS information (c.g ., parce l boundaries. utility lines. and


    la 'l ,lata) m:ly he o\erlaid after it is d ig itlL...d and rel; l i fi ~-J to
    a stand;.If(! mJp proj ...... tio n. Light (1993) sUmmJri'Cd tht:
    op timum 111Clhnd s for r Ol1 Veni llg. lhe NA P P data into a
    natillna l datahast' 1'1' d i1;!ililed ph ot ogra phy th at Illeets
    f'al ional ~ Iap A...cura...y Standards . M icruuellsit(lmcte r scanning of th... phot(l&.'l1Iphy, IIsinf! a spot sill' of IS ~m, prl'servl"S Iht' 27 rel<ol\ ablo: lin,' pair per millimct.. .'r (Ip,mm )
    spa lial r...solulion in th.: origina l f' i\ PP pho togra phy. T h is
    proc...ss gcn~'r Jlly yi... lds a d ig it:1l d ata ~et th;ll ha s a grou nd
    spatial res\l!util,n Il l' I x I nl . dqllndi ng on orig inal sr.: cne
    conlrdst T his 1Jleo:ls most land- ... ove r and land- use mapp ing

    use r requirem~"Tlts.

    122

    C1I,.\I'lt:R

    Aerial Photograp hy - Vantage Point, Camera s, FItters, and Film

    The J lg ll ll l-J informa tion can be color separated into scparate ballth o f information if desired. The 15 pm scan ning
    spot size wi ll su pport most d igua l snll -co p) phoiog rarnmeIf)' for whic h coo rdi nate measureme nts arc l1 hldc using a
    computer and the moni tor screen ( Lig ht. IQ93 1. Beca use the
    d igitized NA PP data are so useful as a high spatial reso lution
    GIS base map. many states arc en teri ng into cost-sharing
    relationships wuh the tj.S. Gt.'Ological Survey and having
    thei r ~A I' P coverage digili/J.-J and ou tput a., digital onhophoto maps . A large amou nt of NAP P da ta ha n ' been J igitired and con verted into digital o n hop hoto quads. Much o f
    the d igital dam is availa ble and can be bro wsed a nd o rder ed
    at the USGS onhophotoquad We bsite in A ppe ndix A.

    COIOf Phorographic Emulsions

    Normal co lor and color-infrared photog raph ic emulsions arc


    heavily used in phorogram mctry and photo-interpretat ion.

    ' or mal Co lo r Arrha!

    f' h u t u~ra p h)

    Normal co lor photograph y records energy in the regio n from


    O,.j. - 0.7 ~111 (hluc. green. and red light) and dep icts the tcrrain in the same hues (colors) as o ur eyes pe rce ive the landscape. A hale filter is normally used to prevent ultra vio le t
    light from exposing the tum Ie.g.. Koda k lIFJ). Co lor film
    emulsions generally consist o f three laye rs o f silver halide
    crysta ls arra nged as shown in fi gure ..I -25e. T he top laye r is
    se nsi ti\ e to blue ligh t. the second laye r is sensitive to blue
    and green light. and the bo tto m layer is se nsitive 10 red and
    bl ue light. To prevent blue light from exposi ng the bouom
    two la~en.. a yellow blue-b locking filter is placed in the
    em uls ion between the top twolayers tMcG lone. 201"14 1. T he
    spectral sensitivity o fthe blue . gre en. a nd red emulsion layers is show n in Figure 4-3 4a. Co lo r aerial pho tograp hy films
    mar keted by Eastman Koda k Co mpa ny a re summarized in

    Table 47.

    Primary and compleme ntary colors

    Primary Colors

    Complementary Colors

    blue

    yd l,,\\
    magenta
    <y,o

    mod, tim the negative. Color reversalfilm P""'"" "


    color transparency directly on the film, This proces s is U~
    fur mak ing slid c-s or positive transpa renc ies .

    The sec ond step in the creation of a po sitive no rma l coli:


    pho tograp h from a colo r negative involves the use o f spccu
    dyes, Si lver ha lides in each laye rth at tu rned black in the tir
    step an: replaced w ith J.I '~'~ of the ('omplem<'lItary coton I
    the layer (Co lor Plate 4 -3a: Table -1 .7). Dense blac k sil"
    grains in the blue-sensitive layer are replaced wuh yclle
    dye (yell ll\\ is the co mple men tary color of blue and is con
    posed of green and red light ). However; III(' amount l!f Jj
    placed al each location In 111(' /ilmldyer I.~ inversely propo
    nonat 10 the intcnsitv of1Ig1l1 that illuminated thut /oC<ltio
    Therefore. th...more blue lig ht that illuminated the area. d
    le~s yel low d ye Chat " ill he present. Black silver crystals
    thc green-sens itive luyc r a rc replaced wi th magen ta If)
    Black si lver c rysta ls in the red-se nsitive layer arc replac
    wit h cya n dy e. Th is process resuhs in a negative that is COl
    posed of ye llow. magenta. and cyan dyes. Th is is the rcas
    tha t" hen we loo k at a co lo r negativ e we sec strange cok
    Iyello" . magenta. and cyan) instead of the tradi tiona l bit
    green. and red found in the landscape. We arc not used
    see ing na ture in hiles o f yell ow. ma genta. and cya n; ther
    fore . we ra rel y photo-interpret color negatives.

    Table 4-4 .

    Blue, greren. a nd red lig ht reflected fro m the various (~hjech


    in the scene interact w ith and activate the blue. green. and
    red- sensi tive silve r hali de crys tals in the til m, fonnin g a
    laten t image. A colo r re ndition o f the process is shown in
    Color !'Iate ~-] a .
    Co lor film deve lo pment is exactly like the firs t slep of h iad:
    and-white lil m de \ d opmen t, i.e.. the expose d s ilver halide
    crys tals in e;\ch laycr are turned into blaek cr)'"ta ls o f "il\er.
    Thc re mainder o f the proccss. how(,'vcr. deren,ls on whether
    the Iilm is mlor nega tiw or co lo r rc\'er sa l film. With ('o/ur
    11(")!i1til\' film. a negati ~c i ~ produced a nd cllloT prints are

    Tn produce a color positive prim from the negative Ih31 '


    ca n photo-interpret. white lig ht is proj ected throu gh I
    col or neg3ti \ e 10 expose a three -laye red color primi ng pal
    em ulsio n. T he color nega t ive acts as II li fter. ex pos ing t
    three layers on the pho togr aphic paper to the three co).
    yellow, magen ta. and cyan. When dc ve lopi ng the posit
    pri nt paper. ho wever. the complementary colors o f yell!
    magenta. and cy an (i.e .. blue. green. an d red ] arc produe
    This sl'Cond col or rc\'crsal )'idds the o rigina l c(>lors of
    scene (In the positive print that arc lh...n suitahk for pho
    IIltcrprctlltion l Color Plat c -l--Jal. A llllm la l co lllr lleria l pi
    lograph o f T i\"O h No rth Oay. l\" Y is shown in C olor Platf

    ,,-

    123

    !.erial Photography Film s

    SI)Cct ral Sl' lI!>it i, ily o f the Th ree La yers of :"Iorl1l31 Colur Film

    1-

    Yel l,,,,, <ly e 1.1) ,or (conlrol~ bin...lil'hl o n the illl"gC)

    llF.1
    Ill'"r

    I
    {-

    \l" !lornla ,h ~ 11I),o:r lC""" " , I~ greo:n hs:hl nn 11k' Ima~ ... .

    Cyan ,J~ o: I"),,, 1~"nlr"l ~ red


    hg.ht " 11 tile IIn.l~c l

    ,
    d

    ",{

    Gm:n

    l!V

    0"'

    0."

    O,iO

    0",

    1l.'lO

    \\ " 'Ckn!llh. ,UIl

    ",f

    Spt'Clra l Sl' lI!>ili\ it) of Ihe Three l.a) c rlo of Color-I nfr a r ed f ilm

    "

    W nlll fli 12
    ' r ll n.. Ill,..r

    '.

    uv

    Blue

    nAo

    Green
    ( J.(~ l

    0.50

    0.70

    Wavctcugrh.

    u.ve

    ~!11

    Figure 4-34 a) Th... spc"lml ,e nsitivity ofthe three dye layers of normal color film. ,\ hu" filter (q ;.. 1lF.l) mny re 11,,'<1 that tillers out
    much ,,( til" light less (hm! 0.4 u m. hi The spec tral scnsitivuy of the three dye layers 01' c"lor-infrared film. A wraucn 12
    ()'dlowl filter is oft en used. which filters nut much of the light shorter than 11.5 p rn(courtesy Eastman K od ~ k Co.j.

    Iuler-ln fra red

    A cr i al l 'lwtu~ r a p h ~

    Coler-infrared film was originally developed J uring World


    Willi!. when the re was great interest in increasing the scnsi-

    ti'lity of films in the infra red reg ion of rhc spectru m to detec t
    cnouflage. In I~ I , S. Q . Dum Ie) (If the Mas..ach use u..
    Institute of Tech nology headed up a study on op tical an d
    \lsual camouflage detection . T he rc-search concl uded that
    fie vegetation chlorophyl l absorption hand located in the red
    5p(ClI31 region (0.60 - 0.(,101 um t and the high amo unt of

    ncar-in fra red re flectanc e from veget at ion in the region > 0.7
    urn wou ld be diffi cult ro be replicate d in a camouflage paint.
    Th ere for e, in 1l)~2 , Dumlcy req ue..ted thai Eastman Kod ak
    Co mpany. produce a false-color cam oufl age-dete cti on !ilm.
    Or. Ma nne.. o f th... Eas tman Koda k Company dem onst rated
    the tes t r.:sull:-. on October 1<), 1 <)~2 . It was d uri ng this lim e
    that the dccision was made for foliage to appca r red in the
    n nishcd co lor-infrare d acrial phn\(lgrar hy. It w as made
    available to the military under the na me " Aero Kod aeol or
    ReI ersa l Film. Camou flage [ktect io n", Co l\\ 0:11. 1997). The

    124

    CII .w n :R

    Ae ria l Photography -

    film was success ful in the war for locating targets covered
    w ith camuu ll'lgo: netting or pa int. II has ulso proven to be of

    sig nifican t vafuc for mo nitoring the conditio n an d location


    ofvcgcrauon in Earth resource surveys. Co lor-infrared aer ia l

    photography films mar keted by Eastman Kodak Co. are


    summarized in Table -I-t The most popular co ntinues to be
    Kodak AE ROC HROME II Infrared Film 2+ 0.

    Co lor-infrare d tilm records reflecte d energy in the region


    from approximat ely O.35j.l rn [0 just above 0.<;1 u r n ruluavioIt.'t. blue. green. Clod. and near-infrared) and portr ays the
    energy on the tilm in false colors. i Rundquist and Sam pson.
    IlJXX: Kodak . llN<J). Li ke norma l co lor li lm. color-infrared
    film also has three emu lsion la~ ers. each sensitive 10 a di fferem pan of the spectrum (Figure 4-25 d; 4-J4b). The lOp layer
    has a ~n!>i t i\ ity from uhrav iolet through near-in frared. The
    middle layer b 1Il0!>t ~Jbith c to green and blue light. The
    bottom layer is most sens itive to blue and red light

    The color-infrared film is e:\.po"l:d through a dark yc lI~ ..... Iilter tusually a Kodak wratten 12 minu....blue filter) that
    allo.... s the green. TI...J. and ncar-infrared light from the h:IT31n
    10 expose the film white prevcmm g light sho rter than O.5 lJm
    fro m renchmg the Iilm ( Mct'j lone. 20(4 ). Co lor Plate 4-.'h
    depicts how the d~c!> mtrcduccd into each of the film layers
    are diffe rent .... hen compared to the development o f a st anda rd color phOIO. Bavicafly, they are "offse t by o ne ." meaning. thaI the gree n..sc nsuivc layer rece ives yello.... dye , the
    red..se nsitive layer receives mage nta dye. a nd the infrared <;.ensiti\ c lay er rec e ive s cya n dye, Thus. .... hen white lig ht is
    eventually projected throu gh this negative and a positiv e
    prim is produced. anything that re flected only green light in
    the scene shows up a" hrighl blue. a nything that reflected
    f)IJ~I' red light in the sce ne "ill appear in bright shades of
    green, a nd a nything in the sce ne that reflected (m ~l' ncarinfrared enl.'rgy will ~ reeunk d in hrigh t shildes (1f red. If
    s lll n ~ lh i n g rd kctl:,J l:'-IlMI prupurtiuns ufr.:J an d JlO.: ar- infrll ~
    red light hut nn g rel'n light, Illl' n it would show up in shadl's
    of yel lnw on the: ro lor inl'rared fi lm. Similarly. <'qua l
    amounts of grcl:r1 , rt.:d , and ne<l r-i nfrart.: u rd l el'ted from tht.:
    scene. such 310 fro m ,\ concrete surface, will yield a med ium
    gray lone.
    Th us. co lorinfr:Irl'd li lm exhlhits II color h{/hlllc('~hil' when
    co mpared In trad ilional eu l'lr aer ial phlllO~ra ph )' . What Clln
    be co nfusing III interprcten; is the fad that as human beings
    we have no idea how much nellr-infrared energy is retl eett:d
    b) cc rtain phe nonwoa since we C<lOn.lt see Il l" app~ciat e
    energy in Ihis region, Fo r example, a color-in frared ae ria l
    photilgraph is shnwn in ( 'o lo r Plate 4-41'1 . This pholOgra ph
    was o blai nt."'d using Kudak AEReX"HRO\o1 E II Infra red
    ::!4B tilm with a f> in. focal.lenglh lens. D<'Cp, dear waler

    Vantage Po int, Cameras, Filters, a nd Fil m

    absorbs alm ost a ll o f the near-infrared radian t flu x incid


    to it whil e reflecting somew hat more gree n and red lig/lt
    T herefore. if the .... atcr is dee p and free of suspended,
    menr o r any organic ma tte r. it will appear da rk or alm
    black on color-i nfra red film. Howeve r. if there is substar ui
    s uspended se dime nt in the water, it m ay appear in rela tiv
    da rk sha des ofhlue and gree n on the near-infra red ph otogra.
    phy. Co nversely. vege tation absorbs ap proximatel y ~O pe
    cent (If the green and red radiant n ux incide nt 10 it whik i
    retlecrs approxi mately 40 - 70 pe rcent of the incide nt nearinfrared radia nt n ux. This co ndit ion ca uses heahhy g
    \ egctauon til he recorded in sha des of red because the ne:ll"
    mfrared crn.:rgy is dominant. Concrete streets or gravel r.ai~
    ro ad beds reflec t approxima tely cequal proportions o f g
    red. and nca r-infrared e nergy and are reco rded as a
    gray" signalUre on the co lr-infrared photography.
    M

    Similar color reversals are evide nt in the examp le of a bui


    ing at the Unive rsity of Nebraska phot ographed us ing c
    and co lor-infrared film (Color Plate 4-5ab) . O bj ects m.
    reflect Mue light e xclus ively are reco rded in black on
    color-infrared photogra ph (..... g.. the car o n the left ). The mI
    curpct o n the steps of the b uilding is recorded in shades
    green . The ule roof is re corded in shades of yellow, m cam~
    that the tile abso rbs m uch of the green light w h ile reflcc u
    heavily in the red and Ilear..infrared portions of the sp...-ctrum.
    Color-infrared aerial photography will co ntinue to he one
    the most important remote sensin g tools. In fact, it was tht
    emulsion of choice lor the USGS National Aerial Photognphv Program. New high spatial resolu tion (:5 I x I m pan.
    ch romatic and ::.....'; x 4 m multispectral) satellite remote
    sensor dig ita l data from co mmerci al vendors such as Space
    111111g ing and DigillllUluhe, Jnc. arc red uc ing ou r dependency
    on large..sco!c analog color-in frared photograph y.

    Planning Aerial Photography Mission s

    Time of Day - Sun Angle

    The i.ka l time of da)' to (>otilin lIerial photograph y is " hen


    thc Sun is bctw l'c n Joe and 52 above the horizo n_ i .c~
    " ithin two htlun; nf so lar nnon . A Sun ang le less than JO'
    may nul allll.... prnpcr illumination or adequato<' relke tanct
    from the sce ne. Thi:'> ea n resu lt in u nde rex po~d aerial photography thaI i~ J itlicult to interpret. Also, pholograph)
    lakl'n at 10.... Sun an~ks is usually una..:-ee ptah\e l:M:caust: of
    the e.\tremely I,'llg shado "s cast by trt.-es and buildings thaI

    ide m
    light.
    sediImost
    mial
    ivel)

    t ogra1'<'ill.' j t
    nearreen
    ncar-

    rai lrccn.

    125

    II!!trences

    QlI~ re

    valuable infonnation. How eve r, some scicnusrs

    IOjleClally g~-, logistSI prefer 10.... Sun angle photography to


    e terrain represe ntat io n (lyon and Falkner. 1(95 ).
    ~ ~ ar.j! le greater than 52" may yie ld h/'b/"'f,\ o n the r ho-..graphy_ These an: unu sually b rigfu are as on the phot o-

    tl ighrlmes. .-1) ground di stan ce bet ween e xpos ures. 5 ) map


    dis ta nce betw een exposu res, and 6 ) tota l number of exposures required. Man y of these \ ariablcs are described in
    Ch apter 0 t Pho tog ram metry).

    References

    J!'3Pb. which an: a

    function o f Sun and ca mera ori enta tion .


    lbc) become especially bot hers ome H thcrc is a 101of water

    the slooy area.


    ~raph ic flighrlines can be oriented in a ny d irection as
    kmg as terrain and safety factors arc co nsidered. The angle
    '11111\' Sun at a particular latitude and s pe cific umc o f day

    rna) be obtained from so lar ephemeris tables.

    Berglund. J. A., 1<,11,1<,1. Em/ll<lImg the u.,.. fit HAIJAHSAT SAR


    ,m " JE RSI SAR j "r E.,r im,,/"'/; LAI ,,,,d Dd"" 'uli ng Upland
    l.fII,,1C"" ,' " nnd Tidal Fn'\'hwutrr " " 111'", 1 Vtx clatifm Species
    m Il,,! Tlm /i N"r/h Buy. An'" . .<\Y. Columbia. SC; Departme nt
    of Geograp hy. unp ublis he d maSlers lhl'sis, J I() p .

    's teel
    Wea/her
    b u ild -

    ' co lor
    5 th a i
    In the

    re TN
    Ics of
    aning
    ~l ing

    trum.

    'ne of
    ts the
    ograpanm ote

    ipace
    lency

    oS

    hen

    i.e..
    13 0"
    an,:e
    ph~

    Iph y

    ;;;" of
    thai

    Aaial plllllography is ideally collected a fev. day s after the


    pt;\.aj!Cof a fronlal sy stem. v.hich removes wate r vapor and

    paniculatcs [es pec ial ly smog ) fro m the air and allow s the
    lind ll.......x-iated WIth the front al syst em to de crea se . Aerial
    pboto)j!rnphy ob tained in H'I) humid co nditions is deg raded
    M:auSC of atmos pheric scatte ring o f unwanted light into the
    fJdd of view of the camera. Al so . the water vapor may
    Itlsorb some of th e sig na l w c are try ing to rec ord on film ,
    Slrong .... inds can cause the pla nt: to d rill o tT co urse. res ult_in poor fligfulinc coverag e . los s of stereosco pic overlap.
    aid sometimes oblique rather than vertica l phot ography.
    CbIu.b in aerial phorogruphy, of course. arc una cceptable.
    ~Ol only is a port ion o f the terra in ob scu red by a cloud. hut
    1~ cloud shado w causes tonal va riations that mighl he interpreted incorrec tly, Aeria l pho togr aphy ob taine d pr ior to the
    p.t\sage of a fronta l system may be ideal if the relat ive
    ~um ldi ty is low and the v. iuds are not stro ng.

    Flrghtline Layout

    Tllootain the desired aerial photograph y, it is necessary to


    \00.... the de sired photo sca le (e.g .. 1: 1O.{)(J()I. the scale of
    tilt base map on \\ hich a ll info rma tion is to be plouc-d (c.g ..
    1.1 2.0001, the x.y coordi nates o f'rhc four corner po ints o f the
    \I~y area {latitude. longit ude or UT \ ll. tho: size o f th e geo gnpltic area to be pho to graphed (e.g. 100 km!). the a verage
    fo!v,ud O\c rla l" of each fra me o f p hntog raphy (e.g., 60 peremU. the a\erage ~i dclap or eac h fra me (e .g._ 20 percent),
    tilt film tl.lmlat (c. g. 9 x 9 in.). and cam l'ra foca l-length.
    Once lhis inlo nna tion i ~ kno wn. it i ~ pos~i hle to compute 1)
    !hi: ~'C"'sa r)' !light altitud..- ahove gnlu nd le\ c1 (AG Ll. 2)
    the number o r llight lines re4uired, 3 ) map <.Iis tunel.' b.:h\ ......n

    tlll_slcl, J, D" Jens en. J. R., Md\l astcr. R. B. and C. Rizos, 2002.
    .\I<1m/</1 "I Gcosput ;,,; Sci,It" " alld T,,II11"logy. London: Taylor &.: f rancis, 623 p.
    Col .... ell. R. N.. 19'17. "History and Place of Photographic In terprctation, Philipson. y,.... [Ed.}, Man/wi nf Pholngraphlc Inl<'Tf,rt'llw"n. Bethesda: ASP&RS. 1nd Ed.. 3-47.
    M

    l: ~GS, 1<N4 ,

    {)/K"al O,.,hllphm n.1 f -'l rl ShC't'l.

    Washi n ~l(ln .

    DC;

    U.S. Geolcpica ! Sur"ey.1 p.


    Hind le}. T. K. and J. W. Waller. IIN3. "Obtainmg and L'Mng
    L..,.... Alutud c. L u ge-Scale Imagery," Photog rammetric En~ i
    If",'r"'g ,{ Rcn",t, S,II.< ing. 5Q( 3):3 I 0 - J II(.
    Ih.op.:r. N. J. and G. C. Gustafson, IQIIJ. " Automation and Rccording of the Image Intl'rpreters Mensuration Ta_1Is for
    M an m~ldt' Objects." SP IE Pmnt'dingl, " 24:5n---67.
    Jensen, J. R. 1l1'l5. "Issues lnvofving the Crcauo n of Digital EI~ \'<II I (ln \'lodels and Terrain Corrected Orthounagcry Using
    sun-copy Phorogrunuucrry." Gl'o.-arlo ' " IU II"I iml(ll,
    1 ()(1 1: 5 ~ 2 1.

    Jensen. J. R. 2005. brtrud" clOIJ Digi l<I! lm ag" Pro...-ssing: A


    R"mtotc S,n. ill}; Per.lpe etil C. 3rd Ed .. Upper Saddle River:
    Prcnuce- Hall. Inc.. 525 p.

    Jensen. J. R.. Botch way, K., Brennan-Galvin . 1:.. Johannsen. C ,


    Junta, C, " abogunjc..-\. \li ller. R. Price. K.. Reining. P,.
    $1.01<.'. D.. Sundv IT, " and D R. F. Taylor. 1002, Du ..n '"
    f'-arlh' (;N>gro"hic Infnrmati,,"In,. SII< lai""hlr {A>1'r!""m"nl
    m ,~-'''Ila. Washington: ;';aliolllli R~ ,;.car, h Council. 155 p.

    Jensen. J. 11. . Saalfdd. A,. Hroome. F.. ('o", ~ n. D.. Price. K..
    Ramsey. D., Lapinc. L. and E. L. Usery. 2005. "Chapter 1:
    Sl' 3tiul Data Acquisition and Inlegration : ' in R. B. McMaslcr

    126

    Aerial Photo graphy - Vantage Poin t. Cameras, Fillers, and Film

    C11.\PTER

    and E. L. Us<:ry Ih h.J. A R".,,,,urd, tlgt'ndufi,r <i<,"~ml'htc


    17 --6 0,

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    SOIl l>.

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    D. L. IONJ . "Th... ~ali\l na l Aeria l Photog ra phy Pro gram


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    whuc. L., I 'NS, h 'I;'U!"'J l'Iwloj{rll/'hy Hu ndbook, Atnhcr

    M ... adows. J.. I 'N:!, Til t' (/""<11 S,'i"llli'/,I , N Y: Ox fo rd Un ivcr~i ty

    \V" It', 1', R, and B . A , newu, :!OOO. El enu-nts "lI'llVlo~r","mf


    tr v 1< '1111 AI'/,l i e<lIJlm. i ll (/IS, 3r<1 Fd., ~Y: John Wiley. nO~

    P re ~ s ,

    250 p.

    Amh<'r,l MC'<li ", lOX o.

    Jim

    f"

    Elements of Visual Image Interpretation


    p.

    \ R., JoInd J . S
    V Local
    ~<"("i_.i(ln

    Irma lion
    r. J. o..

    lIlaa! 01
    . for-In .

    ~"J

    1m.

    rtanon.

    ?ltllirm.

    Pru'

    umans are adep t at mterprenng image" of objects. After a ll. they have bee n
    this all their lives".With some in~tn~C l i\;n they can become excellent
    Image a nal~'-sts. Photo or 1It1U~., uuerpretunon IS ..Ieflncd as

    ~()ing

    till: examination of images for the purpose of ident ifying objec ts


    and judging the ir s ignificance (Phil ipson. 199 7; McGl um: . 2(04 ).

    This chapter In troduces the funda mental conc ep ts associated with the visual
    interpretation of images ofobjects recorded primarily b)' remote se nsing system s operating in the optical blue . green . red. and reflective near-infrared
    port ions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Till.' imagery Ihat is interp reted
    mal be acquired us ing a \ ariet) o f sen sors, including tr adit iona l ana log earneras te.g. Leica RC 30 ). d igita l cameras te .g.. l.c ica ADS 40). mu ltispectra l
    sca nners [e.g. Landsat Themati c Mapper ). and linea r or area-array senso r
    sys tems (c.g., S POT, IRS- Ie. MOD IS. J KO ~ OS, Q uicWird. O rbView-3,
    lmage'Sat]. Method s of extract ing quamnauvc information fro m re motely
    sense d images ob ta ined in the optic alportion of the spectrum arc presented in
    C ha pter 6 (Phorogramrnctry). Distinctive dements of image interpretation
    associated with therm al infra red te ,g.. surface tem pe ratu re ) a nd ac u vc microwave (RA DAR) imagery arc presented in C hapters Na nd 9, respectivel y,

    grtcut ~7

    p.

    In t ro d uction

    " Fo r

    'ther st:

    There are a number ofimponunt reaso ns \'lhy photo ur image uucrp rctauon
    is such a power/ill scie nt ific tool. incl ud ing:
    the aerial/regional perspe ct ive:

    III/III I!_

    ~o'"

    p.

    three-dimensional depth perc ept ion:


    the abi lity 10 obtain know ledge heyond our hum an visu al percept ion:
    the ab ility to obtain a historica l image re cord to doc ument change.

    T tus chapter discusses these conside ratio ns uml the n int roduces the fundumental c leme nts of image interpreta tion used by image analyst s ro implement
    the m. Various me thods of search are also presented. incl ud ing the use of co llate ral (ancillary) informa tion, couvergenc e
    evid...nee. and a pplicat ion o f
    the multi-cone cpr in image ana lysis.

    or

    127

    128

    C11,\PH : R

    The Aerial/Regional Perspective

    Eleme nt s 01 Visual Image Interpr et at io n

    Ea r th :IS S een from A poll o 17

    A vertic al or oblique aer ial photograph Of othe r 1) pc of " 1~ 1


    hlc/n ca r-in frared image rec ords a detailed bu t m uch red uced
    version of reality. A si ngle image us uall y e ncompas scs muc h
    more geographic area than hu man bein gs could pos s ib ly
    traverse Of really appreciate in a given day. For example.
    consider the pho tograph o btai ned ,",y the astro nauts throu gh
    a port hole on Ar'''U" /7 that capt ures o ne- half of the e nti re
    Earth (a hemis phere ] at one time rltigur c 5- 1). ~1 uch of
    A frica is visible. from the ar id Sahara to the dark vegetatio n
    of the Congo to the Cape o f Good Hope shrouded in d ouds.
    Converse ly. a single 9 x 9 in , I:63.J60-sealc (I in. = I m il
    \ ertical ae ria l photog rap h reco rds o nly RI m i ~ of geograp hy
    at o ne lime.
    Figure 5 1
    Examinnuon ofthe Earth fro m an aerial pcrspecuve all('\\ "
    scientists and Ihe gen eral publi c 10 iden li f) obj ec ts. patterns.
    end hu ma n-la nd imcrrclaucnship s that may ne ver he co rnpl"' ldy unde rstood if \\.e were co nsrrain ed 10 a terre-anal.
    Earth-bound ven rage puim. II docs not matte r whether the
    ae ria l pers pec tiv e is from the lOp o f a tall bui lding. an clcvatcd hills ide. a lig ht pla ne. a high -altitude jet. or a !'atd !itl."
    platfo rm. Th e resu ltan t re motely sensed image provid es sparialterrain informatio n that " C w ould not be able to ac quire
    a nd apprec iate in any other man ne r, T his is why rem ote
    sensing ima ge imcrprctarion is su impo rtant for military
    rcco nuais snncc a nd c h' ilian Earth resource inve stigation .

    Care must be exerc ised. h . lWCVC r. when interp ret ing vertical
    and oblique imagery. Huma n being s are accus tomed 10 looking: at the facade (side t of objects fro m a terrestria l vantage
    point and do nut normally han : an appreciat ion fu r wh at
    object s look like \I hen they arc recorded from a ve rtical o r
    oblique pe rspe c tive [ Haac k et a l. IlJ97 l. In addi tio n. \I e arc
    nut used 10 look ing at and interpreting the signi fica nce of
    many sq uare kilometers oftcrmin at one time. Our line of
    si g ht on the grnund i~ USU1t![ y Ie ,~ tha n a kilometer. th erefore . the rq !imml ;l1l(llysis o f vert ical and ob lique remote
    senso r data requires training and practice .

    Three-Dimensional Dep th Percep tion

    We can vicw a si ngle (Il:rlal photograp h or ima ge w ilh ou r


    eycs a nd ohl a in an apprec iation for Ihe geog raphic distri hu-.'
    IiI," of featu res in the land s..:apc . I lo \\eve r. it is a lso possible
    10 obt(lin a Ihll. -.Jim. /l.~iol1(l/ l'itw of th... tl' IT:Jill as if Yo e
    were :lemal l) in an airh<.lme hall."l<.m or a in:rnl't looking \lut
    Ihe window . O ne wa y IIIu btain this thr.x-dimen siona l e nc cl

    " phOlc>gr.I ph of the Earth obt.1incd b). the aSIrao


    nautv unb..ard ApuU.. /7. soootl ng through a pMoole: of' tbc spaccerafi. Almolit lhe '''I'Ilil\' colll inrnl d
    A frica rs visih1e as well as Saudi Arabia and pan
    Iraq ;Jnd Ind la _ Note the arid Sahara an d the dart.
    ,egelatct! terrain of the rain f\lrCl'1 alon g Ih", eqU3llf
    in central A frica. Ama rcnca is especially appa reraa
    rh... Soulh PIlI... Photograp hs like nus helped I\l3fl ind hi realize how vulnerable and precious iii:
    Ea r1h is as it rests hke a multicolored jewel in !he
    blacknes s of srccc (coo" ",sy <If !\AS;\ l.

    is 10 o btain two rh OII)graph s or imag es o f rbe terra in from


    two ~[ igh t l y different vantage poin ts. \\'e can trai n our eyes
    to vi.:" the two images o fthe te rrain at the same time. Our
    mind fuses Ihis ste reoscopic informauo n into a thrce-dirnensional model o f the landsca pe that we perceive in ou r mind;
    <IS hcillg real ( Linder, 200 3). For example. the stcrcopair of
    do wntow n St. LOll is, \1 iss(' Ufi. shown in Figure 5-2 provides
    de taile d ihr ee-dimcnsionul information whe n viewed uliinga
    stereosc ope.
    \\' c know fro m lire tha t it is impor tant to ne t only know the
    Si/.I' and shape uf'a n obje ct hut that its height. de pth , and w lumc are also ve ry d l:\gno sl ic characteristics. An alysis of ~1~
    rco- r op ic imagery in three d imension s all ow s us 10
    ap precia te the three-dime nsiona l nature of the undulating
    terrain and the slop... and aspl"ct o f Ih.: land. In add itio n. the
    stereosco pic nnalysis proc ess USU<lUy cxaggemtes the hci ~hl
    or dcp th o flhl' terrai n, all ow ing liS to ap preciate \Cry suht[e
    dille re nn 's in ohjec i heighl and terrain slope and aSPt:\:1Ihat
    \I e mighl ne\'er ap precia lc from a tern: :strial 'antagc po int
    C hapter (, l Pho togmmme tf)-) int rod uccs the pri nc iples oi
    stercoseu ry and Iw " Ih.:) are used 10 cx tract throx-dimen
    sional infllm lalio n from r.:mot e lienlollr da ta . Th rce- di men-

    129

    ~uction

    Th ree-dtmen stonal Perspect ive:


    Ste ree sco plc Im age or St.Louls, :\l joi\ltUri

    astroport -

    cn tuf
    an of

    dark.
    uator
    ~'1l1

    at

    manIUS th...
    in

    l h~

    fro m
    eye.
    . OUf

    ~ mln.
    jninds

    jair of
    vidcs
    LSi ng a

    Rgure 5-2

    This ercoparr o f St. Ltlu i ~, .\I t,,-,o uri. consists ottwo view s o f lhc h:rra in ubl.l il1l:<1 Jt two d ilTer..." t exposure statio ns a long a
    single.' llighl linc.Thrcc-d imcI1 s ional informat ion abouttbc l<'rT3I1lcan he obtained by vie w ing the modelusing a sh..rreoe ccpe.
    The human mind US\'S the parallax in formation inherent III t he images to produce J thrcc-d im" l1 silllla l modcl thut can y ield

    detailed terrain infom wt i'li L

    :d \'0 1

    O)1(lal Information can ab o be obtaine d by analyl inj!


    R.\DAR. L1 DAR. and SONAR remote sensor data .

    of SIt;'us to

    Ob.-aining Knowledge Beyond our Human Visual

    IW

    the

    Jat ing
    Ifl . the

    Perception

    ~e ight

    subtle
    :1 tha i
    po int.

    I~~e~~

    lml:o,

    (Aa~es are scnsui vc pr imarily to blue. green. and red ligh t.


    Thm:fore. we sample a vel)' lim ited portion o ft he ele ctro..
    magnetic energy tha t is actua lly moving abou t in the cnv ironment and inte racting with soil , roc k. wate r, vegetation.
    theillmosphere, an d urb an structure. Fouunatc ly, inge nious
    ensors haw been invented thur can meas ure the acti v ity o f
    XTJ~'~ . ultraviolet. ncar-inf rar ed . middle-in t mrcd, therma l

    infra red. microwav e . an d radiowavc enagy. Carefu lly ca f ..


    orate d remote sensor data provides new mtonnancn about
    a n ohject that humans mig lu nev cr be able 10 appreciate in
    an y oth er manner ( Rob bins. 19Q9). For example, con side r
    the imagcr) o f an ag ric ult ural a rea in SauuI Arabia shown in
    Figure 5..3 . Healthy vegetation abso rbs mu ch of the gree n
    lind red light fro m the Sun (fir photosyn the si s. Therefore,
    agric ultu ral fields sho w up in dark shades of gray in green
    and red multispectral imagery. Conversely. Iii... grcatcr the
    amount of biomass presen t in an agricultural field. the
    greater the amount of ncar..infrared e nergy reflected ca using
    hcuv ily-vcgcuucd fields to appear bright in ncnr-intrarc d
    imagery. The green and red images slIggcsl that veg etation is
    presen t in almost <1 [[ of the dark cen ter-pivot fields . The

    ~5

    C II.\ r UM

    130

    Remot e .sclI"ill ~

    C ~ II

    Provide

    KIIO\\ l l'd~l'

    by

    Elements of Visua l Image lnte rpretattcn

    'llll.~t1 rilll! [I\l'r~y

    .-.-.s.;:
    I
    .

    '....
    .
    .....
    ..
    . ...- "''''"".. ~~
    II

    C ha rac tc r b ttcs

    in Spectra l Rcg tons Bl'yond Ou r Huma n Visual Per ception

    ,"'0

    \~CI~ted

    ~~!
    ~

    r,,.. ,... e!

    I.

    I.
    a. Green re flectance.
    Figure 5-3

    .,,
    r:!."

    ...
    ...- ...
    b. Red reflectance.

    c. Near-in frared re flecta nce

    Indian IRS-Ie L1SS III imagery (23 x 23 m) ofen agttcuhural area in Saudi Arabia. a.b) V"fctal,on absorbs milS! of the
    ,md red incident ('nl.'r~y causing vegetated fields to .tppcar da rk. c) COll\cf'\('I)<. vegetation reflec ts a suh~tan tial amount
    cidcnr ncar-infrared energy ca using it In appt"aT bright. In this example. several Ik ld s :IPPl.,.tr dark in thc i;1:IL'rn and red ima
    (po~\ibly due: to recent Irri~allon. ~Iubhll: from a prcviou.\crop, or plowi ng) ..uggC"ling that ~egdalj<ln b present. CarL'Cul
    aminauon ofthe same field.. in the ncar-infrared image rCH'al~ Ihal \I:ry liLL ie vcgccnion is presen t 111.. nca r-in frared im ,
    also provide s detailed inform auon lll\<lul the spat ial dbLrihutio n o fthe biomass p resent in each Ik ld. A c" ltOf composite of
    imagcr) is found in Color Pial': 5-1 (images courtesy of lndta n ~<l ll"nal Rcm ore Sensing Agency).

    ncar- infra red imagery provides mort> de finitive informa tion


    about the spatia l drstributiun and am ount of vege tation [biomass) found \\ ith in the lie Ids , A col or co mpos ite o r tho:
    bands is found in Color Plate 50-I ,

    Historical Image Record and Change Detection


    Documen ta tion

    A single aerial p hotograph or ima ge ca ptures the Ea rth's su rface and atmos phere al a uni...uc momen t in space and time.
    IIUI ttl hl" l'l'l>t:atcJ ag;lin. These phowgraphs o r i m a~c , arc
    valu ..blc historical records of the spaual distribution of na tural and human-mad e phe nomen a. When we acqui re muhip lc
    images o r the Eart h. we can com pa re the hi~ torh: image ry
    w ith the new ima ge ry 10 determin e if there arc all) subtle.
    dram atic. or pa rticu larly significant changes [Je nse n and
    Cow en, 199 9; \1 c("o y, :!005 j. T he study of cha nge usually
    increa ses ou r understa nd ing a hou l 11Ie nat ural and human induced pn't"tfHl',1 at work in the landscape. Know ledge
    abo ut the spatial and tem pora l dynamics of phe nomena
    allows U.,;IO develop predictiv e mod els about .... hal has hap pe ned in lhc pasl and .... hat may happen III the tiuure ( l.une na
    and Elv id ge. I <}\}K). Predic tiw mod el ing is one o f the majtlr
    goals of science. Remote ~'ns ing ima ge illlerp retation is
    play ing a n increasi ngly important role in p red icti ~e modeling and simulation (i llel..., 2n02; r-. IiUer et aL 2003; h: nscn
    el .11.. 2fl(5).

    or

    Rem ote sens ing i.. es pecia lly use ful for mon ito ring huma
    activity throug h lime , wh ich can hopefully lead 10 sus ta
    able development and good govcmnnce. For example. ccesidcr Figure 5...t w hich doc uments the e ffec ts of Preside
    Ro bert G Mugabc's o rder 10 de mo lish rura l poo r inform
    sett leme nts in Mozam bique in l OllS. Pres iden t Muga bc sa'
    his urban cle an-up ca mpa ign Upe ra non .\lllrW f/haf.\\, ;f/<I w,u
    needed to "restore sanity" to Zimbab w e's cities. w hic h h.o:
    ~;Jid had be come ove rrun with criminals. Tho: n pposint
    po litical pa rty has us suppo rt mise am ong the urban
    and say s Operation .Hur<111/ha l.u-i l/<I was aimed at to rci
    the m to rura l areas where the Mugabc gove rnmen t t:oul.l
    more easi ly control rhcm. It is cstim;ttcJ tha t more thai
    :!(KI,(MlO people became homeless. Remote sensi ng provided
    a detailed historic record ofthe tragic events (IHK, 2(KJ5~

    Elements of Im age Interpretation

    To perform regiona l analysis, \ie" the te rra in in three


    dim ens ions. interprcl im3g.l'S obt ai neJ fro m mu ltiple regions
    o f lhe elcct ro magnt:tic spcc lmm. and per form change detec
    tion. it is c usto mary to use princ iples o f im3g..: imerpretatjoo
    IhOlt havc been dev dopt.--J through em pirica l cXpt.'ric nce fOl
    more lhan 150 ycars (Eslcs CI a l.. I t)K3; Ke lly et al.. 19 ,
    :\lc Glone, 2ut)4). The m,lst fund ame nta l of thes e principln
    are the t"lt'l1Iellh' of imuXt' imerl'n:lu/io1/ thaI arc roulill(~

    13 1

    t1fments 01 Im age Interpretat ion

    Remute Sl' n ~ i n ~ Ima gl'Ty a,..\ Hist or ical Rec ur d:


    Informal Ci ty ll t'O!oliliun in Haran', Z imh all\H' in 2005

    - . ,.- --.---.

    a, C)ui,:kBird t.l-< rn image obtained UII Ap ril 11,. Z005.


    FqJre 5-4

    b. Q ukkUi rd

    61-~1l1 jmil~c

    obtained nil JU flC 4 , 1005.

    Hig h ~pallal ~ll ul "m (61 x to 1 ern) J"lIlCh W lll;ll ic satclht... imagery ca ptured the d.."' lru,'l jnll (ral lllg l o f informal ho us ing in
    Har are. Zimbabwe. tha i began \b y 1,.1Iln5 . Pn:sid,'nl \l uga Oo: vrJcr.:d pohcc '" illl Nlllrl...,,-rs ;m d sledgehammers 10 dcmnlish more than 20.0nO informal housing structercs, causing mo re than :!cn J lIMI people In becom e h.,mck"" f im.t,:,~ cnunC)}

    of l)igitaICllnhc. lnc.).

    IIIci when visual ly photo-i nte rpretin g an image ( Bol>sler <:l


    II.. 20(2), The dement s of image mtcrprcuuion include
    location, tone and color. size. shape, texture. paucru.

    ibado'o\. height and depth. 'Illume. slope. aspect. site. suuaIJOO. and association ( Figure 5-5) , Som e of the adjectives
    hilX l.lll>J with eac h o f these cle ments of image interpretslion arc summarized in Table 5- I. t-ach image is composed
    of individual silver halide cry stals or pixe ls thnt have a
    ~ color or tone at a ce rtain geog rapfuc locatio n. This i1>
    Ibe fundamental huilding block upon which all other etcrr.:nts art' based . The refo re. we may consider these to he rhe
    pimary or first-o rder elements of image uuer prcrauou
    ( ~{JI\f'Cny, 2(MI)I. The secondary and tertiary elements arc

    bas il-ally spmialarrangcmcrns n fto ne and color. The h igher


    order ctemc nr-; of site. suuanon. and assoc iation a rc often
    bas ed on Ll i !1'cr~ 111 methods of search. inclu din g : the use o f
    cullatcrul information. convergence of e vidence . and rhe usc
    of the rnulu-conccpt.

    A wcll-r mincd image interpreter uses man y oft he ele ments


    o f image uuc rprcration d uring unalv sis "" itho ut reall y think ing abou tthem l lloyd el :II.. .:!()(J2 ). However. a novice interprctcr may have to s~ sremaucally te rce him,,<:lf o r herse lf to
    con sciou sly evalu ate an unknow n obje ct with respect to
    these elements In fina lly identify it and judge its signi lkanee
    in re lat ionship In all me other phe nomena in t he l>o.:CII<: .

    - 5

    132

    C II \ I'Tt:I{

    Elements 01 Visual Image Interpretation

    Elt'lIwll h "r Im :I!:!' lnterprotaun n :


    On k r and .\ Il'l h oth u f Sl':trd l

    Or der
    Pr im lil')

    .\f'uti,,1
    """"flX,-,," ,'1J1
    " llml<" ,-,,/,,/

    Figu re 5 -5

    1'11<>10 or il1l<.lgc intcrp rct auou is usually based on the usc 1'1'Ihc c tcmcms o f imag l" interpretation. The location of ind l\id
    viiver halid e cryetals m a photogra ph or [l1 \ ds in a n im:lg,' representthe p ruuary (Iirs( ord c rj clements o f image intcrprcta '
    Secondary and tertiary d ements arc spa ua l ammgcmcnls of lone amI c\.I.,r lhe highe r-order cl... mente o f sue. l imalion.
    as...ucia linn ort en male usc of various M"arch methodsto perform accura te image imcrprctanon.

    x,y Location

    The re aft: two primary me thods of nhla illing precise T,r


    coo rdin ate in formatio n about an o bj cx t: I ) ~UI>'C)' it in the
    fi eld using traditio nal surve ying techniques or global posi-

    tioning

    s~stcm

    rfi PS ) insuumems, or 11conecr remote "...n-

    sor JOlla of the object. rl'gi ster \rcl'lify) the i lll a~ e 10 J


    bas cm ap, and then extract the X.Y coordinate infonu auon
    directly frum the recti fied ima ge .
    If opt ion one is se lected. mos t scicnusts nnw lI \ l ' relative ly
    inexpens ive urs instruments in the tid tl ( Figure 5 (,) h i
    ob tain a precise measurement of all obj ect's location in
    d...grees of long uud e and latuude on the Earth's grntic ulc or
    in me ters <:asling and northing in a map projection re .g.. L'mvcrsa l Tra nsverse Mercator } (\kCuy. 10OS)_Scicuusts must
    then transfer the coo rdin ates of the po int te.g.. a <pcc itic tree
    locatio n ) or polygon h: .g. the perimeter of a smalllakc j onto
    an accurate planimetric map, \Iosl scicntisrs in the United
    slales use U,S. ( ;co log ical Surve y 7.5-minute quadra ngle
    maps, In Britain they usc Or dina nce Survey maps.
    \Iust 3 l rc l'.l l't or sp.Kecra ll: lh eu to ..:olk"t.1remme se n~ r d:lIa
    no .... h;ne a G PS r<."C..:i,,'..:r. Th is allo s Ihe remol<. se nsi ng
    inSlm ment onhtlard 10 ohlain aCCllr:lt t ..I'.: G PS coo rdinate,;

    at each photograp h expos ure station or the cen ter of \'3~


    hue scan. In the caw of aerial photog raphy, th is means thal
    \\ ... ,',III obtain info rmat ion about tlK' exact location of the
    center II f each nc nn I phllto!?r;1ph (i.c.. the prillcipol I'" ill l) !l
    thl' instant \If expos ure . We ca n us", the (I PS in fo rm anon
    leered hy the sensor (and perha ps some collected (In tk
    ground I \0 register (rt.:ct il) 'l lh-c uncontrolled pho to or imag
    to UT \ I or anoth er ma r projccnon. If " e also correc t forw
    relief displaceme nt o f the topography. then the photo
    image OcC\l11 K'S :10 01"1/'",,1"'/0 or " r/lwimag<' w ith ali lh/
    metric qual ities \11' a line: I1WI' (\1cGIllne:, 2t ltJ4- I, (jc(lgrarh~
    coo rdi nates ( 1,.1') of poi nts and polygons can then be
    extracted dir ectly from rbc recti fied image . Chapter () (Photogra mll\etl') ) J iSt:u s..ses III IW \ mhop hoto s an: created, JO:llsell
    (lll05 1desc ribe, me thod , use d 10 d igitall y rectify O.C.. reg:'
    Iste r) remot e sensor data III a stand ard map projection

    Tone and Color

    Real-world surface ma te rials such as vegetation . water, and


    bare 'oi l o tteu re flec t d rtfe rcm pro portions o f energ y in tbe
    bl ue. green, red. and near-in frared p oruon-, of tnc electromag nltl,: liJl'.'l'l rum. We can riot lhe a moun t o f enl'rgy
    rctlCi.tl"tJ f l1.lln o:;,,:h o f ,b<"So: materia ls at spt'<.'"i lic wawlengths and creale a lio p'-"t.-Iral rctle t:ta ncc .:ur..... s(lm cl i ~
    cal k d a ,\P"{ '/r al ,igll<lf/l/\' (Jensen et aI., 1005 1. Fo r e: u m-

    13 3

    &ments of Image Interp retati on

    (; PS Ilala ("olll."("l;On
    Elements o f Image mterp rctation.

    Element

    Common Adjectives
    (quantitative and qualitative)

    "

    "1 IO\'~I I"n

    x.y image coordinates: column (.rj and row


    (.1') c<l"rdi I1J I':~ ill an uurcctificd image
    r..r image map co ordin ates : silve r halide
    crystals cr pixels in phot ogra ph 0 1 illla!;e arc
    rectified In a map proj ection ((". g. VTM)

    I. ( 'oklr

    gray tone: hglll (bright). intermediate


    (gray ). dark (black )
    color: lIl S - inten~i ly. hue (color). saturat jon; RGR - red. green. and blue: Munsd l
    len gth. '" idth. per imeter. arca ( m~ )
    small. medium urucrrnediate j.large

    Intu re

    an objecr's geometric characteristics:


    linear. curvilinear. circular. elliptical.
    radial, sq ua re, rectangular, triangular.
    hexa gonal. pen tagonal. star. amorphous, CIC.

    Figure 5-6

    characteristic placement and urraugcmcru

    TOllt'

    of repcuuouv of tone or color


    smtloth, intermediate [medium). rough
    (coarse). mottled . stipple d

    P..,,~

    spatial arrangement of objects on the

    ground: systemanc. unsysremanc Of random.


    linear. CU1\ ilinc ar. rectangular, circular.
    elliptical. parallel. centr ipetal. serrated,

    striated, braided
    a silhouene ca used by solar illumination
    from the sidl'
    H! I~~ L' Uepl lt

    z-elcvation (hctghtj. c-bathyrnctry {de pth},

    Inlumt ISlopl'!

    volume(m'). sl<>p<,; 0 , aspect 0

    " jlCCI

    "ilr
    ~I uali u n
    ~\\O('ia lilln

    Silt': o:I e\ ~li\lrl , sh'~, aspect. exp osure,


    adj acency to II aiel, transportation. urilines
    Siw'II!(l" : (lOJlXts are placed in a particular
    order or o rientation relativ e to om.' another
    AHocj"ri<>n: related phenomena are Ilsuall)
    pr csem

    pie. generalized spectral reflectance C Uf\-CS for objec ts foun d


    Iusoot h Florida mangro ve ecosystem are shown in Figure
    $,-a (Dal'is and Je nsen. 19')11), Spectral reflectance curves
    ol selecrcd materials provid e insi g.ht as to why they appe ar
    .lIthey do on black-an d-w hit e or color ima gery, Wt willfirst
    ,oo~ldcr why objects appe ar in certain grayscale tones on
    bockand whitc ima ges.

    Sciemisl collccnng global I"' >si t il,"m~ system


    j ( i PS ).l . y. llIcul jpll data in smooth cord gnl~s (Spar11/1<1 A ltcrmf/"I"<I ) in Murre lls Inlet. St'.

    r\ band of electroma gnet ic enefl:Y (c .g. gree n light from 0 .5


    - 0.0 Jllll) recorded b) a remote ensing system may hi.' displayed in sh ades of g r<l~ r.-mgin g from b lack 10 .... h ite. Th~":>C
    shades o f gr ay are usually referred toas 1011<'. we 0 111'1\ sa),
    "This pan of an image has a ' bright" lone. lhi s area ha s a
    ' dark' to ne. and this feature has an intermediate ' g ray'
    tone ." O f course, the degree of da rkness or brightness is a
    funcnon of the amount of light re flected from the scene
    w uhm the specific wave length interval tbandj. Fo r example.
    consider three black-and -white images of a so uth Florid a
    mang rove ecosystem ( Figure 5,7 0----'1.11. Th e three images
    record the amount of green, red. and near-infrared ene rgy
    reflec ted f W ill the: scene. res pectively.

    Inc ident gree n lig ht (0. 5 - n.e Jlm ) pe netrate s the wate r cuiumn farther than red and ncar-infrared ener gy a nd is
    re flected offthe sandy bonom or the coral ree f! Figu re 5-7h ).
    The refore. lhe green band provides subsu rface detail about
    the ree f structure surrounding the mangrove is lands. Mangrove vegetation ahsorbs. approximately 1'11 percent of the
    incident g reen lig.ht for photosynthetic purposes and re flects
    approximately 1-1 pe rcent. This ca uses mang ro ves to appear
    relat ive ly dark in a smgle-band green imag e. Sand reflec ts
    high. equal proportions of blue. green. 1'<,;1.1. and ncar-infrared
    incident energy. <;(1 it appears brig ht in all images.
    Mang roves refl ect app roxim.ucly 9 percent of the incide nt
    red energy (O,n - Il.7 u ru1 while ahso rhing approximate ly \) I

    - 5

    ( "II W n :R

    134

    Elem ents 01 Vis u al Image Int erp reta tion

    To m' and Color


    ~
    1

    ~"

    "e
    E

    ' b nltro. ~
    \\ a r~ r

    4_"'~
    Sum

    a . Spectra l retlectaree curves lOr- sand.


    man~r(>\'1:.

    and "'"3ICr In fl"nth.

    d. lliack-and-...hite photograph of
    near-mtrared rCll('c!l;'(Il'n<,r(1~.

    b. Black-and- ...hire rru.>C''Er:Jph of ~Tl'"n


    from Hu...Ja mangroves.

    c. Blad-and-.... hite photr~ral'h


    of red reflected encr~) ,

    rcfk"I~'\I "nc~)'

    e. Stand of pine 'Ierg rccn ) surrounded hy

    hardwoods

    (<:UllnC"'~' Ell1cr~c. rnc.l.

    l!. U2 photograph " f a Rl1ssiilllSpuTn ik


    launch srrc tcourtcw John Pike. F,,\S .

    h. Hil1h -c-ontms r terrestrial


    phuhlgraph "r J Dalmation

    Figure 5-7

    Elements Il f Ima..>< Int<'Tf!<clal llm -

    percent of the incident energv fur photosy ntbeuc purpos e..,.


    T his causes the mang roves to ap pear very dark in the red
    photog raph (Figure :;7c). Red light docs not penetrate as

    f. Vegetat ion is <brl. fallow is bright. and


    turbid " ,I1 Cr is gray (( ;,"<,Eyc, lnc.j.

    i. lI iglH ontmsl lcrrcstriul


    photugraph "f a cow .

    Ioee and Color

    well into the water co lumn. sorhc water has a slightly darker
    Wile. espe cially in the deeper c hannels. As expected, sand)'

    areas hove hrighl tuncs.

    pn

    Elements 01 Im age I nterpre ta t ion

    I!Ie black-and-white image recordi ng only ncar-infrare d


    \0,7 - O,IJ2 IJml. vegetation is displa yed in brig ht
    mes (f'igUfC 5-7d I. I lca lthy vegeta tion re flects muc h o f the
    mddcnt ncar-infrared energy (ap prox ima tely ::! K percent }.
    Ieneally, the brighter tbc tone from a vegetated surface. the
    ~,(r the amount of biologic al mail er (biomass] prese nt
    Ikr!sm et al.. IQQQ). Convers ely, wate r abso rbs most of Ihc
    iIcirlenl near-infrared energ). ca using the wa ter to appea r
    M . There is a great co ntrast be tween the bright upland
    aJOSisling ofvegeta non an d sand. and the dark water. ThereM.11 is not surprisi ng that the ncar-infrared region is CUlI!idered 10 be the best for discr im inat ing: betw ee n the upland
    merg)'

    1fII1I3k'l'

    interface.

    AblJck-and-whitl' inf rared imag e o t'a u ev ergreen pine 51:1nd


    ssroanded hy dec iduou s hardwood fo rest is show n in FigIRS-Ie. The tona l co ntras t makes it ea~)' to d isc rim inate
    khIn the two major spec ies.

    ODe mw.t be ca reful, ho"e\ cr. when intcrp rcung indiv idual
    1mI black-end- white images . Fu r exam ple. co nsider the
    Ladsar Thematic vt ap per band 3 (re d ) im age ~, r a Col orado
    I!riWltUI;l1 area t Figure 57 1). As expected. the greate r the
    IlI100nl of vegetation. the greater the absorp t ion of the incident red light by the veget at ion, an d the dar ker the vegetated
    area within the center- pivot irrigat ion system, Conv ersely.

    ::la rke r

    sa nd y

    fallow ficiJ s and a reas no t in agricultura l p roduction show


    ~ In much brigh ter 1,ln.:s. Unfortunately, the lake also
    Jikl>Is up as <In intermedi ate sha de o f gray. T h is is becau se
    !be ble has recei ved a substan tjal amoun t of suspe nded sed causin~ it to refl ect more red r,lJ ianl energy tha n it
    lllIllIally would ifit we re dee p. no nturbid water. If 1\ ': had
    lriiitional blue, green, :1111.1 perhaps near-i nfra red hands to
    II'IaIFe, it would probably he d ea r that this is a water bod y,
    H(}\\cler. when view ing o nly a single band 11f imagery dis~ai'<d in black-and- white tones, we cou ld come to the co nclu,inn lhal the luke is si mply a large vege tated field perha ps
    Illlh.: early stages of development whe n some o f the sa ndy
    hire soil is still ..-isihle thro ug. h the canopy, In facl, il has
    JPPrn:llmald y Ihe sa me gray lone as s.:\ erlll Ilf the adja..:ent
    lieIih willlin the ccn lcr-pivot irrigalion systems.

    Human beings can d ilTcrem iah: bct'ol. (.,\:n ap pro.\imlllcly -ll).


    50 illdl\idulli sha des of g. ray in it h lad :-an d-wh ite photopph or remote se nso r imag.e. Ho we\ e r, it takes prill:lice
    and skill to extnlct useful infurmat ion from broild-ba nd pan
    ,hromJlie hlol'k-and- wh itc images (lr hlack -llnd-wh ite
    imag,<, (If ind ividual ba nds . FI,r exa mI1!\" cu ns ider Ihe U-2
    pilolngraph o f a Russilln SpllfJlik lilunchi ng s ile sho wn in
    figure 5-7g. Careful exam inalio n of Ihe gray to n ~ and the
    sliadows by it trained an alyst reveals Ihal lhe <:.\cal ated ea nh
    &om lIle blIDot are a dl' pression was deposited in II b 'lle

    135

    mou nd nearby. Human bei ngs simply a re nOI used to vie wing the tops o f objects in shades o f gray, They must be
    tra ined. Furtuc nno re. human s o fte n havc n very d ifficult
    time identifying featur es if the scene is co mpos ed of very
    h igh contrast information. This is exemplified by view ing.
    terres trial photographs o f two very we ll know n objects: a
    Dalm atian a nd a co w in Figure 5-7h.i. respecti vely. Man )'
    nov ice analysts simply cannot find the Dalm atian or the co w
    in the photograp hs. This snggesas that e xtre mely high co ntrast aeri al pho tographs or images lire d inicult to ime rpret
    and that it is bI.."Sl to acq uire an d interp ret re motely sensed
    imagery th:it has a co nt inuu m o f grayscale tones from black
    to gray In white. if pos sib le.
    ( 'olor
    We may usc add ui vc ector-com bining techniques to crea te
    co lor composite images from the individual bands o f remote
    sen sor data as pre v io usly d isc usse d in Chapter -l . Th is lnuoduces hue (color) and MIff.ration in add ition to grayscale
    tone (illtt>n.,it.r l. A co lor composite o f the green. red, and
    near-in frared bands o f the mangrov e st udy area is found in
    Color Plate 5-2. Notice how muc h mo re visual info rmation
    is presen t in the color co mposi te. Huma ns ca n discrim inate
    among tho usands o fs ubrlc col ors . ln this false -color image.
    all vegetation is de picte d in shade s ofred (mngenta l, sand is
    brig ht white , and the wa ter is in various sha des of hluc. Mosl
    scie ntists prefer to acq uire some forrn of multispec tral data
    so that color composites ca n be made. Th is may include the
    COIlII I1O of natural cotor aerial photogra phy, co lor-in frared
    aerial photograp h) . or multispec tral dat a. whe re perhap s
    man)' indivi dual bands arc cottecred and a select few are
    additiv ely co lor-combined to prod uce color imag es.
    Unfo rtunately, so me peo ple 's col or percep tio n is impaired.
    T his mea ns tha t they 110 nllt experience the surnc me nta l
    impression of II co lor (c.g.. g rccm as do es the vast major ity
    ofthe popul ation . While this may he somewhat ofa disadvan tagc w hen se k c li ng a shin or tic 10 wear, many exce llent
    image llnlll)'s1S h<l\ e so me col or perception dis order. T he re
    are spcc ialtesls suc h as those show n in Co lo r Plale 5-3 tha t
    cun hi: l ie" ...-d to delenn ine if color bli ndne:>s is present.

    Size - Leng th. Width, Perimeter. and Area

    T he si l e o f all ohjeci is 1I11t' 11f ih most d istingu ishing char acteri stics and o ne o f the most importllnt elem ents of imllge
    interp reta tio n. The mos t co mmun ly meas ured pa rameters
    are length 1m). w idth (m) . pe rimeler ( m I. a rea (m 21, and
    tlC..:as ionally \ olume (m '), Th e anal yst sho uld ro utinely
    measun:' Ihe sile of unkno wn ohjects, To do this it is neccs -

    '

    "

    ..

    ,
    ~

    "C II AI'TE R

    136

    Elements of Visual Image Interpretation

    Size

    -i

    ".'
    ~,

    ,r
    a. Automobi les: diverse, bu t approx imate ly
    15 ft in length and 6 ft wide .

    b. Railroad : 4 .71 ft between rails and


    8-in . between the rai lroad ties .

    c. A si ng le trailer on a trac tor-trailer rig is


    approximately 45 to 50 ft in lengt h.

    d. Baseball : 90 ft betwee n bases; 60 ft


    from home plate to the pitcher's mou nd.

    e. Diving hoard : approximately


    12 ft in length .

    f Cars and trucks can be use d to scale the


    size of the air-co nditioning units.

    .,j
    ~

    ,P
    I

    Figure 5-8

    Elements of Image Interpretation -

    sary to know the scale of the photography (e .g., 1:24,( 00)


    and its genera l unit equiva lent or verba l sca le (i.e.. 1 in =
    2,000 Ii). In the case of digital imag ery it is necessary to
    know the nominal ground spa tia l resol ution of the sensor
    sys tem (e.g., I x J m).

    ]
    1
    J

    ,i
    i

    "r

    Measuring the size of an unkn own obj ect allows the interpreter to rule out many possible alternat ives. O ne mus t be
    careful . howeve r, because all of the objects in rem ote sensor
    data are at a sca le less than I: I. and we are not used to looking at a miniature version of an object that may measure only
    a fe w centimeters in length and width on the image. Measuring the size of a few well -known obj ects in an image such as
    car length. road and railroad width , size of a typica l sing lefam ily house, erc., allows us to understan d the size of
    unknown features in the image a nd eventuall y to identify
    them . Th ere are seve ra l subjective relative size adj ectives.
    including small. medium, and large. Th ese adj ect ives should
    be used sparingly.

    Size.

    Objects that have re lative ly uniqu e sizes can be used to


    judge the size of ot her objects in the sce ne. For ex ample.
    midsize cars are app roximate ly 15 ft long and 6 ft wide in the
    Un ited States (Figure 5-8a). The y may be two-t hirds that
    size in Europe. Asia, etc . Notice that it is possib le to differentiate betwee n auto mobiles and pickup trucks. Al so note
    that the 6-in. white line separating par king spaces is quite
    visible. g iving some indicat ion of the high spatial resolution
    of th is aerial photograph y. The dist ance between regu larga uge railroad tracks is 4 .71 ft in the United States (F igure 5
    8b) . Thi s provides diag nost ic information abo ut the length
    of the individual ra ilroa d cars. The average length of a trailer
    on a tract or-trai ler rig ( Figure 5-8c) is 45 to 50 ft, allowing
    us to apprecia te the size of the adj acent wa rehouse.
    Field dimension s of major sports such as soccer. baseball
    (Figure 58 d). footba ll. and tenn is arc sta ndardized worldwide. The distance between the bases on a baseball diam ond
    is 90 ft, while the distance from the pitcher's mou nd to home

    137

    Elements of Im age Interpretati on

    plate is 60 It \1 0 5t swi mm ing poo l diving boards t l-igure 5St)are 12 It long. Additionalexamples a rc found in Chapter
    ll( Remole St"nsing the Urban Landscape).
    Iilhesc obje cts arc visible w ithin a n imag c. it is po ssib le to
    I!&rmine the sil'e of oth er obj ects in the sce ne by co mpa ring
    lbeir dimensions w ith tho se o f the kno .....n objec t's dun cn\lOll. For example, th... diameter (lf the two rooftop air -condioolllng units shown in Figure 5-x f is at least the length o fthe
    aranJ truck also \ isiblc in Ihe Image.

    and d istinc tive ly shaped ...had,\\\ s. Huma nkind '... re...idcmial


    hnu~i ng and public commerc ial hui lding... may range from
    wry si mple rectang ular mobile ho me-... fo r sale 1Fig ure 5-9b)
    10 co mple x geometric patte rns such as the Pen tagon in
    Washin gton. DC I F i gu r~' 5-9c). Th.: 0.5 )( 0.5 m blac k-endwhite in frared image of the Pe-n tagon .... as ob tained using a
    d ig ita l camera. Hum an tra nsponation systems (F igure- 5-91.11
    In deve loped cou ntries usua lly have a curvil inear shape and
    exhrbn e xten sive engineering.
    Il uman kind mod ifies nature in a tremendous va riet y o f

    k is ri4.y to meas ure the- precise length, pe rimeter. and area


    ciobjects in unrecnfled aer ial photo graph)' or oth er types of
    Erediticd rem ote- sensor d ata , The- terrain is rord) compltIel~ tlat w ithin the msramaneo us- field .... vjcw of an
    ICriaI photograph o r othe-r t~ pi." of image. Th is eauscs points
    .. are highe-r than the ave rage elevation to be closer to the
    \(lb.ll' and poi nts that are lo wer than the ave rage elevation 10
    \l: fanhcr away from the sensor system. Thu s, differ ent pans
    ofthe image haw diffe ren t scales. Tall huildi ngs. hills. and
    *f'ressions may have sign ificantly d ifferent scales than
    'dlo>t at the average clcv aucn .... ithin the pho tograph.

    l'',

    Theref"rc. the opt imu m vnuauon is .... here- the aeria l pho togIlphy or other imag e data ha ve been geometric ally recti fied
    lid terrain-corrected to bec om e. in eff ect, an ortho photograi>h or orthcumagc wh cre all objc...-ts urc in the ir pro pe r
    planimetric x,y location . It is the n pos sib le 10 measure the
    Irngth. perimeter. and area of features usi ng several met hco!,. incl uding pola r planunctcr, lat-lel d lg ilil.3li" n, dot-grid
    analysi~, or dig ita l image <.I na lysis. The se sizc measurement
    mtlhods arc d iscussed in Ch :lpler (, (I'hotogra mmc try),

    Shape

    kI\llUltl be wunderrlll if e vcrything had a lIni'l ue ...hJ pe IIMt


    tlluld b... L'Jsily di sl'cmcd from :I ~ert ical o r ohli qw: pe rspcc
    til'e. Unfortunalel y, novi ce illlerp n:tcrs s (] lll e l i me ~ Il;lve di''''
    Iicullyl'vcn identifying thc ...h;lpc o rthe bu ild ing the y :Ire in.
    much less ap precia ting tIll' p lanirnelrk .\..1' shape of n:Hural
    llId rnan-madt" o h)e ":ls rceordetl in ae-rial photo graph y o r
    other illlllgcry. L'\c \cnhcless. ma ny feal ures do hav c . . ery
    lIIl ique shapes. Ther e arc numerou s shape adjectives such as
    IfaMe 5-1} linea r. CUf\ ilirll'ar, e ircu lar. el liptic al. radi a l.
    !qUare. rectangu lar. lriang ular. hcxa gllliai. sial', e1onga lcd.
    lIdarnorphnus (no un ique sha pe),

    Thm arc an Infinite ....a ricl)' of uniquely shape d natural a nd


    lIIJlI-rnade ohjec ts In the rea l .... orld . Unfo rtunately. we can
    lAI) provide a fe.... l'\ampks I FiguTt.' 5-QI. \<I odcm jet a iraaftiFigure 5-9a ltypically ha\ e a trian!tulJr (ddta) shape

    w a~ s. MKlIe o fthem \ cry mtcre-amg. Fo r e xample. Figure 5-

    oc depicts the curvihnear shape of carefully engineered


    levees (rising just 2 tl above the- ground) that direct w atcr
    cominuously thmugh a rice licld in Lo uisiana . An adjacent
    field h'b been s)slcmati":;llIy plo\\ c-d. But nature design s the
    mos t bea uti ful shapes, patterns. and te xture-so inc luding the
    radial fro nd pancm of palm trc...., sho .... n in Figure 5-9f.
    The t>o:st image interpreters spen d a gre al amou nt o f time in
    the fie ld vie .... ing and apprecianng nat ural and man -ma de
    \lhj ~.... ts and thei r sha pes. Il c or she i... then in a good position
    to unde rstan d how these shapes appea r when reco rded on
    vertical or oblique imagery.

    Texture

    Tcxnm- is the characteristic p lacc m...m and arrange ment of


    repcuuons of tunc or color in an image . In an ae rial photo grap h. it is create d b) tona l repe titions o f g roups o f object s
    lh:ll may t-c tl" l sm:lll III lx d isl' lm ld ind ividually. So metimes two fcil lu r~'s that hllve H' ry ... IlII ilar ~ llCC (ral dla raL'l cristres (<:.g.. Similar h la<: k-anJ- wh ilc IOllC'" or <:olurs ) cxh ib it
    di tl"crcnl ll:x ture char ac ll'risl ll's thai a llow a tra ined inlerprl'k' r til d i" llllg ll i ~h he lWCl'n them . W.... o lkll usc the te xtura l
    adjccti\cs "'11I ' IOlh (uni t"iH'III. hOIlHlgl'llCOlIS ). ink'r llled i;lte.
    :lnd n1ugh (lnarsc . lwkrogen ellll ~) .
    Il is illlpo rt,lIlt to untler...lund tha t the le\l ure in a cClta in portion of a phomgr:lph is strict ly a timc tion of scal.... Fo r exa mp le. ill a w ry laqt e-,ca k' aL' riitl l' howgra ph (e ,g., 1:5( 0) we
    mighl be ahle to actua lly sec the le:l\'es ;1111.1 bra nches in the
    ea nnpy of a stand of trees and descri hc the a rea as ha ving a
    Ct,a rse t<: Xl tJre. Ilo .... .:\lr. IS the ..ca lc o f the image-I)"
    become s sm aller (e.g. 1:5.(1)(1 ), thc ind ividual lea \cs and
    hr.:mlhes and e"en the IreC' crow n.. migh t Ct13 lcscc. giv ing us
    th~' Impre-,sitlll th;lt thc ~Iand nil\\' has an internlcdiale lexturc, i.e., it is not ~ mooth but dcli l1 i t el ~' not rough. \ \ l len the
    same s!;lnd o f trees is \'ic .....cd at a \ ery sm all scale fe-.g.
    1:50.0(111). It mig ht ;lppcar to be a uni li)rm lilres t "I.tnd w ilh
    smooth Il' xturc. Thus. lexture is a functi"n of the M.'alc u f the

    "

    OI.\PTER

    138

    ~5

    Elements 01 Visua l Image Inter pretallcn

    Elerno

    Shap e

    b. Rcct.mgubr single- and


    dooh le-wlJe mobile h",,,\\.,,, ror -.ale.

    a Triangular (delta) ~apc of


    a 'Yrical pa"~l!CT j et.

    c . 8lJ,ck-andwh'lc infT3red image ofdic


    I'cnla~," ~~ ..,,,,<:~y

    p"SIU\C S~slcrns.11lC

    d. A curvrlmearc1llvcrkafhighway
    IntcN;~li"n i n the ( 'AIll'l.t S,al.-s

    f Radial palm tree

    c. The curvili near shape of can:fully cngt-

    R gu ra 59

    Ele ments ,, ( lmag,- Interpretation -

    f~>nds

    in San Uicgu . CA.

    necred rice li ",ld levees in luui,j,m>t

    Sha!X'.

    ima gery a nd the ability uf th e interpreter to perceiv e ,I1lU

    Finally, the wurcrlilics give way 10 dark . sm\lu tht cxlu~

    de scribe it.

    water.

    Several othe r textur e udjcctivc , a rc often used. incl ud ing


    mo ttled , stip pled, ere. II i ~ diffic ult to de fine e xact ly wha t is
    meant by eac h of these tcxurres . It is sim ply bener 10 presen t
    11 fe w exa mples, as shown in Figu re 5- 10. Both the avocado
    orchard and the trees in the court yard have a coa rse te xture
    on th is large-scale photograp h ( "' i gu r~ S lfIa). Cooversety,
    the co nc rete ma d an d much of the grdss yard huvc a smooth
    tex ture. Just behind the pool, t he soil ex hibits vary ing
    degrees o f mois ture co ntent. c;lU~ i ng 11 mo nied te xture.

    Two piles of 50-n pine logs lit a sawmill in Georgia ilIt


    show n in Figure 51 nc. The logs exhibit a coa rse. hctcrogeneous tex ture with ,I linear puucrn. Th e shado w between the
    stacks has a smooth tex ture.

    In Figure 5-10b. the pi ne fo rest on the le ft ha s a relat ively


    tex ture a s the individualtree crowns lire visible. The
    bright sa ndy beach has a !>I1100th tex ture. Bo th cattails ncar
    the shore and watcrlilics fart her out into f -Lake o n the
    Sa van nah Rive r Site ex hibll intermediate to roug h tex tures.

    Co..1r1>C

    Figu re 511ld is (Ill interesting photog rap h of sys temat ieall)


    placed circ ular marijuana plarus i n l e rspe rs~d in a field oj
    co m. Th e physio logy (stru ct ure) of the two types of plants.
    the ir ~paci ng, and or ientation com bine to produce a coarse.
    tex tured agr kul tura l field. The shado ws produced by the
    marijuana plan ts contribute substantially 10 the texture oflbe
    area. lnlere~ti ngly, the goal of the farmers appea rs to be
    working. Few novice interpreters app reciate the subtle diffcrenccs in texture visjblc in the field.

    139

    Bemenls of Image Inter pretati o n

    Texture

    Rdalh e1y coarsc-rcxrurc ;I\'l<;aoo fidd


    TIle ~ and road hoi>" a ., mont h rcwu rc.

    I.

    oJ- ('oa..,;cIC\lurc Soulh C~r<.>lil1a corn lk ld


    illIcr,~rsed \\ nh circular marijuana p l~IlI'.

    b. Pmc ltd, coa~ l""lure: cattails and

    C. Ccerse I", lure o f Cre,hl) cut pine

    ha>" Illh:nnedlate l"'lur" ,

    l~, ~l a sawnullrn li"''''jo: ia.

    c. MUlll" d te xture on fallo w <oil ill a


    cer uer-prvct img~ll"n 'y,I.m

    C A \-"ri.:ly oftextures ;11"1111


    a tril.llll a r~ "fille "h' M.__ ll'pi,

    "dl~"flil ...~

    t j""r~la

    Figum 5- 10

    Elements of Image lntcrprccuion

    Pwt orlhc agricultur'll li.:lJ in Figur e 5- 10.' is bei ng culu\~Ied .. hilc the remainder is in fallow . TIl(" vegetat ed sourh~\~, portion of Ill.' ccuu-r-pivur irng auon system IlJS a
    'fblil'dy smooth text ure. Howe ver, the remaining fallo w
    x nion of the field appears to have areas with varyi ng
    lIIlOunt, of soil muisrurc or diffcr cm MliI type s. T his causes
    i!Iis erca til have a monlcd texture . O ne par t of the mon ied
    :e1ture region still bears the ci rcular scars of six wheels o f
    drt ,rnTer-piHlt irrigat ion system.
    Il!iQu>vegetation an d sa nd hnr textures arc present in the
    o f a tributary to the Mississippi Rive r
    ilFigure 5-1 Of. A dense stand of willow s para llels rhc lower
    >bDrdine. creaung a relatively tin e texture whe n compa red
    l'ihlh~ Itardl'. Otkl behin d it with its coarse tex ture. The sa nd
    \1m ererspcrscd wit h wa ter crea te a uniq ue. sin uous textu re
    II \\ell as a serrated pattern . Som e of the individua l tree
    .:liI\lllS in the upper portion of the ima.!!(' arc spaced \\e11

    Pattern

    Panern is the spatial uuun gcmcm of'obj ccts ill the land scape
    l Figure 5- 11), 'lhc obje cts may be arra nged random ly or systematica lly. They may be natu ra l. us w ith a dra inage punc ru.
    or human-mad", as wi th the Tow Ihh ir and Runge land tenure system presen t in the western United Sta ll'S. Panc m is a

    very d iugnos uc character istic I l l' many features. Typ ical pat-

    tern adjectives include random. sysl ellMtic. circu lar, centripetal. o val. curvilinear. linear. rad iat ing. rec tangula r,

    iI:g~ $C3 k photograph

    he xagonal. pcmagouul, octagonul. ere.

    lplt creenng

    Exam ples of typ ical pallem , r upture d on remOle se nsor data


    are shown in Figure 5- 11. The fi~1 example depicts the systcmatic. triangular pat tern o f B - 5 ~ s be ing dismantled at
    Momham ..\ I r f- orce Hase IFigure 5- lla l. A large metal
    blade cu ts rhc fuselage mro a sl>o:cilic numbe r o f ports . The
    parts must remain \ isiblc for a certain numbe r ofda ys so that

    a mo re coarse tex ture .

    ~5

    ClIA l" n :R

    140

    Elements 01 Vis ua l Image Interpret ati on

    Pattern

    3. S> ~ ..:m al ic.lriallj!:uIM pattern of


    B 52s !It'mll d''ilTl.anl lcd Icoll r1<.'sy U ~(jSI,

    b. Seven circular grai n silos ...,h,bil a cu~i


    hnear pattern on Ihis southeastern farm

    c . Random. ~inlKl\ls br.tiu...-d stream pancm


    (\Il a 'WId)' soil at Pen Branch. Sc.

    d. T.. wnshi p & Rang...sun ey

    e. Systematic. linear row~ of potatoes


    wnh some dama~d ldan.: l hy late blight.

    f. Radinnng road paucm in Paris (S,wln-

    pancm nn mullll"<.! "'HI III Te xas,

    Figu re 5- 11

    Elements of Image lntcrp rcmtion -

    fo reign countries can usc thei r own aerial reconnaiss ance


    Icd1tlu!ogy to verity rhar the ~pcl: i fled number of 11-52s have
    been rcmov .'J from service as part o f the strategic arms limitation process. Heuvy equipmen t mov ing between the a ircraft creates a unique curvilinear transpnrunion pattern .
    Seven large silos USl'U to store agr icult ural gra in are seen in
    Figure 5-11b. The indiv idual si los are c ircu lar hUI they arc
    s itua ted in a curvilinear puucm on the landscape. Num ero us
    rectangular farm hu ild ing s orie nted nort h-sou th arc arra nged
    in a random fashion.
    ..\ random. sinuous braided stream patte rn is present at the
    mou th \.1" Pe n Brunch. SC . in Fjgure 5- lle. Th is particu lar
    pancm resembles braided hair. hence the terminology. The:
    major dra inage patte rns , isi Me m remote ly sensed data are
    d iscussed in Chapter 13.

    fnnn <pu![uk aru.l Acr-a l Inml!cs.l nc .).

    Pattern.

    Figure ~ I I d dcpicrs the syst ematically surveyed Townsf


    & Range cadastra l syst em superimposed on an ag ricuhun
    region in Texas . The NAPI} photograph reveals sma ll farmste ads separated hy large t ract s of agriculrumllund, T he ,oi
    moist ure and sllil ly pe differences in the field s com bine t
    cr eate all unsystcm.uic, mott led soi l texture.
    Poutocs arrange d in sys tem atically spaced linea r ro ws iII't
    she.... n in Figu re 51I e. various rows arc arranged in a reo
    ang ular patte rn. T his nea r-infra red photo graph reveals tRl:
    so me o f rhe fields tha t appear da rk have ex perienced latc
    blight damage.
    A KV RIQOO Russian sat clluc photograph revea ls the s~,.
    tcmatic, radiat ing mad pattern cemcred on the Arch de Triumph III Pari s (Figu re 5- 11 I).

    EI

    14 1

    Ele ments of Image Interp ret atio n

    Shadel"

    t. People .mJ bcndlC1> recorded in kire

    photoil12phy

    .wurtc~~ ' Cn~

    11.:"1,,,'11 ,

    d, Pyramitls of Gi"a I C\'lIr1cs~'

    "e So" in-

    f"'Wlllnik and Acr iallmJl!cs. IIK I

    b. Shadows ca'<t from La Gkw-i<-tlc A~h


    of (j lor~- - In "icnna. ,\ ..>In..

    c, Shadows provi de inform at ion about


    object heights (cmcr~c. lnct.

    Figure 5 12

    Elements of Image hucrprcrmion

    Shadow

    "p

    ""n
    )iJ
    10

    .re
    ct01

    ue
    .~

    ,.

    M,I\( remote sensor data is collected within .!. .:! hours of


    srbr nonn to avoid extensive shadows in the imngcry. This
    sjecause shadows from OOjl'C(S can obscure other ohjects
    lhatmight otherwise be detected and identifi ed. On the othe r
    WiJ. the shadow or .,illwll;'f/(' cast hy a ll object may he the
    ooI~ rest due 10 an object".. ide nt ity. FI'r example. consider
    *c shadows cast b) 1\1.0 people stand ing 011 :1 pier and the
    ibadows cast II)" benches in fi gure 5-123, The shadows in
    il: image actuall y provide more m fonua uon than th...
    ~ themselves. La Gtoncuc
    Arch o f G lory - in
    Ilelma. Austria. has unique statues on lnp o f it ( Figure 52b1. Through carcfulcvaluauon of till' sha dows in the vcr.DI photograph. it is po....ihle to determine the location of
    ibeltitues on lOpo f the huild ing. Siml l:.rly_ sha dows cas t t'ty
    s:p:s or bridges IFigu re 5- 12..: I arc otlcn more mformanvc
    . . the objects thcrnsclv es in vertical aerial photography.

    c. Rridgo:: and sign shaJo"~


    Il'"",.dc valuable inf"m.ali"n.

    r. Onenr images stllhm , hadows fall


    t"..'anithe newer durinl! illla!:c allalysb
    Shadr",. ,

    Very ,111;111-s"';tlc photog.raphy or irnagl'r) usua lly docs not


    ronrain sh;ulo\Vs ,l ( objects lInle'ss lhcy protrude a great disranee above su rro und Il l !:!. terrain suc h as mountains.
    extremely tall buildings, etc. Fur cxumplc. consider the
    shadows cas t by the g reat pyrnmirts o f( jin in Egypt (Figure
    5-12 dl, lhc distinctive ~h; ld ow~ arc very diag nos tic during
    image interpretation.
    In certain instan.:es, shadows can provide clue.. uhout the
    hciglu of an object \\ hen the image inte rpre te r do es nut have
    accevs ro stereoscopic imagery. for exa mple. the building
    shadows ill f igure 5- I.:!e provide valuable mformauon abo ut
    111..- relati ve IK'ight o f the bu ildin g abov e the ground. i.e. tha t
    it lS~' one-story ..ing le-farm ly residen ce. Chapter tJ (P hotogranunctryj describe... how shadow in for mation can hoc used
    10 measure the hcighr of objects.
    When uucrprcnng imagery w ith substantia l shade.... s. it is a
    good pracncc to oncm the imagel')' !>O tha t the shadows fa ll

    C1t" .' n :n

    142

    Elemen ts o f Vis ua l Image Interp re tation

    IIcighl a nd Dept h

    a. Rei ic f "ll ~I'IaCCI11 <nt is au importa nt


    mnn" 'l:opi ,' cue about object h ci ~ hl

    Fig ure 5 13

    h. Shadow s lind m;L, "il1!ol in duwmown Sun


    Francis.." (c(ltlnc'}' (iO:(1I-yl', Inc. I.

    c. Buthytnctry o f Montc ruy Buy. CA


    (court..-sy l UW.l n..:.: S['<lI' Image. In'l

    Elements of Image lntcrprctauon - Height and Depth.

    toward rhc image interpreter such as tho se shown in Figure


    5- 12f. This kee ps the anal yst rrom cvpericnci ng p.\ t'''c/'' n 'opic il/u.\iOIl .... here 10" points appear h i ~h and vice n :rsa.
    Fo r example. it is difficult to interpret thc ph otogra ph of the
    forest and .... etland shown in Figure 5- 12f\\'h..:n it is " 1(".... 00
    wuh the shade .... s fallin g away frcru the \ ie.... cr. Please turn
    the page around 1ROO and sec how diffi cutr it is 10 interpret
    correctly. Unfortu nat ely. most aeri al phot og raph) {If the:
    no rthern hemis phere is obta ined during the lea f-off spring
    mon ths when the Sun casts sha dows nort hward . This can be
    quite disc oncerting . The solution is to reorient the photographs so thai so uth is at the top. Unfcnu uarcly, if we ha\e
    to ma ke a photom ap or on hop hotomap o ft he study area. it is
    ca rtographic conv enuon In oricmthe map with no rth at the
    to p. Th is can then cause some pro b lem s when laypc rsun s
    irucrprct the photomap because they do not know about
    pscudoscopic illusion.
    Shadow s on radar imagery nrc comp letely black and contain
    intormauon. Fortunately, th is is 1101 the case with Sh~IJ
    ow s on aerial photograp hy, Wh ile it may he relat ively dar k
    in the shallow area, there may still be sufficie nt light seattcrcd into thea rea by surrounding ohjcels to illuminate thc
    lcrrain to so me de gree and enabl e car e ful image intcrprctuuon to take place ,

    lin

    Height and Depth

    The ab ility, to \ isua lly appreciate and measure the hvigh t


    (elc\atiO!11or de pth (hmh)'metl) I o f an ohjC'Ct (lr land lonn is
    one o f the mo.;l d ia g n~lst ie clements ( I f ima ge interpretation
    ( Figure 5-13). Stere oscopic para llax i ~ intr. 'dueed 10

    rcrmnely sen sed data w hen the sam e obj ect is viewed fra
    two d ifferent va ntage: points along a fhghrline. Vie:\\11
    these ()\ cr la pping photographs o r imag es using 5 rl'rtU.~('O~
    in-arumenrs is the op timum method lo r visually appreciatia
    the three -dimensi onality of the terrain a nd for e,\ tractil
    acc urate x.y. and c topograph ic and'or bathyme tric mforra
    lion . Tech n iques of stereoscopic analysis are presented i
    Cha pter f> 1Phot ogra rnmct ry j.
    How ever.t here are als o m mUHl"fll'ic cues tha t we ca n use t
    apprecia te the hc igfu or dep th o f a n object. For exam ple. aD
    obj ect such as a building o r utility pole that protrudes ab.n
    the local da tum w ill ex hibit radial rel ief d isplaceme nt ott
    ward from th.: princi pa l p oim III'a ty pical \ ert ica l ae rial phi
    tc graph. In effect, we arc able to sec the side of the fcatur
    as dcmon strated in Fig ure 5 IJa. Al so , call o bjects protrudu
    above rhc local datum cust a shadow that pruv ides d lllgnust
    height or elevation infonnmion such as rhc various buildinj
    in San Francisco shown in l' ig llTe 5- 1.~ h . Also. maskir
    rake s place in some images \\ here tall objects obscu
    I,hjce ls behind them. ll1 a~ ill g it cle ar that one object II:
    grc urcr elevation than anot her. For example. the build ing
    the IUp of Figu re 5-lJb is ma sk ing the buildi ngs beh ind
    su~es ti ng thai it ha s greater he igh t.
    T h!." o pti mu m me thod o f obt a ining harhymctnc measur
    ments is to usc a Minar re mot e !>Cllsing de vice wh ich SI.-'I'lI
    OUI a pu lse (If sound and measures how long it takes lor d
    sound 10 pass th roug h Ihe water co lumn. bou nce off the: be
    10 m. and be rc-ccrdcd b) the se nso r. Th e image o f r.lo ll1c:n
    Hay. CA. in }-' igu re 5-l.k "as oh ta in~ using SO NA R ar
    ntc:f)!.l,.oJ " ith a SPOT ima ge: \If the: t .:rre~tri al lands ca.po:.

    Elemenls a t Image Inte rp rel a t ion

    143

    Site. Sit ua tio n. and Associat ion

    r
    a. TlImn;I.I electric lI..yll<:~ Slo,:..m
    Plan' 111 Lonlll-k..ch. CA

    Figure 5-1 4

    b. A :S.a\'-mlll \'-ilb its assccratcd I'rlc~


    tlf raw and Iimsbed lumber .
    Elements of lmage Interpretation -

    SiIe. Situation, and Association

    r-

    ,.

    f. siluutiUll, and associatum characteristics an: ve ry


    IllpQllanl ~ hen try ing 10 identify an objcxt or ac uvuy, A site
    unique physical and/or socioeconomic charactensrics.
    The physical charac tcrisncs might include elevation, slope.
    I:IpCCI. and lyre o f su rface cove r (c.g.. ha re so il, grass.
    lluub scrub. rangeland. f(lre~I, water, as pha lt. concrete.
    iooling. ctc.]. Socioeconomic sire characteristics might
    1lC1ud<. the value (If the: land, the land-tenure system at rhe
    !lk(metcs and bounds \l'r-.us To\\n~hi p and Range ). adja~n.:y I.) water, an d. LIT adjael'ncy to a certain type o f pop ula IXIn (pr{lk~~ional. blue-collar. retired . etc.).

    5il~ali(JIl

    ,~

    s,
    s
    rt

    I.

    ,
    e

    y
    j

    refers IU how certain objects in the sce ne: ore crg nlIIed and oriented re lative to nn e another. Otten, ce rtain raw
    aaeria!s, buildings. pipelines. and finished produ cts arc s ilsated in a logical. predictable ma nne r.

    ,l uo(i"lio" re fe rs til the I ~lct that whe n yo u li nd a cert ain


    Jil~nomcna or aruviry, you <llmosl invariably encounter
    elated or associated features or activities. Site, situation,
    Ild association elements of image imc rp rctauon arc rare ly
    tied independen tly when analyzing <I ll image, Rather, they
    are used synergis tica lly to arrive at a log ical co ncl usio n. Fo r
    rumple. sewage d isposa l plants arc a l m o~t always located
    iIIItlat sites situa ted nca r a wurcr sou rce so they ca n dispose
    oithetreated water, and they ex isl rel:lliwly close 10the prookln~ communi ty. Large commercial shopping malls typially' have multiple large buil dings o n k\c1 siles, massive
    tmking lOIs. and arc ideally ,iluall-d ne:lr major tra nsJlOrlallOI'I anerics and populatiun centers.

    c. Vot/:k I'\u.:kar Pewer Planl


    near"U~LJ'la.

    OA.

    Sileo SrIUJli.lll. and i\s....xianon.

    Thermal electric power plants such as the Hayne s Steam


    Plan t in Long Bea ch. CA. sho w n in Figure 5-1 4a are usually
    located 011 Ila r. ....eu-engmeered sites wi th lal}!e: tanks of
    pct rolcumror other type of natural rc-sourcet nearby that is
    burned 10 create steam 10 prope l the electric ge nerators.
    vta n- made levies. ca lled "rcv cuuc nts," often cncom pa..s the
    tan k farm to contain the petrole um in the event o f an accident. Thermal electric power p lants arc ofte n assoc iated with
    some type n f ro:circulating cooling J'l'lIlds. The wate r is used
    10 cool critica l steam-generating com ponents.
    Sa" mills such iI" the on e shown in Fig ure 5- 14b arc usually
    sued on flatte rrain .... ithin 20 kill o f ma ny stands o ft ree s and
    ass ociated wit h larg c piles (If raw tim ber. well -organ ized
    piles o f finished lumbe r. a fu rnac e to d ispose of w ood waste
    prod ucts, and a n ex tensive pro ce ss ing fac ility. Railroad
    spun; arc often L1 Sl'd 10 transport the finished lum ber or
    wood-chip p rod ucts to marke t.

    Nuclear power plants exist nil extremely we ll-engineered


    level sites . The)' ha ve large conc rete reac tor co ntainment
    bu ilJing(sl . Th e , ile may contain large recircula ting cooling
    water pond s or enormous cooli ng 10 \\ crs such as thos e und er
    construc tion at the VOJl tk Nuclear Pow er Plant near
    Augusta. GA, in Figure 5-14c. Po wer-generat ing plants do
    nor need to he ndjacern to the co nsu ming popu lation as elcctncuy can be transported economically great dis tanc es.
    Expe rt image: a nalysts bring 10 hear sue, situation. an d association knowledge III an image interprc-rarion problem. Such
    know k-dge is obtailll-d by ohse1\' illg phenomcna in the: rcal
    w{lrld. The best image ana lysts have seen an d ap prec iate a
    d iH'r.>c am I)' o f nat ural ilnd man- mad.: en \ ironmems. It is
    d illicult 10 iden tify an objeci in an ima!,:e: if Ol1e has never

    C " :\ I' IH-/.

    144

    the object in the real worhl and docs not ap preciate its
    site. si tu auo n. arul associa tion cbaracren-aics.

    "lOC Il

    Ele me n ts of VIsua l Imag e Interpretation

    Table 5-2.

    Methods of Search

    t 'olla rcralm formauon l\!Im use d in Ihc inte


    tion l)l' aerial photography a nd u lher rcrllVld)
    sensed data 1Il the Umtcd Slates.

    ColiaterailntormatJon

    Topic

    lmcrnational Map o f the World I :1.000,000 I


    " Itilma l Gcospmal-Inrclligcncc A g L'11l")'
    i:>;GAl t.l()(I.OOO: I:ZSO.OOO
    USGS 7.S-min 1:24,000
    L'S(iS IS-min 1:63.360
    Image hro ...<in:sysk'ms: Googlc Emit.
    Space Ima lling, l>ig ilaIGloho::. S POT

    Gc:nl'ral
    oden.alio n

    Phoro-i nterpretauon ha-, been taki ng place since Gaspard


    Felix Toumac hon (NOlda!l too k the fin>! successful aeria l
    photograph in France in 1l'5X. Over the years. scie ntists
    have developed some valuable app roaches 10 interpreting
    remotely sensed da ta. including; I ) utilizing colla teral
    (anci llary) info rmat ion, 2J converging the c vid...nee. and J)
    apply ing tho: multi-concept in image analysis.

    Bouodario.' ~

    or

    d ist r icts

    Using Coflateral Information

    USGS 7,S-min 1:24.(100


    USGS IS-min 1:63.360
    Boards "tatc, ccurny. ciry. school. fire.
    voting, ...ater. ....wer

    e ' ly and counly 13' maps

    Trained image unc rprcters rarely interpret aeria l photography or other remote se nsor da ta in a vacuum. Instead , they
    collect as much ('vlfuItTtll (u ll en called " " d ll,,,)' ) informalion about the subject a nd the study area as poss ible. Some of
    the major types of collateral information arc summarized in
    Table 5-2. incl uding the usc of a variety of ma ps for o rientauo n. polit ical boundary information. prope rty line cadastra l
    data, geodetic control (x,!,,:). fo rest stand dat a, geologic
    data, ha za rd informatio n. sur face and s u bs u rface hydro logi c
    data, socioeconomic dam. soil ta xon omy, topographic and
    bath ymetric data, tra nsportanon fea tures. and wetland information . Ideally, these data nrc stored in a gcogr.Iph ic information sys te m l (, IS) fo r cavy retrie val and ove rlay wit h the
    remote sensor da ta ,

    It is useful In contact the loc al :-.J ati on al weather Se rvi ce to


    obtain quanrirnuve inform.uiou onrbc meteo rological cond itions rhat occurred 011 th<.: day the remote sensor data were

    colle cted (c1ollll cover. visibility, a nd precipi tation) a nd tor


    till' d<t y s preceding data cnlk d ioll. US( ,S water-supply a nd
    strcurn-g.urgc report s urc al so use ful.
    Scicurisrs also obtain local st reet maps. terrest ria l photographs. local an d rcg jonnl geogra phy boo ks. and j ournal and
    popular mag-al ine aruck-s aboutthe loca le or subject m ail er.

    G("od etic

    USGS digita l line graph - clc vatioe

    ("onlr,,1

    :>.GS - nautical and bathymetric charts

    Fu n ..., !}

    L'SrS - furl"'l stand illf" rm'lIiofi


    USGS - surfece and su bs urfa ce
    FEMA - flood msura nce maps
    USCG - environmental s.,:ll)iti\i ty mdex

    USGS digu a l line graph - surface h~dml~


    !'\GS - nau tic al and bathyme tric charts
    US(iS - water-supply reports
    USGS - strea m ga uge reports

    Sud ,,
    l'ClJllt1 ll1 k

    - l'e n "l l ~ I m c l ~

    Sl"S. NRl"S
    T"l' u ~ nl tJh)'1

    hnl h.\'IlI\'lry

    soil taxon omy mars

    USGS - Na tional e k va liull da lase tl NED)


    ~ (i '\ . d igil:iI terrain elevation data (DTEDI
    USl( j - nauti cal ;IIlU bathymetric <.:h'\I1$
    USUS d igital line g raph - rraus port ation

    lJUrtll'iun

    County and state transportation maps

    W Clll11l'r i

    ~ati<l I\:l1

    Wcmller Service - ;..j EXRAl>

    a tm"" ph H l'
    US( iS - National ,""clland Inve ntory map'
    ;.!OAA - Coastal change analysis program

    data can be geome tric ally regist ered 10 the s pa tia l informsin the (ilS d.ua bace and im portan t in te rrelat ionships

    uon

    evalua ted.

    O tten muc h of this co llateral spatial information is stored i n


    a G IS. Th is is particularly use ful since the remote sensor

    Tran c-

    Th e y Ialk w ith local experts . well-trained im age analy sts g el


    into the fiehl III ap precia te firsthand the lay of the land, its

    subtle so il and vegetation cha racte ristics. the d rainage and


    geomorphic conduicns. and human cu ltural impact.

    Bureau of the ( 'ensus - de mograp hic data


    - T IGER bl,,<,.'k data

    lletllod s 0 1 Search

    Convergence of Evidence

    b is 3 good idea to "01'1,. from the known 10 the unknow n.


    fill'ua mplc, perhap s we arc ha ving diffi culty idenutying a
    pmicular type: o f i nd u ~ l ry in an ae rial photog raph. Ca reful

    euminuuon uf wha t W I: l,hl know about things surrounding


    r.r.d influencing the objec t o f interest ca n provide valuable
    t!ut"> that could a llow us to ma ke the identification. Th is
    might include a care ful lntc rprctauon o f'thc building ch araceisncs (len gt h. w idth. he ig ht, num ber of sto ries, 'ypC' of
    ~Irul'ti on l. the surro unding trans portation pattern fe .g ..
    pui1l1g fae iliti l"S. railroad spur to the building, adjal'e f:t 10
    .. mtl'J'Stale L sill: slope an d as pect. site drainage ch arac ter1ItlrS. unique u l ilili~ coming into or ou t o f the faci lity (p ipe~ water intake or out pull. unus ua l raw materials Ill'
    fiaished products in \ iew ou tside the build ing, an d methods
    ofuansJ"'lIr1i ng the raw and finished goods [tractor traile rs,
    Iroding docks, ram ps. crc.). We br ing all thc k ne w ledge we
    !live to the image intcrp rcunlon problem and COn\'t'/b'I ' our
    nid<'l1('I'tu idc nti fy the object or process a t work ,
    Let us consider another exam ple of conve rgence of eviJrnce, Sup pose we " ere asked to desc ribe the type \ 11' airport
    f&: ility shown in Fig ure 5 15. AI first glance we migh t conclude that this is a c ivilian airport wnh com merc ia l jet s.
    ihlYle\eT. upo n closer inspection we lOCe that jets ~ . J. and 6
    appear normal [c.g., larg e de lta-shaped Boein g 707s), but
    ,IrtS ~ and 5 ex hib it substa ntially di fferent sh adow pa lleITlS
    III the fusda" e and on the ground. Jcl number I a lso exhi bits
    ~ unusual sha dow char acteristics. Funhcrrnorc , \\ e no te
    wt jets 4 and 5 have an un usual da rk c ircul ar o bj ect with a
    ll.bilC bar on it Ihat appea rs to lit.' on lop o f the jcts.

    An Image analyst th:n has see n a Boeing E-J A irb(lmt,. W:-lm mg and ('onl wf Systc m (AI,l.'ACS ) a ireratl o n tht,.' gro und
    ~ llu l d probably ide nti fy the AWACS aircra n <.] ukk ly, NOIlmilitmy image ana lyst, wou ld need to

    145

    The li~t step 10 curnoullagc an [ -3 sittillg tin the tarmac


    \\t'ultl he 10 alig n the whit e bar w ith the fusdage t ple ase
    r...fer 10 jet 11.

    The Multi-concept

    Kober! Colwell ofthe Forestry Department at the Unive rsity


    (If California at Be rkel ey put forth the /11l/ fri-l' /JI/('{'PI in
    imag e interpretation in the 1960s (Colwell, 19(17). Il l.' suggesrcd that the most use ful and accurar... met hod of sc ient! fie
    image uucrp rcration consisted o f perform ing the 1'0110" ing

    types of ana lysis: multispectral. m/llfidi ~drl;lfan', 111II1Ii-

    scale. and nmltnemporal. The multi-concept was funhc r


    elaborated upon by Es tes CI at ( 1983 1and Tcng ( 1997).
    Colwell pioneered the use of nndtiband aerial photograp hy
    a nd ItIllltiv><,aral re mote sensor da ta . lie docu mcnrcd tha r in
    agric ulture and forest environments. measurcmenrs mad e in
    mult ip le dis crete wavelength reg io n, (ha ndsj ofthe elec tro magnetic spectrum we re usua lly more valuable than acquiring sing k broadband panchrnrnmic-rype imagery. For
    cx amp le. Fig ure 5-7 d{lCIl111C l1 h~d the s ig nilic a nl difference
    in iuformarion content fo und in green . red. und ncar-in frared
    r nuluspcc unl images ofmangrove .
    Colwell a bo suggested that mulnscale (o fte n culled multislage) photography Ill' imaglJ;.' o f an area was very im portent. Sm aller -sea It' Ima ge!) It.'...J :XH.!)fI()1 was useful lo r
    placing intermediate scale imagl'T) (c.g.. I ;40 .000) in its
    prope r regiona l co ntext . Then. very large-sca le imagery
    te.g.. > 1: IO.f)lXI) could be used 10 provide detailed inform arion about local phe nomena. lnsuu field invcsrig urion is the
    Iargesl scale utilized and is w ry importa nt , Fuc h sca le of
    image ry pro\ ides uniq ue inlilm wlinll Iha l ca n be u ~ed to calibrat e the others.
    Prn lt-ss<l r {'ulwe ll

    \\I llS 11

    g rt'at bc lie\'l'r ill bringing many

    flllI lridi,I{";p lilf'II'Y' exp.:I1S togl,tht.' r 10 locus o n ;l re llWh: se ns-

    ' nute Ihe absc llec of co mmercia l a irptln passen ger


    hoarding/unloa ding ramp lae ililies suggl'sting Ihal this is a
    military ai rpt.Jr1:
    namin"' lh... unusua l shadll\\ palte ms:
    , consult manuals containi ng c.\ amp1cs o f va rious l'a ndi da le
    aircrnft thai could casl slll' h shado\\s (e.g., Figu rt.' 5- 11 hl:
    , com er!:'... the e vidence 10 arri\ e allhe co rrccl conclus ion.

    illg illl;!g.e alla lysis nr info n nat iol1 ("x tralti.)n prClhle m, Thc
    re<ll \\ (lrld t,."{' ,"sists of so ils. ~u r f3ee and subsu rface gt,.' o log y.
    \,ege lali.1I1, \\'a ll.'r. al mt1sphere. and man-m ade urb an strucIUTC. In th is age (If incre as ing sci("fltific s('II:'C iali7.:1lion, it is
    ,h llicult 1(11' any (lne ~Nll1 10 be ab le 10 unJen.land and
    e.\l!a..:t all lht.' pc rtinl'llt and \al uahk infomlalioll present
    wilhin a remote se nsor image. There fo re, Colwell strongl y
    S Il~l'stetJ that image analy:.t~ embrace Ih..: inpul o f ot h...r
    rnult id is....iplinary sci lnt i:.t~ in the image intt,.'rpreta tion proClSS. Th is philos ophy <l ml process often yicl ds s) l1crg islie.
    011\"'1. a nd unex pec ted re~ u lt s as m ullid isci plinary sci"'l1l ists
    each bring the ir expert ise to he;lr O il the landsenp"c a pprt.'e inlio n pfllblL' lll (OOI1I1.1y et al.. 20( 1). Tahl e 5-3 !ists thl' rlisc i-

    -5

    C H , ,.., Hoi

    146

    Element s of Vis ual Image In terpretation

    ,II fl diam rer

    h. Ruynl S~udi Air Force ll CX' iol: f . Aimumc


    Wami"g JnJ Contr,,1 Sy ,t,-", (AWACS ).

    Figu re 5- 15

    al Panchromatic image (6 1 x o [ em) 01an airport in Riyadh. "n udi A nll:..ia, obtained ou December 9, :WOI (court..':>} of D; ~~
    wlG lubc . lnc.). b) Tcrrcstri...1 \ le\\ of the Roya l Saudi A il Force version of the E .l Airhorne Warn ing and Control SystM
    (AWACS) aircran. The 1:-3 is equipped ....ith a I,)(.k-4,.... n" radar lhat can separate <inborn.: targets frum the ground and liQ;
    cluucr returns. It, n...Iar "eye" ha>. a 360" view of tbe iwri/un and can -'<.-0: m<>re tha n 320 km CWO mil. The U.S . Air Forte,
    !\AIO. I Me<! Kingdo m, France arK! Saudi :\r.lN a ''fIl"I'3''~' AW,\C"lspecd > KUO kmlh r t500 mi/hr); Ceilmg > 10.670
    (35.000 ft); Lndurance > II huun. WIthout rt:"fudin~; Ran b.... , 9.150 km (5,000 nautica l mi)1 ( R,)Cing. 2005 I.

    phn es of co lleagues that etten colla borate when


    ancally sluJy ing a certa in topic.

    s~ stem-

    While single-date remote sens ing invcstigauons ca n y ield


    impo rtant "information, they do not alway s provide inform-

    11011 abo ut the proce sses <It work. C onversely, a multitcmpo,.,,1 rem ote sensi ng investigat ion o btai ns more tha n one
    image of an obje ct. Monit o ring the phenomena through time
    allows us \0 unde rstandthe pro cesses ut work and to develop
    pred ictive mode ls (Lunetta and l.Ividge , 19'IX; Sc hill er al.,

    Conclusion

    T~ 5-3 ,

    147

    Multidisc iplinary s<: icm i~ls bring their unique training Itl th e' imn!.!... ime rpretation proc('s s.

    Topic

    Discip lin es
    A t;wnn rny. agric ultu ralengineering. b iolo gy.

    biOfl'Ogl':lphy. gL"t,I,). landscape ecology,


    soil science
    liodi'f"I'lit y.
    u billl
    Da[lbl~

    and

    Ilptil hm
    prqllu lH."

    Tomlry.
    ~tllnd

    Concl us ion

    8iu hlJ:!.) , I"" lugy . biogeography, landscape

    C:C01og)'. marine science, soil science


    Ca"~raph).

    G IS. comp uter science. ph<>t,..

    grammctry, I'rt'1,'Tarn ming. analyt ica l


    modelrn g

    Forestry, Igrooomy. rangeland ecology . tandscape ecology. t>iog>g' J.phy. wi l SCk:ncC

    \ \ 'e: now havc an unde rstandi ng o ft he funda menta l eleme nts


    o f image interpretation . w e can untize the elements o f image
    intcrprctauon III care fully analyze aerial photography or
    other tyJ!"s (If optica l (b lue , green , red . and nca r-infra red
    ....a\'dcnglhl re mote sensor da ta . Based on this foundat ion ,
    we ar... pr... pa red to pro~n..'1>s to mo re so phist ica ted ima ge
    ana lys is techniques . incl udin g the extracrion of quanutauve
    informauon from rem ote sensor d ata us ing pri nl i plC.'~ of
    photogramrn... try,

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    Kelly. I'll .. FSll'S, J, E. and K, A. K night. 1999. "Image lntcrprclati" ll Keys for Validutiou of G lohal Land-Cover Data Sets."
    {,h"'''Krammetric Ertgm,'crinK "" Rem,,/e Se".mg, b 5: 1041I (I.1',l ,

    Konecny, <L 2003, G,...i"!"rm"'i',,,: Rcmt>/" Se ,uing, Phato.


    gr<lm", ..trv ","l (as. Lon don : Faylor & francis. 241'1 p.
    Lin der , W. 2003, nigi/,,' Phnla[!mm mv/n': TI"'''I)' mrd Applin/
    tions, Be rl in: Spriupc r-vcrlc g . I i'l l) p.

    Sch ill. S" Jensen. J . R. and D. C. Cowe n, 1'l,}9. " Br idging the
    Gap Bctw ...en Government ami Industry: th e NASA Afflline
    Resc arch Center Program: ' (1,0 Inl;, ,,,-r,m"m ", 1,I(9 1:2()-33.
    Tcng , W. L.. 199 7. " Funda m entals of Photographic lmerpretation ,- Hm' lIal of I'holographic Intt'rpretali"n , W. Ph ilipsol
    [Ed.I, 2nd t d ., Ikth e~a : AS P& RS, 49-IIJ .

    Wo lf, P. R. and R. A Dewitt. 2n uo, f.'Jt'III('IIh ol f'}w/owummem


    wilh A"/,Jwufw,u In GIS, rc v.: \ I d 'r<lw H ill. (lUll p.

    ,"

    Photogrammetry

    "

    ,.

    P
    /

    lOl Og r Um m err y is the an and science of mak ing accurate meas uremen ts h)
    mea ns of aeria l photograph) . .-t"<1fog pho('IMrammltry is performed using
    da ta that are in a hard -copy format such as a 9 x Q in. ae ria l pho to gra phic pri nt
    Of positive transparency. {Jix ita1flhotogmmmt'rfy j " pcrfOrTTh."1J u..i n ~ a cornpurer and digital or digitized aeria l photography. Xcit hcr method is su per io r
    to the ot her. Each a pproach has an appropria te m it: depend ing upon the nature
    of the remote sensor data and the image anal) sis go,als, Th is chaprcr focu sc~
    011 meth ods to extrac t qnuntuutive infcrmauon from aeri al pho tography using
    hOlh analog and digital photogrammctric rcchrnqucv

    lido..... arc important mcasurc mcms that can he obraincd from a .\I1Il~h verti cal aerial photograph using analog or digital photogrammctric techni ques:
    scale of'thc photography:
    object height:
    object length:

    area o f an objec t or polygon;


    perimeter of an object or polygon:

    the grayscale tone or color of an object .


    The follo wing qua ntitative measure ments may he made using multiple [overlapp ing ) ste reosco p ic aerial ph otographs and analog or digiralrncasurcmen t
    of stereoscopic paralla x (to be defined]:

    precise planimetric (x.y) object location (If buildin g footprints, streets.


    hydrolog y, and shorelines in a standa rd map proj ection:
    precise o bj ect heig ht (z) .
    In add ition. digita l photogn nnmctric techniques applied [0 stereoscopic ae rial
    photography can yield:

    digital elevation models (D E\1 ):


    bathymetric mod els :

    149

    CIIA PT ER

    150

    FliJ;:h l li ne., r .\ n i al

    J'huI Ol:noph~

    Block 01( " l'r ho! f'h olol:l"aph )

    -------- [)trC<..1 ion o f F1i~h l------....~


    bposurc :;!<IUoo

    "
    V
    'V""'"
    "

    .,
    V

    Obh<tue p/Jol~ 11<1)


    :x:qui~ al the n>d or,

    r--lL..,=,1,,'E~l--\
    '5::':':~"::;=.
    Fli~ll;"" III

    Alu!Ulk
    ab,,'-e
    ground

    1"",,1.11

    Flighllinc 113

    l--

    (,()% on-dar
    Stereoscopic m"JcI
    ("".",age <lfphmol1.aph - l

    nmm recorded on three

    1---1SIKC,",S' '''Cp hlll"l1ra phs


    Fig ure 6 -1

    Photogrammetry

    A single Ilightlinc of vertica l aeria l photo graphy


    wuh 60 percent ove rlap Icndlap j obtain c ,J utrhree
    csposurc sranons /I O1, OIl"N abo ve grou nd level.

    Figure 6-2

    T 20 - JU"

    .1 ~'dd4'

    ..

    A block of "~'riill photogr aphy is produce d by


    rographing multiple tlrghttines that have 20-J{I

    cent sidclap . SUUle ~,hli~l le aer ial photogr aphy


    be acquired at the end of a thg t uline if the
    came ra is not turned oIl"<l uring the turn.

    vlope and as pec t in form ation deri ved from the digita l
    models:

    So metim es ae ria l photographs are acq uired w ith >80 pc


    overlap in mountai nou s terrain [Konecn y, 2003 ),

    planimetrically accurate (f..l ) onhophotogra phs.

    \I ost aerial photography project s require multiple l1ightl ~


    of pho tog raph y to cover the ~eogra phic area of mr
    Wh en th is occurs. the Iligh tlin cs are normally overlapped
    20 -]0 pe rcent. referred 10 as 5it1c1"p (Figures 6- 2 and 6-3
    To acqu ire mu ltip le thghtfines, a pilot mu st make a ISoot
    al the e nd o f a lli ght lin e and the n fly in the o ppos ite di
    non. Care shou ld be exerc ised when ana lyzing vert ical a
    photo graphs acquired al the en d of a Ilighrlin e beca use s
    photography obt a ined w hile the plane was banking dun
    the tum may be oblique. The algorithms presen ted in
    c hapter work best with nenr-vcrncal aerial photographs l::
    From nadir). Sometimes wind or pilot erro r w ill cause I
    plane 10 drift to the len or right ofthe desired line offlig
    When th is occurs. the footp rint o f each photograph or
    entire night lim: may be offset as shown in Figure 6-3b, Th~
    is 111) 1 a se rious condition as lo ng as it doc s not become t~
    seve re and the 60 percent overlap and 20---JO percent side
    arc maintained.

    .:1<: \ auon or bathymetric

    FJig htiines of Vertical Aeri al Ph oto g raphy

    It is nec essa ry to unde rsta nd how individual aer ial photogra phs arc acqu ired at various exposure .\'/(11 ;011.1' along a
    n ight lim: befo re we can correctly apply photogrnmmctn c
    tec hniq ues 10 ext ract quannta nv c measu rements .

    or

    A j/i!f,ll/lim'
    vertical acriaf pho tography is obtain ed by
    mounting a camera in an air cra u, he licopter, or spac en aJl
    uml obtaining pluuographs the terrain di rect ly beneath the
    p lat form at speci fic exposure sta tions. 111C geometry o f thre e
    hypot hetical vertic al aerial photog rap hs tak en in succes sion
    over rela tively leve l terrain arc de picted in Figu re 6- 1. Th e
    time betw een individu al exposures a long a l1ightl ine is
    determi ned by selli ng the came ra intcrvatomcter. The aerial
    photographer takes into acc ount the spee d of the ai rcra ft an d
    the scale o f'thc de sired photography and sets the intcrvalometer so that each vert ical ae ria l pholog raph overlaps the next
    pho tograph in the tlighrline by approximately Nl pe rcen t
    (referred to as stereoscopic overiup or end/ap) ( Linde r.
    21)03). This mY'r/ap is very important beca use it provide s al
    kasl two and sometimes three phtllll gra phie \ iew s of each
    obj ec t in the rea l worl d along a llightlirK' [ Figu re 6- 1).

    or

    \1u ltiple tligfulines with 20--30 pe rce nt sidelap art' ref


    to as a bJ,J':1t. o f ae ria l photogra ph) ' ( Fig ure 6-2). For exa
    pie . co nsider a po rtio n o f a b lock of'verrical aeri a l photo~
    phy of d(ll'." town Columb ia. SC . shown in Figu re e- Ja .
    block consists oflhrcc photog raphs in each o f two llighlli
    (#3 and ,,4\. The p hotog raphy were acquired on March
    IIN3. at approximately 3.oon It above ground level wit h a 6in. ( 1 5~ .lo:2 mill ) focal- length lens and a Wild RC 10 carren
    yie lding approx imat ely 1;6.000-sca lc photo grap hy. Th ere '

    151

    F1ighltines of Vertical Aeria l Photography

    IUm..k of A ('ria ll'hotn:.:rap hy Cum pll ed to C rea te an Un controlled Phntu nmsaic

    F~ure 6-3

    a ) T\\ {l t1 i1Chtlin\'~ ( liJ and ~ 41 of I :t../l(I()!'oCalc vertical nc na l ph'lltl~r:a l'h ) (\fl 'olumbia. Sf', obtained ;It .l,nOfl It. allow local
    gwumllnd lI~lng a o-in. (15!.K:! mrnj focal-length lcn c. I'll An uncontrolled phU"'I11<J'iOlie urthc t>l<Jd of aerial photography,

    60 percent 0 \ erlap along each Ilight hnc and 20 p...rcent videepbctwccn the two Oightline!>.
    h i~ possible to combme seve ral vert ical photogra phs III the
    block orphotog raphy tu create an unccmtroltcd photomosaic

    n :igurc (>-_'11 1. This exa mple depicts on ly six 1:6.000-!>Ca k


    photographs. Acquirin g photography of a county, state or
    country somenrnes requires thousands of photograp hs.
    depending upon the sill.' of the country a nd the scale of the
    phllll'graphy .Tahlc 6- 1 provi des several metric and English

    ClI\I' I t :H.

    152

    Figur e 6-4

    Ph otog ram metry

    F'l ightl ill ." 1/.1. I'lw lll /;~ of \ ,'(1 ic 111 p.mchromat ic aerial ph,'1og raphy u f C olumbia. SC, " bla in,-ll I'll :\bn:h ~ (J. 1'1'l3, at apl'rox
    im al d y :U J(llI It alll)\ ( g round level usmg a Wild ftC 10 camera '" uh a b-in. fo cal-lcnp th lei'S. TIll; pho lOgraphy depicts the
    slate cap itol in the !ow<;r rihl corne r amlthc Univ...rsiry o r South Carolina campus ill Ill!; <:1:111I:r 1'1'the image . Eight fiducial
    mark, arc r rCII' l1\, I he -urling" ancillary dxta conta ins w ry valuable mfonuutum. indmHng it verba l sca k ( 1 in. = 500 1\) 0U1
    unfortunately l.h,l.'s tl llt show Ihe c xnct ultitudc. t ime oed"y. .uuount ofuh. ctc., th,u man y 111" \f i,' cnmcne, no w ro utinely prov ide , l his is;1 rcdlKt;nn ofth... original!) x <) in. I :6.!~ II),\ ak phlliogntp h.

    unit eq uivalents tha i ca n be o f s ign ifican t val ue whe n measuring the length a nd w idth o f tligfufincs.
    \1os1 of the acnul phl'll'gmphy acquired eac h year is
    obtained in the ea rly spring lcaf-o ff'pcr iod when snow is nor
    present and deciduous trees a TI' ~t; 1I dorm ant. This ma kes it
    easi er for the image anilly"t tl' sec through the branc hes of
    the ca nopy to the ground surface. This is es pecially importa nt if one is trying to ex tract topngraphic information from
    st<:rel,scI,pit' ae rial phohlg raphy Ito be discusv edr .

    Fidu cial Marks a n d Prin cipal Points

    A typicule x I) in. p;lI1 d m llllJ li..: \ cnical aerial photograph is


    sh""n in Figure 6 -4 ( reduced for printing purposes ). Note
    the clght /i, Jllt'iallllarh locate din rbc four co rners and in 1m
    centers uf the tou r s ilk s. Slime metric ca meras ha ve only
    to ur fidu cia l marks. l>mwing a linc between op posite fi duera! mark s locates the
    /1'1') o f thc photograph. which is the c.\ a":l pouu on the Earth \\ here the optical

    ,"''''<'iI'' ' '''!I!/!

    153

    Metry of Vertical Ae rial Photography

    FitlUCial /
    mark

    ,
    ~.
    J.

    Line of flig.hl

    Principal
    Point of

    principal
    Poiru of
    Photo # I
    1'1'1

    !'hotl' Ir~

    1"':

    Lmc of

    I'rincipill l'''"il ul
    Photo " 1 eq ua ls
    CUlljut;;II": Principal
    Point of l' hoh' ';2

    c.

    Figure 6- 5

    11/

    I' rind pa! Pcim of


    I' h" h' :12 equals
    CUlljugat.: Principal
    Point of Phoroe l

    tiO% overlap ----" 1


    stereoscopic model

    a t G .."lI11elry " fa ~i llgl.: acrlnl phulllgrCl ph (Photo # 1 f. n il' pri!lcip;t1 point (1' 1') is 1"':llI l'l! Oil the intcrscctionof'Hncs dr awn
    thnlligh Ilpfl< \,111 g" fiducm l mar ks. hI (i t'O O1ctry of Phoro 112. c ) Supcrpoxit inn \If ptn ,11' :: I und P!ll' h' #2. 1he /,1) percent overlap
    urea cun be v ic w..J stcrcoscopicull y. NOll' the locat ion "I' the princ ipa I p"in l \ 1'1' llll id \,m jIlgale I'ri nci pal poims (Cl ' 1'1o n ea ch
    I,hntr>fnph. .\ line drawn bctw ....-n th... pri ncipal points ilk'nt ilit.'s tlw hue .. r Il lght.

    axis of the camera W ll~ poilltillg. tluring the instant o r '::1\1'0sure (Figure 65). By c.m: fu lly c:>.amining the \ icinity ofthe
    principal po int on an airphoto. its locution C;Jn he visua lly
    uansferred 10 each of the two adjacent p llt't"~ in the fligh tline. The transfe rred prind pJI point is called a {"(mjll~lll<"
    prilld"..,' PfJilll lel'l'). The actualImc of l1ight (as opposed
    kltne des ired line of n ig ht l can be dctcrrmucd b} laym g o ut
    the photography an d draw ing a hue thro ugh the princ ipa l
    points and conjuga te prmcipal point (Figuft' fl-; J.

    Geo me try of Ver tical Aerial Photography

    t\ diagram of the geomet ry ofa single vertical aerial photograph of dow ntow n Columbia, Sc. is show n in Figure 6-6.
    In this e:l\Jmplc. :.l ') x v-in. negative w as obtained 011 e xposure station I. at
    above ~3 level (If I wit h a local elcvauon nf:' tK lli (1Jl. '1he dev eloped nega tive image space tc',
    b', r", and ,/ ', i ~ a revers al in butll tone and ~(,Cllllt:try of the
    Eart h object !>pac ,' (A. fl . C. and n ) and is suuatcd a d istance

    3.:mO n

    en \ .. 1 Fit

    \54

    Photogram metry

    tt

    "l'~alh t'

    (reversal of tone c
    and geometry ]

    Foc31
    leng.th.

    f
    Exposure station. L

    Camero len s

    A lurude

    abov e
    sea leve l,
    I!

    Cont act posil iH'


    print or
    transparency

    _ Sealevel
    Fig ure 6-6

    (i comc'lry .. fa vertical aeria l photograph oetaincd mer Ilattcrtain (C\ l]umbia. SCI .

    eq ual tu the focal length I [d istance ,, /. , bchmd the rear


    noda l point of the camera lens. A positive version or the
    scene ca n be produced by co ntact-primi ng the negative .... ith
    e ither photographic paper or pos itive transparency material.
    The result is a posi tive print or positive transparency ~\ uh
    tone and geometry t he same as that o f thc original obj ect
    space. Th e re versal in geomet ry from negative to posi tive
    space is seen by comparing the localions (,fnqwl iv<: image

    p',ints ,, ', If, c', and d ' \.\ uh thei r corres ponding posinve
    image points u. b. c. and J in Figure b- b .
    The photographic coo rdinatc axes 1" and y radiate fro m the
    principal po int in the positive co ntac t print, These axes are
    import ant for photogmmmctric mcasu rcmcnu to be discussed. Because photoir ucrprcters often work with posulve
    pruu-, or positiv e trans parencie s, they arc primari ly intercstcd in (he positions of images in the pos itive plane. Couse-

    Selle and Heigh t Me a sureme nt o n Si ng le Vert ical Aerial P hot o g ra phs

    155

    example. if I ill. 011 an aerial photo graph rep resents .:!,OOO ft


    (:!4.lXIO in. ) on the gro und. t h~' scale may be e xpressed as a:
    Selected units and their equwalerus.
    ' ~rh.A scale:

    hfetric

    English
    t.m ee r

    Co nve rsion

    ;\' l'a ~un;-m('n t

    ,..,I,m. I'" (e", )

    ;" eh ( m.f

    I"", 1l.~<JJ7 ; " ,


    I in, "'2~4l'm

    Mer/m)

    f"..llfll

    1m
    I

    ml\ctmif

    sqlU~

    ,och ("'I m.J

    1 ,2 ~1\

    fl - tl ..\U~ m

    I lm 0621 mi
    I nu - I b l l m

    I em! _ O. l~~ "I,n,


    I "lilt. - bA5l b

    "'l"a~fo<>l l"lft)

    .m'

    Im ~ -I07f>.l"l fl

    I sq Ii . - 1l,1~12" m~

    ' 'I"alC " IL k (''I m , )

    lofUlIIl' \:. ilom"'e r


    ('m~)

    I k1l\'

    1I..1 ~1,1 "l ,m

    1 "'l mi " 2 Y' kll1 ~


    1tCn:

    Ina - IO,(NHI

    m!

    It...

    2.4: 1 aUl"S
    I....,,,, - 4 3 ,~I>f ' "l Ii.
    I acre .. O.4U471u

    ' olume \I en ul"\'mt'nl


    CIIbo:cmulTlCler(cm'l

    e ub", ino.- h leu in.)

    lem '

    " .Ilt>I"um .

    I ell,n . - 1t...1H7 em '

    OOicmclatm l)

    cllh,elOo4 leu tl.,

    Im1_ H .3 15 cun
    I ell ft. ., U, U2l<.\2 m'
    l lo-I,I HHle m'

    11o -1l 2N J!al


    I J!.I 2~1 ,u in.

    I in. = 2.000 fi

    R" I"~""II/{/til'e.frl/{Ii" n:

    24, I l) o r 1:24.0( 1),


    On

    When co m paring two scales. remember t ha t the larg er the


    numbe r in the scale e xpress ion. the smatter the sca le. For
    example. com pare the scale expressions 1/1 1,000 and 11
    12.0(J1). The image of a g iven obj ect on the aerial photo gra ph
    Will a":11I31 1y be large r on the larger scale 1/ 11 .noa-scale photograph. i.e., a l OO-)ard football field wi ll be larger on the I f
    11,()()()-scale ph oto than on the 111:!JlOO-scale photogr aph.
    Table t>-2 is a useful scale con version ch an.
    .-\ verbal scale is somet imes found in the nthng ancillary
    intormanon on the border of an ae rial phot ograp h. Wh ile
    this scale ma y be correc t. it is much be tter to calculate the
    e xact scale o f C \'CI) phlilograph that wi ll be used to ex trac t
    phutogram metric measu rements . Se ver al methods arc ava il,,1\1<: for computing the scale o f ncria l photograph s obtained
    o ver level or var iable rcficttcrrain.

    Scale of a Vertica l Aerial Photog raph over Level Terrain

    There arc I" 0 ma in met hod s of determining the scale of singlc a..ma l photog ra phs o btained o ver leve l terrain . One
    involves com paring the looj,e uf objects measu r..-d in the real
    world or from a map {c.g. the length o f a section o f road)
    w ith the sa me object measu red on the aerial photograph. The
    sec ond met hod involv ..' l' com puting the rctarionship between
    cam era lcus focal len gth and the a ltitude o f the airc mtl above
    grou nd level.
    C u mpuli n;.: Sca lI' h)' C u tlll):lr in;.: Real-W orld Ohj eet S ile
    ve r~ ll ~ I>hntogr:lphie Im:l\:l' Sin'

    I [[<I I - 3.7K53 II

    \OO111y, most of the line dra wings in this ch apter depict the
    rositi\e rather than the negative p lane.

    The sc ale. a. of a ve rtica l aeria l photogra ph obta ined over


    nearly level te rrain is the rauo of the size of the ohject me asured on the aerial photograph, ob; co mpared 10 the ac tual
    len gth of the obj c-ct in the real wo rld, A8 :
    I

    e-o

    (6- 11

    SC a le a nd He ight Me a surem e n t on S ingle


    Vertic al Aerial Photograph s

    The scale of an ae rial phlliog raph may he exp ressed as a rer/.v1.I'cule or as a 1'1'/11"/;'.\1'11/'1 / i Ie fract im l (dim ensionless ]. For

    Th is relat ionship is ba sed on the geometry o f similar triangles l.an and L I B in Figu rl.'"s 6 6 and 6-7. To co mp ute sca le
    \Ising Equation 0- 1. the image ana ly st ti rst idcn ufies an
    object ill the vertical aer ial photograph whose leng th (A B)
    was measu red on the g round or. more comm on ly, 'l\a s mea -

    156

    C H .,\ I . t K

    Ph otogrammetry

    Table 6 -2.

    Scale

    --

    I :bUIl

    t- I:-1.114111
    -- --

    +-

    1: 2.000

    I
    1:3.t1410

    in.

    mi

    permi

    per In .

    sq. In.
    (" )

    O ,I ~ l ~

    ll .I I1'J ~I'

    U , l ~ ~J

    1>3.11>

    (lUI"

    It>O.1'>7

    31.NI

    0. U32

    !~lt~1

    21 12

    nnn

    J.n.))

    15.114

    uoe

    1 : ~1I 11

    I :~.OOO

    1.(,7

    50,00
    ~U l

    I
    I

    m
    per em

    em
    perkm

    km
    per em

    0,11 11>1

    _~ .l ~ 1

    IH IOS

    1I.IlS73')

    lJ.(l! J 2

    ""

    I" UO

    I f>(>.f>l>

    1l.0ut>

    el ' ~<,l~ll

    n 06.15

    rom

    iOO

    0. 010

    O.b377 1

    O_~ SI

    !o.un

    ~UJU

    0.0 20

    II.Sl<07

    10 IMI

    JU3

    0 .0].0

    !_S ~7

    Im:J

    40 .110

    25.00

    0 .(1411

    ,q~~

    ' 10 12'1

    SO,OIl

    10. 011

    0 ,050

    --

    H4 ~

    O.C P'l

    1:6.000

    ~KI,(M I

    10S6

    l l,(~ I S

    s.n'l!

    !.J2! t>

    1>0.00

    I b.N>

    uoeo

    1: IU.lMNI

    ~ ,\ U _\

    !>.J.l t>

    II 1 ~ lI

    I :;.'J.f~ I

    hA S17

    l l KI

    l l UKI

    0.100

    1: 12.Il IHI

    ll HK U IO

    S .!.~ ll

    0 ,1~ 'I

    ! ! .'JShK

    \l.2<) (l5 ~

    120.lx )

    O J

    11.120

    4 ,224

    II D 7

    \ 5 ,K 71 ~ l

    14 5 16-\

    1 ~ IU ~ 1

    I' .M.

    0 , 150

    J .I (,~

    (Ill,.

    63.7(>'12

    25. ~070

    2110. 00

    '0

    O.21 ~ )

    2 Mll

    I)

    '1 1 ,~ 27 1

    H. lf>2n

    2.tll UO

    " ""

    0.240

    I : IS.Ul Hl

    12sn,<HI

    l : z n ,( ~ 1O

    lbN>67
    210)(HI

    I : H.lMHI

    I
    1:25.0011

    2I1Ji.\.JJ

    4' M ~J . IM I

    1:4 110l 1O
    1 :~.lIOO

    41(06 .67

    ~21'1l.l 1l.1

    1:t..1_lt>O
    1 :I{H~

    -2.5~
    1.2!>7

    (U'. :!.4

    1 :2 5() , (lI ~1

    2Ul\,\ .\.\.\

    11 2<' \4

    1:.'1 0 0 ,111111

    1 11' (,(,.67

    0 . 12 (,7

    I: J. OIlII.IHHI

    ~ ,l\ H , I ,l

    11 1)(>., 4

    H' "f.-

    (, J 3 1l(l

    12

    --

    ."U!l

    p "

    4O.J 2:H

    HlI.(JO

    ' .00

    1I.25 0

    \f>7

    \l~J

    14 ~. M ~ 1

    4~ O . Ik J

    : 11M

    O.41lO

    J'IIU~"

    11>1.:'93 5

    "," 00

    2.00

    '-"0

    Mll.1 1l1l.1

    2:,'100~

    f>.\ J

    so

    15K

    0,634

    1~ ?4.0(J

    N 5. 174

    1.(J(IU.(I(J

    ~ 'h.l "1J

    4I).l! ..U ~

    J 'I ~ 5 5 ,b J

    15.n \

    15'1422 ,4"

    .",,,it
    -633Wl

    l " \.

    I
    1l . 7~ ~

    0.7~"

    --+I

    1.5711
    .\.'141>

    --

    'I'I .t>J~7

    IU"~

    U~1I

    ~ H l _ .\ \

    11(,.72

    sq. in.

    12.61

    0-

    h.
    pe'

    -Ilb.1>1

    1:5.0UU

    acres
    po<

    ft
    per in .
    (.)

    7.~ ') 1

    ,
    H."tlO

    sured fro m a re ference map . The analy st then mea sures th,,'
    correspo nding dis ta nce on the photograph (ubI and so lves
    for .f .
    F{lr example. consider the ve rtical ae ria l phcrog raph of
    downtown Colum bia. SC previously show n 10 Figu re (>~ .
    The titling info nnanon sa) s the origina l pholognlph was
    obtained lit II nominal scale { II' 1 in. "'- 5UO 11 ( I;/l.OOO). BUI is

    2.~( HHH I

    /lAO

    2. 50

    11> 129 .3 5

    5,( IIM).(IO

    0.2

    5 .1 111

    1>45 17.4 1

    IO.lHHl./1l1

    o.too

    10,00

    ---

    -scale
    --

    ...0l...
    2 ,47[

    crate
    ,,~

    IOCM MIO
    S<',,/t-

    1 0oo

    uus l"\IITl..'CI"! ~' a ny subsequ e nt compmanons will make use

    o f the sca le parameter. so it is imponan t m ma ke sure that lilt


    km1" the ac tual sea l... of the photograph a nd not j ust a nomina l sca le.

    In this e xamp le, we will firs t determine the sca le orrhc pholng.r<l ph u ~ i ng the road sho wn in Figure Il-X. The road width
    Inun curb to curb " as 56. 1 n (AB) as measured in the field
    lIsing a surve yo r's tape. The wid th of the same road was

    157

    Scale a nd He ig ht Me a sure me nt o n Single Vertical Ae ria l Pho tog raph s

    Expnsure Statum . f.

    Camera
    lens

    Pocaljcngth.

    5'(1 , J I

    "

    llma~e

    f>

    spac~'

    Allllutk:

    above

    ground
    level,
    H

    Optical
    axis __ I

    -.

    0, 1 M"

    Priocipal Point

    Real-wor jd

    p nbjCCI space

    The geometry of a vertica l ae ria l ph.>Iograph col-

    F9Ure 5-7

    lCCI~'<1

    O\l."T rclOltl vd ) nat terrain.

    t.m in. (./b ) on the \ crucal aerial photograph ( Figure 6 -8) .


    Usi ng Equatio n 6- 1. the scale o f the photog raph is:
    ;

    -".

    0 . 113 "
    56. 1;

    AB

    ,"

    0 . 11]'"

    -190.46 ft .

    Ju.lt to be sur e, the widt h of a nearby sidewalk was me a-

    sured. The sidew alk was () [] in thc rea l world and (J,OI 2 in,
    ontheaerial photog raph. I f we usc the wid lh of the sidewalk
    tocompute the scale o f the phot ograp hy, we get 1:0.1100 :

    ".

    AH

    0.012'"

    n.ol.:!"

    6'

    72"

    Representative traction -

    An enlargement of a portion of the aerial photograph show n in Figure tH. The gra pt nc sh.. ...s the
    ...idth of the f('I.l d from curti to clllto ( 50.1' ) and the
    sidt:...aIL (6') as mea sured .bln g a surn~y ..r's tape
    and measured on .he 3m 31phol ograph (O.llr and
    t ) , (l 1 2 ~, fe~r":CII \ ely ). These measurements may be
    used to compute the ".:~ lc (lflhe photograph in this
    porti.. n "rIm: phOI' '1!fl< jlh.

    5957.5 2"

    673.2"

    ,
    . r '
    Rcprcscmu uvc
    racuo n: 5957
    Verbal scal e: I in.

    Fig ure 6-8

    '"

    0(01)"
    I

    "lIno

    verbal scale: I in . = 50n I\.


    'o\'hcn computing scale, the goa l is 10 modify the inpul va lues so tha t the nume ra tor has a value o f one and both th....
    eemerator and denomin ato r arc in the same unus. e.g., in
    iJl,;hes, feet. or meters . Sometimes th is requires mul tip lying
    bolh the nume rato r and denomin ator by the rec iproc al of the
    numerator. T he best way 10 conceptualize scale is as a reprc-

    sentativc fraction. The re fore, in this last example 1 in. o n the


    photograph equals to,lIOO in . in the rea l wor ld ; I n on the
    photograph eq ual s b ,OOO It : a nd I III on the ph otograph
    equals 6. ODO m. W ith n represe nta tive fract ion , we elm work
    in any nnu s we des ire.
    To offsetthe e ffect s ol'airaaft t ill al the instant of e xpos ure,
    the mcavurvmcnt o f sca le usin g this me thod sho uld he based
    on the a verage o f SCleral scale checkpoints in the photograph, When possible . some ana lysts l jkc to co mpute t he
    sc ale hy selecting object s alon g lines suc h as roa ds that intersec t ap proximately 'I t riglu ang les and are cen trally located
    o n thc phu tl>graph . T hey rh... n co mpute an average scale
    using seve ra l scale mcnsuremer us (~hk h ;t i l el al.. 200 11.

    vertical aeria l photography scale can also be determ ined if


    objects whose lengths are already kno wn appear on the photog ruph. A baseball d iam ond , foo tball field , or soc ce r field
    may be me asured on the phlllOgraph and the photo scale
    determined (1<; the ratio Ill' the photo dist ance 10 the kno .... n
    gro und dis tance . For ex ample. what is the sca le of a vertic al
    aerial photograph on wh ich the dis tanc e betwe en horne plate

    n l -\ I~ n: H.

    158

    and first ba se eq uals 0. 5 in'! The d istance from home plate to


    firs t has ," is (Xl ft. Therefore.

    ah

    AH

    6
    -

    l'
    (,0000 '

    0.5 '"

    Pho tog rammelry

    ,
    6()(J()()

    Verbal scale: I in. - 5000 ft .

    By lra nsptlsing Equ atio n (>.2 ttl r..ad.

    /I

    '"

    .,

    2160"

    ""
    I
    Rcpr escnrauve
    racuon: !160 '
    Examp les {If ~ rorh field dim en sjons found throughout the
    world are summarized in Chapter 12 (Remote Sensing thc
    l

    (6-'

    man Landsca pe) .

    Com pu lilll: Scetc h ~- Rchtl in l: Fuca! 1.001I1:Ih 10 Ahilu uc


    A hoq' G r ound I ,("\ d ( ,\c ;I .)
    Scale rna)' also be expres sed in terms o f camera focallength.

    land llying height above the ground. 11. hy e qua ling the
    geometrically sim ilar lri angk~ 1.011 and I.P-1 In Fig urc 0- 7:

    Li x s ,

    it is pt~s ih1e tu determine the a ltitude above grou nd level. H


    of the pho togra ph at the instam o f c xposure, or the foal
    length./. of the came ra if the scale of t he photo graph, .t . is
    known all'llg uh o nc ofthe other vari ables. For exa mple. iI
    the ca;,.c o f th Cohnnbia. 5('. photogra ph (F igure 6-4 ) 'ole
    know that the sca le ofthe rh(l( <>graph base d o n the meas uremcm o f wad width is I :5 .957 or I " "" 5.~5T'. and the focal
    length is (> in. Usi ng Equat ion ,3. the altitude of the aircraft
    above local damm at the instant ofexposure is:

    (5915~")

    16-2 )

    From Equat io n n-2 ie is evident that the scale o f a vertical


    aerial photng raph is direct ly pnrporuonal to camera focal
    length (image distance ] and inve rsely proponionalro Hying
    height above ground leve l tobject d isl;m ce ). Thi s mea ns that
    if the altitude above ground levcl is hel d consnuu. increasing
    the size of the focal length will resu lt in larger ima ges of
    objects at the li lm p lane. Conversely, if focal leng th is he ld
    constant, the imagcs or objects will b.... smaller as we ga in
    additiona l altitude abov.... ground level. If the focallength of
    the camera nnd the alutud.... o f the aircraft above ground leve l
    are un"11\1\\I1. the image ana lyst wi ll hal e to cousuh rh....
    anc illary in formation appearing nu the edge s of the photograph. th... llig ht roll. or th.... acria l photographe r's miss io n
    summary.
    For example. a vertical a..ria l photogra ph is obtain ed over
    n at tcrrum wuh a Ilin . foca l-le ngth eamera lens from an
    altitude o f M .OOO n M, L. Using Equat ion f>..:! .the sca le is;
    J

    '"

    /I

    12"
    hOIlOO'

    Simila rly. if we on ly kn c w the altitude above datum


    (2.971(5' ) and the sca le ( 1:5.957 ). we could compute the
    focal length o f thc camera system using Equ ation 6-4 :

    r-

    - 0.5' - 6" ,
    -1lJ7X ..<;' x -'-'5957'

    Scale of a Vertical Aerial Photograph over Va riable


    Terrain

    One of the pr inc ipa l diff e rences between a ncar-ve rtical


    aer ia l phlltogm ph and n pla nim etric milp is that for pho tograllhs taken ll\ c r l ariah ll" t.... rrain. th....re arc an infinite numher of d ifferc m scales pre sen t in the a.... rial photog raph. If
    topograph ic elevauon decrease.. WI th in a certain portion of
    uic aerial photograph relative III other a rea s, the n that potuon of tho: photograph .... ill have a smaller scale than the res!
    of the photograph because the land w ill ha ve "moved a w ay"
    frum the aerial camera that is flown at a consta nt altitude.
    Conversely, if a topog raphic feature suc h as a moun tain or a

    !cIIe and Height Meas urement on Sing le Vert ical Aerial Photograph s

    159

    L(I .. -L
    U'
    H h

    Lb

    LR

    (>-6 '

    Substi luting Equ ation 6-6 into Equ at ion 6-5,


    (6-7 )

    "
    Ahuuoc
    above
    ground

    In c!.
    /I

    OIlJ C~'l
    ~ P;lCC

    C.

    )
    A

    , L
    /I

    llighc>1clc..aU""
    abO\c s.:a level,

    '_.

    ? e 69

    lfthclmc between points a an d h in the ve rtica l aerial photogra ph I:> co nsidered to be infinitely small, Equatio n 6- i
    reduc es to an express ion for pho to scale at a specific poin t.
    Dm ppin g suhscriph, the sca le at a ny po int " host' elevation
    abov e sea le vel is h and whoso: camera altitu de above sea
    level is JI, may he exp ressed :I S:
    (6 -~ )

    11

    lnou r e xample in Figure 6-9 . different scal e va lues would be


    compuu..d ", loc ations c and d in the ae ria l photogra ph. One
    scale value wou ld be a func tio n o f the m inimum elevation
    ubuvc sea le\ cl within the pho to graph 1, _1 while the oth er
    would he a function o f the maxi m um elevation abo ve sea
    level within the photog raph ( ~' .... ):

    C..rom.. u) of a vc-n'cal acna l pbotogr...ph .....tamed


    0\

    er terrain with variable relief.

    ~ ,.,,"

    In

    alilding protrudes above the average elevati on of I.' loca l


    erain.jhen the sca le in thai area oft he phot og raph wiltbe
    ~cr beca use the la nd wi ll ha ve " nlUH:U c loser" to the

    erial camera.
    The geome try o f a single vert ical ec riu1 photograph taken
    0\1."1' terrain with variable local relief from exposure station
    Lis ,hn", " in Figure 6-9 . Po ints A <ll lil if in the real-w orld
    object space arc located on level terrain and recorded Oil th...
    j ositivc pr int image space at a and h, res pectively. Points A
    e d Ii arc located at an e leva tion o f" units above sea level,
    As previously discussed, the sca le ofthe aerial photograph at
    ocmon
    in the posit ive p rint is eq ual to the ratio o f tho:

    II"

    photo distance ah 10 grou nd dis tan ce A H. By vimitar Irian~ Lab and L 4B, the phot o sca le al location lib in tho: vc ni....1 aerial phot ogr aph ma y be co mputed using seve ral
    rtlilionships. incfuding:
    ah
    Lh
    s.= A-=
    -I.B
    .
    B
    d

    Also, by similar triangles Lob and LPB.

    (6-5)

    .1 ...,11

    II

    II

    (6-9)

    II",,"

    (6- 10)

    h",.. t

    Usu ally an a verage o r noounat sca le is co mpute d to defin e


    the ov er all sca le of a verti ca l aeria l photograp h tak en over
    variable terrain:
    (1'1-1 1)

    It sho uld be reme mbe red that the average sca le is only at
    those IXli lll~ thaI lie at ave rage elev at ion, and it is on ly an
    ap prox unntc sca le for a ll o ther locat ions I'll the photograph.
    To demonstrate these rela tion sh ips. Jet us co nsider the maximum ele vanen. h",~ average elevation, hoNf!!' and mi nimum
    elevat ion, h...,~, of the terrain in Figure (.. 9 to be 10.000.
    RoOOO, and 1>,000 11 above sea level. respectively, The Ilylng
    hcigfu 1' 1' the arrc ratt abo v e sea leve l is 20J.lOfl ft, and the'
    camera 101;31 k n!!-th is 6 in. ( 152JQ mm). Th e maximum.
    minimum, and a ve rage scale of the vertica l aerial photograph woul d be :

    160

    ( ' 11 \1' 1 t ,1{

    ~'",,,.,

    .)

    (,

    10()(l()'

    The amou nt o f the rehef d isplacement. d. is:

    ""'

    1oo'

    ...,,, ...

    I: ~ OOOO

    .-

    2OO'

    bono'

    ."

    14000'

    .' ...,,, - I ; 2 ~mO()

    ,hrrctf l" f'fflf'orlm " ,,1 to lhe d ifference in elevation.


    bct w ccu the lnp o f the ohj Ct.."1 who-c image is displaced am
    the loca l da tum, i.c., the grea ter the heigh t o f the 00'
    above the local da tum. the gre ater its di ..placeme nt.
    d in':CI(r P'lJ/HJ/"tiul/altolh.: radia l dis tance, r, between til;
    lOp ofthe displaced ima ge anti the pri nci pa l point, i.e..
    farther the object is from the prin c ipa l flIlint, the grea!(:"
    the d isplacement.

    mvvrxetv praportional to the alt itude, II. of the canen


    above th e local datum. Th ere fo re. a redu ct ion in reli
    dicplacemcru o f an o bject ca n he ach ie ved by ino:rea~
    the fly ing heigh t.
    Th ese rela tionship s arc dep icted in Figure 6- 10. 'vouce lro.:
    sim ilar tr iangles III the diagra m that:

    "

    /I

    .-

    zoono-

    snor-

    ""8'

    ((iI ~

    Rearranging thl' relatio n<,hip. we cnn sec that the amount af


    di..place ment. d, is dirl'ctl y PWI'H..rt ional to the he ight o fllr
    object. h. and its distance from principa l poi nt. r, and
    inve rsel y p ropo rtion a l h' the altitude above IO L' 3 1 datum. If:

    !I x ,.
    /I

    .1' '' 1:

    Photogrammet ry

    arc abov e the loc a l datum. a nd illw ,trd or to w urd the pnno
    pal poin t lo r objects w hose c tcvano ns are below the I
    da tum. The d irection I,f relie f d isplace ment i.. radia l from
    priuci pal po int of the photograp h.

    6"

    :!oooo'

    (6-13 1

    I: 2..+000 .

    Heigh t Measurement from Single Aerial Photographs

    T here are two primary r nethmls o r com puung the heights of


    obj ects on s ingle vertical ucriul photogra ph.., The first
    involves the mea surement ofirnagc relie fdi splacement. and
    the sec ond is bused I'll the measurement o f shado w le ngth

    The image of any object lying above o r below the horizo nta l
    pla ne passing th ro ug h the elevation ofrhc principal po int is
    displaced on a tru ly ve ruca l ;u: rial photograp h from ib true
    planimetric Lr..1') locati on. The ,.did di.\plan,,,,t'111 is outward fro m the pri ncip al poi nt lor objects whose elevations

    If we solv e fur til", heigh t of the obj ect. h; the equation


    becomes :

    Therefor e. .... '" can com pute the height o f 3 11 obj ect from It!
    re lie f di splac crncm characteris tic s on a s ing le verticalacral
    photograph. It is imponen t that both the to p and the bonon
    o f the object being mea sured arc dear ly vis ib le an d that the
    base IS on leve l rerrum.
    For e xample. let us co mpute the he ight o f the Se nate Condom inium sho ....n in Figure n- llla _ The photo grap h has been
    rotated 90 " cou ntercloc kwise to la c ih ta te vic w ing (sh ado ws
    no .... fallto w a rd the view er, and the d isp laced facade of tho:

    '-

    161

    5cIIe and Height Measu rement on Sing le Vertical Aerial Photographs

    .,
    :i

    he

    h,
    ut
    ct

    re

    te

    "

    'a

    ,r

    ".

    a.

    (/ .

    Expos ure statio n. L

    "

    II
    :)

    ,.

    .". h _ dx

    tt

    "

    <J

    r = 2.2.\ in.
    J 0. 129 in.

    II 2')7IL5 1'1 a bo ve loca l da tum


    h = 172ft

    b.

    figure 6 10

    L o c a l daru III

    -I

    PI'

    Measurement o r uhjc<:I he igh! ( in this <,'II>C, thl' Sena te L'ondoununun in Columbia. S( :j From a sin!lk vertical ncrinl ph'll ogr aph
    based ou relk!" displacemen t principks. a l Th e radi al d istance frnl11 the principal l" ,i11l (1'1'I and the tOP of th.. buildin g is r.
    The d ivtance nom the base ofthe build ing I" the lOP.. I'thc buildin~ isd. b) The heigh t ...fihc build ing (h I ahlwe loc al datum
    i ~ cumpuIl-d i!a-...x1 on the rela tionshi p I"..tween simitar lri,,,'gl,~

    t>ul ldin~ leans co mfortably ;twa) from

    ' hi' \' icwcr I. Based on


    previous me as uremen ts. thc 31111ud e o f the ca mera a bove
    llICal datum. H. is kilt'.... n tll be 2.971\.5 it the rad ial J is1;.Il1cC
    from thl' princip..al point to th... top of the t>uildlng. 1; is mC3sired as 2.23 in.. and I1mlding relie f dis placem ent, ,I. is
    6,1 2Q in, The ph"l ll~ ra l11 m "'lr i c ally CUlTI pUll'J height. h. o f
    th~ condominium is:

    0. 129" x 297X.5'
    2.n"

    I72. Y.

    T he actual heigh t of the building measured \\ uh a ..urve)'or'"

    tape is I n,75 n. iii obt ain accurate obj ect hdghl mea surerucnts using this tec hnique. it is imperativ e that the alt itude
    ( I f th e aircraft abo ve the local dat um no: as precise as possihlc . I\ ll'll_ great care !'oh\IUIJ be e xe rc ised \\ hen measuring r
    and d on the photogra ph. Keep in mind that r is measured
    Imm the principa l point to the lop o ft he obj ec t.

    CI I ,\ l'T EI{

    162

    f1 {'i~ht ,' l ('3 ~ u r(' nlt' n l

    or

    Hawd o n Shudow Lt'n elh

    The height of an object. h. may be computed by measuring


    the: length o f the shadow cas t. L, nil vertical aerial phoro graphy. Becau se the rays of the Sun are essentially parallel
    throughout the area show n on vertical ae rial photograph s.
    the length o f an object's shado w on II hori zontal sur face is
    proportionalrn its height. Figure 6- 11 illustra tes the trigonometric relationshi p involved in determining object heights
    from shadow measu rements. No tice that the tangent ofangle
    jl wou ld be equal to the o pposite side. II. ove r the adj uccnt
    side. whic h is the shadow leng th, L. i.e..

    Ian II

    Solving

    '"

    Photogrammelry

    or

    M ea!lurt'menl
    th e H eight
    Objects Based on S h a dow Le ngt h

    tan .1 _ op posite
    adjacent

    height . h
    shadow , /.

    h -Lx tana

    f"

    ,,

    h
    I.

    Figure 6-11

    for height yie lds :

    cast on levelterrain.
    ()' 16 )

    " '" t.: rana .

    The Sun's elevation angle. ( I. above the lo c al horizon ca n he


    predic ted using a solar ep hemeris table . This requires a
    know ledge of the geographic coord male:" of the site [longitude and latitude ), the acquisition dat e, lind time o f day.
    Alternatively; the sola r alti tude may be c-mpirically cumputcd if sharply defined shadows o f known hei ghl arc
    formed on the phot ograph. fo r exa mple, we kno w from previou s discussion that the height o f the Senate Condominium
    in Figure 6-12 is 172.75 It. II cas ts a sha dow onto 1C\'d
    grou nd tha t is 0,24 1" in length 0 11 the photog raph. The scale
    of'the photography is 1:5,Q57 or I" ~ -$l)6.4(j. Therefore. the
    sha dow length on the ptllliograph is 119 .65 tt. The tangent of
    angle a can be found using Equation 6- 15:
    lan a ... ~ .. 172 .75 ' '"' 1.44 .
    L
    119.65'
    Oth er shadow lengths on the same aerial pho tograph ca n be
    meas ured and the ir le ngths mu ltiplied b)' 1.44 to determine
    thei r heights. For example, the to wer on the nearby pa rk ing
    structure in Figure (l-12 casts a shadow tha t is 0.119", or
    59.\' lo ng onto lev el ground in the photograp h. Therefore ,
    the he ight of the tower is:

    II = LX la n" - 59. I' x

    The: height of ubJccts can be measured from \'ntd


    aeri al photography based on the length of ShatlO\l.l

    1 .4~

    o n uulcve! terrain, shade.... s prod uced from lea ning objecii


    shadows not cast from the true top ofthe object. and SOO\\ II
    ot her types of grcundcover obsc uring the true g roun d level.
    ~

    Stereosc opi c Measu rem ent of Obj ect


    Height or Terrain Elevation

    A single ae rial phot og rap h c aptu res a prec ise recor d o f the
    positions (If objects in the scene at the instan t of exposure. If
    \.\e acquire multiple photographs along 11 tl ighthne. we
    record im ages of the lands ca pe from different vantage
    po ints. For example, the top of a ta ll bu ilding mig ht be on Ihe
    letl side o f pho ro e I and in the middle of overlapping photo
    ='2 because the aircraft has mov ed hundreds o f ml"tCT>
    between expos ures . If we ope ned up the ba ck of the aerial
    ca mer a, he ld the shutter open. and loo ked at the grou ndglas,
    at the foca l plane while the aircraft .... as Il)'ing alo ng a Hight
    line, we would literally sc-e the ta ll huilding first enter tile
    gro undglass field o f vic .... ami then traverse ac ross tilt
    grocndg tass umil it eve ntually leaves the camera's field of
    vrc w.

    - S5.1O' .

    The actual height of the lower is R6 It measured .... ith a su rvcyor's tape.
    Care must he exercised when computing the height o f
    objects base d on shadow length III aerial photography.
    lrnponant factor s 10 be considered include shade w s fall ing

    T he change in position of an object wit h he igh t. from one


    photograph to the ne, t rela tive to its background, caused b)
    the aircraft's mo tion, is called ,\/erf'o,\copic parallax. Pam/lax is the appa rent disp laceme nt in the posi tion of a n objeci,
    .... ith nesJX-"Ct to a frame of reference. caused b)' a shift in tbt
    positiun ofobse rvation. Pa rallax is a nonna l c harac teristic (If
    aerial photog rap hy and is the basis fo r th ree-d imensional
    srer..eoscopic vie w ing , Differences in the parallax of varices

    "

    163

    iMoscopic Measurem enl o f Object He ig hl o r Terrain Elevation

    Eyt

    11.119 "

    !i9. I '

    WI;

    -~

    tt~'

    'If"

    I\:I\C

    ;.-,-_ --'c b -,_ _ ~


    lllterrupillal') drstarwe
    l eft
    Right

    t't't

    1"/ ? ,~ R
    al

    -s

    ~---'--'

    "

    '.

    Figure 6-13

    "'gure 6-12

    The h<:ight l,ft h", parking garage tower may be c"rn


    pured hy dClcrmining Ihe relanonship betw een ns
    shadow lc ngsh i1IUJ lhe k nglh of' th.... shadow cast by
    a hllilding of kno.... " heIght sucb a~ rh.. nearby Senate: Condomuuurn. It is important lhat 1110.: shadow
    fa lls nn Ic\'('1 !,.'Totmd and That bUlh the begmnmg
    .rnd end of the shaJ..," are vtsible .

    tIjrct., of mtcrest (called ,Jillt'flmtial pardl/,nl ca n I'll: used


    "measure the heights of objects and to extracttopographic
    :nf0flll3lion such as contour lines from aerial photog ra phs
    by means of ste reoscopic ins truments. The measu remen t o f
    seco scopic pa rallax is the basis for the creation o f almo st

    lIJ topographic mill'S ( x,y, and =) and planimetric maps (x,1")


    wi is a very im port ant ele me nt o f plllltngnull111dry and
    rem(lIe ~cn~i ng .

    Wamenrals of Human Stereoscopy

    WrrmCUpJ' is the sc ience of perceiving depth using. two


    C:.'(> When a human bcings two eyes tbinocuiar \"is;'''I) are
    iJrustd on a certain point. the optical axes o f th... eyes contrge on lhal point. forming a porallucnc u,,~t.' (()). The:
    !lWcr the objccr. tbc greater the purallacuc angle. Fur exa mple. in Figure (,. I J the optica l nxcs of the tert and rig ht eyes.
    land R. ilrc se:paralcd by the ere hasI! or tlllt'IP/IfJll/III:1 111,\llIPlC(' (Konecny. 200] ). T he eye base o f the n\cnlgc ad ull is

    r" r:l!lad ic a n g:lc~ "re formed when our eyt's foc us


    on Ob)<"t:1S In the real world. The mimi associates
    differences in paralla ctic :Ingle, with differences in
    dislarh:C III thl.' \ ,InIlU, obiccrs. This allows U ~ hI
    have wI) sensitive depth perception .

    bctwc...-n flJ and 69 mm [approxima tely 2.5 10 2.7 m.). When


    the eyes are focu se-d on po int A. lhl: optical axes converge.
    forming parallactic angle 6. _ Similarl:". \lo hen looking at
    po int n. the optical 3.'(CS con ve rge. forming parallactic angle
    '\,. The brain has lea rned to ass ociate d ista nces 1>, and D Il
    w ith correspond ing parallactic angles o~ and 9t. a nd gives the
    viewer the \'iS1I31 and mental impression thai object A is
    clo ser than o bject B. This is th.... has is or dO-fl t h flt',~t'/lti(lll. If
    both objects we re exact ly the same distance from the vic .... cr.
    then " - G\ and th e vic w cr wo uld perceiv e tncm as h('ing the
    same distanc e away.

    When we w an. outside . the ma xim um dista nce at which distinct stereoscopic depth p..-rccpuon b pllssi hl.: is approx imatd y 1.000 m for the ave ra ge adu lt. Beyond that distance .
    parallactic angles are c\1rl'md y small. and change!' in parallacuc ant::k necessary for depth percepnon may not be discerned . This is why humans ha ve trou ble de termining
    whether 01\\.' house is behind another house . or one car is
    behind another ca r \lo h.... n these objects an: thou sand s or
    meters away' from us. Conversely, if we could so meho w
    stretch our eyes 10 he a me ter or even hundred s of meters
    apart . the n .... e w ould be able III resolv e m uch more sub tle
    differ en ce s in parallactic an g les and dctcnumc which
    nhj,:cls ar.: closer to us owr t1I lIch grclll.:r dislnn ccs. Su ch

    ' 64

    C II M ' I t :l{

    Photogram metrv

    hypersternucnpy d.:pth pe rcepti on wo uld hi: ideal for hunt -

    scopic photographs

    ing and spo rts acnv ines. but il would requi re a su bstan tial
    mod ificat ion of tile: human hea d. Fort una telythe re is a si mple method that we ca n usc 10 obtain a hypc rsrcreo sco py
    cc ndiuon when collect ing and inte rpreting stereoscop ic
    aer ial photogra phy.

    need arises. It is particular ly useful when cond ucting

    Stereoscopy Applied to Aerial Photography

    Overlapp ing aeria l photo graph y (usu ally 00 percent cnd lap)
    obtained at ex po sure sl.llions along a Ilig hdinc cornam SICrcoscopic paralla x. The ex posu re stations arc separated b)'
    large d istances. Xevcnhcless. it is pos s ible [0 lei ou r eyes
    view thc photographs as i f ou r C}CS ....ere presen t at thc two
    exposure stations at the instan t of e xpos ure (Figure 6-- 1-Ia) .
    This results in a Inp.'n ti'n'lI.\C0f'.I" con diuon that a llows us to
    vie w the lerra in in three d imens ions. We normally v iew the
    ste reoscop ic aeria l photography using a lens o r mirro r stcreoscopc with magn it) ing. lenses. These instruments
    enhance the rhrcc -duncnsiona l nature of the stereo scopic
    mo del. There lire oth er stereosco pic view ing ahcmativcs.

    The vast majority " f image- analys ts pre fer to usc a simp le
    lens pocket ste reosc ope or m irro r ste reoscope that assis ts the
    ey es in keepin g pa ralle l lines of sight and ill add ition. IISU lill y magnifies the photog raphs (Figure (,-14 11,1." ). T his pro duce s some eye strcm. Jt is suggest ed tha t no vicc interpreters
    only view photo graphs in stere o for 10 to 15 m inutes at a
    time in the beginning while the eyes bec ome acc ustomed to
    using a ste reoscope.
    So me peo ple arc adept at forcing the rr eyes 10 rem ain paral lel and thus do nOI need to use a ste reoscope (Figure 614c.f). They simply situ ate the overlapping port io n of two
    stereo pho lOgr.l phl> adjacent to on e a not her, po sition their
    head approximatc tj I( in. Ircm thc photograph s. and the n lei
    their eyes relax as if the) were loo king at infinity. G radually,
    the m ind will fuse the t....'o stCfeos copic image s into a third
    image d irect ly in the midd le ofthe two stereo photo s. Th is is
    a good skil l to acquire ~ i n ce one cnll the n easily view stereo

    itho ut a stc rcos L"Opc whenever

    .... or k. Howeve r. this is un nat ural for the eyes and mal
    uncom fo rtable and ca use eye strai n.
    So me image analyst s arc ab le to reverse the order o f the ~~
    reo photogra phs (Figure 6- 14d .g ) and then Ilxurc on a pc
    directly in front of the photos. Th is causes th... eyes 10 cr
    Th is produc es a true ste reosc opic impressio n. hut i! is \ <
    strenuous on the eyes and is not recommend ed .
    Anut her wa y o f making sure that the left and righ t eyes \
    d istinct images is 10 use anaglyph o r polarized glasses
    conjunction with specially prepared image mat erials . It
    possi hle to produ ce aeri al photograp hy .... here the left i
    is de pict ed in shad es of blue and the right image is pro '
    in shades o f red , The ana lyst then wears anag lyp h ie g!
    .... uh red (kil l and b lue (ri g.ht) lenses. T he mind fuses
    two views and crea te s a th ree-dimensional sce ne. Simi!
    il is pos s ible to view the len and right photographs throe
    specia lly prepa red pol arized glass es that acco mplish
    same go al (Ko necny, 20( 3).
    I.(," ns an d :\-!irr ur

    Th e photo- interprete r can view the ve nically e xagg erated


    stere oscopic mod el o f the 60 percent endlap area o f two sueccssive aerial photographs us ing one (lf four me thod s : J)
    keepi ng the lines of sighl par allel .... ith the aid of a ste reoscope. :!) keeping th~' lines ofsig ht para llel w iloo ut the aid o f
    a stereoscope. 3 ) cros sing the eyes and reversing the order of
    the stereoscopic images. or 4 ) using anagly ph or pol arized
    g lasses .

    110

    St{' rcuw(l p~ ~

    a nd Ste ren

    Cll n l~ rll s

    The stereoscope is a bi noc ular viewing syst em special


    de \ elo ped to analy ze te rrestrial stereoscopic phorogra
    (not aeri al pho tog raphs) . It was inve nted b) the Eng!'
    physicist Ch arl es wheatstone in IX33. a ltho ug h he did
    d escribe il publicl y unul IIUg. Wheatstone used a pair
    mirrors, o ne be fo re each eye, o rie nted at -I5 G to 3 110.... pictures p laced at eithe r side 10 be fu sed by the eyes, as Sh(lll1
    in f igu re 6-15a. David Brewster invented an ah ema nve stereo scopic sys te m using lenses in 1849 (Figure 6- J5b ).1ll
    pic ture s were smaller. hill they we re en larged by the lense
    Th is became the parlor ste reosco pe so pop ular duri ng l~
    I !'I OOs and earl y 1900s for view ing s pecially pre pared stereoscop ic photographs .
    Thro ugh out mos t of the I SOOs. stereo pho tog rap hs wen
    obtaine d by lak ing o ne- expos ure a nd rhcn picking up tbt
    ca mera on a tripod and moving it a certain dista nce to the let
    or right and ta king another pictu re. Th is introduced stereoscop ic parallax between the IWO photographs. For example
    co nsid er the 1K99 ste reogram o f rhe Sa lt Lake Temple. il
    Sa lt l ake C ity. Utah. in Figu re 6- 16a. A wealth ufh istorica
    Informa tion about the tem ple is available when the sercopa ir is \ iewcd usin g a stereosco pe.
    Stereos copic photograph s may a lso he acq ui red using specia l stereoscopic cam eras that conta in two ident ica l tenses
    tha t ;lfe s ituate d 60 to 70 mrn apan (2.36 2.75 in.) that Llke

    ....
    165

    Sl!reoscopic Measu remen t of Ob ject Heigh t or Terr ain Elevat ion

    the:
    dd
    be

    St e n,'fl~c opic Vit'wi nl: Ba ~ ...d on


    Pa r allel E~'",s a n d II Sl rrt'o s( opC

    Sl...rroscop i... Mod r l

    . ~W-'
    j.,

    .~ \

    - ,-

    ~~

    ne.im
    .ss.

    ~~
    -

    Len s

    Relax an d
    keerh~

    : .lolerISCOf'C

    of <il; hl

    parallel

    '"m

    .'.,
    ts

    -+

    ,d

    S ICfW mud d

    <t-

    es

    BII~oo

    on C r ussed

    c.

    b.

    Ste reosco pic \ "i... ",ing

    t:) ~

    Iy,

    gh

    h,
    Sl e roo~op

    f(IC US

    \!

    /\

    I,

    ,.

    -rs

    "
    ,

    II po int
    in fronl
    o f r hoMs
    and reverse
    photo order

    d.

    "'

    E ~ es

    ~ , ('"

    r/><~ " 2

    C ros ",d

    Par-allel t:) l'S

    ~~
    ...
    s,'""""

    "
    ,..r

    ee

    ...

    on

    f.

    fqu'e 6-14 at A hy perste reos copy condition can he ach ie ved by takm g II I crtapping vertical aerial phutugraphs alu ng a l1ightlinc . The an ulysr then vie ws one photo nf'ehc stcrcopair with the k fl eye and the adj acen t pJwt\l with the rigbt eye. Wh en the viewer focuses
    beth eyes un a sing fc featu re withi n the nereosc opic model, s uch as the top <II haM: " r a buildmg, the mi nd subconsciously
    associates differences ill lhc paralla ctic angle betw ee n th c base and the top of the huilding ns depth -pe rce ptio n information.
    We perceive a rei\ li~ l i c three-dimensiona l model of the tcrrainm our llllnl.b , Th i~ mea n, lhat we can litera lly view an y landscape in the world Iromthc c omfort o f ou r o ffice in vel)' realistic three din1c n,ions if'wc 1111W ste reoscopic ae ria l photography
    and the prope r view ing equ ipment b.e ) A len s or mirror sler eu,cupe :I.'sists pur eyes' lines of , ight til rem ain parallel ra ther
    thun converging, which is our naturaltendency , Th is analyst is look ing at a specially prcp.rrcdsrcrcop.ur of ph otograph s. c.f)
    It is possible 10 ob tain a stereoscopic view by trainin g the eyes ' lincs Ill' s igh l tl>remain par allel" ilJH >u l using a stereoscope.
    Th is is very u sef ul in Ihe fi eld. d,g) Som e pe ople can sce stereo by focus ing on a p oint in front ofthe slert:tlseopic photographs
    and lettin g their hn es of sigh t cross. Th is is not a na turalthin g to do and ca n e;lll"t' ey~ ~lrain .

    ,.

    ,
    I

    ree phorographs of the seeno: at exactly the same lime . The

    Q.' IIeaS

    obtain pho tog rap hs of obj ec ts from sligh tly di fferlanlage po ints, introduc ing stereosco pic parallax . Note
    the reo separate tenses on the vm tage ste reo scopi c ca me ra
    iD Figure 6- 16b, Compa nies cont inue to produce stereo-scopic cameras .

    till

    The de velopment o fthe co ncept of stereoscopic photograp hs


    a nd the inve nt ion of stereo scopic cameras a llowed people 10
    view marvelou s stere oscopic vie w s of local and foreign
    lan dscap es in three dimens ions as if they were rea lly a t the
    location. There co ntinues to be s ig nilic3n1 interest in the co llecti on o f stereoscopic photog raphy by the pub lic . The
    Natio na l Ste reoscopic Association promotes the st udy and

    ctl.-\ pn :R

    ' 66

    Photogram metry

    Wh eatst one's Mirror Stereoscope


    M irror

    a -h

    ::rl

    FlQure 6-15 a ) whearsrooe 's mirror srereosccoe used [\1, 045" angled mirrors la and b) 10 reflect the left and nghl imago of phot~
    (A .md R ) toward the vic-wCT. A sc r-ev" mechani sm adjusted the vie ws 10 llC'Comn'lOd.att vouious interpc pillary distances, hI . ..
    example of BI't'III ....er's lens stereoscope.

    Ste reogra m

    Stereo C amera

    !"""I!"'111"\

    a
    Figure 6 16

    b.

    a l A terresm al stereogram o f the tem ple in Salt La ke City. UT, obtained

    col lection of stereog raphs. stereo ca meras. and rela ted materials and publishes Stf'rt.'1J H'f}/"Id
    Vil.',,"'inJ:: Sft'rI'OM."O plc: Aerial Phntographs

    The same ste reoscopic princ iples used in the origi nal ste reoscopes are used in our c urren t photogra mmetric ste reoscopes. The sim ple pocket lens stereoscope consists of two
    convex lenses mou nted on a rigid metal or plastic frame
    (F i~'Ure b-. I7a) . The distance betwee n the lenses can be varied to accommoda te various eye bases (interpupillary d istances). The specia l lenses help keep the viewer's lines of
    sight para llel and also ma gnify the photogra phy. The prope r
    method of arra nging stereoscopic photo gra phs for analysis
    using a pocke t lens stereoscope is demonstrated in Figure 6-

    In

    IXlN. b) A vintage "Into camera.

    I xah. First, the principa l point and conj ugate principal


    points are located (1'1' and ( 1'1', respectively) o n each photograph . A line is then drawn through them o n each photo
    graph. This is the line of n ight previously d iscussed. The
    flightlines o n each of the photogra phs arc oriented so that
    they form a continuous line tl.e.. they beco me colinr ar) . The
    analyst the n s lides one o fthe pho togra phs left or right so that
    a portio n of the stereoscopic overlap area is visible. Then.
    the stereoscope is placed above the overlap area and stereoscopic viewing takes place. The co mmon overlap area thai
    ca n be vie w ed in stereo of a pair of 9 x 9 in. aerial photogra phs taken with 60 percent o verlap is about 5A in. Unfortunately. .....hen the photographs are aligned tor stereovision
    usi ng the pocket ste reosco pe. not all of the 5A in. of the srereo mode l can be seen at one time . When this occurs. the

    ....
    ~op ic

    167

    Measurtlment of Obje ct Height or Terrain Elevat ion

    Stereoscopes

    a. Lens stereoscope.

    b. MIrror stereoscope.

    phs

    A,

    c. Zoom sterem'\:0Jll:.

    d..-\na ltll:! stereosco pic zoom -transfer-scope.

    c. l>igil;L1 stereoscopic zoom-transfer-scope.


    FKjUfll 6-17

    J) Lens sl<'rcoscupc "jlh attached parall ax bar . situated ev er stereoscopic ncrial photograph s h;w inll oO ['creem nwrlap. Onl y

    portio n of the cntir... SlCft.'oscu pic model can be viewed i.ll one 1;11\1." using a lens stere oscope. b ) All unaly stusing it mirro r
    stereoscope can view the entire , lcrl"u"<:,,pi l' mudd at one time. c} :\ 100 ln ~ICrl'{lSCOr""" functions like a mirror stcrcoscopc.fn
    this example. positive transparency photograp hs are heillg viewe d on a lighttable. d ) An analog stereoscopic zoom -trans ferscope can be used Itl \je ..... SIl; r\"OS!,:\lpie "erial photographs ,lllIla llhlp at Ih.. samc time {courtesy [l11age 111ICrpr<."t"linn Systems ,
    Inc.I. c I " digit al '1t"rt"tl~cnr ic 7II"m-lran,fer-Sl."P<' (c"urt""y 0 l'l",m. lnc.).
    it

    'IIlnprelcr ca n gem I)' lift up th c edge o fl he to p photograp h


    esee what is undem e ath .
    ~ III1PW' stereoscope ( Figure 6- 17bJ pcrmus the en tire steIMCOpIC model of the two ove r lapping aerial photograp hs
    kI be viewed. Mirror stereoscopes oncn Ita\ e magnificauon
    oplions (e.g.. 2x. 3x. 6xj available that greatly increase jhe
    -=rpreter's ability 10 mag nify and inrerprcr fme de tail in tlk:
    eeeo model. For example. a more sophisticated and ... xpcn-

    sin ' mirror stereo sco pe wit h zoom ma gni fication is show n
    atta ched tt . a light table in Fig ure 6-- l7c. This configurat ion
    allow s the image aualyst ro view stereoscopically success ive
    ove rlapping aerial p hotographs (In a roll of li lm w ithout having to cut the roll of lilm . St ill more sophisucated ins trumcnts. b",,:d on the cem cra- fuc ida principle . allo w the
    anal)'si 10 view stereos co pic imagcry .... hi ll.' simu ltaneously
    viewing a ma p in superposition t Fig ure 6-17d ). Th is ls corn monly ca lled a zoom-transf er-s cope and is (I11cn used to

    C1 1\I' n:R

    168

    Pho tog ram metry

    Srercopatr l'reparnrlon

    -,~~~=~~3~ i-:~:-;c-;;;;\~-'-_

    cee

    pp

    _ - l airphceo
    lnilial stereoscopic
    ahgnrnent

    line o( flight
    a

    : pp

    ii11 :i

    : 0--

    ,
    ,
    h

    0--:'- --,0
    pp
    ,

    cpp:

    Fina l alignmeTll

    '

    -.:
    urea that can be viewed
    u"ing a len" stereoscope

    Figule 6 18

    Prepa ranon o f 01 secrcop uir for \ iewinl! u~ing a lens ~lc re,,-.c<lf'C a l The pnncipal pI'Il11 and conju ga te prirn:ipal point are
    tificd fln each phoh'g raph. and a line is Jra wn Ihfl."g.h them wilh a str.J ighlcJge_ Th ,s locates thc line o f n igh!. h I A portioo
    (he c ouuuon o ctla p :11':-01 lilill i ~ uf imcresrtc the imerpre ter i ~ II H l\ l xl parallel with the line of Ilight. 1lI<.' interp reter (hen '
    the (lverlap area ""mil rbc tcns sk reO<."fipc_

    transfer infonuanon interp reted fro m aeria l photography


    onto a map base. Digital stereoscopic zoom-trans fer-scope s
    are now available ( Figure 6- l7 e l,

    Stereoscopic Aerial Photograp hy - How Does It Work ?


    A hypothetical e xample II ill demonstrate how the unage
    analy st percei ves the third d ill\clI"io!l ill stereosco pic ae rial
    plauogruphy usin g a s tere osc ope. First. consider the profile
    view of'twn ste reosco pic aer ial photograph s tak en from two
    exposure stations. 1,/ and 1._, in Figure (,-I() _ Let us eval uate
    the churacrcrisucs o f the lo p o f a very tall bu ilding (which
    we w ill des ignate as object .4 in the real-w ortd object space I
    and the lop of a smaller hu ilJ ing l ohj..:el H in the real- world
    obj ect space) lying on extremely na t ground just abov e sea
    level . The d istance betwee n the 1"'0 exposure stations. /.1
    and L!. is called the air bcN' {A-hm d. The air base in effect
    becomes a stretched inte rpupillary distan ce. This condiuon
    is responsible lor the e xaggerated third dimension when annly/.ing the phOl'I~r.tphs stereoscopically.

    night. Th e fum urd progre ss of the aircraf t causes the i


    of objec ts a and h to move aLTOSS the ca mera's foc al pi
    parallel to the line of thgfu. Wh en exposure L. is made.
    captures the image of objects A and B at locations a ' and b
    on the left phorog rnph ( Figure (,-I Qa) . T his chang e in
    (ion o f an illl<lge llr an ohj ec l from one photograph 10
    l1e.\1 ca used by the a ircr a ft's motion is referred to as stcrto
    sco prc r -!,<ll'tIflllx (\\ 'nlf and Dew itt , 2UOO).
    Th ere al e some very inte resting prop erties associated with
    f'aral/(u that allow us to ob tain precise photogrammetri

    measurements from vertical aerial photography. To unde.


    ~ t .. nJ

    these relationships. consider Figure 6 1ge. whicb


    dep icts the two photograp hs taken at exposu re statio ns L
    an d 1... in .1'I1f!l'IJI",iliu lI. Su pe rposi tio n IllI:R IlS that we adjus
    IhL' profllc views of photos L/ and L: so that the vertical line
    runnin g th roug h eac h o f the p hotos " principa l po ints ~PPI
    and I'I)~) a re supe rim posed on top of one anoth er, This
    allows us 10 dete rmine 110.... much the obje cts have mo\ ed
    across the li lm plane fro m one e xposu re to the next .
    Nonce that the imag e o r object A moved fro m" to a ' on

    ln our example. OhJl'Cts ..I and H arc rec orded on the right
    photograp h I L l l al IIlt.'aliu ns " a nd h. rl,.'Spceti\cly [Figure llIgb). Th e airc raft then continues alon g its de signated line of

    t/l(

    two successive aerial pho tographs. The pa rallax of point Q '


    " " = -1".. ' -'",, " Similarly, the image of ohje':l 8 moved from
    to b, The parallax o f point h is Ph = x~ - X~ . The imponaa

    ....
    169

    il!r@oscopic Meas u remen t 01 Object Hei ght or Terrain Elevation

    Stereoscop ic Parall ax
    I" ~

    A ir ba w - -

    ... I.,

    Pos itive
    Image
    h'
    pon t ,.._ _-''+f-Ji''-__
    ~ s pac e

    "'

    OkJeel
    span:

    line o f ni gh l

    -L--\!I--.L

    rr,

    -<>-~

    cr r l

    .b-_...L...iL .L_ _~
    b.

    L --<>-

    L,

    c rr1
    I ' ....1

    "

    en (If

    h'

    "

    lmagc
    space

    '\\'$

    '.Xl.'

    "'it
    ,,'

    ~ 6-19

    :-ih,' rcost,'< 'pie paroll,lx is rmrod uced v, h~'1I an object IS ,i..,,,, ..' (j from l'no ditfercm ' lllll'lg.., l"'lIllh, a.hr () hJl'Cls A and 8 in the
    real worl d arc recorded as points ",11I..1 h in ex pos ure L! "nJ al., ' a nd '" in e>.["-'Sure L~ . "'J When till: locations of" and b and
    11 ' and h ' art' placed in sU['<:1"f'I ISili" ll. Ih,.' im age of nkj":cl . ~ ha-, gn:"ll'Tx-parallax l1'., ) lhan the imag.., of nt>Ject 8 (P h )' This
    difference in par.lila>. (culled ,b(fi.'n/IIi,,1' ''l/",'Il<l.\. df') can t>c rdaleJ to tlie a<"lu,,1 height " I' Ih... obj..'c-rs.

    ~ I'

    h,

    '"

    -cic

    ,.
    h
    ,,
    ,t
    -s

    lbing to recognize is that <J (the taller bui lding ) moved a


    pener distance ac ross the fi lm plane than h (the shon cr
    i'lulding)because 1/ had greater stt'reo,copic paralla x (han b,

    overlapping photograph bec.au sc the bnll wou kl hav e exac tly


    the vnm..' amount o f r-p.rrallax l'\'l'I)' 11 herc' in the stereo
    mudd! Therefore. the .r -parallax of a ny po int is:

    l i, also important ro undcrstand (hat ailobjects il/ the .l'C('II(.'


    ' lillie elevation will hove 1/'1 idf'llI/l'O! a/1/OI/!11
    i/ 1.Jl<Jrall,u', f or example. any po int loca ted on the top ,)1'
    t.lilding A win have exactly JI" t -pamlla x when the stereo~icphutogrllph s are ana lyz ed . Simi larly, any othe r buildIIlg In the entire stereosc opic mode l that had the same heig.hl
    Ii l\Jilding ,4 wou ld have the same .r-p amllax .

    di rect ly re late d to the elevation of the poin t above mean


    tcrmtn:

    IlIf.w('I~\ ' the

    s
    d

    J.oothcr v, ay of thinking abo ut .r-purullax is 10 place a beac h


    IllIHl'ohieh we w ill call obj ec t Ai an ywh ere o n a H'11: tla t
    ,r.m.:, such as the Bonn eville Sa il Hats in Utah oron a lak e.
    Mdtlk.'1I acqu ire stereoscopic photog raph s. No matte r where
    itbtach ball is in the stereo scopic mode l. its image, lI. o n
    f1eiim photog rap h ..... ould traw l ex actly the sa me distance
    IIoog the ima go: coord inate syste m to ( l ' 011 the adjacent

    grea ter lo r hig h points tc .g.. those close r to the aerial


    camera: than for 11)1', p oints.
    Thc' :ahility to mea sur e small diffe rences in the parallax [i.c ..
    the dilft-Il'lIIiolp<ll'lllJo d between a ny two po ints u"ing 1\10
    overla pping phtll(l~ra l' hs allow s Us to determine elevation
    diff erences \Ising stereoscopic para llax eq uation s. T his is
    htl\l almost a ll 1<I])\lgm phic TII.:l p" are mad e and ho w very
    prec isc tree and buildmg height measurements can be
    obtained u~ing stereo photogra phs . In order to do t his, we
    USl' the fundamenta l slcrel''''I;I'pIC paralla x eq ua tio n.

    170

    Ph otogramm etry

    J ) find ing the nmjll!:llt" "I'indl'l ll point (el''' ) un both

    To compute till' heigh t of an object. h". us ing stcrcoscopic


    p horog rarnm et ric tech niq ues. we usc the parallai: equation:

    to:-;. hy locat ing the position o f each pho tos princ ipal
    on the other plunograph.
    oJ) posinonmg the photographs along the ll ighthn..: oyal"_

    ((,,17)

    whe re If - " is thl' altitude ofthe aircraft above gro und level
    (AG L): P is the 1Ih.1'IJ {1I/1' '-/f'l"{'oyc0l'ic parallav at the ba se (If
    the object being measured (w e us ua lly usc the ai r base for
    th is measureme nt ), and dp is the d ifferential parall ax .
    Th is equation may y ielJ inco rrect results un less the following conditions arc mel;
    the vert ica l aerial photographs hav c ::::.3 lilt:
    the adj acl.'nl phot ograp hs are ex posed fro m almos t exact ly
    the sa me altitude above gro un d level:
    the princ ipa l pe rms (PPsl of both photogra phs lie at
    approximately the same elevation above ground level;
    the base of the nbJects of interest arc at ap proximately the
    sa me elevation as that ofthe princ ipa l p!., int~.
    Ifth esc co nd itions arc met , then Wl' only need to obtnm three
    mea su rements on tile ste reoscopic photogruphs tn compute
    the absolute height o f an object found with in the stereosco pic overlap portion of a stereopr nr, For example. consider
    the ste reoscopic characrerisucs of I'hot o.(..4 and Photo~_~ of
    Co lumb ia, SC. show n previous ly in Figure 6-3 and shown
    diagram maticall y in Figure (...20. kemernbe r that the aeria l
    pho to grap hy was acqui red at an a ltitude of~.97K .5 n above
    ground leve l wit h J e-!n. focal -len gth lens yie lding a nounnat scale of apprnxirnarely 1:5,457 , We will compute the
    height of the Se nate Co ndom inium. The computa tion ofthe
    he ig ht o f the condomin ium is accomplished by:
    I) detl'nnining the a ltitude of the aircrati ab<m: ground level
    (H - hi which Wt,.' know to be 1,1,17/<'5 ft. Whcn using the par-

    ing the ['P and CP I' of each photograph so that they areII
    straight line, This represents the /i'll' offhght , ~ot~,that
    line of nIght is fro m right to kit in Figure fl-:!O. ~O\
    interpreters often think that ll ightli ne" must progress f
    k ft III right. They do not.
    5 ) det erm ining the uvctuge phnlo ai r base ( absolute ,(<:ref
    scopic pa rallax , Pl First. measu re the d ista nce between
    principal perm U'P~ .~1 and the conjugate principal
    tC I'!'...s) on Ph~'IV4 .~' w hich \I.e \.\ ill call A-ba"c~ ... (figure
    20b.d), This was 3.41 in, Do the same thing for Phol04-j'
    this case A-t>a"e...s "as .\ ..W in . ( Fig ure "-10a.c). The
    cf rbcsc two mcacurcmcms is the average photo air baser
    between the two exposu re stat ions (i.c.. abso lute st
    scop ic para llax. I' = J .-J in. ). Absolute stereoscopic pnral
    (1') and diffe rential parallax (tip) mu:-;.t he measured in
    same units. c.g.. ci ther mi llimeters or thousandt hs of an i
    b) measuring the different ial parallax (tip) between the:
    of the building and the top o f the building. T his measurs
    meat is ~st obtained using a part/lim: bar [ottcn called a I
    1'.'0111<'1"1"). \\ hic h " ill he dis cus sed shortly. Jill" ever. itll\ll
    also he poss ible to com pute the Ji fTer.:I1CC in p Jr~l r.
    betwee n the olljel"ts u ~i n g a qu a lity ruler. In this example.
    top corner of the building i~ designated as heing Obiea
    and the bnsc of the huil ding is Objl'cJ B. Notice in Figure
    20all lhat the building is just v i~illk in the lower leftJ>OniuflUfPhoto~ ... but that it has mov ed dramaticallyam-.
    the film plane and is located ncar the vertical linc ~
    the pr inc ipal poi nt in Phm o~ _~ . The loca tion of the Hlp of
    buil ding is labeled u in Photo H a nd </ ' i n l'hut (J~ , l ' The 100tion ofrhe 1l,ISC otrhc building is labele d b in P1wlo4-.l anJi
    in I' ho hl ~ .. The r-parallax of the lOp (from a to a') and 1Ir
    .r-parallax of till' base (If tho: bui lding (fro m II ro b '} can
    measured using a nller in one of three wa)s: I l measu re
    using fiduciallin~. 21 mea'iurem.:n t based on superposit
    or 3) !lleawremcnt uloing a paralla\ haT (stereomeh:r).

    a lia:>. l-quat inn, it is necessal)' to e' pres" tht,.' a ircraft height


    ahou' gro und k\el (11 - M in the uni tlo desirc."t.I. In thi:-;. eUM~
    we w il1u"e feC't.
    2) loc ating the pI';lIdplI1I'oilll (I'/') o n each o f the phUttl~'Taphs Ily drawi ng lines through the opposing four fidueilll
    marks on each pixlwgraph.

    Figur e 6-2 0e,d dCl' iL,t a di:lgrumlll atic p lan view o ft hl' infO!
    ,'olltr:nt o f lf\(lto~ .4 and I'hot0 4.S' ~ (l t c tha t the lon ,
    tiu ll l)f the principal points (1'1' ). conjugate principal POi
    ,CPI'), h.1se of the building , and top of the buil di ng an
    k'Cillt,.'d (In o:ach phmograph. Al",l note that the diagt'3lt
    depieh the bui lding leaning aw a)' frolll thc principal poia
    due to relief d isplacement. as prcv io u"ly d i~usseJ.
    m a t i ~ .n

    "

    17 1

    !ltreoscoplc Measurem ent of Object Height or Terrain Elevat ion

    /. /

    ',2
    Profitt' view of

    Pr ofil e view of
    Phot e 445

    rh ol o ~

    ~n

    na
    the
    ice

    ,m

    "

    "

    -o,

    'he
    iru
    6-

    ,.

    Plan ,'ie"
    of Photo 4-S

    PI
    o-

    flu ,Ie"

    of Pbolo 4-4

    ax

    h,

    !' -ba",...,
    U <r'_

    h.

    Ab&>c~

    .-

    "

    err.-.

    ,.

    O.'t

    o-

    H I"

    <:1'1'.. ,

    0 . . '_

    b - '"'"

    II I.",

    ~ , . - . ) .k]"

    ". ... -O.27U"

    'l

    L-_ _-''"-_

    , '-- - --'"- - - --'

    tx
    rc

    ---' d

    Profile \ 'jt' Vo uf
    4-5 a nd 4-4
    in supe rpositi o n

    ;.

    Ph"lu~

    is
    h

    ,.

    "

    I.- ' b - .),- "


    I+- r"

    t+-

    J ,gr

    p" l , W~

    "

    " b,-.l)21>7"

    , . 0.270'
    JI' .

    J ~~ . J.JJ~'

    Jp _0211

    I+ p~ Dj'l-.1

    "

    "

    F'9ure 6-20

    ('nmp ul il1g the h.:ighl of'th e Senate Condominium ill Columhia. St", hy measuring the stereoscopic .r-parallax of the top

    ami bast uf the building Irom Photo ' ...and P h ()IO. s- When placed in superposition Ie). the l.lilfcrential perallax (Jpl of
    the building is determined and can be used to compute the height of the building. Refer to the next illustration 10 view
    the actual a...rial photographs used in the computauen .
    I~ ronjunct io n w ith the planimetri c map. it is useful to actually view the imag e of the Senat e Condo mi ni um as reco rded

    m Phot04-4 and rhl)to4-~' T here is a m uc h enlar ged v iew in

    Figure 602 1. Note that the pr inci pa l point line ( fiducia l line)
    IS visible near the bu ild ing in Pho to... s (Figure 602Ia). but
    !!uI the prin ci pal point line is far aw ay from the building in

    .l

    PhOlO4-4' nec ess itating a break in the line ( Figu re 6-11b ).


    Us ing the rea l aerial phoillgrdphyo it is possible to measure
    the .r- paralla x of the top o f the: bu ild ing on Ph oto..... (designated -'",,:0 -J .R:! in.] and r -parallex of the base o f t he building
    [designated x h - 3.606 in.) fro m the fidu c ial line . Similarly.
    it is possible 10 measure th e r -parallax o f'rhc lOp ofthe bu ild-

    172

    .\ hl h od ~

    o f \I t'as u r ing

    Stereuscc pic x.para lla ~ Irum


    Ow r ia p iling Aeria l PhUlugraph\:
    - Measurement using fiducial lines (a,b)
    - Measurement based on superposit ion Ie )

    Figure 6- 21

    Photogra mmetry

    I'P4.~

    :t,Il) l' hc measurement or stereoscopic x-pcralla x using the fiducia l Iinc's for !' h llll)4 ~ and Phnh14.4. respecu vely, c ) MCaJ;ulfo
    ",elll or stereoscopic .r p ~ril llax using supcrpcs it ion.

    ing on I'hoto 4 . S (designated xu' = 0.270 in.] and the base of


    the building (dcsignall-d .\"6' = -0.2ti7 in. ) from the fiducial
    line. The absolute value of the .r-parullax of the top of the
    building is Pol - ].55 in. and the r-parnllax of the tMS<.: of the
    building iSP b = .l.J 3') in. The diff...renual parallax (fip) is the
    difference between the two values. dp - 0.2 11 in.

    Je

    ho ( H -h ) p+tJp)
    yields

    ' 97'S'

    fU ll '"
    )(3.4"'+ 0.2 11"')

    h., - 174' .
    Substitut ing the measured values into Equation 6-17
    The actual height of the building is 17211.

    ...
    173

    iltreoscop ic Meas urement of Object Height or Terr ain Eleva Uon

    Len s Stere nscup e lind P;aralln Rar

    IS pos-sible to orient the two overlapping photographs as

    awon in Figures 6-201.: and 6-2 1c where the base and top of
    bnldmg are a ligned paralle l with the line (If tli ght. II
    lleS not maue r how much d ista nce se parat es the two photo-

    ilP1L1. The .r-parallax ofthe lop orlhe building is meas ured


    ' lh ~ d i sl 'I1ll: C fro m the top of the building on I' htllO~_ S 10 the
    )pofth!.' same comer ofthe building on I'holO4-4 (P ol '" 0.30
    l~ The.r-paralla x o f the base ofthe bu ilding is the di stance
    lh ~' rose of the huildi ng o n PhOI04. S 10 tile base on
    106~ (PI> = 0 .5 11 in.). Th e differentia l parallax between
    tcll1l and base o f'the bui ld ing is identical to what was co musing the fiduci al line method. Jp = 0 .211 in .. and
    IJ yield the same bu ilding hei ght esti mate. Some image
    .11I:o'>1$ prefer this simple parallax measurement techn ique.

    Figure 6-22

    CI~- uJ' \icy.

    that we haw the altitude of the aircra ft abo ve ground

    I' f a parallax bar wilh lhe- Iloaung


    and vernie r me asuring mechanism. It is attached to the lens stereoscope and placed over the

    (1/ h) and the absolute stereosco pic paralla x (1') com-

    stcrco parr io rnukcpa rallax rncusurcm cnts.

    11I311.",

    for these two photographs, it is possible to measure the


    "<<tom and top of other features within the stereoscop ic
    aJd~1

    and compute their differentia l para llax measurements

    'fl), While it is simple and usefu l to he able 1('0 measure the


    80IJnl of differential parallax usin g a ruler as just
    ItICribt,tl it is also po ss ible to usc a parallax bar that was
    t1igncd specifically for measu ring stereoscopic parallax .
    f.Pan llon. v t ee surcmcot

    t:sin ~ .\

    rarall:n. Ba r

    The parallax o f specific objects in a stereopair can be comlUd accurately and quickly using a parallax J>.: ,,. (somereferred to as a storcometert. The para llax bar con sists
    bar with \',\'0 clea r pla-ne or glass plates attac hed to it
    tk@Uft 6-22 1. One of the plates is fixed, while the othe r
    ecan IJ(o moved back and forth along the length of the bar
    ~odj usli ng a vernier dial. Th ere is usually a brig ht red dot
    \\Chcd uno each ofthe plastic (glass) plates. These arc called
    ",a~lIril1g

    marks,

    'lim using a s imple lens stereoscope. the image anal) sl


    the photographs I that the object of interes t (s uch
    ,the corner of the Itlp of a huilding ) in the kfl photu!ctraph
    rewed by the left eye and the same object in the righ t-.:I photograph is viewed by the right eye. l'eXi. the anaadJ usts the stereo meter so tha i I) ihc lett measuring
    IlI1 is placed exactl y o n the co rner of the top of the buildI! in the left- hand photograph, and 2) the rigfu measuring
    lID. i ~ adjus tlxl so that it is pla ced on the same come r o f the
    lIlpofthe building in the right-hand photograph . The meallring marks are shifted in r nsilion on the stereo mete r lIsing
    Iiie I'ernier ,cre w device until the)' visually fuse toget her
    mng~

    into a single mark. ....-hich appears to exis t in the stereo mode l


    as a three-dimensiona l red ball that lies at the particu lar elevation of the corner of the top of the bu ilding. This produces
    the same e ffect as if a red ball had actually existed at the corner otthe top of the building at the time the two photographs
    " e re exposed. If the measuring marks arc success fully fused
    and hove r exactly a l the comer of the top of the build ing ,
    then the stereoscopic .r-parallax of this point may be easily
    read from the verni er scale o n the parallax bar. We ha ve j ust
    used the principle of the f loating mark.
    If WI: wish to measure the para llax o f the base of the co mer
    of the same building, W ~ simply focus our stereoscopic
    vis ion on the ba se and adj ust the two llell and ri~ h t ) measuring ma rks until they \ lI KC aga in Iuscas a three -dim ens ional
    ball that JUSl touches the g round ntt he base ofthe building .
    We can then read till;' vernie r scale to ob tain the .r-pa ralla x
    meas ure me nt of the base of the bu ilding.

    The sign ificance of the /lof/fillK 1II,Irk for photogrammcmc


    measureme nt is that it can he used 10.> accu rately measu re the
    para llax at any tw o po ints O \'C-T the stereo mode l. It can be
    placed at the top of an objcct such as a building and the parallax or the point read. c.g ., P... Ihcn. the floating marl can
    be placed at the bonom of the object and the parallax read.
    e.g., Pt> . The differe nce (P,,- Pt results in the dI/Jell!nliul parvl/(1..{ (dp) measurcmcm required as input 10 Equation 6-17.
    lt ma kes no differe nce if the obj ect is man-made with vcrtical s ides or if it is a terrain feature. i.e., it can be the top and
    base o ra build ing or lower, lhe peak of a mountain ur a rive r
    floodplain. From thc ditfi'Il'/1/ial parafla>: betwee n the two

    174

    meas urement po ims. th...... lcvauon di ff ere nce may be


    dc nv cd.
    The principle of the Iloa ting mark can be used 10 map lines
    o f constant ek\'illi,)n in th e terrain . For exam ple. if'the Il03ting marl (the fused. red three-d irnensjc nal ball] were moved
    aroun d the stereo model so Ihal it mai ntained contact with
    the terra in. i.e .. it was not allowed to floa t above the terrain
    or go down below the terrain (which is possible when viewing in stereo! l. then a line ofconstant stereoscopic .r-pamllax
    would he iderniflcd. If this were do ne along the side of a
    mountain. the line of constant .r- paralja x cou ld be determined. \\ h jch cou ld then be converted directly into elevation
    above sea k H' I. Th is line of constant par-diu is related to
    actual elc vauon through the use o f horizontal Lr..I' ) and venica l 1=1 g round-co ntrol markers that were surveyed in the
    field. This i.. !lcl" US( iS topograp hic map" with contour
    line.. arc produced . Till': stercoplouer operat or places the
    Iloating marl on the terrain ( representing a specific elevation) and then mow.. the l10aling ma rk about the te rrain in
    the stereo mood whtle keeping the mark firnuy on the
    ground. One can convert the .r-paralla x measu rement 10
    actual elevauon It) kll:a ting ho rizo ntal- vert ica l ground-control points (e.!:!.. I(10 II. above sea levd al locat ion x.y l in the
    stereosco pic model and determining its .r-parallax. Any
    oth er point wit hin the st~t"C'n",-,opic mood w ith the same .r para llax must then lie at l OtI II above sea level, It is also pe ssiblc 10 map buildmg perimeters by placing the ihrcc- dirncnsional nn ating mar k so that it Just rests on the roo ftop. and
    then trac ing the mark around the ~dg~ o f the roo ftop. This
    resul ts in a map nft hl: planimetric lX,y ) location of the bui ldm g.

    T he si mple parallax bar (stereometer} is the least expensive


    and one of't he least accura te of all instrum ents that are based
    011 the concept of the !lualing mark. Very expensive analo g
    am! digital stereosco pic plotting instruments arc available
    that allow precise paralla\ measurements to be made. For
    CX;II11p k, a Zc i~~ unulytica l stcrccploucr is shown in Figu re
    (,-13 . When used in conjunction with ground -control infer marion collected in the field . tIll' system ana lytically co rrelatc ~ and co mpulc.. the amo unt of-,-pa rallax tilr c<ll;h pieturc
    ele ment (PiXel I WIthin th.... two st.. . rcosen pil.' aeria l pholngraphs i n~ illc thc sy~ tem . A ste renplntll'r operator interac ts
    with thc analyt ical instrumen t 10 pr\k.luc.. . plani metr ic and
    topo graphic maps. In .Idd itio n, they I.'an he used to produce
    r:lstl' r digital cleva tion nwdds. An exampk of typica l ,f. y
    planimetry and contours 1=) der ived from a stcrcoplotl....r is
    shnwn in Fil:Jut"C' 6-2..J. hu a detailed d iscuss ion ofholl. ana lytica l slcrt'op lotlcrs function . rdi:r lO tht' Jlal1lm / 0" PhtJI(J-

    Ph oto grammelry

    I,t'n \ S lrrru..cope a nd I'aralla:>; Bar

    Ftgure 6-23 A Zr1S~ PJ Planicom p analytical ~t~'TCtlp lomr


    anat) , I vic.... s the stereo mod elthrou gh t~
    lar I~~ s~ stem and can adjust the Ilcanng mart
    iny the c urs or "" the table loounl"'~' Carl zess
    Krwnml'lry published by the Ame rican Society .
    l' hotogra mm etry a nd Remote Sensin~ ( ~kGlonc, 200;).
    Stercns('(lpic photography may a lso he acq uired on
    gro und. The stc rc..e copic photog raphs 1;3n be analyzed u
    the principle of' thc floating mar k III produce a detailed
    dimensiona l rcp rcscruution of the facade o f buildings
    dc sired (of coursc. field X. >
    :Z ground-control m....as urem
    nrc req uire d to scatc the ste reo model ). This is culled clrange I'hmogm m/1/l'lry ( Warne r et al.. I'N ('I; Wolf and [
    iu. 10001. Ste reoscopic phorogramm etric tec hniq ues can
    app licd III terrest rial photogra phy til restore historical bu
    ings or recons truct a human 's ann. kg. or face.
    ,~

    or

    Digital Elevation Models, Orthophotos


    and Planimetri c Features using Soft- COP)'
    Photo gram met ry

    O n.:
    the mllsl illlp"r1<lllt c\ellts in the history of ~
    sc nsing am! photllg ranmll"try h,IS t1\.'c n th.... d\."\'dopmcnt
    mJI-copr "h"togr' /lwl1\ lry. The le nn .ff~/i-copy mcans thaI
    digi tal v.:rsiulJ ofthc sll'rc(lscnpic a....rial pholug raphy is
    IYl l-d rather than 0 hard copy. James Case del'elop..:d the
    phlltngfllmmctric solt-1:0PY syslem in the early IlJxOs. (
    r.... nt so ll-....opy phllto~ramlllctric "yst....ms (e.g .. the L
    G\.'OSysh:ms Phlltog rammelry Sui te) allow the ana lyst
    pmcess dig ital im;lg~'ry on a pt."rsonal cnmpuler, \ ie....stL'rl'O mood in thrl'C d imcnsio n" on a computer scr

    ....

    c.;ital Elevation Mod el s, Or1hoph otos and Planimetric Features u sin g Soft-c opy Photogramm etry

    Figure 6-25

    ocuI

    extract ion o f
    tion mode ls:

    for

    00'
    c e-

    ~re 6-24

    al t jne aerial photograph of a stcreoparr of Covina.


    C A, bj A line dra w ing of the planimetric (.l.y ) loca-

    linn of the roads. " uilding fO<llprims. fences. and


    landsc;apc dements (trees. shrubs), as wel l as l -It
    contours derived fro m the stereo model.

    ;f

    nt;
    \"t"

    w
    be
    JU-

    'y

    '"

    .,o f

    ,.
    .r-"

    digital elevation mood s ( OEMs ), extract co nto urs.


    jrrducc orthophotog raphs. and extract planimetric feature
    detail. An !IMI)'SI usin g so n-copy photogrammetry SOnWHe
    Illd wearing anagl yph g la.'iscs \0 analyze a stereo model in
    llife( dimensions is shown in Figure 6-2 5.

    The stages o f deve lopment required to prod uce O E[\1s and


    main-correc ted orthoirnagcry, a nd extract them atic features
    If i ~ leresl using sort-cop y photogrumrnctry are outlined in
    figure 6-26. lmpornmr consideration s include :

    -ccllecrion of ground-c o ntrol point d ata:


    ' collection o f stereoscopic aeria l photograph y or othcr
    moote senso r d ata;
    ' imagc diguization ll'Chnology:

    ic

    n.

    ~pol

    elevations. con tours . and dig ital eleva-

    creal io n of d igita l ort hoimagec:


    extraction o ft hcrnatic features of interest.

    Coflection of Accurate Horizon tal and Vertical Ground


    Control

    &1\1'<:

    aa

    '0

    An imaSo.' analyst vee.....ing a stereo mood in threeanaglyph J1: 1 a-~",""S and tho: Leica
    Gt'OSy$lcms Photograrnmetry Suite.

    d mlL"fI~ions u~ mll

    ; us-

    t he

    175

    lQft...:opy phorcg remm ctry soli" arc;

    For man y years the ground-control point (GC P) data were


    onl y obtained hy registered land sur veyors using tradi tional
    ground surveyi ng equipment. Th is situation has changed in
    two very important way s. First.the usc oral'S for Gcr data
    collection is now routine ( Figure 6-26a). T he availability o f
    surv ey -grade O I'S techn ology makes it possible to collect
    acc ura te GCP info rmatio n wi th X Y.l root-mean-sq uarederror l f{l\ lSE) o f <3 e m when the data ar c ditfercnnalty cor reeled ( l\h:Coy . 2005 ). Remem ber, how ever. that GPS is
    most e tt en used 10 com pute horizonta l posit ion . G PSderi ved vert ical posi tion (Z-ekvation ) is rel ated to the ellipsoid, not the geoid or mea n sea level. T herefore. to relate the
    GPS-dcr ivt'd ele va tio n (ellipso id heigh t ) to co nvent io na l
    el evation (orrhomet ric he ight). a ge o id model is nec ess ary
    ( Wolf a nd Dew itt. :!OOO). Second. the G PS-J e ri\'ed GC P
    data necessary to prcpare a block of Renal photogra phy fo r
    infor matio n extraction can he obtained by non- s urve yors
    (i.e.. geo gra phe rs. foresters. geo logi sts).

    C II _ \ I'IH~

    176

    Ph o to g ra m metry

    Colle

    E atract inn of Digit al Elt-, ,.Iinl! :\10<1('1\. Orl hnim a gl' r~ ..


    a nd Planimetr-ic Fea tures L\ i n~ So ft ~lJP~' Ph "l o~ rammltr~h. I'hn rnJ:ra mmt'lr ;c
    Tri all l:ula ti"l1 " n l1l1l,,~1.

    c. ( 'rrll l . ""d ' -k ..

    ( -" nl rnl , :lind l h'm"t.: ~(' n, ,,r

    Data ("" I!(oel ;""


    <;0 11,;<;( ~ru l.ln d-<:" " lml

    ,\ dj u, I IlI ,'nl
    - reg isl.:r fr;u"c~ of ima>:.I)" 10

    - \ ' 11'\ \

    :II.

    Pla n

    n i~ h l lin('.

    G r", ond

    J~lJ

    lI-sing (iPS

    - ul{uirc rcn)lltdy sense d data


    300 Jigl lll,c It' ncssa~
    - a,s.:s, qua lity "fGC-r ,mtl
    rem" l,'
    d,lla

    "'''' ' 1

    "' c'ght~on_'lr.IIlICJ

    Oth e

    l ligh
    prod.
    plani
    scale
    been

    Rc!o:i' ll'rt'd Stertor"; "_

    ground cumr,,1 u_mg uucnor


    and "'~lcli"r MI<.'Tl131;Uf\
    1=,(

    , t('rc'o Illodel U , il l ~

    an.,g lyr h or f'o larl"ed

    gl,),sc~

    - eXlno:t _pol d<,I'ali'lns


    lI-, ing thcjl.>Uling m"rt If

    te.g.

    desired

    squall.... bundle ;ulJu'<Im..',u

    DigiU

    I'rog

    Man
    linn

    men
    so r :
    C:>I'S ::ruund-

    Int.-rio r

    cUll In,1 pulnr

    H..mu... , o: n"" dau

    men

    data

    d ahl cutlcc no n

    tncr
    DEl

    be ,
    phy
    SOl

    sea
    pic
    sor

    \ l1l' ~:l~ l' h

    'h"r('<)I';' ;'
    (,ho .... n in hl;'cl and .... hile )

    <e'

    Th
    d. blr3("t Il i!:lt a l .:1\,\ 311,,0
    \ Iml d ( 1) "1)

    - automated c'l llel'l i" n or


    D t :-'1 1ll a uscr-spcciflcd J::rid
    - ~It cln allt,n M",'slllll:'
    .... h.le &.ap..-..J o'er 30 , -ie....
    o r Ilk" rertam
    - ....nl" DE\! lo OUl plll tile

    e. t:, lra,t lIi !:ila l O r1h" iflllll:'"


    - " ""' DL\ -l l" en" ,te orthoimagc
    - ere,lte orth...iul;,j,lc flU",,,.... IWIll

    indi\ idlUl framc,


    _O'... rld~ "nlw.''' na~ ....... ,Ih
    themallC dua to produce
    ortIk ,ml-lge nul'

    lui
    ua l

    r. t:,l racll'la l1 ll1.d ric

    Fca tu r.....
    - \ -Il''''' .maglypfuc or pohmzcd
    triung ulnted , tcrcuHH>ucl
    - 1'1;,.... I1INIIII/I<! mud on feature
    of ill"'n:~l ;11101 "Ullinc il
    - LTt:,Ue coraocrs b~ lceplIlg tlll:
    ll o, ,llllg nurl on rbe ground
    al a CUllsranl ele..,ri"n ri..:.
    con,la',l amount of parallav )

    1m
    to

    ,n
    h.
    se

    tic

    p'

    c,
    I nr. ,rr..r INl

    In : \1

    huilding
    f""lrrinl

    O rlh ni ma ::l" cr .-al ed l" ing

    cn rn '\'r\',l ll E\ 1
    Figu re 6-26

    Typical

    ~lagC'<

    in the CI'e'311Oll o r drgttal elevation m""kk "nhvirnagL"ry. ,md the extraction o r pbnim<:lIiL' features

    ....ut-c op~ photogranuucmc tec hniq ues .

    u,i~

    ....

    Illal Elevation Models , Orthopho tos and Plani me tr ic Features us ing Soft-copy Phologrammetry

    tectiOn of Stereoscopic Aerial Pho tog rap hy

    lO;t

    or

    Remote Sensor Dara

    177

    spatial resolution satel lite rem ote senso r d ata becomes available for use in the creation o f Dl. Ms and onhoimJ ges.

    Image Digitization Technology

    :h-quality stereoscopi c aerial ph\l lograph y are required to

    dee accurate OEM s. orthophlltography and extrac t


    erecic d..nail (Fi gure 6-2bal. Co nsiderable medi um Irll :20.000 1'1 I :-W.(J()O) metric aerial pho tograph y has
    II acquired by' subcontractors for gove rnment agcnci..' S
    ~. LS. Geologica l Survey Nat ional Aerial Photography
    ".am. U.S. Coa st a nd Get ...Jeric Su rvey. Bureau of Lan d
    Dagetno:'nl). Co mmercial pho rogram mc m c engineering
    acoetinue to collect most o f the large-scale ( > I :20.1)00 )
    :nc aerial photography. They U~ anal og a nd di gital sensystems. which provide improved geometric and radio:nc resolution (e.g. Leica ADS 40). Mo sr remote sensing
    r
    platforms are no w equipped with GPS and
    1iaI navigation sys tems . \'ery high spat ial resolution
    :'o k orthophorographs. and planimetric fe ature detail can
    :Itri\ed from such imagery. Un fort unately. the photogra
    .md derived products a re ~t ill expensive .

    ceuecnon

    Linear and area -array dig iti7ation technology hased on


    cha rge coup led de vices (('Cl)~ ) o r phot o-dil:Mks have revolutionized image d igitizauon. Scicnrists now have access to
    desktop systems t hat " 111 dig iti7l' black-an d-white imager)'
    to 12 bits (va lues from 0 to 401J5 ) and color imagery to J u
    bits (>1 b illion colon ) at repe atable spatial resol ut ions
    approach ing < 10 urn. Seienti sls ca n inexpcnsiv ely sca n hISto rica l images at high sp,lI ia l resolution fur phorogrammctric
    proje cts ( Koncncy, ::00 ) . The importance ofimage d iguization will become lo s im portant as mo re of the data analyzed
    in soft-copy phot og rarnrnetric sys tems arc cotlcctcd by dig ita l rem ote se nsin g sys ll'lIls.

    Soft-Copy Phologrammetry

    remote ly sense d dat a suitable for mediumk pbnogrammctric app lica tions arc a vailab le. For exa mit is possible 10 o btai n stereo panchromatic remote sen data wnh a nominal spa tial resolution of 5 x 5 m from
    :atSPOT and Ind ia n IRS-I C sensors (re fer to C hapter 7).
    epanchromanc data may he used to derive med ium -reso (l/l DEMs and or moirnagcs. de-puc the fad that ind i\ idhouses and sma ll buildings cannot be resolv ed .

    Soft-copy pho lo gr.JlIln1l'tri.:: so ftware has made it possible


    for scientists and lay penoons rc create OEM s. pTl'pare on hophowgraphs, extract contours. and map thematic features of
    inte rest. Th is .::apahility is largely due to unprovcmcms in
    the photogrammctric so ftware that performs a) inte rior o rien tation, I'll exterior orienta tion , and c) ae ro-t riangu lation .

    ager), with a spatia l resolu tiollof tl.25 tu 2 ,5 1Il is requ ired


    resolve trailers. houses. small buildings. narrow roa ds,
    . drainage networks. so importan t in many urb an-suburapplicauous (Jens en lind Cowen, 1 9 l)9 ~, Fortunately,
    iCraJcommercial lirms now provide high sputinl rcsoluI satellite-deriv ed remote sensor dat a that can be used to
    fide DEr>.ls. orrhoiruugery , lIlId some pluuiructric fe ature
    'aCtion. (refer 10 Chapter 7):

    tmerior onematiun is the procedure whereby the geometric


    characrcrisncs of an aeri a l pho tograph an: mathematica lly
    related 1( 1 the geometric cha racteristics (including de formitics) o f the camera system that took the photograph. Th is
    means csruhlishmg the Tl'l;ltlon,hip between I ) the camera
    internal coordinate sys tem and 2) the image pixel co ord inate
    system [Lind er. 200Jl. T his sk p requir es informa tion abo ut
    the camera sys tem , which is typically found in the camera
    ca libration report . Most frame cameras )1;I\-'e ;1 camera calibrarion report that was c rea ted at the time the camera was
    pro duced or rccahhratcd. Ty pica l info rmation required tor
    inte rio r orientation that is available in the camera cahbrauon
    rep\ln incluJ .::s;

    De satellite

    ieoEydKONOS I x I OJ panchrmnunc duta:

    jrhlmage OrhVicw-3 I x 1 m pa nchro matic ,tlta ;

    tnt crtor Ortcntatlnn

    ligitalGlobc Quit:kBird 6 1 x 6 1 t:1n pa nchrolllut it: data .

    iIe sut:h digital satellile re mote M:nwr data may never


    lace tht: demand for h igh-4 ualit)' lurge-scall.' aeria l phoraphy, there w ill be many appli ealion s where the DE\! s
    ,ortOO-rel.:tilk d satdli t.:: data an: su llic il' nt Thus. anoth.::r
    ior ~um b ling blod is bl'inl; Il .... ercoml' as re lati\ cly hil;h

    r.y locatilln u f thl' prln .::ipal po int (e .g,. x.r " 0.0; rd er to
    Figure 6-6);

    x,y locat ion ofal lli,lul:ial mHrks (m m );


    len s focal length t crn );

    178

    deformation ch aracterist ics orthc lens.


    Th e an alyst ob ta ins this information from the ca me ra calibrauon report and imports it into the interio r o rientation progra m. The image ana lyst then iden tifies rhe r.j- loca tion of
    the fiduc ial mark s assoc iated ..... ith each phot og raph produced by the camera. For example. consider Figure 6-27
    where an analyst ts in the process nf pe rfonn ing interior cod entation for one of the photographs o f Columbia. Sc. Tilt"
    analyst is collec ting information abou t fiducial mark /12,
    [OC3 Inj in a comer of the photograph. The coord inates of a ll
    four fid ucia l mach from the camera cal ibra tio n repo rt a re
    labeled Fi lm X and Film Y in the d isplay. Th e image coor dinates of all four fidu cia l ma rks measured by the ana lyst are
    labeled Image X and Image Y in the d isplay. The- fiducia l
    mark calibrat ion report coordinate, arc then rela ted 10 the
    coordinates o r the fiducia l mark s measured hy the image
    ana lyst and res id ual s computed. The relationship between
    thi ~ partic ula r image and the came ra ce bbruuon informa t ion
    ha!> a root-mean-sq uared-error (RMSF.) of 1,12 pi'els (5 (,.76
    f.lm ) \>, hich is ve ry good , Interior ori entatio n is performed fur
    each ph otograph in the block of phot ography. It relate s thegeo met ric churactcrisucs o f the aer ial photograph to the
    internal geometric cha racte ristics of the camera that prod uced it.

    [ " e rior Orientatiun


    All aer ial photographs are t illed somew hat. We need to
    know how to model this tilt if we arc go ing to ex tract useful
    meas urements fro m aerial photogr ap hy. There arc s ix eleme nts o f ex terior orientati on that express the spat ia l loca tion
    and angular or ientat ion o f a tilted aer ial phot ograph at the
    moment o f exposure (Xl ,1'i .2l ,w, ,,,,). Th e three-dim en sional coordi nates of the a ircraft at the mom ent of exposure
    arc XI.' Yl,ZI. where ZI. is the altitude of the ca mera above the
    loca l da tum . Atthe instant o f exposure the cumcm might be
    rolli ng. pitching. or yaw ing. These three an g les of orientation arc om ega . phi, and kappa (oo-O-K ). All the method s
    developed 10 det ermine these six param ete rs for eac h ae ria l
    photograph require pho tographi c images of at least three
    grou nd-c ont rol points whose X.Y.Z coordinates are kno.... n
    ( Wolf a nd Dewitt, 2 ()()O). If we can determine these param ctcrs for eac h ae rial photograp h. we ca n use the info rmation
    to re late image coordinates tu real-world (e x le l"ill r ) ma p
    coordin ates.

    Exterior orientation determines the mathemat ical relat ionship between imag e coordinates (.l,):=) and real-wor ld map
    coordmate, lX [ X) for select ed ground-contro l points. r\
    g rf/lll/d comrot point lCC!') is defined as any object in an
    ima ge for which real-world .r y.7. gro und coor dina tes a rc

    C II.\ PT ER

    Ph otogra mm etry

    known (Linder, 20(3). We need to locate atIeast threc vel


    distributed GC Ps in ea ch image. Th is means that the y s
    be distribu ted so that they fonn a triangle in the image ,
    shou ld not be loca ted in a stra ight hne.

    High-quality orttficial (or ('III/d) Gel's arc usually rna


    in the field using a white L'roSS with ea ch o f the four leg!
    lil t' cross being 50 long and the width of the bars beingU
    wide (e.g.. 0.(, m) ( Wolf and Dewitt. 200 1). T he color of
    artificial Gel' sh ould contrast w ith the background rna
    {c.g., a while cross o n da rk as pha lt). ~ Iost analys ts have
    a rnfi cia l Gt'Ps at selected street intersections in the
    So met imes Gel's are located at strategic loc atio ns in
    countrysi de , The hcrizonrallccation (X. Y) and/or Z eleva
    o f the (;C P~ arc obtain ed using diff erent ially correc
    {static or kinematic) (i I'S measurements and the r
    geoi d mod el. The more horizontal/vertica l ground con
    points that can be located thro ughout a b lock (If aeria l
    tugruphy, the bcncr. The most acc urate exterior oriental
    w ill take place in areas surroun de d by art ific ial GCPs.1I
    zonta l contro l points arc usually sym boli zed with a tri an~
    Vertical control poi nts arc symbolized using a ci rcle. II
    zonral and vert ical co ntro l at a point is sy mbol ized usingl
    tr iang le wit hin a circle.
    In addit ion to art ific ial ho r izontal/ve rtical GCl's. the i
    an alys t ca n select {'II'" points [som etimes referred to as
    ura l points ) w ith in thc ove rlap a rea of a ste reo pair. P
    points should he cle arly visible in each photograph of
    stereopair te.g .. the corner of a st reet, base nf a tclcph
    pole. irucrsccuon o f two fences ]. The analy st obtains the
    locat ion o f these pass poi nts in each image o f tile stcre
    Pa~s po ints can be used to pass cont rol from o ne phot
    to the next in a strip of aerial phot ograph y. Tie poifftJ
    pass points located in the : 0 percent s ide lap area (refer
    Figure (,-2 ) that ca n be used 10 pass control from one lli
    line strip of <I n ia l photography to ano ther.
    Unlike inte rior orientation . which on ly work s on one p
    graph at a time. exterior orien tation req uires that the anal,
    loca le the image coord inates o f the con tro l poi nts in
    images in a stereopair. For e xam ple, co nside r the ext
    orient ation ta king place in Figu re tJ-2R. T he an alyst is in
    proc ess o f co llcL'ting image coo rd inate s for grou nd-comns
    point P I. located on the gro unds o f the South Ca rolina Sta~
    capitol. T he len imag e is Pho to 4 .....t and the right image
    Photo -1-5. Th e ana lyst has already input the X. };Z gm
    reference coordi nates ( X Refere nce. Y Refe rence, Z Ref.
    encej.
    A eru-t rian gil la tinn

    '-

    )gilal Elevation Models, Orthophotos an d Planimetric Features us ing So ft-co p y Phot ogrammelry

    179

    Interim' Orteutauou :

    Fiducial :'olar'" Image Coor dinalcs Related 10 Ca mera Ca libra tiun Rcpnrt Cun rdina tcs

    lEi f' .QL~J ID


    rtf

    co,

    ""...,.x
    l 'il s:

    'V""
    "111[<'

    FlJure 627

    A'~ LIlU '~ "

    r.: ~ ~(J

    ,~ ,

    ~ ,

    _ }

    () ri" jJo - } -

    .. r

    "'

    ,..., 0;;;'"
    H'I' ~' f

    .:u,

    'n '

    '"'

    ..

    f.e ;;e<

    , ,
    "

    fI", ....... "

    1 . c1

    Jt U

    , " :'1
    , ' :'l

    o fii r

    "

    otH

    I n ( ~ n llf oricmu\i\l l\ hC' IIl~ pcr (ol"m<:J "" Olle' HI' the aer ial p h" I ,,~ w pll~ "f {-"lulllbia. S( '. 'I he a lla l .v ~l is iuthc process of collecting intormauou .\h"\1\ Iidll<: i,i1ll1nr" 111. The coordinates "rail tour l i <l lidall11" rh 1i"l 1lT1 till: cnnu-rn cntibnuion report arc

    labeled l-rlm X .md l'i1 1l1 Y. Ihe illl" g.: w urdin<tl<'s ur"l1 fo ur r,,]ucl,,l lllar" , 1II'e I'K illed in th.. ill11ll!<:r:v ,IIlU labeled lmugc X
    and Imagc Y.

    an.t lhe interior and e xterio r onenunion ur... completed. the


    informallon can be us...d In perform 1.1f.'m- lri ,IIJ!!.III,lIiol/.
    A.:ro-lriangulation is the proce ss I I hereby the real-world XI. and Z ground coordmarcs can he determined till' any pl",... 1
    a stercc pair based UII photo coordinate Jll...avurcmcms
    IWolf and Dcwiu. ~f}()(I ). This is a powerful capahilil). It
    lDCans that the geom ctnc chara cte ristics obrainc d rrom Iht'
    ~:l1i\'el y small number ur GCrs u~J Jurin~ c vrcrior uric nlIliOll can be extended 10 CH'I} pixel wnhin a d igua l ste reo
    1IIOlk1 and Ih;1I \ \ t' can obtain the .t r locauon and Z .:1 1'\ allIXJ al each o f lhe"... piwh w ithout ha \ ing to go out in th...
    field and do forma l GrS surveying. Aero-tr iangulation

    all oll" the relativ ely small amoun t o f g round co ntrol In be


    passed (o r !wi,fl!..,/j from one photograph 10 another in a
    block of aeria l ph(,togmph) using image-de rived pass and
    lie ptlinh.

    The nero-triang ulation proccvs crea tes stcrc opuirs that can
    be viewed and used III extract drgual elevation models.
    onhophotog ra phy. and rhcmauc features o f interest IFi gure
    0-:!5 and O-~Oc l, The analyst l) pically views thc rriangularcd
    imagery un the -creen using unag typh cla-ses. This prod uces
    11 thrc-c-dirncnsioual mood in the observer's mind a" prc viousl) discussed . Co lor Plate 0- I presents an anaglyph SI C-

    ,
    ~

    180

    ( 'I I \ I"I EI{

    Ph ot ogrammetry

    Es re r lo... Orientation :
    S te reosc o pic C ulll'ctio n of Image Coo ...diuatcs of G nlUnd Cu nl rill Points

    z
    .-"'l

    ' +11 1:1

    0_1

    ", ~ A ~

    i6 ZZo 0

    Digit f

    ~ I

    .,#

    -,

    -""..I

    -.-r- ,.'.

    j C

    ~ - r-

    "iit I

    n r:'"~-r-

    :t

    rn- 'j0 -

    _.-

    --

    ,.

    r-- ,.
    ......

    Fi{

    wi

    IP

    th-

    .-
    ,.

    Fig u re 6-28

    "

    cc
    Ie

    or

    :;;i~~ ;it

    ~~;~ :~--

    ",N'N I

    ..... , '~

    T
    d,
    P
    P

    ,_"

    0"1."1 ,,",1

    JI> ,. ,n.

    . 'fIOlOW

    l'>'W ~ U

    M., p C'"'ldi"at,.,.

    Exl,:ri" f oncnt.uion i~ h<'illg performed " II part of th~ Co lumbia, St.'. stcrcopair. 'I he :In;liyst is in the prlll.'l.'ss III'collecting imngc eour-tinat., IX r ile. y r ik ) for g round-control point 1'1. lnc alcd on the g rnonds Ilfthc South Carolin :! stale ca pitol. Th
    analyst has 1llready inputl l1 c .\'. ):"': g round rcle n-ncc w"ru ilJ.'lcs IX Reference. Y Rcti;felll:c.1. Reference ( masked fw!!
    vil'\\ )]. Thc irnagc coord inates "f nll grnltml-cnn1fo l po ints mll<t Ill.' determined.

    rcop air of'Columhia. SC , prod uced trom the uforcmcmioned


    interior and exterior oricnuuion and ncro-muugulation.
    Acro- tria ngu lauon IISCS a "Clghl-eunstraincJ least-squa res
    bund le adj usuucru 10 Pfllpcrly orient all uf the imagcs in a
    block of ae rial photllgraphy, Th i ~ adj us tmcut is ba-redon the
    usc of colhncarity equations. C"{h,,,anf." is th... con d ition
    '" here the camera exposure slat ion (1.) . an obj ect on the
    gro und (,11, and its photo image fa ) al l lie on a , trdlght line
    in three- d ime nsional space te. g.. Figure 11-29} ( Wol f and
    Dewitt, 2000 1. TIle collinearity con d it io n fo r any point I ll)

    in all acriul ph"togrilph ca u bc ex pressed by two equ ations


    one for thl' .\ photo coordinate (x ) and one for the y pholo
    coordin.uc (r,,):

    ,
    "

    { " I I I 1".1
    "1I 1 \~

    ,
    " "

    { .. ~III".j

    "

    "'11 1.\.4

    \ l ) ' '' I ~ lI ,(

    rL)''' lJll.' ~ -/./]

    \ ) "1 ~( 1'..I

    r, "

    \ L) "'~~(

    rl.l "~ J(L,( -L,.)

    1,(

    .I", ) ' '' l ~ l r..l

    " ll(l,(

    )'I. '"l1 l L ,(

    L r)

    LI J

    to-IS

    (6- 1lJl

    a
    s
    I

    "

    J9ta1 Elevat io n Model s , Ortho photo s al'ld Plan im etric Fea tu re s using Soft -c o py Photogram metry

    along lines ofequa l clcvauon t creat ing a co nto ur):

    C ulli ru:a ri l:" Cllndi liull


    I

    bf'osur~ sl:IlIon ,l. - . . .


    hll~g~
    coordin<ll~s (,'(/., J'/..7./). _ _,..,"'''';,--_ _ ,',ool<liI1<lIC.'
    /

    Focnl knglh.,

    in a sys tematic g rid creat ing a dig ita l elevation mudd .

    (,r,l')

    Tih..-d aer ial

    E!,,:I atin ns ... xtracrcd hy the a nalyst at vel)' spe cifi c locations
    tc.g.. at road imcrscctions. corners of buildings, ma nhole
    cov ers} in the stereo mode l are com monly rc tc rrcdto as sf/o/
    etrvntions or 1(>(11 heights , The ana lyst obtains the X rz
    courdin,ltes of a poi nt b~ placing thcjlmlTi/1g II'drA {prcv jously discucscdj flrrnly on the ground \ nor be low the su rface
    and nor hm cring above the surface) and ta kin~ a reading.

    pt...' [Ol,:raph 1
    ;
    Grnullu
    eo<>Tdin alCs
    (X~.
    I

    rt./..j

    ,I

    --1'"
    ~" lewl

    ;
    ::)

    .. XI

    ......'
    f9Jre 629

    r,

    Colhn<,:;<ril} condincn ,,,.,....:ial.:d ....ith a lilted aer ia l


    phol<'ilr~ph _

    ~hcrc

    r-

    "

    .r, and .1'" arc t ill' cooniin.ncs {If the principle poin t
    IPPI from the came ra cuhb ratlo n rc' port: XL' r l. am! 1./. are
    ;1" gwulld coordinates of exposure -uuion I.: the ground
    ordinates of point ." a rc .\"../' 1'1' and Zi; cam ..-ra focal
    ~'lh is): and me ",'s are functions of rotat ion ang les
    a. phi. and l appa (oH)-to;) ( Wolf a nd Dewitt. 2UOO).
    llI: collineamy cquatillfls arc u..cd in V"ln' ....I'.Tli,," 10
    dcltrmine the six elcrncms 01" evtenor onemauon for both
    ~raphs of a sh.:retlpair. Spu{"1! lfll,r:. . 'Ctiml can then take
    ID=< to iJ enlif) the rea l-world ground coordinates of any
    ~)Int in the srcreomodcl . Tho: intricacies o f space resection
    1Mspace intersection base d on collincaruy are beyo nd the
    sopc of this introductory hook, Pleas e refer to \Vo lf and
    M\'m (lOOD). f.,li khail et al. {2 0 1lI l. (I I' the "\/(//1/11110(1)//11 ",,0)11111I1:111' ( Mdi lon.... 10(4 ) I'o r <Jdd iti(lnal inlorma tlon .

    As prcv iOllsly me nt ioned , contours an: obtained by the analys t specl l):ing the des ired elevation, c.g .. lOll m AS L. Th e
    'lI1alyst then plac es the llo.ni ng mar k o n the g roundm a lc ca tinn known In be 100 m AS L (b,1SCd on its parallax prop ertic,,). Sh... then moves the floa ting mark along the ground at
    the sa me de\ anon c rcunng a co nto ur. when the contour line
    is com ple te. the analysl increments 10 th... nex t co ntour inter val t e.g .. 110 III A SI. ). places the cursor on the ground a t 110
    III ASL and procc c ds as be forc . This is an accurate ye t physically demanding method (0 extracr co mours.
    Ulo ing son-copy phorogrannucrric systems, groun d co ntro l.
    and came ra cubbrario n inform atio n, it is p,)ssihlc to perform
    ae ro-triangu lat ion ofthe pho tog raph) (lIT imagcry ) and utilizc infcrmation obtained d uring the prowss to gen erate a
    lamcc (g rid ) o f elevation va lues \\ ithin eac h stereo mod el of
    a !light line O;igur., h-26J ). Th e ..o nwarc au to matica lly pe rform.. stereo-c orrelation on onhcrcctificd pa tch ...s of imagcry and computes the paralla x land related etevanon)
    a~"'ll:i3tcd ~ nh cecb new point in the ..tereo model. The ~t ...reo-correlation i~ performed for all points in a use r-spec ified
    gr id. Typica l SySIL'IlIS can proc es s tho usands o f po ints in the
    stereo model per sccond ( Konecny, 2()()JI. A n exump le of a
    digi tal el eva tion mod el produced from the C olumbia. Sc.
    stcrcopair is shown in Figure o- .lU~L The Il EM was process,'d to appvar as ,I plast ic sllllJ" d- re lief mod el.
    ca n m;a mple and mosaic Ihe li na l DEl\l to whal....Hr spat ial n:"'l lulion IS dL~i rt:d It:.g .. 5 x 5 Ill.ll) x ~O m l.
    In this manner Ihe DEM can be brought into !!l'Omelric congnlC'nce \\i lh data in a fi lS. Thll~. M' /c>11IiuI ,md lt~lperl'(//U
    h"h' lilt' c"/,,,bili~I' (~l Cll!allllX ~'t'ry-' <laural.: DE.H, un
    t/t' /I/(III,/ for .I'i/t'-J/>td/k pmi<'( '/.' 1I.1;lIg dc.IA/o!' ,m ft-eo!,y
    S ci~' nllSl~

    f rtTaC fing Spot Elevatio ns. Contours. and OEMs USing


    SoIt-COpy Photogramm etry

    18 1

    lkgrounJ con lrl,1 incotpor,lted illh> the e \ terior orientatiun


    lIIIl JLw.-lriangu latilln makes it ptlssible to ass ign an clevalinn la,tuaUy a cc M,lin a m,lu nl o f para lla\ ) III eac h conjugat e
    Ima\ehing l pa ir tl f pi \e ls I'n unJ \\ ithin a stcn:o pa ir, [ !":valioo infonnat ion ~'a n 0..' c \ tracted from Ihc tria nglilatl'd slcJ'tl'Jmoocl:
    II '~1) spt.-cifie locat ions iJ el1l ili .'J by the operntnr;

    IJ//f' f' jgramml'lry .

    T he ;Kl'u r;IC Y (If th ~ d igital c1cv:llion modc l Ihat can bc


    ."traeled t1si nj; pholOgrall1ll1ctril meth ods is a fU tll'lilltl o f
    Ilw scale an J re~o!u titl n Ofl llC' r~' lIwte se nso r daw , the' !lyi ng
    h ci ~ht :It whic h Ihc imagcry wcn' acqui red. th., base/he ight
    r;Jt io (i e., g''i'll1ctryl oflhe slC' r.'osl't'P1C imag",ry. a~'Curacy

    182

    CII\pn:R

    a. Un..-orrccted DEM ,

    Photogrammetry

    b. Corrected DH.t

    c. DE\1 .... ith buildings and 1r(~S removed.


    Figure 630

    a ) Uncorrected d igi l~1 elevation model derived ll~i ng ""n-C<llly photogramrnetric techniques. h) Fotrcctcd DEM c) DE M 1'01"
    I'>uildi n~, and trees re moved . d ~ Slope map produc ed trom n E ~1 \\ ith builJi np and trees removed.

    nfthe grou nd control. and th e quehty of the soli-copy photogra mmetry softwar e used. Users so mcumcs f..-el tha t a 0[;\1
    derived u~ i n g soli -nlpy photogramm erry w ill he erro r tree .
    Th is is notthe case.

    detailed ete vauon mt ormat ion for each bu ilding and tree it
    the study a rea.

    Tall Structure" a nti Tre..,,, IlIIjl:U'1 the Cn':lIiun or


    " hOl.OJ:n1mmcl r icaIlJ Dc r h"'d UiJ:ila l t h,'\ll l iu n J\)nd,, I..

    So ft-r opy photogrammctric sys tems allow users 10 view tIx


    gnd of DE'A ele...arion " pc>sli" gs " supe rim pose d on a SICrcopair in three -d imens io ns . The analyst ca n edi t indi ..idual
    elevat ion po stings by moving them so thai they come in C(lIItac t \\ nh rhc ground us ing the "principle of the floating
    mark," whereby each posti ng becomes a lloaling mark . :11Ic:
    :lIla lyst may l) correct indiv id ua l posrings. 2 ) select a pol~
    g,>n of rust ings and c hange all of rhcm (0 the same clevauce,
    or 3 1 selec t a polygon
    posungs a long a slope and halt
    them scale d 10 lie between the hig.hesl and lo west poiras
    encountered w ithi n the polygon. When care fully use d. lilt
    unulvst cun correct mos t problems enc oun tere d in the OEM,
    f or exam ple, the D EM in Figure 6-30h was edite d so thattht
    It'p of each build ing was at the correct e leva tio n. DEf<.ls IIw

    The automatic stereo correlanon used to c reate DE\1s wor ks


    well .... h.11 the terrain is devoid of trees. buildings. overP;IS~t:"S . hridges. ctc .. which extend above the nomina l rcrrain. When suc h o bject!> tire pre-sent. ho\\ ever. the alg ori thm s
    assume Ihese o bjec ts arc te rra in anti com putes the diffc rc ntia l parallax and resultant height of such surfaces The
    height -, an: then p laced in the DE M. l-or "ample. Figure t>W a depicts a DEM o f a four -b lock rcg ron of the Universit y
    of South Carolina campus derived tron: I:6.000-scalo: photog ra phy. Tho: hlocky appearance of the I>l :~ is du e III

    \ Id hnth Uxetl tu Edil :1 DE\1 Im pa tt Its Acruracj:

    or

    ~tal

    ...

    Elevation Mode ls. Ort hophotos and Planimetr ic Features using Soft-c opy Photogram metry

    ede elcvauon informat ion a bou t buildings and tree s may


    J ofuse if the ana lyst desires to drape a n o rthophoro o n top
    ~ OEM and perhaps do a "fly-by" through the city.
    eWT. i f the analyst wanted a DT\1 o f j ust the nominal
    und terrain ill the four-brock regio n. this is certa inly nor
    nr in Figures 6-30ab.
    10 create a [)E M of the region thut docs 11m have building
    Jd tree informat ion in it, the analyst must usually manually
    i!il the clcvmio n "postings' in the DEM that co rres po nd
    l ith the building s and tre es anti etfecuvety drive OT pu -h
    f.'tm 10 the nom inal terrain he igh t in the area. Th is c an be
    iffirull if a buildi ng or stand of trees is large. UOWCWT. if
    buildings a nd trees arc not too larg e it is possible to iden" the general tre nd of th e terr ain bctw ecn b uildings and
    I.ge trees such that th e -postings" of bu ildin gs and trees ca n
    mov' ed to the nominal terrain elcvauon. Ca reful editi ng o f
    original DEf\1 in this manner ca n p roduce a revised OEM
    depicts j ust the local re lief ofthe area, withou t build ings
    trees. as shown in Fig ure 6- 31k;, A percent slope dataof the reg ion (important ill ma n)' cnviro nrncnta l and
    ~~'drol()gic slUJ ies J cannot accurate ly be computed from the
    OEM with buildi ngs and trees in it. II can be pro duced from
    ~ OEM with bui ldings and tree s removed. as sho wn in Fig -

    m 6-3Od.
    l.Ttbanil c-d areas wi th buil d ings and trees ma y hav e to be
    laIlually edued to obtain a OEf\1 (If j ust the nominal terrain .
    fbi;; can be a labo rious process and is subject to error bei ng
    LKc-d by the ana lyst. Th e larger the scale o f aerial pho~ ph~' and the greater Ihe hei ghl (If the bu ild ings and
    res in the study area. the greater the di fficulty of
    ibtaming an ac'curate OEM o f the terrai n. OE f\ls are most
    curare ami requ ire the least ed iting w hen prod uced for
    11:1111 areas that do not ha ve sig nificunt "l eaf-on" tree cover
    II!man-made struc tures (bui lding s, bridges. ctc.).
    for example, consider the high-quality DEM ex tracted from
    kge-!lCale aer ial pho tograph y with few trees or bu ildings
    iIIown in Figure 6-3 I . These four te st pads (In the Savan nah
    l iler Site ncar A iken, SC a rc used to evaluate the effe ctiveess of various haza rdous wa ste site clay ca p ma terials .
    Iege-scalc ste reoscopic ae rial photography of the test pads
    Illesplace rout inely w tha l any subsidenc e [i.e., dep res sion I
    i1lhc clay cap!> can be documen ted immediately. Figure 6l la OOcumen ls the sck-clion of sround-e(lntrol raint ;:5 d uro
    i;g the exterior or icntat ion ph ase \If the project. Cu ntrol
    p.>int 1:5 is a IS-i n. plastie pipe e_\ tendi ng 30 cm alxlVc the
    pnd, whic h was sUr\cyed to wi th in ::!:.3 em using (iPS.
    The digital elevation mo\leI t'x tra~ ted a ner aero- tnangu l,lIed
    lI<:reo model is shown in Fig ure 6 ) Ih . This view was (re
    1!Cd Ily drapin g one nfl he photog raphs in lhe slercopa lr over

    ' 03

    the O EM and view ing it from an oblique pe rspcc uv e . A


    color version of this example is found in Col or 1'1",1..: 6-2,

    Creation of Dig /tat Orthoimages

    M ore than ) 0 yea rs ago . Thrower and Jensen ( I Y76 )


    revie we d how analog t hard-copyj unhophotogruphy was
    created , a nd ide ntifi ed num erou s cartographic npplicutions.
    They sta red:

    O nhophoto- mapping rep rese nts 3 tech niq ue by w hic h


    spatially arrayed data migbt be both more acc urately
    mea sured and com municated because of the special
    attributes ofthe o n hophoto map. namely, the image of
    an aerial ph.lIo~'Taph and the me tric q ualities o f a co ntrolle d line ma p.
    As predi cted , there has bee n a tre me ndous inc reas e in the
    use o f d igila l onhonnagcry and d igital c fcvauon mod el s ill
    ma ny applications Lay per sons. plann ers, G IS practitioners.
    cartog raphers . and the media (e .I;" news papers. maga zincs.
    tcle r is io n ) lI~C onbonnagcs us cartographic backdro ps upo n
    wh ich themarie information i ~ ovcrluid (c .g., property line s,
    uti lity lines, dr ainage ncrworkv. contours. troop deploymcrn j
    ( Rumsey and Punt. 2JXl4 ), .\!<I/~I imugc ullu~r.\ b urv 110'1'
    using 111'.\(/"1' soft-copy IJlwtograml1lj'tric S:\:HCIII,f /IJ gl'm',.all! ,lin,. IIIl"'f personal OEJ l. ami orthop imroj{raplis .lor
    input to GIS. This sec tion de scribe s how ort hophotogra phs
    are c reated using soft-copy photogrammcuy and importam
    issues that shou ld be con sidered when c reating and using
    the m,

    ()rthoiml1ge.f are created from remotely sensed images . The


    g...o mc try of an un rccti ficd Jigi tal phot ogra ph is cha nged
    from thutufa conica l b undle cf'mys to parallel ray s that are
    orthogona l tothe ground and til the imag e plane. Therefore,
    instead o f ha ving a pers pec tive center.the \"iew ing pcrspcctiv c is mo deled as being :111 infinite distance from the
    grou nd, Figure />..31 de monst rates the ch ange in image
    geometry and the remova l of te rrai n-i nduced displ acement
    (t.s). Thc po int I' tha t lies at a specific elevanon a bove mean
    sea le ve l on the ground is found atp in the imag e p lane coordina tc sys tem whe n it should be located at c. Th e correction
    oft he sh il\ fro m p 10 C (i.e" As) is the goa l o fonhorccti ticalion . Ea~'h pan {If Ih~' terrn in is in\lerll:nJen tly corrn:IL"l.1 du ring til<: n:': li fieati\lII pron-ss.
    The d li.'Ch o r hl l'ogra phic rel ief d isplace m.:m and Caml.'Hr
    a ltitude variat ions arc r<:lllu\ cd in urtllllimagery. T he res ult
    is ;1 p l:mimctr i.:nlly cor Tl'e t un lll1lmag e. For e.\ tlmplc. Figur e

    (1I\ I'n:R

    184

    Phologrammelry

    E\Ct'riur Orte n ta uun : \\"t'~ l in l.:h ,," 't' S/t\llnll ah Rh t'r Sill'
    S IUl'OSCU I)!c C olkc t inn of I mage Co ordi nah'\ of (;rnllud,ClInlr,,1 I' oi!lh

    , + . 1:1 '
    .., .., I! !l'
    ~

    Draped over

    Figu re 6 -3 1

    rholograllll11drica ll~ -l"" rhcd

    Uigilal Eh'\'alinD .\ (odd

    ;I) Exterior orientation taking pl"cc un " slt'rc'up"i r "r the 1,,' 1 p.llis on the Wcslingh" usc S'l~ilnnilh River Sill.' ncar Aiken. SC

    Thc ph\lt,,~r.\phy .... as oh tam cd in I 'N ~, h I Display of the ph"lll~"" lm mllIica llydl'ri v ...d J >J-:t-. I dr.IJX"t1 with one of'tbe sten-opair
    photographs.

    6-33 dc picb a po we r trans miss ionline in rug,gcd ter rain. Th e


    powerline wnv sur-eyed 10 be very ~I raigh l in the real world.
    but the: substantial local rcli... f causes re lie f dis placeme m ro
    lak e- pta, c in the photogra ph. Th is causes the po we rlinc 10
    not be in its proper pla nimetric posil ion in the unrecnfied

    aerial photogra ph. The process of differentia l bit-by-bit


    orthographic rectific ario n removes dist o rtio ns caused by tilt
    o f the camera at the m-aan t of ex posure and IhC' effects of
    re lief d isplace me nt. The po.... crfinc is no w in its proper
    planim ctnc posiuo n. and its shape and geo met ry are co rrect.

    tligilal Elevat ion Models, Orfhcpbotos a nd Plan ime tric Features u s ing sort-copy Ph o togra m me try

    Pe n pect h ...

    ~P
    ~~ C
    _ ~,

    .
    . /

    ~, ;,
    "

    1m" ,
    plane

    ()rlh l,~ra p hi c

    z' ,ziT- P,,cz'


    zZ/J2r
    ..
    '
    '
    '

    ()rlh()~nnal ~

    Conica l\'

    ..

    '1

    t'n correcred verucet Ae rial l'hnluj:raph

    '

    ra ys

    r3 } S

    ~~

    c; \~

    \l ll p Prujl'(:lion

    w hen creating

    a,
    () I't hllil hut ogr ap h

    Fgure6-32 a ) A perspective proj~...:tion aerial photograph deplaces th... image of ol'>Jts away fm m their Ink'
    planimcnic posinon. Fur example. r is located at p
    in the phuwgr.tph when ir should 1'>". located at c, 1'
    ..\ n orthogreph ic projection places al I images of objeers in the correc t planimetric posuion. The goal

    Figure 6 -33

    photograph of a JIO\'\t'r
    trancmrvoon lme in rugged tcrram, b j PlanimemcatI) accur.uc onhophotograph after correction 10 rcmove roll. pitch, i\lld yal' errors mteoduced by the
    aircratt at the insuuu or exposure und Ihe effects of
    relief divplac cmcnt .
    a ] An uncorr ected acnnl

    all orthophotog ruph is III 1l11'VC ob -

    jects recorded on an aerial photograph specific distances and directions..I:" h) their proper planimetric
    position .

    11Ir photograph is now an orrhophotogra ph \'\ith the accul1C) or a Iraditionalline map.


    This plammemc accuracy allows ana lysts lU use ort hoim~g..'S Iik... maps for making measu rem ents of geographic
    location, d istances. ang les . anti area. On unrec ufie d imag ery
    suc h measure me nts ca n only be approximated beca use of
    image displacclIlell t and scale change caused by va riations
    in local relie f ti.c.. relief d isplacement) and nirphoro tilt .

    Soft-ropy pho iograrnmctric instrum en ts can produce tcr ram-correcte d onhoimagcs on demand . The genera l proce~as summarized in Figure (>-26a~.
    The user selects
    My mangulated imag e in the bloc" of aerial phcrcgraphy (or
    SPOT data) and its a ssociated DEM 10 generate a digua l
    ortlloimage . During rhe on horec ufica uon process. the
    cffecl~ of elevation upon the image perspective arc removed
    reproduce a geocodcd data set with an even pixel spacing in
    map space. For each onhoimage pixel t,f knt' '>\ n latitude and
    Ion~i tude" the algori thm first uses the D [ ~l to determine the
    height of the point . The ration al fun ctions to r the image are
    Inc" used to determine the pix el in the triang ulated image
    Ihal curresponds to the po illt in gro und spatc. The intens ity

    durt

    185

    of this point (rcsnrnpled based o n its neigh bors using a bilin ear interpo lation scbcme t i~ the n assigned to the {lUlPlll
    o rthoim age pixel. This proc ess typically runs at a rate
    > 200 ,000 pixels/sec umi l thc rectified output onhoimage is
    completely filled. The res ult is a terra in-co rrec ted onhoimage thar can be used ;I S a cartographic map.

    Prnh lem .. a nd Su lutio n.. " ...." d al ed '>\ i1 h Orlhn im a 2:er ,.


    Dertv ed U:ooin g So fH.'Op" l' holugranullcl r ,.

    The accuracy of a d igital onhoimage is a function of the


    quality of the imagery. the ground co ntrol. the phorogrammet ric triangu lat ion , and the DEM use d In create it (Fig ure
    fi-2fi), An onhoirnage m ay be produced from the original
    DEM . a DlM with bu ild ing roofto ps cleaned up, or even a
    [) EM .... ith buildi ngs and trees removed . A DE r-. t produced
    from th.. collection of li e ld surveying or even digi ti/oo contours ma~ also be used 10 create the orthoimagc. Th erefore.
    th c an;llyst sho uld al.... ays have ac cess to the metadata (history ) of h.)\\, the DEM .... as c reated, In Ihis '>\a~ on ly the most
    approp riate DEM data .... 111 be used in the creatio n o f the
    orth ruma gcry .
    Large-scale te.g.. I :6.0(0) urban unhoimagcs de rived from
    uncorrec ted DE1o.ls etten ex hibit severe distortion of bui ldIng edges [ Nal... I'I94 l. For e xample, the orthoimagc in Figure ()J -ll was derive d using ;:111 unco rrected [) [ M whi le
    Figu re 6-J 4h wa s prod ucc d usin g a D EM wi th I'ouild ings and

    186

    ( "HAPI t:R

    3.

    Orthop hoto derived from uncorrected OEM.


    Figure &34

    Pho togrammetry

    b. Orthophoto derive..rd from corrected

    D E~ 1.

    The qu;l1ity orth.: OEM i nll u'.l~(~ tbe quality of the onhopboto.

    a. OnhopholOdraped ove r uncorre cted DE\ t.


    FIg ure 635

    b. Onhopho to draped over corrected OEM.

    The qu;alily of Ilk- DfM influences the <l uality of the orthop hoto. The impact of trees
    buildi ngs are sha ped (011'11)", wben rhe orthophoto is draped over a c orrec ted DE"'.

    tree ele vat ions co rrected, The mo l' edges at -e' an d "b arc
    correct in Figure ()- .1~b
    The importance o f the qua lity o f the DEP-.I can be appreciated ev cn mor e .... hen the un hoimage is draped hack ont o the

    DEM used in ils creation . For example . consider the two


    onhophotos in Figur e 6-35ah created and drape d o ver \lOCO!rectcd ami corrected DI:Ms. resperuvely, T he edges (If

    i~

    mmimized and

    buildings arc " smea red " due to the eflccts of adjacent trees
    in Figure 6-353_Con ve rsel y, when the rooftop and tree elevanons are corrected in the DE M. the resu ltant onhoima ge
    ..kp il:b the same bu ildi ngs w ith sharp. d istinct edg:t"!i {Fjgure
    6-35111. Th is is the type of'orthoima gcry that should be used
    in simulat ed Il y-bys th rough urba n enviro nme nts. xtore
    sophist icated soft -copy photogrammct ric sys tems can produce cx trc-mc fy acc ura te d ig ital elevation model s and ver)'

    ....
    ~ila l

    187

    Elevati on Mod el s. Orl hophotos and Planimetri c Features using Soft-copy Photogramm el ry

    ,,
    ' lelh..d fOr t:uraclinll l'i",t
    Rril:hlm...' \ ";<lu.., from
    a "I ~ i''''l: ul;<l ,-d ,\ H lnl
    lh..I ,, ~ra l'h I" rrud un '
    a t ra,lIl"onall lr1h"I"" ,I"

    ,
    h l"',urc
    SIJla'" . !

    '!

    1/-,
    l),lt,ul

    ~~, al"'"

    Fg$e6-36 A quaht) L'I'1 rn'l'ho tot!l'aph of Rosslyn. VA. draped


    over II careiull) ~..hted digital elevauon model
    lcuurtC"S) L- II S)Slcm~. Inc.. and ~bn;ulli . lnc.; ~
    S()CET SCI )

    daD onhophorogra phy, suc h 3~ the three-dimensiona l \ ie\\


    lIiRo<,s lyn. VA. in f igure fl-Jb.
    Traditional Orlhfl _TcCl ili ra t io n 1)11\'\ :'\r, ol [Iimina ll"
    b dial and K('lit>f Ui ' lllan 'lI wlll of Tall Sl ructu n.'..
    \losl users have the mistak en imp ressio n tha t the ((If's of rai l

    il'.:lldingsor extremely tall trees in a ll rthoimuge arc in th....ir


    proper planimclr ic locauon. i.c. that the ro ofs oftall bu ildin~s are over their fo und at ions , Thi s is o nly the case v. hen
    Ilk: sensor acquires [he data from a great altitude and the
    relief displacement o f the buildings or other structures
    oused by radial disron ion is minimal. Unfortunately, w hen
    u:; tng large-scale aeria l photograph y with sign iticalll building and tree relief displacement. onl y the base of the buildmg, or trees arc in thei r proper planimetric loc ation in an
    atboimage. A traditional J igital orthophoto d\le~ not correct
    flll' ''buildillg lean" c ause d by radial d istorti on , Indeed, the
    "building lean" of tillI huildin gs (Ir ot her struc tures {hridges.
    nerpasses. etc.) may com pletely obs cur e the image of till'
    Earth's surface for sev era l hund red feet. If we attempted to
    digitiu buildings fm m a traditional d igila l orm o imagc. we
    ..ould discover that the huildmg locauons arc misplaced on
    tile Earth's surface relative tu the bu ilding he ights (Nalc.

    1m\.
    FortUJl.1tcly, an accurate method of creating /I 'lI<' 1",'llOphnta.~
    basbfcn developed , In orde r 10 understand how il is der ived.
    l is first useful to rev iew ho .... a uadiuonal onhophote is proWttd. The brightncss valuc (If pixel II is obtained by sta rting

    L_---'~L1U--'-----~L---" h

    ..............L
    b

    Ullhoph<ll" I'"cl>

    l
    ~

    Figure 6-3 7 ;\) The I-righ1l1"" valu.. n fri ~ d h in a traditional orIh"pl1<"" "' ''Hid ".... c"flIct..d from the t" r "I' the
    building due to relief dispb ,:emcill. Pixcl l.l would
    have the n,n,x' l gray ,had.: because it is not ,,0.
    srurcd from viewN ote th;,t both pixe l, nrc c xtractcd
    from a smglc ph'1\" " ot,lIl\e(l m II sillgk exp(l>lIre station, o j plx.' l, " and " ill ;1 true 0I111"ph"'<1 arc' dcr in'l! tmm ,he rnangul.ued phoh) in the ni ghthne
    rh.u i, mos t appropriate. For e xample. pixc 1 a is de rived from Ih,' plml<l uhtainct] 'II Exposure Station
    113. 11)<,' 1,'11 .... ur hi" extr,let,..d from r xpu s ur. Suuio n
    q l. where l\ I' not ohseured hy building displacemen! \ S""l ha ru. I'N-I; court....sy "I' L- II System...
    Inc.. and Marconi. lnc.; ' SO<'ET sell.

    at a ' , ground ", .)' pos ition. inter po lating the ele vation lim n
    the D Uot. trac ing up through the ma th modelto the imag e.
    inte rpola ting the pfOp"'r shade o r gray from the image. and
    as~igning the rcsulung gray "hade to pixe l ,I in the new
    orthophoro (F i:;urc 6-37a l. The procevs is acc eptable for
    pixel " becau-c there is no obstru ction te.g.. huilding)

    188

    CI I ,\ I'I

    n~

    Photogrammetry

    between the g round x.y.z loc auon ar II that obscu res the \ icw
    I l l'

    the grouml from

    I h~'

    exposure sta tion. The problem that

    aris es is illu strated by pix el h. In the origi nal ima ge. the

    ground "bchindvthc building ut b is not depicted because of


    th... he ight ofthe bu ilding. Pi-eel h w ill haw th... tone or co lor
    of the mo l' of the building. The tinal traditional onhophoro
    will show the bui lding leaning 3\\ 3Y from the center of the
    photograph as in Figu re t>- J 7a . T he roof will be sho .... n
    wh ere there shou ld be gro und at III..: bad .. of the bu ildi ng. and
    the ~ i dl;' ofthe building will he shown where the roor sho utd
    he . 11\4' ground behi nd the huiMing will not he sIK1\\1l ill all.
    Th ese disp lacements arc relat ed to the hci gh r of the bu ilding
    and the pos ition o f tho: bui ldi ng in the origi na l pholo . The
    greater the ht'i ght of the buildmg and the closer u i, 1(1 the
    side of the o ng mal photograph. the worse the displacc rncm

    11.

    Conventiona l orthoohoro.

    will he.
    An elegaru sol ut io n 10 the above onhophotu proble ms wa s
    deve loped ( Walker. 11)Qk B:\E Sysle ms. ~Oj) 5). In Figu re 6-J 7b \ H" see th ree tnan gutated aeria l pholl}graph s and a DEM
    cov ering the e ntire Ioorp rim of the projeel a rea . L: si n~ tradirional ihrcc-drmcnsiooat stereoscopic feat ure ext ract ion
    tools, the ouuines of hu ildi ngs. bridges. and other obsuucnon s arc identifi ed. Howe ver. the bri~h lness value or gra)
    to ne fo r p ixel /I is interpo lated fro m rhc mos t nad ir (direct ly
    overhead ) Expllsurt' SIal io n (=3 in Figure b- 37h ) that has the
    be st \ icw of the ground at location (I. The a lgori thm then
    exa min es the DEroo! an d feature d ata a nd determines that the
    \ ie\.'. of the ground for pixel h is obscured by the bu ild ing at
    Exposu re Srauon #1 and automatica lly sele cts image ry frum
    Exposure Station # I to ob tain the proper p ixel color for pixel
    h. The application o f these algori thm s results in a trueorthnp ho /I! whe re :

    building rooftop, arc ShUll n iuthcir correct planimetric X ..I '


    Iocauou:
    the ground on all sides of a ll buildings is shown in ils
    prope r location:
    tops and honoms of O\i~'rp;hSl'S arc shown in their proper
    locat ion s:
    o nhopluuov anJ map sheers can be made that are larger
    than an )' o f the input illlilgCS.
    A comparison be tween a rraduional o rthopho logrl1ph an d 11
    tN<: ort hophoto o f the U.S. C lpi lOl is shOll n in Fil;ure 6-3lS.
    Ru ild ing lean cdis p lac <: ml"nn has heen rem o\ ed. a nd a ll
    bu ild ing lUt..fto ps ar c in Ihci r proper p lanimt:tric l(~a t i"n.

    b. True orthophoro.
    The diff erence between a concenuonal urthflll~
    graph (a I lUll! a true orrhophcro (01 ofthe U.S. r:apilol. IlUlI.tmg lean has been l\"mOl l-d. and IU
    bmldmg fI1ol h 'r~ arc in their proper plummctnc r-'
    fol li"n (S"lllh;1rl1. 1')<)4: courtesy of l -ll SyslClIlI.
    Inc. uud Marconi.
    0 S() ( E r setj.

    Rgure 638

    rnc.:

    The abili ly III create true urthoimagcs is accclcratiug tb:


    ;]J1Pli,'nl ion o f o l1hn imag l'ry in G IS (BA E Systems. ~()O5).
    Extraction of Thematic Features of Interest Using So~
    copy Photogrammetry

    or

    Almusl " II the dcuultound in traditional planimetric and


    or h' pngTllphil' maps suc h
    the U,S. geulc' gic"a l SurveY'J
    7.5- m inuI<: ( I ::!4,(J()[)-sc<l 1c1 producr-, is c'Ir.Jct ed using plio>
    togmmm ct ric tech n iqu es. With the pro per groun d control,
    high-quality stereosc op ic ima g.:ry. and sun-copy photcgrurmnc tric
    w arc il is nnw poss ible for b~ persons I
    ex tract man y types oftbcm ntic in formauon. This is a signif
    iea nt t"1 <"nl in lhe hislt>ry Ill' cartogra ph y a nd re mOle scnslIIS
    dala ana lysis as l>Ci<:nlisls and Ill h.:r res carc h<: rs arc no lunger
    dCfI'Cnden l on any ;\g~'ne) II' pro\ ide the infonnal ion 1h1.1
    rt''lui re. Th~"y (" Ill g:el1<..'rale lhd r 0\\ n lh<:ma lic prod ~1S
    ac n ,rding 10 the ir sp<.:cifica tio ns.

    Slln

    a,

    189

    h a Measureme nt

    E\ lraCl iu n o r Pla nimcrr tc Feat ures l :si lll: Snrt -cu p ~

    Ph lll lJ:,: rallllll ('l ~

    bui lding
    footprint

    building
    footpmu

    building
    foorpr uu

    retlecnng Il<)I)J fooqrrtm


    f9Jre 639 Huildmg foot prirus. rethrcting pond t....up nnt. <11111a ~In:d .:cntcrlinc cxtracrcd from the anagl; ph slcrc,'pair shown In Coluf
    Plate f>..3. r k Jl.)o; \klO. I h i~ stcrcopasr 10. illl d ~k'f\'''''''''lf'C"

    Area Measurement
    [he thematic inforrnarion exrrucuon procedure is cxuctly
    le the one previously Je~<.:ri bcJ Ior creating contour lines
    ecept that in this ca se the analyst extrac ts \ ario us thcmauc
    Itltures or interest, Fo r e xample. Figure 0- .>9 dep ict s three
    ~~ of feature.. being e xtracted from the ae ro-triang ulate d
    llereOpair u f Co lumbia, Sc. sho wn in Color Plat es n-I and
    H To extract building fo otprint info rnuuion. th o: analys t
    ~ lIeIT\lI l ica ll y places the rhrce-duuc nsional j loa/illg "/<Irk
    til<: several co mers of a bu ildmg. Th e soltw are auro mauall~-creates a rubber-band line tro m on e bu ild ing corner III
    me nexl. The rcsuhs is a po lyg on th at co nta ins the planimctric location of tho: 1'>11 i 1.1 i IIg footpn III as if Ihe I"coordimucs
    afthe j iJllfl/iar hm we re measured o n the ground. The plauiIImlC location Ill' the rc flcc ung pond is produced in J simi-

    .r.

    . manner_
    lmergency response agencies (e. g . 9 11. police . fire l require
    dtlaiktl stree t ccmcrttnc info r ma t ion . Thi s is obtained hy
    leeping the tloa llJlg mark firmly on the grou nd a.. the a nal) st
    tltts thc center uf thc roa d wh ile viewi ng the th rcc-dimcn JIOIIaI anagly ph stcreopnr. Si mila r proc edures are used til
    IlIJP telep hone tran smissio n lines and othe r unlnics \ isilJlt'
    (lIl (hesurface
    the earth. A J rai nagt' netw or k map can be
    mated by ket' ping Ih... I1llal illg mark ('11 lhe gn1und II hi Ie
    ncingIhe ce ntl."r hne o f major slrea m~ and their tributa ries.

    or

    It is pos sible 10 ob tain area mcasurcr ucrus directly from


    unrccufic d vert ical ae rial r hot og r.lphy rtthe terrain is \ el)
    level. IIpwCHr. If the loc a l topographic e levation w itlnn the
    field o f I icw o fthe plwtllg.fLlph varies by more than about 5
    pe rcent o frhc tly ing bcsght :10.)\<." g round leve l t e .g.. :!IXI m
    if /I "" .!.001l nu, the n se rious urea measure men t e rror could
    occur. If the loca l relief varies by more than 5 percent, tho:
    image interprete r co uld carefull y ~I rol l il:" the photog raph into
    geograp hic areas tha t ha ve uppmxirnarcly the sa me sc ale.
    For example, if <I sing le ae rial ph' llog raph co n-acte d primarily of the image ora 11:11 pla tea u al one ele vauon te.g.. 40(}
    m above -<3 k\ ..:11 and a gent ly sluping river valley OI t
    anot her elev ation ( 1.'.;; . 150 III abo ve sea level]. the inter prctc r could stmtiry the phnhlg raph into two parts . He co uld
    then compute nil' ...xacr sl'ak of the plateau portion o f the
    photog raph J II J the ex ac t scale ofthe river valley po rtion o f
    the photogra ph. These two di ffer ent scales would be UM.'d
    whe n measvnng the area of select ed features found in th ese
    1\\ 0 d iffc rcmlandscu pcs. The opt imum solution is to co nve rt
    the ae rial phorogrnphy into ort hn ima g...ry as previous ly J i..en-sed . I he area measure men ts will Ihe n he JCl;urall.'
    hc..:au,;e the o rtlto pholograph ha~ a un ifon n scale.

    e-n

    190

    Area Me asurement o f Well-Known Geometric Shapes

    \ I'H.K

    Photogrammetry

    Are'

    Hoi Grid

    It is a Slflligh tfull\' aTu task to det erm ine the area o f well-

    known

    p:llm~trk

    shapes such as rccmugles. squares. and

    circles in aeria l photography. The analyst lirsl me asure s the


    IC lljotlh. wid th. side. Of d iameter of the featu re 011 the image.

    110: or she.' then converts this mea surement 10 <I ground dis lance ba sed on th... scale of tho: photography . The ground drsranee is then u~J with the appropr iate mathcm..tical
    relat ionship It) compute the area :

    ,
    Area ota crrcle '"
    Area of'u sq uare

    Itr~

    .\

    Areuof a rcctanglc -

    { XII'

    Yo hcrc s is the sid.: o f a square: I is the length .. I' a rectangle-;


    and II' is the .... idlh ora rec ta ngle . For exam ple. ifth c diarnctcr of an agncuhura I cent ...r-pi \', 'I i rrigar i'){l "l'sl"-Ill h u.s in.

    II

    hen measured

    011

    I :2-1.000-'><:;lk (I in. '" 2.000 II) aerial

    pho tog raphy. then the ground drstnncc dia me ter (d) is I.n(m
    It and the ra,liu" lr) is :'1111 n. ThL' CL'lIh:r.p i\ I\1 irril;a liun sys tem wo uld couraui 3.1 -116 x 5(101 or 785,-WO n!, A n acre
    contains 43 5(,( ) tl ~ . A hect are l ila r contains 10.11( 1) m ~ (Ta ble
    fl - 1J. One acre "" 0.-11147 hn: I hit = 2...7 1 ;KI<:s. Therefore.
    the center-pivot irr igation system comains 1fl.0 ) acres (7 .3
    hill.

    Area Measurement of Irregularly Shaped Polygons

    The re arc several me thods for oluuming accurate area mea surcmc nts from irreg ularly shaped polygona l tc-nturcs such
    as lakes. fo rest a'l1lds. and urbaruved areas found III vertical
    aeria l phot ography. The most popular met hods includ e rhc
    use (If Jo t grid, and o n-sc reen d igili/ alion using d igira l
    image proc esving ,lr sllti-(Oll~ photogrammetnc techniques.
    Ilnl Grids

    ,\ dOl grid is simpl y a piece of dear acetat e Ihal hns J usersp ecified number o f dots scribed on"} II per sq, in. tor cm 11.
    e .g. 15 dIllS per sq . in. r t' igur.: (,~O ,. The glIal is tn u\oe a du t
    grid Ihat has a dOl d<:ns ilY su llici<:nt hI ca plure lh<: ess,'nn: o r
    the subject maile r you want to m l.'it ~ ll rC (<:.g._ li)rl' '>1 c(w,'r
    aC I'l:,lg"'l y ~ l Ilill ~ o d" l1 ~e that a I rc lll<: ndo u~ l1um ber Df dots
    must h<: cllul1\eu. 11 i. use ful to t:r<::lt<: :l grid th;}1 is most su itahle th r the '>ealeof thc photo graphy or map und...r im esl igk
    11111I . "'or e'lampk. i f an anal~~t ":l ~ g,)in~ ttl u ~<: a dUI grid

    '"

    ,..

    Figure 6-40 ,\ dut grid co nsisting uf:!5 dolS per 'G. in. O\erlli!
    on I 'ollll-scale (lin. = ~ n ft l aerial photography.
    thl' cvamplc , the !;:ual IS ILJ d crc nninc the .:ll.1/S

    r!wl'tmc, ) of tcr rnin cove red by torc,

    l'n I ::!" ,II(IlI-sr a lc a... ria l photography . 1\ wo uld be wise If


    mAe a Jut gn u \\ uh nin... duts per in. 2 be cause at I:2H U
    scale. I ill . ~ equ a ls approximately " ac res . lfmorc precis~
    " ...re desired . I " dillS could be ~~ sremaricaljy plac ed in ead
    -quare mch Ill" the grid. The a rla l ~ st then randomly dr ops !be'
    grid ove r a po lygon o f interest and co unts the num ber of doo
    tilll ing \\ uhin it. An alte rnative me thod o f increas ing til:
    ;In:u rac) o f rhc measurement is. after the first count. to lid
    lip the clcnr plavtic do t gr id and randomly drop it aga in aTld
    recount. Wh...ll the re sults Irom 11K' tW\1 c,'wlls a rc uvcraged
    the answer \\ ill gene rally be closer to the tru e va lue . This call
    he repeated any num ber or tunes . Again, the- best result s are
    ubta mcd w h... 11 the phcromterprctcd p()I~ ~wns haw bee
    trans fe rred osuo a bJSL' map and the dot grid is overlaid ~
    IhL' map .
    r he (, x 6 in. lln hopholO in Fig.u re (>..4 0 is I :600 scale ( I~ :
    50 iiI . Th ...rc!il rc. it co nta ins IJO.OOO ft~ of t...rrai n (2.OM
    a n<: ~ or tUUfl ha). II is 0\ " rl,lid w ith a do l g.rid Cllll~ i s t ing 01
    :!5 dot s per i ll~ . A t this s';'-Ile, cach sqU;lre illCh cOllt;lins 2.500
    n1. h K h dol Ih,'n:fo r,' rcp r...se-nt, lOll n~. T he interpreter
    '1!1 :l 1 ~ h'S Ih<: imag<: and highl i~hlS IhllS<: do lS Ihat ap lll.'arI()
    co ind d<: 1,\ ith the Il'Cation of I(lrest ll hcy arc ".\ ag.g.<:rated in
    lhi s c\Jmpk 10 im pw h ' \lsihilit)") . The ,1I1alyst sImp!}

    ~'N

    I.leasurement

    19 1

    On -screen Dlgltlzatlon

    Digitized Polygons

    '.
    ,.
    Fipe 6-41

    h.

    a) Example ofon-sc reen dii!iti/.Oltiun using a digital image process ing system. bl Pnl)"i!oo attribute tallIe'S for each of the: indi-

    Vidual polygons coeuam information aboul the- penmererand area.

    ;0

    "
    m

    fi
    U

    J,

    ,n

    cents the number o f dots represen ting fo rest . 336. which


    equates to 33.()f)0 111 or 0.771 ac re (0.3 1(i hOI). Forest occupirsJ7J percent of the study area (0.771 /2. 006 acres).

    k IS obvious fro m the example tha t there arc some sm all.


    old vegetated fo rest features that d id not fall neatly below a
    illand ....ere not counted, Ano ther interp reter might have
    lI:!uded the dots closest to these features. Thus. the usc o f a
    lid grid involves "method -in duced error,' which is prima ri~ a function of the me thodntogy (logic) use d by the imagc
    ualyst as he o r she alloc ates the dots. T he im portant thing to
    renember whe n using a do l grid is 10 be consistent. Dot
    areavailable fro m fo restry-sup ply companies.

    ,od,

    "

    wid ely usc--J rucrhod of obtaining polygon


    fro m aeri al photogra phy or ot her remote sensoc data is to analyze rhe image using a d igital imag e proessing system or GIS (Figure 6-4 1), While it is easy to sca n
    .. unrectificd 9 x 9 in . aeria l photog raph and pe rform area
    ~Iali{lns using the system, it is bener if the ae rial pho to g~ is scanned and then geometrically rect ified to a map
    hR, All major digital imagc processing systems I ERO AS.
    PCI. ER Mapper. (;1\\ '1. erc. : and G IS (ES RL Autodcsk.

    Pcrlups the

    "c

    ,
    n

    With the aeria l photograph rec ti fied to a ma p base, it is a


    straig htfo rw ard task to utilize the syste m sotiware and the
    cursor 10 pla ce a "rubber hand " polygon arou nd the area of
    interest. l'o r example . Figure 6-41 a depicts hand-d rawn
    polygons aro und the fo rest land COVl'r, The ve rtices of the
    po lygo n ca n be easil y cxfued. The: beau ty of th is on-screen
    me asuremen t ap proac h is thnt eac h of the indi vidual po lygons ha s a record in a "po lygon attribute table" ass oci ated
    w ith it that summarizes the attribute type te.g., fo rest or nonfo rest}, per imeter. and area ( in hecta res or acres). For example. the re arc nnly 14 fores t polygons in Figure 0-410. The
    anribute-, for all 14 polygons [e .g .. hectares can be summed
    by the image processing o r G IS so ftware to generate totals.

    mO!lot

    1JU estimates

    ,f

    etc.) have th is fundamental cap abi lity. Details on how the


    ima ge rectifica tion is pe rformed arc found in Jense n ( 20 llS) _

    In su mmary. it is not w ise to dig iti/ e polygo ns di rect ly from


    aerial photo graphy tha t ha\ l' not been geometric ally co rrected. esp ecially when the te rra in has sub stantia l loca l
    relief Fo r exam ple. one sho uld never ex tract area iufcr matio n by digitizing polygons draw n on unrcc tificd so il photomaps. If the loc a l reliefis mi nimal , so me relat ively accurate
    area measurements miglu be made ifthl' imager)' has been
    geometrically rec tified to a standard map projection using
    techniques described in Jensen (,:!00 5). However. it shou ld

    192

    he reme mbered that any re lief dis place ment p resent in the
    imagery .... ill introd uce error inro these area measurem ents.
    The preferred method to c.,lnICl area inforrnarion is 10 ae rotr ia ngulate the aerial pho tography an d then use so li-copy
    photogrammctry thcrna uc information e xtractio n tech niques
    previously d iscu ssed .

    P hotog ram met ry

    '-kCoy, R. \1 .. lOllS, r k '" .I/dl",..l, ill R.:mm ;: Sensmg, Xl(


    tiuilford Press, 159 pMdJlvnc. J. C ., 200-1 , M"'I/I,j{ "f rJwt,,~r(JI'III"lry. 51h Ed, &thcsda : ASP&R '\ . 115 1 p.
    Mi kha il. E. ' 1.. Ret hd. J. S , and J, C. \IeG lo ne. 1001. llUro<Dt
    linn '" ,H' Hlern Phn/"gra"'''','lry. I\Y: John Wiley. -I7':l p.

    References

    Xalc. D. K., 1'1'1-1, "Drgual Orthopbotcgrapby: - Whal It ls


    IsnI.- GIS "'nrM, 7(6 ):21.

    RA E Systems, :W05. SO CET .'1<"/. Or/I".. M"d,,!.', San Diego .


    HAt; Syslcrn s. Inc., www.tatlsm.com.
    Bos stc r, J . n.. Jen sen . J. R., \ lo;\t.JMcr. R. B. and C. RiLOS. 200~.
    H"m",1 of (;f''''{'<I/I(11 Sr "..> trt' "'ltl TJ"w /ngy . london: Taylor & Fra ncis, bl3 p.

    ''''''g.'

    Jensen, J . R. 2ou ~. '''''''''1'''''''1) I)ig lw f


    Processing: .4
    R.'" w t.. S""''''K /."/,,..-/1 ..... J rd Ed.. Upper Saddk Rive r.
    Prent ice -Hall, 52 5 p.

    Ex,,.

    Rumsey. O. a nd E. M, Punt. 10i)4 . C<lrt<ll!.r<lplll<'<l


    natre: Th.. fhu nriCdl .If,,1' Tmn<ft,,.,,,.',i, Red lands: ESiI
    Pr,;ss. 1-17 p.
    'southard. <i ' Ii .. I<N-I , TI'I<(' Ort" n!'h",... ClIf'Ol>ilili e. af .'IOCr;
    SET. Engfc .. ood. CO: Lcic a Helava. luc .. I< p.
    Thrower . 1\ . J. v. . and J R. Je nse n. 197h. MThe Onho photo
    Onh ophorcmap: Characterisucs, De velopm...n t and Al"l"halio n.- TIr.. . Im,rinm ("<lrl.,~r,,!,Ir..,.. 3/ 11:39 -56.

    Je nsen. J. R. and U. J. C.." ell . I'N'!. " Remote Scn~ in~ or l..;rranl
    S ub urba n lnfra-aructurc a nd Socio-Economic Attributes."
    l' I",lt>l,!m mm" lri,' fn/:/I1" "ring,( N,'mot;- .w,,,,inK, 6Sf 5 ):6 116:!:!.

    \\':tIl..':I. A . S.. 1'1'1-1. Correspondence eonce rmn g the SOCEt

    Konecn y. G . 2UlI.l. (if'<'m l" rmum m : /In''''''' S.>n<illg. 1' /"" ,,_
    gr",,,m" ln' ,md <i"",l!.r"I'''''' IlI/i,,'m<1l1"" .';\'," " '11.' . London :
    Taylor &. Frauds. 24 ~ p.

    Warne r. W , S,. R. W. Graha m and R. E. R.:ad. I 'N 6. Smull Fr>r"'<II Aeri"l Ph"'(J~r(l"'n'. Scorland : w hnue s. J4 ll l"

    L i n..Jcr. W. 2U1l3. DI,I!.I/ul l'I"'I,,~,-uJl/IIl<'lry: lh"'''n' und App!lmti" ". , Flcrbu: Springer-Verlag, IXl) p,

    Wolf. 1'. R. and n . A Ik will . 2/lUO, Ef' I11,"t" vj!'h"'''l.!-I'ammetrl


    ","1, ,'!r p lu'/Tliom i ll { ;<,o~r<lf'h l(' tntor manan Sy.l'lems , \Y
    ~k(jra w lhll. (,Oll ll.

    SET. San Diego: Lcic.. .-\ G Photogru mmctry and


    Inc .. December 2n

    M ';lrol~

    Multispectral Remote Sensing Systems

    I/ffisp ec/ra l remotv: sensing ~y~ I ": I11~ recor d reflected Of emitted ene rgy [film

    an obj ect or area o finterest in mu h iplc baud s (regions j of'the electromagnetic


    spectru m. H yperspectrol N /IIOf/' _\ " I1.~ mg s~'s lems record data in hundreds of
    bands. U /l ru.\pe("fr tl l rem ote wmi",l! sys tems collec t da ta in thousands of
    bands. Mosl multispectral and hypcrspectral remot e sens ing s}slemS coll .."\:1
    data in a dig ital format. This chapter li rsl introduc..' S the fu.ndamental swoc lure of a di gita l image. The chaructcnsucs o f historical, curre nt. and proposed
    multispectral and hypc.rspcctra l remote sensing systems an.. then presented.

    Digital Multispectral Data Collecti on

    Cha pter -I d iscussed the digi tizat ion of hard-wry aerial photography. Diginved co lor and col or-i nfrared aer ial photograp hy may be con sidered three band multi spectral data. Diguized natura l color aer ial phologr,lrhy can be
    converted to blue. green, and red hands o f regis tered dig ita l dat a. Dig iti/ cd
    co lor-in frared ae ria l photography can be con ven ed to gre en, red, and nca rinfrared bands of d igiLaI data. Alt hough these three- band mult ispectral
    datascts arc sufficient lo r many app licat ion s. there are times ", hen add itional
    ~pectra l bands loca ted at optimum locations in the electromag netic spec tru m
    can be usefu l for a spec ific application. Fortu nately. engi neers have de veloped dete ctor s tha t arc sensi tive to hundreds of hands in the elec tromagne tic
    spect rum .
    An O\CI'\ ic.... o f ho w digital remote sen sing da ta arc turned into usefu l info rmat ionis shown in Figu re 7- 1. TIIC remote sensing sys te m firs t de t..-cts deeu umagnc nc energy that cx ns fm m the phenomena o f interest and passes
    through the atm osphere. Th e energy d etected is recorded as an ana log clccmca l sig nal.....hic h is usually converted into a d igital value throu gh an analogto-digi tal (A -to-D) conversion. lf'un a in:rnlt plat fo rm is used, the digita l datil
    a re simply returned to Earth. lf a spucecrati pla tform is used , the d igita l data
    a rc te lemerered 10 Eart h rece b ing stat ions dir ectly or indirect ly via track ing
    a nd data relay satcllit c~ (TORS}, In e ither case. il may be nece ssary to pe rform so me radio met ric and or geometric prep rocessing of the digita l
    remote ly sens ed da ta to imp rove its ir ucrprc tabi luy. The data rna} then be
    enhanced for subseq uent human v isual anal ysis or processed further using
    digi tal unegc proce ssing algo rithms. Biophysical anti/or laud -co ver iafortnuno n e xtracted using ViSU31 or d igital Image processing is dis tribu ted and used
    to make decisions. Hopefully, the decisions resu lt in sus tain able de ve lopment
    (Je nse n cr al.. 20(2).

    193

    19 4

    Remo te

    .se n~i n~

    S)o~ l e lll

    Multispectra l Remote Sensing Syste ms

    Onboard

    analog-to-digna l
    conversion
    and calibration

    Al lllos p hcrc

    Direct tele me try 10 Eanh


    or indirectly through trackin g
    and WIJ. relay sarcllucs (TO RS)

    Ground
    Da t a P.....p r occs sinl:
    Rad iomet ric
    Geometric

    Ftgure 7-1

    Distri but ion


    a nd Use of
    In fo rm atio n

    An ovc .... ic.... of the \\ay digital remote ly ><:11"'--.:1 data are trans formed into u...:ful information. The data recorded by the 00ll
    are often conven ed from an analog electrical signa l In a digital value and calib rated. Ground preprocessing removes ga
    mcmc a nd radiomcmc dis tortions. This may invol vc the usc o f ephemeris o r a ncilla ry (collateral ] data such as map.(
    coordirwtcs, a digita l etcv aaon mood. ere. 111(' data arc then ready for visual o r digual analys ts 10 extract biophysical or Iaal
    use/l and-cover inform atio n. Future sensor systems may co nd uct prc prcc c ssm g and mformanon extraction onboard the r~
    ton;

    s~'ns mg

    system.

    Digital/mage Terminolog y

    are d iffere nt; othcrwisc. uhc inform ntio n co nte nt o f the till
    image s is redun da nt.

    Dig ital remote sensor data arc usually store d as a matrix


    (array ) of numbers. Each digital valu e is locate d at a specific
    row (i) and column V) in the matrix (f igure 7 2). A pixel is
    de fined as a two-dimensional pic ture ele ment that is the
    smallest nondivis iblc clement ora d igital image . Each pixe l
    at row (i) and column (j) in the image has a n origi nal brightIICU I 'a /III! (H I) ass ociated w ith it. Some scientists call it a
    "i~i(<I/ number (VN) va lue. The da tas.. .1 may consist o f II
    individ ual band s (1 ) (If m ultispectral or hypc rspcctra l imagery. Thu s. il is pnss ihle to identify the brig htness va lue UH')
    of a part icular pixe l in the dataset by specifying its row (i) .
    column (i ). and band (k ) coo rdi na te. ie., B/ "JJ.* ' It is irnpo rrant to understand that the n hand s are a ll geometrically registered to one another. Therefore. 3 road ir uersec non in band
    I ar row 4. co lumn 4 (i.e., BV1,o ) should be located al the
    same row and column coo rdinate in the fo urth band [i.e.
    VI H )' Hope fully. the brightness values at the two locat ions

    T he analog-to-digital conversion that takes place on boae


    the sensor sys tem usually creates pixe ls with a brig htnes
    val ue range of H to 12 bits. This is culled the Ij llw l liz<1lirJ,
    level of the remote sensor data . Remote sensor data qUM
    til ed 10 K bits have brightness va lues that range from 0 I'
    255. Data quaruizc d to 12 bits ran ge from 0 to 1023. etc. Th
    greater the range of pm sio lc brightness val ues . the more pre
    cise we may he able 10 measure the amount o f radiano
    recorded by the detector. On e can think of q uantizatio n as i
    it were a ru ler. We can obtain mo re acc ura te mea surement
    {If an object using a ru ler that has 1.024 subd ivis ions llul
    w ith a rule r tha t only has 256 subdiv isio ns.

    Remote Sensing Sysfems to be Examined

    There are a va riety of digital multispectral and hyperspectn


    remote sen sing systems. It is beyo nd the scope of this ~

    ,.

    .1'

    ~ita l

    195

    Multispect ra l Da ta Collec tio n

    ..

    Diaital lm uee
    ... Tcr minoloev
    ....

    Col umnsU )
    J
    4

    Rows (i)

    J
    4

    15

    10

    15

    \1

    1R

    \,

    \.

    \, '0
    "

    17

    '0

    '0

    21

    2SS

    .... hne

    (J

    black

    ~ra ~s calt'

    ,
    Bands (k l

    22
    24

    '\ssol."ia led

    Rri !.:hlnl'ss \'a lm'


    r uuze (oflt'li X-bill

    "

    Picture clement IpIXel ) at loca non row 4. column 4 . ha nd I


    has a hrighloc>o" value or24. i.e. B I 4.4.1 = 24

    :;pe 7.2

    Oigilal remote Sf.'11'iOT d ata are SIOI'Cd in a matri x format. Picture dl'tne'I1t tpr aelt bngb tness values ,H I) are IClC31l'd at ro w I.
    c<ll um n;. and ba nd k 111 thc mult i"f'<X'u a l or bypcrspcctral dataset. The digllal remote l>ClbOl"briglll ncss \alul"5. are normall)
    stored as lI.bit bytes 110 ith \'al\lC'S ran ging fm m 0 to 255. 1I0"e\ ". 1<\<",,1 image digitl/dunn sys te ms and som e remote <,('n",i ng
    s~"'t ...n h no w rou linc ly collec t HI-. I I, or 12-bi t

    bprm idc in fo rmati on on a ll o f them . H o w e ve r.

    it

    is

    da4.

    Jl(w.i-

    ;\Iu h i!loll t r al l ma::.inl,: l id o!.: t .tnea r

    Af r a ~~

    ~ torevie w selected remote M:llsing syste ms that

    arc or w ill
    be of sigmflcant valu e for Earth reso urce invcs ugau ous.
    Tbe~ are organiz ed according to the type of remote sens ing
    lfChoology used. as summ arized ill Figure 7-3. incl uding:

    SPOT J. 2. and 3 High Rcsolotio n Visible ( HRV) sen sors


    and "1'0'1' -t ;IU,I :; High Resolution Visible lnfrared

    11ulli'f!('ctr lll Im a ~in ~ l is in ~ t u scrctc Detectors a lld


    \c:an ninl! Miffurs

    Ind ian Remote Sc nsing System (IRS ) Linear Ima ging


    Selfscanning S.... llsm ( L1 SS llI an d LlSS IV l

    Lmdsat Muhispcctral Scanner (f\-t SS )

    NASA 7(,1'1'11 Advanced Spacehome l'h crma l Emission


    and Re flec tion Radiometer (A ST ER )

    Landsat Thematic Mapper (l "-'l)


    landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETf\-l' l
    ' \JOr\A Geostationary
    SatelliletGOESJ

    Operational

    Environmental

    (1 IRVIR) and 1.. ~I. 'fa {i<J" sensor

    NASA Terra
    (M ISR )

    Mlih iallgk

    InHlgi llg Spcctrorudiom eter

    Di gltal( jlllhc. l nc. ()uid..llirdl


    Space lmaging. fnc. ( IKONOS)

    ' :--.I OAA A dvanced Very H iJ!;h Reso lut ion Radiometer

    (r\VHRR)
    :--.I ASA and ORBI~IA< ; E. Inc .. Sea-vic....ing Wide Field of-view Scn,;.oriSe aWiFS I
    Daedalus. Inc .. Aircra ti Muhispectral Scan ncr (A~IS)

    NASA Airbornc Terrestrial Applic atio ns Scnso r t ATLAS I

    1111agcSa t lnternatiunal . Inc . (E ROS A I)


    OR HI\1A(iE. Inc. (O rb Vil'w-3 and Orbvic.... -5)

    Leica C cosyste ms. Inc. A irhoml' Digital Sensor System


    tADS-40 )

    ~7

    196

    C'H At>'1t:R

    Multi spectr al Remole Sens ing Systems

    Remote Sensing Systems Used to Collect Multispectral and Hyperspccrral tma gcrv
    A n a lu ~

    Fra me C a me ra
    a nd Film (sih cr
    halid e c r~ s l al s l

    Linl' IIT .-\ r ra ~ " Pu sh h r nn m"

    Scan ner
    Detec tors

    Scanning mirror
    Ei' :'\IR

    Photo graph

    /-GJ ' d

    ~G' GrC'n Objecnve . ....-1

    -EtJ BIU('

    Discret e
    de tectors

    object
    space

    e
    b

    1liJ,: i1 al Fra me Ca me ra
    A rea Arr a) s

    Detecto rs

    Linear Arra ~ - wh lskbroo m"

    lilLIe

    e.

    d.

    Agure 7-3

    Si ~

    types of remote sensing systems used for multispectral and hypcrspcctral dna cclfccnon : a) rradinonal aerial photography
    0) multisp...c tral ima~i ng us ing a sca nning mirror an d discrete detecto rs. c) mulnspectral imag ing with linear arrays (oft"'
    rcfcrred tc as " pushbroc m" tec hnology], d) imaging wilh a scanning mirror and linear arrays (olicn referre d 10 as "whiskb room " tech nologyl, e) imaging spec trometry us ing linear and area 3ITaYS. and I) dig ua l frame camera aeria l photograph)
    based on area arra ys.

    "

    ...
    bispectral lmagi ng Using Discrete Detectors and SCanning Mirrors

    laI;:ine SpeClrOIl1l'l r~

    U~ il1 ~

    Linea r a nd Area

    , \ rra ~ "

    MSA Je t Propulsion Lab oratory A irborne Visi ble ,'


    lafrared Imaging Spe ctrometer (i\ VIRIS)

    , r ompact Airborne S~..:lrog.ra plw.: Imager 15tX) t CAS l


    lSOOland hypcrs pcct ral $WI R sensor (51\5 16110 )

    197

    notewort hy sensors ha ve be..... n scveralLands nr Multispectral


    Scanners and LlIld.~a l Th emauc .....ta ppe rs t Figure 7-4;
    Tab les 7- 1 and 7-2). TIle l and sat program is the United

    Stares' oldc stlnnd-xurtace observation sntelfitc system. having obtained da ta since 1')12. It has hada tumultuous [Ilstor y
    of'managcmcut and fund ing so urces.
    The ch ronologicallaunch and reurcmcru hist\'1) l.f thc satel-

    'ASA Term vt oderarc Rcsoluuon Imaging Spectrometer

    (' IDOlS)
    r-.~SA Eart h Observer (EO-I I Ad vanced land Imager
    u rn Hypcriou. and lEISA At mospheric Co rrector
    ILM.'I

    , Lrica Ge'lsy ste llls Emerge Digit al Sensor Syste m

    \ C\cd Ultra (':am l arge Fo rmat Ca me ra


    , 1Il DigitalM od ula r Came ra
    wmeau t I'bllllll:r a ph ie

    S~ s t l'lIlS

    l\t\SA Spac e Shuttle and lrnc mauonal Span' Sr.uiou


    Imagery

    Ii t l~ is shown in Fig ure 7--4, T Il<: ERTS-l sa rclluc.faunc hcd


    on Ju ly n. lQn, was an e xperi mental system des igned to
    tes t the tCalil0ility of collec ting Earth resource data by
    unm an ned satellites. Prior 10 the launch o f [ RTSn on Ja nu;11) ~ ~ . IQ75, ;-.I ,\SA rena me d Ihe- F I{T S prog ram t .aodscu,
    dist ingu ishing il from the .'it'll',11 acnv c-microw uvc satel lite
    launched on Jun e 26, ]<H8. Atthis lime . ERTS-I \1 as rcrroactivef y named Lands at- I and ER.TS-B became l.and sar-Z at
    launch. Landsat-j wa s launched Mu rch 5. 197 1(: Laudsat -I
    on J uly 16, 1l)X~ ; and Landsat-S on .....{arch I. Il}Jo(4 .

    The Earth Observanon Satellite Company \ [05-"1")


    obta ined con trol of the l a ndsa t satcllucs in Se pte mber.
    19K;. Lnfortunatcly.Lands ar e. with its Enhanced The matic
    \!I ap~f ( ETt>.l l (a 15 x 15 m panch roma tic band v.as added ).
    failed 10 achicv c orbit P II Octobe r 5, IQ93, Landsat 7, wi th
    its Enhanced Th ema tic Ma pper Plus ' E T~r ) sensor system.
    was launched on April I S, 19')') . Please refer tu the NAS A
    Land sat 7 horne page fur a de tailed history of th e Land sat
    prog ram (NASA t .nnd vat 7, ~ Otlh ).

    The: following d iscussion tdernmcs the spatial. spcctrat. tcm-

    ,.:n1. and radiometric cha racteri-ncs of the remo te sensing


    ~'lICilh.

    Mu ltispectra l Imagin g Using Di scret e


    Det ectors and Sc ann ing Mirrors

    l1le collection o f mu ltispe ctra l remote sensor dat il using d is(rrte detectors and scan ning mirrors begun in the m id- I960s.

    lk.pill." the technology's age. seve ral new remot e sens ing
    1} ;(C'Tll~ still use II.

    Em Resource Technology Satellites and Landsat

    sensor Systems

    In 1%1. the- :'-J:ttil\l\;tl Aeronautics & Spare Adm inistration


    encouraged h) the U.S, Department o f the Interior,
    iMiatcd the [anh Resource Tec hno logy Satel lite (lOInS )
    program. This prn gra m result ed in the launch u f sc H'n satcl lites carrying a \ ,u iet) o f re mllte se nsi ng syste ms designed
    pnmatil) to Jcq uin.: [ anh resoun:c in fomla tilln. The most
    I :-',~SA ) .

    Landsars I thro ugh ] IICn: launc hed into Sun-synchr onous


    po lar "wig at a normnal altitude 0 1''119 km ( 570 m il. The
    pla tfo rm is ~ h\'V. 11 in Fjgure 7-5a, The satcllncs had all
    orbital incl ination of 99, whic h made them nea rly pol ar
    I hgufe 7-50 ) and caused them 11\ erose the equa tor at an
    ang le of app rux uuatc ly 9 from nor mal. T he sa tellites
    o rbited Earth once every 10] minutes. res ulting in 14 orbits
    per day (Figu re- 7-5c). Durin g ... uch polar orbit. the eatell ire s
    crossed the equator nt app roxim ately the same local tim e
    {9:JO to 1,, :00 a.m. ) un the illuminated side o f Harth.
    Figu res 7-5c a nd 7..(, illustrJ le hO\1 repeal CO\cragc o f a geographic area was o btained. From on e orbn 10 the nex t. a
    pos mon d irectly be low Ihe vpacccratl moved 2J05 km
    { I,71\5 mil at th... Equ ator a" the Earth rotated benea th it. The
    nc.\1 day. 14 l.rl:oils later, it v.as bac k til its origmallocarion.
    with o rbit 15 d isplaced v.C"lwun l from <'r!'lit I by 15Q km (Q9
    m il at the equator. Th is cuutiuucd for IR da ys, uflc r whi ch
    or bit 252 fell direc tly ovc r orhi t I nnc e ;Igain , rh us, the
    l.andsat st>nsnr systems ha d the cap"h il ity of p!'lserv ing th..:
    entlrc glol:oe le.... cq)\ pokw urd o f ~ I ~ I unc e..:\ cry III da )'s. or
    ahl.m ~ O l imes a ~' e'lf. Th~'rc were ap pro,ima lcly 26 km (1 6
    m il " h ldela p belv. l"en successi\e omits. Th is siddap v.as a

    198

    C HAPn :R

    C h ro n o l o ~ i c a l
    i2

    '4

    71>

    . ""

    Multispectral Remote Sensi ng Systems

    Laun ch a nd Retirem ent lIisto r )"of th (' Landsat Satellites


    711

    "" I"

    91"

    u1

    04

    I I I

    LlIunch a nd Rll'l ir l'mc-nt Da l('5


    Land~1

    UncI ...,

    I - J ul~ n , 1972. \(I Janual)' to, 1 97 ~


    January 22, 19 75. to July ~7 , 19~)

    landoW ) . Ma n:h

    S. 19711 . to Seplmlbn 7, 19113

    Land,.. , .. - July In , l "'K ~


    5 Mar<:h J. 19K4
    Land..., II OCtober 5. IIN3, d Id nOia ducve oml1
    Laoosat 7 Af"l l 15, J999

    Lan""".

    LallJsat 1I - appnm:J by OST I' Dco:embo:r 23. 2U05

    I
    Agura 74

    Chronologicallilunch and retirement history of the Landsat series of !'alellik-s(I through 7) from 19T:!. 10 ~OOt

    maxim um at RIo non h and sout h latitudes (300ut 85% ) and


    a minimum at the equator [about )4% ), The sidelap has
    proven use ful for stereosc op ic a nalysis application s.
    T he natu re of the orb iting Land sat sy stem has given rise 10 a
    Path and Row Worldwide RL'{t'It 'IICf! .s:1'Jlt'IIJ ( WRS) for locaring and ob tain ing Landsat imagery tor any area on Earth.
    The WRS has catalogued the world's landmass into 57,711.J
    scenes. Each scene is approx imately 185 km wide by 170
    km long.

    An elegant method of determining if remote sensor data.


    (e .g. landsat MSS. Themat ic Mapper. Enhanced Themat ic
    Mapper Plus) are available for a specific location is to use
    the U.S. Geological Survey 's Global Visualization Viewer
    t USGS GloV is. 2(06). For example. suppose we are interested in locating a landsat Them atic Mapper image of
    Charleston. Sc. We can enter the Global Visualization

    Viewer and specify WRS Path 16 and Row 37 and scarchthe


    data base as shown in Figure 77. If we do not know the pau

    and row designation. we could a) mo ve the cursor on the


    regional map and place it on Cha rleston. SC, or b) inputtlx
    latitude and longitude coordinates of Charleston. SC (33.2'"
    N . _Sl o W ). We can specify the month and year {c.g .. May
    20(5) and the amoun t nfacceptable cloud co ve r, We can alSo,'
    spec ify whether the search should be conducted regional ~
    as in Figure 77a (pixds resample d to 1000 m) or locally.
    in f igure 7-7b {pixels rcsampled to 240 m). t\ color verua
    of the Globa l Visualization Viewer interface is shown a
    Co lor r latl: 7-1.
    In Ihis sect ion. we are interested in the type of sensors car
    ried aloft by the Landsat satell ites and the nature and quali~
    of remote sensor data. provided for Earth resource investigalions. The most important sensors are the Multispecml
    Scanner and several Thematic Mappers.

    '199

    lJltispectral lmag in g Us in g Discr ete Detectors and Scanning Mirrors

    ~7-1.

    Lan,j" u Muliis pl.-':lral S..:"mwr l \I SS I ilJlIl Lm"h at Thematic \ 1"PI",r l 1\11 M:u",r ~ ~st~m cha racteris tics.

    Landsat Multispectra l SCanner (MSS)


    Spectral
    Resolution

    Rad io metri c
    sensitivity

    IJ>m)

    (NE..lPt

    Band

    landsat 4 and 5 Thematic Mapper (TM)


    Spectra l
    Resolution

    Radiometric
    sensitivity

    IJ>m)

    (N8.P)

    OAS O.5:!

    0.'

    o.sz o.eo

    0 .5

    Band

    "5

    05

    0.6

    0 .57

    0.6

    0.7

    0.57

    0.7

    0.'

    O.,,~

    O,n3 _ O.nQ

    0.5

    O.S - 1.1

    o.m

    0 .7(> - 0 .90

    0.'

    1.55 - 1.75

    1.0

    [0, 40 12.5

    2,1lK-2.35

    lOA

    "

    l A K (NEAT)

    1 ~ .6

    7'J x 7'J m fur balllb'; through 7

    .'0 x J(J III fur N ulls I thWllgh 5. 7

    :!~n){ :!~fl

    1211x 120 m for band e

    m for band S

    O.5Il\ E.H )
    2.-4

    15 Mb,_s
    Qllnt iu ti"n 11.'\..,1\

    (, Oil (\ alues (Will ll t" 631

    I fi days Landsat

    IXdays L1nds.11 I, 2. 3
    1fJ

    da )'~

    ~,

    .5

    Landsat 4, 5
    7(l~

    '11 '1km

    km

    I X5 km

    Inllinatioll

    'J')"

    Th. rn,bClmctrie ""n, it '\ 11 i. , :In: lh, n""c""I""'3!ent retk .:tancc ,hlk ", ,,,'c, 1" 1 Ille rct1<"'m e " hem",,!. cw rc"e'd a_ pt:,ecm,,~c, ( ~ t-!>I') and
    lomp-'rat"' '' dinCrCII ".' Ii" the' thermal Ull"a,,,d ....",,1, t " r,\ fl.
    ~ \l ~ S h"nd, 4, 5, 1>, and 7 " ,'r" rc" ,,"' ......rcd Ix""l, 1. 2..'- ." ,,14
    Landsat, 4 ~ "d~.
    ' ~ SS bond ll ..... a. ptc"'1\1,.nl>" nl ...",I, .1t ,

    <",

    ~ landsat Multis pectra l Scanner {M" S ) \Ia" p laced on


    lmiMl satellites 1 throu gh 5, The :'v ISS multiple-detector
    and the sca nni ng system arc shown dia gmmmaucally
    Figure 7-Na. Sensors suc h as the Landsat :\l SS (a nd The1lI!IC Mapper to be dis cus sed] arc optic al-mechanical sys!tms in which OJ mirror scans the wrra in pcrpcnd icu lnr to 11K"
    IhPtt d:rection. While it sca ns. It focuses cn l'rg ~ re fl ect ed or
    minoo from the terrain omo di-crctc detecto r elements. Th e
    dcttctc~ ccn vcrt the radiant llux measured w ithin eac h
    1II:italIianeous field of\ i.,;w II H)V) in the sce ne imo lin eteclDlic signal I Figures 7-.\ b an d 7-Xa). T he detector ele me nts

    Jr.!:

    an: placed behind tillers that P;lSS broad portions o fthe spectrum , The MSS had tour set s of filte rs and dete ctors.
    wherea-, the I \.-1 had SO:\CII. Tho: primary limitation o f th is
    approach il> the short v iew ing residence time o f the detecto r
    in each Ir O \ '. Io achieve adequat e sig na l-to-noise rat io
    with o ut sacr ificm g vpuual resolunon. such a sensor must
    ope rate in broad spec tra l bands of ~ 100 11 m or must usc
    oplics wit h unrcnljstically small rnuos of foca l length 10
    apertu re (j I , lop ).

    Thc M'\:-' scann mg mi rror ovcillat es Ihro ugh an angular displacement 1, 1" ::1:;.7':<' o tl-nadrr. Thl~ I I .5o ~ fi eld -o f-vie w

    200

    Multispectral Remote Sensing Systems

    .\ ttunde -cor arol


    sUhs} ~I..:m

    So lar arrJ.y .........

    wltl.:band
    recorder
    electronics

    land....' at
    <J :~ 1

    ),(::'--', - "\'.:\"1

    1f..: a 1 time

    Dala- /
    c"lkcllon
    .. nt<olU\il

    am

    Ret urn

    1k,1I11

    \ it1 il-nn OW \ ' )

    Cll llwn" IJ I

    a.
    Orb,t J b. J..,~ 1

    Ori' II 1. day I
    Om,t

    Iii

    l~ .

    W\ ':;

    irhll I. d.1y:I

    Figu re 7-5

    2 ~ 75 kill
    a l Clj U<' lol

    1__ ...,_-'

    Cj

    a ] 'Oirnb us-sl)'1c plat fonu used fllf La nd sa ts l. 2. and 3


    and as "llCi<u\o..1 se n<;('/" and telecom munication syste ms,
    h I In.:lilhll'II1t u f the Landsat orb 't 10 maintain a Sun~> t1<" hwn "u~ orbit. 1." 1 From on e orhi t lu lh~' nex t. the pu..
    ciuon directly below Ih", ",ne llil'" moved 2.lol75 krn
    tl. 7 ~5 mi) utthc eq uator as Earth rota ted t>cn calh it. The
    n",,'l d" y, 1-1 nrhil s later, it was approxirnatcly hack 10 iI,
    ori gi na l locution. " ilh orbit 15 di~pluecd Weslv.aru from
    orbit 1 hy 15<.l kill ('19 mil . Thrs is huw repeat co verageofthe same gc" grllphic are" was ob tained.

    L.- l ~ H 111

    c.

    resulte d in a sw ath w idrh o f 1:--5 km ( II ~ mi ) to r eac h Clrt>il.


    Six paralle l detectors ....: thi\j, It ttl fonr "1'1<0;11<11 bands (cha nnels) in the electromagnetic spectrum \ icwcd the ground
    simulta neously : 05 III 0,0 um 19r\'t"n ). n.b 10 0.7 urn t red t.
    0.7 10 nx urn uetlecnve near-infrared] , and 0.1' to 1.1 urn

    (reflective ncar-infrared). TIIl.'~'

    bJ. I1J S

    were originally llU tn-

    bcrcd 4. 5,6, nnd 7, respectively, bec ause J RClUm..Bees


    vidrcon (IHiV) sensor system also onboard the salcll~
    rec orded e nergy in three bands labeled I, 2, and 3.

    \\ hl'n not vie w ing the Earth. the MSS detectors w.:tt
    exposed to interna l lighl and Sun calibration so urce s. TIE

    ....

    Illtispect ral lmagl ng Using Discrete Detectors and Scan ning Mirrors

    Landsa t Orn uat

    201

    rac k v

    45
    )0

    . 15
    U

    - 15
    15-+

    )0

    4;

    so
    75
    ~~

    71;,

    Ofh iul lr.l~h tlr Landsa t I. 2. or ) .Juring a single oiJ~ of C"H"r.l~"_ Th.: -.aldlil~ .:w~...:<.Il h.. t."lU;'h'l" e\ery \fI.1 minutes. tluri ng
    wmch tlITK: the Earth I'OUlIOO a di.... ance o f 2JHS km under Ihr !oaldlih:' at the C\jUilltll'. I'.\'el) 14 "mils. 2.,l. hours elapsed.

    ~I sensitivity o f the bands is summa rized in Table 7- 1


    III show n diagram mat ically in Figure '.l': h. N,)le thn there

    ! splral overlap bctw ccn the bands .


    Prior to the laun ch o f the satellue. the engin ee ring mode l o f
    Icstc
    viewing the scene behind the
    ~U3
    G~l kl;, . CA. Bands 4 and
    ~ (green and ncar-in frare d, respe crive ly j of the area aTC
    !OCt""" in Figure 79. Note the spatial de rail pre sent "" hen the
    srsor is located onl y I III 2 km From the moun tain s. The
    ~lia l resolution is much tower when the sen sor is placed
    9lHm above Ea rth in orbit.

    *ERrS
    \i SS ....'31'
    J by
    Barbara Res ear ch Ce nter ill

    Ihe !FOV of ea ch detecto r was sq uare and resulted in a


    pound resolution clement o f approxi mately 79 x 79 III
    1~7,143 11'\ The ana log voltage sig nlll from eac h detec to r
    JaS converted 10 a dig ua l value usi ng an on hon rd A- to-I)

    Ml \ener. The duta we re quantized In e-bits with a range of


    .lues fr om 0 to (13, These dntn we re the n rescaled 10 7- hits
    til 121) for three of the four hands in subsequent ground
    lIft'(ffiing [i.e., bands 4. 5, and (, were decom pressed to a
    t.Il\~'l"(lfOto 127). It is im porta ntto remember that the early
    ~7(1s Landsat MS"> 1I,1ta we re quanuzed to e -tnrs when
    .'Q!tIpari ng MSS data collected in the late 19 70s and 19SOS.
    -.trich were collected at x -bn s.

    furiJlg each scan. the voltage prod uced b) each de tec tor was
    r.&;lkd every 9 ,95 115, For one de tcx:tor. approxim ately

    3J( )(J samples we re take n a long a J,~ 5- k lll line. Thus. the
    IFO \, of 711 m x j() m became about 5fi m on th e ground
    beh\ CL'n eac h ..ample /I igurc 7 10), The 56 x 79 III area is
    called a Land sat \ ISS pict ure clement. Thu s, although the
    mea snrer uent of land-ca pe hrig hlnt:ss was made fro m a
    6. ~4 1 rtl ~ are a, each phd was reformartcd as i I' the measuremcnt were l1I;1dL' Irom a 4.4 24 m l area ( rig u r~' 7- 10 1, ~ote
    the tl\ er lap of the areas ffo m \\ hich bri ghtness mea surell1l'llls "ere made for adjace nt pixels .
    r ile ,\1 SS scanned each line ncmsc-track from wes tto ca st as
    the soulhw<lfll orbit o f tile sp ucccr atl provided the ulongtrack prngrl'ssillll, Ench MSS sce ne represents a 185 x 170
    krn parallelogram cxrructcd fro m the l'ol1l il111n lls swath of a n
    orhn an d conuins appro\ imalc ly Iu percent overla p, A typicut scene contuins approximately 234 0 scan lines with
    about .t!40 pix els per line. or ,Iheollt 7.5 1'1.1'>00 p ixe ls per
    channel. A II fo ur han ds rep rese nt ;1da ta set of more tha n 30
    mill inn brigh tness values. Landsrn \'I SS images provided an
    unprecede nted ability In OhSL'r\C large gl.'ngraphie a rea"
    while \ I.:wing a sing I!.' image. For e xamp le. approximat ely
    SOO() vertic al aerial phul llg mphs obtained at a scale o f
    I: 15J Ml(l are requ ired to equa l the geographic cove rage o f a
    sin g le Landsa t ~ IS S ima ge. l'lus ullo ws regio nal te rra in
    ana lysis 10 I:".: per formed us ing nne da ta sou rce rather tha n a
    multitude Ill' aerial phlllllgrap hs.

    202

    Mul lJsp ectral Rem ote Sens ing Systems

    Use of t he USGS Gtobat J' SIUI/b lt;OIl J iewer to


    Locate La ndsat Remot e Se nso r Data

    a. Search ((IT images o f Charleston. S( ', usi ng tho: criteria: Path 1(-, and R<IW37,
    Landsat .$5 T M. Mil)' ~OO5. 100% maximum clo ud con- r; n'sam plcJ til 1,()()O m pixe ls.

    --=-,...._.
    ... _-..... .

    --

    b. Sea rch for Charleston. SC using pixels resumplcd


    Figure 7-7

    III ~ .$O

    m.

    203

    lIlispeclral lm a g in g Us ing Dis crele Detectors and Scanning Mirro rs

    Landsat

    ;\IlIlli~p{"elrlll

    Sca n ner

    Landsat :\Iultisp('ctral Scanner Kandl\idlhs


    100

    '0
    ,

    60
    'e

    ~
    a

    e,

    "
    20 f - -

    o
    0.4

    0.5

    O'

    0 ,7
    0.11
    Wa\l; lcnl!lh. ~1Il

    0.'

    1.0

    1.1

    b.
    Sll ddlo n;
    ..r band
    j2J Mall

    ~,

    f~L
    ,: Fidf~~6:ie"

    ___ ,\

    I-.

    Frgure 7-8

    31 \lajor compooenu of the landsal Multispectral


    Scanner system on Landsats Ithmugh 5 (Landsal 3
    also had a thermal infrared band ). A blink of 24 detIOf'S (Sil for each ofthe four bands) measured refleered en~"fl!.)' from Earth from an instantaneous
    field ()f\ iew 0 (7<) m x 79 m. b) landsat Multispecrral Scanner hamlwidlhs, N\J(ice Ihat lOe bands do
    nOI en d ebru prly. as sUl.U!l~ted h) the usual nom en clature. e.g.. band J (U.s- (Ill ~ml.

    EIISI

    South

    landsat Thematic Mapp er (TM ) sensor sys tems wer e


    launched 011 July 16. 19!12 (Lan dsat 4). and on March I.
    !98-I (Landsat 5 ). The T 1'.1 is an optical-mechanica l w hisk htorn sensor that records ene rgy in the visib le. refl ectiv einfrared. middle- in frared . and thermal Infrared regions of the
    eenrornagnetic spec trum. II collec ts mult ispectral imagery
    !hal ha~ higher spat ial. spect ral. te mpora l, and radiomet ric
    resolu tion than the Land sat i\IS S.
    Tbe LatKl~t4 and 5 pla tform is shown in Figure 7- 11. The
    Thematic \1a ppcr sen sor sys tem co nfiguraric n is sho wn in
    flgu."e 7-12. A tele sco pe directs the inco ming radi ant flux
    ltuined along a sca n line thro ugh a scan line co rrector to I )
    tbt visible and near -infrared primary 1000al plant" or 2) the:

    middle-in frared and thermal infrared cool ed focal plane . T he


    detector s fer the visible and nca r-in frare d ba nds ( I - 4) arc
    fo ur staggered linear arrays. eac h co ntai ning 16 silicon detectors . T he two middle- infra red detectors are 16 ind ium- antimonide cells in a staggered linear arr uy, and the thermal
    infrared detector is a fo ur-c lement array of mercury-cad.
    m ium-tel lur idc cel ls.
    Landsa t T M data have a ground -projected IFO V of ]O x J n
    m for band s I through 5 and 7. The therma l in frared ba nd 6
    has a spatia l reso lution o f 120 x 120 m. The T M spectral
    bands represe nt important dcpa rtures fro m the ba nds found
    on the trad itional MSS . also ca rr ied onboard Landsars 4 and
    5. The original MSS ban dwidths w ere selec ted ba sed o n
    thei r ut ility to r vegetation inventories and geo log ie stud ies.
    Conversely, the: TM ban ds w ere: c hosen a tler years of ana ly-

    204

    'tc r rcstrtat I ma~('\ uf Colora. CA. uh talned


    Ih~' La udxat M ulthlll"Cln l Scanner

    Mu ltispec tra l Remote Sens ing Systems

    Nm --+i+-

    usin ~

    7~rn-+

    --

    Gr<lund' J1rujl>i: tt'd

    trov

    >Om

    9_<j~

    <j95

    I- ,,~ --.;.- ". -+it-~

    t -

    fl.'

    -.(

    '>.lmrling interv al or MSS J;e~

    Land.<;;tl MSS b.>nJ .lIO.5 . 0,1i ~ml_

    Figure 71 0

    995

    Rd atil.nshir bt'1...een tho: original 79 x N m


    rroJCl.'1t'<.ll fOV .. r the Land -at MSS and the
    which il ... as rCSoalllrkd [i,c. t"-ery 9.95 j.ls}.
    suhcd In rl'\c1s lhill were 5h x 7~ 111 OIl data'
    fromthe EROS Data Center <II Siou:\ Falls, SD

    I.a nd.al .. an d :; Thematic \ la ppeT'O

    1>, I ,md ...11 \l ... s 1l.1nd I> (0 i .11 M11m I

    Figure 7-9

    I" " tcrrcsmaluuages acquired by the cngmccnng


    mudd ofrh c Landsat \i SS on Ma rch ..\. I ~72. at the
    Sallia Barbara Resea rch Center of Hughe s A irc raft.
    Inc The top i lllag~'l al was acquired using the MSS
    IMld ..\ detec tors (0.5 - (1 ./, 1-111\). a nd the bottom image (I'll \\,1' acquired using hand (, detectors {O.7 O,1l ).11111. Note th c hIgh spaualIldclity of lJlI: images.
    which is possil'k "hen th .... terrain is close and not
    '11'1 ~ 1 11

    l! w a ~

    sis j~lI their value in wutc r penetration. d iscrimination of

    vegetation I Y r~' and vigor. plam and soil moisture measuremem. di fferenriarion o f clouds . snow. a nd icc. and ldennflcanon of hydrothermal alte ration in ccnuin roc k types (Table
    7.2 ). The refined ban dwidt hs and improved spatial rcsolutien ufthe Lantl,.,,,l l l\l VCh U,., the Landsat MSS and sev era l
    other sensor sy,.,lerm ( Land,.,at 7 and S PO T,., I - 5) arc shown
    gra phically in Figu re 71 J. Examples of indi vidua l hands o f"

    Rg Llre 7 11

    Lm tlsal ~ ;111<15 platform and associated sensor


    rctccomrnumcauon systems.

    Land sat Thematic Mappe r image ry of Cha rleston. Sc.


    obtained in I'JlJ4 arc sho wn in Figure 7-1 4.
    The Landsat T M hands wert' sd<.'<.'lcJ 10 mak e max im um use

    of the domi nant fac tors cont rolling leaf reflec tance. such as
    leaf pigmcnrauon. leaf and canopy struc ture. and moisture
    content. a,., demon-anned in Figure 7-15. vegetation absorbs
    much of the iucidcru blue. green. and red radian t Il ux for

    photosy nthetic purposes: there fo re, vege tated areas a


    dark in T M band I ( I'llue), 2 (greem. and 3 lredl images.
    seen in the Ch arl esto n. Sc. Lan dsat T \ f data (sec Figure
    11). Vegetat ion refl ec ts cpproxj murcly half of the inci
    ncnr-mfrarcd rad ian t fhrx. causing it 10 appear bright In
    band -l t ucar-infrared ) image. Ba nds 5 an d 7 both pni
    more detail in tlte wet land bec ause they arc sensitive to

    "

    ectral lmag ing Using Disc rete Detector s and SCanning Mirrors

    205

    and plant moi sture conditions (Table 7-2 ). The band 6 (the rma l) image pro vides limited information of va lue.
    '-2.

    Characteristics of the Landsat


    ~bpper

    and 5 The matic

    spectral bends.

    (I: 0..15 - 0.51,/11I (blll e). This baud provides increased


    . of warertcdies, 4S well as supporting analyses o f

    . , soil,and vegetation charactensucs. The shorter waveJi, Cllloif is j ust below the pea k trans mi tta nce of clea r
    :md the upper-wavelength cutotf is tho: limi t o f blue chlcI absorption fix hea lthy green vegetation. Wav d en b>ths <
    um an: substannally influenced by atmosphe ric scatte ring

    The eq uatorial crossing ti me was Q:45 a.m . for Landsais -t


    and 5 with an orb ital incl ination 0I"Q8 .2. Landsats 4 an d 5
    were placed in a 70 5 km orbit. Th e lowe r orb it al so increa sed
    the amoun t of relief di splacement introdu ced into the imag1.'1)' ob taine d over mountaino us terrain. The new o rb it also
    caused the pe riod between repe titive coverage to cha nge
    from 18 to 16 days for both the MSS an d TM data co llected
    by Lan dsa rs 4 and 5.

    tt'SOrJlI lOfl_

    ti l: (J.5! - 0.60 pm (g rr m). This band spans the region


    HCTl the blue and red chlorophyll absorption bands and
    :IS ic ihc green reflectance of hea lthy vegetation.

    tJ J: 0.6J - 0.69 II/PI (, d). nils is the red chlorophyll


    ion band of healthy grc<:n vegetation and is use ful for
    discrimination. It is also useful for soil-boundary
    geological-boundary delineations . This band may ex fubu
    lOll

    contrast man hands 1 and 2 because of the n..duccd effect


    r ,. " ..enc aucnuauon. The O.69tJrn cutoff is significant
    use it represents thc beginning of a spec tral region from

    to 0.75 um.....here vegetation reflectance crossovers take


    that can reduce the accuracy of vegetauon investigation s.
    "" 4: 0.76 - 0.\10 lilt' (nt Mr-inf rM,..Jj. For reasons dis -

    Med.lhc lc.... er cutoff for this band was placed above 0.75
    Thj~ band is " .. ry responsive to the amount of vege tation
    and or kaf area present. It is useful for erop ide nnfica and emphasizes soilicrop and land/watercontrasts.
    5: 1.55 - / . :'5 II'" (miJ-infnut"d). This band is sensitive
    the turgidity or amount of water in plants. Such information
    seful in crop drought studies and in plant vigor invcstig aThis is one of the lew bands thatcan be used to discrimiamong clouds, snow.and ice.

    10.4 - /1. 511'" (tl,trmal in!r artdJ, This band m<a.


    . til,' amount of inl'r3rcu radiant cncrg)' cmiucd from sur;e;.. Tho: apparent rernperaturc is a function ofthe emi....i\'iti,'1i
    lile true (kinelic) temperature of lhe surface. II IS useful (or
    aung g~ol.hcrmal acnvu y, thermal iner na m,tppillg Illr gooisvesnganons. vegeta tion classifica tion . wg':tati"n slress
    1lI)'sis. and soil mois ture studies . Till.' ban d oft..n captu re,
    inf\,rm':lIion on differences in topographic aspect in

    I4ftd ~:

    7.. 1.08 - 1. J 5 11m (mid-;nfrart'd). Thl$ is an important


    ror lh.. discrimination of geologic rock formations. It has
    .110" n to be effective for identifyi ng zo nes, of hydrothcra1lerJlIon in rocks.

    The n: was a substanti al im proveme nt in the level o f quan tization from 6 to Kbits pe r pi xel (Tab le 7-1 ). Th is. in addition
    to a greater nu mber of bands and a hig he r spatia l resolution.
    increased the data rate from 15 to 85 Mb ls . G ro und rece iving
    stations were mod ified to process the inc reased dat a flow.
    Based on the imp ro vements in spec tra l. spa tial, and radiomet ric resol ution. Solomonson ( 19M ) suggested that "it
    ap pears that the T \ 1 can be descr ibed as being twice as ctfective in provi di ng mformation as the Land sat :\ISS. Th is is
    base d on its ab ility to provide tw ice as many se parable
    classes ove r a give n are a a s the MSS. nume rically provide
    more independent vectors in the da ta or demon stra te
    through cla ssical info rma tion theory that twice as muc h
    inform ation exists in the T~ I dat a: '

    """0

    Efforts to move the Landsat Progra m into the commercial


    sector bega n under the Caner Adm in istrat ion in 1979 and
    res ulted in legislat ion passed in 1Q8-t that ch arged the
    National Oceanic and Atmosp heric Adrrunist raric n to tr ansfer the program 10 the private sector. Th e Ean h Ob serv ing
    Sate llue Company (EOS AT) took over operation in 1985
    and was given the rights to mar ket Landsa t T\1 data. Thi s
    was a very difficu lt time for satellite-based remote sensing in
    the United Stales .... ith each Land sat T ~l scene co sting
    ap proxi mately S4,500.
    It is important to point out the am azing longevity of the
    Land sat 5 Thematic Ma pper sys tem lau nched March I.
    1984. Even afte r La ndsat (, failed 10 achi eve orbi t on Octoher 5. IQ<,l3. Landsat S TM conun ucd to provide high-quality
    remote sensor da ta. Data collection was suspended for a time
    on Nove mbe r 26. 2005. d ue to satellite platform backup
    sola r array pro blems (USGS Landsat 5. 2(00 ).

    Land sa t 7 Enhan ced Th ema tlc :\1a pper Plus


    On October 28. IlJl)2, Pres ident Cl into n sign e-d the Land
    Re mote Se nsing Policy Act o f 19Q2 (P ublic La..... 102-555 ).
    The law authorized the procu rement o f Land sat 7 and ca lled
    for its launch with in 5 years of the lau nch of Land sat 6. In

    Muilispectral Rem ot e Se ns ing Sy stems

    206

    Radiatj\ c
    coole r

    Aperture
    sunshade

    Earth shield - - - -_

    [.>clcct",.
    at Cl ~l lctl
    1<,,1 pl.m

    1>.:'",<'<>,
    I t rnma,)'

    ~~':1.

    R<tdi alor lU

    dr sp;t<:c

    Scan -lmc

    Rda)"

    corrccnon

    "Phes
    m' m>n
    C; ru u nd r r"j ,'Cl jnn or Sca n r al1rrn

    s :

    A['Cn un:
    sunslude

    .
    :

    L UII,J""t

    groundtrack

    Fig u re 7- 12

    Major com p onents orthe Lnndsnts 4 and 5 The mat ic Mapper ..cnsor system. The senso r is sensitive to th..- sewn hands oftit
    dCdfOlllagnctic spectrum sununanzcd in Table 7-1. Si'I. (lfth.: seven bands have a spaual resolution 01"3Ux 30 m: the I
    infra red hand has a spatml resolution o f I:!n x 120 rn. The lowe r dia gram depicts the sensor in lis ope rational po,i lillO,

    parallel act io ns, Congress fundc-d Land sat 7 procurement


    and stipu lated that data fro m publicly funderd rem ote se nsing
    satellite syste m, like: La ndsa t must be so ld 1,1 United States
    government agencies and their affiliated users al the cos t of
    fulfill ing user requests .

    Wilh the passage of the Land Remote Sensing Policy Act of


    1<N2. O\e:rsight of the Landsa t program began 10 he shined
    from the commercial sector back to the federa l government.
    NASA wa s responsible for the des ign. development. lau nch
    and on-crtnt checko ut o f Landsat 7 ( Figure 7- 16). and the

    iusra llario n and op eration of the ground system. The L 5.


    Geo logical Survey ( USGS ) was responsible tor data capturt
    proce-sing. and di-aribunon of rhe Landsat 7 data . miss
    man agemen t. and mai ntaining the Landsat 7 data archive.
    Landsat 7 was lau nched on April 15. 1W':'. fro m VandenN!
    Air Force Bnse. CA. into a Sun-sy nchronous orbit tFigureII,) . Landsat 7 was designed to work in harmony liS
    :'\IA5A\ EOS Tj' rra and ...14/1<1 sa tctlucs. It was designed.
    achieve three mai n objectives ( ~ A SA l and s.a t 7. 2006):

    ....

    207

    Wlispectral lmaging Usi ng Disc rete Det ectors and Scanning Mirror s

    Spa tial and Spectral Reso lution or Landsat :\1ullis pn'lntl Sc an ncr.
    l. an ch at T hem ati c vtappe rs. a nd SPOT St>lIsor S"' Sl;O'C"~"C~_.,...~_

    .nr

    P'~h~"C

    S POT

    SPOT

    20m "
    C

    ",
    ~

    4 11i~h H. ~"l u li(ln ' hibl ~'

    Infnl rftl lll RnR I

    IIIIIII

    IOm L

    SI'OT 1. 2. IInd.l High R... ~ol u ,io n Vis ihlE' ( HR\')

    20m '
    C

    i~ ih l('

    I I II I I I I

    10m

    Hilth R('",lntioll \
    I nfn rc d ( II RYIR )

    l.... nd ' al 7 En han ced T h",m lllic


    t

    Mapper- Plus (i:T~ I + 1

    ;e, )Om '

    110 m
    I.Much al Th... malic Ma ppen n :'o l) 4 lind !Ii

    30 m ,

    I .lln d u l

    "m

    . _ _

    \I u lti ~p ('("trlll

    S r a n nrr ( \ I SS)

    .,

    I. 2 .1. -I. llnd S

    0.4.s

    .6

    .8

    .9 1.

    .1 US
    1.75 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2,4 10
    Wave le ngt h lJrn

    11

    rqvre 713 Spatial and spectral resolution Orlnt> Landsat Multrspcc tral Scanner (MSS1. t alllh als 4 and 5 l h... mane Mappe r (Tl\t ). Landsat
    7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus ( ET M ' ), SPOTs 1,2, and 3 High Resolution Visible OliN), and SPOTs4 lind 5 High Reselution Visihle Infrared /II RVIR) sensor systems. The SPOTs 4 and ) ~hf,'I, mon sensor ChaTHe' lcri, tics arc not shown / it eonsists of four I ,I S x l .I S krn bands).

    mrintain data co nt inuity by providi ng data that are


    consisten t in terms of geometry, spat ial resolution.
    calibration. cov erage char;ll; ter i, ties, and spectral
    characteristics w ith p rev ious Lands at data:
    generate and periodically Tefn:sh a global archive o f
    ;ubslantially cloud-free. sunlit landm ass imagery ;
    conti nue 10 mak e Land sat-type da ta ava ilable to U,S. and
    ecmanonal use rs at the cost o f fulfillin g use r req uests
    and 10 expan d the use of suc h data for global-cha nge
    research and co mmerci a l purpo ses.

    Landsat 7 IS a three-a-c is stahi lized plntform ca rry ing 11 si ng le


    nad ir-po inting instrument. the I:T\1' (Figure 7- Hi). The
    ETM - instrumen t is u derivativ e of'thc Lnndsar a and 5 Themat ic Ma pper sensors. Th ere fore , it is pnssih le to refer to
    Figure 7- 12 fN a rev lc.... of its mi rro r and detector design .
    T he ET ~I' is based on scanning tech no logy (Figure 7-3b)
    despne tho: ta ct that linear ,IITay " pushtlroo m" technology
    has been com me rcially available since the launch of the
    Fre nch S POT I satellite in 19S6 . Neverthel ess. the El M "
    instrument was an excell en t sensor with seve ral notable
    imp ro vements o ver its pred ece ssors landsat ~ and 5.
    The characteri stic s o f the La ndsat 7 ET :vl' are found III
    Tab le 7-3. The ET ~r band s I through 5 and 7 are ident ica l

    ( 'IL\ PH ;K

    208

    Mu lti spectral Remote sen si ng Systems

    l ,andsal5 tnemauc .\ Ia llpl'r Dat a uf Charleston, SC

    d.

    &I n.!~ .

    c. Band 5.

    Rgu re 7-14

    f. Hand to (thermal infrarcdt,

    Landsat Jbe mauc Mapper data of <:hart':"'l~m, Sc.


    ob ramcd ('0 F"hl\l;lry J. 1'''1~ Hand s I through 5
    and 7 art' .W x \I) m ~ r;l ll a l resolution. Band (} is
    11U x I ~O m.

    J.I - I-bnd ?,

    to tho sc found (111 Land sat s -t J IlU 5 and haH' the sam<' .~ O x
    30 m spat ial resolution. The therma l mtrarcd ba nd 6 has 60
    x N I OJ spa tial resohnion [in stcud of 110 x 120 mj . Pc rtmps
    most notable is the new 15 x 15 m pan ch romanc O>lI1d (0 .5:!
    - 0.90 urm. Landsat 7 EP,,! ' imll!tcs o f San Diego. C A. arc
    shown in Figu re 7-17. An ET\f ' color C(lm~SiIC o f San
    Diego . CA. is displayed in Co lnr Plate 7-2.
    Land sat 7 is in orh it 7U5 kill abo ve the Earth , collects data in
    a sw ath I S5 km wi d". a nd can not view off-nadir, It.. revi ..il
    interval is Ib days It ha" .. 37l"-giga hit solid -state recorder
    rl nu can ho ld 42 minu tes o f sens or dM;1 and 29 ho urs 0 1'
    hou se keepin g telemet ry data. T he ETr-.l ' records ISO megahits ofdata each second. Land-at 7 can tran-smit data d irec tly
    to groun d rece ivin g st ations at the EROS Data Center in

    S ioux Fa lls. 5D . or 10 Fairbanks, A K. La ndsat 7 in!


    uonal da ta m;)y hy acqu ired by trans mission using
    s,lIellit.:s or tty inte rnat ional rec eiving stauons.

    The Land sat 7 ET\-1 - has excel lent radio metric calibra
    whic h is acc omplished using pa rtial and full a perture
    cahbrauon. Grou nd loo k calibra tion is pe rformed by
    illg images o f ce rtain Earth landm :lss cahbranon
    Bioph ysica l ;1I1d atmo spheric ch ara cteristics ofthese
    a rc well instru mented on the g round.
    ,\ t one lime appr oximately 250 ETM ' ima ges were I

    by the EROS Data Cent er each day. Unfonuna


    the El\\ ' Sean Line C(lITCCIM ISI.Cj failed on Ma.
    2UII.1 , resulti ng in tmag":r) w ith signilkalll missing lilt

    CCSSl 'J

    ....
    MJltispectrallmaging Using ntscrete Detect or s and Scanning Mirror s

    P'~"'K'll- .jI<I-_ +-

    la'......

    lnrernal lear

    strucrwe ....I~--I-

    '.'.:

    .-

    209

    t~af mol<l\lrc conrcnt

    -+----+/

    The matic
    ..- ~l a plH.'r
    han d ~

    \1 "i ~ lu n.'
    ( 0 0 1('0 1

    IU

    ~ 7.15

    15
    W a\t'k n t:1h. ll m

    Progressive changes in per cent reflectance for a sycamore leaf at \ arytng oven-dry weight moisture C<>IlIC1l1. The dominant
    fa"on. controlling k a f re flecta nce anJ the location of six Oflh" Land sat Th...matk- \tal'f'l."f bands aTl:' ufII.-rimposo.-d.

    Land va t 7 E n ha nced Them atic 't appe r Plu s

    SLC compensates tor the forward monon Il l' rhc satellite.


    Efforts 10 recover the SlC \-I eTC not success ful.

    The se me rged inMges resolve some uf'thc missing d ata problc ms (USG S Landsat 7, 200/'1 I.

    ALSGS 'NASA l.andsartcum has re fined ETf\I- gap- filling


    tthniqucs tha i merge da til from m uh ipk EI'M " acq uisjlIOlI>. They a lso developed modifications [0 the Landsar- ?
    Equisilll)n scheme III a":l.Juirc IIHI or more dear scenes a ~
    IIl:lIl' in time as po ss ible 10 facilita te th is g' lp.tilling proc ess.

    La lHh a l D;II:.1

    C ll n l j llu i t~

    A me morandum from the I're" idlnts D fficc o fScience a nd


    Technology Po licy lOST!' ) signed (10 Dec ember 23. 200 5.
    summarizes the future of Landsat (OSTP. 21l(5). The

    ~'II-\I"I

    2 10

    t ,N;

    I.Hlulsat 7 Enhanced Th em at ic vl app e r

    Il lla ~,t

    Fig ure 7 17

    7 12,flN- 2J~ , 1m)

    h. Rand ~

    ( O .5 ~ .

    -7

    Multi spectra l Remot e Sens ing Systems

    l 'l u ~ I lll a~l'r~

    Multi!

    Ur S a " Il i l' ~l). CA

    noo pm ll'an

    Landsat 7 E'lM imagery ufSan Diego. CI\ , uhtailH:d l'n April 14.1001J. B,lIld s I throu gh S and 7 ,lfe) O)( 30 m. Thermal
    in frnred hand II

    i~

    hll)< hll m. Panchromatic hand

    ~ ;,

    15 l( 15 III rcourtcsy III r>-i /\ SA )

    De partm ents of' Commcrcc. Defens e, the Interior and NASA


    are to rake the fo llow ing ncar-term act ions:

    iccrion. archiv ing. prne.:ss ing, and distribmion of the lane


    cnrtacc d ata to U.S. rto vcrmn cnt and other users:

    Proc eed w ith the NPOESS prog ra m w ithou t inco rpo rating
    a Land sat-type instrum ent:

    The agenc ies \\ ill seck III impleme nt an approac h for thi;

    NASA .... ill acqu ire a single La ndsat da ta contin uity mission in the form (If a tree- flyer vpucccnul 1\\ collect the
    required land surface data and deliv er i t ~ da ta 10 the Department o f the Interior U.S. Gl'tl log ical Survey {USGS);
    DO l. throug.h the USG S. will he respo ns ible for the operations of the Landsat dat il con un uuy m ission and for th... col-

    mlssi"n in a ma nner that l!nes nOI preclude it long- term ,;olt,


    non li ' r con tinu ity ,If Landsa t-type da ta.
    II remains the glIal o f the U.S. ctovemme nr tc tran sit ion tIE
    Lan dsat prog ram limn a series o f inde pen de ntly planned
    miss ions to n s usta ined operational prog ram funded ~
    mallagcll h~ a tf.S. Gov ...mm em operat iona l age ncy or agend es. international consortium, and/or co mmercia l partnership. Concurrent wit h the actions ci ted above , th e :-':atiOllll

    Ta

    ....
    MuIllspecl ral lm ag lng Using mecrete Detect ors and Sca n n in g Mirror s

    Table 7-3.

    Landsat Enhanced Thcmanc Map per Plus t E T ~l

    '.

    2 11

    compared with ttl," Eart h t jbserver ( Hl. 1) sensors.

    EO-' Advanced land Imager (ALI)

    Landsat 7 Enhanced Themat ic Mapper Plus (El M' )

    Spectra l
    Resolu tion

    Spa t ial

    S patia l
    Res olution
    (m) at Nadir

    Spectral
    Resol ution

    Resolution

    l~ ml

    (m) at Nadir

    Band

    0.4 50 - 0 .5 15

    ",0 x 30

    ~ S- I

    OA.13

    - 0.~ 5J

    30>< 30

    0 .525 - O.N IS

    30)(30

    ~IS-I

    OA50 - 051 0

    30 >< JO

    0.630 - O.6l)(j

    30 x 30

    ~ S- 2

    0.525 - 0.6115

    30 ><30

    0 .750 - O.'XJO

    30 x 30

    \ IS-3

    0.l, .111 - O.to'KI

    so " JO

    30x 30

    ~lS-4

    0.775 ~ 0.805

    30 x30

    10.-l11 _ 1:!5U

    \.lS_4 .

    (I.1t4~

    JU>< 10

    l.OK - 2.35

    ""30x"'"30

    \l S-Y

    1.20 - 1.30

    30 x 30

    O.5:~

    15 x 15

    '-IS-S

    I.S S - 1.75

    30>< JO

    \I S-7

    2.01<: - 235

    30>< .'0

    Panchromatic

    OAIIO - O.toW

    10><10

    Band

    1.55

    g tp;mchromauc)

    1.75

    0 .90

    ( ~m l

    - O-lN tl

    EO ] Hypc rio n Hypcrspcctral Sensor

    220 bands Irom OA 10 2...1 pm aI 30 "30 III


    [ 0 1 l [ISA Atrnosphcnc Corrector ( LAC')

    25t> bands tro m (l.1I to l.t> pm OIl 2511 " 2511 m


    ~",.or
    T('fh no lo~'

    Ad vanced La nd Image r is a pushbrocm radiomet er.

    Scanning mirror spectrometer

    Hyperion is a pushbroorn spectroradiomcter,


    LAC uses area arrays.

    S"Klh " ic llh

    lX5 lm

    [lat a RHte

    250 images per day (Ii) 31,450 k m~

    AL]

    J7 lrn ;l lypt:riun 75 km; LAC - 11l5 km

    In days
    Orbit and
    Iodin at ion

    Launch

    Equator!..] crossing 10;00 a.m. .:!:.15 min.

    70S krn. Sun-synchronous


    lnchnation '111.2
    Equatorial crossing - l andsat 7 -t

    r\pril IS. I<)'I'J

    Novemb er 21, 200H

    705 km, Sun-synchronous


    Inclination '" QX.2

    ~imI.' and Technology Cou nc il. in coord ination with


    SASA. DOL/USGS. and othe r ilgcllC ks and EOI' offices as
    !Wmprialc. will lead an ef f ort 10 de velop a long-term plan 10
    eheve technica l. fi nancial. and ma nage ria l stability for
    tpmlional land imaging in accord .... ith the goa ls and o bjcc ~es of the U.S. Inrcrgratcd Earth O bse rvation System
    ~TP.2005 1 .

    hrth OI...... n ...r I t:()-I )

    min

    The Earth Observer (E<>- Ij miss ion W li S laun ched o n


    November ~ 1,2000 (f\ASA EO- I, 2006 \. It .... as placed in a
    70S-km Sun-sy nc hro nous orbit 31 a 9S.7 Q incli nation such
    that it .... as Hying in tormauon I minut e behind Landsat 7 in
    the same ground track. This c lose sepa rauou enabled EO- I
    to observe the same grou nd location (scene) through the
    same atmospheric region so rhat sce ne com parisons between
    the 11.',0 satel lites could be made.

    Cl IW I tJ(

    212

    N( MA t jeo srmio nory Operat ional Environmental Satelhtc (( i( lI S 1- \1 . Imager M:I1S"r S)SIt'm characteristics.

    Table 74.

    GOES-B,9
    10. 12
    Band

    Spectral
    Resolution
    (IJrn)

    Spatial
    Resolution
    (krn)

    " .52 - 0.72

    1.1

    Clouds. pollution. haze detection. and idcnnficauon o f severe SI('ITmS

    '"
    '"

    Fog. derecnon. d i...:ri m inale'l llo:t\Oo Tl water. clouds. snow {'T ice cloeds d
    daytime. dc tc....ls fin...,; a nd ..olcanoe e, Olt:httiml.' sc a-surface temperature 15"

    * .() .~

    3.71< -

    ".-1 7 - 7.02

    10.2 -11.2

    '"

    11.5-12.5

    '"

    I'rc"aratur~

    Band Utility

    Estimation of mid - and upper-lev el water \Oipnr...k l\.'Ch advection. and lTxb
    mid-level atmospheric motion

    1d<.'1Ilifi ca lion cflow -level water vapor. SS T. ,.lIul dust and volcanic ash

    EO-I spccificanun-, are summarized in Table 7-3. It contains


    a linear array Ad\'31I<:cd Land Imager (A LI) with 10 bands
    from 0.4 to 2.35 um at 30 x 30 m spatia l resolut io n. The
    Hype rio n hypervpectral se nsor records da ta in 220 hands
    from 0.4 lo ~'" um at 30 x 30 m spa tial resolut ion. The Linear Eralon Imag ing Spectrometer AITII}' (L EISA) Atmo spheric Corrector IS a 25t>-ba nd hyperspect ra l inst rument
    sensitive 10 the region fro m 0.9 to 1.6 u r n at ~ 50 x ~ 50 m
    spalial resolution. It is designed to correct to r wa ter-vapor
    variations in the atmosphere. All three o f the EO - I land
    imagi ng instruments view a ll or subscgmen ts of the Landsat
    7 swath.

    1\I'O[SS

    Multispectral Remote Sensing Systems

    l' r uject (.'1' 1')

    NASA's ( Iodda rd Span' ~ I i gh l Ce nte r selected Bal l Aerospace III build a spacecraft fo r the 1\'I'O E55 Prcpurutory
    Projec t (NI ' P). till' precu rsor to the Nl'OES5 mission. NPP is
    de sign ed to funct ion as a bridg e be twee n the NASA EO S
    pro gram and NPO L:SS lo r the develo pment ofthe follow ing
    sens ors: Visiblc/lnfmrcd Imager Rad iom eter Sui te (V IIRS ).
    Cr oss-trac k Infrared Sllundl'r, Advanced Technology Microwa ve Sounde r. /\T r-. 1S Photos (NOAA NPO ESS. ~006 ).

    Radiometer was de ve loped for me teoro logical


    Howe ver. gll,ool clnnatc c hange rese arch has focused
    lion on the use of AV\lRR data to ma p vegctalion
    surface characteristics.
    G e(l\l a tionar~

    t\O AA ope ra tes 1"0 se ries o f remote sensing satelli tes: the
    Geos tationary
    Operational
    Environmen tal
    Satellites
    (G( l ES ) and the Polar-orbiting Ijperanonal Environme nta l
    Satellites I PO ES ). Both arc cu rre ntly based on multispectra l
    scanner tec hno logy. The U.S_ Nationa l w eerhcr Service uses
    dat a from t ht.~e sen..o rs 10 forecast the weathe r. We oft en scc
    GOE S image) of No n h and Sout h America weather patterns
    on the dai ly nc.... s . The Adv anced Very High Reso lutio n

    fo:n\ Irnnmental Sa

    GOES is operated hy the ~ O:\ .-\ Nation al Environ


    Satellite D,lla and In for mation Service (r-.: ES DISI. \
    llIu!>1 recent gcncrutiou n f'gcos unionary satellites bcg.au
    ( iO ES-X, which w as laun ched in April. 1 l)~4 , GOF.S-Q
    launched on I\lay 23,1 <.,1 95. GOES-IO W~t \\ as la
    April ~5_ 1<)1)7. and became opera tio nal Ju ly 7,
    GOES- 12 !':Ist W :IS launc hed Ju ly 23, 200 !. and
    operanonat on April 1, 2003 I ~ OA A G O ES. 211(6 ).
    The ( ;OES system c,)nsisls o f several o bscrving sU nsYSl
    G O ES

    1111 ,lg~' r I ]11"(>\ ides

    multis pec tral image datal:

    (; () ES So under Ipro vides hourly I'r-channel s' lulldingl


    :I

    Nationa l AtmospheriC and Ocean ic Administration


    Multispectral Scanner Sensors

    ()pr ratillnal

    l(;n!-:S )

    d.ua-collccnou sys tem ([) CS ) lh:u relays data from

    "11/1 s ites nt or nc.rr the Earth's surface tu othe r locatiors,

    T he G( li eS spucccrn tt is a three-a xis (X..l:: ) stabilized d


    ca pable of conunuously p, ' illli n ~ tho: optica l line of sitrll
    the imaging and sound ing radiometers towa rd the E
    (ID ES arc placed in ~etJs l;tli\m;lI! orbus app roxi
    35. illl) kill 122.2 ~n ~tlltule miles) abov e the eq uator. The
    d l il e~ remain at a sldlinnaT) point abov e the equator
    rotate at the same sp......' d and dire-c.uon as Eart h. Th is e
    the sensors to stare III a port ion of 111l' Eart h from the gees
    chronous orbit and thus Illltre frequently obta in images
    clouds. momtor the Earth's surface tem perature and \I

    -,
    , pectral lma ging Us ing Discrete Det ec to rs and Sca n ni ng Mirr or s

    213

    v,.

    1>1.
    M .dl"''' ,ii,",
    Ikr"I.,ri=

    r1p'e7-1B J ) Geogra phic CO \ Cr3 g c of GO ES East (7S ~ W ) and GOES WC!;\ ( 13 ~ ' W). til Radia nt Ilux from the terrain is rcfjectcd o lTa
    ~can ning mirror l not shlll" nl 01'110 the pn mary and "ec"ndary mirrors . A dichnuc bcamcpliucr se parates the \ rsible light from
    the therma l mtrared energy, Su bseq uen t bo:a lllsplillCrs sepa rate the therm al ,"n.-rgy into spcdtk " "mh (aftcr Lura] Spaec Sys1,'01';. I(N O).

    IJIlOf characteristics. a nd so und the Barth's urmosplrc rc for


    ceric alrhcrrnal and

    W;IIl." r

    v:lf'o r struct ures.

    f.S I ~ East is normally situated at 75 W jong uu de and


    S-IO West is at 135" W long itude. The geographic CO \ of GOES I-:a"t and GOES West is summarized in Fig"ISa.. These se nsors view mos t of the Ea rth from
    \ unatel)' 20" W 10 Hi5 E longi tude . Poleward cover!S betwee n approx ima tely 77 ~ ~ and S latitude. GO ES
    WI and W~'St \ icw the cu ntiguu u, 41:01 sta tes, So uth Ame rica.
    IIll major portions o ft he cent ral and ea stern Pacific Ocean
    Dlthe central and wes tern Atlantic Ocean. Pacifi c cov erage
    IljJ~'S the Hawaiian IslanJs and G ul f o f Al aska . the latter
    eovn to weather forecasters as -uic birthplace of Nort h
    IJncrkan weather sy stems " (~ ( M A GOES. 20()(j) .

    GOES Imueer: The Imager is a five- cha nnel mu ltispec tral


    , The oandwidths an d spat ial resolution an.. su mmamal inTable 7-4. By means of a two -axis gi mballed mirror
    ~junctinn w ith a J I.I-cm ( I :!.~in. ) d iameter te lescope ,
    bnaj!t'r's rnulus pec tral ch annels can sim ulta neously
    ttp an x-km (,-stat UII.' mill' J nort h-to-south swath along
    etsHo-west wes t-to-ea st path, at a rate o f ~ (JQ (oplical)
    ~>eOOnd. The tele scope concen trates both the \ isible and
    6mna1radiant flu x from the terr ain on to a 5.3-cll1 secondI) mirror I Figure 7-18b). Dic hroic bcarnspliners separate
    IIrmcoming scene radian ce 11l1d focus it onto 22 detector s tl'!
    lSihk and 14 therm al]. T he visible en ergy passes through
    ic mitial hcams plincr and is focus ed onto X silicon visible

    detector c lements. Each o f tlw R visible de tec to rs has an


    IFO V of ap pm xrr n.ncly I x 1 km at rhc sate llite's s uborbital
    poin t t ill the Ea rth.
    Th erm a l infrared energy is routed 10 the speciali rc-d deteclOTS in the radiative cool e r. T he thermal in frared e nerg y b.
    further se parated into the 3.9. 6.75-. 10.7-. an d 12j.1nl channels. Each o f the to ur in frared channels h.1" a se pa rate ~t'l or
    dete ctors: tou r-elem en t ind ium-a nti mo nide (I nSb ) det ecto rs
    for ban d "J. two-cleme nt mercury-cadmium-telluride
    (Hg:Cd: Te) de tectors to r band .l; a nd four-eleme nt mercury cadmium-tcllurnj e (ilg :rd :Te l detecto rs fo r both band s 4
    .md 5.
    The (iOES chauucl s have In- bit radiometric prec ision. The
    pr ima ry uuhty of'the visible band I ( I x I kill ) is in the daytim", mon itoring ofthunde rsrorm s, fro nta l syste ms. a nd tro pical cy d"ne~. Band 2 (4 x 4 krn ) respondsto both ernutcd
    rcrrcsrrial radiation a nd ref lec ted so lar rad iation. It is use ful
    for i dent i l~i ng fog and di scrim inating bet ween \\ atcr an d ice
    d ouds. and betwe en sno w and clouds. and fo r i d~l1li rying
    large or very imc nsc fires. It ca n be: u sed at night to track
    low-level clo uds an d monit o r near-s urface wind c irculat ion.
    Band J (ll x ~ " m ) respon ds to mid- and up per-le ve l wate r
    vapor and douds. II is use fu l tor ide nt ifyin g the jet stream.
    up per-le ve l wind tie tds . and thunde rsto rms. Energy recor ded
    !:ly band 4 (4 x 4 kill ) is not absor bed III any significant
    deg ree by atmospheric gases. It is ide alfor meas uring clou dtop lici ghts . ide nutying clou d.IOp features, assessing the

    214

    Multi spe ctra l Remote Sensing Systems

    Mul

    Gt'o..I "l i ollal~" O pera t io na l E n , Ironmcnta ! S ut e tl tte Ima g l'I'y

    seventy o f some thunderstorms. and trackin g clouds and


    frontal sys tems ut nigh t. Th erma l band 5 ( ~ x -I kill I is similar to ba nd -I exce pt thai this wavelength region ha.. ,I unique
    sensitiVIty 10 low -le ve l .... utcr vapor GOES-l\ Ea-r visible.
    the rmal infrared. and water vapo r images o f Hurricane Bonnit" on August 25, ]l)qX.arc shown in Figure 7 ]Qa-c.

    I he lrnaaer scans the con tinental United States everv I


    min; S<.:31;S most of the hemisphere from ncar the Korth'PoI!
    ro approximately 20" S lat itude cvcrytn mi n; and scans
    COllI): hemisphere {Inn' c\ cry J hr in " routine" schcdulllf
    mode . Optionally. specia l imaging schedules an: availah
    which allow data couccnon at more rapi d ti me intervals 0\5

    ....
    215

    WJlispectral lmagi ng Usi ng Discrete Detect ors an d Scanning Mirr ors

    lide 75.

    :'\OA.-\ Advunc..-d Very High Rcsclurion Radiom eter (AVHR R) sensor system characrcnsncs.

    ( ~ ml'

    NOAA7,
    9 . 11,12, 13, 14
    Spec tral
    Resolution
    (.,m)

    NOAA 15 to 18
    AVHRRJ3
    Spec tra l
    Resolution
    holm)'

    O.5l!O- 0.68

    O.5RO - 0.68

    0.580 - 0.68

    NOA A-6 , 8, 10
    Spectral

    Reso lu1ion

    Daytime cloud. SIIOW, icc. 311d vegetation mapping; used tn com puto:"l1)VI

    0 .725 - 1.10

    0.725 - 1.10

    0 .725 - l.l O

    3.55 - ] .93

    3.55 -3.93

    J:f : 1.58 - 1.6-l


    JB : 3.55 - 3.93

    10.50 -11.50

    10.30 - 11.30

    10.30 - 11.30

    'cone

    11.50 - 12.50

    11 .50 - 12.50

    Im\ .1 nadir

    1.I >( 1.1 kill

    ''''-Ilb .. idlh

    2700 km at nad ir

    TlKOS.-~ .... launched un l),;lobcf 13. PHil; '\0,,"-\-6 o n June 27. 1979: ""0..1."7 <HI Jun~ 23. 1911 1; ,\OI\AI\ .", Mar,b 211, lQllJ; "IOAA'l
    (IIIlk'..-em1>et 12. 1'11<4; 'lOAA1U <In ~pt""''''''' 11, 1 '1~f>; M lAA- 11 00 So:pleml>er 24. 1'I1I1l; MlAA 12 <1<1 \ I"y 1-1. 1'N 1; !'OAA- lJ on
    ...u~ 9. 19<13; 1'O<l "':\-14 011 Do: ~~lll hcr i n 1<N4 ; ~OAA (K}-15 ..n ~ay I J. 1'N1l; NOA ... (tl- l f, o n Scl'h:ml>cr 21. 2UIXI; 'OA A C\t1- 17 ""
    JUIIC 2-1. 20n2; "IOAA rx 1-1 11 " n "lay 20. 2005.

    Wed geogra phic areas . During Rapi d Sca n Ope rations


    RSO) and Super Rapid Sc an Ope ratio ns (S RSO ). images
    lit collected over increas ingly reduced -area sec tors at i .5min intervals ( RSO) and at cnhcr I -min or Jn-sec intervals
    SRSO\. A typic al image acquired at j u-sccon d intervals
    rovers a rectangle o f about 10" o f lat itude and 15" o f longitude. The t- rnin SRS O collects 22 images per hour with 2
    egments of I- min interva l ima ge s. a llow ing for regu larly
    chedulcd 15-m in imcrvulopcrauonal sca ns.
    GOES Suu nd er: The GO ES Sounder uses I v lsiblc and Ig
    mfl'lll"ed sounding channels to recor d data in a north-to -south
    swathacross an cast-to-west path . T he Sou nder and Imager
    00th provide full Earth image ry. sec to r image ry. and area
    \Cans of local regions . The 19 bands yield the prime so undIllg products of vcrtical atmosp heric te mperatu re proli les.
    ratical moisture profi le... atm os phe ric layer mean te mpe ralUre. layer mea n mo isture. total precipitab le water, and the
    ~J'.ed iedcx (a measure of stability} T hese prod ucts are used
    euemem data fro m the Imager to provide in forma tion on
    1IIIIOSpheric temperatu re and moisture profiles. s urface and
    cloud.top tempe ratures. and the d istribution of atmosphe ric
    W\JIlt [Leral Space S) stems. I<No).

    The Satellite Services Branc h of the National Climatic Data


    Ce nte r. under the auspices o fN ES I>IS. has es tablished a d igital arc hive o f data collected from the NOAA Po lar-orb iting
    Ope rationa l Enviromncntn l Satellites (rOE S) (Kidwell.
    1t)t)X). This series of smcllhcs com me nced with T I I{ OS-N
    (l aunched in October IlJ7!\) a nd cont inued with NOAA-A
    (launched in Murch. 19SJ and renam ed NOAA -8). NOAA I!\ \\' ;1<; la unched May 20. 2005. The se Sun- sync hro nous
    po lar-o rbiun g satellites carry the Advanced Very H igh Resol utio n Radi ometer (AVIIRR ) [Table i -5) . Sub stantial
    progress has been mad e in using 1\VII RR data for land-cove r
    ch arac tc rizaucn an d the map ping (If day time a nd n ightt ime
    clouds. SI10W. icc, and su rface tempera ture. Unli ke the La ndsal TM and Landsa t 7 El M ' se-nso r system, wit h nadir
    revis it cyc les (If 16 da ys. the /\VIIRR se nsors acqu ire
    images o f the entire Earth two times each day (N OAA
    AVH RR. 200 f) . This high frequency of cove rage enhances
    the likel ihood that clou d- free observatio ns (an be obtained
    for speci fic tempo ral w indows and ma kes it possible to monitor cha nge in land -cover co ndi tio ns over sho rt periods. such
    as a grow ing season. Mor eo ver. the moderate resolu rion ( 1. 1
    x 1. 1 km ) of the /\V I IRR d..ta ma kes it feasible 10 co llect,

    -7

    (nu' , ~:K

    216

    Multispectral Remote sensing systems

    ['I;()A.-\ 17 O verpa..l>t. .. on Octobe r 17. lUll]

    === =

    ==~~

    Figu re 7-20 Dvc rpas......,. of the NOAA -17 ~Icl hll: on October 17. 20m. Tho: AVIIRR ih onboard r-.:OAA- 17 (co un esy or I'\OA:\ ).

    store . and process continental or globa l data scrs. For these


    reasons, NAS A and NOAA initiated the 1\V Il IH~ Pathfinder
    Prog ra m to c reat e universally av aila ble glnha l lon g-term
    remotely sensed da tase ts lhal ca n be UM:U [0 ..rudy globa l elima le ch ange.
    T he AVIIRR sat cllucs orbit at approx imately 83 3 kill above
    Earth at an inc lination ofQI(9" and cont inuously record data
    in a s w arh 2700 km wide at 1. 1 x 1.1 km spatial reso lution at
    nadir. Normally, t.... ol\OAA-s.:riL"'S satellites arc o perationa l
    al one lime (one odd . one cvenj. The odd -numbered satclluc
    typ ica lly crOSSL'~ the eq uat or at approximately 2:30 p.m. and
    2:30 a.m.. and the c\ en-numbered satell ite crosses the eq uator at 7:3(l p.m . and 7:311 a.m. loca l time . Each satellite orbits
    Earth 14.1 urncs daily t every 102 mi n) and acquires complctc globa l coverage every 24 hr. O rb ital track s of the
    NO AA -17 satel lite on Oc to ber 17. 2003 . nrc shown in Figure 7-20 . Beca use the numbc r uf orbi ts per da y is not an ime gcr, the sub orbital tracks do not repeat o n a d uily basis,
    alt hough the loca l solar time of the satellite's passage is
    esscnuully unchanged fo r any latitude. Ho w e ver. the sare llite's orb ital drift over time ca uses a sysrc matic change o f
    illum ination condition s and local rime o f obscrvanon, w hich
    ilio a source of r'K.nunifunnity when analYllOg mulndate
    A\'lIRR data.

    The AVIiRR is a c ross-t rac k sca nnin g sys tem . T he scan ning
    rate o f the AVII R R is 3f>O scans pe r minute. ,\ tota l of2.(H8
    sam ples (p ixds ) arc ohtamed per channel PL'r Earth scan,
    w hich span~ an an gle o f 5 5.-.1 ~ off- nadir , Tho.' IFe)\ ' ll f each
    hand is npproxinuncly 1.-.1 nulliradians leading to a rcsolu-

    tio n at the satellite subpoint o f 1.1 x 1.1 kill (Fil! ur~ 7-21
    The more recent "V I IRR sys tems have li ve channels IT
    75 ; Figure 7-2 1b l.

    Fu ll reso lution AVIIRR d.ua obtained at 1, 1 x 1.1 kID


    ca lled Im 'a l IIIl 'iI ('oV/'rage ( L4C) data . It may be resam I
    tu4 x 4 km glo f,a/ /.)/"I:iI Cf)l't.'ro~t' I GAO dat a . The 0:\(
    contai ns on ly one o ut of' thrcc origin al AVIIRR lines a~
    data volume and resolution are further reduced hy s
    .... ith the thi rd sample a lullg the scan line . a\crdging the
    four samples. and skip ping the ne:\.t sa mple. The sequence
    a verage four. skip one is conum..-d to the end of the:
    line. Some studies use GAC dat a .... hile orhcrs lise the
    reso lution LAC da ta.
    The AV)IR R pro vides region al info nu utimr on vcgClaOO:

    condition and sea-surface tem peratu re, For example. a JXf'


    rion of an AVHRR image of the So ut h Ca rolina Cl\ll:
    o btained on ~l ay 13, 1993, at 3:(JO p.m. is ..ho ..... n in Figtrr
    7-22 . Band 1 is approximately equivalent til Landsat nI
    band 3 , Vegetated land ap pea rs in dark ton es due to chlctph) 11 absorption o f red light . Band 2 i s appruximatc ly eq.r..
    aleu to TM band 4 . Vegetation reflects much o f the
    infrared rad iant I1U\. yid d lng bright tones. .....hile ....
    absorbs much of the mcidc nt energy , The land -water I
    fa ce is usually quite dis tinct . The three therma l band s
    vide informatio n about Earth 's surfa ce and Vi
    temperatu re. Th o.' gray sca le is inverted for the therm al infrJ.
    red data wit h cold , high clouds in blac k and warm land mI
    water in lightt"r lunc s, '1his particular ima ge captu red a large
    lobe ofwarm G ul f Stream wa ter.

    "

    217

    llltispectral imaging Using Discrete Detectors and Scanning Mirrors

    ~ol3r

    s;'lcll, IC ' ...


    \oo;al Lc'flil h

    '(II

    I'r,lar

    J'l'fluh

    .,n~k

    Z,,"h
    line:

    Orhilr r

    Il...d

    "'\lUII(
    B~nd I

    ~un

    angle

    211

    S,IL'lIilC /

    );:II1l11~k

    ,( 10

    ~ <;()

    1OO

    ~ ..)

    71 ~1

    15U

    ~IIO '1m 10m


    \\ 3,c kntlh, ~m

    soo

    ' no

    ..... a'drnlllh.llm

    S~lCll tlC

    iioo

    \:Ullr<lInl
    , nadir)

    ,.
    a,

    '"c

    "

    1~

    J.4

    lI. nd

    H
    , JH
    WJ.dcnl;1I1, f.lm

    l'l

    'I ~

    10

    Itl~

    II

    12

    "" ,, ..dength, lIm

    A HIIU{!4
    Ban dwidth s

    11

    b.

    1I~

    u.s

    ll'~

    I~

    .... a,,,k n~11I. I'm

    l ~~

    1:'-'

    FiJure 7-21 a) ReiatiolL\hi rs amon g the Earth, Sun. and tile MMA Polin Ornner 111c eatellue ;(U" !""lnl hes at nadrr. III Tilt- '() ,~A I -l
    AVHRK oomlwidths for bands I th>Ugh 5,

    AVHRR data arc also routinely used to inventory sea s urface


    nmpc r.uurc (SS T). elliot" Plate 7-3 is a sea-surfacetemperalilre map de rived fro m )\'O t\t\ -16 AV HRR imagery o bta ined
    mDell'''': r Io. ~ 003 i (Iasparovic. 200 .H.

    Scientisls often com pute a normalized d iffere nce \ egetat ion


    ilde.\ (r\ D\' 11 from the AV HRR data us ing the visible
    IA\'HRRtl and ncar- infrared (AVIIRR ~) bands to ma p the
    cmJition of'vegetarie n o n a regiona l and nationallevel. II is
    .\impk transformat ion ba-ed lin the follow mg ratio:

    P",, -

    p ,~ J

    P"" + P,,'01

    ..

    AI'IIRR ~-AIHRRI

    (7-1 )

    An /H.R~ + AI'HRRI

    The ~ l)VI equation produc es values in the rang e nf - I .O to


    1.0. where incr casing po ..iuv c valu cs ind icate increasi ng

    green vcgetution. and nega tive valu es indicate nonc cgctatcd


    surfaces such as wain. harre ll land , ice. and snow or d ouds.
    To nhl Hin the mos t precision . the NDV I is der ived from (<11ibrarcd. atmosphe rically co rrect ed AVI IRR channel I and 2
    data in l(, -t'lil precisi on , prior 10 geo metr ic regi-arauon and
    !'ampllng. The final :-.I DVI result!' from - I to I are normally
    scaled fWIIl 0 to ~()O. Vegetation ind ice s are d iscussed in
    deta il in Chap ter 10 .
    NDVI data obtained from multiple date s c f AVII RR data can
    be cnmpositcd to prov ide summary seasonal info rmation.
    The II-day ;-.lOV I corn posuc is prod uced by examining each
    NOVI value pixel by pixel fur eac h observation J uring the
    co mpositiug perio d to dc-tcrrnine the max imum value. The
    retention of tho: highest NDVI value reduces the numbe r of
    clou d-coruuminu tcd pixels.

    21.

    C1I.-\ P l t:R

    Tabl e 7-6.

    <

    Muhispectral Remote sens ing Syst ems

    Ch aracren sucs o f Inc Sea- viewing Wide Fjcld-of-vrew Sensor ISca\""iFS j.

    Band Center
    (nm)

    Bandwidth

    412

    0102 - 422

    ldentify yellow substances

    4JJ - 453

    Chlorophyll concentration

    4'"

    4!lO-SOO

    Increased sensitivity to ch lorop hy ll concentranon

    ' 10

    500 - 520

    5.55

    545 - ;65

    Gcfbstoffe [y ctlo w substance ]

    c,

    (,70

    M O- 6S0

    Chloro phyll conce ntra tion

    '"

    745 _ 785

    Surfac...vcgctarion, land-water interface. a tmospheric correction

    1<65

    !loi S - !:ISS

    Su rface vegeta tion, land -water inter face, atmospheric correction

    (n m)

    The :\ DVI and other vegetatio n inde xes (re fer to Chapter
    10) haw bee n used ex te nsiv ely .... ith AVHKR data to mo nitor nat ural \cgclalion and c rop condit ion. iden tify dc for esra lion in thc tropics, and monitor areas undergoing
    deseni ficauon and drough t. Fo r e xample. the U.S. Gcological Surv ey d....velopcd the Global Lan d Co ....cr C haractcnzalion data set based primari ly on the unsuperv ised
    classifl canon of l -km AVIl RR Hl-day NDVI composites.
    The AVIIRR so urce imagery dales fro m Ap ril 1992 through
    March 19'11 Ancill ary da ta so urces include dig ital ele vation
    data, ccorcgions interpretation , a nd country- or regiona lleve l vcgeta uon and land-cowl" maps (USG S G lobal LandcO\ l.'r.2(06).
    S O A A G lobal Vegelalion Index products based on AVIIRR
    data art' summarized in NOAA (iVI (2 006 ): l st-generauo n
    ( May 1982 - April. 19S5); 2nd-ge nl.'ration (Apri l 191\5pre sent). and J rd- gcecr.nion new product s (A pr il 1985present l. A colo r-com posite AVHRR image of the conterm inous Uni ted Stute s is shown in Color Plate 7-4a. T he average
    Normalized Dufcrc ncc Vegetation lndc x (NOV I) for much
    of Ca nada a nd the United States in August derived from
    AVIIRR, data from 1981 th rou gh 2000 is displa yed in Co lor
    Plate 7....b.

    ORB/MAGE. tnc., and NASA Sea-viewing Wide Fie/dofview Sensor

    Oce ans cove r mo re than two-th irds of the Earth 's surface
    and play an important role in till.' global climate sys tem. The
    Sea WiFS is a n adv anced sca nning system de signed speciflca lly for oce an mon itori ng. The ScaSfar sarclluc (O rbview-

    2 ). developed by ORB IMAG E. Inc. in co njunction \I


    ~:\SA. carried the Sea wij- S into orbit usi ng a Pe
    rod ..et o n A u~ust I. 1')q7 C":ASA,Orbimage Seawi
    ::(06 ). Th e PC!~J SU S rocket was fl own a lo ft by a Lockheed
    l Ol l and relea sed at an ahitud e o f abou t 3Q,OOO n, . .
    upo n the rocket was ignited and the spacecraf t was lifted i
    o rbit. The final or bit was 705 km above the Earth. T he eq
    tonal crossing time is 12 p.m.
    SeaWiFS builds on " hal wa s learned about ocean remce
    se nsing using the Nimbu s-7 satellite Coasta t Zone Cob:
    Scanne r (CZeSt launc hed in 1978. CZC S ceased ope:ratiol
    in 11)116. The Sea\\IFS instrument consists of an Opld
    sca nne r WIth a 511.3" toral fleld of view. Inco ming scene- rIliation is collected by a tele sco pe an d reflected onto the ro1Jll.
    ing half-angle mirror. Th e radi ation is then relayed l(I
    dichroic beam spliners that sepa rate the radiation into ciglf
    wavelengt h Intervals (Table 7-6 ). Sea WiFS has a spatial res,
    olurion o f 1. 13 x 1.13 km (at nadir) over a swath o f2800 km,
    It has a revisit time of I day.
    SeaWiFS records energy in e ight spec tra l ba nds w ith v
    narro.... wavele ngth ranges (Ta ble 76) tailored I'm the
    lion and monitori ng o f very specific ocean phenometll
    including oce-an prima ry p roduct ion and phytoplankton "'"
    ces ses. ocean influence!' on cli mate proces ses {heat st
    and aerosol form alio n). a nd the cycles of carbon, sul fur. aM
    nitrogen . In particular. ScaW iFS has spec ially desig.nol
    hand s centered at 4 12 nm (10 identify yellow substancs
    thro ugh thei r blue wavele ngth absorpt ion). at 4 l) () nm {senurive to chloro phy ll concentration). and in the 765 and 865
    nm near-infrared (to assist in the remo val of armosphen
    att enuation).

    219

    lJtispectrallmagin g Using Discrete Detectors and Scan ning Mirrors

    h AVl!R R hand 2,

    ~ ~;'; ~a';"4~
    -.,

    . ..

    '~-

    -~

    ...- - -

    "

    ,
    ,I ....VllRR

    :\0\ .\ -11

    hand~

    J\\' II H I~ IlIl a~{" 1')

    or th c Sou th Ca roli na COil..t


    O hfili ned o n ;\I a~ D . 191H

    .... \\,IHUt mind ~

    Fqure 722

    Por non o f a 1';OAA 11 " VII !t1t illlag<: \,1' the So uth Carolina ..'.... "1ubl.,in"d "n ~ b ) I J. 1'iIH. <II 3:(1(1 p.m. ( re fer to Table 7-5
    for hand spccificanons] . \ '':~''lalion al' l":afl> dar k in "and I dUt"1O dll(lr"ph)'ll ah"orr'i,>11 nf'rcd ligh l. V<:gdalioll llppears brigh t
    in hand :! b<."C JUSC it n:ll,"b much of the incident ncar-infrared r.d iem nu,,_ WaIn absorbs much .. flhe incid ent en...rg)': the refore, the land -ware r imertacc is usua ll} di!<lInCI. Three therm al band-, 1.'1. .. . lind 5, pro\ id.. surfa ce-tem perature information.
    1 11<' grayscale is mvcncd '" nh cold. high clouds in 1:>1:1(1.. and warm IJm.! J IlU'" arcr ill ligh....r I"UO:S . A large lob.: u f " arm Gulf
    Stream water is easil} identified ( I m'lg,~ COI.mC~} of l'\(l,\A I

    SeaWi FS observations help scrcnusrs understand the


    ~namics of ocean and coasta l currents. the physics of mixmg. and the relauonships between ocean p h) ~i t:li and largescale patterns o f producti v ity, Tho: data fill tho: gaps in ocean

    biolog.il'a l observations betwee n 100<;e of the test- bed CZCS


    and :'-U)I) IS. Sl'a WiFS also provides la ser water renetrali on
    depth il11 a~t:1) for naval operation s.

    -7

    OI-\t"n;R

    220

    Multispectral Remo te sensing Syslemt

    T'

    Airborn e
    :\1utt tspectra l
    Sca n ner

    V is ih l<: an d

    near-infrared
    detectors. u m

    0
    .1" ."0
    41 12

    .45

    611

    t.I'~
    -~ I M

    --......1M

    0""<,

    [ lc("lro nic,

    "II" ,,' i~
    ... ... -'
    - I

    ..1,52

    <to

    fiQ () -, " "'"


    :

    7~ ()

    "'1''
    ' -'' 0'-::::::...
    " 1.91- I.QS[)------::

    10

    Scanuinu

    c:=;(iJ" 0-

    s~ 'h' rn

    RaJ i'LI1! fluv from I

    the Ea rth's sur face

    MultiS

    Dichroic

    grating

    ~ 9 ) O " ' P /'

    ",qU_12.5p
    T hermal
    detector'S

    .~
    ". -

    - - '- 'r

    Moni tor. power.


    d igitil cr. and
    data rec ord er

    'I u IIi, pl'ct r a l !>(,11 nnerd a hl coll('cli n ll


    a lu ng a flig hl lh u:

    Figu re 723

    Cha ract,'nslics ofthe [) acd" lus airborne ll111hisP\'ctrJ I scanner (A \,IS ) and a,,,,.;i.llco.l electronics lhJI arc earn ...... onboerd
    aircraft duri n~ J.,la ccllc... uon. ('he diallWl~ o f the errcu lar gmun<! area viewed by the .'n'l< .....
    is a function of the in,
    llC'<'U S field Of\jcv.. /l uf Inc cl!onlJ<:T and th.. altitude a bove ground lev cI or thc aircraft. If. at the lime or da ta collecece,
    dianl Ilux from l.anh's surface is passed from the opucal system onto a dichroic grate, which s~'I1<1 the \ ariou~ WaH.'
    (If lil,:hl 10 detec tor s that arc ~"'lllljnlJ'lU~l) monitored b) lilt: sensor system electronics.

    n.

    pi,
    u

    Aircraft Multispectral Scanners

    Orbna! sensors such as the Landsat MSS. T\1 . and 1:.,.\1 collect da ta (In a repet itive cycle and al ~ct spatia l and spectral reso lutio ns. Otten it is n,'cess.af) to acquire remotely
    sens ed data at t im..,s that tit' not coincide with the sc hed uled
    satellite ove rpass es and m perhaps different spatial a nd spectra l resohnions. Rapid coll ect ion and ana lysis (If high -rcsoluuon re motely sense d data may be req uired for speci fic
    studies and loc atio n.... \\'hen suc h cond itions occur or whe n
    a sensor co nfiguration different fro m the Landsat or S POT
    sensors is needed. age ncies and companies etten usc a multis pccrra l sc anne r placed onboard In aircraft to acquir e
    remotel y sense d data. The re arc vcvcm! com me rcial and

    puhlicl y available MSS thai ca n hi.' flown onboa rd airc


    incl ud ing the Daedalu s Airborne Multispec tra l
    (A \ ISI and the :'>j:\S A A irbo rne Terre stria l Applica
    Sensor ( ATLAS) .
    D ll ''1:I:. lu ~

    US-12 6ft. US-12 M. and A irborn e 1\ I UIt i\IIl"CUi

    Sca n ne r

    Nume rous r<..-morc se nsin g labo ratories and ~llvemlllOll


    agencies in ma ny countries purchased Daedal us DS-L
    OS-1101'. o r the A irbo rne Multispectral Scanner over
    last 40 years t e.g.. Se nS) Tech . 10(4 ), Th ese expe nsive 1(1.
    sor syst e ms hav e pro vided much of the use ful high spati1l
    and spectra l resohnicn multis pectral sc anner data (including
    thermal Infrar ed) Cur munitoring the environment. For eum-

    lh'IJSpectral lm aging Using Discr ete Detect ors and Scannin g Mi rrors

    ~7-7.

    Sl'~t.... m charactcrrsncs ofl~

    221

    I.....cdalusAlrWmc 1\I11Itispc"Ctl'al Scanner (A \ IS) and :"ASA ..\ irbome Terrestrial "rrlkarioos

    Sc nsor ( ATLA S I

    Air borne Multispectral Scanner (AMS)

    Band

    ,,,
    ,
    6

    ,
    s

    10

    NASA Airborne Terrestri al Appli cations


    Sens or (ATLAS)

    Spectral
    Resolution

    Spatial
    Resolution

    (IJm)

    1m)

    U.42 - 0.45
    0.-1 5 _ 052
    U. 52 - 0.60

    dependmg

    upon ahitudc

    (l.W _ 0,63

    abo ve grou nd

    0.63 - fl. 6'1


    O.MI - 0.75
    0.76 -0.'10
    o.ql 1.05
    3.00 - 5.5lJ
    K.50 12.5

    k\t:I

    Spectral
    Reso lu tion
    Band

    ( ~lm)

    Spat ial
    Res olution
    [m ]

    2
    3

    0.l5 - 05 2
    0.52 - 0.60
    0.60 0.63

    2,5 In 25 In
    depending
    upon altitu d e

    0.63 - 0,(,9

    above ground

    Variahle,

    7
    8
    9
    10

    U, 76
    (1.90
    1.75

    2.35

    14

    15

    11.2(1 - 12.20

    12
    13

    IHJ\

    2.5 m hu.I

    2.0 rurud

    Qu~nriulio n

    1I - 12bilS

    S bus

    In o:l

    Remov....d

    K,211 - 11.60
    lUl(l- 9.00
    ", IKi - 'J.40
    9.60 - 10.20
    10.20 - 11 .20

    II

    \ arieblc

    \ ltitudf'
    'utlt "idlb

    0.6'1 0.76 1.55 2.0)(-

    1I00 pixels

    7 14 pil...... ls

    pk thi: A\ 1S has detectors that span Ihc r\'gillil fro m the


    i/m\ lolctlh w lIgh nenr-m trure d {OA2 - 1.05 u mt, a hot-tar ~ thermal infra red detector ( 3.0 - 5.5 11m I, and a sta ndard
    I!u:nnal infrared detector (K.S 12.5 1-!01 I. Table 7-7 summaroes the characteristics o f the :\ \:IS sensor system .

    The hasic principles o f ope ration and components o fthe i\ ir~e Multispectra l Scanner (:\\1S ) are show n in Fig ure 713. Rad iant [lux reflected o r emitted from the terrain is colb.1cd by the scanning opucnlsystcm and projected onto a
    mit grating. The grating se pa rates the reflec ted radi ant
    v from the cmiued radian t nux. Enefl:!Y in the reflective
    ,., ot thc spectrum is di rected from the grating to a pr ism
    lor refraction gra ting I that further separate-s the energy into
    IpCClfli: bands. AI the 'am.... time. thl.' cm ured thermal incidtnt energy is se parated fro m the re flective incident energy.
    Tk electromagnetic energy is then focused on to a ban k Ill'
    secrete detectors s itua ted behind the grat ing andthe prism.
    Ihe detectors that record the cmiucd ener gy arc usually
    ((llll ~d h) a dewar of liquid nitrogen or some other vuh-

    stance. T h.. sih'lU ls recorded h~ thc detecto rs art;' ampl i fied


    h)' the system e lectronics and recorded ,
    The tl ig h t altitudes tor a jrcrutt \1 SS surv eys IIr.: determined
    hy cvnluaung the ~ i/e of the desired ground-revolution clemctu (p ixel) lind the size of the study area . The diamete r o f
    the cir cular ground area viewed hy 11K' sensor, D, is a fun clion of the ms tanraneoos field of vie w, fl. o f the scanner and
    the a huude above grou nd lev el. II, \\ here
    f)

    j3x ll.

    For ex ample. if the IFO V of the sc an ne r is 2.5 mrad, the


    ground si/A;' or the pix e l in me ters is a product of the IFO V
    ({I.!M12S) and the altit ude AGl in meters . Table 7S prese nts
    night altitudes and correspo ndin g pixel sizes at nad ir fur an

    lI{) V on .5 mmd.
    The fn ll<lw ing facto rs sho uld be cons idered w hen collecting
    aircmtt M SS data:

    222

    C1 1 ,\I ~I"E R

    Table 7-8.

    Airela!) multispec tral sca nner Ilrght altitude


    ,\ ( II. IIn,1 pl x~l silt" assu ming: an IH)\, of 1.5

    nnllirudians ( 01 T;lo.I).
    Flighl A lt itude AGL (m )

    P ixel S ize (m )

    1.000

    2.5

    2 ,OllU

    SO

    tOO(J

    10.0

    16.000

    -10.0

    50,000

    125.0

    The IFO " o frhe \ISS optica l sys te m and the altuude AG L
    dictate the .... idth o f a ~ ing le flight line o f coverage. AI
    lower a ltitudes. the hi gh spati al rc-solu uon may he
    O U!\\ eighed by the fact that more l1ight line s are requi red
    10 cover the area compared to more efficicm coverage a l
    highe r a hnudc-s with larger pixels. The pixel size and the
    geog raphic e xtern o f the area 10 he surv ey ed are
    considcrcd. objccti vc~ an: .... eig hcd, and a com promise is
    reached.
    h en single Iligh rlincs of air craft "'SS da ta a TC d iffic ult 10
    rectify 10 a standard map series because of aircrall roll,
    p uc h. and yaw durin g da ta collection . Not che s in the edge
    o f a Ilightluic of data ind icate a ircraft roll. Such d ata
    requ ire signifi can t human and machine resource s to make
    the (I;lla planimetrically accurate. Severa l agen cies place
    GPS unit s Oil the aircraft tu obtain precise Il ightline
    coordin ates. which arc usdul when rectifying the aircr aft
    MSS data .
    Daedalus multi spe ctral sca nning sys tems have been modi fied un many occas ions to s imulate satellite remote sensor
    da ta collec tion. For example. the NASA Ames Airborne
    Sensor Facility at M,)lre ll Fie ld, CA . Cnntlmll's to ope rate
    the follow ing systems: Thematic Mapper Simulator,
    ~I OD I S Ai rborne Simu lator. Airborne Ocean Color S imulato r. and the Multispectra l Atmospheric Mapping Sensor
    (N ASA Airborne. ::!onn ).
    A Daed alus nS- 12tlO ncar- infrare d hand 10 ima ge o f the
    Four Mile Creek del la on the West ing holJse Sav annah River
    S ite in So uth Ca roli na is shown in Co lor Plate 7-5 a. A col or
    composite o f hand s In, I'>. and -I [ncar-in frared , red. and
    gre en ) is show n in Color Plate 7-5 1'1 . :\ear-infrarrtl band 10
    ima gery o f the :>ame reg ion co llected o n April :!3. 199 :!. is
    show n in Color Plale 7-5e . Co lt)r-Plal e 7-5d is a color co mpos ite of I>and~ 10, tl . a nd -I. T he nna l dU uent wa.s nm

    Multi spe ct ral Remote Sensing Systel'l'!

    Multi s ~

    allow ed ro enter Four Mill.' Creek ette r I9X5. Examina


    the image/) reveals that revege tation has taken pb.l
    many o f the wet land sloughs.

    :"IAS.\ Airlmrll c -li: r r\'\ l ria l A p p l icli l iu n~

    St' n~ur

    :-':A SA'~ ATLA S multispectral scanner is operated ~


    Ste nnis Space Ce nter. ~1S . ATLAS has 1-1 channels '/I
    spectral range from 0..1 5 10 12.2 urn . Th ere are six vi
    and ncar-infra red bands, two short-wavelength in
    band s (ident ical to Thema tic Mapper bands 5 and 7) mi
    therm al infrared b ands . Th e ba ndw idths arc summ arizer
    Table 7- 7. The se nsor ha s a total fiejd of vie..... o f n~ ui
    IFQ \' o f :!.O m rad. ATLA S is flown on a Learjet 23
    from {,ooo to -11 .1100 11. abovc g round level, yielding
    wit h a ground resoluuon ofappro ximatdy :!.5 x 2.5 mte
    x 25 m, depend ing upon use r spcc jflcatio ns. There art
    rna lly !<()(j pixels pe r line plu s thr ee' calibration source pi:
    The dat a are quant ized 10 x-bns.

    C ahbrario n o f the therm al data is performed using rwc


    na t blackbodies. Visible and ncar-infrared ca1i"ratioP.
    accomplished on the g round betwee n m ission s using an'
    grating sphere. Onhoard (iPS documen ts the loea!iOll
    space o f eac h lmc IIf dina coll ected .

    The Al L \S se nsor is ideal lor co llec ti ng high spatial rcsdIi


    rion data in till' vis ib le. ncar-infrared. m idd le-infrared,
    therma l infrared reg ion s su important for man y comm
    remote sl.' ns ing app lications. The L.earjcl is an idea l suMbual pial for m bec ause o f its stnhiluy in llight and its abi
    tn travcl to the study area quickly. It is particularly useful
    obt aining dat a imrncdiurely ancr a d isaster such as Him
    cuncs Hugo and Andrew. An exa mple of2 .5 x 2.5 mAlL-\!
    hand 6 tncar-mfrarcd] d.l1a obtnincd in 11)1)1' for an area ad.
    ce nt In Sullivans Is land . SC. is shown in Figure 7-24_

    P'I""~Multl spectrallmaging Using Lin ear Arrar.

    Linear arr ay sen~or system .. usc diodes or charge-couples


    devices to record the reflected or emitted radia nce Ii-Offill:
    terrain. Linear arruy sensors are o ft en cal led pnshhroom sa;.
    snn; because. like a sing le line (If bristles in a broom , the btca r array sta res cons ta ntly at the ground while the ac:rtII
    p latfo rm moves fo rwa rd (sec Figure 7-3 c) . The result ill
    mo re ccurm c mea surement o f the re llt-cted rad iant fiIlI
    becau se 1) tl1l.' re is no mO\ i n~ m irror. an d 2 ) the linear am)
    dCk'Cturs lire able to dwd llonger on a speci fic port ion oflil
    terra in. resu hi ng in a more aec ur<l te mea surement.

    ,,
    "

    223

    'spectral Imaging Us ing Li near Arrays

    of

    Airhor n!." Terres trtat '\ IJp lil'3 lions Sensor (.' lI ..' S )

    1 1l1 11 ~l'

    Iff

    S u llhll",~

    . ..la nd, SC

    a
    x

    7-24

    -";<:,ar-infrnn:.r band n (0.7f, O.'jo(}llnl) ,\'",,->me Terrestria l .\pph<"mi" o< Sensor tATl ,\ " ) ima ge of " ron lon of tile smooth
    oJ/k rml1"",l lTI<l rsh beh ind Sulh\aru. b land. " l . t he 2.5 >< 2.5 m data were ob tained OIl Octobe r IS. I99 S.

    cllrd~'fa~s tSp<ln u l/l

    C h ro no lo~kal
    I ~ lib

    La unch II i" w Q uf t he SPOT xa teln res

    19lH I9SR 1911q 199tJ 19'1] 1')<)2 I<)IJJ 1'I'N 11')'/5 ''1')(> 1'N1 ]WX I'M) '::000 '::001 1002 21M,I]

    I.~ lll , ch

    Ib IC\

    SI'OT 1 - FdJIU'lfy 2 1. 1'l~6


    sror 1- January 22. 1'190
    SI'O T 3 - S<'P1o:rnbcr 25. 1 ~13

    S I'I,lT 4 Mmch 24, 1'1') M

    SJ'tlT 5 .

    ~Ia'

    3. 2002

    Rgure 7 -2 5

    I'h ronol ..gicallau nch h ish'T)-o f the ,, ('OT ",~ lcl ll ll'" ISPOT . 211(6)

    SPOT Sensor Systems


    The first SPOT sa lellito: was laun ched 01\ r ebru ary ~ I. 1lJR6
    Figure 7-25). It "as developed by the f rench Centre
    \al iona1 dT.ludes Spalia le-s (e Nt S, III cooperation .... ith
    Iklgium and Sweden. It had a spatial reso lution of 10 x 10

    m (pan.:hrtlmalic mode ) and ~O X20 m [muhi spcc tral mode )


    and f'mvid~'tl S<."\ era! othe r mnovanons in remote sensor systent desig n {Table 7-9). S I>()T satellites 2 and 3 with identica l pJ~ loads .... ere launched on January 22. 1990. and
    September 25 . ILN_~ . respectively. SPOT ~ was launched on
    :\la n:h ~ ~ . 1991( with a I lX e!<ltioll senso r CI x I km} and a
    short-wa ve length infra red band. S POT 5 was. la unched on

    (In l'[

    224

    Table 7-9

    SI'( I I's I. :!. ml,l 3 H i~h Resoluuon Visihle \ H RV). S pt H s 4


    4 and 5 1 ;:~<I.l/ i"'l sensor ~:VSIClll charac teristics.

    ;m,I.~

    Mullispeciral Remote Sensing Systems

    S_

    SPOT 4 and 5 Vegetation

    Spec tral

    Spatial

    Spect ral

    S pa lial

    Re solution

    Resolu llon
    (m) a l Nadir

    Resolu t ion
    Wm )

    Reso lu tloo
    1m) at Nad ir

    Ban d

    (" m)

    Aesoll./tiQ;.
    {k m} a1 ~

    0.50 -0.5'1

    Itl xlU

    fl.-! J - 0.47

    1.1 5 x 1."

    Band

    (f.l lll)
    o. ~n

    - n.s'}

    ~O

    "' ::!()

    """'
    I

    Multl s

    111(!h IIc",h lli",1 \ 'i_~ lhk nnd In fra red (I [RV1 R j. and .

    SPOT 5 HRVIR

    SPOTs 1, 2, 3 HRV and 4 HRVlR

    ~7

    U~

    S lJOCtra l
    Resolulion

    1I.l,1 - O.6ll

    2(1 x 211

    (l .b l - I),OS

    lU x III

    lI,n l - ttf>X

    1.15 x I

    0.79

    O,l\<)

    211 J( 20

    0 .7<)

    ng v

    lO x 10

    0.78 - 0.89

    1.15xl.1

    Pan
    Pan H I

    05 1 -0.13
    0.6 1 - O.6K

    IO)(](I

    Pan

    1l.4!'\-O.7 1

    25)( 2.5

    10)(10

    SW IIl\U

    l.5 11 - 1.75

    20 )( 20

    SW IR

    I .5S - 1.75

    20)( 20

    SW IR

    J.5K 1.75

    1.1 5 x I.!;

    I incar array pu"hhronm

    ~' n ", r

    Lm ear alTa~ flUshhroom

    Linear arra~ J'U shhrot>m

    S.. ath

    btl km !. 50.5 0

    bO km !:- '!.T'

    Ral t

    2~

    Mh s

    50 M bl s

    SO ;"lh s

    Re\ hil

    ~ (,

    days

    20 days

    I day

    Orb il

    S12 kill. SlIlI-sYlleh,llnnl.lS


    Inchnano n <l,( 7"
    Equaronal ~'rv Ul~ IU:.\U a.m.

    812 km. Sun-s ynchrououe


    Inclma lltlll = <>X7-

    X2:! k rn, Sun-sy nchr onous

    [o.ju.lIonal n(Ossi n ~ HUU .I.I1I.

    r n~' l m11t i(ln =' <lX. 7


    1.'lUOItori.l1.:r<.l:>si nf I (l ;3() a.m.

    May J. 201l::!, wi th visible, ncar-in frared , and sho rtw ave


    infra red (SW IR) IJJluJs ,II 10 x I(J III and a pauchromanc
    hand at 2.:; x 2.5 m.

    ch rouons. nca r-polar orh ll {mclmat um of 91:\.7) at an altitude o f 1\22 k ill. The ~a t ellite, p ,l SS o verhead ar the ;a
    solar tim e : the lI'o.:al d od, rime var ies \\ uh lat itude .

    Since 19156. S PUT Larth ub scrvarion sarcllncs have been a


    consistent. dep,.-ndabic so urce of high-resolution Earth
    resource in form ation . While mall)' count ries hav e seen the ir
    Ea rth resource Il11Hlih.lI'in1,l scnsnr sys tems come an d go
    depending primarily upon pol iti,s. one co uld alw ay s count
    on SPOT Image. 1I11'., to provide quality imagery. Unfortuoatcly, the imagery h il S always been relatively expensive.
    us ually mo re than 52.nOll pe r panchromatic 0 1" multispe ctral
    scene. a llhou gh it has hcen reduced 1I1 recen t years. The cost
    can ex ceed $U)(}{) if both panchromun c and multispectra l
    imagery o f the study are a arc required,

    The 11RV scnsors operate ill !" O modes in the visible 8l1li
    rc flccrivc-infr urcd portions of the spectr um. The first 15 1
    f/ (/Iwl!l"lJl/l olic mode corr esponding 10 ob servat ion over
    broad spc.'tral buml ( similar to a typ ical black-and-wee
    phllh1graph). The second is n mlilri.l'l'l'Cfm l (co lo r) mod" correspo nd ing tn nbscrvutjnu in three relatively narrow spectnl
    balld, ( fahlc 79 ), Thus.uhc spectral reso lution of SPOTI I
    throug h 3 i ~ nor us good as that of the Landsat Thematic
    :'vlHPI'c r. The g round s patia l resolutio n, however, is (0 )( I
    III lor the panchromatic band and 10 x 20 111 lo r the three
    muuispcctru! n;1I1Js WIIl'1l the instrumcnts urc vi cwing.
    nadir. dir ectly below rhe s.ltc! IJ te .

    sror, I , 2. anti J
    These satell ites a re all idc nuc ul a nd en llsi"l llf I WO pa ns: I I
    the SPOT nus. which i~ a sta nda rd m ultipurpo se platform,
    and 2) the se nsor system inctrum cms I Figure 7-20.1.1'1) consist ing of two Identica l h.gh-rcsolcnon visible ( HRV) senso rs an d a pack age cornp risiug two data rcx orders and a
    te le metry trans mitte r. Ihc s.ltellilcs npcratc in a Sun-syn -

    Re flected ~'ne l"gy [rom thc terrain enters the H RV via a plane
    mirror and is then projected on to 1\\ 0 ("C D arrays. EaQ
    ("CD a rray collsi 'st's o f 6.()(}1) det ectors arrange d linearly..\(
    electron mic roscope view of some of the individ ua l deetors in the linear array is shown in Figu re 7-27a.b. This Ii;.

    ear .Irray 1'1l.,hllI1.H!1I/ sensor images a co mplete line ofw


    grou nd sc e ne in the cross- trac k d ircct ion in one look as the

    225

    iSpectrallmaging Using LIne ar Arrays

    SPOT Satd lih' a nd Sc nsur S)'ll' m..


    ('ah llmtion
    unit ,

    ukv I

    .sror

    1-3)

    or il kYI R 1ISI'OT " aoo 51

    11RV 2
    tSPOl Ih-.....
    Of 11RVIR 2
    ISl'O T ".tOO 51

    ,cwc....l ll>n ;,cru.ur


    tS I'OT " and 51

    HRV or
    IIRVIR.........

    Cahbr.ll ioo
    unl1,

    ~fl""'"

    SPOT
    !'CO.....

    mnror
    _

    utnv oe
    IlRVIR j

    :\ lld ir
    \ 'il;"\\in:.:

    ,i
    Ollll<1l1e view

    Ob1i'luC' lew
    h

    F'Qu re 7.26

    l'hc M'llT satellites consist urthe SI'OT bus. which is a multipurpose platform . and the SC IlSor syst em payload. Two identical
    high-resolution visihle (l 1RVl sen sors a re found 00 SPOTs 1.2. and .1 and two idcnucn l high -resoluuon visible infra red
    <IIIWllt ) s,'n'UfS<1 n SI'( )Ts 4 <l11l15, Radiant energy (rOIl1 the terrain enters the IIRV or 1lRVIR via a plane mirror and is then
    pruj ,.... ted unto l W<1 C(' I) nrtuy s. Fach ('CD :lrmy co nsists of 6 .(1011 de tectors ;lrrangcd linearly, This results in a spatial rcsolution <If (0)( 10 <If 2U)( 20 Ill, depending Ull the mod e in .... hich the sensor is heillg used, The s wath wi dth at nadir is 60 km.
    The SPOT IIRV ,IIH.l IlRV[R ,,' nS<lf,;. ma) also lx' pointe d otl- nndir to eol h:cl da ta. S I'O h 4 and 5 C<lIT} a l ef!<'l<Ili(m sensor
    with 1,15 x I, I ~ km 'i'atial fes uillti" n an d 2,250-lm swath Width (;lJapt~d from SI'OT tmag c, [nl,:.).

    sensor system prog ressc" dow mrac k [re fer to Fig ure 7 - ~oc ).
    This capability brea ks tradition with the La n ds a t M S S_
    land"lt T\ l , and Land sat 7 ET\I sensors bec a use no
    mechanical sca nning takes place. A linear array sensor is
    luperiur because the re is IW mirro r that must scan bac k and
    lmh 10collect dna [mirror-scan veloc ity is a se rious issue )
    ad this a llows the detector 10 lite rally 'start" OIl the ground
    kJr a longer lime. o bta in ing u more accu rate record o f the
    lJ!'=C1r.l1 radia nt flux l':-:.iting the terra in. The S POT satellites

    pioneered 11m linear army pushbr oom technolog y in com mercia l Ear th resou rce remote scnsing as early as l QX6.

    Whe n lool ing directly at the terrain beneath the sensor systern, the two IIRV Instrume nts can be poi nted to cover adj ar.:,"111 fields , each wit h a en- km S" nth wid th I Figure 7-26c).
    In th is configuration the tola l sw arh w idth is 117 km and the
    two fields llH:r1 ap by 3 kr n. [I is als o poss ible 10 sel ect ively
    point the rmrror 10 o ff-nadir viewing angles throu gh eOI11-

    226

    Figure 727

    OIA I'IT R

    Mult isp ec tral Remot e Sensing Systeml

    M'

    ~. Scannmg electron microscope imag-~ ortlle surface or a ('C D linear arrJ~ hle that used in Ihe SPOT IIR\' s..:nsor ~
    Appro.l.irnaldy j~ l' ( 'J) detectors are visible ..... ith Ttw."of r~>U1 r~IMl"T'o <WI NlIh "idt.-<l. I'll Seven dtle<:lon ora lTD

    array are

    ~h...w n

    al high..-r magnification I r

    ~ES ::!()O..\, Srot

    ma n..i s from th... gro und stanon . In this configurat ion it is


    pos "il:tk 10 ohser"c any region (If int..-rc-t \\ ithin a Q50-kmwide "tr ip centered on the saldJ i'... ground track {i.c. the
    ob servI'd region may not he ce ntered on the gro und track }
    (Figure 7-2Xa), The w ioth uf th... swa th act ually observe d
    varies betw een 60 kill fer nadir vic .... ing and s o kill lor
    ex trem e off- nadir vie .... ing .
    lfthc II RV instrume nts wen: (lilly capa ble o fnaJ ir viewing.
    the rev isit Ih,'t.j LJ ~'ncy lor any gi ven region oft he world wou ld
    he 26 days. T his interval is often un,.u:n ptab lt- for the ohservauon of phc nmucua cvo lving on lime scale s Ta nl;ing from
    scvcratda ys to a few wee ks. es pecially wh ere cloud cover
    lundcr s the acq uisuion ~l f usable data. During the 26- day
    per iod sq lara ting two successi ve SPOT satellite pas ses 0 \ er
    a g ive n point on Earth lind la king into II,COW11 the steering
    cupabifiry o fthe instrumcuts, thc po int in question could he
    ob serv ed o n seve n different pass es if it wcrc on thc equator
    and on I I occasions i tm a latitude 01' 45 ( Figure 7-2 Kb ). A
    g iven reg ion can he revis ited o n date s scpunucd ahemarivcly
    hy t to a (or oc cusionahy 5) day s.

    Image Corporali"nl.

    S POT l O x 10 m p anchrom atic data arc of such higb ,


    metr ic fide lity that thl") can he photoinrc rprered like a .
    ca l aer ia l photograp h in many ins tances. For this r
    SPOT pa nchromatic dat a arc often registered to tc pog
    base maps a nd us...d as o rthophotorna ps. Such image
    art.' use fu l in G IS data bas e, because Ihey conta in more a
    rutc pla nime tric informauon (e .g.. new roa ds. su bdivisi
    than out-of-dar.... 7.5- mi n topogrupluc ma ps. T he ir npros
    spuriul reso lution available is demonstrated in Figure 7-~
    which prese nts ;1 T M ha nd 3 imag e and a SPOT panchremcuc image' o fC har lcslL)n. sc.
    S I'( IT senso rs collcct data ov era rclarivc!v sma ll 60 x 60 kn
    (3.N )(J k lll ~ ) ur....;1 compur...d with I.a nd ~ al MSS and TM
    imug c areas or 170 x I H5 kill (3 1A 50 krn ~ ) ( Figure 7-] Of. h
    tak es N,74 SPOT images 10 cov er the same a rea as a sing k
    Lands a t TM or ~l S S scen e. This may be a limiti ng fa ctor [(II
    regional studies. J Iow e vcr, S I'OT docs a llow imagery to be
    purchased by the km 2 ( c.g . fo r a watershed o r school dislrico or by the linear km Ie.g.. along a hig hwa y ).

    S PO Ts -4 an d S
    The SPOT sensors can ...lsu ac quire cros s-Irati, s" creo scop ic
    pa irs o f nuc gcs for a ge og raphic urea (Figu re 7. 28e). Two
    observations ca n be made on successive days suc h that the
    1" 0 images are acquired al .mg les on cith ... r side o fth e vertica l. In suc h cases, the ratio between the observauon base
    (dis tance between the two catelhtc pos itions ) and the h('ight
    (salel lite altilude) is ap proximalely 0.75 al lh... l'l.JualOr and
    050 at a l ali1Ud~' of 45 . SPOT data with tht"St.' base-toht.'igh l rat ios may Ilc lJ~d lil r topo graphic ma pp ing .

    S POT Ima ge . Inc .. launch ... J SPO T 4 on Marc h 24. [9%


    and SPOT 5 o n May 3. ZOO:!. Their c harac teris tics are stllll"
    ma nzed in Ta ble 7- ~ . The vic w ing ang fe ca n hi: adj usted
    ::..27" o ff-nadir, S I'OT5 4 and 5 hav e se veral notable feature
    ( I f signi licant va lue lo r [:.n h rcso un:.: r.:mote sensillf.
    i nd u d lll~ :

    .~spectra l

    227

    Ima g ing Using linear Array s

    SPOT on-veu\il'\\in l:

    One pass o n days: D -I- 10

    D ... .s

    D 5

    'adir data
    collection

    O IT-n;.dir Jaw
    collection

    Om italtrack
    al nadir

    b.

    SI' OT Sl l'rL'mcllpic

    \' i l'\\in ~ C a pa b i l i l i e~

    Pass on day D

    Pas s on Jay D + 1

    ----,,~

    Figure 7 28

    a)

    '111c SI'O I Ill{\' Ol ild Il RVIR

    i n~lrUIl1 CI1\ S

    are

    poimablc nml can be usedto view areas that arc n" l


    directly hd l'''' the s a \c ll i t~ (i.c.. (lt1~ nad ir J . This is
    useful fur w lkcti ng info rma tion in the el.,nl of a di-

    Stereoscopic

    moJd

    s:\'tt"r. when 1111.' :;;tkll itt" track is not opnmum lor


    collecting stereoscopic imagery. 1;1 ) During the 26day period separating two successive SP( IT satellite
    overpasses. a poim on the Earth could be uhscrvcd
    on 7 dut crcm pas",,", if it is at the Equator a nd 111l I I
    occasions I f at a latn uJ e 1'( -I.s n, A given region can
    be rcvisucd on dale, !i<':fI<lrlltcd alternatively oy l. -I.
    and occa siunully S days. c ) Tv." ul>scrvatiuns can be
    mad,' on successi\t~ days such that the Iwn images
    are acquired at angles on either ,iJc of the vertical.
    rcsulung in ~t,Te,><e(>rle imag,~,. Such imagery can
    be used tll prud uco: topographic and planimetric
    maps (,ldapt"d fwm SPOT ImaJ;':. llle.l.

    228

    C II .W I F R

    Mult ispectral Remote Sen sing Sys tems

    Com pa r tsou or Landsat '1':\1 (30 '\ .'\0 ru] and SltOI' 1I1t\' (Ill x 10 m )

    a. Landsat Tbemanc

    \hr~

    n allJ J I3 U \ :;O m) un Fcbru.rry .. 1994.


    Figure 729

    ("~mr"ri ""n ",I" the dCI"il in .' 0 x ~O m l...ndsat T~I ":JIlt! J d"IJ and ~ N)T lOx 10 II I 1"lIIdn,'m<.lti<; da ta c fCharlcston, SC
    Sjll'l [ m'I ~,l "rp. .ra, i"n . Inc.t.

    the addition ofn short- wavck llgth infrare d (swm I band


    115 S - 1.75 urm ti'r \"l,:l'lalillll and ,,>11 moisture
    applic alil1ns al :!Ox ~o 111;
    <til

    h. SPOT Il R\' Panchromatic


    llallJ II () \ 10 III I I 'll January 10. IlN/),

    indepcndcm sensor called

    l i 'g ('l il/ iOl /

    for small-scale

    vegetation. glubal chaugc, and oceanographic stud ies:

    S I'O I' 4 IHls nn hnanl rt'giSlnllinll ot tho: spect ral h:lrlds.


    achie ved by repla cing the uri1! in:11 11R\ ' panchromatic
    sensor lO5 1 (j .7.'l " Ill) w ith band 2 <0 (,] D.6!;: p ill )
    n p<:nlting in both 10 Wid 2(\-m rt'501111ill!1 mode;
    S PO T 5 panchromatic hands (0,411 0. 7 f1m) 0.::111 coiled
    2,5 )( 2.5 m imagc!) , 1\ color cornpositc o f 1.')5 .- \ ngc les,
    CA, illn ' q>l.ral inJ,: 2,5 x 2.5 III panchromaric dat a is fou nd
    in Cohn Plate 7-6.

    0 .61 O.6X um: ncar-infra red = 0.7S - G


    urn: SWI R - I.5X 1.75 '1m ). Each s,:nsor is a I, 72~
    linear array located in the focal plane of the COITl'Spond'
    ,,,bj,'d i\c lens. The "1'Cdral resolution of the indiv
    bands nrc vunuu nrivcd in Ta ble 7-'>. The kX<'1l1litm s.elM
    ha s II ..pa llal rcsohnion (' I" I.l:'i )( 1.15 km. The obje.'11
    lenses offer a field-of-view uf ::.SO.5 , which translates imr
    2.250 -\.;111 vwnrh width The f ,'g <'f<lIi(}/1 se nsor has scv
    importnm d l;lraCll'r i..uc..:
    rccuon: red

    multida tc radiorncrric c.rlibrution accuracy bette r than 3'1

    uud ah..ohuc c;l lihra li,ltl uccnmcy better than 5~


    superior II' the "VI tRR, 11l:I" ing it more useful f,:r
    repeata ble gfobnl and regiona l \'egc l:llitlll SUI"\CYS:

    pixe l ~ i L e is uniform ,lo.:WSs the enure swath width. \I


    geome tric precis ion bcucr than 0 .3 pixels and intcrb3li

    Beca use the SI'UT -I and 5 II RV sellslIh arc ..... llsililC 10


    S W IR energythey arc called I IRV !I{ I and I IR\'IR 2 .

    mulrida te rel!istral ;lll1 f-cner Ih:1l1 IU kill because of


    pushbn-om technolog y;

    The SPOT -I and 5 I <'gl'lll1i"" sensor is independen t 01" the


    Im VIR sensors . II is a mulnspcct ra l electronic scanning
    radiomer...r operuung ;1( optica l w :! \ el cng lhs w uh :I separatc
    objccuvc lens and sensor fllr each til" the lo ur speclra l bands:
    t blcc O.4J n.,n juu u.....II primarily 1;',1' atmosphe ric co r-

    !ll:,";ll a m. equ.uo rml cross ing lim e \ ersus A\ "fj RR's 2:Jt
    p.m. u llssing time;

    Mult

    To

    Illlispectral imaging Using Lin ear Arra ys

    Table 7- 10.

    Selected lm han National Remote Sensing Agency Il\ RS,\) lndra n Remote Scn~ i ng I IRSl SOItdlilc char aetcristics.

    IRS-1C and 10

    IR$1A and 1B
    US5-l and
    L1S5-11
    Bands

    Spectral
    Reso luti on
    lI> m)

    Spatial
    Re s olution
    (m) at Nadir

    0.45 - 0.52

    ll SS-1 i7 l .:; m
    uss.n iq:3fl. 25 m

    0.52 -

    O.5~

    llSS- 1 '0:72.5 m
    uss.u '<! 3fl,25 m

    0.62 - n , ~

    llSS-1 (u 725 m
    llSS-1I ra 3".25 m

    0 .77 _ O.1<n

    Ll'\S- I @n 5 m
    L1SS-11 {~.30 . 2 5 m

    Su lh widt h

    L1 SSI -

    14 ~

    km: I.ISS II

    lI>m)

    Spati al
    Resolution
    (m) at Nadir

    0.52 - 0.5'J

    23.5 x 2J.5

    0,62 - O.6X

    23.5 x

    O.77 - U'ltl

    235 x 23.5

    1.55 - 1.70

    70.5 x 7n,5

    Pan

    05 tl - 0.75

    5.2 x

    WiFS 1

    f),n:!

    O.61l

    181l x 1811

    Wil S 2

    11 77 _ 11,lit>

    n Ul x Hill

    L1S5-III, Pa n ,
    and WiFS
    Ba nd s

    Spect ral
    Re s o lu tio n

    zr.s

    5.~

    Li near array pushbroom

    Linear array pusbbroom


    146 km

    I.ISS-llI

    t-t x km

    1 4I l mfor h,,,,ds ~. J. alld 4: hand ~

    Pan = 70 km; v.w s

    Urbit

    2 29

    (,,,~

    km

    22 days III equator

    L1SS-1Il is 24 days atequator : r an is; dlt y~ :t 26


    off-nadir viewing: WiFS is 5 days 31 equat or

    WI4 km. Sun -sync hronous


    luclinauon .. ')'l.5 "
    l'tlUlIlnrial ( ross ing W:2t. a.rn.

    SI7lm, ~ u n -S}nd1f"IH 'U'


    Inclination - '11l,(,' )O
    Fq ua umal crm, lllg 111: .' 0 u.m . .:!: ; min

    IRS I A on ~aR:h 17. I<J8S


    IRS- I H on Augusl 2<), I ~J I

    IRS- K in 199;
    IRS-I u in September 1'/'17

    - ashort-wnvclcng th infrared bund for im proved vegetatio n

    marring;

    Th e dependable cons tellnuon "fS POT cuclbres o l1~r, unrivaled ability to acquire im ,lge ry Il l' " Illltlst an)' poin t O il the
    glo be da ily.

    , it is straightforw ard 10 rel ate rho IIR VI R I n x 10m or ~ () x


    ~O m data nested within the V/;'X t'tll / lO l l 2. 25 0 x 2. 250 krn
    SIIJlh width data;

    Ind ian Remote Sensing Systems

    individual images can be o bta ined o r data ca n be


    sammarizcd over a 24 -hr period [called a da ily sy nthes is).
    Ih ily synthes is data can I;Ic com piled into ,,-day sy nthese s,
    \jDVI dataset s can he co m puted ba sed on da ily or I O-Ja~
    s;ollthesis images. A portio n o f u Ten-day vegct ario n index
    i}lIthesis cen tered em Europe. the M idd le Fa st. an d A frica
    is>ooy, n in Color Plate 7-7 .

    The Ind ian ;-.Jatillllal Remote S~ l1> i ng Age nl') ( ~ RSA ) has
    launched several Ind ian Remote Sens ing lI RS) satellites:
    IRS- I:... o n " lar ch 17, I Q.~ !I. IRS I B on Aug us t 29. 199 1.
    IRS- I t' in 1995. and IRS-I D in Septe mber. 1997 (Table 710). IRS-PJ and IRS-N were launched o n x tarc b 2 1. 1996.
    and vt ay 2n. IQQIJ. resp cc uv ety. IRS -1'5 (C \RTO SAT- Il
    w as lau nched on May 5. 2005 . IRS-Pb I RESOURCESAT- IJ

    ....
    230

    C"l1\rTE R

    r
    I

    Figure 7-30

    Multispectra l Remote Sens ing Systems

    J,u!i;lll Re m" l"

    S"nsi n~

    Multi s pe

    Sah'lIilr IlIIa!:,' ur Sa n Dic~o,

    Landsa t T hem at ic :\ Ia ppc r


    a nd :\l ulthpcct ra l Sca nne r
    ima~e a rea

    60 km

    S POT
    HRV
    image rrrca

    60km

    185krn

    G':O\:lT.aphic co verapc of ee SPOT IlR\" and Land '1.31 'i ll hi ~{I('(' lral Sca nne r and Thematic 'lapl"t'T 1\'mot e !oCn~m g sys tems.

    was launched on October 17. 200 3. The sensors onboard the


    satellites usc linear array sensor technology (t\ RSA. 20(6).

    Figure 131

    IRS-I A . IU. - Ie. li nd - I n

    The IRS] A and IRS- I B s.uellites acq uired data with Linear
    Im ag ing Self-scanning Scnsors (L1SS [ :IlIJ USS-II) at spatial resofuuon s o f 72.5 x 72.5 m and 36.25 x 36.25 m.
    respectively (Table 7 10), Th e data w ere collected in four
    spectral bands 1[1l1i were ahnosr iden tica l to the Lands at Tt-l
    visible an d ncar-infrared hand s. Th e snrellne altitude was
    lln4 km. the orbn was Sun -synchro nous. repea t coverage
    was every 22 days at the Equator rll-day repe at co verage
    with two smcllucs }, and orbua l incl inat io n wa s ()().5 ~ . The
    swath width was l-1fl to I-IX km .
    The [RS-IC al1ll IRS- 1[) satellites carry three sensors (Tab le
    7- 10): the Ll SS- ll l mult ispeelral sensor, a panchromat ic' SC'I1sor, and a Wide Field Sensor l Wi r S). T he L1 SSl1l has four
    bands with the g reen . red. an d ncar-infrared bands at 23.5 x
    23 .5 m spatial resolution und the short-wave leng th in frared
    (S\V[R ) band at 70.5 x 70. 5 III spatial rcsohnion. The swath
    widt h is 1-11 km for ha m!, 2, 3, and 4 an d I-IX krn 1111' the
    SW IR band . Rcpc:l1 coverage is e very 2-1 J ay " at the equ ator,
    T he panchromatic se nsor has a spatial resolution of npproximately 5.2 x 5.2 m and ste reos copic imag ing capability. T he
    pa nch romat ic band has a 70 -km swath width with repea t
    coverage every 2-1 days at the Equato r an d a revisit t ime ofS
    da ys with 16 off-nadir \ il."v. ing . An l.".,. .un ple o f the 5.2 x
    5.2 III panch romat ic data o f dOV.llloV. n San Diego, CA (resamp led to 5 x 5 rn], is sho wn in Fig-ure 7-3[ ,

    Indian Rcnw te S<msing S<ttcll ilc (I RS-I Dl


    malic im.lge or tJow nll'"n San Diego, CA. llt
    x ~ .1 m Imal!l." .... a ~ resa rnpled 10.5 x .5 m I
    oflndian National Rem"le Sensing Ag..'Ilt'~ ).

    The Wide Field Sensor (Wi I'S) ha s IX8 x l xx m spatial


    olutiou. The WiFS has IWO band s co mparable to KG.....
    AVHRR sate llite (0 .62 U.llX j1111 and 0 .77 - ()J~6 j1rnl~
    a swath .... idth of(,'I.! km . Repeat coverage is fi ve days al
    Equator.
    J R ~ - I','

    1I Iltl IR S- I' -I

    T he I[{S- P3 Vi iFS is simi lar In the IRS- II> V,'iF S except


    the incl usion o f all additiona l ha nd in the middle-intra
    region (1.55 - [,70 j1nl ), 1RS-1'3 als o has a Modular Of'\'
    e lectron ics Scanner ( ~ I t >S l. whi ch collects data li t three Sfii'
    tial resolutions (M OS A, It (' = 1569 x I W5 m: 523 x 511
    11l; and 513 x (,-l-l 111, respect ive ly ) in three ba nds (MOS
    B. C "" (USS - O.761l urn: 0.40,'\ - 1.01 um: 1.5 - 1.7 unu
    Th..' IRS-P-I satclluc is de voted 10 oc eanographic applies
    tio ns base d pri marily on its Ocean Color Mo niter (OC~11
    sensor, whic h collects data in 11 hands from -102 to Sf:5 nm.
    a ~ r .. rial resolution o f 360 x 1311m at t z -bit radiomcuic reelution. T he swath wi dth is 1,420 km. T ile IRS-I' -I alsoce
    ries a \ !ul lIfrcqllcncy Scanning Microwave Rad iomee
    ( ~ I S f\ I R ) (:'>IRSA. 2006).

    I R~-I '5 leA R l(}SAT- I )


    ('ARTOSAT- I wns designed to provide imagery for I~
    scale ca rtog raphic applicil l illn~. Th e satellite is in a Su n-s~1l-

    chrc

    cnn

    CA

    "m
    nn e
    100
    om

    ,m

    'me
    eo
    im

    ""
    oc

    "

    0'

    11
    t
    s
    s

    23 1

    IWispectral lmaging Usi ng linear Arr ay s

    :-.I AS:\ Ad~an~~'d S['iIl:chllrTlO: Thcn nal Emiss ion and R".rkcl i" n Ra,Jj"m<'!cr (AS I EKj CharllCfc riS1ic~.

    Ta ble 7 11.
    \

    Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emiss ion and Reflecti o n Rad iometer (ASTER)

    VNIR
    Spect ra l
    Re s olution
    Ba nd

    -'

    (~ m)

    Band

    SWIR
    S pec tral
    Resolutio n
    (j>m)

    I (nadir)

    0.52 - 0.60

    1.600 -

    2 (nadin

    0.63 - 0.1,1,1

    2.1..15 - 2. 18S

    Ltnadir )

    O.76 -0,l'I6

    3 (backward)

    0.76 - 0.1,(1

    ,
    ,

    u no

    TIR
    Spectra l
    Resolution
    Band

    (Jlrn )

    10

    11.1 25 - 11.475

    2.1&5 2.215

    "

    8.475 - 8.825

    12

    11.925 - 9.175

    2.:m - 2.2S:'

    13

    10.25 - HI.95

    2.295 - 2.3M

    14

    10.95 - 11.6 5

    :U6O -1.4JO

    Pushbroom

    Pusbbroom

    WhisLbroom

    Si

    PtSi:Si

    Ii ~ Cd : Tc

    Spalial
    rr-oluliUlI (m)

    IS ;ot IS

    ; 11 x 30

    <10 x <10

    S.. a lh wjd th

    60l m

    60 lm

    60km

    Quanlit.alioo

    x-bns

    S -hll~

    12-bils

    TKh noln;:..\
    (dl"ll'<:lur )

    boos polar orb it (6 1ij km) that rec ords images of the
    llIi~ glohc in I.XlI7 orbits with a repent cycle of 116 days.
    {ARTOSAT-l has t .... 0 panc hromatic cameras (0.5 - 0.1\5
    p:ml with 2.5 x 2.5 11\ spatial resolution tha l acquire two
    mage> simultaneously, one look ing forward 2f, and nne
    boking aft 5 in Sll' TCO- IlWue . Each camera UM,;s a linear
    maycontaining 12.000 detectors (Krjshnaswamy and Kuly-

    w ide while in pa nchrom atic mode they are 70 kms w ide. Th e


    spat ial reso lution of hand 5 (1.55 - 1.70 \1m) has been
    imp rm cd 10 23 .5 x 23 .5 III. T he da ta are reco rded usin g
    1O.00() cle ment linear ar rays with q uantization 10 In-bits.
    T he L1 SS IV sensor is p ointnblc a llowing a revisit pe riod of
    5 days .

    uurarnan, 2(}06). The swa th w idth is 26 km. A ll data are colkcted at lu-bit quanuzauon. The pial form can he

    Til", ,\\\ 'if'S senso r ts an improved version oft he WiFS se nsor flown Oil IRS- l Cl i D. A\I.'if'S operates in lo ur spectral
    band s ide ntic a l to LISS III, with a spatial resolution o f 56 x
    56 m and co vers a swuth of 740 kms.

    maneuvered 10 obtuin rwc side-by-side panchromatic


    images covering 55 krn . Use rs can sl)ecify standard radionetncally and geometrically corrected data or precis ion
    u~.ho-rccl i1i cJ

    da ta ( to'RSA . 20(6).

    Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and


    Reflection Radiome ter

    IRS-I'll (IU :SO l JH.C ES,\T I )

    RESOURCESATI is in an Kl7 km Sun-synchronous pol ar


    oroil ( ~ RSA.

    20()6) . It carr ies three sensor systems : Ll S S~


    sensor is identic al to
    Ibt L1SS-111 se nsor Flow n on IRS - l e ll f) exce pt tor a few
    si~ificanl changes. L1 SSIV has exac tly the '>3111e multi~l bands as L1SS III. Ho wever, the multispectral data
    m recorded ar 5.l'l x 5.l! m sp,ui al resol ut ion. The user can
    ldt 01'1(' o r the hands t e.g .. the red ba nd) a nd obtain pan cMxnJtic data . In muhispccrral mode the images are 23 kms

    IlL l1SS-IV, and A\Vir S . TIle L1S S-11I

    T he ASTE R: is a coope rative effort be twee n N ASA and


    Japan 's Min istry o f lmcmatione l Trade and Industry.
    AST ER: ob tains detailed information on su rface te mperature. emiss iv ity. re flec tanc e. and elc va rion ( NASA ASTER.
    2()U6 ). It is the only rd ati\ d y h igh-spatia l-reso lution instru me nt on the Terra satellite (Table 7- 11). 11 is used in conjunction w ith \lO ]) IS. M ISR . and C ERES senso rs Ihal
    mon itor the Ea rth at modera te 10 coarse spatial rcsohnions.
    AS TER serves as a 1(1t.1111 lens for the ot her Term msrru -

    232

    ('I I \" I 'EI-!

    AS" EH. :\ t' :l r- i n fra rl'c1 I I1UI~t'

    Figure 7-32

    Mu lti spectral Rem ot e Se n s ing Systems

    Multi

    or " ('a r i ll a rhnr. Ihm aii

    -';rrr" ,~ .." 1'.1< I ~ )( 15111 n..,..ar-mrrared bend J (0.-" -(l,Xollm) lmag{" ot P.:ar l Harbor. Ha wau. "hla m~"tt o n June 3. 2UOO (
    S:\ ;(i SF( 'IITI r RS \ I)(" J,\ ROS and US Japan ASTr R Science 1c,un and thcCali lum ia Institute ufT<x~

    tc~) ~ ..'

    M
    mc nts and is un ponarnfor change dctccnon and ca hhmnon '
    validat ion ~l ud icl'o ( K ing.. 2U\lJ I.

    AST ER obtain s data in , .. cha nnels tmm the visible throug h


    the ther mal infra red regions o f the electromagnetic spectru m. II consisrs of three sc p arutc instr umen t subsystems.
    Ind ividua l bandwidths and subvystcm chnr actens ncs arc
    sum ma rized in Table 7- 11 .
    Th e V NI R detector subsvstem (lpe W!<'" III thre e spe ctral
    bauds in rhc v isible and ncar-tnrr..rrcd wavelength reg ion
    with a spuual resolution o f 15 x 15 m. II co nsis ts o ftwo toleSCO p e S-{ll1 C nadir-looking wit h a three-spectral-hand ( '( 'I)
    detect o r and anothe r [l,ll"k w,ud-I,'oking w ith <l sing le- band
    CCO detecto r. T I1l' back ward.look ing t c lesl"()p<: provides a
    second vie w of the study nrcn in hand J for ste reoscopic
    observatio ns. Acm~ ~- t mck pll in t i n~ ttl 2--l" off-nadrr is
    accom plish cd by ro tatin g 111c crnuc telescope assembly, A
    15 x 15 m ncar-infrared hand ., (lUt> ~ O,Xt> ).1 m) im age o f
    Pear l Ha rbor. Il l, oht<l incd \\11 June 3, 20110. is shown in Fig ure 7-32 , AST ER color eu m p',lsites of the island of'Duhu an d
    Pearl Harbo r obta ined on Jun e 3, 20uo. arc found in Col or
    Plate 7-ft
    Th ... SWI R subsystem uperat..... si, spectral bands In the 1.0
    to 2 AJ um region throug h u smgfc nadir-pointing tcl CWllp<:

    that provides ,l O x j n III spatial reso lut ion. Cross-track


    109 (.:.l,55 j i ~ accompli- bed by a flllill1mg mirror,
    The T Il{ subsystem op erates in five band s in the In
    inf rared rl'g ion u " i ll~ a single. fi vcd-positlo n. nadir-lox
    tele scope '" uh a sputia l rcsolu uon "f 90 x 90 Ill. Unlike
    other suhsysle m<;. II 11:1'" a whi skbroom scanning sys
    ilh ll'atl of a pushbroom S ~slC tll (F igurl' 7-3 d) , Each
    u",cs 10 det ector s In ;1 st;lggered a rray w ith o ptical band
    filters ova each dete ctor element. The scan ning mirror f
    lions luuh tor sl, at1l1in~ and cross- track pointin g (! H.55
    D ur ing se-:II111 ing. the mirror rornrcs (){) O fro m nadir 10 \ i('l
    an mtc r nal bla ckbody. Muhiplc-d ntc nighttime ll() x 90
    II1<: rm<l 1 infrared hand 14 ( 10 ,9 5 - 11,65 urr nimages nfPu
    0 '0 lava 1101'1' ,," ente ring the sea at Kumokuna on The soo
    e:lSl side ofthe bl and of Hawaii arc sho wn in Figure 7-JJ

    Multiang le Imaging Spectroradiometer

    The ~ fuh ia ngl e Imag ing S pcc trorudiomcte r (1\-IISR) 11-15


    built by r\AS ," s Jet Propulsion Laboratory and is one- of.
    five /;'rI'O :;.ate llil,' insmunen r-, The \.ll S I{ ins trumen t m
    sun-s the Earth's nr ig htne!>s in lo ur spec tral ba nds. a t each
    ninelo ok ang le.. spre ad out in the forwa rd and aft d irect
    along the tlighr li ne, Spanal sam ples are acquired e very~
    111. O \ er OJ pt:ri.Jd of7 min. a 3110 km wide s wath ofEri

    :\
    J.
    4
    (I
    s

    II

    it
    ('

    233

    Uispeciral lmaging Usin g Lin ear Arr ays

    .\ Sl t: H Thcrma t-tnrra r cd

    ~ 7-33

    lm a ::i' ~

    of a Lava Flnw un Il:Iwaii

    A !'CGuencc (If TerM ASTE R nighlllTne ' 1'1)( tX) m therm al infrared band 14 II n.~~ II .o~ u m I inl.lg~ ofPu'u O 'olava tlows
    era cnng tho: sea al Kamokuna on the ..lUthc-a",- si<kof the Island of Ilal' all. Ihc ima~~s " ... rc ,JOull,....d un a) \I ay 12, 1000, b)
    JUIlC :;0. 2nno. and c) Augusl 1, 2111 10. Th<: brighter the r i\ d . the ~'1\"alc'1' tilt.' la vatempc mrurc (co un."') of J",\ S,\ Ci'l FC/\tlTII
    I:RSAIX /J..\ I{OS and U.S.,J" I'I,Ill AS I ER Science Fearn and the Calili.>fTllii Insnunc of 1...chll<>I,I],:) I.

    into vie w at all nine ang k s (Kin g, 200J; 1'\ASA

    \R,20Cl1ll.

    o ffers an op po rtuuu y to comprc ob serv ation s with other


    nadir -viewin g sen....1N such as l.a nds'1 tl\1 and ET\r , The
    nadir-vic.... Ing camera also facihuuc-, cuhb rauou.

    Aa ~luslrati on

    o f the nine look angle s is show n in Figure 7The digua! pushhr oom ~c n'ON imag e the- Earth at 2h. 1~ .
    '~", 6ff'. and 7 0.5 ~ rl lT\.I;a r,1 and ali t,f the loca l ve rtica l
    Illldit 0"). Note tnat the fore and an camera angles arc the
    'JllIe---tht' cameras are arranged syrumcmcally ab out nadir.
    gereral. large view ing angles provide enhanced sc usiriv 'i 10 atmospheric aerosol effec ts and to cloud reflectance
    tf!'erts, whereas more mod est angles nre require d tor landt

    .race\ e wing.
    Each Mi St{ camera sees instnntancuusly a single TO\I of pix lisa! right angles 10 the grnUtlJ trac k in II pus hbnxuu fonn,u.
    records dena in four hands: blue. green. red, ;lilt! near-infraltd, The individual hand wa\ c1engths arc identified in FigIf( 7-34. Each camer a has four independent linear ceo
    Jlays [one per filtcr). w ith 1.5(}..l nctiv c pi.\ds per linear
    m y.
    The nadir-vjcw ing camera (Iahck tt An in Fig ure 7-J-I 1pror:..b imagery that is less di s lnrt e d hy surface topog raphic
    ~ects than that of .111) othe r \IISR ( WHeTa. II also i" the
    t.lllafk;;ted by atmosp heric scattering. II provides 11 useful
    rm-rence lor naviganng \.\ ithin allthe ~1ISR imagery, and 2)
    lbese image 10 compare \.\ uh image:. ac quired at diffc rcm
    MIlks of view. Such co mparisons pTllvid... im['llrtam bidi~l retlectance d istribut inn t"un...'li nn. HRI>F' into nna lJllrod uced in C ha pter I, The llaJ ir-\ ie.... ing eamera a bo

    The fore :1I1d ali ::!o _ l ~ vi c\\ angle cameras (A I'and Aa ) provide Useful sl<,;ret's': t> pi-:: informatiou thut ca ll be ofbenefi t
    for measuring topographic clcva uon and cloud heights. Th e
    tore and ali -I ~ , oo \ icw IIngk l,'a me ms (ii I' and Ha) arc pns iuoncd It' he cspeei<l lly -cn-Invc 10 .Ittllosph..:ric ae rosol
    properties. Tht.' litre and aft (>0 0 vie w ang le cameras (C f and
    Ca I pm\ ilk nhscrv ntion s looking through the aunos phcrc
    with tIl 1.:1.' the ummuu o f :Jir than 11K' vert ical view, This provide s unique infornuuion uboru the hemispherical albedo o f
    land slIrI:ll'tS. lhc l'lre and ali 70jOview angle cameras [ Df
    and [Ja) pro vide the maximum scns uivity 10 off- nadir
    effec ts . Till' ~ri en ti ti ..' community is interested in obtaining
    quautuauve lnformauon :tnolll l'I ,nals and the Earth's sur-

    race

    fWI1l ,l ~ I I1 U I1 ~ an g k ~

    as possib le.

    Very-High-Resolution Linear Array Remote Sensing


    Systems

    In 1l)t,l4. the L .S. govc mmcr n a llow ed civ il com mercia l


    companies h' market hi gh spnnal resolution remot e senso r
    data taprnl\.imatcl~ I >( I In -I X -I m ) This re-sulted in the
    c reation of a number of commercial consortia that hOI"'" the
    capital nl~ess ry It, <:TCat.... l..unch. ;mJ ma rket high spat ial
    re ....lh ul\>n .lignal reml lll sensor data. Th.... most nola"'le companies arc Sp;.I<:C II11:1glllg. 1111.'. ORllI l\l AGE. In..:., Digita l-

    cu WHK

    234

    Multispectral Rem ot e sensing Systems

    Multi

    Tab l

    !\ l ul li :I II ~ h: Im ll ::ill ~ Sp o:dru n t tl iu lll d l'r

    e.

    ,
    e,
    e
    0,

    IH

    ll f

    An

    26.1"

    '~l

    571 11m

    . ....

    SlHIo . .

    45.6"

    p"
    d",
    b

    ,,-,_ --, 275 , 275 m

    I.l

    "
    T

    I I kin

    275 m ~ I , lkm

    1>1
    Figure 7-34

    Arnst's rcndmon of the :'.lultjangle Imag ing Spectrora duuneter t \ llS RI on H )S terra. ~ I ISR ll~ linear array lcchnolog)
    acq uire imageT) of the terra in in four bands at ninc angles: :111\aulr(O") aud al ~6 . J 0 . 45.6", 60 0 ant! 70.S" fUN ard ard
    na..h r (ada pted from ~AS.'\' Jet PWf'u l, jnll I.alxlral' lf) I.

    Ea
    pa
    be

    W
    Glo be. Inc.. and Imag.eS"l Internat ional. Inc. These
    co mpa nies targeted the geographic inf o rmat ion system
    (GIS ) and cartog raphic m.rpping mar kers traditiona lly SN viced by the aerial photogrammerric ind ustries. Some csnmale the gro w ing Eart h cbscrvauon ind ustry 10 be 5 !O 15
    billion dollars a year, The co m mercial re mote '>Cn~ing firms
    hope: to have an impact in mark ets as dn ersc as agri cu lture .
    natural resource management. loca l and regi ona l gove rnment. tra nsportatio n. emergency response. mapping. and
    e ventually an aTT<lY o f ave rage cons ume r applications as well

    Imag ing , 2006 ). War d uring the early 2 1st cen


    ha-, created a significant military demand for commc
    satclluc-dorivcd hig h-spa tial-reso lutio n imagery.

    ta

    A ll com merc ia l vendors offer an Intern et on -li ne or


    service. All vendors offer a suite o f standard and nons:
    ard produ cts th'l l ca n be ta ilo red to user requ ire
    ind udrng the creatio n o f d ig ita l ele vano n mod els from
    remote sens or da ta. The com mercia l rem ote sensing com
    nics typically price the Imagery according (0 the type

    ISpac~'

    ill

    "e

    de

    ,;

    til
    ru

    ao

    235

    tiltspectral lma gi n g Us in g Linear Arrays

    a 712

    Sensor chnractcrisncs ofSpace lmagingG.....)l-ye, Inc.,/K( } S( )S S;lll.lhle; { lR B1M,.\( iF, Inc.. (}rf>l )"t'w-.l sa tellite; and DigualGlobe. foe .. Vlli<MJIr<I""tdlite.

    Space Imag ingiGeo Eye , Inc .

    ORBIMAG E, Inc .

    DlgitalGl obe, Inc .

    OrbView-3

    OuickBi,d

    IKONOS

    ...

    Spectral
    Resolut ion
    "'m)
    OA5 0.52
    f),52- 0,N!
    0.63 - 0 ,69

    Spatial
    Resolut ion
    1m) at Nadir

    ,. ,

    Spe<:tral
    Resolution
    "'m)

    Spall al
    Resolu tio n
    (m ) 801 Nadir

    0.45-052

    '"

    0.52 - 0 .60

    0.625 - 0 .695
    0 .76 - 0.90

    '"
    ,,'
    ,,'

    0.45 - 0.90

    I , I

    e....

    ,.,
    ,.,

    0.7t>- 0.90

    ,.,

    0.~5

    I' I

    p~

    Linear array

    I.arb

    I I km

    bit

    25 \lb ,;

    - 0 .90

    pu~hbroom

    lJiHlch

    O.4~

    - O.S:!

    Spatial
    Resol ution
    (m) al Nadir
    2.44 x 2.44

    05:! -0.60

    2.+1 x

    0.63 - 0 .6Q

    2.+1 x 2.44

    O.7n _ O, k<)

    2.44 >( 2.44

    Pan

    OAS - 0,90

    0.61 x 0.61

    Linear army pcshb room

    20 1('l4nkm

    50

    ~Ib

    SO \lb s

    Equatoria l ero~.i ng 10 -I I a.I11.

    Equatorial crossing 10:30 a.m.

    nun I..m. nOI ,>un-synchronous


    1:4UHlori,,1 erus~ i ng \'ariahle

    .~ JlriI 2 7, 1<J<19 (failed)


    September 24. 1'J<)<,l

    June 26. 20U)

    ( ~..tober

    ~I

    km, Sun-s}"m:hwn(lus

    4 7U Lrn. Sun-sync hro nous

    ,mdtll:\ ordered and the amoun t of geographic coverage


    h:red lkm\ The sensors used by these companies lire
    1Iedprimarily on linear array CCD technology (fig ure 7
    kl The sensor systl'm characteristics arc summarized in

    I i!Ne7-12,

    !ll~i la lr. ln hl', l nl' ..

    2.~4

    I
    I

    linear array pushhroom

    < 3 days
    M il

    e....

    Speclral
    Resolullon
    (lIm)

    E"'(r IJird. und fJ/I;cl.llird

    111.200 1

    Di gita lGl o he pla ns to lau nch a new g.:nl'ratio n of high resolut io n remote s~n~ing. SySll'tI1S called /li Jr/d View / and /I
    ( Digiw l Globe, 2(05). IJrlr/dl /cII'/ will provide 0.5 x 0.5 m
    sp.uial rcsokuion panc hromati r imagery with an average
    revisit lime of 1,7 davs and .1 swath wi dth of 1(1 km. It \\ ill
    be capable o f<:olle <: li; tg lip to 500.1l00 h.m2 (100.000 sq. mi.j
    per (i.I)' of half -met er itl1 <1gl'T)'. lI iJI'IdI'it'\\, I will be able 10
    down link imagery \0 custome r loc atio ns.

    Urth lValch, Inc. launched Htlr~lmrd i n 1996 with a 3 x 3 III

    anch rcmarichand and three visible 10 ncar-infrared (VN I R)


    \und,alI5 x 15 m sparia l resolution . Un fortunately, EarthW~ch IOSl contact y, ith the surcllhc. Eart h Walc h l now Digia1Globe. lnc.) launche d Quickllird on Octobe r It<.. 200\.
    iIlOaflOO-krn orbit. l meresun gl y. it is in II 00 0 orbit y, hich is
    nSullsynchrunuus, Revisit times range fro m I to 5 Jays.
    ~ding on latitud e. It has n sw ath w idt h of 20 to -10 km.
    ().lickBlrd has ,I 1161 x 0 .01 III panchromatic ba nd and fou r
    twblenear infrared bands at 2A~ x 2.-1-1 III spatial rcsclu.. [Table 7 12). The data arc quantized 10 I I bits (brig ht:rs.;\alucs from 0 to 2047i. The senso r can be pointed fore
    md aftand ac ross-t rack 10 obtain stereosc o pic data (Di g ita l-

    GJbe.100tlJ,

    Wor ldl it' lI' II wi ll collect 0.5 x 0,5 m punchromaric data and
    1.1< x 1.1'< t11 muluv pec tral data. It wi ll inc o rpora te rhe industry stan dard four multispectral bands plus fou r ne w bands
    [coastal. ) 'CllllW. red edge, and ncn r-infrnred 2 ).

    Space Imaging. 1111'., launched IA:avos on A pri l 27. I ~t}_


    Unfonunatcly , the s.uclluc never achieved orb it. Space
    Imaging successfully launch ed a second I KO ~ () S on September 2.... I'N 'l, The IK O ~ OS sarellue sensor has a I x I m
    panchroma tic band and four multispectra l visible and nearinfra red hands at -I x ~ m spatial reschuion (Space lJll;lging .

    CH .-\ I"I Ht

    236

    Multispe ctr al Remote Sensing System!

    IK O:\"OS Pan chrom ati c Im..ger)' of Wash ington, DC

    3. ''''OM), panchromatic I '( 1 m image of Washington. IX.


    FlQur e 735

    b. Enlarged \"ic" of the Wa.,hinglon .\!onllnlCBl

    a) IKOMlS 1 >< I In panc hromatic image' o f Wa~hinJ;lnn . DC . obtained on Se ptember 30, 1\)9Q. 11\C Wa sh ington .\I
    and Wh ile House are \ i ~i hk . h I A n enlargement ottbe Washmgton Monu mem (courtesy Space lmag ing.Uco bye. llll;. ~

    2(06). Sensor characrcrisucs an' summarized in Table 7- 12.


    IKO !"OS is in a Sun -synchronous ex t-km orbit. with a
    (ksl'<ndinl! eq uatorial c rossi ng tim... {If between 10 and 11
    a .l11 . lt has both cross-track and along -track viewi ng ins trumen ts. which enab les Ile cible d ara acquisition and frequent
    re"i sit capubiluy: < -' days at I x I m s patia l resolution (fo r
    look angle s < 2(,n) and 1.5 J ays at 4 x 4 m spatia l reso lution,
    The nomin al swath width is [ I km . Data are qu antized 10 I I
    hits. The lirsl IKO'\lOS I x I III panchromatic image was
    obtained on S~'PWll1hL' l 30. 1<)1)'), of down town Washington.
    DC (Figure 73 51. The image contains high spatial resolution detail sufficient Ior many cuy pl:.mning and earth
    resource investig'ltions. IKO \,JOS imagery ofColumhia . SC,
    is shown in Color Plmc 7-<.).

    ( ImageSat , 200(, ). The EROS A} was built by Israel A


    Industry 's MH T Div ision . It weighs only 250 kg . The
    lite is in a 4KQ-km Sun-synchronous orbit with an cqca
    crossing time (If 9:45 a.m . EROS A 1 is a single-band
    chromatic remote ..en..ing system. The spalial resoluti~
    1.8 x 1.8 m (standard) or I x 1 m in "over-sampled" tro:
    An EROS A I inmgc o f the Kam chatka Submarine Bae
    Rus sia is sh own in Figure 7- .l6. lmagc'Sat plans 10 [3
    EROS B and other sate llites to c reate a constcllruion of
    mcrcia l high -resolution satellite s.

    On January [2 .2006. ORB [MAGE Hold ings lnc. acquired


    Space Imaging. Inc. H it'oE re, 20flhj , The combine d compa ny no w duc s busine ss unde r the brand name GcoE~c. lnc.
    Gcol.yc oj1,er:lles rhrcc remot e-sensing satel lites incl ud ing
    IKO'\l{)S, (lrhView-.! and Orh\" iew-.' - (ieoE ye plans 10
    la unch another salell ite in .!tln7 \\ ith a spatia l reso lution of
    OA x OA m l(JeoEy e. 20(6 ).

    intmrcd multis pec tra l bands at 4 x 4 m spat ial rcsolsi


    (Orhimage. 200h ). OrhVie w-} has a 470 km Sun-syn
    nuus orbit with a 10:30 u.m. equatorial crossing lime aOO

    Im:tj!cSal lnter-n a tiun alc Inc.. E ROS Al

    OR(}L\lAGE. Inc. plans to launch Orbvicw-S [O rbi


    2(06). II v. ill have the sa me bandw idths as Orbview-L
    the panchroma tic band will be OAI x OAI m and the
    spectral bands v. ill be: I.M x I.M rn. 11 v. ill be poin

    lmagexat lntcmano nal, rnc.. successful[) launc hed the


    EROS.-I I satell ite using. a Stan -t rock et from the Russ ian
    Cosmodromc in Svobodni. Siberia. on December 5. :2000

    ()I{ Bl I\IAC E, In c.. Orb lit'w-J

    OR HIMA(i1: , Iuc.. lau nched Orh/iew-J tin .IurIL' 26. 2


    with 1 x [ III panchromatic da ta and four visible and ~

    x-km swnth width . The sensor rcvisus each locatio n on Ea:i


    ill less than three day s with an ability to tum from side
    side 45. V rbViewJ senso r spe ci Jicalions are summarized
    TallIe 7- [2.

    ~rometry

    237

    Using Lin ea r & A rea Arrays

    ":I{OS A I Pan chromatic Image of Kumchatk.. Suh um r lnc Haw.

    F9Jre 736

    1-

    ,I
    os

    H.m;~ill

    Panch rcm.uic 1,1' " 1.11 m im.tgc of the Kam.:!",t "" SUOI11;lri n" Ib ,... on the far-cu-aern fW1l1 IL"T o f R u ~s i.l. obtained b) the
    ",(OS " 1 rcnlUlc "",n~in l! ,,)stcm ,'11 December 25.10(ll1c" IIf1 ...... ~ hlla!!,,";al. 100L"1Tl;'hnnal. lnc.j.

    111 a swath width of 15.2 km. O!'h\ 'ic\\ -5 data will hi: U<'<;'rorphotogrannuctric cllg int:t'r ing. ap pllcauous.

    Spectrometry Us in g Line a r & Area Arrays

    Ltks (~I\)"klll~ A i rh/ ,rl/l' lJi.t:ifl/l .')I'l/lI>r ,\ 1',\ 1" 111-10

    This sec tion desc ribes a major adv ance in remote se ns ing,

    The Leica G..'osystcms ADS-.4(J dig ital ca mera makc-s USt' o f


    1rt.1! array techno logy. It is I'1 ast'.1 011 ih..' lise o f [2, 000 clcment linear :lITay CCD s. The linear arrays function in harrn.m~ to obtain stereoscopic iruugcry for phruograuunetr-ic
    lfIIllicati(w.'lhc ASI) U! collect s data accor ding ill the
    t~itkali(lll>

    sunuuurizcd ill Table 7 1J ,mel the hlgic


    100\\1\ in FigH r.., 7-.1 7. Three of'thc linear array s collect pan womal ic data : one lo"ks forward 2i1A"'. nne hhlks ur nadir,
    sdone lucks aft - I..!..:!" [there .rrc ac tuall y two l2 .o0n clc:amt linear a rray s :11 ea ch of the se three locations stag ge red
    II} half a pixel (3.25 nun]. which are ;Inaly/ l;'u together to
    \'JddpanchMllalic dal a ] t x tccronc. 2 110~).
    Tk blue. green , and red scnsiuve linear array s collect data
    Ie off-nadir. TIle blue, gre en. and red measu rements arc
    okJi~lI lI' i lh a trich roid opticnl SYStl'l11 that splits inco ming
    h!ht uno n..d . green, and blue com poncms us ing cascaded
    IfidJrotic flhcr s. Th is res ults in pe rfectly rc giste,c:J blue.
    peen. and red in formation . A nea r-in trurcd ......nsiuv c linear
    may 100",", 2' otf- nadrr ..<1lace11l 10 the pa nch romatic lmcar
    n1} at nadir.

    ul1ag mg .' In,<,fmm'''J ~ '. de fined :IS 11K' simulta neous acqotsi -

    linn Ill' linag es in l11any rcl uuv cly naITOW, conugnous and/o r
    non-contiguous sp ectral hand s throu ghout the uhruviolc t.
    visible. and infr ared po ninns ofthe spec trum.

    In the P<l~ l. mosll'.:nwtcl y sensed datu II el l' acquired in ~ to


    12 spel'lr,,1 hand " Imaging spectrometry ma ke s possible the
    acquisition or datil in hundreds o r spntra l bands slruultanc~,w;ly , Because of the very precise nature of the dat a
    acquired hy inMgi ng spectrometry. some Earth resou rce
    problems CHn be inv est igated in grl'atl'r detail,
    The value nf an ima g ing spect rome ter lies in its ab ility to
    prov ide a high-resulution re flec tance spec trum fur eac h picrurc element in ihc image, Th e rc fl cctan,..... spectrum in the
    region fro m 0,4 10 2.5 ~1 11l ca n h e used to identify a largeran ge o f sur/ill.. e CIWl'r ma terials Ihat C,lIlnOI he ide nti fied
    II ith broadb and, lu " -spcct ml-rcso hnion imaging systems
    such as the La ndsa t fliSS , T\1 . and SPOT, ~ lall Y, although
    not a ll, surface ma terials hav e d iitgn oslie abvo rpnon fea tures
    th,n arc un ly ::!O to ~O 11m \ 1 ide . Therefore. spec tral imaging
    s~sk'ms lhal acquire data in contig uouv ln-nm bands may

    ~ 7

    C1J.\I' IE K

    238

    Mu ltis pec tral Remote sensi ng Systems

    crus
    . "" ,.. -IIIIlF ':j..' ..- cco

    ,\ ir horn c Digit al Sensor (A nS-40)

    "- --

    sped

    Tab"

    111111..

    Triplet

    b.

    n.c.a

    'I'

    Il S

    Reflectance fro m
    \>oi lhin the
    pillcll rOy

    Figu re 7-37

    Ch aracteri sri<.:" olthe Leica G\,(>;;} Sl em~ Airborne Digita l S\'II"nr SyMcm A()S .....II. a] D i~ i I3 1 .:amcra hous ing . b ) Tri.:hrold(f
    neal sy,tclIJ. c j Layoutcfforw ard. e n. ;lnJ nadi r-Iock ing 12JIOO..I:!.:mcnl hnc.1l' arrays [adapted from t.elcc G,,'()'jystc ms. 11C.

    239

    rometry Using Linear & Area Arr ays

    1200. - - - - - - - - - ,...-- - - - --,


    ~7 13.

    Lcic a G~....s~SICnlS ,\ irbomc Digita l Sensor 010


    f " I)SAO ) ctnvac rcrisncs.

    Band

    Spectral
    Re so lutio n
    (n m)

    Spatial
    Re solution
    (e m) at Nadir

    p"

    -u.5 - MW

    variable
    15cmru
    1 "'~OmAGL

    B1~

    G"~

    Roo
    \e:umfrarcd

    '"'"
    ~

    J 30 - 4'H:J

    variable

    '" '"

    variable

    to lO- MO

    \ ariablc

    SJ5 - !IllS

    \anahle

    1111 lmll ~ i n 2

    Puna l'"no"
    Ro)'ak C(lU,,"

    Rood
    r.;..-::::. " .

    "0
    Figure 7-38

    12,000 pixels

    to.5 urn

    DlIt"", per

    r"".:IIm mal i(- "

    liInIr " rra~'

    2 )( I :!,OOO
    Ifull,,!wctrol " 12.000

    hdiumcu ic

    12-hil

    iMl~fi"n

    foll.(>nl:t h

    62,7 mm

    1MJ,t\I ,\ pp licll-

    I : ~ OO - 1:5,000 (dependin g upon aircraft ahuudc A(iU

    Get-I\'f~rcnc i n l:

    l r si n ~

    ~pt'l'l romete r

    ~nll

    Jfl

    roo

    Wa ' c lcn~ lh,

    )(110

    ' 000

    nm

    Imaging s~lmmclo:r l'mopsrec'l f3 for Pima OOU(>rl.


    R~a 1c couce. anJ ro.>d ~u r fac ~' extracted from :! x
    :! m (\.11a .... hmined near Bakersfield. CA

    7 linear array CCDs

    8lwtur ~ilC'

    0IHI~(J1~

    Crop ~ pccl ra Oh tllillnl

    WOIl

    Applani x !' OS IM U
    with m-s and INS

    ~JIlCC data w ith suffi cien t spectral resolut ion tor the direct
    *nliticalion of those mate ria ls with d iag nOSl ic spectral
    m rption features . For example. Figure 73S depic ts high
    ~lr.I l resolution crop spectra ove r the interval ~(lO to lOHH
    oblained using an imaging spec tromete r for an agricul'lIll ~rca ncar Bake rs field. CA. The absorption spectra for
    k Pima and Royale colton diller from one another from
    twinS om. \I here th..." red edge" is located, 10 aOllul 90 0
    leading to 10c pos sibility that SIX."l,: io:S .... ithin the same
    I1tf type might he dist inguishable (S BRC, It,lt,lol). T he
    UIIlbJl scanners and Sf'OJ' II RV s...nsors, .... hich ha ... e rete) lall;': ban dw idth s, may IUlt be able to resolve the se
    ~I duferences.

    Simultaneous imaging in many contiguous spec tra l ban ds


    requires ant'.... approach to remote sensor system design.
    O ne approach is 10 increa se th... reside nce time of a detector
    in each IFO V using a linear army or detector clements (F igure 7-.k I. In this con figurauon. there i-, a dedicated detecto r
    clcmcnt for each cross-tra ck pixe l. .... hich inc reases the rcsidc ncc t im e III the interval required til mo ve one II'DV along
    the n ight direction.

    T.... ll more pmcucalapproachcs 10 imaging spectrome try are


    shown in Fig:ures 7 J d und Je. The .... his kbroom sca nne r lincur a rray app roach (Figure 73 d ) is "ll aloguus 10 the sca nner
    approach used for Land sat " ISS and ETJ\l ', except that radiant flux from within the IFOV is passed to a spectrometer,
    whe re it is dispersed und foc used onto ; 1 line ar array o f
    detectors. Th us. each pixel is simultancouvly sensed in as
    man y spe ctra! band s as there are dctector c temcms in the lincar arr ay, For hig h spat ial resolution illl<1ging. thi s approa ch
    is sui ted on ly to an nirho mc sensor that n ics ,s lo wly and
    when the readout urnc
    the detector array i, a small Fraction o f the integ ration time . Because o f high spacecraft
    ve loc ities. orhitn l imag ing spcctnuuctry might require the
    usc o f rwo-dimcn-oonal area arrays ( Figu re 7 - 3c ~ . This d iminatcs the need for the optical scanning me chanis m . In this
    situation, there i'i a dedicated co lumn o r spectral de tecto r
    e lements for eac h linea r array cross-tra ck pixel in the scene.

    or

    T hus. traditional broadba nd remote sens ing sy ste ms such as


    Landsat \ISS and SilO I HR\' 1/1/,,,",,<111/1'1(' the information
    availublc from a reflectance spectrum by making on ly a few
    measure ments In spectral hand s up to several hundred
    nanometers .... ide . Co nverscly. inlilging spe ctrometers sample at dose inte rvals (bands on the o rder o f lo:nsof nanomc-

    Multisp ectral Remote Sensing Systeflll spectra

    240

    Table 7

    NASA Airborne Visible Infrared

    Ima~ing Spectrometer

    AVI RIS

    Sens

    \\ htskbroom
    scan ner

    \\ IR
    -

    400 IlID

    1
    1
    1
    1
    ;1
    2
    ~
    '
    ;
    1

    C-\.~

    1500

    handsIII
    atl OQlll

    uov lJiI

    nominal

    b,,~ .,,"

    .. 1.0 mrad

    (10"

    hund

    hyl*
    all c
    JPL
    corn

    Ima
    spe

    '0

    tc

    Airl
    ~

    Radiant Ilux (<1'1 wuhin a 1,0 mrad lFOV (IS) is directed


    \ ia a scanning mirro r 10 linear arra y dc tctors:
    Srhcon ( S i ) for the \ rsrhle han ds;
    Indu nn-amuuonidc HoSb) for the infrared band s

    .; 2000

    ..
    -oco

    Th

    .n

    in!
    sec

    1000

    I~

    M OO

    Wavele ngth In m l
    Figure 739

    ('onc'"l"lual rcprcSt'ma ll<Hl of imaging spectroscopy as rmplcmcrucd hy 11ll" :-.JASA .1 PI. " ir!>urn.: visible -Infrared I
    SpcctrOlll<: IC I (AVIRIS ). The scanne r mirror focuses radiant Fl ux " 111ll linear ar rays rhut contain 22 4 dete ctor clements ~

    spectral sensitivity ranging from -11 K! to 25(}fl om. A spcrtru of radiance 11.) or pcrccm retlcct..mce can he obtained fore
    picture clement. The AVIRIS scene was acquired over the KcnTlcdy SI'<ICC Center, FL. Only lI,lIld 30 \(,55.56 tim) isdir.pli)
    (adapted from Filippi,

    tc rs wi de) and have a sufflcicm num be r of spect ra l hands III


    meas ured by laooralllry ins truments. Analysis of imaging
    spe ctro me ter data allow s ex tmcuon o f a detailed spectru m
    for each pic tu re d e me nt in rhe image ( Figure 7-3') 1. SUL'h
    spectra onen alkrw d in..'l.:1 idcutificauon spcciflc mate rials
    wit hin the IFOV of the sensor based upon the ir rc tlecmnce
    characreri-aics, including minerals. atr nos phcnc gases, vegetut ion, SIIOW and icc, a nd dissolved matter in water bodic'S ,

    or

    Analysis of h~~T"ipl"CIT31 duta o tten requires the use o f


    process ing softw are te.g..

    sophisncatcd d ig ila l image

    tc

    I')<l'l),

    allow const ruction of spect ra t hur closely resem ble those

    "'
    "
    a

    EN VI). Th is is because it is usua lly necessa ry 10 calibrll


    [conv ert } the raw hypcrvpect ra l radiance data to se
    reflectance be fore it can be properly interpreted . This m
    removing the e ffect s of at mospheric auenuanon.
    grap hiL' e ffec ts (s lope, a ~ pc.::tl , and any sensor anomal
    Si milarly, to get the mos t out of thc hy pcrspee tral data '
    usua lly necessary 10 usc algoruhrnv tha t I ) a nalyze spt\1I1
    dcterrnme us consutncm ma terials , an d 2 ) compare the
    Ira wi th a library of spec tra obtained usi ng han dheld s
    rad iometers suc h as that Pf(1\ ideo hy the U,S, Geol
    Sun-C) (1L'nsl;."n.20()5),

    ,s

    241

    iEtroroolry Using Li nea r & Area Array s

    IillII!7 14, f'haructcrisucs Ill' Ih... NAS:\ Aim-orne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer ( . W IRIS\an<lth<' I'm I'S Research. Ltd . Compact Specerographtc trnegcr 1511C1 ICAS r 15(0) hyperspcctral rem, lie -en~lIl!:t S~"lcms.

    ,.""
    I \\1RI...,

    Tec hnology
    " hrskbroom

    Quantizati on
    (bits )

    IFOV
    (m rad )

    Tol al
    fiel d of
    v iew (")

    224

    "

    1.0

    Jl~

    possible 31 2.2 om: the


    number or bands anJ the
    number 1'1'pi'l c I.. In Ittc
    across-track an: programmab le.

    "

    0 ,-1<)

    -105 "

    (o m )

    Spectral
    In terva l
    (om )

    Num ber 01 Band s

    .lO _ 2.5/MI

    ItI

    -\Ol)_ 105f1

    2.2

    Spectral
    Resolution

    lmear array
    f" 1

    I'"

    L inear (I ~:oI() and

    area ami)' ceo


    114~O)(

    2:<1\)

    :!}\!'I

    cenmcnt agencies and commercial firms have desig n..-d


    Ilttds of imaging spectrometers capable of acquirmg
    ~!r3 1

    data. II is beyond tile scope ofthis hook 10 list


    Only three systems arc summarized: NAS A
    In Airborne Visit>lc ' lnfrarcd Imaging Spectrometer. the
    ,'"'a'!'Ciall y available CUIIlp<ll'1 Airborne S(l<:'clrogr.lphie
    , I ~ them .

    I .~ er I~OO. an d ~ASA's Moderate Reso lutio n Imagi ng


    ~ctcronho':lfd the Tina satettne .
    ~

    Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer

    'k first airborne ima ging spectrometer (AIS) was buih to


    imaging spectrometer concept with infra red area
    liiyqVan.:and Ooc t/ . 11111.1). The spectral coverage or the
    iIltIIJmcnt was 1.9 III ::!. I ~111 in the 11\'" mode JmI 1.2 to::!,4
    llllinmck mode in co nt iguous bnnds tha t w crcc..' nm wide.

    I'll the

    luacquirc data with g rcrucr spec tral and spatial cove rage,
    W1R IS \\OS devel oped at NASA's Jet Propuls ion LaboraIll)' in Pasadena. C t\ (Tah le 7- 14 ). L Js i n ~ a whiskbroom
    fCllln ing mirror and linear arrays o f silicon (Si I and ind ium anmonidc (ln Sh) configu red ns in rlgurc 7-3d, AVIRIS
    ~uirc\ images in 224 bands . each 10 11m w ide in the 400 to
    :500 0 111 region (NAS A AVIRIS, 20( 6 ). The se nsor is typii'JIl)' fl ownonbo urd the NASA/ ARC ER-2 airc raft at 20 km
    ixlw!:!rtlund level and has a ] OQtotal field of view and a n
    esamancous field of view of \.0 mrnd. \\ hie h yield, 20 x
    .!Om pixels. The data arc recorded in 12 h its [ val ues from ()
    11.:095 )
    \\l RIS characterist ics are summarized in Fig ure 7-J9. The

    southern en d cr San Francisco Ba y, Three of the 22-1 spectral


    hands of data were US\-d to produce the color composite on
    top of the J~\ J",nf'<'I.,trllf tI,' Ii/Olne , The hlaek areas in the
    datacubc represent uun os phcnc ah-orprion bands at I .... and
    1.9 urn.

    Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager 7500

    ITRES Research. Ltd .. of C an; IJa markets the C AS I remote


    sensi ng system. The CAS I 1son is a push broom imagi ng
    spect rome ter based on the u-,c of a 14XlJ d em ent acrosstrack linear array a nd a I-IXO x 281\ area array CC O ( Figure
    7-.": 1.T he instrument operates over a M O-nm spe ct ral range
    (4()(llo 1050 nnu and has a 4 0.5 Q lotlll field o f' view ac ross
    14RO pi 'l:c1s (IT R[ S. 2n( 6).
    A sing le line {,I' terrain I Axn pix els wide perpe nd icu lar to
    till' Ilight path is sensed by the spectro meter optics ( Figure 740 ). Th e radia nce from within the IH >V is s pec trally dispersed along tllC uxi. of the urea ,Inay CC D so that a spe ctrum of en ergy [ from blue thro ugh nrur-inf rnrcd) is obtained
    fo r each pi ~ e l arro~s the swuth. By repetitively read ing the
    conte nts Il l' the area a rray e CD ,IS the a ircra ft moves a long
    the llig ht path, ,It \\o-dilm'nsi'' nal image at high s pectra l reselution is acq uired. Si nce the rad iant tl ux tor fill pix els in a
    particular sw a lh arc record ed sim uhuncously. spnrtat and
    spectra l ( o-reg istration is assured. T he across-track spa tia l
    resolut ion is de termined hy the alt itud e o f tile CASI above
    ground level and the IFU V, while the along-track resolu tion
    de pends upo n the velocity o f the aircrafl and the Tate at
    whic h the ('('D is read.

    Ilagram depieb a single hand of A\' IRIS image ry l band ) 0;

    I i555b nm) {lblained

    lhe Ke nnedy Space Lenter. FL.


    Dl radiance data extracted Illr a singk pi'l:e l of saw palD:!IO n-geta ti{lIl . Color Plate 7-10 depic ts a portion of an
    ~\lR1S dataset acquired over ro. l\lflctl Field, CA al Ihe
    O \W

    CAS 1 1500 may be progra mll1\'d toco llee l 14bit data in scvern l mc..k s (Tahle 7-1 41 (I T KES. 2UOb):

    ~ 7

    n l.\ l'n :1(

    242

    11 )!H'rSIH'ctraIDat:l Collect io n
    lJ s i ll ~ Line ar- and Area Ana) s
    " I N.

    1050 nm

    spectl

    from 9 50 to :!45 0 nm at 15 nm intervals \\ ith a swath


    o f flOO pixel s (ITRES. 20(6 ).

    Moderate Resofution fmaging Spectrometer

    The ;\loo l.' ratc: Resolution Imaging Spec tro meter is l1(l\\o
    N..\ S..\ s EnS Terra 18. m. eq uatorial cross ing ti me) and.
    (p.m. equatoria l eru~~i l1g ti me) sa tel lites. MODIS
    long- term obscrvuuons to deriv e an enhanced knew!
    glo bal dy nam ics and proc......ses occurri ng o n the surfaa
    the Ea rth and in thc lower atmos phe re IK i n~. 2003: 'l.
    \10DlS. :!OO6). It yie ld, vimultane..-ous obse rvatio ns of ,
    atmosphe nc {clou d cov er and associated propernesj,
    an ic (....:a-s urfacl:: tempe rature and ch lorophyll). and
    surface [land -cover chang es. land-surfa ce temperature,
    vegetation properti es ] features .

    '"

    hands

    Figure 7-40

    Mu lt ispec tral Rem ote Sensi ng System>

    Hypcrspcctral data collecnon tJ ~in g a linear array


    pus hbroom M:n ,..,r that dist ribu tes the cn~'l);Y <JIlIO a
    I axn x 22x clement area army M..nsuiv e 10 the
    \0, ;) \ ctcug th region from ~()O
    1,050 nm.

    '0

    :-"p lI/illl 11I0<1.'- where the full ac ross-track rcso hnion nj


    I.-lKO pixe ls lire obtained fI 'T up 10 IY nonoverlapping
    spectral bands w ith programmable center w uvch.. ngth s an d
    bandwidth s.

    I ( llJ,'n p CCII'<l! mc/,k ' - up to J ,4S0 prog r<lrnmablc adj acent


    spatial pixels and lip 10 ::!XK spectral hands over the full
    spectral range.
    F ilII j iWl1('-I,4I<O spalilll pix els (ac ross- track ) and Z8X
    spect ral hand s.

    Th e spec ific bandwidths art' selected according to the applicanon (c .g .. bath ymetric mapp ing , inventory ing chloro phyl l
    tl co nce ntration]. The result is a programm able area arm y
    remote sr-nsing syste m that may he the precu rso r o f future
    satel lite hypc rspc ctral sensor systems.
    IT R ES also ma rkets the SASI t>OO. This is the first hyperspect ral S WIR syste m 10 coll ect in frared data in 100 bands

    ~ODl S is in a 70 5-km Sun-sync hronous om it. lt \io'j


    entire surface of the Earth e\'e \1 o ne 10 1'10 da ys. It
    field o f \ 'ic\\ of 1;550 o ff-nad ir. whi ch y idds a swath 11
    o f 2,330 km . \10015 obtains high radio metric resol
    images ( 12-hil l o f dayli ght-rcn L'C ll::d solar rad iat ion and
    nig fu thermal emission 0 \ cr all region... of the glo be. ~ l
    is a \I his kbroom scanning imag.ing radiometer eonsi51~
    a cros s-trac k sca n mirror. co llec ting. opt ic s, and a set of
    car detector arra ys with ep cc tral imcrfcrcn cc filters I
    in four fO" 111 plane s ( Figure 7-3d ), II col!c-cts data ill
    coregiste red spectral hands: 20 hands from 0 ... to 3 ~m
    16 bands from J til 15 u r n. The bandwidths and rhcir p ,
    use s nrc summari zed in (Table 7- 15 ).

    MODIS' coarse spat ial rcsoluuo u ran ges from 250 x 2.-'1)
    (ba nds I i1mI 2) 1tl 500 x 500 III (bands 3 thro ugh 7)and t
    I km (hands X through 36 ). A MO DIS hand 4 (green: O~
    - 0.565 ~1I11 ) image o r the N ile Della. the N ile River.
    muc h o f the a rea surround ing 11K' Red Sea is sho wn in Pi
    7-t L1. 1lenhh y vegetation absorbs muc h o f the imiJ
    green radiant fl ux . therefo re, the vegetated area.
    recorded ill dark tone s in thi s \10DIS image. MODIS p;r:
    vid cs daylight rctle..-uon anti day/night emission spec
    imaging ofany poi nt o n Earth at ka sl every 1\\'0 days. \lit!con tinuous duty cycl e, The swath w idth is 2330 km
    track. ,\ composhc in1<lgo: o f glnn,ll MODIS co verage
    A pr illlJ. 2000, is show n in Figure 7-4 Ib.
    \1(1)IS has one o f the most co mpreh ens ive ca libration
    systems ever Flown on a re mote sensi ng insrru meru. The
    ibration hardware inc lude s a sol ar d iffus er. a solar diffusl
    stahrlny mo nitor, a spccrroradiomeiric cahb ration i
    mcr u. a blac kbody for the rma l calibration. and a space l it"
    pon . The cahb rauc n a llows thc, optical data 10 be rom

    Tablt

    243

    ip!c:lromel ry using linear & Area Arravs

    Ith
    Cha r.l~lc ri~l ics

    "<:Ie 715.

    Band

    "

    of the 7.:"11 satellite Moderate Reso lution Imag ing Spec trometer (:\IODI5 ).

    Spe c tra l Res olution (iJm )

    Band Utilit y

    Spati al Resolution

    0.62 0 - 0.6 70

    250 x 250 m

    Land-cover classifica tion. c hlorophyll absorp-

    O.lUl - 0.1\76

    250 x 250 m

    lion. leaf-area-index mapping

    0 .4511 - O.4N

    5OOxjOOm

    Land. clou d. and aerosol properties

    0.51>5

    "

    'f

    0.545

    ,r

    1.2.'0 - 1.250

    1,(,21\ - 1.652

    500xjOOm
    5(0)( 500 m
    500)( 500 m

    2.105 -2.155

    SOo)( 51)0 m

    0.405 - 0.410

    I x I Ian

    0 ,4)1< _ 0 .44 11

    0,M2 -0.672
    O.673 -0.bN3

    I )( 1 km
    I )( I km
    I x I km
    l x l km
    I x 1 km
    I x I km

    is

    0.743 - 0.753

    l x

    I6

    0.1\62 - O.!'i77

    Lx I km

    17

    n.sco -.0 .'120

    "10

    (l ,1I31 - 1I.'I-41

    t x t km
    I x I km

    0.')15 - 0.%5

    I xlk m

    zo

    1 600 -3.1140
    3.919 - 3.98'1
    3.929 -3.'1'1'1
    4.020 - 4.O!W

    lxlkm
    j x I km
    I x 1 km
    Ixlkm

    Surface-cloud temperature

    4.4B 4.4' )1\


    4.4 IC - 4.54'1

    I x I km

    Atrnovphcnc tempe rature

    1 x I km

    1.360 - 1.3<)0

    I x I km

    Cirru s d o uds

    05 .15 _ h .I\Y5

    ""

    I x I kill
    l xtkm
    I x I krn

    water vapor

    7. 175 - 7.475
    K.4110 - K.7011

    )11

    9 ,51\0 - 1).1\1<0

    1 y I km

    Ozone

    Jl
    J2

    I O.711 0 - 11.::! ~ O

    l xlkm

    Surface-cloud tcrupcmturc

    11.770 -1 2.l7 0

    t xtkm

    13.185 13.4'15 13.785 14Jl!'lS -

    l x lklll
    1 x I km
    lxlkm
    1 x I km

    ,,
    10

    OAS) - OAQ)

    II

    0526 - 0.536
    0.54(,- 0.556

    12

    I3
    14

    21

    22
    23
    24

    zs

    "27

    J3
    J4

    "

    16

    13.485
    13.7!'l 5
    14.08 5
    14.3 !'l 5

    dO scalcd retlccmncc. !\IDOlS da ta arc being proc es sed to


    JWC numerous global darasers. incl ud mg ( NASA ,.,IODIS ,
    ~):

    Oo.;COIll co lor. phytoplankton. biog ccochcruistry

    t km
    " lllltl~rhcric water

    \ Jpor

    Cloud-top a llilu,!c

    land ecosystem variables te.g., vegetation ind ices, lea f


    area inde x, fractio n ofphotosymheucally activ e radia tion,
    vegeta tion ncr primal) produc tion] :

    ...

    l IlA I'rn~

    244

    ~ Iod('ra te

    Resolut ion

    Ima ~i n g

    a. \lODIS band -l image of the ~i lc Delta


    obtained on Febru ary 211, 2000.
    Figu re 7 41

    Multispectral Remote Sensing Systems

    Spectrurnvt er (;\IO I>I S)

    Ima gl'r ~'

    DigitI

    Table

    h. A composite hand I image of ~lohal Terra ,tOJ)[S


    cove rage " 11 Apr il 19.2000.

    Term , 1(1(>1 ... band 4 (green: 0.545 _ O.5M I!m) imag... ~,f !he hell'l l} \e~el"l\-d "-lile Delta. the ~ik River. and mucllof
    area surrounding the Red Sea. (land -l has a spatia l resolution "r ~oo >( 500 111 , II) A composite: o.md I Ired: 0.(>2 - 0.(.;
    i ma~ C' 01 the glollal rerra \ IODIS oovcrdge on April 1'1. 211C~ I , I he MO DIS ew ath w 1,111'1 ,, 2.JJlI krn an~"lracl rc
    ~AS:\ God dard Space night Center).

    atmosphe ric varia bles (c .g.. cloud fraction, cloud optica l


    thickness. aerosol optical depth. etc.j:
    ocean vuriublcs
    chlorophyll}.

    (c.g .,

    sea-surface

    temp erature and

    Digital Frame Cameras B ased on A rea


    Arrays

    T he cha rge- coupled-de vice (e CD ) was inv ented in the late


    1 960 ~ by sc ie ntis ts at the n <:11 Lnbs. II wa s nrigi nJ lIy 1.'0 11ccived as a ne w IYr~' of'corn puter me mory circuit. hUI it soon
    became ap pare nt rhur it ha d ma ny ot he r a pplication s. including im age data collection. be ca us e of the se nsi tivit y of ~ il i
    con to light.
    Th e genera l charucrerisrics Ill' sm atl-. rncdi um- , a nd largeforma t d ig ita l cameras we re introduced in C ha pte r a . T his
    section su mmarizes the characterist ics an d pro vides examplc s o f imagery ass ociutcd w it h th ree rcprcscntauve ex am ples of modern dig ital ca meras. We be g in w ith the: medium
    format Lcica GeoSystems Emerge D ig ital Se nsor System

    (OSS ) based on are a arrey techno logy ( Fig ure 7-30 and,
    progress II ' mere ,"' phistica l~ large-fo rma t d ig ital camea
    based on (/J\'<.I array ( f r;1 l11 c ) techno lo gy (Z, I D \ IC and \"a
    cc! L" h raC arn).

    Small-format Digi tal Data Collec /ion: Leica


    Geosysrems Emerge Digital Sensor System

    T he Di gital S..- ns or System (DSS l use s a digi tal c ame ra ala


    array lhal acquires imagery containing ..f.ll 92 x 4,079 pixd!
    ( Table 7-16), Each pixe l in the arcu a rray is 9 x 9 micron>.
    US<:N C'l11 ~ rl.'cify 1.:,)101' (blue, gree n. and red , or co lor-infrared I gree n. red, anti near-iufrurcd I mu ltihand imagery in tit
    spect ra l reg ion from 0.4 III 0 .9 urn. In nca r-io frurcd mode.
    the senso r has a s pec tra l res ponse simi lar 10 tha t o f Kodak
    Ae roc hromc 24..fJ color-in frared film. bu t with hig.hl:r
    dynamic range . Th e data may 01.' rec orded at 8 o r 16 bits per
    pixel. Emerge collects rca t-nmc ditlc-rcnually corre cted GP'i
    data atxuu each digital frame Ill' im;lgery. These dat a are u:l(lJ
    III mosaic and onhorccrify the imai:\l.'r) usi ng phutogram meric techniques introd uc ed in C hapter b. The p ixel pla ccrnea
    accuracy mcco national map acc uracy standards ILigbt.
    2nO\; Lcica Emerge. 2006).

    245

    t::igital Fram e Camera s Based o n Area Arra ys

    Ti'Jle 716.

    Leica ( kusy~l em s Pmcrgc Digital Sensor System


    ( USS l characterist jcs.

    ..,d

    Spectral
    Re solut io n
    Nalural Color
    Mod.

    Spectrttl
    Reso lutio n
    Near-+nfrared
    Mod.

    Spa tial
    Resolu tio n

    (nm)

    (n m)

    1m )

    400 - 500

    Variable.
    but usually
    0.15 ttl 3 m

    5110 - hllI l

    510 - tollO

    Variat-Ie.
    bul usually
    0.15 In3 m

    600 - (,1:(0

    600 - 700

    Varia ble.
    but usually
    0.15 103m

    !too _ QfI(J

    elu tion compa red to the pa nch roma tic dat a. Ind ividual
    fram es (If imagc ry are obtained just like a trad itiona l frame
    ca mera w ith use r-s pecified end-lap between fra mes (1lin z d
    al.. 20(1 ).

    Larg e-form at Dig ital Data Collec tion : Vexc el Unm c em


    ba sed on Area Arrays

    The vc xccl large-format d igita l camera USl~ eig ht optical


    cones [i.e., \ ie" ing pon~ ) wit h 1] area array CC[)~ srretcg ically located behind the <ight purls- Nmc o tthe 40 0 IJ x 2700
    CCD arrays arc use d III collect panchromatic da ta. Four o f
    the ecn 3tT.lys arc used 10collect hluc. gree n. red , a nd nearinfrared multispectra l data . Each frame of una ge ry is 11.500
    )C i500 pixels in dimension. Individ ual frame
    s of imagery
    arc o btaine d w ith use r-specified en d- lap between frames
    ( Ve \ cd . 20 0M .

    Variahle.
    bu1 u"uall)

    U.S. Sp ace Shuttle Digifal Pho tography

    0.15 103m
    "falnr

    All.'a arrays (4OQ~

    DrlN"IOr ~i l'"

    OJI09 mm

    Rad illln ~lrk

    loI- and It> hit

    )C

    40 79)

    Rrwl utin"

    I' ASA astronauts document Earth processes during Space


    Sh uttle S pace Trunsportanon System (STS ) missions using:
    bo rh ana lo g and digi ta l earners syste m" [L ulla and Dcssinov;
    2 0l )(l). Photograph y are cataloged into a database accord ing
    10 the specific mission rc.g.. ST S 74 1 or b~ thematic topic
    (~ :\SA Shuulc I'hcuogruphy, ~OO(I),
    S pat'l.' S h ull l", Analull ("a ll1l' nt\

    AIariet)' (If n ying heighls and diffe rent focal-le ng th Niko n


    eases can be use d 10 obtain imagery with sp,llial resolutions
    nngmg frum 0. 15 10 J 11l. Figure 7--12 dep icts mul us pecr ral
    bands of Em erge I x I 111 imngcry obtained over Du nk irk ,
    ~ y Stich high -res olution darn can be collected on dem and
    1Il good weather. A color-i ufrurcd composite o f thc s.uuc
    scene is found in Co lor Plate 7- lla. A natura l co lor Emerge
    erne of an urea adj acent to a New York Po wer Auth ori ty
    ~ke is found in Co lo r Pla te 7-1 1h.

    Largeforma t Dig ital Data Collec tion: ZI1 Dig ital


    Mrxiular Camera

    Hassclblad and linhof' analog cameras arc used (In Space


    Shcnlc missions . The fo ur w indows ill the a ft pa rt o f the
    Space Slunrlc arc used 10 obtain photog raphy o f the Earth.
    The windows allo l-\ 0.4 In n.x u m ligh t In pa ss through . Very
    low- Sun ang !.: photography ob tained fro m the Space Shuttle
    otl ce provides uniqu e topog raphic view s o f remote mounminous an'as othc rwisc poorly mapped Sevcmy-tlve per cem ofjh e ph ulogra phs ill the urchiv e cov er the reg ions
    between 21r' \I and 21\ S l.uitudc. pro viding coverage for
    man y liulc-known tropical areas. T he Space Shuttle Earth
    Observuuons Project (SSEO I') <II NASA Job nson Sp ace
    Center contains the rec ords o f more than -100,000 ph otogra phs (hnp :lii mages.js c .nasa.gll \ ).

    TheZil Digita l \ 1udu lar C Ull.:f;I n K: l\l) uses fo ur 7()()n x


    .;(00

    r CD area arrays to o btain one co mplete frame of

    IIIlJgery. All (,CDs haw their own oplics and func tion as
    sand-alone d i~:ital ca meras that arc sy nc hronized to collect
    ib!.J at the exact same instan t. Fou r addition al CC Ds with
    3000 )( 2()(1() detectors are need to obtain blue, green. red .
    IIId nea r-in fnJrl~d muhi"pt:<:lra l da ta at lhe same inslant.
    Tbmforc. the multi:;pt.'\: tral ba nd.. ha\ e rcduc..:d ground rcs-

    ...

    Space Shuttle a nd S pace Sia liun Di::til:11

    r h u l O~r:Jp h~'

    The lntematiunal Space SlatIon ( ISS) wus launch ed Nov e r nbcr Z.

    ~ OOO.

    Th e Uni ted S tal e!' ISS Laboratory Mod ule has a


    (lpliea l wimlll\\ with a clear ape rturc 50.K
    e m in d iame ter thilt is pc rp.:ndlcu l:u 10 the- Ea rth's s urface
    mo st of the lime. In 20lH, ;l:-tw nauls bega n acq uiring d igita l
    spl"Ci all~ design~-d

    Multispe ctral Rem ole Sensing Systems

    246

    Referem

    Digital Fram e C a mer a Imagery of Dunkirk.;'IriY

    T.
    Ta

    h. Roo hand.

    a. Green hand.
    Fig ure 74 2

    c. " o:ar-i nfra rcoJ band.

    Lcica (;t'tK)skmS lO me'll c Dlgllll ',,'nlf S) 'It"Il1 (DSS, muttrs pcctra l ImageI') " r I )unkl rl. . '<Yo l"hc <lata ...ere wl1edtd
    December l~. 1<)')1$. at a spaual r<.-"MJlutillll of 1 x I III(wtll1..:,) Limon Emerge. Inc.).

    imag es u ,in~ a KllC.bl.o De S 76 0 ca mera with Nikon lenses.


    Both color and monoc hrome d igital imagc:s rna) be

    obta ined, The camera uses a

    3 0J~

    x 20m: eC D. Digua l

    imag c' (In: uun suiincd di rec' l) In thc grou nd . A d igita l photogra ph of the Toq ucpala Coppc r \ i ino: in Sou thern Peru
    take n from the Intcmanona l Space Statio n I'll Se ptember 22.
    200.1. j, shown in Figure 7-0 .

    (i.'u">e. 211(1(. lJRlU MA(j L"( mll! ,I.'!n .'''" lI lII., i li ,,,, ofSpJaI
    " gmg. ('h"'lg,., Ur,m,1 S,u""lo (;,,<,r:.I''' , Dull...". VA: Goo
    Inc. Pre ,,, rod...a , ...Jan uary 12; \1'\1'" .gllc)'....com .
    Hin z...\ .. C Doe r- tel. nnd II fook icr, 2(lltl. /H /C

    Ti,.. ()ig,"

    S"",,,, Tr'-/m"l"gy ' !f II Imagi'll< . I II I> I' nbc h and R. "1'11


    I Eds.}. 1''''''''.eIWIIII/,'!Ii< Il " "~ .' /JII I J lculcl berg: Wichman
    '>3- 1Il~.

    Referen ces
    Im'lgc Sal. 20111,. nUJ.'; I A. www.i Il1 3I!l..a uml.com..
    I

    lJ ig llalO ltll1C. 200\ !Jlg/w /t;/,, !>,' /.;1II'<'I!.\ l 'lan' fo!' WOl'hl r ,c\"
    I <111.1 II. Oc r.. 4; ww w.diguulploh c.com

    nn :-..

    ] 11 (1(,. C" f,hmlnl Air/10m .. Sfw"lmgrof' l,ic Imil!;


    /5 1111. Canada: IT RES Rc scurch lt d .. \, \, w.urcs. com.

    Jensen. J, R.,
    [>igi ra1( ; lobe . 2001>,

    f) i~ III1 I (jI" />.,, www .dl g ita l !! l uh~ . Cl.l11 .

    2 ()O.~.

    f'1lmtl"" !III'}' /ligi lilf Imag.. I'm ('<'\'.,i ng..j

    K,

    N"IUllle S"/IIill~ f '<'I '.'f',,'lin'. l.:p[1 er SaJ J 1c Rive r: PremiclI a ll. 5] '; r .

    Fili ppi. A .. 1'/O I'J. II I'{" ' rll't'I '!I'</I I " ",g l' ( 'lo H i!ic,/fI ml U, ill~ A
    Ualt'h /)"."'i'II ,Ii/l,1{ Fvzzv f." ,m lillg 1",( I,W (J'''lII li: ,u i<J'I Arlifi ,;,,1 V,'/lral /\,'I " O/.\-: l"gt"l<i!iull \1" !'f' i' l)J u! ,/1t' J uhn F.

    A"JlJIt,/\' Sf'an ' C,mer. unp ublished Masre rs thesis. L'olumbra : Uni\crsil) of South L'urohna. 276 p.
    Gavparovic. R. ~ .. 21Kn. ( ),or "" N" n", !" S" "" m~ Pn>~'WJl . John
    Hop kin.. Unrvc reuy Applu:d l'II>",c" Laboratory. lIup: 1 fe rmi.)h ua pl.cJui:1\ hrr indcx.html.

    Je nsen. J. R.. Bc tr hw uy. K.. Hrcnua n-Uulviu. L.. Joha nnscn.C


    Juni a, C . Mab og unj.... . \ ., \ l ilk r, R.. Price. K.. Re ining. P
    'k" lt>. D., x tauciolt, A. au,1 D. R. L Taylor. ~lJU2. f),,~n
    Eunlt .' G",,!:r,,!,},,< I"{urmun"" ./;,,. Sl/.IwiJl"I,!t LA'wlupllwlJ
    ill l(ri,..,. Wavhington : Nauonal Academy Press. 155 p.

    K idwell . K. II.. 1 '!'1.~. ,\(H.~ Pol,,, Orlnter 0./1'1 L".l'<,r; GuiJ!.


    TlROS. ,V Ihll>ugh ;\o.~ ". N . Waslnngton: \; 0 :\.-\ U .S. Otpl.

    01 Comme rce. 50 p.

    247

    werences

    Ili ~ilal

    Frame Ca me r a Im a!:c of the


    Toquepula Copper ,' li nt' in SUUlht'r n l' cru
    Taken from the Int ernational Space Station

    l.ulla . K. an d L. Desvinov. 21lUll. Oy" " m ic f /l,.th Knvtronmen ts:


    R"", ,,'" S",/wlg ()!>.,en', lIio,,-,

    /1'''111

    Shulllt J/ ir J /in iom ,

    :'LY.: Ju hn \Vi h,:y. 2M! p.

    NAS .'\ Arrbom.... 2(lU(,. .vASA ,4" ho" m: S..,n ,," Facihty. MulTc lt
    Fie ld. C A: I\AS,\ Alii ...,. Airborn e S c nsor Fac ili ty. hltp:llas ap-

    data. arc.nas a.gov /.


    l" AS A AS TE R. :!fl(lo6. ,4,1,,,,,,,,,,01 Sl'd,e"'. m~' TIt,',.-m,,1 mi.uilln
    ,mol R,:f/t ..tion RoJ","', I,'''-, htt p:l'astt:'rw et'o .jp l.na sa .gov/.
    ;';AS,\ AVI RIS. 2006. .4irb." " , li.,ihl. I"/ ,,,red 1"',lgi " g S".,c/...uneter. hn p:f1a\ irss. jpl.na(,1.(:llvf.
    l"A SA r O - I. 2()o(" E."..,1t 0 1>se,....,,.- 1. hltp:f1eo l .gs fe ,nJsa.go\
    NASA ~ S l::. :!OOt>. t:"",n $("1"'" e t:III"rpri~ .:. hllp:flscience .hq.nasa.gov /!>t rale ~}".
    l"ASA La nds at 7. 2(lU6. I..mJ,,,, 7. h tlp:l/landSllt.gsfc. noiSll.g U\

    NASA I fl C \ l . 2OtIn. f <lll//' at f);.", ('(lnlimil ly .\Ii " i (lil . htt p://
    ~ 743

    A ~lfunaut photograph o f the Tuq uepa l.l Copper


    " me in southern Peru l ~ken from the lme rnauo nal

    Space Slaliufl un September 21, 20113, w itb 01 Koda k


    DC'S 7f>O digital camera (ph,,\o # ISSOO7- E-15 222).
    Ilw open pH nun c IS t>oS km across and descen ds
    more th ~n 3.0 00 m into lhe earth, A dar kline on tho;
    wall nf the p il is the ma in a..c-...""rood 10 the bOtlll1l1 .
    Spvi l du mp" o f matcri ul mi nc-d from the pit arc urranged 111 lien; along rhe northwest lip o f the p it
    (cou rtesy <l f K\SA Enrth Observatory and Dr. Knmlcs h Lulla . l" AS,\ Johnson Space Cen ter ).

    ( ing, M., 20U~, r o s /lal<l Product 1/<lII<I/>IIok - Va lWllt' I. wa vh-

    ingwn : NASA, 25K p.


    (ri~hn;\,w a rny.

    r>.1 an d S. Kulyanuratnan , 20\lti. "Indian Re mot e

    Stllsinl1 Satclfnc L'artosut- L: Technical Featu res und Datu


    rrodueb : ' GIS 0 "1'<,1"1'111,'/11' Till' G"" ,,,," li,,1 /'or t" I, http: //
    ",",w.gisdc\ c lop mcnt ,n" t,'I... d m(l l <lgy !r ~llc ,,hr s U2 J,hi m.

    Idea Emerge , 2006. 1.,'i"' l [ 1I1t'log" , hn p:lJSis ,kica-g cos vs1(1111,com/prnd lll:l s/e mc rg..._d ill- Ita l s... ns or remcrgc dss ,a sp ,

    l ight. D. L.; 20l)\. " An Airto"rnc Dire ct Dig ital Im ag ing Sy s


    lffil. Photo/-:" am"'l' l n C f "" KII"'l' r lllK (I< /("" /II/ t' S..lIvi" g.
    M

    6il ll l: I N 9 - 1JUS,

    Lanl Space Sysle ms. 1'I'In, ( ; O f :S 1- \I /luwH""A. Lora l Space


    S~ ste m~_II I> R l lO l.Ol$. Rc visj cn I; :!OU p.

    ldcm.n asa.gov,
    NASA ~lI S R . :!(I(Ifl. Hlllli<lllg f(' h.,,,gmg Sf'l'C'lmmt'll'r. hll p:fI
    www- mis r.jpl.n asa.g uv ind cx.h tml.
    NASA M( l UI S . 2f)(I(" .\I",t.,." , e H"" olllliol/ Iml'.~illg Spt't' /m m-

    ,'I",.. h llp: fln lOd i s, ~s fe, n a 'lI. !!u, I,


    ~ /\ SA I(lr b i m a ~ e Sea \\ i ~S . 20 Ut>. S"" -"; t'wIfIK Wi,/t' Fit'M-o! :
    , 'It' ll'

    .'1"",,<>1', hll p:/l<lc...aucolor.gsfc.na su.gov/Sca Wi FS!,

    NA SA Shull le Photo grap hy, 2tlOl" SpllC" Shu tt l.. t:<lrl h Oh,,''''1'<lII"n I '!t <l/<I!lI'<I/,In'. h IlP:!!CllTlh,;sc .uasa.gov Isscup/c fsl .
    NO.-\A A\' 11 I{ t{ , 200/\, Advam-ed Val' lIiKIt Newllllioll Rudnnn<,1<'1', Ii UP:!!WW"".cs o.nuaa.gov Ipoc s./.

    NO AA D\1 SI'. 20w'. I k / clI \,/' ,\f" I<,omlll}.? im l SIIIt'I/t lt' f 'mg r UIII . htlp:ll", w.... .oso.noa a.gov/dms p/.
    ~o .-\ .-\

    oo F~ . 20110. (ic""

    I,lIIml ,IT)' ( '!,<,roll O/",1 f.'m' im nm n lla l

    Sa td lik , Im p:l, Yo Il. .... .ncs di , . nw a.go\"f~al ...11 itc s.h unl.
    N( M A ('i VI. 21106, GI,,1>,, 1 V".S::O'fII li<l1l tll de r Pmtlll"'-\ . http://
    Yo " "

    Z.ncJc. no aa.g" ,/dl'Csi g viu g/ .

    zooe.

    ,\"(),M/A .4SA P"/'lr Oper u l i m ,,,1


    \I0 .-\.-\/NASA POt'S,
    EII\'imm"elIlul S<lldlik.\ (.\'/'OES), h ltp:lfgo...spocs.gsfc.nasa.gov -.

    ~ 7

    C IIt\ PT ER

    248

    so:\ :\ NI'O ESs. 100(., A" li"'/,ll " " /UI' ()rfllli,,~ 0l'erutiun"t
    Em 'iro nm"/II,IJ S" ,d /il<' S:nfL'm, Illlp: /! ............ .ipo.noaa.gov/.

    Mult ispectr al Remot e Sens in g Systems

    "r

    R~'",,,, ,,h s~"., ,,J Data, w. Lafa yette: UlI


    the Applic anous of Rc mcec Sen sing. 13 - 18.

    "m,.,.\ /II1o!

    ~O .-\A

    l\PP. 20(10. ;\'uli"'l<Il l'o/ur O rh ifUlI{ Op ..r ulioll aJ Environm..m al .'klte/lill! Spl.-m Prt:J",/r<ltv r)' Proj t'f.t. hllp:1f
    VI""'"'.ipo.noaa ,gm Projects/npp.html.

    S P() T Image. :W On. Sf'O T, www.sporimage.com.bome

    eM

    !\RSA. 2006 . III<li<l1/ S<lfim l" / Rntw'" 5.",,;1/1: .... g e,,')', http ://
    www.nrsa.gov.m 'engnrsa/s.itemap.htrnl.

    USGS G lo bal Landcov cr, 200(,. G/,," ,, ( f.uIlJ",n'er


    ;::<IIi"". h nl':f, edcsns I 7.<:T. usgs_g<l\ I ~1ccJ .

    Drbimagc. ::!006. Or" Ii. .. ) und OrM /... - j .


    age.com .

    USG S Glovis. 200f>, GI,,"'" l i " u<lli::UI;on Ik....-r, bup:


    is.usgs.g ov.

    ............." rbi m

    OSTP. 200 5. \lo'"",ru lI,I" ", : L..m, l. ul /Ju tu Contmuitv SI"Uf<'~'


    Adj ll," "''''''. Wa ~hm gton : O ffi ce orxcteece. Techno logy, and
    Policy. hn p:Jlldcm.g.fc.na sa .gu\/dol;S. OSTP_ La nd~l _
    memo _12. 1,\

    r -t',I(' ,rd f

    SURe. l'NoI. 5,,,....(' .'k:m o n . Goleta: Sa OIa Barbara Resea rch

    USGS Land sat 5. 2006. 1.",,,1...t .s Update , Siou.. Falls:


    ERO S Data Cen ter, hlt r :l 1and~l. u"l!s.gO\.
    Vanc, G and A . L II . Goetz, IQQ J , "Tcrrestrial Imaging '
    trom etry: Current Status. f- utu re Trends." RemM e ,wmnr
    1II'i",,,,,,.,,,,. 44 : 117- I ::!n.

    C enter . 33 p.
    ScnS ~ Tech.

    100..J. ,. irl..,rn<' .\f/ll m f'n'lr ul .'K'mmer. "ww.s.:n-

    systcch.com

    Solomon-on, V,. 1')1(4. ' Land -.al 4 amI 5 Slilt us a nd Results Irom
    The matic Mapper Data ..\ na l)' s~s .- T'mc,<'''ing~. ,H",lI lII"

    vex ccl, 200n. t -llraC" m ,.I"l!f' F nr m<ll lJiX'I<l' Comere.


    wW".\ C"Cd. l'"11 .

    Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing

    bjccts that have a tem perature above absolute zero 10 K) emil electromagnetic energy. Therefo re. all the featu res .... c encounter in the landscape everyday, such as vegeta tion, so il. rock . ....ater. ami people. emit thermal infrared
    electromagnetic radiat ion in the 3.0 - 14 u rn poruon of the spectrum .
    Huma ns c:.pcri nee Ih is thermalenergy pr ima ri ly th rough ou r sense o f'to uch.
    For example o: feci the therm al radiant energy from the Sun or ,h e radian t
    energy from a tire on ou r face . Ho....ever, our-eyes ca nnot de tect subtle differences in therma l infrared energy emitted from real- .... o rld objects because our
    eyes are primarily scns tuve (0 short -wavelength visible light from 0.4 0.7
    11m. Ou r eyes a TO: not sen sitiv e 10 the refl ective infrared 10.7 - 3 .0 J.lffi ) or
    thermal infrared l."n.:rgy (3.0 - 14 11m). Fortunately, engineers have developed
    detectors that are sensitive to thermal infrared radiation. Thesc thermal infrared sensors allow human s to sense a previously invisible world of infonnauon as they monitor the therma l characteristics of' the landsca pe.
    When we are ill. one o r the first things \\ e do is take ou r temperature 10 determine if it is different from the normal 98.6 OF (31 C \. If our temperature is
    elevated. it usually mc ans so mething is \\ rc ng, Similarly, the various componcnts of the landsc ape such as vegetation. soil. rock. water. co ncrete. and
    aspha lt shingles have predictable the rmal characteris tics based o n how they
    select ively absorb so lar sho rt-wavelength energy and radiale therm al infrared
    energy. Thermal infrared remote sensi ng syst ems record therm al infr ared
    radiation that can be used to dete rmin e I) the type of'material based on its
    thermal emissi on characteristics and/ or 2) if significa nt changes have taken
    pla ce in the thermal c haracterisn cs of these phe nomena t hrou gh time t Quattroc hi and Lu vall. 2004). In this manner, it is possible 10 identity the sur face
    physical manifes ta tio n of certa in diseascs in humans (e.g. perhaps the cxlsrcnce of a tumor), stress in plants. ther ma l pollution in water bodies. or The
    lu~s ofheat from buildings due to faulty insulation.
    Aeria l therma l infra red imagery has not been widel y availa b le tothe gene ral
    public d ue to [) the relativel y high cost of the therma l sensor. 2) the cos t of
    mobilizing an aircrnnro acquire the remot ely sensed da ta. a nd 3) the difficuhy of calib mting and correct ly mrerp rering the imagery. The puhlie knows
    about Ih ~'nJl;1 1 infrared remote sens ing large ly from close-range uppllcauous
    suc h as those shown in Figure S-l , including: residen tia l and commercial
    hear-loss insulation studi...' S. the usc of handheld thermal imagi ng units to
    locate hot spots in hom es and to find other h uman beings in II fire or at night,
    thermal images o f h umans to detect a variety ofmcd ical problems (so melimes re ferred to as thermography). and nondest ructive testing and evalua tion
    of electronic components. The public also SC'"S therma l infr ared imagery
    being used to alloc ate lire ti ghting resources d uring a forest fire or to target

    249

    .,"
    ~

    e-n \1'11 -1{

    250

    The rm al tnfrared Rem ote Se nsing

    ~nl'llIY

    Iaciluics as in the G ulf War in 199] or the Iraq War


    in 2006 , T he public in gene ral docs nor rea lize that the nigh ttime ( jO ES images of weather fronts displayed on the
    n ightly new s arc thermal infra red imag es.

    {In:S h ). and other substances that a re l ery se ns itive til


    red radia lio n. We abo have co mputcrs to rap idly process
    energ y record ed by the se nsors and to d isplay the I
    c haracter'i..lie:> o f the scene.

    Thennal in frared remote sens ing w ill bec orn... more importanl in the futu re as ..ddnional or bital SCO W l'"!> obta in therma l
    data and costs dec rease. Also . go vernme nt agenc ies (e .g..
    po lice. drug e nforce ment. immigration bord er-pa tro l ollieers) no.... rcuunel y ue... hand held thermal infrare d sen sors
    and forw ard -lookin g infrared se nso rs I FUR) mounted in aircra ft 10 look for mis sing persons and c riminal activity,

    Thus, it took about a century for gove rn me nts to un


    that rem ote sc nsing in the the rmal infrared reg ion could
    vide valuable tactical recon na issance information.
    cia lly sin ce the images cou ld be rec orded bot h In the da~
    a nd at n ight. In the 1950s. the government co ntracted
    civ ilian firms to impro ve therma l infrared technologyI
    Texas lnsu umerns j. In the 1<;l00s,. so me of these cent
    rece ived permiss io n from the governme nt to use the ..
    lied sensors 10 produce thennal infrared imagt'S for 1
    se lect c ivilian clients ( h t....s. llJtlh ). In IlJM . the gov
    declassifie d the production of therm a l in frared remote
    ing systems rh.n d id not exceed a certain spatial rcso
    and tem pe ratu re se nsitivity, Thermal infra red remote
    ing s)':>tems devel oped hy Texa s ln stru rncrus. Inc.. Da
    Emcrpriscs. Inc.. Rockwel l lmcmational . Inc c'1 C 1I
    lirst ce rn ...-d alott hy aircratl. ()i l compa nies conducung g
    logica l ex plora tion req ues ted much of the early t.h
    infmrt"d d ata and continue to be major consume rs. Th
    infrared remote sen ..ing sy ..te rns mount ed onboard ai
    cominuc to co llect much of the on-demand thermal in
    data fo r public age ncies Ie.g .. Environ me ntal ProtectKI
    Agency, Departme nt of Energy. state departments of naliD
    resou rce s) and foreign governments.

    History of Th erm al Infrared Remo te


    Sen sin g

    Sir Fred erick Will iam Hersche l t 17J S- I R22: Figure g-2 ).
    probably the most famous astrono mer (If the I xth centu ry.
    d iscovered the mfmred punion of the electrom ag net ic spectru m and described u in his famous paper - Invest igations o f
    the Powers o f the Pri smati c Co lou rs to I kat and Illuminate
    O bjec ts: with Remark s ." In I loO(lO. Hers chel crea ted a spectru m o f co lo rs using a prism and mca surc-d diffc-rcnt part s of
    the spec tru m with a thermometer to sec i f so me col ors were
    wanner than ot hers. As he moved the the rmome ter toward
    the red portion o f the spcx irum. the temperature increased . It
    seemed rea sona ble to mow the thermometer j ust past the red
    end in order (() watch the heat ing e ffec t dis appear. It d id not.
    Instea d. the temperatu re continued to increase bey ond the
    red end of the spect rum ( Figure X-3) . Herschel ca lled this
    reg ion of the elc ctnunagn . .uic spectrum infrared. which
    means "below the red" (Omega. 2(05 ). Herschel was also
    the first perS011 to co rrectl y descr ibc tltt: form of ou r ga laxy .
    The Milky wa y.

    In I S7\), S. 1'. Lang ley begun a research progr~lIll to find a


    supe rior radialion de tector. II year later he invellled the
    holollleler that was ab le to measure tcmperature var iations
    of 1110.0(JO QC In World War I. S , O . Hollman was ab le to
    detect men at 120111 :ll1d eve ntua lly aircr:,l!l. In the 19_10s.
    Gernlan y dcveloped the Kiel syst e m for d isc riminating
    betw een Nlmh ers a nd night li ghtcrs. Thc Briti sh and thc
    Un ited States a lso dt'\"e!upell in fr arell sUl"\eilla nce techn i..lU'.'s in World War II. In fa..:t. thc singk mo st important
    deH' lopmelll in in /r ared tech nology was lhe invention ofthe
    l. ktectur d em enl hy "" a rring nations d uring World War 11.

    .v

    T he first declassified satellite remote sens or dat a were


    leered b) the U.S. Tele vis ion IR O pera tiona l Satcllil!'
    (TI ROS l launch ed in I ()60, The coarse reso lution thermJI
    infra red data "" ere ideal I'm mon itoring regional cloud p.1l'
    tern s and frontal mov ement. NASA launched the H-=Capacity \1 apping ~ li s si(\11 ( IICM \1 ) on Apri l 26 . I CJ 78 . ~
    obtained (,I)() x hOl) III spat iJ I resolmion thermal infrared
    dutu ( 10.5 l2.61.l1ll) both day ( I:J O p.m .) am i night (2:3&
    a.rn. ). This was one o f the fi rst scientifically oriented (geology ) the rmal inlra red ~yst e ms . NASA 's Niml)//_~ 7. launched
    on Oewber ~J . 1978. had a Co as tal Zone Color Scanncz
    (CICS) that induded a therma l infrared sensor lo r monitor
    ing sea ,sllrl;we templrall lre . In IlJXO. NASA alld the Jet ProplIlsiun Labo ralor y dcveloped the six ch'llllld ThemW
    Infrarcd ~ l ult i sflCctral Scann er (T I.\lS) that ac quired ther
    mal infra red ener gy in s ix hands at wav ele ngth inle.... al~ ot
    :::: 1.0 J.un t Qu altmeh i and Ridd. 199 -' ). Succ ess ful stulfi(s
    using T1i\IS resu l....,d in Ihe d... \do pmc nt o f tht' 15-chann:!
    A irh...me Tcrr estr ial Appli ca tion s Sen.....}r (AT LAS ) (L o d

    al..
    Early in frare d detec to rs co nsisted o f lead S.1 1t pho todd cctors
    (Fischer, 191\} ). :'>:nw \\ e hal e very fast detecturs consisti ng
    o f mer eury -tloped gemlan iulll tG e: lIg). indi um antimon id....

    Hisl o r

    19 (7 ).

    Th c SO;\.\ G l'l,r.-tal ionilfY O flCrationa l [n v-ironmental Sate llit... ' GOE S ) co llec ts thenn al in fra red data at a spatial rei\}-

    'i$lOry of Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing

    .-

    251

    Therm al Iufrured lmaucrv


    " .

    h,
    I

    "
    .-

    f.

    F9Jre 81

    OI l T hermal infrared ima ge o f lin F- 116 jet in lligh t :-';otc the IWI alkrf'>umeT'>, h I Thermal infrared ima ge of radi an! cn erg)
    leav ing a res jdemial house . c=-.plal1) (hruu~h the \\ rnJ,''>'S.!\utc Ih.: ,;,.....L insul;oh:o.1 roof and m,;bl ...:. t...,. do.... n"POOl . cl Thi~
    hou-...., llIl bloc ks is lvs ing m,..;h (,f IL" cn,"l1Y lhrl.lu~h the tloor. d ) "Th ermal image of a crime in I"rt~" at night. cl Thermal
    infrared rm"p : of an Apa che hd icop l<:r " uh hUIJd cnglllc~. O lhcnnaJ infrared imilgc of a '- 117 jet. g J Therma l image of a
    powe r lran, f,.,rmcTreveali ng several leI") h" t wires. h) Xondestrucuvc IhcmlJ.l lcsll ng ofa printe d circuit board. i) Thermal
    image M;\ paddlcwhee l hu at and pas..cngcrs tcoune.y 1-' 1 IR S) ste ll". Inc. and others} ,

    252

    CI I.\ I" t:l{

    Therm all n1rared Remot e sensing

    Temperaren

    Frederick Will iam Ih'f\ch cl

    m ea ..u rcd u~
    a t h ermomeie

    Prism

    in~ed

    . .... ..

    ,.
    1
    yelkll
    I
    .. . .
    1"'"
    1

    .~

    Figu re 8 3

    Herschel used a prism and a thermometer


    disc o ver that tempera tu re increa sed bey
    the red porti on o f the spectrum

    charge-cou pled-device (CCD ) sensor system. Rather.


    Si r Frede rick William He rsche l ( 173 R-l f(2~l
    disco vered th... infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in I KOO I from Herschel
    Space Oh"Cn al(>l')'. r-;J\S \ Jet Proplusion Lab ).

    Figure 8-2

    fuuon lIfS x H km for wea ther prediction . Full-disk images


    of the Earth are obtain e d ""cry )0 minutes bot h day and
    night by the thermal in frare d sensor, Aho. the ~OAA
    Advanced \'('1') High Resolution Radiometer (AVII RR l 001leers therma l in frared 1000al area coverage ( LAC ) data at I , I
    x 1.1 km and globa l area coverage l (iAC ) at 4 x 4 krn.
    Landsat Thematic Mapp er -.I and 5 sensors were launched o n
    July If>. 19K2. and March l . 191'14. res pectively, and ("01leered IlO x 120 III ther mal infrared data (lOA - 12.5 J.l lllJ
    alon g wi th 1\\11 ha nds (If middle-i nfrared dat a ( 1.55 - 1.75
    and 2.0 S - 2.35 ).1m ). Landsat 7 wns launc hed o n A pri l I S,
    19') 1) with a 60 x 60 III well-calib rated the rmal infrared senso r ( 1004
    12.5 unu. T he Adv a nced Spacc bome The rma l
    Fmi ~s i un and Retlecuon Radiometer ( AS'! ER) onboard
    Terra has six cha nnels fro m 1.60 :!.43 u m and five channels from S.125 - 11.05 um. Chapter 7 provid es de taile d
    in formation about the spat ial, spn:tra l. te mpora l, and radiomet ric cha racteristics of these and othe r thermal in frared
    sensor systems.

    Th ennal Infrared Radiat ion Properties

    An image analyst should not interpret a the rma l infra red


    image a, if it we re an aerial ph llwg raph or a typical image
    prod uced by an optical-mechanical muluspcctral scanne r or

    '.

    ,ma lys t must think thermally. l ie or she must understand I


    how the short-wavelength energy radiated from the
    interacts .... irh the atmo sphe re, 2) how il interacts with
    surface mate rials [i.e., so me of the ~n"rgy is transfo
    into longer-wa ve length ene rgy I. 3) ho w the energy em'
    tty the te rrain interacts wi th the atmosphere o nce again.
    tinally. 4) ho .... a remote sensing detec to r reco rds the t'm
    therma l infrared electromagnetic radiation. The a .
    should also understand how bot h the sensor sys tem itself
    the terrain can introduce noise into the thermal inlTiml
    image that m ight make the data 1c,~ use ful or lead to in.::01rcct image interpr et at ion.

    Kinetic Heaf, Temp erature, Rad iant Energy, and


    Radiant Flux

    All objects ill the rea l world having a temperature abol't


    absolute zer o (0 K; -:!73.1f> -C : ,459 .6'1 0Fj exhibit randoll
    motion. T he energy of panicles Ill" mole cular matter in ran
    dum monon is culled kinesic fl<,tI/ (also re fe rred to as imrrnal. real. or true heat). When these pa rticles coll ide. they
    change the ir energy state a nd emi l electromagnetic radiauQI
    as discussed in C hap ter 2. TIle amoun t of heat can be mea.
    sured in calories. We can measu re the true kinetic temperature (Tl ", ) or conc cmrauon o f th is bcu using: a thcrmomee.
    We pe rform in sim (in-p lace) tempe rature measu reme nt b)
    placing the thermo meter in dm..oct physical contact with I
    plant. so il, ruck or water body.
    Fortunately, an ohj~'~ internal kinet ic heat is a lso COlIvetted 10 "lJ</iullf .'flelXl' (uften ca lled external or apparea
    energy). wh ich allows us to ulililC remote senving techno!l)gy. T he electromagncnc radiation e'l iling an object is call~
    r/Jdlul/l fho: ($) and is me asured in Watts as discussed ill

    Th

    253

    iIIemlal lnf rared Atm o spher ic Win dow s

    y=

    bein g ~omc \\ hat k!>,; than the true kin etic te mpera ture o f the
    object, especially for land surfaces. '[his is d ue to a therma l
    propen y c alled cmisxivity. to be disc ussed shortly
    (Schmugge et al., 20()2) .

    1.0U!r . 1101 K

    R~ =

    0,'.1')
    '.I = (.7

    Methods of Transferring Heat

    ,
    j

    flVe 8-4

    10

    15

    20

    25

    30

    (If remer c C1l~ in~ derived water


    r...t l \ crsus true l incuc wat..-r temperat ur..' n ~ .. l obta ined t>y III _" , ,, m..- asurcmcra Ilw
    fi lUr l>lIl"'<c y year s In th'c UlllCICnl l>IIC<lIIlS ( To rg""fs\'11 ct aI., ~O(ll : rljl n nl\-.J with permission Irom

    li near

    1'I.'~"reS~ion

    1~'111 p"-1'a'UI'l.' I

    ElM.'\ I...

    Th e heal generated by the random motion of panicles may


    be transferred from one locauon (0 another b~ co nduct ion.
    convect ion, and radia tion. as discussed in Chapter 2. Thermonuclear fu...io n tak ing pla ce on the Sun prod uces a plasm a
    o f radi ant tt ux eonsi<;,ling primari ly ofsbort-wavclen gih \-'isiblc light that travels 93 milhon m iles through the vacuum of
    ..pace at the spee d o f light (.l )( 10- III ",""C,I). Some o f thi s
    short -wavele ngt h eneT];Y pa~o;cs throu gh the atmos phere and
    is absorbed by the Earth 's surfac e m.ncrials and rera diated
    [emitte d) at longer .... avclcngths. Some of thi.. emit tced
    lon ger-wavelength electromagnetic radiation pas ....s through
    the atmosphere once ag ai n and can be recor de d using ai rborne ther mal in fra red dctc'CIMs . Hope ful ly. the longerwa veleng th radiation recorded hy the det ectors provides
    valuable inforrnauo n about the te mperatu re c haractc-risucs
    of the Eart h' s surface .

    n.

    Ciaf'ler 2. The conccnrranon of rh..' amount of radiant nux


    Ming (cmilled frum ) an ob ject b its radiant /t'1II}J<' ''I.lIUIl:
    (111I:I1. For most real world nhj..-cts (e vec p' those compose d
    mglass and metal] thcr... is !h m.ll y a high posi tive co rre !ation betW \'t:11 till.' true Liucuc tempera ture of lhe object (Tk '~ )
    W the amount o f radiant tl ux radiak'd from the obj ect

    IT",I)' For example. Figure 1'1-4 corre bues remote sensi ngJcriwd radiant water tcm pe ratu re with ill s i III \' atcr tcm perneemeasurement in streams (Torgersen ct al., 2(1()I). The

    remote sens ing-de rived temp eratures were consistently


    *llh in ! 0.5 ' C o f the ground re ference rncasurcmcuu, ov er
    four survey years in fi ve differe nt st reams . Recent stud ies
    m11inn these resu lts I t Ire gun IJI',( ', 2' )().\ ), E x a mJ1k ~ o f
    ul~r surface temperature Jer ived from forw a rd-loo k ing
    infrared (FLI R) data fo r two streams in Or egon are ..how n in
    Color Plate X-I .
    Rtlationships such as these suggest lhat .... c ca n ut ili, c rad illIleIers [1la<.:oo s"me d i, tanee from an objel: t to measu re its
    radiant tempe rature, .... hid1 hop efully l:urrdates .... e ll with
    !he objcr t's troc kine tic tempe rature . Thi.\ is ,hI' funis of

    tJienrnll i ll/rored re mOl(' '('" , /ng

    ,~

    Th ennallnfrared Atmospheric Windows

    Beyond the l'ifihll' rc gron of the electromagnetic spectrum,


    \\ e encounter the 1~'11"("/I n' infi',uvd regi o n from 0 .7 - 3 I.rm
    and the Ih<"l"IIJ'1111!r"<I/ ~'d re gio n from 3 - 1-4 u rn (Figure 8+5 ).
    T he only reason we can usc remote sensi ng instrum ents 10
    detect infrared e nergy in th...,sl.' region s is because the atmosphe re allows a portion of'thc infra red energy' 10 be tra nsm itted fr om the terr ain to th e detectors (Sehmuggc ct al., 200 2 j,
    We ca II reg ions that pass energy (1/I/IlJ.Iplw /";c 1'00IIdo\l",\ . C 011vcrscly, the black a rea s ill Figu re 8-5 denote reg ions o f till.'
    cle ctromn gnetic spectr um whe re th e atm osphere absorbs
    mos t o f the infra red energy present. We ca ll these regions
    <lb.wI/PI /UII bands. Water vapor ( 1120) , ca rbon dioxide
    ( C O~ ). and ozo ne (OJ) are respons ible for most o f th e
    ah~ lrpt i nn . The atnurcphere "c loses down ." mak ing it
    almos t impo ssib le to perfo rm remote sensing of the env ironment in these regions. For exa mple, atmo sphe ric water
    vapllT (Hl) all'omhs mllst o f lhe efll' rgy c.x iting tho: k rra in in
    Ihc reg ion from 5 7 1-1111. mal ing it a lmost useless for thl.'rmal infr<l red rcmnlC' sen sing.

    Inlll'(,/"ll/ll rl! m ,'(/. l'll rl!lIIl'nl.

    Unfortunately. thc rela tion ship is nn l pcrfl't.'I. wilh the


    rtml.'te measu re men t o f the rad Iant tcmpl.'raturc al.... " ys

    Remol". se nsing instrumcnls \:an be e ng inl.'t'rcd 10 be s.:nsilive 10 thC' infrarC'd l.'ncrgy presl'm within just the atmo ...phC'ric wind,," s. For e:\a mple. film em ul...ions can ht.. made

    - 8

    254

    Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing

    CII .\ I" f EH

    Atmospheric windows in th e Elect ro r naa neuc Spec t r u m


    Visible
    A

    O -

    Re fl ective Infrared

    The
    bod

    O~ !h~:~;:~;L~'" rm "d
    0.7 -1.J .

    Jon

    me,

    3- 5

    1.3- 3

    .,
    0.1

    02

    OJ

    15

    0.4 05 0.6 0.8

    5 6 7 8

    10 12 15

    20

    th-

    30

    '"
    an

    Wavele ngth. urn


    Fig ur e B-5

    'tner

    Al!nosphC'fic IIoindo:>\Ios In tbe elcctromagnenc ~pectrum sllo\lon he~ a re of Slpll lk,tni value f ill' remote !O(1lsing r<:/l('l;li...
    thermal in frared en' 'g) . Photographic films can be mlltk s.o:nsili,,: 10 re flcc nvc me'!!y from 0 .7 - 1.3 u m . Elccerc- opncal iCI!'
    in~ 'SY!'ICTllS ca n record infrared "ne'~ trorn 0. 7 - I ~ urn . Tbe 3 - 5IJ.m r"~ l on is especially usefu l for lTlNlitoong hol taIgC5
    such J~ for,~1 Ilrcs .lot.! gccehcrma! ..ctiv ity Vegetation. so il. am'! rod. arc be st mceuoecd us ing the I.i - l -l p m re gion f(nul
    orbital da ta 0:01l1Inn, The 10.5 - 12.5 u rn legum is u<ifil when thermal imagery i< acquired fro m orbual SC1ls0r5 abonik

    5,

    hI

    Eanh'swonc la}cr.

    scnsinv e to reflec ted infra red energy in the windo w from 0.7
    - 1.3 u rn. Eastman Kodak's :!4.f3 co lor-infrared film works
    within this phomgraphic in/ran'd regi on and is idea l for
    mon itoring vegeta tion and wa ter \ Cha pter ~ ) . Electro-optical
    detect ors on Landsat Th em at ic ' ta pper ~ and 5 are sensitive
    to the retlecuve middle-infra red wi ndo ws fro m 1.55 - 1.75
    I-Im (TM band 5 ) and 2.0!l - 2.35 1-1 111 IT\1 han d 7).

    ever, we may think of the Sun as approxi mating a 6.(0)[


    blac kbody and the Earth as a 300 K blackbody, If we pointcs
    a se nso r at a black bod y; we would be able tu rec ord qlJlIJI~
    tat ivc information abou t the total amount o f radiant coer!
    in specific wavelen gths exiling the obj ect and the dorn iaaa
    wavelengt h ofthe o bject . In order 10 do thi s. we unlize rse
    import a nt physical laws: the SIl~(i.l/I- B<lll;;/11I.11/11 I,l'I' 1Il:I.

    'j

    /1'11 .i

    Electronic detectors can als o he malic scusuivc III p hoton s o f


    thermal infrared radia nt energy ex iting the terrain in the two
    pri mary therm al infrared w indows: 3 - 5 p m and X- 14 pm
    Suborbit a l therm al infra red remot e s e n~ i ng systeml' utilize
    these spec tral band s. Howe ver. the Earth 's ozone ( 0 ) ) laye r
    ubsorb s much o f the therma l e nergy ex iting the terra in in an
    abso rption hand from approximately 9.2 - 10.2 urn. There fore . sa tel lite the rmal infra red remote sens ing system s often
    only record dnn in the region from In,5 - 12.5 um If' igur e
    ll-5l to a vo id this ahsorpuun hand. For example. AST ER
    hand 12 is R.925 - 9.275 urn and band 13 is 10.25 - 10.95
    11m . The reg-i nn from 'l.27tl - 1O . 2~ urn is not sen sed d ill,' to
    atmosphe ric absorption.
    Thermal Radiation Law s

    A Maddlll.1i is a tbcorcucal construct th.n absorbs a ll the


    rad iation thaI fall s on it and rad iates energy al the ma ximum
    ros~ i hle rate pe r unit area at each wave length for any g iven
    tempe rature . :'\Q objects in nature arc InI<: blackbodies : how -

    di'pltll"/'/Iwm

    taw.

    Stefan-B oltzmann Law

    Th e total spectra l radia nt cxirauce ( M~ l mea sured in Wam


    m-2 leaving a blackbody (refer to Table 2-4) is pro portional
    to the fourth power o f its temperature ( 7). This is known a>
    the S/ c {illl-B"I/;;/11</I//1 taw and is e xpressed as :

    (8,11
    wh ere (Tis th e Stctan- Holtzm nnn con stant equaling 5.6f.Q7 x
    10 ~ W nf~ K ~ . a nd T is temperatur e in degrees Kelvin. 1k
    to tal rad ia nt cxhunc c is the mtegrauo n o f allthe area UI1dcr
    the blackbo dy rad iati on curve (F ig ure K-tl) . Not ice how the
    Sun produces more spe ctra l radi ant exita nce ( M~) at 6,000 K
    tha n the Ea rth at 300 K. As the te mperature inc reases. the
    total amo unt o f radi ant energy measured in Watts pe r m2(t/r
    urea under the curvet increase s and the rad i ant energ y peat
    sh ifts 10 shorter wavelengths. To dete rmine the dominall
    I-'. avele ngt h for a blackbody at a specific te mperature. we (1St

    wien's dis placementlaw.

    255

    I'emlal Rad iation La ws

    It<en's Displacement Law

    B1:1 ckh(Jd~

    '"
    ( t'
    l-i i\
    '"

    1hI: relationship be twe en Illc true tempe rature of a black!l:dy (n In degree s Kel vin and its peak speclral exua ncc or
    minanT wavelength ().......) is de scr ibed by lI ,ell :f displaceWIl/ II1I\:

    ' 0'

    a con stant equaling l lNX 11m K, we can determine


    k dominanl .... avelengrh of any object b) substituting its
    !lmp(ratllre into Eq uat ion 8-1. Remember from Cha pter 2
    a:! FIgure X-6 that the dominant wavelength o f the NIOO K
    s. is OAS urn . The dominant w a...dcng.l h for an SOil K roo. obj~ (F igure 8-6) is:
    I~ .t is

    i...... .

    2898,ulll l
    xoo K

    ,
    ~ 1O

    !rhy ;s kllt/wi/lg an "hjl'U .i Jomil/mll wavelength important


    ,I'I'//.\' i,,/.:? T he dom inant wa ve~ngth provides valu abl e Infor malIon regardi ng the pan of
    the thermal infrared spect rum in which WI." might want 10
    snsc the object . For e xample. if we lire lo oking fo r ~ ()O K
    b est fires tha t hav e a dominant wavelength of upprox imaldy ).62 um. then the mo st npproprmre remot e sensing
    '-y,lem might be a ., - 5 um thermal infra red de tec tor. Con\er;dy. if we arc interested In Sllil, wate r. an d rock ambient
    empcrarurcs on the Earth's su rface: (JOtl K ) w ith a dominnur
    eavelengt h o f 'J.t>7 u rn. then a thermal infrared detector
    operating inthe x - 14 um reg ion might be lIlII S! appropriate.
    IIJ Ihl'rm(l ! i n trared 11: IIWII'

    Emissivity
    The\\orld is nOI co mposed o f radin ting bla ckhod i...s. Rathe r.
    I i! composed o f selecnvdv ruclla/ il/}/, h,..ties, suc h as rock,
    mil. vegetation. and .... atcr, that emit a certain proportion o f
    meenergy emitted from a blackbody ar rhe sa me tempera-

    "

    \
    ~\

    'r

    301lO K T ungsrcn filament

    \\
    .

    , HI
    ,

    1\ \
    I,
    \

    :1!: 10

    (,001l K Su

    L,

    ';:; \0

    :J!

    ~i

    , ---11

    tu

    A....., - 3 ,6'1plll ,
    jesee I shift from longer to shorter wa velengths as t he temperature of the blackbody mcrcascs. We ca n observe wien' s
    displKement law in reallife. For example. \\ hen a poker is
    placed in the fire the t ip progresses from dark red through
    .nnge and the n III yellow. It never shi fts imothc gree n or
    portion o f the spectrum beca use it is nor that hot . Conlersely. an acety len e torc h has a hot tl nme and appears blue.

    .v

    Radiation C ur ves

    '"

    '0.,

    1\

    1100 '" Hed-hl>l object

    1\'
    \

    i\\
    .. ,\-

    311lJ II: bl nO

    '95 '" Dry ice

    \\ .\

    I~ ~ \~

    \ '\\\\If '"

    .I

    Figure 8 -6

    4 .7 1

    ,'"

    tn
    Wavelength, pm

    K Liquid 3 1r

    ,000

    llI ackhult) radiation CU l"o'C~ for sev eral o"j ~CIS. illd ulling the SUI\ and the Earth, which approximate
    6,000 K ami 300 K bluc kbodics, res pectively Th e
    d"m im1n1 wavelength. Art"". shifts toward the short
    wa veleng th portion of the spectrum J~ the tem peraturc of the object increases.

    turc. Ennssivitv: ( t' ) is The nnic bet w ccn the actua l radian ce
    emitted by a rent world se lective radiatin g body (.1I,) and a
    bla ckbody at the same therm odynam ic ( kinet ic ) temperature
    ( M~ l (Jacob ct al., lOI)4) :

    ( ~-3 l

    A ll selectively mJi at ing bodies have em issivnies ra ng ing


    from 0 10::: I Ihut fluctuate de pen ding upon the wave leng ths
    of l'ncrgy being conside red . A gr<l) 'ho(n' outpu ts a consta nt
    emissivity that is less than one at all wa velen gth s. Fig u re l'I7a depicts the emissiv ity of a blackbody, a gray body, and a

    256

    blackbody

    ,~
    ~

    ,i<

    ,,

    '---,

    selective radiator

    graybody "-

    10

    '"

    W3.\.:k nll,b.l.Im

    6,000 K

    ".

    t~ " '<;:-.'.
    Y

    6.000 K selective
    radiator _

    ..
    10

    Figure 8-7

    -,

    '"

    III Spccrralcnussivsty of a b lad .hod y. a g raybod) .

    and

    :I

    hYf"'t hetical selective radiator. "I

    S~lra l

    radr uru ( \111111<:1: distrillutj"ll u f tho: black body,


    grnybody, nnd hypothc-t ical selectiv e r;ldialm ( af

    tcr Slater,

    The

    find thai the real-w orld spec tra l radian t cxitanc ... v. as
    less than the blac kbody rad iant cx uancc at the sarnete
    .uure. T hus. the crni..;si\ uy o f the rcal- orld material \l;
    lie som ewhere betw een 0 and I bUI wo uld neve r be
    I . Some materials like d ist illed wa ter have em issivmes
    to one (1l.9'J) ove r the wa ve lengt h inter val from X -l ~
    as summarized in Table X-I. Ot her.; such as polished
    num {O.OS) an d sl,linkss steel (11. 1(ll h a vc 10\\ emissiv

    .o

    Thermal lnlrared Remote SenSing

    I ~ ~ () J.

    hy pothetical selec tive rad iato r ove r the wav elength imcrvul
    0 .1 _ 100 um (Sl ater, 191\0). Notice ho w the spectral cm issh iry of the hypothe tica l selective radiator fluctuates amon g
    levels 01'0, O. l , 0 .3. a nd l .n. Th ... spectral radiant exitancc of
    eac h of'thcsc 6.1)ll() K bodies j~ show n in Figur e X7b. Notic c
    how the different ...miss ivit ics g ive rise to d ram at ic c hanges
    in the spectral radiant cxitaucc dist ribu tion o f the selecti ve
    rad iator. Where the se lective rad iator 's e missiv ity is 1,0. it
    outputs the same an1<>UIl1 ofradium energ y a, the blackbody.
    Wher e the selective rad iator 's emissivity is O. it em its no
    spectra l rad iant c xirancc .
    The spectral radiant cxuaucc l;'lr sc\ cra l rea l v. orld radi ating
    hod ies is sho wn in Figu re x-x. ;-':otl' that the rad iant ene'1!Y
    ex iti ng the suhsta ncc is appmx imatel y Ih.... Sdme as a bla..:kbod y al the sa lllC tempc ralur.... for mu,,;h vfthe- spectral range.
    but thallhc curves depan in cc n,lin areal;. If lhe area be neath
    each of the cu rves v. as summ....d I integrated) o\.:r th.: SJ'l-"{: ua l ",a\e kn gth intervaillf inte res illn the .l- ax is. we "'lluld

    Whr j~ ;1 i mpOrf<.lfll toknow about cmisslvitv ....'},el/ co


    illg et thermal inf n ll1:d remote sensing ;nw'_Higmion'
    rea-on is that l ....o objecls lying: n~ XI to o ne another la
    ground coul d have the sa me true k inetic tempe rature
    have d itfercru nppa rer u t c mpcr.ltures when sensed hy'a
    ma l radiom...ter ~illlply becac-,e the ir emissi\ ilies are
    cnt. The emi:.si\it) of a n obj ect may be influ e nced
    num ber o r factors. including [Schmugge et al.. ~OO:!; W
    c1 al.. 2IllJ.! ):
    color-e-dar ker-colored ohJl.'CIS are better absorbe rs
    crmucrs [i.e. rh...y h3\ 1.' a higher emi-e.ivity j than lig
    colored objects. v. hic h ten d (0 refl ect more o r the ioci

    energy;
    chemicalcomposition;
    surfac... roughness-c-rhe g reater the sur face ro ughness
    an object rela tive 10 the site of t he inc ident wa vcleng
    the gre ater the sur face area o fthe obj ect and rot e-nlial
    absorpuou and recm i-cion o f ene rgy:
    moisture co ntcut-c- the mo re mo istu re an object conee,
    1111.' great er its abilit y hI ah~ll rh ene rgy a nd h...come a gd
    emitter. w et so il panicles ha n : a high em issiv ity similar'll
    wa ter;
    compaction c- thc degr ee of so il compaction cnn alTw
    cmis vivity;
    field of view the emissivity of a si ngle lea f mcasurs
    w ith a very-hig h-re solution Ihcm131radi ometer w ill halel
    d i ff crcnt .:mis \ i\ ity than an en ure tree c rown v iewed lJ, il~
    a mor e coarse spa t ia l rcsolu rion radiome ter :
    "'lYe length - lhc e missiv ity o f ,10 object is general.
    consi dered ttl be \\ a\cle nglh-depc nde lll. For e X Jmpl~
    while the cmi:'>sivity o f an ohject is o llcn c(llIsidcred lobi:
    eonstan l lhroughllut lhe i'i - l-l lJl11 r...gion , its emiss i\il)"
    the 3 - 5 1J111 regilln rna)' be d ilTe rcnt; anu
    \'it"v,109 ang le-the .:missi \tit)' o f an lIbj ~et ca n \'a~ "".
    sc nso r Yi~'wi ng angle .


    257

    al Radiatio n Laws

    -.,
    "

    7"

    hlaekh od}

    b ."

    350

    5.0

    -t

    '.<

    " arer

    I(

    ];01(

    (J,' ) l'

    ~ 1I

    ,.
    ~ ,O

    10

    50

    -0

    itt;

    .2.0

    o
    u

    I~

    Wav"k"TI~lh,

    rj)lre 8-8

    ~~

    um

    Radiant eo<:rg} e\itir.g .II.... .ncr. t:>l

    ~1;I. nl to:,

    2,U

    1.0

    . -,
    .

    "

    "

    111

    "um

    of terres trial marcnals in the 1'1 - 14 um regi on.

    u ludi ng Igneo us. metamo rphic . and sedime ntary roc ks.
    esert varnish . ~ll i 1. vegetation, wa ter. and icc . Snyd er ct III
    199;)provided ad ditiona l infomuuion <In the bidirectional
    Jt!kctance measuremen ts o f '<an,1<,. and "t .. I ~ in the.3 14 jnn
    ~Ion . We mu..1 tal c into ~CCOU Ill an object's l:m is.siv II)
    when we ancm pr til lise thermal infrared remote sens ing to
    eeasurc an OOJl'Ct'S true kjneuc te mperature (Peres and
    OIC amara. 20(},h This is done by applyi ng Kirrho lr s radi-

    ,.

    '.
    2~

    W'I\ clcng th.

    and c) denitc heated 10 .1 ~ (I K com r,m..-d .... ilh a hladbllo.l)

    .\1Ii,bur;.- and D'Aria (lIJ92) comp uted the "lll i ~siv i ty for a
    I'mct~

    ,,

    '.

    ~u

    3.u

    10

    350 K

    r =o O.7!'i

    5.0

    '.

    Duulte

    -.g'
    an

    -tu

    I..

    I'>,U

    >

    as

    ~Il

    7.'

    Grani le
    350 K
    r "" lUlh

    ,.

    ~
    ""g

    "

    W:l Vekn ~lh . ~1l1

    h.

    b,lI

    1.(1

    7.'

    "

    .1\

    the same tempe rat ure .

    general eq uation fo r the mrcracnon of spectral


    Iluv with the terra in is;

    (AJ radian t

    Dividing each of the varia bles b) the original incident nidiant tl U'L tt>,,:

    ".r,

    (1\-5 )

    ItJOlIla w.
    Kirchoff's Radiation Law

    InChar Ier 2 \\e learne d tha t the terrain inter cept s inci dent
    incoming j radiant flux \ I,). This incide nt I'ncrgy Inte racts
    itJI terrain mau-na!v. The amo unt ofradiam tluv reflected
    from ihe surface (<1>,1. th... amo unt o f radian t flux absorbed

    where r ~ IS s pectral hemis pherical reflectance by the terrain.


    a~ is spectral hcuusphcncal ubsorpta ncc, and r;. is spectral
    hcmisphcrica lrransmiuance (Sla ter. 191(0).

    ~y

    Itdthrough the surface 1<,1 >, l can be care fully meas ured as " c
    aprly the principle o f U'lher. auon of " neP6Y and attem pt 10

    The Rusvian physic ist 1\ild wll found that in the in fr ared
    portion of till' spectrum the spec tral emissivity of an object
    g('nerall) equals its -pectrat ab sorptanc c. i.c .. u ~ - r~ . This is

    I.C'I'.P track 01"1 hat happens 10 all the inci de nt energy, T he

    often phrascd a s "good ahsorberv a rt good emitters and

    the surface ('I',,). :1I1d the

    ' Ull OUl1\

    n fradian t ttux transm it-

    258

    O IAI" EN

    Table 8 1.

    Thermal Infra re d Re mo te Se nsing

    Then

    f m i ~si \ l l) Or ~t'1e<:lro matc nals fr om 11 - 14 IJrn


    (fo. k D..,lll1d l Do uglas, 19X2; Sabins. 19')7; Lil ksand

    and Kiefer. 2( M )~ ),

    Material

    .... atcr. distilled


    water

    \\ ater witJI petroleum film

    concrete'

    Emiss ivity. e
    O.')'}

    0.'12 - O.'J!\

    0.972
    0 ,7 1 - O.QO

    asphalt

    0.95

    IMl s lc"l':

    0 .97

    foamy soil. dry

    0 .92

    loam) su il. .... <.1

    soil. sandy

    0.90

    bric k. red and rou gh

    0.93

    vegetation, c1m.ed canop)

    O,'J!!

    v~ ..tenon , open cant,!,>

    0....

    gra...s

    0 .97

    . . ,,.>d. planed oak

    0.90

    decid uous fbrest

    0.97 - 0.98

    coniferous 1'1lr.:S!

    O.'H -

    tl,'}q

    -aainless stee l

    0.\ (>

    aluminum . ',111

    0. 0 5

    aluminum. polished

    O.OR

    aluminum. paun

    0.55

    polished metals

    O. IIl - U.2 1

    Th is rela tionship is im portant because il describes


    objects ap pea r as they do on therm al infrared i
    Because the terrain tllt'orr.'lic"/~\" does nor IOJ(' (Illy i
    et!e'Xv I" trunsminance, " II t"/lt''X~' leaving lilt!' object
    rn.. acconmedfor h) Ih.. t'l:luti'J/1!ihip b..tween rept'c!u1/Ct
    and emluil'ity (fi) ' l f re tlecnvity increases. t hen emis
    mu-t decrease. If emissivity increa-es. the n reflectivity
    dec rease . Fo r example. water absorbs almost all
    energy and reflects very tinte. Therefore, water is a
    good em itte r and has a high emisshi!y dose to I. C
    vcrscty, a shee t-meta l roof reflec ts most of the i
    energy and absorbs very link', yiel ding an em issivity
    kss than I. Therefore . metal ubjl"Cb such as cars. ai
    and me tal roo fs USUJ lly appear very co ld (da rk) on
    i nfra red imagery. For example. the metal hangar and ai
    in the nighttime thermal infrared imagery in Figure
    appear cold. No te that se\ l'ral a ircraft haw th....ir engines
    whi ch arrear bright . and that their jet blas t is w arming .
    tarma c.
    When measuring lnud or water surface tempe ratu re. the glII
    o f Ihermal infrared remote ~cnsi ng. is to be able 10 poiln
    radiometer at an object and have the recorded ap parent
    ant tempera tu re (T......I equalthe true kinet ic temperature
    the o bject ( T i m )' Unfortunately, th... radi a nt nux from a rQ.
    world .. bjcct at a given temperature is not the lk1111e as tic
    radiant Ilu\ fro m a blackbody at the same temperatlllt.
    lurgcly due toth c ctl c cu... o f f'l1II.'.\ ivily. Kno w ing the emisseit)' of an object mak es il po ssible to modify the Src fan-Bok
    zmann law orig inally applicable In blackbodies (.\.1, -;
    so that it pertains til the tota l spec tral raJian t tl ux of real
    worl d materials (.\f, ):

    ur

    oxidized ste..l

    0, 70

    gra nite

    o.es

    dunitc

    n.71!

    basalt. ro ugh

    0.95

    'lhe equa tio n takes into accou nt the tem perature of the

    (un - 11.1<5

    objec t and its e missivity III cre ate a murc uccurute eslima!e
    ofthc radiant flux l'xiting an object and recorded by thc ther
    mal infrared sensor.

    paint
    human skin

    0.90 _ 0,%

    r.:'
    jill

    (s!

    0 ,98

    good reflectors , Ill' JJiHIr emitters ", Also, most real-world


    materials are usually 0 p;lqUl' til therma l in frare d radia tio n
    meaning that lillie radia nt Ilux <:", ils from the other side of
    the terrain demen t. Therefore. \\ e may assume transmittance. r.. = O. SUhst itut ing em issivity for absorptanc e and
    removing transmitta nce from the equation ~ ietds (Vaughn et

    al.. 20031:

    "I f / '" t ' (T

    T hermal infrare d remote se n"ing syste ms generally rc,~


    the appa rent radian t te mpe rature. Trw o f the terrai n rabs
    than the true kine tic tempe ratu re. T.i~' If we assu me that 1M
    incorporation o f emissivity in Equation 8-1 has improved
    o ur measurc me m 10 the poi nt that

    .1/.-

    r C1 Ti m and we ass um.... that

    259

    :.mal Rad iation Laws

    Ta ble 82 .

    [mi ~siv it)', true kinetic. and radiant rcmperaurrcs of


    selec ted materials a t .no '" and 27c C.

    Ra d ian t

    Temperalure
    True Kl netlc
    'te m peratu re

    Material

    Emiss iv it y

    T*111

    blackbod y

    1.00

    ) 00

    dil.illcd

    0.'"

    rough
    basalt

    Nighllime thenna l infrared imagery of an airpost


    with severaldeffcrcmty pes ofjcr aircraft. Tile m<:wl
    hangar and the aircraft arrear cool (dar kj becausc llf
    m...lars l" w enus-ivity, Th ... concrete tarmac has a
    ruhnivcly high cnussiv iry and appears in lighter
    shades <.If gray. Seven oftltc aircraft je t eng i lle~ arc
    active, as evidenced by the brig ht bloom along their
    fuse lages and their j ... r-w ash healing the tarmac. On...
    \If

    two aircraft engines were rec e ntly turned otT.

    T,,, I

    , 1/1 rI ,"

    eC

    300.0

    nu

    )00

    "
    "

    29Q.1

    20.2

    O.Q5

    ) 00

    zt

    ::90.2

    2J.2

    vegetation

    0.98

    300

    298.5

    25.5

    dry 11I,lm

    n.9:!

    Jon

    "
    "

    zvj.x

    211.X

    water

    F9Jre 8-9

    T'ltd

    "oi l

    'c

    appa rent rad iant temperature ( 1~,~1) with a ther ma l radiomctcr; we can estimate its em issi vity. e; using the eq uation :

    (8-111

    (8. 9 )

    Ihereforc. the radi ant temperature of an obje ct rec orded by


    aremote sensor is related III its true kinetic tcrnpcnnurc and
    rmissivity h)' the following relationship (Sab ins. liN?):

    T,,,J e r ' " Tl i,, '

    ( !l .] 0 )

    Tho: relationship betw een I nH~ ki net ic and radian t temperatlIrt for s...vera! di fferent type s of material are summarized in
    Table 82 . It is clear fro m th is table th at , e xcept fo r water. if
    dle effect of emissi vity is not accounted for w he n analyzing
    rrmolely sensed ap pare nt radian t tem perat ure (T"",I. thcn the
    lI\Il: tempera ture (T. ,,,I o f the object will he undc res umatcd
    Ilorge-rsen et al., 20()! ; Peres and DaCamara, 20~) . Wha t if
    lI' ewanted to determine the emissivity o f the vario us objects
    with inour study area? Th is can he done usi ng a thermo me te r
    md a handheld rhcrmat infrared radiometer . II" we measure
    1Illl0j CCt's true temperat ure with a ther mometer ( Tk ,,, ) und i l~

    ldeally we wou ld collect both the in sitll temperature measure ment and the re mote measurement s imulta neous ly.
    Also , to ge t the best e missi vity app roximat ion. it wou ld be
    good 10 collect tho: remo te measu rement fro m a helico pt er 10
    try J ill! si mula te I ) th... site of the re mote sensor IFOV of
    interest (e.g., 21l )( 20 m ), and 2 1 the atmospheric e ffec ts
    ( Peres and DHCamara, 20( 4) thatmight be enc ou ntered.
    Many geologic studies are not int ere sted in the te mperature
    information that ca n be e xtrac ted from ther mal infrared
    imagery. lnsrcad. the appare nt surface radia nce cx umg the
    te rrain is analyzed so that the e ffects o f lempc rature are
    remove l! and all tha i i!> left is terrain emissivity information.
    The elll i !>si \ it~ info rmatio n is then used to map m inera ls on
    the surface " !"the earth based on the ir documented emissiv uy ch aractensucs (e.g.. Kir kla nd cr al.. 2002: Vau~hn et al.,
    :!OO3; Jacob ...1 al., 20(4). Peutcolin and vermotc (2002)
    describe how MODIS middle-thermal infra red surface
    re flect ance and de rived ern!..sivil)' information can be used
    in co nj unctio n w ith therma l in frared radiance 10 solve the
    emissivuy.tcmpemmre separatio n problem. So brino et al
    ( 2(}{)4 ) used VISible and ncar in frar ed bands and a Norma llzcd DiOc renee Vegetat ion Index (NDV1) to extract land

    260

    sur face ermssiv iry values from Landsat 5 Th em atic Mapp er


    ha nd 6 therm al imagery

    Table 8-3.

    Thermal Infrared Remote

    Sensi~g

    Thermal prope rties of common materials 31


    (J3n13,1 " 75).
    Therma l
    conductivity
    K

    Therm al Properties of Terrain

    Thermal
    density

    The rmal
    capactty

    CQI
    ri I

    '"""
    p

    :\!lIh:rh.fs

    wa ter. rock, soil. vegetation. the atmosphere. and human


    tis sue all haw the abi lity to cond uc t heal d irect ly through
    them (thermal cond ucnvit y j o nto a nothe r surface and to
    store heat (thermal capacity). Some materials respond to
    chang...~ in te mperature more rapidly or slowly than ot hers
    (thermal inert ia). It is usefulto re view these thermal properlies . as they ha\c an impact on our abil ity to re motely '>I:TISC
    therm al information about variou.. types of ma terials.
    Heal o r the rmal cap" city ( c) is a measure o f the ability of a
    material 10 absorb hea l cno:rgy. II is the q uantity of hea l
    required 10 ra ise the tempe rature of one gram of tha t ma teria l by I "C (calif' "e l ). Table K-3 summarizes the the rmal
    capacity of several materials at :!(1 "C . water has the largest
    heat capacity of an)' common substance ( 1.00). Th e temperature of a lake usua lly vari es very little ~twC(..n night and
    day. Con versely, rock s do nut sto re heat we ll and exh ibit
    s ig nificantly diffcrcm tempe ratures in the night and day.
    Tlrcmml conductivnv (Kl is a mea sure o f tile rate that a substance transfers heat thro ugh it. It is measured as the numhe r of calories thnt wi ll pass thro ugh I ern' of materi al in I
    Sl'C .... hen t w (1 opposit e faces a rc mainta ined at I ~C diffe rcncc in tc rnpc ruturc (cal cm' sec" 0('"1 ) , The co nd uctivity
    of a mater ia l can be variabl e due 10 the amou nt o f moisture
    pres ent. The ther mal conductivity of a variety o f mate rials
    is summarized ill Table 1\-3, Not ice that many roc ks and
    sot Is arc poor conductors o f' heat.
    Thcnnu l inertia (P) is a measurement o f the the rma l
    respon se of a materia l W tempe rature changes nod is measu red in ca lories per cm 1 per seco nd squ are root per I"e
    ( ca! cm ' ~ scc ln el l, T hermal inert ia is co mputed usi ng
    the equ atio n

    The

    ~ lass

    O.U0 2 1

    2.6

    0 . 16

    OJl)!

    wate r

    0.0013

    1.0

    1.0

    C.O*

    'oN

    0 ,00511

    05

    0 .327

    G("olo~k

    'l :u l,' rial,

    It would be wo nder ful if we could remotely sense each o r


    the a foreme ntio ned variables and then simply com pute

    th

    on'
    r

    r
    (\

    te

    ,.

    o.m

    0.0:1

    0 .18

    0.0' 5

    00075

    2.(,

    0.16

    0.056

    te

    gravel. MOO)'

    0.lJO(,()

    2. 1

    0.20

    0.0:;&

    limes tone

    OJ)04:-J

    25

    0 . 17

    O.{Il~

    besen

    0 .00 50

    dolomite

    0.0 120

    granne

    2.R

    obsidian

    0 .0030

    2.4

    0.17

    O.O~

    sandsrcnc

    0 .012U

    2.5

    0, 19

    0.0-5

    shale

    0.0042

    2,3

    0 .1 7

    0.(1.11

    slatt:

    O.IJ050

    2.'

    0 . 17

    0.(1.19

    soil. sandy

    0.001 4

    I.'

    O. N

    O.(I:~

    " "I, d~ y moi. l

    neuu

    1.7

    0.35

    one

    therma l inert ia. Unfortu nately, this is not tbe case. becae
    con d uctivity, density, and thermal capac ity must a ll be me.
    sured in ,~ t1It, Nevert heless. it is p ossible 10 re motely see
    and co mpu te an uI'JI,m ',,' /111:1"/11,,1 i nertia rnca surem em p"
    pi xel in the follow ing ma nner. A ther mal infrared image s
    acquired over the same terrai n in the n ightti me and in 1IJe
    early daytime. The tw u inl<iges arc geom etr ically and radiOmetrically regis tered to (JIll' anothe r, and the cha nge in tern,
    perature. il'f: to r a specific p ixel is de termined bj
    su btracting the nigh ttime app a rent temp erature from th
    dayrimo uppa rcntrcrnpc rmur c. The upparcnt ther ma l inertia
    (/\1' 11 per pixel is
    A 7"1 -

    I- A
    ~t

    (l~-lJi

    (8 - 12)
    " he re K is thermal co nduct ivity. p is den sity Ig c m-3), and c
    is thermal capacity. De ns ity is a very importa nt biop hys ical
    va riable in th iv eq uation because the rmal ine rtia ge nera lly
    Inc reases linearly wuh increas ing material density, Table 11:_
    J sum ma rizes the therm al inertia o f a variety of materials .

    w ith ..I being the a lbedo (re llec tanee) mea sured in the vis~
    ble spect rum d uring the daytime for the pixel o f inrcres
    ( Kahle ct al.. 11)1I 1; Sabi ns. 11)1)7 ).
    The hest w ay to think abouttherm a l inert ia is to asscciare a
    w ith an inve rse rehnions hjp with the me asured temperanee
    cha nge . J T. Basic ally, a bigh .dTva luc is usua lly associated
    with terrain ma terials tha t have a low thermal ine rtia value

    \rmal lnrrared Data Collection

    ersely. a low .J r i.. u..ually assoc iated w ith l....rram mal cthat hav e a high thcrmul inertia va lue.
    and other remote ,,'n~ing sc ientists label arcus in
    Imag:... lhal have heter ogeneous or homcg....ncous appar.. eennal ine rtia characteristic s to distingu is h bounda ries
    een bedroc k and a llu vial mal.... rial, dise rimi na tc among
    units ....ith simi lar spectra l prope rties. and identify
    of hydrotherma l alteration ( Kah le et al.. 19X4 ). Price
    %5Jca utionoo thaI appar.... n t th e nn al inertia imagL'S shou ld
    br used in regions hav ing variabiluy in surface moist ure
    IpOl':ltion lli ke agricultu ral areas.

    26'

    Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing Ba sed on


    ~uH~pecYaI Scanneffl

    I((llo~ i Sls

    D!le llfthe flrsr rhcnn a! infrared sat ellite remote se nsi ng systm, (0 collect hoth da y ( I :) 0 p.m.} and nighuimc (1;3 0
    ntmcrmal infrared imag es of sig niti e,l!1t value fur upparQltlk'nnal inertia mappin g ....as the short-li "'ctl l l}7fl Hea t
    "I*"ity Milpp ing \1i ssio n ( HC M\1) Ihal acqui red "lin x
    m data in the region fro m 10.5 - 11." u m. The ASTt R
    onboard rnc Terra satellite collec ts five b..111l1s of lia)
    .J nighttime the rmal infrared data Yo ith 90 x 90 m spatial
    unon and a M km swath w idth Llacob ct al .. 2n(~l. The
    e thermal AS TE R ba nds are centered at 8.18. 8.63, 9,m.
    .65. and 11,1R urn. T he 1\lODIS sensor onboard Terra and
    ./qll<l has three middle infrared ha nds ce nte red around ."\.75.
    195 und 4_05 urn. and three thermal infra red channels ccnecd around R.55. 11.0 3 and 12.02 umJ acob c t al_(2004)
    o:mparro the land sur face emis-avny lind radiome tric ternpcglutt:dt:riwd fro m f\IODl S and AS TER sensors. Day and
    lime thermal infrared imagery can also he collected
    suborbital aircraft usi ng a \aricl) o f sensors. e.g.,
    \SA (TI.\ l S and ATLAS ) and I Il\~s TA B! (Quan r\)("hi and
    lidd, 199R; Sc hmugg... et aL 1()(1:!: Itre<; Tr\ BL :!(J(Ih).

    Thermal Infr ared Data Collection

    Thtrmal infrared remol" se nsor data may he- cnl1t:("t",d hy:

    , llC'l'OSs-lrad . therma l scan n.:rs; a nd

    pushhmom linear and a rea-arra) eharg.e-couplcd-deno.:e


    ICCO) d...tL"Ctors.
    k i, us.eful to rc\i e\\ the nalurc of thCnlla l infrared sensor
    1)>lCmS and the ir componenls ,tIld ho\\ vario us !>y~le rn
    i"'Jmmeters intluclwe the ty pe :111<1 llll:llity of th,,' tl1l'rmal
    mfrared dal a cnl k"t.ted,

    Cha pter 7 imroduc cd Jw .... multispectra l scanners funct io n.


    Thiv sec tio n provides addrtmnnl informat ion about the rmal
    infrared scanners.

    1l:It'rlahl" Il S- 12fl1l. 1)S-12 f>X. A ir burne .\lulli ~l)l'elr al


    Scanne r (.-\\ISI. " AS.\ T1\1S. ailli :'\ASA AT L\S
    T hese scan ners h,1\l' provided muc h o f the useful high spaIlal and spectr;J! reso lutio n the rma l infrared da ta fu r monit oring the environment. The [)S - l ~(,() rccords data in In ha nds
    mcludm g a therma l infrared channel (8.5 - 13.5 prn) . Th e
    DS- 12M! incorporates the Landsat Them at ic Mapper middlc-infrarcd bands fl .5 S 1.75 11m and :!,OK~ 1.35 J.un). Th e
    A MS containv a ht'l-tall't"1, thermal infra red detecto r 0.05.5 l.I1n) in addition 1,1 the standard thermal infrared detector
    (8.5 1:!.5 jlm).
    S,,-ienlisls continue 10 us<: thermal infrared imagery acq uired
    b) the NASA Thermal lnfrnrcd Multispectral Scanne r
    lT l\ IS) which has vix bands r,tng ing from lU - 12.2 urn
    (c.g., Schmuggc ct aJ..l00~; Cull el al., :!OO31. Man y scic ntists also usc the NA SA Airborne Te rres tria l Applications
    Sens or (AlL\S I..... hic h has six visible a nd n.... ar-mfrurcd
    bands. two Thematic Mapper nuddlc -Iufrarcd bands. and six
    thermal infra red hands from x.:! - 112 u m. Specific bandwi dths are sum marized ill Chapter 7. BOlh the TIMS and
    ATLA S sensors have a :!.Oor :!.5 milliradia n (mrad l lFO V
    (Wallace. IQtXl; Coil et aJ.. :!OO3j.
    Tb,,; ba sic prin<.::iplcs of ,'p.:rdtiull and o.:umpo lleJlts o f Iho:
    A\1S. T IMS, and ATl.A S arc show n in Figure 1110. T he
    d iamelt'r o r lhe ei rC IlI;ll" groun d ar ea \' iewed by lhe sensor, D.
    is a rlllKt illll lOr tlK instanl<llleoUS lidd o r view, /l or the
    scan n..: r l11..: a~lIn..d in m illi rad ian s and the alti tu de o f the
    ~,';lllll"'r aho\e ground k vd, H, \\ he re
    () =/fxp .

    (X1 4)

    ~\'r e:o.ampk. if the IFQV of Ihe \\:anTlL'r is 1.5 mrlld. the


    ground sit.c of the p i\ e1 in meter<l is a product of lhe IFO V
    In.HlllS) and Ihl:' alt itud e AGL in llIde l"S. Ta biC' 8-4 pre!iCnts
    tlighl a ltit udes and corres ponding pixel Sil "'S at nadir (the
    pt1int d i fl'~'l ly hclow lhl' aircra tl ) lor an IFO V of 2.5 m nul.
    IH ) V~ typ ica lly range Irolll 0. 5 - 5 mrml.

    When p,'rfo nn ing "cm.u-trock ~c anni ng. a n eleclric m(ltnr is


    orielllt'd raralld "ilh Ihe al rcrall til .....lage and direct io n of

    262

    C II \ PTf R

    Ther

    Th erma l Infra red Rem ote Sensing

    H.1Tdd\,k@

    Ta'

    \1 od u fal ~"tl

    Ii eht sou rce

    Dc",,,,

    Opuona!
    li lm

    ur

    hl.lu"J
    nurogen

    1J,,;1~""tur

    "'::--~~ I:~:nig

    r~-.:""lcr

    ('o ld

    : To.>I:ll
    ,A

    i\

    /I

    ungu lar
    tie ld of \i~

    Rad.am tlu ~, $ wulunthc


    m'l;tnlaTlC<\tJi field of vi"" , IS

    Fig ure 8- 10

    ('har,lf;leri 'llc, of a thermal in fra red airborne llOII


    track ,cal1ncr. 1h., d ia1l1cl,'r o f the c ircular
    area viewed hy t he se nsor. [) , is a func tion ofth!
    ,lalll,II1CllUS field "f \ icy,, p, of th.. scan ner and tht:
    lilUtk "hI"e gw und level (AGl) of the airr.. raft, /I

    th.. 11 111. uf dala ," 11IecI;011. The thermal infrared


    ant flux recorded hy the sensor is a fllll.;l;on of thc ll-

    di:lI\l

    t:n.; rg~

    cuuncd 1'[(>111 all t he terrain mal

    within the ground resolution clement. In this caSC,ib

    lJ - - -.
    -I
    tlight and drives a 4; sc:mning mirror facer located at the
    end of the shan which has a precise instantaneo us tidd Ill'
    view Ic,g.. 1.5 mnld ). The mirror S\:UllS the terrain at a right
    angle t pcrpcndicular j tu the d irection of !lig ht. The mirror
    normally sweeps nut a III/of angular jil'M oj l'it'l-l' of 'Xl 120 0 J uring eac h scan. depe nding o n the sensor S)SI.:: rn. The
    mirro r also view s internal hoI and cold calibration .n mt"n's
    (targe ts) d uring each scan . The e xact temperature of these
    calibration sou rces is kno wu.
    Photons ofthermal infrared radiant flux . III , cmined by the
    terr ain. arc routed II,) a mirror that focuses the phll[OllS onto

    would include elJt:rgy frn m hea lthy june tree" deal


    trees. bare ~" il. uud any radiant energy from thcill1ll
    W iling :l1 llll" pher.... The detector also loo ks al CIlIJ
    ;111<1 hoi culihration sources dmin ~ each line scan.

    the d,'Il 'Uur. TI1<' detec to r converts the incoming radim:


    cn..:rgy LntO:1I1 al1:11(lg ele ctrical sig na l. The greater the nurnbcr III' photons impac uug 11K' de tector. the greater the SL&l*
    strength . The infrared de tectors ( Figure Sl I ) arc usuaJl!
    comp osed of:
    /,,:51> [indium antimonide) w uh a pea k scnsit ivit) nearS
    urn:
    GI' . I1~ ( me rcury-doped
    .....n"ill\ uy ncar rupm:

    germanium]

    with

    pe1i:

    263

    I Infrared Dat a Collection

    Th ermal Infrared Detectors


    Aircruh m llhls~clm l scanner I1 lght altitudes and
    pixe l silL' based on an inSI:lntan"ou s Ilcld ot vicw
    of2.5 mrad .
    Flight Alti tud e AGL, m

    P ixe l S ize, m

    1,000

    2.5

    2,000

    5.0

    ' ,000

    10.0

    20,000

    so.n

    50,nOIl

    1.25,0

    ~CJ' r,' (mcrcury-cadm iurn-tdluritkl which


    lilt!' ibe range
    'lledct~'(lorr.

    ;;;. 1010

    15.0

    i.. scnsmve

    from X- 14 ~I m.

    arc cooled to 10 w te m perat ures (. IQf,C ; ':!,B

    :73 K) using liqui d helium or liquid n itro gen. Cooli ng the

    o
    >

    ( ;~' : J1 1:

    "

    ury -!loped
    I- + - f-H c {:'I.-1erl'
    (Ierrnanium )

    1'1 1III
    10' L _ _'-'_
    1

    itt~lors

    ens ures that the radiant energy (photons) recorded


    ~ the detectors comes fro m the: ter rain and not fro m the
    ber aternperat ure (If objects .... ithin the scanner itsd f.

    lie Earth doc s not emit

    much thermal infrared radin. therefore, the re lanv ely wea k signal is usually amphi:d The signa l is the n reco rded on magnetic tape or other
    for future analog-to-digita l (A -to-D) con version and
    aaf:,sis.l f desired, the signa l can also be used to modulate a
    , source that reflec ts \ isiblc light onto a recorder mirror
    ~!led ;u the other end o f the m ot ori zed shaft. Here the proess is reversed and vivible ligh t radi ant llux pro port ional til
    ik !l11ount o f infrared ene rgy received is used IU exp ose
    jiIolograph ie film pixel-by-pixel and line-by-lin e. creating a
    Ibmnal infrared image of'thc te rrain . To pro perly expose the
    ~l;raphic lil m. it must be ad \ anced rorv. ard in re lation 10
    fast the sha ft is turn ing . The hard -cop y therma l infra red
    JIIC ma~ be precessed as a n<-gati\ e or pos itive pri nt.
    VCI)

    is important to re member thai the in frared rad iant tlux


    m..'Orded by the sensor system is an integration of all the
    r2il i3nt nux ernincd fro m the: various materials with in the
    IFOVand any radian t n ux that the at mos phere migh t scaucr
    inlo the IFOV of the se nsor. For example. radiant nu x emitI:d from the healt hy pine trees. dead trees. hare soil. and the
    JlmosphcT<: wou ld be integrated into a single meas ureme nt
    lithe terrain show n in Figure X~ IO.

    1.5

    .2

    -'--'--'-'c:..:c:..,--,c..J

    J 4 5 67 R 10
    Wa vclengt h.jrm

    15 20

    I
    l

    Fig ure 8 11

    The pe ak spectral sen,i livity o f an indium antimon ide j/wSh) the rmal infrared detec tor i ~ appruxunarcly 5.0 J-I ll1. while the !X'"k sensitivity of a
    mercury-dope d germanium ( u-:Hm detector is a pprO\ illlatcf~

    10

    ~m

    (afi.:r

    ~1<"Oonnd l

    Dougla~,

    lQK~J ,

    T he t(llIow ing fac to rs shou ld he considered w hen co llect ing


    aircraft MSS the rmal in fra red data :
    There is an in verse rel ationsh ip betw een having high
    spatial resol ut ion and h igh radio met ric reso lutio n when
    collecting thermal in fra red da ta . Th e la rger the radiometer
    instanta neo us field l ) f view; P. the longe r the d-.w:// l i m e
    tha t an indi \ idual detec tor vie.... s the terra in w ith in the
    IFOY duri ng a single sweep of the mirror. A larger IFO Y
    pro vides goo d rodiomemc resoheron, wh ich is the abi lity
    to discriminate be t w ee n \ cry small d ifference s in rad iant
    ene rgy ex iting the terrain cleme nt. In fact, the radian t
    en ergy ,\'ignol measured may well he muc h stronger than
    ,HI)' l /tIi .\'{ ' intrnduccd from the sensor sys tem components.
    When thi s takes rI;K~', we say thai we have a good signalto-noise ra tio . O f co urse, the larger the IFOV, the poorer
    the al;li lit~ to resol ec line spatial detail. Selecting a smaller
    llOv .... ill increase the spatial resolution. but the se nsor

    264

    ("I I

    t uver w-xquare

    R ~m"IC

    ,ktc'CtOf'
    Icm~

    Hlackt.od y Pomr """-nee, S

    l'hc Inwn.c -"'luarc 101" Ic ' cals thatthe lnICn ~l l~ o f


    lhl-rmal radi al ion cmin ed from a blackbody .....inl
    ..ou rce. S. vancv as II!<: mverse ><juan: ,,( Ih..- distance. d. !>..'1\\C<.'T1 lit<: source and remot," del':"""
    receivers, t ), llmi

    Th e rmal Infrare d Remote Sensir\9

    The m

    Most the rma l infrared remote sensing inv...stigations


    main tain g(l{lt\ radiomet ric and spatial resolution .
    s<'!':d ing a fa irly larg... II'O V such as 2.5 mrad. :W
    ll)ing at a rclalhcl) low altitu de to obt ain smaller
    si zes. Untornnnncly . at lower ..ltitudc s. rhc high.
    resolution rna) b.: ourwcighed hy the fact thaI
    fl ight liucs an: rcqci rcd to cover the area compared 10
    efficient cov erage :11 higtJcr a hnudcs with larger
    The pi ee l ~I/O: a nd the g."ographic size o f the "L1f\ieJ'
    considered. ObJI:l'tIH'S art: "cighcd. and a romp
    reached. \ Iulliplc Ilightlmcs of ai rcraft tl. ISS dau
    d itfic uh to mosaic.

    1 .;1\\

    1>.

    FIQUfe 8-1 2

    \ 1 ' l n~

    J).~

    \\'111 d.... ell a ..hurt er t ime on each terrain element during a


    S \\ CC p uf the mirro r. rcsu h ing in poorer radiometric
    resol uuon and pl.'rhaps 3 poo rer sig na l-to-n orse ratio.

    Ccomcme Ccreccnon
    Infr a r l'd 'ccanner 1)>11>1

    of

    . \ r ro ",,T r a r k

    Tht

    Thermal infra red scanning system s (actually all


    ~)'~lt'ms l introduce num erous t)pes of geometric eTroI'
    mu- abe understood because lite) imp act 1) the qualilyol
    imagery lo r vi sual o r dig ital imag e procc-s.s ing and a~
    and 2 ) the creauon ot plarnmetnc maps trorn the I
    infrared data . 111... most important considerations indlll!t
    gro und "" ath w rdth;

    CUlling in ha lf the di stan ce o f a remote sens ing detec tor


    from a point source qlladnlples the mt rarcd energy
    rece ived hy thaI detector. The inverse-square law stales
    that " the inten sity of radiauo n emit ted from a po int source
    var ies as the Inverse square ofthe dist ance betw cc n source
    JIll.J receiver," Thus, I l l' can ob tain a more irucnse . ~Irong
    therm a l infra red signal i f we C;III gel the remote sensor
    detector ns close to the ground :l~ prac tica l. For exa mp le.
    con-ader a bl;lc"hud~ point ~t,urn: , S. and two remote
    detectors (D I and D 1 ) \.f\'qU'll sensitive area. say, I elll~ .
    Det ecto r /), IS a dis tance drm from S, and detector I): is at
    a distance 2<1 em from S lFigun: ~ - 1 2 ) . From the Stefa nn ol lzmal1 l1 law ( [ q llali' lii ~ - I j, the Illlal in fra red energy
    radia ied by S inw a hl'rnisplwre i~ ,I II. \Vatt , /cm 2 o f the
    wdlilling sur lilce. Thus, ,1Ih is Ihe towl infr'ired energy
    radi;HL'd inlo a hemisphere llr radius don whic h sens or D,
    is localed, Ihal is. into a sllrt:lCC area of tre/""' ("/11-'. But JI~ is
    alst' Ihl.' to lal infraro.:J ene rgy r'ld iated inlo a hemisphe re o f
    mdiu s ~d on which senSl.r f) -, b l(lc ak'd. spcei lically. into a
    sur ta ce ;Irea o f -1m/""' r nr'. Thcrdore.
    If,

    .
    4n:,r
    .\/"

    \110'

    w;
    4

    (X-I:')

    spatia l ground resolution cell size:


    ouc -di mcns ional rcl icf disp taccrncut: and
    tang.e nlia l scale drsto ruon.

    F
    Ground S\\lli h Wi d th ( ~\ w ) : The grou nd sw ath width
    11K' Icn~ lh of the te rrain ~trip remotely sensed by the sy~tn
    d uring one complete across- track swee p of the sca nning mil,
    ror. [ t is a func tion of the total angula r field Il l' view of tht
    Sl'lhor sys lo:m. fl. lind tho.: ;Illitlldc I, r the sensor sysle m a~
    gro unJ 1 ~\ e l . 11 (Fi gur'\' ~-13). It is COlllp lllcd as
    g.H1 '

    lan ( ~ X ll x 2 .

    (8-17

    Fllr ",xJmplc. lhe groun d swa lh width o f an ac ross-track


    sl'anning sy~lell1 wil h OJ 100" total li cld llfvicw and anahj.
    ludl.' aho\'C ground Il."vd (If 6.000 m wou ld he 14,]01 m:

    g.H" - tan (
    ~ .~ W

    l~) x 6000 x 2

    1.19 1753x6000x2

    Oi.-l ('

    x,w

    1.... J n l m.

    265

    I Infrare d Data Collec tion

    ......

    --- - - _ . _ ~

    a/ sc-.;~ 0) tl

    .~">c .

    O .. / h

    R
    I'

    a t nad ir

    or
    -.....:

    ~I

    /1.~.

    --...:.~

    !l13 Til.: ground r...solution , ell 5iL<: along a single a.... r.. s~- Ira c].. scan is a fun<:ti"ll ,, ( a ) the distance from the aircraft tt> the ,>bscrvauon. i.e.. II is lhe altitu d e o ft he aircraftabove groun d level (.\t i l);11 na,lir ami 11 w,. ~(llr-nadlr: h) the mstanumeous field
    Ill" \ leW (If th... "';1lS\)r.I ~, m...a s urc...J in nulhrudians. and c) the scan ang le off-u.nlir. o. "l1lUs, pixels t>tT-n,Il.lir ha\ e semi-major
    ami sem i-mino r aM.OS (J i;lmc Lers) that de finc rh... r.-sn llllin n cell Si7,'_ ( )n<:-tlimcn,j "na l relief di -placcmcn t arul nmgc nriul scale
    Ji stuni ull a lsl) oc cur in a directionperpendic ular LoJ th.... line u f lliglll and p,u" lld " ,Lh a line , c an,

    ihetotel field u f view wc rc 90, the gl"lJUllJ swath Il iJl h


    llJld be 12,{l(l(J m:

    ...:.n,' - tan('120) x 6000 x 2


    ,11'.' 11' = I

    x 6000 x 2

    g \ '1- = 12. non

    111

    scientists utilizing ac ross-track sca nn er dat a o nl y usc


    ir ctlltral ""11 percent otthe s w ath w id th t 35 ~'TC('1ll on ca c h

    lde of rl.JJir) primarily because ground resoluti o n cleme nts


    si, cs the farth er the y arc aW3~ fro m nad ir,

    Gruun d R...sohuluu C d l S in ' (0): Thc diamete r of thc circula r g round nrc n vie wed hy the sen"or, /). :It nadir is n lime l in n o f ItK' ins tanrancou-, fiel d o f \' i... w, fJ. o f the scanner
    mcasurc d in m i l l i ra d ian ~ r rura dj and th c uhiuej c of the se en ncr a bov e grou nd lew!./I. where /) = II x fl. Inte re s ting ly,
    <I, till' ""an lle r'~ in,t.:l11l1111"'OU' field of \ icw 1II0 \'CS aw ay'
    fro m nad ir ' HI e uh ... r sid c. th ... circ lc becomes a n ellipsoid.
    O n e (If illc major reasons is thai the distance fro m the aircra ft
    tothe resohnion ccllrs mcrc axing, a.. shown in Figu re ~ 13.
    In fact, thc divtan cc from the a ircraft 10 the r"S<l lul i"n cell o n
    the groun d. 110 , is a tuocuon o fthe scan angle Oil -nadir. O. at
    the ume of data collection a nd fhe tru ... a ltitude of the a ircraft, /I (Lillc-und ..nd Kiefer. 20(3):

    1M larger cell

    II,

    (R-IH)

    - 8

    266

    C1IAP n :R

    Thermal Inf rared Remote Sensing

    Acro ~~- Tnll;k ~ lInllt'r

    Gt'omt>lrJ

    l'I

    ilh

    Ontf) imt'n ,iuna l Rl'Iid Displa cem ent


    anti T an~t'nlilll S<'al ... Hi,wrtinn

    rr
    pnnripul
    point
    I

    tank
    signlficalil
    gcomerc
    I;omprc;-

    at ed!:eof

    sigmoid distortion
    linca r feature

    (If

    Figu re 6 -14

    t
    one-dimensional

    scan liDe

    relie f displacement

    a) The hypot hetica l pe rspective geometry o f a vertica l aerial pho tograph ,' 1>13I11C,J over le ve l terrain. Four 50 1\ tanks ill!
    tributcd lhn'ugh,l\ll till' lambc3pe and experience \: Irylllg .lcl!TCI'S of radia! relie f d isplaceme nt thl' further they aTC fro..
    pri nci pal pI,inl (1'1'). b ) Across- truck sca nni ng S}SIC IllS introd uc e onc-dimcusinua l relie f displacement pcrpcndiculer e
    line or nigh t and tangenunl SC;11e distortion and colll pn'ss ion the farther the object i~ away from nadir, Linear features
    ing aallS> the terrain arc often recorded with s-shapcd or sigmoid c urvat ure chaructcnsucs due III l.mgenl iOlI scale JI\
    and compression.

    Thus. the size (If the ground reso le no n cell increas es as the
    angle increase'S away from nadir. The nominal {average)
    dia metc... of the elli ptical resolution ce ll. Do. at this angular
    locat ion from nadir has the dimension :
    (l'i-19j

    in the d irection of the line o f flig ht. and

    inrhe onhogon altpc r pendicula r) sca nning di rect ion.


    Scientists using therma l ncross-rrack scan ner data us ua lly
    o nly co ncern the mselves \'. ith the spat ial gro und resolution
    o f the cel l at nadir, D. If it is neces sary to pe rform precise
    qua nrirarive work on pixels some ang le Q off- nadir. then it
    may' be important to remember that the rad iant nux recorded
    is a n inte gration ofthe rad iant 11u-1l: fru m all the surface mate ria ls in a ground resol ut ion cel l w ith a constantly changing
    dia meter, Using only the ce ntra l 70 pe rcent of the swat h
    width reduces the imp ac t o f the large r pixels found at the
    extre me edges of the swath,
    Oil l'-J) i nll'lI~ io/1l11 Relief nisp lac(' lJ1cllt : Tru ly vert ical
    ae rial pho tograp hs ha ve a sing le principal po int directly

    beneath the ai rcraft .11 nad ir arr he instan t of exposure.


    perspective geometry causes all objects that rise above
    local terrain elevation \0 be d isp laced from their
    p lanimetric posuion radially ou tward from the prj
    point (discussed in Chapter (,). For example, the four
    rcrical tanks in Figure K-14a are eac h 50 It high. The
    till' d ista nce from the principal po int, the greater the
    relief dis placement ofthe top of the tank away from iu
    The rma l infra red images acquired usi ng ,111 <l crOS!HI~
    scan ning sys tem a lso conta in relief displaccrncu t. Ilowcv
    instead of h..-ing radia l from a sin gle principal po in1. lhe dH.
    placement takes place in a d irec tion thaI is perpe ndicular
    rhe line o f flight for ea ch and every scan lme as showe
    Fi g u ~ R-1 4b . In etfect. the ground-resolution dement
    nadir func tions like a principal point for each scan line.
    nadir, the scanning system loo ks d irectly dow n on the
    and It appears as a perfec t circle in Figure 1(-14h. The gmllI
    the height of the object above the local terrain and
    greater the dista nce of the top of the object from nadir ue,
    the line of Ilightl. the gre ater the amount nf nne-dimensi
    ,.";/ie( J{.I'p/an""I'1i1 prcsem. O ne-dim en siona l relief d&
    placement is intro duced in bo th directions aw ay from
    [or each sweep o r the across- trac k m irro r.

    267

    al Inlrared Data Collection

    \'crl iul

    Acriall> I"' I ,,~rap h

    panang

    plltrll

    , .

    ~diml.'n siona l

    ca mp us obtn I ned (In A pri l 2("


    I'JSO. ~ "lc tha t the rel ief u isplacem ent o f III,' science
    huil uin p i ~ radia l away from
    the pruu-ipal point. bl Predawn I x I m therma l infrared
    1111;11:\"1)'.
    Note
    the

    ,i

    imri,'l\le underground steamline netw ork se rved oy the


    earn pla n!. T he scienc e

    seam

    rel ief dis placement ca n be be ne ficia l or


    image-interpretatio n prob lem s. For e xample. cons ider
    .aerial photog raph and pred awn the rma l infrared image o f
    bel'ni\Crsit), Ill' So uth Ca rolin a camp us shown in Figure 1(! The science huildmg s exhrbu radia l relief dis placement
    :he aerial photograp h away from the princi pa l point and
    lIN.limcfls ion:ll rel ie f displace ment in the therma l infrared
    IIIgC' perpendicular to the line of !light. Noh: h(.w il is easy
    li (\l' the side (fal;ad""l of the scicnc e buildings in the thcrinfrared image. T his is valuab le if \\ e want to study the
    CIIISI:

    FIgureS- IS ,)) Vertical panchromatic


    aennl photography of the
    Uni\ er~lly Qf South Carolina

    hllild i ng~

    Sill(1;!1

    exhibit une-d ime'n-

    relief displacem ent

    ca used by the ews>-lrnel.


    sc annmg system.

    temper ature characteristics (I f til.' side of these build ings.


    1I11""'l' w r. if We wanted to e valua te the thermal chamc tcristics of the rood o r obj ects un rncdiu rcly beh ind the build ings,
    lhe) are obsc ure d fro m view.
    Ae rial photography and predawn the rma l infrared imagery
    o f dowmow n f'\ew York C ity provi de an even g reate r app re-

    ciuuon 01" unc-dnne nsioual rel ie f displaceme nt [Figure 8Ill). In this case. the rad ial relief d ispl acement in the aerial
    photograph makes II di flicul t 10 obta in mfo rmauon abo ut the

    ( 'Il..\ I'n:R

    268

    Th ermul Inrrared

    Th e rma l Infr ared Remo te Sensing

    11I111 ~e

    of x ew York

    Ci l~

    The n

    toni c
    one

    hyp<
    Thi~

    non!
    utili
    tort

    8-1-

    pen

    rno

    Srn
    gel

    e.'\l
    va

    im
    tic

    pe

    "
    ct

    b.
    FIgure 8-16

    al l'lr'p.;:'I:!llt' a<'ria ll"h"\(~f"aph ofd"" lUO"' " ;..lc.... York Cil~ !"I'I<: the radial relief ..h splacemcruofthc Empire Slate
    awa y from the principal point (not silo.... Ill. h) Predawn therma l infrar..-d im:l g.: nf dow mown ~ ... w York City, Note !he
    dimensional rchef d i, plal'.'n h: m lhal is perpendicular fll ihe line (If n ight. Th .., Illda l 011 the '01" of the Emp ire Slale Bui
    shuws " I" as I:>o: illl; \'ery cold due 10 lis I,m cmissiv uy. Th .., building on the le R is <cry "'1,101. while the Empire State B .
    r adiates a ~ ij;nltka nl amount of energy. The meta l <:1111> hal e II l'IW t'lllisSllll>. as dothe circular metal evaporative coolC!'\
    top
    th... IlC;U~',l burl<.l ing.

    "r

    ~lreet patte rn is almost completely


    obsc ured from \ icw. Conversely, because the t herm al imagery was obt ained along a line o f ni g ht tha t was parallel with
    the ~ t rel't orientation. the one-d imensiona l rel ief displacerncut creates an excellent \ icw of the temperature charac terlsrics of the buildings a nd urccts, cspcciully those that lie
    porpcndiculur II ' the di rectio n (If Iligh t. Notice the significa nt
    amount of therma l detai l nn the side of the Em pire Sla te
    Huilding that is vrsihle hCl';IUW orthe onc-dirncnxional re lie f
    displacement. Abu note till' radiome tricall y cold metal un
    the to p of the Em pire State Bui lding.

    stn:e t pattern. In fact. the

    Wh ile some uspcc rs o f one-dimensional relief disp lacement


    may be ofunluy lor visualtherma l infrared image intcrpretat inn, it scrillus ly disp laces the top .. 01" IlhJecH projecting
    above the loc a l terrain fro m their true plan imctric position.
    1\. laps produced from such lInag.cry contain serious plan ime tric errors. Thermal infrared imagery nu...t be geometrically
    rectified in order to produce maps with some semb lance of

    geometric accu racy. I\lcthod s of ge ometric rec tification


    summa rized in Jensen (200 5 ).
    Tllll!.:l'lltili l Scale Dbt uruon: The mirror Oil a thermal infu.J
    red ncross- track sca nni ng system rotat es at a co nstant ~pettp
    and typic ally vie ws from 7 () 0 to 120 0 of terrai n during
    com plete Iinc scan. Of course, the a mo unt depends on tlt
    specific senso r system. h om Figur e X- I] it is clearthat
    terrain diree ll)' beneath the aircra ft (al nadir! is c loser lOllt
    aircraft thanthe te rra in ill the edges J uring a single sweep"
    the mirror. The refo re. because the mirror rotate s at a OOJ.

    statu rate. the sensor scans a shorter geogra phic distarce e


    nadir than it docs at the edge ofthe image. T his re lations
    rends to comp ress tenures a long an axis that is perpcndiaJar til the line Ill' !light. 1 he great er the d istance o fthe grOlllJ
    resolution cell from nadir. the greater the image scale cwo
    pression , This is called tangential scale distortion . Objccs
    nc.rr nadir exhrhurhcir proper shape. Objects near th... ed!t
    of the Ilightli ne become compressed and the ir shape diitoned tor example. co nsider the tangential geometric ds-

    ,
    n

    I
    I

    1Infrared Data Collect ion

    269

    Ii.!n and compression ofthe circular swi mming pools and


    hectare of land the farther they are from nad ir in the
    rucal d iag ram (Figure tj-14b) .
    Wlgenlia l scale dis tortion and compression in the far
    also causes linear features such as w ads. railroads.
    right of ....-ays, crc., to have an s-shape or sigmoid dis ilwn wh c-n recorded on therm a l infrared imagery ( Figure
    I.:bJ. lmeresun gfy, if the linear featu re Is parallel with or
    icular to the line of Ilight it doc s not experience vig-

    diaorrion.
    sophistica ted across-track scanning systems lake tan -

    '81 scale dis tortion into considerat ion and swee p the
    flJ~ing spot of light at the lilm recorder at a continuously
    'ng speed . Idea lly, this is the ty pe of therm al infr ared
    availa ble fo r anal ys is. When tangential scale disrorhas not b<..'<:11 removed, it is best 10 1) use the ce ntral 70
    latmt of the field of view for analysis to m mimize the
    of distortion. and 1) geornc m ca tly rl-..:ti f) the remote
    data using ground -comrol po int rectific atio n disIlIl:II:d in Jensen (2005 ).
    single Ilightl mes of aircra ft !'.ISS data arc diffic ult to
    to standard map proj c-ction becau se of aircrati ro ll.
    and/or yaw duri ng data collc.....tio n (Jensen et al.,
    .~ Notches in the edge of a tl ighrli nc of data are ind icacofa ircraft. roll . Such data requ ire sign ific a nt human a nd
    lIlChinc reso urces to ma ke the data planunctricully acc u(II

    'f:.

    '!!t , Several

    firms have place d Gi'S and inertial naviga tion


    ascms ([1';5 ) o nbonrd the aircraft to obtain the e xact toea -

    of the plane and its roll, pitch , and yaw al the exact
    of data collec tion. This information can be used 10
    I,,,,,,""call~. COTn:l;1 eac h line of rem ole sensor data withthe need for the collection of gro und control ponu s.

    Rldionlftrk Cnllb mt lnn (If Therma l xcunner nala

    matcly [2()" of terrain. ami then a " hot" re ference la rget d uring e:.II,:1I line sca n. as dc monsrra rcd in Figu re 8-10 . The truc
    ki neti c temperature of these cold and hot targets is constantl y monitored by the remote sensi ng sysl... m and is
    recorded on disk. tape. o r some o the r medium along wit h the
    image data fo r eac h line scan. If desired. all of the terra in
    brigh tness values collected during a scun can then be calibrated [converted] to "PJI,Ir<!1I1 true temperature values
    based on thei r rel ationshi p to the cold and hot target information stored lo r each scan line . Th... radiom e tric resolution
    is usually accurate to w ith in
    O.2eC. This sho uld be the
    ideal method of radiometric ca libration becau se it invo lves
    no fie ld wor k. Unfort unately, th is met hod dues mit account
    for the intervening atmosphere I ) e mitt ing spurious radian t
    energy iruo thc I FO V ofthe sensor system, or 2) absorbing
    energy emiu..\! from the ground he fore it reaches the deice tur opti cs ,

    =.

    Ext ernat Kr fr r en l'i n:.:: To incorporate atmospheric e ffec ts.


    it rna) be necessary to perform ex terna l em pirical referencing . Th is invo lves lakin g insitu measurements w ith I ) a
    thermomete r that measu res the true kinetic tcmpcruturc ofa
    materialor water body, 21 a handhel d /"(uliOlJ/"Il '" tha t measores the rad ia nt te mperat ure exiting the terrain in a specific
    mstamaneous fi eld of view . or 3 ) a radiosonde Ia balloon
    carrying sensit ive meteorologica l instru men ts} launched to
    obta in at mosphe ric profiles o f temperature. barometric pressure. and water vapor,
    Therm ometers are stra ight forward i l1 situ measureme nt
    dev ices . A radiometer is a handheld remote sensing instru men! that you point at the terrain and an ap pa re nt radiant
    temperature read ing is ret urned. Either type of temperatu re
    measurement should be o btained at the ex act t ime that the
    remote se nsor data. a re collected o verhead. Ideall y. more
    than 311 ill .~il/l sa mples are obtained, Unfortun ately, this is
    not a lways practica l due 10 the constraint, o f hiring peop le ,
    bout s. etc.. and ..rhtaining a su ffi cien t number of high-qualit y
    rhcrmomcrcrs and 'o r radiometers . T he exactlocation Ill' eac h
    o f the III .' 1 /11 thermometer or radiometer measure men ts arc
    o btai ned usi ng GPS. The tocauons of the in .{ i/II data -collec tion I"'II1IS lire then loc ated in the recufleo rem ote senso r
    data . a nd th... hright n<:s.~ values at the se locations arc
    ex trac ted. The uccuracy of thl' geomet ric cOfT\::ction of Ihe
    ther ma l infrared data hceomes very im portant at this poinl.

    order to deriv e surface temperatures from thermal infra remote se nsing data. two im portant proMems mu st he
    til IColl er 31.. 20(3): (i) com pe nsa tion lor atmospheric
    ion and emiss ion in the: radiance arriv ing at the sen.end (ii) correctio n for surface emiseivny effect s. wh ich
    ItCQupkd \\'ith tem perature in the rad iance em itted by the
    Wfacf. This radiome tr ic calibrat ion l11u)" be pcrfomlCd
    IilIlf: I) internal l'-Iackbody <:;o urcc re lerencing, or 2 ) e xtl:'rmpirical refe renci ng based o n in ~ iffl data collection
    hi and God. 1995) .

    .{ i lll arc then regres sed w ith Ihe comsponding n n:mole

    IIltma l Sou rce Keferencin::: Wh en an al'ross -trac k scan


    Im~ sptem is use d to collect the rmal inirared data. the
    ~ei:tor /irst loo ks at a "cnld" refe rl'nce target. app rox !.

    scn si ng brighlllcs~ values obtained at Ihl:' same g~'Ographie


    locatio ns. Fo r example. cons ider Ihe eight if! situ water-tern peraturc measu rements in Figure ~-17 .111(1 the corresponding
    uncalinral ed therma l infra red rem ote ,ensing brightness val-

    The: fI the nnomeler or rad iome ter mea surements coll ec ted ill

    I
    I

    II

    CII ,\I' I EK

    270

    Th erm al lnlrared Rem ote Sensing

    Them

    Table

    reo

    I ()(J

    ./

    '0

    '0

    '0
    LinC'llr
    HI ' _.. (I.65'h '" 5(,.173
    Rl .. O.l't63

    -,

    '0

    tho
    th"

    flr, nnlinl'lIr: 2nd..( ) rd t'r Pol~ n "mia l


    HV .. "(IO I~~ - 2.121' ... 2(,.3
    ij
    RZ .. (),~!t~

    20

    'ua0.

    b. n

    a. o
    2U

    II

    '0

    RO

    IIr sine True Kine tic Temperature \ k a.<;urement. T4l1l" "F


    Figu re 8 17

    ()

    20

    '"

    so

    u}Linear regression line nuc ciglu in 'I/U temperature measurements and uncafibratc d rem" tc sensing brighUK";'S \"a1un
    tamed f' lf thl.'same grop"phic loc atio n. " I Nonlinear Znd-ordcr polynom ial equahun fit tnthe sam ... obscr':l1 iOlls.

    equation explained loll, pcn-cm ut'thc \ anancc while the zndorde r polynomial explained 9Q percent of the variance.

    costly an d well-coordinated Field data-c ollec tion progra.


    A lso. a ll the thermom eters. radiometers. and G PS inll:t
    menrs mu st be ca refu lly cal ibrated. and the in situ read .
    shou ld be obta ined at exac tly the same lime, if possible

    Either o f these eq uat ions may he used III rel ate the ill .~i'li
    tem perature me as urements to the remote sensi ng brightness
    valu es . in eff ect. radionwtrica lly cal ibrati ng the rem ote senso r data. Thi s meth od docs not rake into acco unt the intervening a ( nlll~ p her\' prevent at the time of data collection.
    Note thatthe linear equat ion is of the form HI:! = a Tt", + h.
    If we want to tak e into nccoumthe emissiv ity (t.) of the tcr rain. " e utiliz e the v-Iutcrccpr ( /I ) and slope of the re larloush ip (<I) and the eq uat ion:

    But what if it is not pract ical to collec t in situ thcrmomete


    radiomete r measur ements in the field over va st or illtraet3l1t
    distan ces al the same time as the remote sensing mertliglt:
    How can we then take Into accountthe de leteriou s efferu
    atmospheric absorption or emission on our therma l infrard
    measurements? T he answer is the usc of I J md io sondr ,ilIli
    atmospheric rudi.uivc trans fe r mod el ing. or 2) spl i t-w ind~.
    atmosphe ric corrcc uun tec hniques.

    ucs ( B I~J ) for these same e igh t locations. Linea r and/or nonlinear curves are li t through the obse.... ations. The linear

    HV ~, =

    " 'f . T. I4U


    "' h
    '

    ( k- 2 1)

    Rearra ngin g the equ at ion allows the true kinetic te mperature
    T.i~ o f e ver)' pixel. 8 J~) ill the uncahbratcd matr ix o f remot e
    se nso r data til be de termined :
    1

    B I 'il - h) '
    ( u c

    (t-:-22 )

    Th e radiometrically calibrated remote sensor dat a may then


    be used to ma ke tempera ture maps. This method requ ires a

    ,\s noted. the inte rven ing atmo sphere has a s ignific:ml
    imp act on the ene rgy emitte d by the terr ain be fore it is l C!ll
    ally recorded by the ther mal infr ared remote sensing system.
    In fact . the max imum unnosphcric trans mittance of th.:rmal
    infrared radi ation in the spec tra l regi o n fro m ItO - l ~ j.1llI 5
    on ly abou t ao percen t. The amo unt of atmos pheric a"solJl'
    non is primarily a funct ion o f the atmospheric water l ap
    content. although there is an ozone ab sorption ba nd al"Ollllll
    f.J.5 u m . To obt ain accu rate thermal sur face radiance vallll:i
    radiosonde launches need 10 be made concurre ntly \\iith~
    timc and nigh ttime owrllights. A uucsph cric profile s ofteeperat ure. baro met ric pres sure . and hu mid ity obtained UsiDg

    Tho
    co
    inc

    am
    d ll
    pn

    no
    L\
    m

    no

    ;,

    "c
    it

    ,,

    ,
    ,,

    lIilrmal lnfrared Data Collectio n

    ~ a5.

    Sp~ctral scnsuivu y and ope rating tcmpc rauucs fil l'


    selected infrared elccrro-cpricalIoc al P!<,J lICarrays.

    WaV1!length
    (lim)

    271

    Detector
    Mat erial

    Operating
    Temperature (K)

    0.3- 5.S

    In:Sb

    <so

    1.0 - 3.0

    r v Ug:C'd :Te

    ;> l SO

    3.0 - 5.0

    e v 1i!!:Cd:Te

    $1 20

    8.0 -1 2.0

    e v Ilg:Cd:Tc

    12,0 - 2S.0

    Si:As

    j {l -

    so

    10

    radiosonde arc transmitted to the ground . These data are


    incorporated into an atmos pheric tra nsm ission mode!
    C!.. LOWT RA S or MODTRA;,\: ) to calcu late atmos pheric
    bIMIission characterist ics (Q uattr och i lind Go d . 1( 9 5).
    The output from the LOWTRA :--J or J\I0 DTRAN mod el is
    IOOlbincd \\ ith calibrated sr l.'clral response curve s for the
    Pli\'idua l bands of the therma l in fra red detecto rs being used
    internal b lackbody source re ferencing data recorded
    aring the flight. All these da ta are t hen modeled a nd used to
    a look-up table for co nverting each pix el's brigh t11M lalue into true k inet ic tempe rature measure men ts Ic.g.
    (Jr..al!. 1999; Call ct cl., 20(3 ). Th is is the most rigorou s
    !IltIhod of calib rating thermal infra red imagery. Unfo rtuDud)',lery I"c w perso ns ha ve ucc css to radiosonde tcchnoli'g}', Sometimes
    at mo sphe ric profi le meteo rological
    ormation from a nearby Nationa l Wea ther Se rvice station
    Icr airpOft) can be used instead or the radios onde dat a as
    ~ to the atmos pheric tra nsm ission modcl lQ uan rochi and

    Cl. (995) .

    Scientists attempting to remove atmospheric effects and


    e emune surface temperature ( 1.; ) data hav e also found that
    JpliHvil1dul1' approach works well in certai n instances
    (13)ko\\ ski ct al.. 1997; Ouaidra ri ct el., 20( 2 ). Basicall y,
    hbrighmess temperatures o bserved in one therma l c hannel
    eg.. AVHRR band TIl arc co rrected for atmospheric clTects
    ~ tile linear difference bet ween the brightn ess tempe rature s
    I other thermal channels ( e. ~ . , I\V HR R band T.,). A n evam\'Ie of a .l.pIiH.. indow equ ation is
    J

    Figu re 8--18

    A (>40 x -4 110 IIt;;Cd :Tc (mcn:ury--cadmium-telluride) lon g-wavelength infrared 1I.\\'I R) area array'
    and readout a~'iCmbl)'. Th is detec to r arr ay is cooled
    til 50 - lW K. New arrays have > 1000 x 1000 de-

    tl'1.: tOTS.

    retrie val using split- win dow methods . Tl MS data. and


    ground rneasuremcms.

    Thermal Infrared Remote Sensin g Based on Area- and


    Linear-Arrays of Detectors

    Until rece ntly. it was difficult to make commercially a..a ila ble rC Ds that haJ spectral sen sitivity to m id- and lun gwavelength in frared rad iation. Therefore . mos t thermal
    in frared remote sensor data " ere collected with a single
    dete ctor and a scanning mirror 3.1. previou sly di scu ssed . Th is
    has cha nged ( FU R. 2(06 ), It is now pos sible to ma ke bo th
    line ar and a rea-arra ys (so metimes refe rred to as "staring"
    foc a l-plane armys ) thai arc sens itive to mid- and the rmal
    infrared radiation such as those summ arized in Table X5 .
    For example. a 040 x 4XCl lI g ;Cd ;Te long -wavelength infrared area arra y w ith its read out assembly attached is sho wn in
    Figu re R-I R. Detector arra ys > 1024 x 1024 ele ment s are
    00\1. a..-ailable and offer low noise and state-o f-the-a rt sc nsiu vity fur ex treme ly low -bac kg round applications. Star ing
    array detec tors made of platinu m silicide (Pt:Si ) are a lso
    popular.

    (8-23 )
    and h arc co nstants that can be e stim ated from
    model simulanons ( Bec ke r and Li. 199 5 , 1' 1' co rrel ation wnh
    !JOUIld observations. Six split- wind ow equatio ns are slim-ued in Ouaidrari et al. ( ~OO2) and in C7aj ko wski cr al
    :00-;). Coli et al. (201).31 describe land-s urface temperature
    \' ht.'l'r II

    Linear and are a staring arrays allow improved thermal in fmred re mote sensing w ta ke place because t FU R. 20(6 );
    the solid-state micro-elec tronic detectors are small er in
    sile t e.g. 20 x 20 Jlrn ) and " e ight require less pow er to
    operate, hav c fe wer mo vin g pa rts, and arc mo re re liab le;

    C H,\ I" t:l{

    272

    Figure 8-19

    Thermal Infrared Re mo te Sensing

    r t erm

    A helicopter wnh a lorward louklll ll mti"otrnl


    tf LIR) scnsce system IOC3IL-d under lhe nose (coer10:"') H J R :-'y,l.-rn'i.. lncl.

    Fig ure 820

    each detec tor in Ih... a rray can \ k\\ the grou nd resolu tio n
    d em ent rU T a longer lim... (i.c. it has a longer dw el l time),
    allowing more photons oft'nl'r},!Y fro m \\ ithin the IFOV 10
    be recorded by the indi vidual dcicc tor, resulting in
    improved radi om etric resolution Ithc ability to rcsolv ...

    '1I/.hl1llll.: thermal mfrarl"d image of a


    tC'lUrt\.,,~

    f UR

    ~}sl~rns,ln~ .I ,

    array technology. An exumpl... of a FU R system h


    under the nocc Ill' an ai rcr all is shtw. n in Fig ure }ill).

    sm at lcr temperature d i ncrences I:

    each detector clement in the linear or are a array is fixed


    relative 10 all other dement.., therefore. the geome try of
    the thermal infra red image is m uch imp rm ..-J relative 10
    an ac ross- truck sca nning sys tem:
    that prod uced

    "y

    HIme lmcar an d urea thermal dd.:clllrs 110\\ USI,.' a


    min iature Sterling clos ed-cyc le co oli ng system that doc s
    not require the com pres sed gJs-t' ()oling appa ratus (a rgon
    or Iiquid nitroge n ) previously discussed .
    Forward -l .lIul;in l:, Infrllrt'd (F I ,I R ) SySh' nJS
    Du rin g the lW I Gu l f Wur aml till' War in lraq hegi nni ng in
    20n4. the public S;l\V day and nig httime .Iiwli'{// yJ-J,m ki llg
    i" (m ll'd (FUR) nnagc-, o f the te rrain and various ta rgets. Fo r
    decades. mi l itnry nrganilatio ns th ro ughout the world ha ve
    funde d the dev elopment o f FU I{-Iy pc sys tems that loo k
    obliq uely ahead ufth... air craft and acquire high-q uality thc rmal inf rared image/), I::spl'd all) at nig ht. In fact.thei r goa l is
    usuall y ""10 own the nigh t ' So me H II{ systems collectt he
    infra red encT!:!) based un thc same prim::ipk s as an aero-istrack sca nner t prc vic usly d isc usscd), except that the mirror
    po ints / orwa nl about 45 lind projects te rrain energy during
    if single SWl~P \ 11' the mirror on to a linear arT.IY of thermal
    infr.:m:d de!l~ltlrs. Some systellls usc staring focal-plane

    FUI{ and other thermal infrared sysh:ms arc routinely


    h~ l<l.... -cnforccrncru a:;l' lleil'S to sc.... nighuimc eri
    ac tivity nnd lind lllst people. For e xa mple. a crimmal is
    the pn lcess o f hrea l. ing into a second-s tory building. in F,
    urc X-10, The pen-on is upproxunat cly QR~F. w hilc the tCfl'd
    is 70 - l\O"F. Th e melist rtlO!i(IP is re lativ el y en ol (darl:. ), lII
    trce t run I. and eallll l' Yrclar ivc Iy warm I, bright J. and the IlK'lI
    components of the l.uldc r an' COllI (dark ). For esters and fl!:'
    tigh lt"rs tis"," FI.I I{ to locate the perimet er o f forest fires 3IId
    effectively allocat e li rcti gh ting reso urce". S('curily [ll'fSl'Cloo
    1lL'1 ;11 Gatwick I\irport in London use pole-mourned FUR
    surve illance sys te ms 101 monim r the perimeter fences and
    ma kc sure nu un.nnhorizcd people ga in access to the airplJn
    Several ot her rI IR images nrc presented in Figu re X21,

    The T hermal "ifhorlll' Hr ua dhan d Imuuer (T.-\ S I)


    The Itres, Inc , (If Cn nada has de veloped two n r the lTl(Q
    inuov auv c aubomc thermal infw red remote sensing sysit'llli
    based Oil linear aTTIlY pu shhr nnffi n-chnology The Tht'nr4
    Asr borne Hroc/(I!>tllld IIII<Ig,'r (TA B!) obtam-, data in a SIngle
    broad thermal-infrared chan nel fro m X.O - 11.CI Ju n . The Jill.
    car arT.IY con tains 3~O picture elements thai arc 50 x 5i
    micro meter" in Si7e. 'J he IFOV is 1.1\ mra d v.ith a lotal tielt1
    o f \it:v. Ilf -IX" . The lIJl a <I re lJUantiA-d II) 11-hit!>(0 - 4O'l5
    Th l' scnwr 0;:;10 functilm Itl :t m:n.imum :thi ludl' (If 10,000 fi.

    273

    1l'Iennalintrared Data Co llection

    FU R (For wa rd-looking Infrar ed ) Imagery

    b.

    c.

    d.

    ,.

    'd
    d

    ,I

    n
    ~

    "e

    F9Jre 8-21

    ha m p l e~ " f air\l" me I UK \ ti,m ,m.l-looking infrared ) imager) . OIl I\ighll irne inhlge uf p.:upk in a bwl being rescued . b)
    Mghuimc image " f a p.:rMllI on a metal ru\)f reing pursued toy another P" ,"",lJI 00 Ike groun d. x ct e the warm transfo rm c rs on
    the tclc:phOllC pole and the low e missi \ II) or the meta l tele phone lmcs. c1 Uclk vp tel \ iew of policeme n maki ng an armed
    arrc sr. d ) Nigbuimc image of a Humme r military vc hiclc w ith rbc engine 011. e) SlUragc lan k wuh a relauvcly coollower layer
    uf C\lntents. t) Nighnuuc image o r ,In urba n area .... uh wate r.boar, autcmobitcs. and pcdcstnans (~""Urt~..,.y FU R Syst ems. lnc.).

    --

    ,>

    274

    Thermallnlra red Re mo te Se nsill!l

    Tl

    l3 .().l8 m) AS L. Gcomcrric recuficaucn is performed us ing

    onboard (i rs and I ~ S data making rhe collection of gro undcontrol points unnecessary. Characteristics of the [Ires
    TAB I -3~O arc fmmJ in Table 8-6 [Itres TAB!, 2006 ).
    The T herm al ..\irhorm.'

    S pt'c l rll~ ra phic Ima ~er

    Ta ble 8-6.

    hrcs. lnc., Thermal Airborne Broadband I


    (T'\BI -320) and Therma l Air borne Spectr

    Imager (TASI-hOO l characteristics

    (T.-\SI I

    TABI320

    The: Therma l A sr borne SpeCTrographic 11I1(IKI,,.(1 A 5 1) is one


    of tho: li N true hypcrsp ..-cua l thermal-infra red remer... sensing sys tems based lin linear array n-c hnology . It collect s data

    Spec lral "" n>ili> i~ {I' m

    in 32 therm al ch anne ls in the region from 1\.0 - 11.5jJm . The


    pixel sile is 30 x ) 0 urn and the IFOV is 1.15 mRaJ. The lin-

    Spatial

    rt~>" luli"n

    I~ m la t

    ' ad ir

    ear arra y co ntains 600 pixels. TIl": 10131 field of view is 40 ~.


    The data are quantized to 14-I:>il'O. Characte ristics of the Irres

    :'\umh('r of thermal hand>

    TASI-SOO
    8 - 11.5 Ill!

    \ariabk based on the aircraft aI


    above ground level (AGll

    TAS I-ftOO an: summarized in Table X-o (Irrcs lASl. 2(06).

    linear am) eCD

    Thennallntrared Environ mental


    Con sideration s

    In"

    2.l'i mrad

    4So

    When inlerp r": ling a thermal infrared image , it is usefu l to


    unde rstand the diurnal cycl e and how it relates to the temperature of objec ts on the Earth's surfa ce.

    n..h( I"~ In

    Diurnal Tempe rature Cycle of Typical Materials

    RlIdl"llll.'lr k

    1.25 mnd

    ""

    320 pixels

    t.(l(l plxcl~

    SOx50 J.lm

    30xJO IlJIl

    320

    600

    12 oil

    J4 b it

    liuur ll rrll~

    f{'~"lu t ion

    The diurnal cycle encom passes 24 hours . Heg in ning at sunnse. the Earth Ixgin" intercepting mainl y short-wavelength
    energy (0..1 0.7 1J.1lI) fWIlI the Sun (Figure ~ :!2a ) . From
    dawn to dusk . the terrain intercepts the incoming short
    wavelength energy und refl ect s much of it back into the
    atmosphere. where we can usc optical remote sensors to
    measure the re flected ene rgy, However. some o f the inc ide nt
    short-wave length ene rgy is absorbed by the terrain <I nti then
    re-radiated bac k into the atmosphere as thermal infrared
    wavelength radiation (] - I ~ tun I. The outgoing long-wave
    radiation peak usua lly lags Iwo to four hours utte r the midda y peak of incoming shortwave radia tion , due 10 the time
    tak e n til heat the soil. T he contnburion of reflected shortw av elc ngth energ y and cuuued lo ng- wavelength energy

    causes an ene rgy surp lus 10 take place d uring the day. as
    sho w n in Fig ure X-22a. Hoth incoming and o utgoing shortwave radiat ion become zero after sunset [except for light
    fro m the m oon and stars ], but outgo ing long-w ave radiati on
    e~i lin g the terra in connnucs all ni gh t.

    ( ;~ .. rl'fcrl.'ncin~

    Appl.mix I'OS software with CPS alii!


    Inertial Navigation System (I)\iSrdm
    Ground-control points arc nOI reqllU'Ol

    Figure X -2~b. lf'ullofthcsc curves lie exactly on top ofl.1l:


    another. then remot e sl'nsing in th c the rma l infrared port
    of the sp ccrrum woul d be (If no value because all the pJit.
    uomcna would han ' the same appa rent radia nt rcmperana
    T here wou ld he no contras t in the im agery betwee n the dif
    fcrcm phenomena. Fortunately, there arc only two l imc,d ll1
    ing the day (uflcr sunrise and ncnr sunset] when >OlIIl
    mat e rials like soil, ro...-k, and wate r have exac tly the >ami
    radi an t temperature. During th is C11J.\'.I'o ~,(,,. l i me pe riod i1 ~
    genera lly not wise to acquitc therm al infra red remOl ~
    sensed data .

    Fortunately, some materials sto re heat more efficiently th.u


    o the rs, i.c . tbey ha ve a higher thermai cupacuv. For cumpic. water has a much higher therma l capacity than soil

    The typical diurnal temrc ralure \lariation s for soils a nd rock ,


    "ater. \egetation . m(li ~1 soil. 3ml l11et:11(Jbjecls are sho\\n in

    rock (Table 1'-31. lIs diurnal temperature range ttuctuaes


    wry little wh en cnmpar..-d with the dram atic lemp.:ralUR
    llud uation of sHil J nd rock during a 2+hr per iod.

    rmallnfrared Environmental Con sideration s

    275

    M .nll nulll

    Minimum

    ,.

    temperatu re:
    2 -1 11.111.

    h;mp..:r..lul c:
    flu .rn

    c,u..rgy
    <.k lkil

    energy
    ~ul'f'lu~

    --J+.. . . . .......

    ... _-- ----u

    -t n m fl am.

    "

    ~ n m.

    -1

    no""

    mi\lnigh l

    r-m.

    I.nelll'
    \ ho n- \\ I \c-I.. ol:l h l

    p.m .

    m iJ mg ln

    lola l O UI!:,,;n!: r. n{'r~


    - ona; nl) lu ne-.. :.. .....n!:' h)

    I Ol l ll n co m i n ~

    C ma i n l~

    b.
    loc al

    local

    sorms..:

    sunsc'!

    I
    "" ,

    _._._._._._._.-._.-'

    t>;lfC ""II

    {I>'.,,,,\

    __

    "

    2a m.

    -r a.m

    ~W . . '

    "

    fla m. 1I0.m

    midn igh t

    I,
    Fq.Jre 822

    .-

    "-

    "- '-- :

    : _. _. _ "

    ml'r,iI "bl ccl~


    "

    "

    ._0_
    "

    ,.

    , .. ,

    4 p.m .

    "

    "

    "

    ,,

    II p UL

    "~"

    'I

    a) The diurnal cycle of reflected shon-...velcng th and ermned [<.KljH\U\dcngth ,no:l"Jo!)'. :\010: tbe pe al. period o f d.li ly outgo-

    ing long-.. avelcngr h radiauon und the gener-..l daily maximum rempcnnurc.fu 'I bc diurnal r-adiant temperature of bare soil
    II atcr, moist ha re soil and metal object s

    and roc k, conc ret e. ve gct.nion ,

    hwe were interes ted in pe rfo nn ing te mperatu re mapping of

    erram consisting of ju.'.\ so il. ro ck . an d \.\ute r. we: ceukl prediCI what the image would look lik e if w e acqu ired thermal
    iJ.fr;u-ed imagery al about 2 :00 p.m . and at 4 :00 a.m . in the
    Iklrning. The so il and rod .. would appea r brighter than w a ll'!"

    in the daytime thermal imagery d ue 10 the ir h igher apparent


    tem perature . Rock and so il con nn uc to rad iate en erg y into
    the atmos phe re during the nig ht. During the curly evening
    rod .. and soil {and concrete ] are still wa rme r tha n much of
    the surro undi ng terrain . By m idnighl these su rfac es ha ve

    276

    Thermallnlrared Remote Sensing

    radiated most of the hea t energy they absorbed Ju ring the


    day and gr:ldu ;Jlly the) reced e in brig htness. Conve rsely,
    wa ter w ith ih high thermal cupaci ty, ma intains a relatively
    stable surface te mpe rature that may well be high er than the
    soil and rock {and concrete) by 300ut ~ :no a.m T his results
    in .... ater being brig hter on tht' nighuimc the rm al in frared
    imager) tha n tho: soil and roc k. and even the: \ egctarion in
    many instances . Because vegctatjon contains water, il is usually coole r (darker) than ..oil and me lon 2:00 p.m . daytime
    imagery and wanner (brigh ten than soil and rock on preda w n imagery.

    short-wac clcngt h re fl ecte d e ne rg~ from the Sun can


    urmoying "hadllws in dayt ime rhcrrnel infra red imagen

    VcgcL:ltion lends to be sligh tly .... anner than wa ter throughOuI the day and cooler than water during prcdawn hours.
    Vcry moist M,lil rends 10 ha ve a stable diurna l tem perat ure
    cycle. as show n ill Figur e 8-Z2b. bec ause the mo re water in
    the soil, the higher us thermal ca pacity. Mt'ta l objects such
    as can; and alumin um rooftops appea r ';(101 (dark} un both
    day a nd nigh ttime thermalinfrared imager)' d ue to thei r low
    emissivity [remember, good metal reflectors are poor
    absorbers. and the re fore pov r cnuttcrs}, In fact. Ihey arc
    often the: darkest objects in the imagery.

    Pilot s arc now able to obtain vel')' accu rate tl ightiiM


    thermal infra red imagcr)' at nighl using onboard GPS.

    Several o f the pre\ iou cly mc mioncd d iurna l tem perat ure
    cycle relation ships arc demonstra ted in Figu re 8~23. An
    AT I.AS m ission w as 110\\ " over a large sandhar in the Mississippi River at 5:()() a.lll . and 103 0 a.m rI cnscn el al.,
    200 ~ ). 111\: dat a have a siu lial rcsohnion of 2.5 x: 2.5 m.
    Daytim e thermal hands 10, II , and 12 revea l a dramatic difre reuc e in the tem pe rat ure pro pcnies of sand and gra vel on
    the san dbar. The: d iffe rent ma terials absorb the mcidcm
    energy fro m the Sun diff eren tly, resu lting in substa ntia l diffcrcnccs in cxitance hom the sand and gravel surfaces in the
    three thermal infrared bands. During llll' day, the wate r is
    cooler th an mu ch o f the sur round ing co untryside. Th e vcgcration (V ) o n the bank of the ri ver is a lso re knively cool. As
    expected. water is much warmer than th e surround ing coun tryside at nighl and the vege tntinn ts cooler thnn the water.
    T here is still a notkeablc differ ence between the large gra vel
    and sand areas in lhe nightt ime imag e ry. a lthough not to the
    degree present in the da yt inll' imagery. Th.: go al of Ihis
    prujeet \\ a:. to sec if lhennal in frar ed image ry wa s use fu l for
    d iscrimi nati ng h.:lw.:e rl ~and ..nd gravd. II was pract ica lly
    impnssihlc til d iscrim inate ht'"twel:n sand an d gravel area s on
    I:1(OOfl.seak mltural el, ll.r lIerial pho tography obtai ned at
    the same timL' as the 10:30 a.m. ove rnight.
    Unle"" scic lltis!s arc ~pccl lic,llIy tryi ng to com pu te Ihl'nnal
    incn ia whic h reqllifl'S oOlh day and nighlli mL' imager). Ihe y
    o ften pre ler to co llect preda.... n lhenna l infr<i red ima ge ry
    ~'Causc:

    ThenT

    hy tOO am.. most of the ma teri a ls in the terrain


    relat ively stable equilibrium tc mpcrr uurcs. as shoo
    Figu re l\-22b. i.e. the slopes arc nca r zero:
    convective wi nd cu rre nt.. us ually senle down by lhe
    morn ing. resu lting in more accurate tlightlmes
    c rabbin g of the ai rcraft into the wind] and flO .... ind
    o r wi nd strea ks on the imager)".

    Th ermal Infrared Remote Sensing


    Examples

    Warer Polfution Monitoring : Identification of Therma


    Effluent in the Savannah Rwer

    The Savannah River Site in SOUlh Carolina alone


    cvrracred Savannah Rive r .... arer a nd used if 10 cool n
    reactor operations. The hot cooling water was then ret
    to the Savan nah River ~wam p system via Four Mile C
    ( Figure 1<-2-1-). Somcumcs the thermal effl uent reached e
    Savannah Ri\ cr and created a thermal plum e as show n in
    llight line o f prednwn therma l infrared imagery in F i gijre ~
    25 . A the rma l infrared view of the plum e at full spatial ~
    lutio n is sho wn in Fig ure X-26 . A num be r o f state and fcdml
    hl\\ s grn cmcdthc c haracteris tics otthe p lume in the Sa\o&
    nah River. For ex ample, the South Carolina Depart mcmd
    IIcahh and Environmental Co ntro l (DII EC j required thar tb.
    plume he less than one -third thl' \I idth of'tbc river al lempL1atu rcs > 2.1<''(' abov e rive r amh ient tempera lu r.:. Th e Sal.tIJnah Rivw a ne r a hea vy rai n i.. d;mg .:rnus, fast mov ing, am
    cnn ta in~ ~u bstan tial deh ris. 11 is d itlieu ll to ohta in accur'lll:
    lemp.::rature mcus ure rnen l~ by placi ng pcop le w ith ther
    mll",elers in hoals tlMI ;lrc :It the m.:rcy o r lhe l'urrl'n l. Fli'
    lhe nntlre . it is nlll prael iclll In plaCl' ill fil II lhc mln meter;.
    lhe rive r hcca us.: {I f J chr is l1o win!; at h igh rates of,~
    Th cr cfllr,,'... rel11tll~' sl.'nsing ,lppW;lCh \\,as used to olliain dlt
    req UI red "pal ial lemperature in fonna lin n,
    Table 8-7 summari7es the use r requ ire ments lind th e scnSll
    ..ystem para me ter<;. that we re used 10 ohl.3in the necessarj
    tcm pc raluro: uuta. An a.: ro~l rack mu llispt.'Clra l 9.'anni~

    'ema ll nfra red Remote sensi ng Examp le s

    Preda wn a nd I)a~t inl l'


    .\ T1.AS Th erma l
    Infra red I m a l:er~ or
    a Sand har in the
    \ Ii" i\ \ ippi Riwr
    ! .~

    \!

    m 'IJ',l1"'] m.<>hnioo

    ~ 'OO~_m .anJ

    <I r' rc'tlown Band ro

    F-9Ul'e 823

    IO10"m

    e, Prffi.lwn ll a",1 12

    Thermal infrared imagery .,1' a large sandbar III the- "'li ~si s~ i ppi Ri\ <: r otuamcd al 5.00 a.m. and 10,30 a.rn. on Sepl.:ml:>t:r 10.
    19'N . TIle ATI-AS R.Hld I I detector did n"l run.:llnn properly durin~ prl"tlawn data collection (Jensen et al.. :!Ot J4I.

    ~il<'lT1

    equipped with a therma l infrared de tector


    was used to record emitted radia nt energy in the
    1- 14 pm region of the spec trum. This reg ion was selected
    teouse the terrain was relatively eno l, with a maximum
    emnance o f't herm alcncrgy pt'ak ing at nbout " .7 p m.
    (1l~:Cd :Te t

    Thl: width of the Savannah Kivcr was ;lpprn ximiltcly <>0 m


    (JOO I'U in the vici n uy (If th.. plume . For sc iennsrs In o bta in

    a rmmmum representative .;ample of 30 pixe ls within the


    nv er. each pi\ e1 ha d to record the su rface temperature fo r an
    ar.:a :: J x 3 m . To ach ie ve Ihis Sill' o f pixe l. a senso r w ith a
    25 mrlhradian I FO \ ' was usedro produce a nominal spat ial
    resolution at nadir of'upproxuua tcly 3.05 x 3.05 m when the
    sensor was 110\\n at 1.220 m (4,000 11) above ground leve l.

    OIAVI Dt

    278

    Thermallnl rar e d Re mot e Sensing

    The rmal Inrrarcd D et e ction o f T hc r mal

    'rherrr

    w ater Pollut ion in th e Sa va nna h River

    '.,~"

    " .'
    .',

    Figu re 8 -24

    Solllh
    ("lIr...

    i".

    The Savannah River Sill.' In Sout h Carolina at O!'IC


    lime ext racted water from the Savannah River and
    usc-d illl> cool nuc jear-rcactor ope ration s. The therma l efll ucnt returned to the Savannah River swa mp
    syste m via Four -'H e Creek, \\ here it was to drssipale. However. lhe thermal c tll ucm 1111 occ asion
    reached the Savan nah River, res ulting III a therma l
    plume.

    Becau se lin ac ros s-track sl:3nnillg syste m was used to record


    the radian! temperature ofobjects. tan gentia l sca le dis to rtion
    was preselll . If not removed. the quality of the cartog raphic
    products wou ld he dinunisbcd . Therefore. the image was
    geometrically correc ted hy mode ling L'(H;h pixel as a funclion of scan an gle from nadir. Thi s resulted in each pixel in a
    sca n line having an e ffective spatial resolution uf 2.!1 x 2.H
    m. Th e data we re then geometricall y correc ted by selecting
    ground-control po in ts and recti fy ing rhe data using nearestne ighbor rcsampling. as di scussed in Je nsen (200 5 ).
    For investig at o n; to ide ntify a therma l plume and map its
    tempe rature and spatial dis e ibunon. the plume, rive r. a nd
    surrou ndin g la nd all had 10 be d isting uishable on the
    remotely sensed imagery. each day ibe ma xim um thermal
    con trast betw een Savanna h River w ater and other land surfaces is reac hed j ust befo re d awn, as pre viou sly di scu ssed
    w hen tne riv er is wanne r than t he land surface. 11 w as
    assu med rhar the: hut plume: would be d istinguisha ble fro m
    the ambien t Savannah Riv e r wa te r an d la nd surface d ay o r

    Figu re 8 -25

    A predawn thermal infrared image of thermal em


    ern erllerillg the Sa\'urmah River swamp ~}S!/I
    tro m Four Mile Creek 01\ \1areh .1 1. 1')1\1. :lt4')
    3.1lI, rill' water nugrarc-d throu gh the swamp S}'~
    and eventually en tered the Sava nnah River. pmdl/;

    ing a ther mal plu me. The tempe rature and >pa:1
    dislrih ulion o f this plume were govcmcd by a nu:n
    ber " f,lall' lInd federal statutes. This is a 2x n:d1JColion im,tgl' ofu portion otthc tl ighllinc and con,;!tl
    o f 1,0(,5 rnw ~ and on cnhl11111S. II pwvides a re.
    gill1H11 ov erview o f the spatia l dismbuuoa of Iht
    ther rnulcfllucnt.

    night. An ndduicnal facto r in fav o r el f a predaw n overfligh


    was the fact that at nightthere are no tree shadows :Ilnnglbc
    hank of the river that can caus e sp uruue, tempe rature measurcmc tus o f lite river or plume. These considcrarice
    resulted in the data heing collected on March 3 L It)H L I
    4:2g a.m. under IIlL' influence of a hig h-pressure weather
    S)'SII'11l w uh all ab sohnc humid ity 0 1'2 7% .

    To co mply wit h the ..!. 1l.r C requirement. lite thermal infra.


    red sca nner data were calibrated using inte rnal blac kbody
    source referencing. Wh ile scanni ng a single line o f data. tbe
    detecto r loot,e-d at a cold plate with a know n tem pe rature.tb
    terrain. and then a hot pla te w ith a kno wn te mperature. By

    ,
    k

    allnfra re d Remote Se n s ing Exa m p le s

    Thcrma l l nfrared Detection of T her ma l


    water Poll ut ion in the Sa va nna h River

    279

    Table 8-7.

    User Requirements for monitoring thl:' temperature


    distrihutlon ofa thermal plume in the Savanna h Rtver .md ~n >Of system parameters.

    Use r Requ ire ment

    Remote Sensi ng
    S yst e m Parameter

    Th<: appareratcmpcrature of
    each pixel musl he acc urate
    to within ~ O.2 ~C of its true
    temperature. Temperatu res
    in the s.:cnc ?: the ambie nt
    river tem per ature are of primmy importance.

    Sense in the 11 _ 14 um regio n


    using rncrcury-cadmi um-tclluride (llg:Cd:Te) detecto r with
    an ,'\ -to-O conversion of l! hilS
    (0 - 255), Rad iometrically ealibrare to .to.2"C with pixel values ranging from 3 to 411"C.

    ,\ 1 least 30 pixels should


    fall within the on-rn width
    of the river. Therefore. a
    spatial rcsolunon element of
    ~ J x J m is required. g eetify all pixels to be within
    ~ 10 percent oftherr plani-

    Usc a se nsor with an 1Ft IV of


    2.5 mrad rl,,\\ n al l:!O{}1ll
    (4.000 11) AGL Remm e geometric "'-'Tlsur system "hs turti..,n
    and rcs amplc to 2.R x :!.ll m
    picture ele mcms.

    metric position.
    Acquire predawn imagery
    in the spring :lnd analyze

    FqJre8-26 Preda....n thermal infrared image (1'1.0 - 14 Jlm) of


    thcrmnlcfllucm l1o\\'ing into the Savan nah River
    acq uired at 4:211 a.m. on \1arch J I. 198 1. using a
    Daeda jus DS-I :!(,(l mullispcc1ral scan ning system.

    res ults rapidly.


    Prod uce isotherm mups and
    e vrract qoa mita tiv c temper-

    ature illflHTTIoltlOl1 ri"


    ~lecled c1"'5,~ uucrv als.

    Predawn data acquisuion \\ ith


    stable atmospheric condinons .
    Cahhrate and a nalyze.
    Apply image proc ess ing .md
    cart ogra phic prin ciples to
    obtai n quantuarive information
    fro m the isothermal map and
    i1~su..:i:tl" d lr.msc'C l~ .

    'in}! the relat io nsh ip between the te mperature o f these


    the anal ys t could calculate thc apparent temperature
    or lbe terra in lo r each pixel. from .J to 4WC. The major
    ibllhack o f th is ca librat io n method was that it did no t incorJIr.lIt' the e ffect of the inter-..enin g atmosphere on ~ ign al
    ~l'Onse , However. it appea red that the calibration "as
    fairly successful. When the ca l ibratcd data were compa red
    lith two ill situ s urface- tempe rature meacurcmenrs made in
    Four ~l ilc Creek plume during the time o f the o ve rflight.
    rotb remote sensing me asu rements were with in O. 2"C o f

    Two types of data an a lys is " ere perform ed to extract qua nti tauvc te mperature inform at ion, FiN_ the spa tial distr ibution
    of selected tem perature class interva ls > 2.8 ~ C above river
    ambient tem perature were ma pped . Ntx t. tran sects were
    passed thro ugh the isotherm map to document the cross-section su rfa ce area of the plume ..t specific tem pe rature class

    lhe in situ mcusu rcmcrn s.

    intervals.

    the river at !>OllIC depth wi ll inhi hit certain species from


    swim ming upstream duri ng the sp:lIvning se ason.

    Mapp ing the spa tial dismbuuon of the temperature made il


    necessary to id ent ify:
    lnl ironmen ta l sci e ntist !'> a nd ichthyolog ists a rc interested in
    spatia l di stribut io n of thermal plumes
    IDd how they relat e to the am bien t river temperatur e. If a
    ~ume exists. it is im po rta nt to determine where the plu me is
    ~atl.'T than a specified numbe r of degrees abo ve river ambimt tempera tu re. Depending on the nm c of year. thermal
    plumes may attract ce rtai n species of a... uatic o rgan isms and
    mimic othe rs. L'nfo nu nutcly, a hut plume extending across

    -.e temperature a nd

    the land tsoil a nd vegetano n! to make su re it was


    confu scd v ith the thermal plume :

    not

    the am bient river temperature:


    the spatial di stnhut ion of th e p lume temperature > 2.8cC
    above rive r nmhicntrcmpc rarurc.

    I
    I

    280

    Therrn all ntrared Remote sensing

    The

    Table 8-8.

    Rela tionsh ip of Class to Ambient River Tem pe rature, 12 ' C

    f
    Clas s 1
    Dark blue
    a mbient

    Trlm'l'cl "

    "r

    Clas s 4
    Yellow

    Clan 5
    Orange

    R. ,

    1.2"- 2.B'C

    3.0- S.OC

    5 .2' - 10'C

    10 .2 "- :i!OC

    G_"

    Li ght b lu e

    . 1"C

    J\ n rlt ~l'

    W id th

    Class 3

    Class 2

    Class 6

    Class7
    White
    ,,20'e

    Bril:ht nc ' . \'111 111' H.1tnl:t' fo r t: III'h C I:". l nte r vul

    Il l -IN

    <)0- 1011

    101- 125

    126--17/>

    177-; 5~

    I '2.!l

    1r.!.8

    2/5.6

    1':!.11

    5/14

    38..-

    15.6

    2/5.6

    :J5.6

    6116.1I

    3/8.01

    Ri \lor b

    7-1-76

    71-4!O

    J ll"hcls -

    I,[!"

    17f47 .0

    25/70

    1')/53.2

    IN ,6 III

    3~

    3-1 I"I\cl , -

    pixels '"
    IObA m

    9 5.2 m
    F.a.:h .. "n...."<.~ ,,~s apl'r<" imaldy ~ ~ s m in 1C1l ~1I1 1M pi,cls a l 2. ~ ml pi. d l. l u n",'l n",,,-,,,rcfTl<"Tl l, in lhe ri' ef ,, ~rc nude l'oly lifter use UN~
    "d~ r"L.l I~-.l. "" th l iii" t-.:~ lI1 n ,n~ ~nd ~lld ll1i1I'I,,'b "f lhe \r~n"""'l ld l " fl llt.: ... me ",:an 1mI',
    o lndlldt.--s One m" nl 1',,,,'1 o fl.1nd .nd "'a"" "n cM h , ide " fl hc ri,w
    "J"l.n;"" r"I',,,.,,'l!' I,iwh atlJ mel,',,; Ii,r nJll\l'lc. 15 l'i~d, rcp,netll .U '"

    At 4: 211. u.m, the rive r i~ much warmer than the surround ing
    land an d easily distinguisha ble. TWI' methods we re used to
    determine ambient river te mperatu re. First. in .illl temperature measurements o f the Savan nah River w ere availa ble
    wh ich pla ced the tempe ratu re above the plume 3t I JOC . Sec ond . a sample o f 200 pi'(els jU!>1 above the Four Mile Creek
    plume yielded a mean of J2T and a standard ..Icv iauon of
    =0.2"C . Th us. the ambient river temperature .... as determ ined
    to be 1 2 ~C.
    Seven class intervals were then selected . 11m.c of the cl ass
    intervals wen: for temperature s < 2.MoC above rive r a mbient
    temperature and includ ed the land and the rm ally una ffected
    river , Fnur class inte rvals were used In high light spec ial
    mnge ~ o ftem perature wi th in the thermal p lume that we re >
    2,8"C :JOOVC river ambient temperature. Eac h of the sewn
    cl ass interv al.. were as..igncd a un iq ue color with ye llow,
    ora nge , red. and \\ hue correspondin g to warmer temperaCo tor Plate 8-2a
    tures in the plume (Tab le 88 ). Analy sis
    revea ls that the hon est part o f the plume wa.. ju st offshore
    from the mouth of Four .\1 ile Creek (3-1.11 "C : QUlI OF). The
    tempera ture o f the creek itsel f .... a~ j ust as hot as the warmest
    part of the plume: howev...r, the overhanging shru bbery
    al(.ng the bank s ofthe cree k dampened the remotely sens ed
    appare nt tempera ture o f the c ree k alo ng its ma in channel.
    Also. rhc nn rrhern eddy o f Four Mile C reek warmed the
    wutcr sligh lly just al1me the plume as il em ...red th... Sa vannah Rive r.

    or

    A ...olu r-codcd (den sity sl iced) isother m ma p pro vided vah;.


    able information abo ut the spatial di stribut ion o fthe tempo
    atur.. o f the plum e a.. it e nte red the Sava nnah River w
    prol;:re~, c'<..1 dl'.... nst rcam. How ever. more qua ntitative dab
    .... ere obtained by pas sing three transc-cts IA . B. and (1
    through the plume. as show n in Color Plate x2b. The bri~
    nes~ valu ees encountered al(.ng each lran ....
    -cl are ,um~
    in Table x-x. These values were obtained onl y after the~
    ina I image was geometrically rotated 16 cloc kw ise so tbI
    the end points o f each transect tel l on Ihe same scan line.
    Th is ensured that the number of me ters in cuch te mpcratun
    cla ss alo ng each transect wa.. accurately mea sured , If Wt
    a na lyst extrac ts tra nsec ts where: the end points do not fall011
    the same scan line (or col um n ). the hypotenu se 0 1" stair.
    ste pped pixels must he considered instead th e simple heril o nta l pixe l d istanc e. T hese relat ionships are demons trated
    in Color Plate 8-2c .
    Q

    or

    :\ h istogra m uftrans...-cr B is shown in Color Plale 1I-2d. The


    re lationship between thc original brightne ss va lues and tilt
    class intero. a ls ofthe density-shred map is p ro\ idc-d in TaNe
    S-ll. By counting the number of p ixels a long a transect ill
    spec ific temperature cla ss interva ls wi th in tit.. plume and
    couming the tota l number of p ixels o f riv er. it is poss ibleIII
    dete rmin e the proport io n o f the therma l plume lid ling v. ithitl
    spec ific rcmpc mturc class inte rvals (Je nsen ct al., 1983 and
    IQXll). For example. in 19XI in South Cnrulma a thermal
    plum e could not be >2 .X"l' above river ambientrem peraiure
    for mo rc than one -third of thc widt h 01" the rive r. Transect

    28 1

    illennal lnfra red Remote S e ns ing Exa mp les

    Enhanccnwntv Applit'd 10 T hrrma l l nfrared

    Im a ~t'1')

    or a Th ermal Plume in th e Saunnah Rill'r

    h.

    Fgun:t 8-27 a.)Original con trast-stretcbed image o f lhe Four Mile l'~ k lh..rma l plume in !he Savanna h Riverrecorded on March J I. 1911 I.
    a14 :211 e.m. bl Lo...-fr<:\l ucncy filler..-d image. c) lI igh-frcq ucllC )' fill..'red irnab..... d) Aw1ie.:u ion of a minimum Ilher. et App lication o fa max imum filter. 0 An embossed fillet" gi"e'S the lmpre-.~ i()n ofshaded r.. het, ~ l Ro....,rt-~ edg....nhanc..em.."11t. bl Sobd
    ..'tIg.. en hancement. i ) Laplac ian ..-d~e enhancemen t.

    mfonnali"m ex tracted from thermal infrared image ry and


    summarized in Ta ble l'\.!' were u se d to de termin e if th e
    plume was in c om pliance.

    T h..' fundamental black -and -wh ite the rmal in fr ared image o f

    the plume contained valuable in fo rm atio n l Figurc ~-2 7a l .


    IIuwcvcr. it was also poss ible to J i ~ i ta ll y e nhance the origina l thermal infra red ima gc' II) vi sually a ppre cia te the more

    282

    subtl e charactc nstics of the the rmal plume an d the surround-

    ing phenomena. For example , Figure 8-17h is a low-frcquency filtered image (If the or igina l co ntrast-s tretched
    image It emphasized the slowly varying components with in
    the image. Conversely, the ap plicat ion o f 1I high-frequency
    filter enhanced the high-frequency de tail in the image. 1'\01,;how several radiometric errors in the scan lines an: more
    pro no un,..-cd in the high frequency filtered image in Figure z17c. A minimum li lter enhanced the core of the plume. white
    a maximum tiller enhanced the entire plume ( Fi~'Urc 8~7d.c).

    T hermal ln fr nred Detection or l.eaklnu


    S t'Jllit' ' a n l..s nea r C ha rleston . SC

    ......

    An embossed filter created 3 shaded-rel ief impres-

    sion of Inc plume I Figu re 8271). Three edge-enhancement


    algorithms tRobl.-ns. Sobel. and Laplacian) high ligh ted diffcren t pans of the plume and the edges of the plume/land/
    .... arcr bounden...s I f igure S-27g.h-i). The logic and mathemanes of'rhcsc algorithms arc summarized in Jensen (200 5 ,.
    Thermal infrared sur. ...y!> of the Four \lile Creek plume
    were routinely collected al least two limes per year fro m
    IIIS\ through II)SIl IO ensure that the plume was in compliancc .... uh state and federal wa ter-quality standards. Cooling
    towers were then buil l 10 receive the thermal effl uent.

    tidal creek
    Waler Pollution Mon itoring : Identification of Leaking
    Sept ic Tanks that Contribute to Feca l Cofiform Count

    Thermal Infrared Re mo te Sensing

    Figu re 828
    A hig h feca l coliformcount in fresh and marin e waters may
    indicate the presence ofbacteria that can cause typ ho id. dysemery, he patitis A. and cholera . Health dc pamnerns routinely monito r dr inking wate r, rccreuuonal lak es, rivers,
    ponds. es tuaries. and ocean wate r for fecal coliform conta mmarion. Shel lfish arc scns uive 10 feca l coliform cc nrammation because f he r-feeding o rgil1lisms such J S oysters . clams,
    and mu sseb can acc umul ate bact eria. prot ozoa. and viruses.
    The bacteria concentrated ill the shellfi sh by th is met hod of
    feeding arc nu t harmfu l to the she llfish, but can be harmful
    ro peo p le that co ns ume shellfish. Increa sed feca l coliform
    levels ncar shellfish beds lead to shellfis h bed clo sures.

    Th e South Carolina Departmen t of Healt h and Control


    (U Il EC) has iJ1vcst i~,ll .: d the usc of forward-looking. in frared (F U R) remote sl' nsillg ttl illent ify leaking scpnc tanks
    nca r Cha rleston, Sc. Leaking st'pl ic tan ks are a co mmon
    source of feca l coliform in bays. tidal creeks, and es tuaries.
    For example. two leaki ng septic tank systems arc ide ntifi ed
    in the FUR imagery shown in Figure X':?X. The imagery was
    obt ained at night in the .... inter II hen the warm ctll uem from
    the sept ic tank con trasted with the re latively cool marsh and
    uda l creek water, Imagery such as this he lped o fficials kno....
    .... here to obtain samples on the ground 10 bring the septic

    Preda.... n \I, inter J. U K imagery cftwo failed ~


    t,Ulk~ ailIng a tidal creek near Charleston, Sc.

    tank into com pliance w ith healt h regu lations (l\"OAA


    ('oas l;11Services. 2{)(16)

    Thermaf Inlrared Residential Insulation Surveys

    Homes , office b uildings. and industries arc insulated so thlll


    in the w inter. expensive heat docs not easi ly e xit. It is possible 10 use remote sen si ng to mon itor the e ffectiv eness orlll(
    insulation. However. the resu lts arc usually subjec tive r.tth~r
    than quantitative becaus e ma ny imp ort ant para meters must
    be known to qua mitauvely document the e X<1':( insulauoa
    charac teristics ofc . . ery home or bu, iness in a nei ghborhood.
    Some ofthe most impo rtant purarnctcrs to be take n into ceosidcration when performing a resi den tial thermal imagen
    insulation survey are summ arized in Table 8-9. Colcord
    IllIll l) SUggl~ts the te mperature [radiometric] reso lutil'll
    should he:: O.S:<C for d ifferentiatio n of an R-I O and R-10
    house. This res ults in the discriminatio n of approximately
    lo ur levels o f apparent meutariun (poor, fair. good. and
    c xcc tlenr) based on visual examination. Most houses are

    I Infrared gemote sens ing Example s

    Emi~~i\'it) of building matcnals from S - Lt u m


    (Colcl,rd, 198 1; Wolfc. 19lfS).

    Ma te rial

    283

    Ta ble 8- 10.

    L'ser reu uirements fur cond ucting a res idenual thcr-

    mal imagery insulation

    Emi ssiv ity, e

    Ilshinglc (dry)

    om

    It 5I:tinglo,: (w...1)

    1.00
    0 .95
    09'>

    Remote sensing
    System Para meier

    User Requirement
    Temperature (radiometr ic)
    resolution ~hou ld be !

    O.I\oC for diffc rcnnation of


    R- IO and R-20 houses (Col cord. 1981).

    SUf\ey.

    Sense in the S- 14 11m region


    IIsin!,! a mercury-cad mium-tellurid e ( 1I~:Cd: Te) detector . 1'h.:
    true kinetic tempe rature of scveral rooftops is requrrcdro canbrate to ::O. 8~C.

    O.Y7
    0.09

    0.78
    0,69

    (tin-plallxl sheet iron)

    0.117

    /rl;i ired-common]

    O.H

    rrm1 (average of 16 colurs ]

    0.94

    o.QO

    Onlain l5x I; em spa tial


    rew[ution 10 g ,,1 many sam pIes from each roof; h"",,
    evcr. I XlIII sp.u ial
    reso lulion may hoe sum.
    ci.:TlI. R<:I:l lf) data to be
    within :t 1 pis el oftheir
    planimetnc position.
    Acquire prcd aw n ima gery
    in the sprin g an d analyze
    results rapidly.

    eeod (planed oak)

    0.98

    ~ i malel y

    80 F. Th is ap prcxunatcs ;1 300 K blackbody


    with a dom inant wavelength o f approxunn tcly 9.7 11m.
    Ikrcforc. the sc e ne s ho uld he inven to ried us i n ~ all II ~ 14
    eercury-cedmiurn-relfuridc ( 11g.:Cd; Tc ) detector, T he
    re rootlop kin e tic tc mpc rniu re of seve ra l ho uses is re qu ired
    ((tiltdata arc to he calibnucd to ::O.X('.

    The sensor sys te m must acq ui re e noug h p ixe ls on a rooftop


    lllcharal,'teri"e its therm al e nv ironme nt. One pixel pe r roo flip is not suflici...m . Some ha ve recommended a 15 x 15 e m
    .,.llal resolu tion cell, bu t a 1 )( I m spatia l resolut ion
    lppCa~ til hi.. sufficient for most ho m es. e xcl uding tra ile r
    prls. A se nso r w ith an lI'O\' or 2.5 millirudia ns flown .It
    -1<:0 m above g roun d level wo uld ac hiev e a nom ina l g round
    ~\ia l resolution of I )( I m per pix el at nad ir. Th is ... ill
    ftSIIlt in problems in hil ly te rrain as loca l relie f approac he s
    m. Tangential scale di siornou s hould be rem o ved and
    ~ dntn geometrically rect ified. The therm al in fra red survey
    !Itould take place unde r ihc follow ing co nd itions. it possi ble
    standing wat er. icc . o r s no w s hou ld nor be presen t on the
    roof. as rhrs dramatically chang es the e missivity
    characteristics ofthe roo f as sum marized in Tahl e X I0 ;

    Prod uce i~uth.:nll l1la f'S and


    extract qualuauv to' and
    'lU<llltitati\ c temperat ure
    inlormatil'll Re duc e the
    infomranon to tc rnperalure

    class lewis thatthe pu blic


    can understand te.g. poor.
    fair. good . and exce nenn

    Usc sensor with an IFO\' of2.5


    mrad flown at 40(\ m AGL.
    This will res ult in a spatial rcsolution of I x I m at nadir,
    Remov e tange ntial sca le distcrlion if possible and rectify 10
    large-scale planimetric mars
    using groun d-control points arxr
    nearest-neighbor resam pling .
    Acqu ire imagery when the sky
    is clear. w ind is < 7 " nv'hr. there
    is low bumidiry and nn rmuslure. snow. or ice on the roof.
    I'r~'da w n im aglt)- has no confusing shadows fro m surround mg buildings or trees.
    Obtain roo rtop emissivity char-

    acrcnsucs fur t he n.:iWtbt.,r.


    hood. Norc dil)'e rences in
    rooftop rnat crtals, roof pilt'h

    and orien tation, and hui ldin~


    occupant.'), Us.,,: di!,!ila t imag<'
    processing to obtain quanutanve infurmation from the thermal imag...s .

    w ind spce d shoul d be < 7 km/hr;


    hu mid ity a nd ground fog should be m in im al:
    c lo ud co ver s ho u ld be m in im al. a, d o uds rad iate hcat back
    o mothe woof.
    [ t is im po rta nt 10 o btain prec is e rootl op-cmissivhy cha rac terisnc s lo r the re s ide nt ia l ne ig h borh ood o r bu siness districts
    o f interest be cause different roo ftop materi a ls have d ifferent
    cmissiviucs. For example. cedar shake s hing les have a n
    ennssiv ity Ill' 0 .'19 when we t a nd 0.95 when d ry. .... hile an
    alumin um rU<)!1<.1p has an emi ssiv ity of 0. 09 [Table K-IO).

    I
    I

    ,.,

    284

    FIgure 8-29

    ( 'U ,- \I 'It:R

    Th ermal Intra red Rem ote sensing

    Pre.......... n Ih~'1'1I13 1 infrared image' of J residential ~tJ boJi\-isj(>n in FOI1 Wort h. TX. The image \\ as acquired at an alt i lud~of_
    m above groun d le\ el wi th an across-trac k sca nning system and a I mrad fiel d or \ i,'\\ 31(,:4 5 a.rn on January 10. I"ISO. "
    pckk d an eff.....uvc ground spana! r,'s()luti"n at rudn of 0.25 x 0.25 m Jl<.1' piwl.Tbc s l } \\ as dea r.

    Ideally, all rooftop_ arc ttll. Unfortunately. roof pitch (how


    steep it is) and orientation toward or away from the se nsor
    will i m pac t the 3Cl.: UraC) or the appa ren t temperature values
    de rived. Finally, peop le tcud to lowe r their house temperatun: in the \\ inter \\ he n they le ave to w n fo r a few days. from
    uppr oximutcly 72F to a pproximately 55 - MIT. Therefore,
    some rooftops thut nppcur cold in a ther mal infrared illl;!g!.:
    n.c., th ey a ppear In have good all ic ins ulat ion ) may in fact be
    unoccu pied wi th the thcnn ostar ~el 10\\ , Thermal infrared
    imagery ora residentia l :11''::'' in FOr! Worth , T X, is sho w n in
    f" i g ur~' X-24 . It was acq ui red nt ;10 al titude
    2SIJ m aboveground-level with an across-trac k sc ann ing system with a
    1.0 millirudian field of view (I I li AS u.m. on January 10.
    rcen This yielded an effective ground spa tial resolu tion a!
    na d ir 0 1"0.25 x 0.25 III pe r pixel.

    or

    T heoretica lly. in Figure X2'1. the most poorly insulated


    home in the su bd ivision is all"), .... hijc the house next dour
    at (b) appears to be wel l insula ted. The re is a fire in the fireplace at home {c] . The road net work (ell, conc rete side.... alks
    [e ], an d back-pe rch concrete pad s tfJ an: all muc h wanner
    than the surrounding terrain. Some of the bac kyard terrain is

    more mois t (X ) than other area s. .;\ 11 metal ve hicles Ih ) are


    dark (cold) because of their low emissivity, Most o f the

    homes in this subdi vision probuhl:-' rece ived abou t the salZ
    ins ulation; the re fore. it is not surprisi ng that their roolicJ

    apparent tempc rarurc appea r similar.


    So me utility com panie s subcont ract fo r thermal in frared d!ll
    an d then uucmpt I.. convince horneow ners that their insulation migluuot be as good <IS their neighbors '. T he ouly prob
    lcm with this lngie is tha t I ) the neighbor's horne mig ht h.m
    a d i ffercm roof 111 ntcriaI, 2 ) the I u-ientm ion ,1 r the nc ighbtlr\
    rooftoward th e se nsor might be different. and 3) the neij!lr
    hor might kee p their home m uc h cooler. l fth csc pararncien
    (Ire taken into consrdcrnuou. then the roo fto p temperature
    information extracted from the thermal infrared da ta may ~
    ofvnluc 10 the homeowner.

    Thermal infr.ucd energy surveys arc also performed r0utincly tor public (ll1d industrial facihucs. Figure 8 30 depica
    an aeria l photograph and predaw n the rm al infrared imageof
    the Solomon Blatt Fie ldhouse on the Un iversity of Sout!I
    Ca roli na cam pus. The therm al imagery was acq ui red at 4:36
    a.m. 1>11 March Ill . ll,IlO. at 500 m above-grou nd-level using
    a :?.5 mrad 1FOV sensor s:-ste m. Th is resu lted in a spatiJI
    resolution of approximately 1.2 5 x 1.2 5 m.

    TI>

    ._al lnlrared Rem ote Sensing Examples

    28 5

    Metal H'tI1

    a. Vertical AerialPhotograph

    b. Predawn Ther mallnfran...t Image

    FqJre 8-30 a) Aerialphotograph of'tbe Solomon Blatt fieldhousc enthe lilliwrslly of South C'a w hna ca mpus. Columhla. Sc. b) Thermal
    infra red image obtamcd at 4 :30 a.m. on \lJf.:!l 10. 1<)10(}. wnh a spaual resolution of 1.25 x 1.25 Ill. f'l; ote I I cool metal \ell l>..
    the hoI air escaping fr om nine of the vents. and the cool ' lVcrf1.a ngmg caves. The t;I\'('S :l.1? ex posed on Ilolh sid,-.; to the cool
    early illUming arr.

    rlJefmal lnfrared Commerciafl lndustrial Roof Moisture


    S>weys

    trof maimcnancc i~ a billion-dollar i l1uu~try. It will ulw ays


    x reccssary for a roofing cont ractor 10 wa lk on the roor to
    W.ermine exactly what repairs need III be mad e, OUI il has
    tecomc mcrc asiug 'ly useful to conduc t thermal infrared
    Itmnle ,ensing studies of roottop-. e specially when substan~.I roof surface find/O f subsurface wate r may he present .
    This helps the roo f ng contractor locate all o f the roof probCllt~ , The process is culled roof moist ure surveyi ng.
    DIl1J1la\ expansion and cuo ling , wind, rain, SIlOW. hail. icc,
    dx'm ieals, punc tures, and time cvcmually cause roofs 10 fail.
    Roof prlll'o lems manifest themselves in I W O ways: leakage
    md entrained water contamination. Leakage is simple,
    lIthoug h the leak inside the building rarel y re flects the e xact
    bcation on the roof where there i..a hole or lear in the roof~ material. Because most types o f iusulaucn absorb a cerlaiD amount o f wa ter, ir's d ifli ..:ult to lind the entra ined wate r
    colllamination beca u-c the roofmay not actuall y sho.... a leak
    Ilmil he sub- roof mat erial a nd insula tion have absorbe d all
    !be \\31<: r that they ca n hold ( ';Iockton. 21104 al.

    Three nondestru ctive methods ca n hi: used 10 loc ate roof


    subsurface mois ture : I ) nuclear gauges tha t co unt ne utron s.
    2) ca pacitance meter s thai measure resistance . and J ) rherma l infrared remote ~ nsin~ tha t can hi: used ttl map roof
    temperat ure panc ms . A tec hnic an cun usc a nuclear gauge
    or capacitance meier 10 trike "ample read ings on a I x I m o r
    5 x 5 m gr id on Ih,' rno l: ThL'M: pomt samples arc the n used
    to extrapolate where the roo f subsurfa ce w ater is loc ated.

    Therma l infra red remote sensing is the prefe r re d mel hod for
    roof moist ure surveyi ng {Stoc kton, 2(J04h). During tile d ay,
    the Sun's incident en,'rgy heats the roonop material. Some
    o f tbis ene rgy is trans ferred bc !o w the fO O l' sur face into any
    wate r. wood. or ins ulation present. Dur ing the nigh t. the Sun
    rad iates this stored ..:nl'rgy bac k into the at mosp he re. T his is
    known as radiational cooling. Highe r mass (w et) areas
    ubsc rb and dissipate heat at a di lfe rent rate than the lo w cr
    lTI:l SS (dry ) areas T he ..... cr orcas radiate heal lo r a longer
    period o f time at nigh t bec ause they have greater thermal
    ca pac ity as prcv iou sly disc ussed. A irbum c therm al infrared
    remote s...m sing can detect th ese sources o f hC~lt a nd idennfy
    the higher m il SS 1w .:1 areas ) lluring this nighnimc w ind ow of
    uneven heal d issipatio n.
    For exam ple. consider the co mmercial bu ild ing shown in
    Figuf\.' 8-3 Ia. A large-scale vcn ical serial pho tograph IS

    286

    Th ermal Infra red Rem o te Se nsing

    Therma l Infrared Roof :\1ui.'ilun S u nc~

    a. Obliqu e , i..." " of comme rcial building.

    d. ('." n drawing of proba ble roof moisture.


    Figure 8-31

    a ) ( lllh<luc aerial p" ulngraph of a commercial hu i kl in~ in vort h Caro lina. 1>1V...mcallarg c- scale aerial pho tograph. c} Predt.
    thermal infra red image obtained on \-b y f>, 2(1()(}. d }CA n dra" ing show ing polygon s o f probable roof moisture (rou,
    Sh>el.tnn lnfrared Thermogr aphic Services: Stock ton Infrared: :!/M IOI ,

    show n in Figure 1\) 1h. A preda wn th -rrnal infrared image is


    show n in Eipun- K-J 1c and a cumjnu -r-aidc d-dcs ign (CAD I
    map of the extent (If the subsu rface moist ure is shown in r igure K-31d. Th is information is used to csurnarcthc amount
    Ill" roo f lhal must be replac ed or repaired.

    Analysis of rhe Urban Heat Island Effec t

    remot e sensing sys tems III document the urban heat i.lllllt
    ctl ...-cr. In j,\l' nl'r;ll, they foun d that du ring the da yt ime l10lIi
    commercial land cover ex hibited the highe st tentperamm
    follow ed by services, transpo rtatio n, and ind ustrial lar.t
    USl'S. The lowest dayt ime temperatur es were found 01'4
    wa ter bodie s. vegetation, and agric ultu ra l la nd usc, in l"order. Rcsldcminl hou sin g being com pose d of a hetcregeneous m ixture of buildings. g rass. and tree co ver e.\hibit<d
    ;III intermediate temp erature, as ex pected.

    It is well know n that an urban hea t island exists ove r 1110S!


    urhan areas compared Itl the relat ivel y cooler nonurha n surrou ndin g countryside. Urban hea l islands arc caused by
    de fore station and the replaceme nt of till' land surface hy
    nonevapo rauvc and non po rous materials such as a"pha lt and
    concrete. In a dd ition , a ir-co nd itio ning systems introduce a
    sign ific ant amoun t of heat energy into the urban landscape.
    The re.;.ul! i.;. reduced evapotransp jrauon and a general
    increase in urban landscape temperature.

    c ulture. Water has a high the rmal ca pacity; the refore, It


    typic ally the wannest land cover d uring the pred awn
    as pn:v itlusl) discu..sed . Conversely. ag ric ulture typic
    exhibits the lo.... c st temperature at night.

    Quattrochi and Rujd ( 1~l)4 1 and Lo et al. t I'N7 1evaluated


    scvera! ci ties lIs ing high spa tial rcso hnion thermal infrared

    b.ampks of dayum c and nightnme therm al infra red irnJga


    of Atlanta, GA. confirm these observation s (Fi gure 8-3~

    At night . commercial. sen ' ices, ind ustria l, and transponan


    land cover types co ole d relatively rapidly. Nevcnhelea
    t heir tempe ratures even in the predawn early morning hom
    were still slightly higher than those for vegetation and agrc

    , Inlrared Remo te Sens ing Examples

    287

    A tla n ta, GA

    a. Daytime thermal infrared


    image of Atlan ta.
    ~

    8-32 31Dayumc ATLAS airborne thermal infrared channel IJ l'l(>()- 111,2 '1111 1 image of Atlanta, (i A Prominent urban fcaurres
    arc annota ted for o rientat ion. h f :"i i~hllHTl('. predawn rhcrrnalrnfrarcd image of Atlanla. GA (coe ncsy U Quallrochi and J .
    l.uvall. Pm /,'<,I .~ nA Vr,.I; NM~A M ar shall Space Fl ighl Center. ( 11"":11 ll y<1rulugy Climate Center. Huntsville. ALl.

    tie,\TlA S channel 13 imagery (9.60 - 10 .2 Ilm ) at 10 x 10


    IIspllial rcsofution .... as obtained as p art o f the NA SA F( lS
    lmStigalion Project ATLA \.:TA t Ouanroc hi and LU\lI Il.
    199'}). Shadows from 1<111 buildings located in the Atl an ta
    fBn arc observed 011 rho da ytim e ima gery. The intense rhcrIil exiuncc from buildi ngs . pavement. and other sur faces
    ~I of lhl' urban lan dscape. as w e11 as the he terogeneous
    t~huti(lll of these res ponses, sta nd in signi lica nl contrast
    fur relative "flatness" of the Atlan ta thermal landscape at
    Also. the dampen ing e ffe...-t thar th... urb an forest has on
    4'-d lingtherma l ene rgy respon se is. e\ ide m. pnnicula rly in
    ~ nl,lth east port ion o fthe day time ima ge where resid ential
    mcanopy is e ~l e-nsive. In the nig huimc image there is still
    tdmce. eve n in the very early mo rning. of the elev ated
    ~<:m131 respon ses from buildings and oth er surfa ces in lhe
    ,\lIu)1.3 CBI>and fro m streets and tree w ays. T hermal energy
    _ OM'S for vegetauon acro ss the image are re latively urnfarm at night, rega rd less o f vegetation type (""g.. grass,

    "",.

    h. t"ighlt ime thermal infrared image.

    (i ,... .

    Such therm al mforrnancn has been UM:d 10 I) mod elthe rclaIW!1ship between Atl anta urban growth, land -cov er change,
    and the dev elo pment of the urban heal island phenom e non
    throug h t ime , :!) mod e l the relat ionship ~1\\\'C n Allam ..
    urban growth and land- cover change and a ir qu ality thro ugh
    rune. an d 3) mudd the ovc rallctfccts ofurban dev e lo pme nt
    on su rface-energy budget characrerisucs across the Atla nta
    urban land scape . Sud! data can a lso be used 10 recommend
    rrcc -planung program s that may he able III substa ntially
    decrea.... the urba n hea t island effect (Q ualtrochi and Ridd.
    19'1X ),

    " 'eng ct al .l:! OO~) analy..ed Landsat 7 ET\--I ' data to ex trac t
    la nd surface temperature information for urban heat is land
    studies of lndiannpoljs, India na . T hey roun d the incorpo ration of the a mount or green vegetation. d ry soil. a nd shade
    wi thin each pixel was w.e ful for eSlima ling the land surface
    temperature .vegetatio n abund ance relauonship for urb an
    hea t island studies.

    ( " \'\ I'I TR

    288

    Thermal mt rar ed Remo te Sensing

    Re

    S um ma ry

    Use of Therm al Infrared Imagery for Forestry


    Ap p lications

    Quantitative in fo rmat ion about forest ca no py structure. biomass, age. and physiological condition have been extracted
    from therm al infra red data . Basically. a chango: in sur face
    temperature can be measured by an airborne therma l infra -

    red sensor (e.g.. TI\ IS or ATLAS I by n:pc-<lIL'\lly ll)'ing over


    the same ar ea a few limes . Usua lly a separation of about 30
    min utes results in a measurable change in surface temperalure caused hy the cha nge in inco ming solar radiat ion : howC\ 'CI". a longer period o f time may be req uired . Average
    surface 0...1 radiation (H.I is measu red ill ,{ ill' for the study
    area and is used 10 imegrate the effects of the ron radiauv e
    rluxcs. The change ill surface tempe rature from lim... period
    ' / to ,: <i.o:. ~) is the value that revea ls how those nonradianvc ll U\ l"'S are reacting 10 radiant energy inputs. The ratio (If
    the se 1\\0 0 parameter s is used to compute a surface property
    defined by Luval l ( I qq7 ) as a Thermal R('V'OII.w Number
    (TR~ l:

    Therm al infra red remote sens ing w ill become evee

    importa nt in the future. Ternperature a nd cmissivity om


    crfu l biophysical variables critical to many invesri
    We now ha ve very sensmve linear- and area-array
    in frared detectors that ca n function in broad thermal
    or in hyperspcctral configuration s. In the future. it ..
    com mo nplace to find min iature thermal infrared sensa
    unmanncd ae n a l \ chicl es I UAV) used by the mil ilar).l<:
    usts a nd lay persons.
    Re fe re n c e s

    Bcck crc F. and ..\ . L U . IQ9S, " Surface Temperature and


    si ~' itY:l I Vario us Scales: Definrtion. Measureme nt and
    Proble ms." R""'''/t' S....'.""K, "/ Emir",m'''IIl . 1:!:22S-~ Sl
    Colcord. J. l'~ K I. "Thermal Imagery Energy Surveys," P
    K. rtJlll",n rl< Engm"t' mlg ,( Rt'ffJ"'" S"ming . 47(2 ):231-:.1'

    7RS =

    v..

    ,"

    Te rra in containing mos tly s'.lil and ban: rock hal c the 10.... est
    TRr-< values. .... hijc fo rests have the highest. The TRr-< is a
    site-s peci fic prnperty that may be used to discri min ate
    among \ ario us types ofconiferous fores t stands and some o f
    the ir biophysica l characteristics [ Lnvall, I Q9]).

    Remote Sensin g Plan t S tress Deg ree Days

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    (SDD j was defined by ldso ct ul. (1977) as:

    "

    S{)lJ ~ L ( T~ - T,, ) ,

    ,. ,

    Co il. C .. CaM:lIcs.
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    mca surcmcnu. and (T~ - Tal is summed over n days beginning at day i . Th e SDD index is related to plant water consumption and has been used to sc hedu le crop irr igatio n.
    mon itor grassland stress. and improv e y ield es tima tes.

    I':st<:s. J. F. .. I' IM. -Some Apphcauons of Aerial Infrared ImaF"


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    "La nd Sur face Tem perat ure Retr ieval from Lan . b al TM j'
    R"",ol., St',u;nK of "'wi"",m'/II, 90 :434 --1-1 0 .

    Stockton, (i R., 2 11 (l~a, "Aeria l Infrare d Thermogra phy," C@


    kif. Septe mber (::O(l..j ):47 53.
    Stoc kton. ( i. IL 2tl(l4b, "Eindmg Pollution \I ith :\e rial lnfwx
    Ther mography," /1I'/""r;<lI I'II_II' lei". IIIay i lUU-l1 : 2 ~ - 2 7,
    Sto ckton Infrared . l OU". Sw t"klo n lnfrarvd T!/{'rll/lJg rul ,hic .'ito
    I'in " . \\'\\ w.sto c ktoniufrarcd.com .

    J..

    Q uauroc hi. u A. a nd ~ . K. Rilld. 1'19-1. " Mea sureme nt an d


    AniJlysb uf T hcTlll al En<:rs y Respon ses frmn Disc re te Urban
    Surfaces Using Remote Sensmg Data." I",.'m " ' i" n,,l Jvumu/
    "f R('mOle Sem",x, 151 10); I'-191 -1021.

    To rgerse n. C. E. Eaux. R. K . Mci ntosh . B. A.. Poa ge. :\ ,


    D, J. Nonon. ::(1)]. "Airborne Thermal Re mot e Sensillg fl:r
    Wale I' Tem pera lure As'\('ssmen l in River s a nd Streams." Itmot.. Sell ,'IIIK .~r f."lIl'lnmm<m, 76:J 86 ~39!'1 .

    Q uat troc h i, D. A, and Me rri ll K. Rid d. I'-I'-I~ , " Anal ys is uf \ '<:!!e lat ion within I Se mi-arid L rben Ell \' iro nme nt Using H i~ h
    Spa tial Rcsol unon Air borne T hermal Infrar ed Remote Sen "
    ing Oat a," A lmo,lph,'ri(' Io'lI n rmlllll'III, .l2( I J: llJ ~3 3 .

    Vau g hn . R.
    Ca lvin, W. ~1 . an d J. v. T"ran ik, 10H3. "SE BASS
    Hyperspectral Th erma l In frared Dare : Surface Emis~ilil)

    Sc hmugge. T.. Fre nch. A , Ritch ie. J. C. Ra nge . A. and H. Pe lgrunt. ;!OOl , "Temperature and Emissivity Scpuraticn frum
    \-lu ltispe c tra l Th erm a l In fr.ar..-d Ope rations." B.'mOI. S"II.Iing
    vJE/",inm m"m , 79: lIN-I 98 .

    \\alla ce. K ., 19 <)<). A TL AS - Airl...r n.. Terrestria l ApplicailOlr!


    Sc /I.\Or SI'.,,,ljk,,' ioll.f, S"(': t\A S:\ Sle nnis Spa,' e O r.. 10 p.

    Sa bins, 1'. F.. Jr.. [N7. Rellw l., S''I.I'illg Principles andlnterpreI,,/wn, ;-.l Y: free man. 49 -1 pS Hlishury. J. W. a nd U . M. D'Aria . 19 92. "Emissivity t Tcrrcstrial Matcreals in the II - 14 u m Atm os pheric Window." Remol" S..,ulIIg 0/ t:"..,m"", ..",. -1 1:113- 106 .

    a.

    Me". uren len t and \.f iner ,,1 Ma r r ing ,- R,'n",', SCII,'inK of 1ll'if""",.'III. l< 5:4 !'1 _li 3.

    Weng.I.J.. Dcngshcn g. L. and J. Sc hu br ing. ~ tll )..\ . fstimatioI'Ili


    Land Surface Tc mpcrmure , vegetation Abund ance Relarices hip for Urban Ileal b land Studies." H"/llUle S" II,l illg <If Eml
    1S'-I:-I67-..\83 .

    "''''''('n!.

    Wolk. W. I.., llJ!'I 5. tnfrurcd !/um/buo k , A nn A rbor: Envircemelllill Research Insti lll1C n f\1 lehi gan.

    Active and Passive Microwave Remote


    Sensing

    (}..I'.\'/ I'(' remote se nsing syst ems record electromagnetic energy that is reflecte d
    (c.g., b lue. green. red, and ne ar-infrared Iightt (If emitted {c.g.. thermal infrared radiation) from the surfac e of the Earth. T her e are also uctiv e remote
    se nsing systems thai nrc not depend...ruon the Sun's clectromagnenc energy
    or the thermal properties o f'the Eart h. Act ive re mote se nsors crea te their ow n
    electromagneuc energy Ihal J ) is transmi tted from the sensor to .... ard the ter rain (a nd is largely una ffected by the atmosp here ). 2) interac ts with the terrain
    producing a backscatt er of energy. and 3) is record ed by the remote sensor's
    receiver. The most \\ idely used active remote sensing sys tems include:

    active microwave ( RADAR). which is bas ed on the transmis sion of lon g .


    wa velength microwaves (c.g .. J :!5 em) through the atmosphere and then
    recording th e amount of'cncrgy back scaucred fr om the terra in;

    I.IDA R wh ich is based o n the uansm ission o f re latively short-wavelength


    laser ligh t (e.g. 1040 nm ) and the n recor d ing the amount of lig.ht
    bac kscanered from the terrain;

    So.VAN whic h is based on the transmission ofsound waves through a wat er


    column and then recordi ng the amount of energy backscenercd from the
    halt om o r ho rn objects within the water co lumn .
    O f th c three . RA DA R re mote "...nsing is the most widely used fer Eart hresource observations. L1DAR and SONAR arc especially useful for topographic and bathymetric map ping . respectively, II is also possible to record
    passi ve m ic rowave ene rgy that is naturally enurted from the surface of the
    Earth using a passive microwaveradiometer. This chap ter pro vides an overview of active and passive mic rowave remote sensing. L1DAR remer... sensing is discusse d in C hapter 10 and SONAR in C hapter 12.

    History of Active Microwave (RADAR) Remote Sensing

    Ja mes C lerk Ma xw ell ( I SJ 1- I X79j provide d the ma them atica l dc scr ipnons
    or tb c magnetic and electric fields associated with electromagnetic radiatio n.
    Then, Heinric h R. Hertz ( 1857 - 189-1) increased ou r kno w ledge about the
    creat ion and propaga tion of elec tromagnetic energy in the m icrowave and
    radio port ions of the spec trum. Hertz also studied the interact ion o f rad io
    waves with me tallic surfa ces and initiated so me o f the early thin king that
    even tually led to thc inve nuon of rads and radars. Building on the fundame nial physics pr inciples discovered b) Ma xwell and Hertz. Guglielmo ~t.

    29 1

    292

    x tarconi (I R74 - 1937 ) constructed an ante nna thar uu csm uled und rece ived rad io signals. In I<)411 . he sent radio waves
    aCfll:>S thl.' Atlan tic and in 19119 shared tho: S o be l Pril l.' in
    ph}sics for his work.

    RADAR as " '0: knew it was invc....ugated by A. II. Taylor a nd


    L C. Young in 1 92~ . Th l'SC scientists posuioncd a high .frcq ucncy radio rransrmner on one side of the Anacosua River
    ncar Washington. DC and a receiv e r on the opposite side .
    Sh ips pass ing up or d own the river inte rrupte d the 10111;'
    wave len gth radio signal (I - I() nu sent between the tran smille-r and receiver. Such sys tems prov ided the tl rsr d ues
    that radio s ignals might be useful for tk tccling the distance
    to shi ps ( i.e ., the rnll gc) :11 sea. Thi s had implicat ions for ship
    11a\ igat iun because the ucn ... c radio uuusrnisslon an d recepcion co uld tak e place both ,II n ight and even in bad weather.
    Th e mi litary ro ok an ea rly interest in radar because during a
    wa r it is impo rtant to know the loc auon o f all shi ps and
    plan es iJiie ndly an d enemy), A phrase describing the pro cess "as "[l!dln ,detection ;lnd r ang ing" or RA DAR.
    Ahhou gh radar systems no w usc micro wa ve wavelength
    energy a lmost exc lusively instead ofradiowavcs. the anon) m was ne ve r changed.

    ;;

    By 1935 Yo ung and Taylor (a nd indq...: ndentl y Si r Robert


    \\at'\l.ln-Wan in Gr eat Brita in] combined the antenna transmuter and receiver in the same instrument. Evemually, highpo\\ er transmissions in \'~'I)' speci fic ban ds of the EM sp.:c
    trum were possible These and ot her e lectro nic adva ncemen ts laid the ground w ork for the d e\ elo prnc ru of RADAR
    du ring Wo rld War II for naviga uon and target location. By
    late JlB ll experimen tal rada rs were wor king in the United
    States. G rea t Brita in. Ge rm any. and the So viet Unio n , O f
    these nation s. nun c " as more vu lne rab le to a ir attack than
    Brita in. Lou don lay \\ ithin <;10 m iles of foreign territ ory and
    within 275 mile s o f Germany, Under the direction of Air
    Chid Marshal llugh Dowd ing, the British construc ted 1 1
    rad ars alon g th..: ~()u lh and east co ast ~ of England and the
    CJ)t co aSI ofScu tb nd. Th.: elIde Ilame " (' Imin lI o llle - ( '1\"
    amse fwm a phm tn huild a " home cha in" of radars in Britain
    tn he fo llowed by a n (lversea~ chain to dcl ....nd Ihre3lent"d
    puniu ns u f the llritish empire. The e l l radars were the p rima ry British ll>ng-rangc ca rl)' \.lami ng rada rs well into
    World W,lT II. Th e rada rs 3110\\ ed incom ing planl."~ to be
    detec ted out t\) a ma.\im urn mn ge vf 50 m ites, Witho ut th~'
    radar. Rritai n wou ld no t ha n : be ...n aMe to effecti \'cly
    C(luntl."r the Gennan Lul\wal li: bo mbers an d lig htef esconli
    during the Baltic o f BriL'li n. v. hieh began in Ju ly 1940 ( Price .
    I\}<)O J, Th e c ircu larly scanning o..lppler rad ar thai we watch
    ~'\I."ry da) du ring lde\ ision wC'Jthl."r u pd al ~ to identify the
    j!~"'lg.ra rh ic locatiun of l>tomll> aro und citi<.-s is baSt.--d on the
    ..am I.' circu larl) scanning rad.n coneepl (p lan' pnsiti l' n indl-

    Active and Pas sive Microwave Remote Sensing

    cater rada r. PPI) fo und in the ori gi na l World War II


    PI' I radars are a lso used for air-traffic cornrol al a irport>.

    RA DAR in13g.c:> obtain ..-d from aircraft or spacecraft a;


    know them tod ay were nOI available during World W.
    The continuous-st rip mapping capa bility o f s ick -/ooki/lg
    bomc nular (SL A R I was nor deve loped unulrhe 1951h.
    importa nt adva nt age o fSLA R is u s ability ro obtain
    nais-ancc image, ov er vast regions to the left or right of
    airc raf (Sabi ns. 19971. Thi s is called IOllx-nmge ua
    da ta co llec tion becaus e th e p ilot can l1y along the edge
    friend ly a ir space while o btaining de ta iled I{ AllAR imag
    far into unfriendly a ir sp ace. It also became possible to
    fo rm
    radargrannnctric mea surem ent -the science
    exnucting quan t itative gcome tr ic nbjcrt info rmation Ir
    radar images {Lebert. 19')0; llcud crson and Lewis. 19981,
    The m ilitary began usi ng S LAR s in the 1950 s. By the m'
    1()(,Os so me systems were decla ssified . Ther e arc two I1l'
    mal)' rypes o f S L\R : n"<I1 <lpt-nure r uder (a lso known
    bn nc-force radar! and svmhetic <I/""rt ll /l;' rodar (SARI. I'
    the w ord "aperture" mean s um" I/IItl. Rea l apert ure radars
    a n an tenna offixed lengt h. e.g., 1- 2 m. Synthetic aperne
    rada rs als.l use a 1 - 2 m antenn a, bu t they are able to syr,thtsi ll" a m uch larg er ant enna tc. g.. perhaps 600 m in length
    w hic h has improved resolving po wer. SA Rs achieve ,
    fine resolution fro m grea t distances. Fo r e xa mple. an II
    SAR antenna on an orbi tal platformca n be sy mhesized eleIron ica lly to have a synthetic length of 15 km. Later it will be
    demonstrated ho w impo rta nt this cap ahi lit) is to SAR azlmuth reso lution . M ilital)' a nd civilia n com merci al RAD.-\RS
    arc sy nthetic ape rture rada rs.
    In the I()(,Os and 1970s. rea l a nd synthetic apert ure SLAlU
    were used extensively fo r Earth resource reconnaissance nf
    vast. previously unm apped reg ions of the Earth. Early ~t ud
    ics fo cused Oil continent s pel'ennially shro uded in c1QuJ
    lIl\Cr. The first large-scale S LA R project wa s the provino:
    Il l' Darien, which co nnects Panama and South Am erica, In
    11)68. Westin ghouse Electri c, Inc . in co operation with Ral'
    theo n, Inc ., em ployed a rea l apert urc S LA R tha t \Vc~1 ing
    ho use de velu ped for the U.S. A (1)' a nd suec.::>sfull) madeI
    20.000 km z mo sa ic of th is area. Up to this tim e. the area had
    n~'\ er tleen sel."n o r mapped in i t ~ en lire lY hecau ~e of almost
    fl\.rpe tual cloud CO\ er.
    Goodyear Aerospace . Inc.. and Ihe Ae ro Scn iee Di\'isionof
    Western G<.'Ophysical. Inc.. adap ted a s:l'n1hetic apo;"nurt'
    radar built b)' Good year and insta lled it in an Aero SCl'\'j,,:t
    jet lo r civilian surW)'5 . In lin 1 the y in itiated projecl
    RADA\1 1Rada r of the Am aNn ) II ' map Iht: Ama7l111 BasllI
    in Vellezud a and Brazil. A pp ro.\imatcl y ~ m illion L.m 2of

    ~is:ory

    rrs.

    . 9-t

    Ch;lra~ lo:risl i..:s

    '"

    ," -

    ho

    uff
    of

    flt>pr",.i on
    an\:k . 1
    (nn r 10

    ......re
    (SAR)

    USA

    !!ASAT

    L (U .S)

    73 0

    67"

    123'1
    L m.SI

    11- 12-11 1

    .1)'

    er-

    USA

    L . (2J.S)

    of

    7S - JS

    I' S"- 64'1

    Ib o r r

    AJ i""Uh
    Hn<,lulio n,

    H ~, l u

    !'o .u.h

    A lli-

    lion.

    ..idl h.

    'm

    lud r ,

    ""
    ""

    2S

    as

    '00

    '00

    ., '"

    '''''

    ""

    17- Sll

    rar_ra n\:,.1
    Il ncKl rn .
    a n\:lr l

    "'"

    .,

    293

    of selected Earth-orbiting Synthetic AI"'-'rtun: Rada rs (SARsl.

    ~thelic

    II.
    i,.-

    of Acti ve Mic rowave (RADAR) Remo te Sensing

    'm

    Con'r_
    al:"

    ,O' -

    f)un-

    lion
    105d

    75" ...
    2.S d

    "

    10 - 6fl

    ,m
    USA

    SA-CIX-$AR

    dO)-ll -YI

    re
    se

    USSR

    HH .H V.
    \ 'V.VH

    '"

    10 - 34)

    5<t'- 40
    (JO"- 1>0"1

    ""

    "

    IS - lO

    ,....s
    02 11-9 2

    - (9.61

    I.,..,

    LI HS )

    ~AOARSAT

    ""

    "

    70" - J ()"

    fill

    ~ - IOO

    jI '

    ""

    7 W~ 3U'

    PO' -

    :s
    ,f
    !misal

    .,"

    0)01 -02

    ESA

    ,
    d

    C (D)

    Iroi area (abou t half the siz e (If the Uni ted Slates) were
    rc;orded and assem bled into rada r mosa ics . Goodyear and
    l,:roSere ice eventua lly surveyed the Amazon rainfo rest in
    Bmil, Venezuela, eas tern Colomhia. Peru. and Bolivi a.
    s.&:sequenl radar in,esligalions mapped Guatemala. Nige/I. Togo. portions of Indonesia. the Ph ilippines, Peru. an d

    "'regions (lebcrl ,I'NO),

    t
    t

    1 - H MI

    60" ]

    "n
    I-

    3"
    .,0

    liASA has launched several successful SARs such as SEA)AT and the Space Shun le Imag ing Radar experiments.
    srASAT( for "s ea satellite"] .... as launched in 197ti 10 obtain
    l-lrand (23.5 em) 25 x 25 m spatial reso lution oceano-

    'IV.HB.
    YVNH
    HV,111i
    \WV V

    "'d

    .Too

    ,,"Iat
    orbit
    6 .S yr.

    7S

    11 - Hill

    50

    '00
    ,"V.H H

    C .(S.3)

    RAOARSAT2

    id

    [3'1"J

    x_('1.6 1

    1l2-II-Oj)

    20 - -15

    lOn

    [10" ~ 60" ]

    .T'

    57" 1\
    57' S

    CIS. 6)

    ,~ ,

    re
    e

    .s

    vanable
    [ W- 5 5~1

    I. - (2J.Sl

    ri
    as

    0''Y
    m
    c-c

    x -0.0)
    ('" .(~ , ~)

    30

    '0

    2()-

    soo

    JO -

    roco

    ,.mit

    x.so

    lCMl

    J(lOO

    ""tn

    Old

    ('- 225

    2.4 -

    30 -

    '"

    ,- '"'

    ""

    peter
    " .."it

    ""

    grap hic info rmation (Table 9- 1), Th is was the first orbital
    SAR that provi ded public-domain da ta ( Evans et 31 .. 2005 l
    It also provided valuable land informa tion, bUI fu nctioned
    for only Ill) days. T he Snunte tmugtng Radar experiment A
    (S IR- A) w nh ib L'band (2 3.5 em) 40 x -10 m SAR wa s
    launched in 1910 . S II~ -B wa s launched in 19 R4 with 17 x 25
    m rcsolunon. SIR-C was launched in 19<,1 4 with multifre quency and muhipolurizauon capability. S IR-A, SIR- B. and
    SIR-C miss ions lasted only 2.5, 8, and 10 days, respectively.
    The Shutt le Topography \1is.sion (SRT\1) was launched on
    February II , 200(J. and lasted II days ( NASA SRTM. 2006)
    (Table 1)1).

    294

    nUI'TEN:

    Ta ble 9-2.

    9~

    Act ive and Passive Microwav e Remote Sensillg

    Table 9'3.

    Adv:mI3b "S of RA [):\ R remote se nsing.

    RA DA R wa veleng ths and rr~'qucnd~-:; usc'd inilt.'tio:

    microwave remote

    ~ ns mg

    mvesngauons.

    Advantages
    RAD AR

    Cmalll

    m,cn'''.~~ fr"'lu~"";,,,, ..

    ill l"' n'"1J'aIC .,~ .."I 11."" 111.;'all-

    .. eathcr remo:..c oo:n"ng.


    SynoJ'l'" ,-",w, cf~ = .1>1 f,.... mappinll at 1:10.000 to 1:400.000.
    Satellite ...wcngt: of d ....d. hrouoJ,,:d """nm"" is ross ih!...
    ("o,,:r~~ c.........>hu., ~ al

    u..." _~ i f,,,d

    limn, ,,",'en . ' n ighl .

    PmllllS imaging at w llow IoN< an g~ moulting in diffrn:nt 1"'l'SJ"Xli\ C;\ WI c.nnot al.. . Y' be obu.,~ ,"Lllg ...,rial pb<>lOl!;raphy_
    Scnsc~ III "'I\dcn~lhs uul>.l.k tho: \,.,ble """ ,nf.... e" rcgivlb u f thc
    c k:,;tr"""llIlI:l'" >P'o"-1nlln, pn.wl<!,nll- infonnauon on ~rac.: rough""""
    dICkel"" prupnt;<~ uJd m<>i""urc<x "'ICllI.

    Band Des ignatio n s


    (commonwave"ngll'la
    In pa.-nt,,"")

    Waveleng lh P,)
    In cm

    ffeq uency (~

    K. IO.R6em)

    0.75 - 1.11<

    40.0 -~ "' j

    1.19 - 1.67

    :!65 - IU

    K"

    1.67- 2A

    rs.o -1 2J

    Xn OJnd .l . ~ tml

    2-4 - JJI

    12.5 - 8.0

    Ct 7.5,6.0cm)

    3.9 - 7.5

    8.0 - 4.0

    Stl\.O.9.fI,1 2.6 ,m l

    7.5 - IS.O

    4,0 - 2.0

    L (:!3.5, 24 0, 25.0 em ]

    I S,O- 30.0

    2.0 -1.0

    P res.n <;m l

    JO.O-loo

    1.0 -0.3

    in GHz

    '1>nd .,

    C~,n mq"".....e. ..rm..:,..." .,,, rn<'l'}l:)' p.'flC1ntc '~et.ilIKln . ",nd.


    and surface: 11 }tt'o n r _.
    IJascd on ItS e-Il ;II" ",,,YI ;OII, and 1M- ang le o f illum ina tion ,,:anl-c
    "., trolled.

    [ nabln Jnl)luno" to l'C ioo.:pn><km o f <I,,,,,,,,,C I<) the ooj\'CL .. ilb


    the . i",
    rno.>ll<11<JIl cell b....ng as ......U;as J " I Ill.

    "r.

    I~

    can be prodUd from di lTer<,nl

    ty~of p"I'll'Ucl ~

    advanta ges of RADAR rem ote se nsing arc summarized II

    Tahle "-2.

    11m .

    H \'. \' V. " HI.

    A cti ve Microwave Sy st em Components

    M" y ~nllc .. mu lu ncnl_l) on"" "n:al " . ' e k ngth _ (f'~'lucnc",_l and
    lh... ha_ mu)!tfreq" "",ey 1".1I""'Ua l

    Can mcas~ neean "al'e I'w""n",,,, C"cn (rom .....;131alutudes.


    ("an rrod......," " ,.l al' l' ing ,ma ~el' ~u;ln"lc for ,1e~nrit; He" ing
    and rada'Erammctry ,
    Sup!,,, n . imerfe romet ric "l"' rallon " , ing ' '''0 amenna, for Jn mapo-

    r ing, and analy~;~ of ind dcnlanJl lc . i~alure~ of ot>J~'Cts.

    The former Soviet Union launched the r\ LMAZ ] Scband


    ('J.6 em ) radar in 199 \, The European Space Age ncy ( ESA )

    launched tho: Enroprun Remote 5('/l.I'i l/l: Satcltite ERS! with


    us Ccbnnd (5.6 em) imag ing rad ar in 1')9 ] lind ERS-] in
    1995. The [SA launched Env isar on Murch I , 2U{)2 with its
    Ccband (5,3 cmt A"WII/Ct' J SyllthCfiC Aperture Radar
    (AS A R ) to prov ide contin uity with the I:"RS-/.2 radars.
    Japan la unched the Lcbund (23.5 Col) Japall!',\"(' 10"(//"111
    R ',I'VIIIH 'S .'la rd/if<' JERS-/ in 1992. T he Cunadian go vernment placed the ('-hand 15 ,(, cm j RALJARSAT,! in orbit in
    19<)5, RAlJARSA7~] is sched uled for launch in 2000. T he
    system cha racteristics crthcsc orbita l SA R systems arc summanzed in Tahlc q . I and discussed later in this chapter.
    Active and pass ive mic rowave remote sensing will co ntinue
    grow in importance. Such se nsors provide the only viable
    inforrnanon for the tropica l portions of the: world where
    e xtensi ve. frag ile ecosystems a rc at risk and under perennial
    cloud cover, For a detailed history (If radar developm ent, ~e
    Henderson and Lewis (I9<no. The primary and secondary

    Active microwave imagt"T)' is ob tain ed using insuu mess


    a nd princip les that are diffe rent from those used whnl
    acquiring data in the vis ible. nca r-, mid -, and thermal infrared po rtions of the EM spct'trurn using passive remote sensing techniq ues . Therefo re. it is n,..-':':Ssary to unde rstand thf
    ac tive microw ave system com po nents and how clcctromagneue energy is Sl' 11l, rece ived. and recorded hy the sensor
    system before .m analy st can accu rately interpret a radar
    image . T he d iscussion is bas ed initiall y on the system com.
    ponems and turn-nons of it 1" '111 ,,!)('r1lI11' side-looking oir,
    borne radar (SLAR l. Tile discussion the n expa nds 10
    includ e synthetic: "1'{' /'IIII'(' ro"<11',~ ( SA R) that have improved
    capahjlitics.

    Sending and Recei ving a Pulse of Microwave


    Elec tromagnetic Energy - Sysrem Comp onents

    A typica l active micro wave S LAR is sho.... n mo unted on an


    a ircraft in Figure c -!a. II consis ts of a pulse -ge nerating
    device. a transmitter. a du plc xer that care fully coordinates
    w hen the active microwa ve energy is transmitted and
    received. an an tenna, a receiver. a record ing device such aH
    high -density d ig ital tape reco rder or hard dis k, and typically
    a C RT monitor so that the technician in the plane can make
    sure radar imagery is actual ly being collect ed I Figu re 9- lb ~

    Ac'

    295

    Microwave System Components

    ,
    <-


    ante nna

    3.

    Transuuner

    lntcrmap Lcarfer Jo Sta r .k

    Duplcx cr
    send s and
    receives

    ....

    ---:- ------

    :::~~~~Z::;:.::-

    CRT display or

    b. Typica l active mic rowave


    figure 9-1

    \>;Kb ,,',1I1cn: o.I

    antenna

    d igital recorder

    transemuc d pulse

    S)Slc m

    com ponents.

    a l :\ side -looking airborne radar (5 I-AR l calkd ' he Star ,~i IFSA I~ ( mterfer omctric symhcuc ape rture radar) is mounted undem eath <I 1.l.'a rkt JIl aircraft (eou rtl"'~ lntcrtnap Technologic... lne.). ll) r he active microwave ..)~l....r u c(lmron"' ntliand flow
    of cncrg~ lhrOllgh a 1~-'ri,",aJ SL\ R. It consi..s ofa pulse-gcncratmg de\ ice. rransnuner, duplexer. antenna. receiv er. and a digual recorder Some systems have- a quid .-k'ol CRT di .pla~ 10 Ill..l...: sure data is being ooll..-crcd, The J-m S)lllhclk aperture
    antenna shown can symhcsi/c an antenna hundreds " f m... I Cf$ long,

    iie radar can a lso be.' mounted onbou rd a satellite. The

    P) arc a n art ifact ofthe secre t .... or k o n rad ar re mote sen sing

    genc:raling de vicc sends a p ulse o f electromagnet ic


    lIlel'g~ at a speci fic .... avelengrh I fre que ncy ) to the tnunsmutr, When in sending mode. the duplcxe r then sends the
    l!,lari/cu pulse of ene rgy throug h the antenna toward the

    in \\orl d War II when 11 wa s cu- aomary to usc an alphabet ic


    de-sc-npror in:-tead o f the actua l .... avclcngt h or frequ e ncy.
    T hese ~h..sc riprors are still used tod ay in m uch o f the radar
    sc ientifi c lirernturc.

    E.u!h's surface.

    Ihc pulse of ele ctroma gn...tic rad iation se nt ou t by the transIli tk:l lhrough the antenna is Ill' a spec ific wuvclcngth and
    blion (i.c.. it has a pulw length measured in mic r o-eo- . !!SlXI. The wavelengths o f ene rgy m\l~t co m mon ly
    sed In imag ing radars arc summarized in Table 9 3. T he
    u lekngths arc milch longer than visible. ncar- in frared ,
    midinfrared, l'r the rmal infra red e nergy u..cd in other
    ftlllOh: sensing systems ( f igu re 1) 2 ). T herefo re. mic row ave
    merg;.. is usua lly measured m cenumcters rather than
    iIiaometers (Ca rver, I'IXII). The unusua l na mes associated
    '-Im tho: rada r \\a"' c1engths tc. g.. K. K. , Ku X. C'. S. L. and

    The ~lwnc~ t rada r wawknglhs arc des ignated K-band. Kha nd wa velengths ..hould thcorencally pmv ide the be st rad ar
    resolunon . Unfort unately, Kcband wav ele ngt h encq;} is partia lly absorbscd by wat er vapor and cloud penetration can he
    limited . T his is the- reason that mos t ground-b used wcurh ...r
    rada r.. uscd to track cloud co ver and precipitat ion are Kband. X-band is often the short...st \\ avelength ran ge used for
    orb ital and <;uoorb ita ll magi ng rada rs ( Mikhail .:t aL 200 1I.
    Some KA DA K sysle l1ll> function us ing. more than on e fro qu cncy and arc ref..-rrcd to a s fIlll fflp le-j iwl"{'lIc)' radars
    ( e.g.. Sr K-{' lind SRTM I (Tahle '1- I I.
    Tab le 93 and Figu re 9_2 also provide the rada r band des ig nat ion 10 urntv o f frequency me asu red m bill ions o f cycles

    296

    OI .\PT ER

    Acti ve and Passi ve Micro wav e Rem o te Sensing

    M fcr ewavc Ha nd s

    III CiH"

    I GII7.
    I

    u.z um
    ---,

    1.0 um
    I

    1 Vis.ible

    UV
    Figure 9- 2

    I'

    10

    um
    I

    Midd lc-I R

    T he rmal infra red

    ,.
    u-

    ' 1TTIl
    h:.., K
    / I .\

    CS
    ~

    1m

    I I
    I.

    lk wavelength and frequency of common ly used KADAR t ends. R.-\U-\R antennas transrmr and recti, e very long.length o;ll<,''fl;)' mea sured in c...n umctcrs, unlike th c relatively ~horl ",a,ekngth \ i~iblo:.llcar-i nfr.m:t1. middle-infrared.and
    mal infrared region~ measured in rmcromerers.

    ( 9 ~ 1)

    'u
    3 x lO ~m

    Sl'C

    -,
    (1)-2 1

    .
    u

    Lx

    tn cm

    Ncar-infrared

    per second ( Gi ~ahen 7 or G H/. 10'1 cycles SOC- l). Ea rthresource image analys ts seem 10 gras p the co ncept of \It :1\.'''' lengt h more read ily than frequency. so the co nventio n is to
    de scribe a rada r in term " of ih wavele ngth. Conversely.
    eng ineers generally pre fe r 10 work in units o f freq uen cy
    bec ause as radi alion passes thro ug h materia ls o f differ ent
    densit ies . freq uency rema ins co nstant w hile veloci ty an d
    wavc leug ih c hange. Since \\ avclcngth tA) and freq uen cy (u )
    are inversely related to the speed of light (cl. it really doc s
    not mauer w hich unit o f measurement is used as long as one
    remem be rs the follow ing relationships :

    l cm

    tum scc -,

    (9~3 l

    T he fo llo win g simp le equation ca n he used to rapidl y convert frequencies into uni ts of r'lthlr wilH' k ngth:

    A in centime ters ..

    JO
    u{in G l lz )

    (9-4 )

    Alim ut h a nd Ra n!:l' Dlrccrlon , Dep re ss ion Angle, l .on k


    A nKll', l lIdde u t ,\ nl):ll'. a nd " lIla r i/ a t in n
    T here are add itiona l param eters tha t must be know n abou t
    the na ture o f the pu lse o f mic ro....ave ene rgy that is sent hy
    the radar antenna to the terrain . incl uding aircra ft azimuth
    direcnon, radar range or look dirrctinn. depression angle,
    look ul/KIe. mc idell/ clt/Xle, and polarization. T h~ lfo llow ing
    d iscussion is base d on tho: us.: of an airborne rad;tr sys!<.:lll,
    a lthough the princ ip les are eq ua lly app lica hle to 'Ute llite
    rada r syrot~ms.

    A/ imu th B in 'crion : In a typ ical S LA t{ co nttgu rauee


    a ntenn a is lIluu nlo:d beneath a nd par allel to the aircraft
    lagc (Fig ure 9.) I. The aircraft tra vels in a straig hllinem.
    ca lled the azimuth jll!;},1 dsrecnon. Pulses of ac tive m'
    wa ve cnerg~ illu minate stnps of the te rra in at rig ht anp!
    (llT1hogunal) to the aircra ft's d irection of tra vel , which
    called the ral/~r> or /CJ"~' direction. Figu re 9-3 depicts an.
    Cfa ft equipped with a SLAR system that is illuminating.
    terrai n o n one side of the aircraft but not beneath iL lk
    pu lses o f C"n~rgy sem out in the range direction only illl1linate a certain pan of the terrain. The terrain illumirw.i
    nea rest the aircr ctl in the line o f sig ht is called the _
    "mIXc' ( Fig ure <.)' ) ). The I:m hl,,,t poi nt o f terrai n illuminald
    by' the pulse o f cnergy is called the.far-nlllge,
    Ran !:l' Direc t iun: T IK' range or look direc tion for any ruM
    image is the direction o f the radar illum inat ion that is at righ:
    an gles In the direction the aircraft or spacec raft is lraveli",
    Loo k dirc ct iou usuall y has a sfgnlflcnnt impact (In fe-alW'l
    imcr prctation. The extent to wh ich line ar features art
    enhance d or suppressed on the imagery depe nds sigrut~
    camly onrhcir oncruntion relative III a given loo k direcuee
    uf radar ilium illation . Gene rally , obj ects that tre nd (or strike l
    in a d irect ion that is orth ogonal (pe rpendic ula r) to the range
    or look direction are enhanced muc h more than those Objl'cb
    in the terrain th.u lie pa rallel to the lo ok d irec tion . CO~
    qucmly, linear featu res thai app ea r dar k or arc impcrccprio k
    in a rada r image using one loo k d irect ion may appear brigbi
    ill ano ther radar image w ith a diffe ren t loo k direction A
    good example o f thi s is de monstrated in Fig ure 9 -4 , ",bi.'i
    shows radar i mag~ry {If a rt area in Nigeria , w est Africa. tha
    wer e obta ined using two d itl'cr.:ntlo(lk directio ns , NOI.: IlOI
    ce rtain terrain features are emphas ized a nd /or dc-cmpta,
    s i ,~ in l h~ two ima gl'l>.
    I)('p rt" \ io n '\n;:.I(': Th e d"f',\.uion angle (1) is the angk
    he twe:.:n a ho ri/ on ta l plane: e.\l.:nd ing nUl from the air.:ra!:

    tIiIe Microwave System Componen ts

    297

    RAIJ ..\R

    G l:lJ lllcl r~'

    C ha r ac ter tsncs

    IH"

    aer-

    the
    ISt -

    .t is
    ro, es
    is

    tir<he

    no
    ni'd

    ,
    ~,

    g.
    re

    -e
    ;.
    n

    ,)

    e
    s

    e
    I
    \
    I

    ,
    I

    tqJre 93

    Geomemc charactcr eucs "I' radar illldgcrlo' acquired by a ,iJc!uok in!! a irb...me rada r (S LAH) through cloud cover. Allthe nomencl ature assumes thai the terrain is fiat.

    lage a nd the e lectromagnetic pulse of energy from the


    na alo ng the radar Ii",:,-o/~,'i.,<hl 10 a specific poinl on
    kground Figure 9-31. The de pre ssion angle \\ ithin a strip
    illuminated terrain varies from the ncar-range depression
    It 10 the [ar-range dl'p ll'.H iml ong le. The l1I'ltl"llge
    'Pressiun Imgle o f a radar image is computed by select ing
    pornt mi dway betwe en the nenr nnd tar-r ange in the i mage
    trijl, Summaries of'rudur systerns unenmcs only report the
    l!tra)!C depression a ngle.

    Look ,\ " :::1",: The 1001. angle (OJ is the angle between the
    lCrllCal from the antenna 10 th... ground and thc radar line of

    sight (h gu rc '1-3). The 100" ang le va ries from the near- 10


    the f.H-range and is the com ple ment of the de pres sion an g le

    \fi"hail ct aI..1(0 1).


    tu ctd cnt .\ II ~ll : The incident angle (e) is the an g le between
    the rada r pulse of energy and a line perpe ndicular 10 the
    Ennh's surface where it mak es contact . When the terrain is
    tlut. the incident ilng k (0) is the compleme nt (0 "" 90 - y) o f
    the de pression unglc (yl. Ho wever, if the terra in is sloped.
    thcre is no relanonvhip between ,k p re ss ion ang fc and inciden t angle. TIlt" inc ide nt angle be st describes the rel at io nsh ip
    between the radar beam a nd surface slope. A diagram o f the

    ( 'IL\P I ER

    298

    Act ive and Passive Mic rowave Rem ote sensing

    Figure 9-5

    h. Xcband, 1III pnlunz.rrion


    Figure 9-4

    + lout.. direction

    al X-hand image unite KadUIJ3 510111: in Nigeria ere~\cu h~

    llyi nl; cast-west and h'I\I011 the RA DAR

    look Ilonh 0) This image "'a~ obtained by tl)il111


    th.. arrcralt ca~l-\'e~l "ith the 1t-'IM.k looking
    south. Generally, It ISgood pr,I,'lk" It>alv,' I)S orient
    a radar image so that the ]0"1.. direction is toward lhe
    vie wer. This causes the shadm..s til fall toward the
    ana l)>>t and keeps him or bcr from experiencing
    !",,",ud,,scopic illusion ti.c " lol'l"l!r.tplm: ilJ\ crsion l.

    !,o/uri:!'d a s shown in Fig ure Q-t>. The tran smuted pul-e


    e lectromagnetic energy inte rac ts with the terr ain and >OOl.
    of it is bac kscancred at the speed o f light towa rd the eire
    or spacecraft. \\ here it OIKe again must pass throug h a fill:
    If the antenna accepts the backscauered ene'). it
    recorded V:Ui.1US Iype s of bac ksca ue rcd p...lari zcd <-"fk'ftI
    may he rec o rd ed by the rada r. f or exa mple. it is Jllh,ihlelil
    send ve rtically polari .....d energy and receive ooh
    vert ically polarized energy (designated VV);
    send hori rental and rcc civ e horizontally polarized efle!!l
    (111/);

    send horizontal and receive vcnicully polarized ~


    (111):"r
    ~ c nd

    relation ship is sho wn in Figure 9-5 . Many mathematical

    radar studies assum... the terrain surface is flat (ho ri,oolall.


    there fore, rhc incident nngk is a- surncd to he the complcmen! ot'r he depresvion angle.

    r olar izlliion: Unpolarized energy \ ibratcs in all possible


    d irectio ns perpendicula r to the d irectio n of travel. Rad ar
    ante nnas ~enJ an d receive /HIJari="d energy, Thl" mean s tha t
    the pu lse of e nergy is filtered so Ihal its electric al wan:
    vibratio n.. a rc (>I11y in a single planc that is perpe ndic ula r 10
    the direction of tra vd. The pulse of clectromagneuc energy
    sent o ut by the antenna may he vvrurattv or Iwri=/II/I<lJfr

    r he r<-'I,lllunshi" between radar inciden t iIllgkl


    true \ cnical. and loca! slope angle ( t.l) fill' nOllterrain tancr Ilendefl'<lO lind Lewis. j QlIKI.

    vertical an d rece ive horizontally po lari zed eflelj;)

    (l "111_

    III/ and VV conflguruuons produce co- or hke-polan:


    radar imagery. Ifl' a nd 1"11 con figuranons prod uce fnll.lpu/"ri:n/ image!"). The lloi lit) 10 record differen t t)PC~
    po lari"l."d ene rgy fro m a rcsoturion d eme nt in the l
    re..ults in va luable Earth resource in form ation in renail
    inslances. For exa mple. Fig ure 9 -7 docurn crns how il is
    sible to ~ekCli\dy record only vertically or hori zontal
    polarized \ isiblc lighl (0. 4 0 .7 J.l rn) 10 our ad vantage.
    scene consists o f wutcr, vegcrauo n. a nd a Iloaung block
    wood, A ve rtically polarized filter placed in fro nt of a cam-j

    Acti v

    Microwave System Components

    vv

    Polari/atinn

    radar ante nna


    transmits
    vert ically

    l't'nical

    polanvcd energy

    w nd

    - >

    vertica l
    filter

    l'f"nil',,1
    rl'I '<'i\ '"

    299

    <-

    <-

    h.
    back sca ncred vertically
    polarized energy from Earth
    is rec e ived ~)' the amcrma

    radar ante nna


    transrmts

    HH

    "'.

    ,e!

    e.

    ((~

    horizontally
    polarized ellt."Jl,,)'

    ->

    -.

    <-

    <-

    h"rj;onlul
    . 'ntl

    }1IIr/;:.omu!

    of

    rt'('(';n'

    '"

    Jl

    backscattcred horizontally
    polarized energy from Earth
    b received by the antenna

    rr.

    is

    ;y

    I,

    ,
    y

    f
    n

    ,
    f

    rlQlJre 9-6

    al VV - Polurizariou. The radar atuc nnntransmits vertically polari zed e nergy towa rd the terrain. hI Some of the vertically poIanzed energy is "0/ depolar ized b) lhe terrain, ,\ vcrticalfihcr in the antenna allows only vertica lly polarized energy backseattcrcd from theterrain 10 be recorded . cllUl - Polarilalion. The radar antenna transmits horizontally polaril..cd elll:!);y towa rd
    the terra in. dl ~'lf1l<' of the hori/ontall) polan/"''<.1 energy is IH" depolarized by' the terrain . A horiroenal filtcr in the antenna al.
    1o"," s only horizontally polari zed enlW becksc aucred from the l<'IT3l11 10 he recorded

    nlens allo ws o nly vertical ly p olarized light 10 pass lhmugh


    othc fllm. A horizontally pola riz ed filler placed in front o f
    fle lcn ~ allows only the horizontally pola rized energy to p a~ s
    trough to the film. In this c:xarnple. the horiz ontally polari.m light providcs more detai led information abo ut the presftICt and distribu tion (If underw ater rock!>. Similarly. surface
    lids and other materia ls often have unique polarization
    dlaracleristies in the microwav c reg io n te .g., K~ ba nd . Cl.K6
    c u For exam ple. Figure 9-K de mo nstrates how a no rthe rn
    Arizona basalt la va flow is mu ch eas ier ttl dcline ate in the
    lI H polurizauon rea l aperture K~-ba nd radar imagc rhan in
    tile HV polarization image acquired a t the sa me nm c using
    d1esame look d irecuon . More will be said about how the tcr!lin interacts with a pulse of polarized electromagnetic
    magy in the section on radar environmental co nsiderations.

    Slant-Range versus Ground-Rang e RADAR Image


    Geometry

    Rada r imagery has a different geometry tha n that produced


    by most convcononal remote sen sor systems. such as cameras. multispectral sca nners or area -array de tectors. The refore. one mus t he care ful whe n ane rnpring 10 make
    radargranunctric measurcrn cr ns. First, uncorrec ted radar
    imagcl) is displayed in w hat is called slant-range j?I'fJ/nl'try.
    i.c.. it is 1'0;1';10'.1 o n the actu al distance frnm lhe radar 10 each
    otrhe respec tive features in the scene. For exa mple, in Figure 9-9 we see t\HI fields. A and B. that are the same si ze in
    the rea l world . O ne field is in the near-range close III the air(ran and one is ill the far-rang e. Field A in the ncar-runge is
    compressed much more than field H in the far-range in a

    C H A PT ER

    300

    Usc (If \ 'l' rt ica) and IInrLwntal

    P(J l ar i:l in ~

    Acti ve and Pass ive Mic rowave Remote Sensing

    Filtl'ni

    a. Ve rtica l filleTall,,,,,, only vertically poleri zedhgluto pa~,.

    FH;l u re 9 -8

    b. Horizontal filter allow !>Illy huriw lltally Iwlar izcd

    R gu re 9-7

    l i ~ hl

    lu pas,.

    a) A vertically polarized filter placed in front 01" a


    cam...ra le ns a llow, unly vertically polarized light 10
    pass through. bl A h"ri UlII la lly polarized filler allows
    only horiz ontally f'<l IOl ri h ,<j light to pa,;s In this e...
    amp le based on visible light. hor izo nta lly polar ized
    li ght provides much more in formatio n about the underwa tcr rocks than the vertically polarized light. Active mic rowav e sensors ca n be configu red 10send an d

    ro:<:chc horizontally and vertically polarized microwaVl' cnl'rsy.

    slant- range di.splay (Fo rd ct al.. I ~ SO ) . It is possible to conve rt the .J/1l/1I-rWI}:!! JI~\pllll" (S.../) information into the true
    gro und-range JiJplc~I' (G", ) on the .r -axis so thai features in
    the scene are in their proper planimetric (x ,v ) posit ion relanv e to one anothe r in the fina l radar image. The following
    equation. based on the' Pythago rean th..'orcm applied to a

    a ) "' ,-banJ . IIII polari zation rea l a pertu re ra&r .


    age of a cin de r con e and basalt lava Ilow in nooJ.
    central Arizona. hi Simultaneo usly obtained H'!
    pn!arillllinn image wilh the same look di
    The stru ng rf,'~ ll(lI "e ufthc lava I1IIW in the d irw ~
    tu m image (111 1) and the weak return on the ~
    II(-larizcd i mage (11V) indicatcs that the hl(lCk) t10J
    is hig hly l'ul,uiJ:ed. This is due tothe Ji r~-cln:'lkt
    rion of blocks that an.' large rela tive to the \\'l\~
    length (court eay NASA ; Carve r. 19HR).

    right trian gle . trans forms the- s lant- ra nge d istanc e. 5'11' at tU
    very beginn ing (If fiel d A to a corrected ground-range dsrane e, G.,r based 011 the rrigonometric relat ionship ~t\\OlI
    the altitude o f the sensor abo ve-g round dnu m (If) and
    ot her two sides o f the righ t tr iang le. S..., and G",. shown a
    Figun.: 99:

    301

    're Microwave System Components

    S lant.RanJ,:l'
    l l,'r SU S

    These equations assume that the terrain is flat. It dol'S not


    co rrec t for dis to rtion du... to radar layove r [ fore sho rte r ungr
    caused hy ltlpogm phie rel ief (to be dis cusse d ). Radar image
    analysts sho uld alwa ys inq uire as to whet her they are \ icwing rada r imager)" thaI has been enll\ c ned from s lant- range
    to gnumd-mnge geometry, :\lnst radar system~ and dat a providcrs no..... provide the J ala in ground-range gco m.... t!).

    Ui~ phl)

    Ground-Ranac D ispla)'

    C u m p u li n~

    Ground-ra nge [dis tance] o n correc ted radar image


    Uncorrected radar imagl."'; h3\ e slam-range geome-

    99

    If), '" here obJcct!> III Ih.: lle<lf-!'lmgc arc co ruprc......:d

    more than obj1~ ill thetar-range. III thrs eli.3mple,


    field A and U arc the same SiLo: and h,He no local relie f. The sla m- range image display is a plane connccung thc antenna OIl aunude 11, wnh the fanla:~1
    point in the far-range. Wh.h Ihl' corner of field A is
    illuminated '" nh a pube <If cnc'l!Y al a depression
    angle nfl., it is prujl'C'IOO on to the slam-range display as shown. 111<: same thmg (lCCUn> 1I1 1he end of
    field ,\ and for bUlh sides of field 11 This causes
    lield A 10 he cnnlrr.., ,,c'd much more thau licit! H in
    the slant-range lI11;lge J isplay.

    n-

    hV
    ~

    ,-

    also pnss ihk 10 tran sform lhc vlant- range d ispl ay hi a


    . ~nd -ra n ge d isplay usi ng the rcl auons hip betwe en the

    l,~lll

    n-

    of the antenna above the local ground leve l. H, and


    deprc..sinn angk ( }1 arthc p oint of inll.'rl.'st u..ing Ibe 1".11I'ling eljual iun I rord et ai" 19l10):

    I - I,
    sin'y

    GrJ

    "

    \Hlnted to ml'llsun: the trill.' l',nlund. rang.c dis tllm:e


    l'Cn IWO po inls in ,I rada r image sueh as he lwe en p;.l i11ls
    lid 2 in Ik ld ,\. we may u... the lo llow ing relationsb ip
    dcr~n and le wi~, IY9X ):

    :>

    /I

    h,

    .-

    (9-7 )

    \\'t

    ( t,l-lS )

    .'h l:lkc$ inll) aeCO Ull t Ih.: a ltilUd.: of the $ensor, II. an d
    drpre$~ion angle ( }1 to p()i nt~ I and 2 in the ima ge .

    6,

    To determine the sp..ltial reso lutio n at ;lny point in 3 radar


    image. it is necevsary In compute the revo lution in I WO
    dimensions: the r ,lII}!l.' ;lIIJ azmnnh resolutions. Radar is in
    effect a rangi ng de' ice th:lt measures the dis tance 10 objects
    in the 1t'TT3in hy means of ...cndrng (lui and receiving pu l..o:s
    o f act i\ I,' rnicrowav e energy (figur\" 9-10). TIt..: ranee resolutian in the acrose-track direction is pro portional 10 the
    length ,)f the miCTl)W3'C pulse. The shorter the pulse le ngth.
    the finer the range resolu tion. Pul.\<' I<:lIxth is a function o f
    the speed oflight (e) muhiphcd hy the duration (If the transm ission (t). The length " f time that the mic rowave l.'ncrgy
    re.g .. Lband . 23.5 em ) ISact uall y trausmiucd is mea..urcd in
    m icroseconds (I O~ sec I and Iypiea lly ra nges fro m OA - 1.0
    mi cro second . Th i.. tmnslilll'S Imo it pulse len gt h rang ing
    nom S - 2 10 m. The pulse length must trav d ro the targ et
    and hack 1<.' the sensor. Therefore , it is nec essary to d ivid e by
    1 to mea sure the slan t-range resolu t ion . To scale it to
    gro und -range. it b mu ltipli ed by the cos ine of the depression
    angle C(l . Thus. the equ atio n for co mpu ting tho: I'llllgl ' resolu/iolt I'l l'COIn<." S
    (9-9)

    n.

    <-

    n-

    Kan!::!' Kt',ululiun

    O ne migh t a..k, Why no r sele ct an ex tremely shorl pu lse


    lengt h tll ' 'hwi n ;llll' X l rt: nlL'l~ 11 11e nmgl' r,:so!ulilllf! Tbl' rl'aSUIl is thai a.s lh<.: puls..., length is sh urtc n.:J, Ml h, Ih.: IOla l
    amo unt o f crK'rgy Ihal illllln inatl's tb...' Hlrgl' l "f inK' resl, Soon
    we wo uld haw such a wellk h'lc ksl'attl.'rl.'d rl.'lllrn sign al that
    it wou ld b.: o f no l-ailic. T he rd i lre. lh<.:re is a Ir:lJe-ofT
    hetween s!lnrt.:nin g thc pu lse I..:ngl h to imprtl \e ran ge reso
    lut ioll and ha ving eno ugh energy in the transrni lll'd pll l ~<." to
    ree e i\.: a siru ng sign al from lhe ter ra in, wh ich is the heart of
    m icrow ave rcml,to: sl'nsing,
    Th e gen.:ral ru le is Ihal signals re n.:cled from two d is tinct
    ohj ects in the te rrain (e.g., tw o ho uses) ea n he resolv ed if
    Ih<."ir res f'Cl' It\< rangl.' dlsl anel.'S arc ..cpa rated by at !cast ha lf
    Ihe pub .: length. F<.lr l.' Xallip lc. co ns ider Figure <) 10 in wh ich
    Ihe terra in IS hei ng illum inated w ith a single pu lse of m icrowallo' <."nt'!]:)' that lasts 10.1 .. ec<lmls. This tran slates 10a pulse

    CII .-WTER

    302

    .;illl,l le pulse cf
    m ICTOW;\\l." el><'l },')'

    ""'lh a pul"" lcnllih


    " I IO "sc:collJ.,.

    ....

    /1m,' n

    2
    . -

    3 -I

    30m

    01

    10m

    Active a nd Passive Microwave Remote sensing

    im pacted any homes yet. A t time 1/ + I a port ion of the


    has been re fl ected back toward the antenna whik
    remai ning pan Ill" the pulse con tinues across- trac k.. B)
    IIi ! homes 2. 3, and a have reflected a pan of the i
    m icrowave energy back 10 the antenna. Because holl>G
    and 2 were g reater than 15 m apa rt. they will appear Il<
    tinct features in the radar imagery. However, ho uses 3
    were k s s tha n 15 m apart: there fore. the ir IWO returns
    ove rlap an d they w ill be perceived h)' the antenna as
    broad object. The y w ill probably be d ifficult 10 resole
    individual houses in th e radar image.
    While the pul se lenglh remains constant through u.,t
    and far-ra nge. she range resolution vari es linearly from
    near- to the far-ra nge . For exam ple. co nsider Figurt
    wh ich depicts towers I and 21hat arc 30 m apart in 1M
    range and IOW~ 3 and 4 Ihal are JO m apart in the farIf we use Equat ion 9-9 1\) compute the range resolution a
    far -range with a de pre ss ion angle of .fO" and a pulse I .
    du ration of tran smi ssion o f tJ. I u see , the ran ge reso lutioo

    (O,lx lO~ sl'C) (3x J 0' mSlX -' 1


    ::! cos-lO"

    R, -

    R, -

    R,

    0 .1 x

    1 sec ) x 300. 000. 000 m


    I, 000. 000
    sec
    2 x 0 .766

    0.1 So.-C x 300. 000. 000 m


    I, 000, 000
    Sl'C
    2 x 0.766

    I/lH "" l J

    R,
    Figu re 9- 10

    'l he di~(ancc o f:1I1 object ( i t~ range j fhuuthc aircraft


    is determined by the leng th oftime required
    for the pillsc of microwave energy traveling at the

    untcnnn

    speed o r light l\l reach the ohjecl and ~ reflected


    hack to lhe antenna. Signals from houses I and 2.
    I'> III umve soo ner It\;ln the signals returned fr om the
    tW0 hmls"s fan her away (3 lind 4 ), In th is example .
    the IU 7 secon d pulse length equate s to 30 m. The
    resolution across-track is equal 10 hal f the pulst'
    length. in thix 0;'1"': IS rn, Houses 1 and 2. will he rcsolve d as distinct ""Jl'l' ls nn the radar ima ge. Two
    o bj ects (lu' uscs 3 and 4 ) separated by k ss than ha lf
    thl' radar pul'I.C length Yo ill he perceived hy the ,mlenna as UllO;" broad ohjcd .

    length o f 30 m and the refore has a range reso lution o f 15 m


    Th e fate o f the sing lc pulse of microwav e energy is mo nitorcd for four brief t ime period s. At nmcn the pulse has no t

    H, ..

    JO rn

    I.:iJ2
    IIj ,5 ~

    m.

    Th er efore, tower s ] a nd -l in the ta r-range m ust be separat


    hy more than I <) ,5~ m 10 resolv e rhc ind ividual to wers onthe.
    rada r image . Because rowco 3 an d .f arc separated by 30
    it is pos sible 10 ide ntify the ind ividu al lowers. Convers<:~
    towe rs I and 2. locate d ill a depression angle o f 65" in tbe
    near-range . wou ld not be reso lved because the range resol..
    lio n 111 this are a wou ld be 35.5 m. The two towers 1\
    probnbly a ppear as a single bright ret urn.
    ( 'lllllp utinJ:. A/imulh R\'..nlutinn

    Thu s far we have on ly identified the length in me ters oi


    active microw ave resol ution element at a specific depressi
    ang le anJ pul~ le ngth in the range- (across-track) direcu
    To know both the length and w id th o ft he resolut ion elemeli

    uicrewave System Co mponents

    303

    Antenna
    depression an g les
    of 40'"and 6 5 ~

    to

    pulse length ( t)
    =

    0.1 x 10,6 sec


    Frgure 9-11

    dist anc e be tween


    towers I &. 2, a11l1
    be tween lowers 3 & -I

    ,
    {

    lWO

    rada r w ith a pulse lengt h of I l l x


    10 ~. The tOWl'TS can be 0:'
    solved in the far-range bUI nN in
    the ncar-range (afte r Sabins.
    1')') 7 ).

    to we rs 3 and -I
    arc resolve d

    I and :!
    nrc net

    differen t depre ssion angle s

    (40 0 and (.5) for a rca1 aperture

    = 30 m
    towers

    Computing the range resolution at

    resolved

    -I

    R,.= 35.5 m

    e must also compute the width of rue resolution clement in


    k direetion the erun is llying - the azimuth d irection. Ad h n;'Jo/1I1;fJII (R) is determined by co mputin g the widt h
    tlbetemli n strip that is illu minated by the radar be am. Real
    lpefIure activc microwave rada rs prod uce u lobe -shape d
    bc-Jm simila r to the one sho wn in Figure Q- 12, wh ich is nat:('\\'er ill the nea r-rang e and spreads ou t in the fur-range.
    Btiically_ the angular beam width is directly proportional to
    ~ .....avelcng th of the transmitted puls e o f energy, i.e .. the
    ~ the wave lengt h. the w ider the beam width. and the
    ~r the w avclcng th, the naITOW cr the beam w idth . T herefore. ill real aperture (hnnc force) radars a shorter waveImgth pulse w ill result in impro ved azimuth reso lution .
    ufon unately. the sho rter the wa velen gth, thc poorer the
    lII!lO!>'herie and vege tatio n pen etration capa bilit y,
    hnunatcly.thc bea m width is also inversely prop ortional to
    ererma length ( L) . Th is means tha t the lon ger the radar
    eienna.the narro we r the beam width and the higher the az iIIIth resolution. Th e relationsh ip be tween wa ve length (A)
    lid antenna length (1.1 is summarized in Equa tion lJ-IO,
    .hich can be used lo com pute the 1.1:;11111111 resolution (Hcndeson and Lew is, I'J9!O:

    "

    SXA.
    L

    whe re S is the slant-range distance to the point o f interest.


    The eq uatio n can he used 10 co mpute the azimuth reso lut ion
    an y locat ion between the ncar- a nd far-ru nge. For example, consider ihe conditions sh own in Figure "'- 12 wh ere the
    near slant-range i~ 20 km and the fa r slant-runge is 40 krn .
    Tanks ra nd :: a nd ranks 3 and 4 arc separated by :!OO m. If
    an Xcband radar (3 em) is used with a JOO em antenna. then
    Equ at io n <)1 0 ca n he used III co mpute the nca r-ra nge uzi lit

    muth resohunm:

    R = :!O !..111

    "

    3 ern

    son em

    20 . 000 rn x 0. 03 m

    ;m
    60 0 m

    5m
    R" = I:!Om .
    The far-ran ge azimu th reso lut ion at the -10 km dis tance is:
    40 km x J em
    j Ol) em

    ....
    Active and Passive Microwave Rem ote Sensing

    C11.. \l"IER

    304

    Antcnna
    depressic>n
    angles ly)

    Figure 9-12

    distan ce between
    tanks I and 2, and
    between tan h J and 4
    '" : OO m

    R at 40 km

    C",npulin~

    the azimuth
    diff~1 sl:l111
    Jisl.lnC~'S (~O and .w lmf ief
    rt'lll aperture rada r With
    band wavelength of 3
    5n(l-.:m antenna. The tanhca
    resolved in the ncar-range bs
    m the tar-range.

    lion at hH)

    crD"

    2-l0

    III

    "

    R at211km = 120m

    /
    /

    /
    /

    near-

    "

    far-

    tanks I and:! are resolved


    ranks J and ~ are nol re'ooh cd

    ~ O,

    00 0

    real aperture
    rada r beam width

    III )(

    0.03 m

    "

    5 ,"
    N" ::

    1200 III
    :'i m

    Th ere is a trigo nometric rcl :\Iio nsh ip between the sla m- range
    distance (S ) an d the depre ssion angle ( y) and the heig ht of
    the aircra ft or spacccrutl pla tfo rm above the local datum, lI:
    /I
    siny

    (9-1 1)

    for comput ing

    the

    (IJ.I.

    Idl' ally. lIlle could buil d an e xtremely long an tenna and plaa

    ranks I and 2 111 the near-range would mos t likely be


    resolved because the a;.imuth reso lutio n at this slant-range
    distanc e tl2 0 m ) is less than the distance between tank s I
    and 2 (21111 m}, CplHl'r sdy, tank s 3 and 4 in the fa r-range
    wo uld probably not be resol ved. bec ause at a stunt- rang e di stance o f 40 km the azimut h resolution is 24() m. much
    gre ater than the 200 OJ scpara ung the tanh .

    The equauon
    be comes:

    (.!!.-).
    ~
    si n)' 1_ '

    it on nn mrcran to ac hieve ve ry high azimuth

    N" - 240 m .

    azimuth

    resolution

    resoll1~~

    Un fo rtunate ly. the re is a prac tical limit (about 2 m) to the


    siz e o L 1I11e nn:J that ca n be mounted on an aircraft (althou;li
    the size is virtually un limited in ou ter sp ncc l j. Fortu nate!J,
    the re are ways til elect ronically synthesize a longer ;l nt~nlll
    which is the hcurt ofthe syllthl.'l ic apertu re radar concepts
    he discussed short ly.

    While we have not yet defined how a synthetic apt't1tlll:


    radur (S A RI works. it is instructiveto poin t nut at this till\tl
    signilicilllt diffe renc e betwe en the com puta tio n o f the 3Dmuth rcsohnion for a real ape rture rada r versus a synthetIC
    aperture radar, T he equat ion tor tho: azim uth or along-U1d
    resolu tion for a po int target in a syn thetic apert ure r.libr
    (S..IRu ) is
    SA N"

    ,
    I.

    (9-13

    where I. i~ the an tenna length. As Hende rso n and l~1!


    ( 199:Sl lXlint out.

    LlictOwave System Co mponents

    305

    is one of tho: mo re incredible equations in the dis-

    ine of radar remote sens ing. Th e om ission of the


    ilv!l'nlngl' distance I S) fro m the eq uation menus that
    ~alil1lUlh

    resolution of a SAR sys tem ls independent


    distance or sensor altitude. Th co rcucalt y. the
    ial reso tuuon in the uviuunh d irect ion from a S:\ R
    lIllgi n~ system .... ill be the sa me from an aircra ft pl atas il is from a spacecraft. There i" no other remote
    n~ system wuh this ca pability!
    I fJ ~ge

    <;l-13. ho.... ever. is nor the (ln l~ param eter thai ha,.
    t in S:\ R data. The coherent nature o f the S :\R :.iglJOduces speckle in the image. To remov e the speckle.
    image is usual ly pr ocessed using sl' vernl/oo h. i c., au
    ~ing takes place . Fur e xample. four loo ks ( ,V) m ight be
    ged. This drama tically improve s the imcrp rctabilny of
    SAR image data . Howev er. the a vmuuh res olut ion mu st
    IdjuSl.:d b) the equation:
    (9-I ~J

    see nc. rchcf displacc mcm in the radar imago: occurs . In radar
    re hcfdis placemc m. rhe horivornal displa ceme ru ofan objcc t
    inth... image c aused by thc obj cct's ele vation is in a dire ction
    towardthe radar antenna (Figure 9_I.h ). Beca use the radar
    image i" formed in thc rallg \' (ero-s-track ! direction. the
    highcr the objec t, the close r it is to the rada r antenna. a nd
    theref or c Ihe soone r (i n time ) it is detected on the rada r
    image. lhi,. cont ra... t-, sharply wuh relie f d isplaceme nt in
    op! i~il l aeria l phutllgmph) where the re lie f dis placement is
    radially outward from the principal po im [center) o f a phot ograph. The etevauon-mdc ced lli"loni"ns in rada r imagery
    an- re ferred til as lim:,,}lOrlL'nillj! and lavovcr.

    Hnvirally, all terrain that has a ~ Iope inc lined toward the
    ra dar w il[ appear comprc-ocd or fores horte ned rchuivc to
    s topc-, inclined al<:I) frnm the rada r. The cff cct is illustrated
    in Fig ure v.t ja. I hc foreshorten ing factor, f j. is ap prox im atd~
    , . .,

    =0

    ...

    in ( H-

    ('l _IS)

    ~ IR C

    SA R had a 11 m ant enna, which .... ould produce


    malong-track reso lution if Eq uation 9- [3 .... ere use d.
    ever. the speckle in the S[R -C SA l{ data wen: proce ssed
    = ~ looks to improve the interprerabi lity
    the data.
    s.the adj usll'd azimuth resotcnon i ~ 2-1 m.

    g.v

    ,,1'

    discussion first summa rized how the range lind azmnuh


    'on an: competed for specific loc ation s ,\ ulun the real
    radar beam 1>.... ath. Note that the rcsoluuon clement
    !lave d ift<:rent dnne n"ion". i.e.. Ih.: ra ngo: rcsllIUlilln
    b<: III m and the <tLimu th resu lution 10 m. Therefore.
    . scale is eon"lanlly cha ng ing throu gho ul a rl'<tl :tjl<.'rradar ima gc. il is importan t ItI lx' care-ttl[ when mak ing
    raOlm dri!: measurements O V CT large regiolls . .....:hell
    ' luch data . it is hes ! to compute the rangt' and a"imlllh
    iIIUl i,' n fo r the maj" f rcgi' lIl y.-.u arc ink' rested in ,lIld thell
    rme;ISUre lTIe nls. If a new area il> sclcekd fo r stu,I~. Ih.:n
    resolution measur~'mcnts shou ld bc l'ompuled bcfi.rl
    measuremmts a re nhta ined.

    R Relief Disp lacement. Image Foreshortening,


    er. Shadows. and Spe ckle

    lIm~ tric " i "t on i o n ~ e '( i ~ t

    in ;llmost all radar tmagl'r).


    fores hortening. layo ver. and shlldowi llg. Whcntlle
    "0 is l1al, it is a straig ht lc.rwa rd mall er to IN:' Fqu ali nn 9.
    conn' n a sla nt- ra nge radar image into a ground-range
    image Ihal j", p l<t mm':lf icaJly (l'm:..1 in .\ ,.1'. 1I,lv, e' er.
    1I\:"'S, lall llui ldings. nr moun l<t ins are pres~'nt in thl'

    udi ll ~

    cs

    '0
    ~s

    \\ hen: the incident </lIgl. 8 is the <tuglc be tween the vcruca l


    plane at nad ir an d a hue rhatlin ks the imaging radar uurc nua
    10 a tenure on the ground. and Ill" the stope an gle of'thc surl:.....~ . Ylpha is pos itive f a l where the slope is inclined
    to ward the radar i fi,n.' slopt' l. and ncgauve ((1' ) where the
    ...lope I... mclmed away from it tha~ks l~ 'llC ).
    h'r o:xample. c(lnsid~'r the reJati \t'ly low rclic f mounta in in
    Figure 1,J-133. It is pcrli.'("t[~ s) mmelrica [ .... ilh the dist3m:e
    fm m ..\U a nd B T be ing ~"(j u<t l 1\ ho:n plulled in Ihe groundrnnge I i.e .. on a p lani mctri~' map l, A ~i ngle pu lse o f m icrowa\.: L'ncrgy illumi nati ng Ih.... leITilin w ill fif'>1 e n~'ou n t e r the
    base o r Ihl moun ta in i . /) and rcc ord it in t h~' slilllt- r:111ge
    imag L' lIt 1/. Ikcrmse l h~' h' p " f tl1l' Il1nunt:lin (11) e xtends
    ilh<'\l" thl' k rw ill and is rl' lativd y do sl" to the an \cn1Hl. it is
    rC~'vl'd ... J ill h. Th.... bilSl" of the mt' unt<t in ;11 Cis r......o n.kd:lI ('
    in the slam -range dl<.pla) , The highL'r the ohjeci aho\c the
    k'rrain. the more f" reshorteni ng th;!t " ill tak c pla..e. [n this
    l' aS\,". th L' rndar lina ge will ha\~' a \CI)' br igh l shnrt fllrl...lopt:'
    "nd a da rker ha~-kslo~. It wnu ld he d illkult to make a map
    1'1' mnuntainllus fL'.t\ures USlllg this ril.l;lr im<tg.e Ix..a u~ e the
    top of llle moun l;lin, l:\ en lhough it \\ <ts m.t v~'I) high. is d ispIoKl'(\ from its Int e grou nd-range pl:m imelric ll',si Cilll\ in the
    r ~t d ar Imag<:, i.<:" </1> " lle ~ no l <:' Ilial Ill". Fo reshorte ning IS
    i lJ tlu..: n ,,:~'d b:- th..' Ill)],,\'. ing fa..ltlrs:

    "hi.TI ht'igJu: I he l!rl"uler the 11l"il!ht o f the object ahln c


    1\'Cal J:ltum.th~ gre.ller the lim:shnn":lling.

    ....
    306

    C II .-W T EH

    FOfr s ho rrr ning

    ". \

    gr adu al
    darker slope

    Inci<lcn. J./ltllc.u,

    I'

    groun d-range

    (distance)

    Note u and bare


    causing
    the top of the

    I\."YCTSl.--d.

    mounram (h)

    to layover a

    b.nad
    ~--j;=~
    ir
    A

    ground-range
    (distance)

    S ha do \\

    e
    radar
    __ shadow

    in,',denl
    anglt', l:I.

    ,,"

    c.
    nadir

    I'
    A

    gr ound-range

    (di sta nce)

    Figure 9 13 a} Radar foreshortening in the slam-range display.


    Slupo.: AB in the ground -range display and lib in the
    slam-range display are supposed to he equ a l as are

    Acti ve and Passiv e Microwave Remote Sensing

    ,k prn :fioll l/l/ h' (or incident '.lIJx.fd: Th... greater 1ll
    dep ression ang le ( yl or smaller the incident ang le (a). Ii:
    greate r the fore short enin g . A good example is found It
    Figu re c - t -ta.h where the ERS I sensor w ith its largdi"
    dep re ssion ang le and its 230 inc ide nt angle intrOlh1i
    more foresho rte ning than the J ERS- I radar with its 51
    dep ression ang le an d 39 0 inc ide nt ang le. Also considentforeshortened cinder co ne in Arizo na when recorded ilII
    rada r image \ersus a co nvent ional vertical 3ICfI
    photograph (Figure 91k,dl.

    local/ on ofohjl!l:Is IlI lht' acnns-track range; Features


    the ncar- range peruou of the s.... at h arc g.:nmL
    foreshortened mo re than identical featu res in the far-l1lIIIf
    For c"Shorten ing causes features 10 appear to 1\;1\'e S!~
    slopes tha n they actually have in natu re in the near~
    of the radar ima ge and to haw shallo.....er slopes than~
    ac tua lly have in th c far-rangc ofthe image .
    Image tavnver is an extrcm... case of image foreshortt'J1i~
    occurs when the inc ident angle (8 ) is smaller than til< rcelope (a'. i.e .. 8 < c ". Th is concept is illustrat...d in FiUl't1ll Jb. In this case, th... moun ta in has so much relief thaldlt
    summit (8 ) bac ksca uc rs euergy to.... a rd the ante nna beflft
    rhe pulse of en crgy eve n reac hes th c hase of the moUllta!ll
    (AI. Remember that in te rms of pla nimetric distance fmr.
    the nadir poin t direct ly beneat h the airc raft. the base of~
    mo untain (II) is muc h closer than the summit (8), as doc.
    mentcd by the ground- range distance d isplay. HO..... e'o'd
    beceu-,e the mountain summit ( IJ) rcflc-cts the incidm
    m icrowave energy sooner tha n the base of the mountain(.fL
    the su mm it (hi in the slant-ra nge radar image actually 1(I]l
    orl'/" (hc nee the tcrmiuology j the hase of the mouraaa
    recorded on the radar image at , 1 , On ce ag ain, the surnmitoi
    the moun ta in (0 ) is significantly disp laced from ifS W
    p lan imetric poshion. Th is dis to rtion cuunot hc, CllrTl'l:l<:d
    even when the sur rae c, top ograph y is k nown . Groat care mill:
    he exercised when interpreting radar imag es of mountaince
    area s whe re the thresholds fur image layove r exist. Brig!!!
    white ridg...s in Figur e 1) 15 represent severc S IR-C L-har>:!
    (I III) rada r layove r in the San Gabriel Mountains jus t east of
    Los An ge les. C A,

    He ami be. Inskad. slope ab

    is shorter and steeper


    while slope ".. is more gradual and longc r than it
    should be. bl Image layover of foresfope AIJ in the
    slam-range di spl a~' (b.J) caused by the incident angk fJ bein g s maller than the toreslopc angle a' ,
    Slant-range " and h 31\" reversed, cau sing layover.
    c t A substa nual ~hIlO<.'''' i~ PfOOllCed aiM because

    the llachl<~ angle (a l is greater than the deprcson angle Iyl laller Ford et al.. I <lSO)_

    Sh:1JowS in radar imag es can en ha nce the ge(' morphol~


    and texture o f the te rram . Shadows can als o obscure J!rlt
    most important featu res in a rada r image. such 3-S the informarion behi nd ta ll huildmgs or land usc in deep vallcys.f
    ce rta in con d itions are met . any feat ure protru d ing abcve ee
    loca l da tum ca n ca u-,... the incident pulse of microwae
    energy to reflect all o f its energy o n the forc slopc of~

    307

    \Clive Micr owave Sys te m Compon ents

    h~

    1<:
    m

    )0

    cs
    I'

    l l:

    a
    ,[

    i"
    Iy

    :e.

    er
    ;c

    ~y

    C-hllnd

    [I~S..t

    Jepre~,i(ln iln~1c

    fl T'
    incit1cnl angle 23"

    l.-handJt:RS-t
    ocpre,."IOflallgle51

    k'Ol.dmxliOfl

    1Il<: idc nt angle J<r'

    ,.h

    O.

    -ie
    re

    ;"

    -re
    u

    -r.

    nl
    .)

    .-s

    X_h an d

    of

    "

    ,d

    "rs
    hI
    ,J

    ,r

    '"
    ~

    If

    "

    ~Igu re

    9-14

    ~j ,...

    d) The C..han,J LRS-l imag e of the While \1o\ln la in ~ e \ hibil, substuuua l Iurcshcrt cning d ue W the satellite SA Ws sm all incident nngle (ellurtl'sy Alaska SAR Fac ility ; ~ ) 1'192, E lIr"rc~m Sp" ec Agl'l1 eyl , h ) The I,_hand JI'KS - I image with a larger incident angle hus sigmficuntly less image rorcshortcmng (<:uurlc,) A laska SAl{ Fucility: ':.' l\ASOA I. c) X vbaml aircraft
    synthetic aperture radar (SAR ) image of a cinder (.' ''1'1 <' in Ari/ Oll" 'I he shal'c or'th c ba,k;ln)' cylindrical cinder cone is distorted
    in lhe sla nl-Tillll!<' look d rrcctmn. appe aring more ellipr leal in shape than it dues i 11 the ucri'II I'h"tugn,ph . Porcshortcnmg (rclief
    displacementtow ard the nnlar antl'rHia l oc cu rs in the ncar -rang e. lhcrc i, nlso a da rk sh:\d" w under the- rim ofthe crater at the
    tl'P o fth ... Cl1!1l'. III v e rtic al panc hrommic aeria l photograph " r S I' Mou ntam. AI. ( <:"Ilne ,~ Eric KilsiM.'hl.e, ERI'vi lntcmarinnul.
    Iuc. ).

    lljtc1 and produce a black shudo.... tor the backslope. ~\


    ladslllpc is in radar s hadow w h en us angl e ( a -) is steepe r
    the depression angle ()'), i.c. 11- > y l ri gurc q..l3 c). If
    ttbad;;;)opc e quals the dCrrl'~ sion angle ( (l = "f), then the
    kslope is j ust harel y illuminated b) the mc idc m energy.
    is called gl1lLin g illuminarion beca use the ra da r pulse
    grazes the bac k...lope . T he hackslolX' is fu lly ill um inated
    ,Ilm il is le...s tha n the de pression angle (({ < Yl.

    Figu re 9- I.k de monstrates how a large shado .... from a rcla..


    tiv ely steep ba..:kslop<.' m igh t be prod uced. I n this case. we

    have ;1 backslopc of approximately 85 (a- " S5") a nd a


    dcpTl'",s i(1n an g ll' o f .J:'i" (y '" ..15" ). Beca use the back slope is
    gre ater than rhc deprcssillll angle. I'.C expect this area to be
    in s ha d ow. In fact , this is the c ase .....ith the te rrain SU rt:1CC
    He /) in the grou nd-ra nge being in com plete shado w in the
    sl a nt-ra nge rada r im a ge di sp la) (lit/). In the g ro und -range
    dis play the dis iancc from IhC' su m mit al B 10 the back base o f

    308

    I. -bli nd S I It -C (1 111 )
    J ul y 20, 1'0195

    Acti ve a nd Pas sive Mi c row av e Rem ote Senslnq

    Shadows in radar imagery arc valuable when e\al~


    geomorphic c haracterist ics. Rada r shadows etten runM
    like 111W Sun-angie ph otography. enhanc ing lincamcntsD
    other geol ogic conditions. Terra in information such as
    graphic he ight , s lope. etc.. ca n be used to configure rd.
    overnights or. purchase radar da ta that ha ve the mostJwrt'
    pri atc depression a ng les and ncar- and far-range charactftll,.
    tic s to emphasize terrain shadow s.

    Sp eckle
    II grainy sa lt-and-pepper p... ncm in radar in.tFjg urc 9- 16) that is present due 10 the coherent nature
    rada r wave, which causes random co nstruc tive and dC'illll:
    live interference. aud hence random br ight and dark :lrtllS I
    a radar image. T he sp..-cklc ca n be reduced by proc~
    sepa rate po rtions o f an ape rture and recomhimng rbesepi"
    tions s(\ that imertcrencc doc s not occur (Kasiscbke ~ll
    198 4) . As previou sly mentioned. th is process. called mu
    pic looks or noncohcrem integration . produces a II1me p\ol.
    ing ap pearan ce , and in some cases may ... id in intcrprtlEill
    of the image but at a co st o f de gr aded reso lution. For exmpie . consider the rada r imagery in Figure 9-16. whkh \111
    processed using l-look. -s-looks. and I (i-looks. Most im(l
    prc tcrs would prefer working w ith the 4- or lo-Iook inlagel).

    .\'peckl" is

    of*

    Figure 9-15

    Lcband SJR.c (1II1l image of the San Gabriel


    Moumams and a portion 'I t' the city of Pa- adcna.
    Exten sive layov er i~ found in the' mountniuous tcrfain. causi ng the ridge lmee to be dis placed toward

    the antenna I coon~y K "SA Jet Propulsion Lab].

    Synthetic Aperture Radar Systems


    the moun ta in a t C is re lativ ely shon . But in the slant-range
    radar image. bd is \ "'1')' long. This particula r radar image
    w ould a lso experi en ce imllg... fo resho rtcnin g t but norlayover
    because A is recorded by the an tenna befo re 8l and have a
    \c l) br igh t return (film the forcs lop e.
    Below a rc some impo rtant cha racteri stic s of radar shadows.
    Unlike aerial photography, when: lig ht muy be scattered
    into the shadow area and then recorded 011 film. there is no
    inforrna uon with in the radar sh ado w area . It is bla ck .
    Two te rrain features (e.g.. mountains] with identical
    he ights and fore - and hack s lopes may he recor ded with
    ent irel y diff er ent shado w". depending upon where they arc
    in the across-track. A feature thar casts an ex tensive
    shadow in the far-range migh t have its backslope
    completely illu minated in the near-range.

    Rada r sha do ws occ u r only in the cross-t rac k d imension


    Therefore. the orientation of shadows in a radar image
    provides infonmuion abo ut the look direction and the
    loc ation o f thc ncar- an d far-range.

    ..\ maj or adv ance in radar remote sensing has been 1k


    improvement in azi muth res ol ution thro ug h the dc\ dopmen! o f synthetic apermre radar (SAR) sysicrns. Remesher . in a rea l aperture radar sys tem rhat the size of
    antenna ( L I is inversel y proportiona l ro the vize of the angs.
    la r t",..am w idth (Equa tion 9-10) , Therefore. great imprtll(mem in azimuth reso lutio n cou ld be rea lized if :I 10Ilgt!
    antenna wac used. Engineers ha ve de ve loped proceduresm
    .~Y/ll"('.{i::e a very long an tenna electronically, like a i:ln*
    force or real ape rture radar. a syn thetic apert ure radar
    uses a relativel y sma ll antenn a (c.g., I m: refer 10 F lgurt'~
    1) tha t sends OUI a relatively broad beam perpendicular tow.
    aircraft. Thc major diffe rence is that a greater number Ii
    add itional beam s are sc mtoward the o bject. Doppler prinnpies are then used 10 mon itor the returns from allth..-se aMr
    nona l microwave pulses to syn thesize the azimuth resoluOO1

    ee

    to become one very narro w beam.

    Th e Doppler principle slates that the frequency (pitch) ofl


    sound cha nges ift he listener and/o r source a re in motion
    ativc to one another, For ex ample. an approa ching trail
    whivtle w ill have an inc reasi ngly higher frequency pitchasa

    m.

    lctlve Microwave Sys tem Com po nents

    309

    decrease in frequency in proport ion to the distance it is from


    the listener [receiver} This princi ple is applicable to all harmon ic wave motion , ind uding the micro w aves used in rada r
    systems.

    mg
    00

    od

    so-

    far
    Figure 9-17 dep icts the Doppler freque ncy shill due to the
    relativ e motion of a terrain object at times n. 1/+ J. 1/+ 1. ,,+3.
    and n + 4 through the radar beams due to the forward motion
    of lhe aircraft. The Dopple r frequen cy diagram reveals that
    the frequency of the energy pulse return ing from the target
    increases from a minimum at nm e e to a ma ximum at point
    1/+3. nonnal (at a right angle) to the airc raft. Then. as the target recedes from ,, +3 to // +4. the freque ncy d..ecrcascs.

    m-

    'is-

    ~ I)'

    he

    ,,-

    3. [ look r.odar ima ge .

    io

    0"

    or-

    .1..

    tits-

    00

    n
    as

    er-

    )0'.

    b. 4 lu.., ~ radar image.

    e-

    n-

    ic

    0-

    e
    er

    '0
    tc

    ,.
    e
    e

    ,.'f

    ,,n

    e. I('_ [I.I"~ radar image.


    ~9Ure

    9-16

    Ha..b r speckle reduction USllIg muhiple-look techniqucs t courtcsy Eric Kasiwhkc. ER[\ l lntcrnali,'o;II.loc.)

    e
    In
    i.

    wroachcs . This pitch .... ill be highest .... he n it is directly perpdicular tn the listener (rece iver). This is called the poin t
    zero Doppler. As the train pas'>e'S by. its pitch w ill

    Ho.... is a synthetic aperture: image actually produced'? A


    long antenna can be synthesized us ing a short antenna by
    taking advantage of the aircraft 's motion and the Doppler
    principle. 11 is assume d that the terrain is stable a nd flO ( moving. It is also assumed that the object of interest remains a
    fixed distance a w ay from the aircraft's tlighthne. As the aircraft flies along a straig ht line. a sho rt antenna sends out a
    series o f micro....ave pulses at regular intervals. As an object
    (black dot) enters the antenna 's beam IH gure Q-l7 al. it
    backscauers a portion of the pulse it receives ro.... ard the
    antenna . At some point in the aircra ft's path the objec t w ill
    he an integral number of micr owave w avelengths a w ay:
    between those points it "ill not be. Fo r e xamp le. in (a ) we
    see thai the object is first Q ....avelengths a w ay, then 8 [b],
    then 7 (c ). then tJ.S [dl, at which point the o bject is at a rig ht
    angle to the a ntenna. i.e., the Sh\lt'test distan ce and area of
    zero Do ppler shift. From then on the: distance betw ccn the
    aircraft and the objec t ....'ill he increasing. i.e.. perhap s 7
    wavele ngths away at location (e) . The antenna receives the
    se ries of reflected W3\C S (gm y lines in illustrations a ~ e ) and
    electronically co mbines them with a train of reference wavelengths (nut shown). causing the two series of oscilhnions to
    interfe re. The interference signal eme rges as a voltage thai
    cont rols the brightn ess of a spot scan ning across the scree n
    of a cathode-ray lube . When the returned pulse: coincides
    with a rcfi..renee pulse, the interfe re nce is constructive: the
    voltage will he high and the moving spot will he bright.
    When the phase uf the returned wavelen gth docs no t co incide with the phase o f tho.' reference frequenc y, the interference is dest ructive: the voltage wi ll be low and the mov ing
    spot will be dim or dark. The movin g spot thus tracks out a
    scricrs of light and dark dashe s of unequal length that are
    recorded on a slrip of data tilm moving at a velocity proporrionalto the velocity of the airc raft . The series of opaque and
    transpa rent dashes on the film are actu ally a o ne-dimensional interference puuem: the lil m on w hich they are
    reco rded is a rada r hologram.

    <,

    310

    C IIA PTER

    fP"

    Active and Passive Microwave Remote sensing

    Pulses of

    mtcro an :

    l ' lIl'fl!)'

    "~~ ~-

    ~~ ~
    :

    Interference signal

    DRadar ho logra m

    lime " + /

    ~--------

    rs:zI
    ~
    ,

    time n +l

    >1-

    f\Z\2l
    1- , - I
    7

    7 ~

    ......--..... time

    ......--..... nmc " +3

    ,---.,

    ~ - - - - -- - - -- - - >1-

    ~-- ->1-

    _t

    ~
    ~6.5

    ~ 4 -....... object is a
    ~
    3 <, constant distance .........-----.
    urnc "
    /' 2.....
    from the fhghtlm e
    ..........--...
    .1
    I
    rr>:

    1>7-

    c.

    b.

    rr>;

    /I

    +4

    1- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - -- - >1-

    f\Z\T4 rs:zv---------1
    I
    1- - 1 1- 'I

    Figure 9 17

    (1.5

    II

    I> _ ~

    c.

    ;\ long antenna (;,111 tc synthesized l1y a ~h "rt all(CI1 11;1(c.g. I In long) by taking advanl ;1 l;Wof lhe <I j rc mfl '~ motion and Clop.
    plcr principles . As the CfClli Ilk s ulong a straigh t lin... a mounted short rea l an tenna ,c nds Oul a series ofpulses at regulli"
    intervals F:h:h pulse c" os j, ls Ilf a train of coheren t microwaves . Although the len gt h of' thc flUIs..., dete rmine s the' rcsohnke
    across the trac k, it is tho: wav elength u rl he lllicruwa\'e radiationth at det eml i l1 .~ the re M,lut i" n :lIUllg Ihe track. As an object
    Ihla l'k ' ]" 11 .nt.'r~ th... anten na's h..'am (' II, ir reflects a portion of the pulses it receives back toward the untcuna . ,\t Sl'lllt
    pUlll t in the airc rutt's p.uh the object IS un integra l number uf mic rowave waveleng ths a way; betwe...n I heSl~ po ints rt 'IIiD
    nul he. Fur ex am ple, in Ihc illu stration th"' llhj.'C1 is ti rsl ') wa veleng ths <t wa)' at u, the n !l at b, (hen 7 at c, then 65 at d, wberl:
    the llhJcc 1 is at right anllks h' (he antenna . h om then 011. the cresl is inercIls ll1g tts distan ce from the ubjccr, e.g .. point t
    1'11., a nte nna receives the series o f rcfjcctc d W;I\ eS ;u,,1 electronically rombin...s rhc 111 with a train of re fcrenee wa\c1engtm
    In''l ~t\l l ""n l, caus ing the IWo series or O>(;j llalions In interfere. The ime rterence si gna l e merges as II volta ge tha i conrroa
    Ihe hrigh ln.'Ss uf a spot scanning ac ross II cuthodc ray IUIx. Al Ih. times tha t J ret urne d plll...: eOlndJes wilh a rcfcrece
    putse. the interference is construcuv e: the voltage '" ill he high and t h.. muvll1g SpUI "' III be bright. At the l imes thal !h:
    r h.l,.... o f lhe returned '" J \ e len gth J OI.5 nOI coincid...>I.-illl 111...phase o f th... rcfc rence freq uency th... intcr fer..ence is J..."Sl1U~'tiH".
    Ih.. voltag... '" ill be 1" ... and rhe moving srol will he dIm. The moving Spol tbus trac es out a series "flighl and dark da..tlo
    o f unequal length that ar... recorded on a ~lTip of data film m"villg;ll a velocity prop oruco alto thc v...locny crue airaat
    tat ter Kas;<chk ....1 al., lll lol-!)

    Microwa ve System Co m po n e nts

    3 11

    Radar data film


    with intcrfcrencc

    Radar hologram
    o f [luim source

    p.n tcmhC_~~_,.,.:..

    Radar
    ~ra m

    o.

    a.
    ~gure

    9-18

    a ) When the develop ed holo gram is illuminate d by laser coherentlight, cad i transpa rent dash acts as a scp;,ratc source of coherent light. Below the hologram there is a s i n~le point whcre the resulting Ii ~hl walcs 1111constructively interfere. IIcre the
    ~h wa vele ngt h o f light from the trans paren t dash created by the 9th microwavc w illmeet ti ll: 8th wavelength o f light from the
    transparent dash crea ted by the Xth microwa ve. and both will meet w llh Iht 7th w3\ d e nglh (I( light from the transpa rent dash
    crea ted by the 71h microwave. AI tha1 (10\.' pomt hgfu from the ent ire len gth of the interference peucm is focu....-d 10 form a
    miniature image oflhe origina l object. b ) As the data film is advanced through the ream of laser light. the reconstructed tmage
    is recorded on another mcvmg slrip or rum Because the data ti lm is hologr-olphic on ly in the along-track coo rdinate . the images
    in the across-track coordinate must be focused whh a c ylindricallens.

    'Ioben the de veloped holog ram is illumina ted by a so urce o f


    mrent light (F igure 9- 1Ka). each trans parent dash funcas a separa te source o f coheren t light. Below the holopm there w ill be a single point w here the resulting lighl
    mes all co nstruc tively inte rfere . In this. example, the 9th
    enelength oflight (th ick cu rved lines) from the transparent
    Ash m ated by the 9th mic rowave ..... ilI meet the Kth w avernglh of light (reg ular lines J from the tra nspare nt dash eret~d by the gth mic rowave, a nd bot h w ill meet the 7th
    eavelcngih of light (t hin curves ] from the transparent da sh
    reared by the 7th mic rowave and so on (o nly the vth . Sth.
    aI 7th patterns are shown in this example for cl ar ity ). AI
    ill one point, light from Ihe enti re len gth of the interference
    JIIllffi1 is focused 10 fonn a min iatu re image of the original
    tbjcc,- Figur e 9- lgb demon strates how the hologra phic
    eage is reconstructed and reco rded on film . A Ik r process~g the negative film to beco me a positive print, the radar
    im a~c is read y for a nalysis.

    1bt record (,f Dop pler freq uenc y enables the target to be
    esolccd o n the ima ge lilm as tho ugh it "as ob served with an
    IItCRna of length L, as show n in Figure 9- 19 (Sabins, 19117 ).
    This synthet ically lengthened anten na produces the effect o f
    I \CI')' narro w beam w ith const ant w idth in the az imuth

    direction. show n hy the shad...d are a in Figure 9 _1Y. For both


    real and syn thetic aperture systems, range resol ution is
    deter mined by pu lse lengt h and dep ression angle. Ge nera lly.
    synthet ic aperture image s an: higher in azumnh resolution
    than rea l aperture rada rs.
    T he a fore me ntioned method is often called sy nthe tic apcrturc radar op/h.-al correlat ion beca use of all the prec ision
    optics utilized, II is also possihle 10 usc SA R digita l correlotion tech niques to reco rd and process til,' amplitude and
    phase histo ry of the rada r ret urns. Dig ita l correlation does
    not produce an intermediate radar film. The d igita l process is
    com putat ion intensive. ~l ajor ad vantages of digital co rrcla tion incl ude the abil ity 10 1) perform both radiometric and
    geom eme correct ions rap idly duri ng n nboard processing
    (good (or emergencies such as oi l sp ills, floods. fires, cw.).
    2 ) t...tcmctcr the processed rada r data dir cct ly to thc groun d
    to support rea l-time deci sion makin g , and/o r 3 ) sto re the d igita lly proc essed SAR data o n hard dis ks for subseq uen t d igital processing on the ground. Man y of the co mmerci al (c.g..
    Intcnnap Star 3; ) and govern ment SA Rs (e.g. Canadian
    RAIJAR SAT. ESA ASA R ) use dig ital SAR corre lation techniq ucs .

    \II \PTFR

    312

    9-

    Activ e and Passive Microwave Rem ote sensing

    1l<"pr""iOll

    angle . ..,

    ?1I 1s~

    I<''' gth. t

    I{aflgl"
    resolution I '1 pulse

    k nglJ1

    rc>ulUliun
    cell

    ....

    :"

    AlJmulh
    resolution S~lllhctk:

    !>earn" idth

    Figure 9 19

    ,\ syn tbetic ant ..'nlla ntlength t. is produced by llp1ica ll~ llr ,jig itally pr'h;cs~ i n g the phase tnstortcs ot'microwa vc l1loJatfdtni
    se nt aml rccci \ c<l by a rea l antenna of length D s,:nt atumcs 'I . Th,' synthetic ape rtu re r adar hJS 3 rang.: rc~)l ulillll thatilap.
    prox rmatcly <'tl ua l til half the pu l,.: length. :"J ute how the a/; nuuh resolu tion remains ':t>nslnrtl from the nca r-runge to the f,I'
    lange (alkr Sabins. I ' )' li) ,

    tcrc r. The refore, the streng th of the backscatte r lowanllk

    Thc following discussio n provides additional quanut anve


    mrormauon about the radar signal. A radar image is a twodimensional representation of the power (or vollagel
    returned to the radar from a spec ific area on the grou nd p rescrued as a picture element t pi",:I). This return..-d powe r i,
    usually quan ti/.:d to a radiomet ric sca le of 11 hi ts fo r prcscnunion on mmge proc essing sys tems t Lehc-rl. Ill'l l)).
    RADi\RSAf i!o quantized tu I I hi ls. To understand how 10
    inte rpret radar images, w,' s ho u ld und c-rstand the nature of
    the power scattered hac k rownrd the ra da r antenna. In the
    Inthl simple case. rhi-, can be stat ed verbally as suggested by

    recei ver is a prod uct o f th..' power pe r unit area illuminalillf


    the target . limes the effective scanering a rea of the ~

    and then the retransm ission o f this W 3 \ 'e had. toward til:
    recciv ing an tenna. Th e actual si..e of the rec eivm g anee.
    aIM} makes a difference.

    The fundmncn ml radar equation is de rived by eombmitl!


    the se wurd quamitie-, 10 creat e the rnathema uca l cxpressia
    (Moore. 19S3; Kasisch ke ct ul., 19~ -1) :

    ( ~ I'[ ( .

    ~ 1"ure (19RJ) ;
    Pt""'ct
    . <>:c.

    ..-.I

    I""""'
    ..,.

    ,.." . 1[ffc..~ n c ...~ ..., ,,,,\


    r<1
    ,",,,,,...c'b:"''''' I

    Sp~.JI "tI k>t.. .. I~

    """",no)

    " ( ""-AJ.~I..-.I ..~".r ! " "" ",,,"w .rCA


    LJI6: lI H

    wher e th e powe r per unit area at the rece iver is th e energy


    scatt ered bac k from the terrain - backscatter. lhe spreading loss occurs becaus e the signal , lans Fnun the bac ksea ttcring poin t source Oil the ground t c .g.. a large rock] and
    spread s ou t in all d irect ions . so thatthe power pe r unit a rea
    i ~ 1<...., al a g reat..-r distance than it woul d be ucar the scat-

    1', G, o A r

    P,

    (9161

    where I' , IS power r..- ceived. 1', is Ih c power tr'dnsmJlIcl!


    toward the ta rget. G, is the ga in of th.... antenna in the dirt>:
    tion ofthe target. R is the range distance from the tram.miner
    ttl the target. IT is (he e tfccti\ e buc kscauer area of lhe targrt
    (often called the rada r cro..~-~ ....ction), and .-1, is the area ofrh:
    receiving ante nna, Thi s cquauon can he broken down inw
    seven part" tor even [lim.. . claruy :
    {' I

    1'I (;I

    --1r.:R'-- 0 -'- ,
    ~

    ~ r.R -

    (9l!

    313

    A.R Environmental Co nsid e rat ion s

    power received [ I I by the radar sY1>h.m./>,. is a funcuo n


    pulse o f clc-ctnuuag ucuc cncr~y. J', (21. that has bee n
    sed down to an angular bea m width hy the antcnun so
    the IlU\ becomes high er hy a fac tor 1.11 of G, over a
    ically ..:xpanJing wa\o: [4]. The: focused energy illumian <I,..'a on the ground that has a cross-section or a [5].
    rod.". a rJH.wcriof/ Is defined as the equivalent of a pe rreflecting area that TCl1l:CIS isouopically Csphcrica llYI.
    energy backscancrcd from the grou nd once agai n sphcry ecpands from Ihe sourc... 1~1 . Finally. the recei ving
    na area Vi,) uucrceprs a portion of the re flec ted wa ve
    records it 17].

    radars usc the same <1111<: 1111<11> for u ansrnuting U ,) and


    \ing: (,.I,). Consequently, the gain factors o fthe amenmay he comhmed using thc re lationship !x'h..een gain
    receiv ing aperture a~ t Moo re. 1983):

    (9-18)

    ".-

    -e

    '-

    11Im i. is the wa ..dength for frequency! o f the radar sys tm.. Suh~tit uting Ihis value in Equ ation 9- 16 or 9 17 results
    I modified rad ar equanon ,Carver et al.. \9R5 ):

    P,' (;2
    (-I n)

    Thus.

    . (T.

    tcrs (\\a\C!cng lh, depression ang le, polurizat jun; Le be-l.


    \990/. (f ' is a dimension less qua nut y characteristic of the
    scattering beha vior of allthe elemem-, contained in a given
    ground ce ll. Because 0" ca n ...Iry over several orders of
    magn itude. it IS e\presse-J us a Ing;lrithm with units of decibets (dB I that USIM lly range tn.m 5 10 "'" -Ill d H.
    The uuul radar cross.sccuon o r an area (A ) on the ground
    therefore becomes (('I" A I. and the linal fo rm of the rada r
    equ ation fur an arca-cvtc nsi..-c target becomes [ Henderson
    and Le wis , \9'IK: \ l ikhai l CI at. 2UIII):

    (9-21)

    A dig ital S:\R image is created that consists of a rwo-dimendona l array lmatrh) of picture element, ( pi~dsl with the
    illlcnsit),(cal led the hr i~ltllC':'SI o f each pi-eel propo nionalto
    the power of the microwave pu lse reflec ted back from the
    W ITc.'sptllllhng ground cell ( Waring et al., IIN S). The
    reflec ted radar vignal is proportional to the backscancring
    coerficic m ( cr') nf a gil con ground cell.

    RADAR Environmental Consideration s

    }. 2

    , ,
    R

    lind that the radar eq uat io n can be viewed as a


    o f system parameters an,'! other cnvironrncnta l terain parame ters that prod uce the back scatte r er o- s-section.
    G. Because the system paramete rs urc we ll \"I\OWll, their
    &oct~ arc typical ly removed from the rada r image s, i.c.. the
    '!stem para mete rs may he set til unity ( 1),
    \\ 1."

    ,oou~t

    histhe effects o frcrrnin Oil the radar sign;ll t h at we arc most


    meresrcd in. i.c.. the amoun t of radar cross -section. cr.
    rttlcctcd bao,:k tn tlu: n: L" l'i\er, pe r unit area (A ) o n the
    :;rotilld. Th is is ealk-d the rml<ll' hl/chl'lIlfl'l" I"IJ<'JJiril'lll (cr O)
    Illd is comp uted as

    (9-20)
    ~here CJ is the radar cross-slelin n. T hc mdar bac kscaTter
    roellicknt d': l.:nnines the percc.'nlilg.: or .:Ieelro magnc.'llc
    Cllerg)' reneeted bac k tu the rad.lr rro m .... ithi n a re-so lution
    edL e.g., 10 x 10 m. The ,Ietllal CJO fo r a surface dt':pends on
    I numh<r of termi n parametC',"" likt': g<.'om<.'try, surfa\'t'
    rou~ltne:.lO. mUllOl urc conh:nl. and the raJ<.lr s~sl em param e-

    I la\ ing defined the rad ar back w auc r coerucicm. <5", as II


    quant itativ c measure o f the intensity of energy ret urned to
    the radar antenna from a spec ific area on the surfa ce o f the
    Earth. It is imp ort ant to ident ify the enviro nme ntal paratneters withi n the re solution cell on th<: ground that arc rcspo nsiblc for ba ckscaucnng the inc ide nt energy.

    Surface Roughn ess Characteristics

    Sur face roughn ess is the tcr nun property that strongl y inllu-

    e llces the strl' ngth of the radar hneksealler, Whc n intcrp reting aerial photography, ..... t n lk n usc t h~ lC'nn ino logy
    "rough" lel' arse }. "inlcnllediate," or "slll l>uth" {li nd to
    descri be thc surfae<.: le:\ture c!l;lTOh:l<: ristics (r e li:r to Ch arll' r
    5). It is pl'ssil'lk- tn c:\tcml lhis ana l!)gy 10 t h ~ inlerprt': lation
    Hfrdd;tr il1lag<: ry If .... I." \.. eep in m ind that thc lm/'ICf' rIJugh",',U \Ie ,Ire talking about nM)' be- cnl ilOioned at th..: //Iief'!!.Icalt', l1l('wJsnl/l', Olnd/or "UI(IYJ.~I 'I//I'.
    ,\ fio W , ',II.' .U l/filtT fnfl,;JII/('.u is usua lly measured in cent i-

    mo.'to.'rs (ie. the hl'ight Ilf Sltllll"S, si/C' of kales, or kngth of


    hranc h<:l< in a Irc.'cl and nllt in hunJredlO or thuusands of
    nlC'te-n> a ~ .... ith Iopogr-Jphi.: rd id" ur moun tains. The amou nt

    "

    ("H,\ PIE R

    3 14

    9~

    Active and Passive Microwave Remote Sensing

    Tal

    An lcn na

    Depression angle
    t '"' 45"

    hU.17 to

    , "

    "

    "

    .I! "

    " " "'If

    a. Rela tively smo ot h surface


    \\ il ll lin le lla('k scalt~'T - a
    spccuw retlcct ce
    F'9ure 9--20

    0,9 6('m

    h < 0.17cm

    c, Ruugh surface with

    b. Inlcm lcd ialc surface


    roughness ....1111 modera te
    back sca tter

    d iffuse backscatter

    Expec ted sur face rough nes s backscaucr from terrain illuminated w ith 3 em w3wknglh microwave energy, a) Wilh a ~
    sinn angle of 450 and a local relief of < 0.17 em. the terrain represen ts a relatively smoo th surface and sho uld prodoce,~

    o.r

    hule backscatter toward the sensor. 1111s sp.:cuhu reflector will appcur dark on the radar image. b) Local relief from
    0 .% e rn represents interm ediate surface roug hness and should prod uce a medium gray res ponse on the radar image. c) v,l:iell
    the loca l surfa cc roughness relie f is > ll.96 em. a rough surfucc e xi~l s that will pw<J ucc very diffuse backscunc r. This diffu;.:
    refl ector will produce a brig ht rerum on 1111: radar image due 10 the large amount or microw ave e nergy renectco back 10\\311
    l hl'

    antenna.

    o f microwave energy beckscauercd towa rd the sensor based


    on rnicroscalc components is a function of the re lations h ip
    between the wavelength of the inc ident n ucrow av e energy
    (A), the depression ang le (y). and the loc al height o f objects
    III in ern) foun d with in the resolution cel l be ing illu minat ed.
    We may lI SC the modified Rayl!'igh criteria to predict wh at
    the Earth's surface willlook li ke in a radar image if we know
    the m icrosc alc surfa ce roug hne ss ch aracterist ics and the
    rad ar sys tem parame te rs (A.,y.ll) me ntioned ( Peak e and
    Oliver, I<n l ). For example, one wo uld ....xpe ct thar an area
    with smooth surfoce roughness would send back very lilt le
    back scatter towa rd the antenna. i.e.. it lICIS like a spec ular
    reflecting surface. Yo here most o f the en....ro).. bounces o fT the
    terra in away from the antenna (Figure 9,20a). The small
    amount of back scauered en ergy returned 10 the anten na is
    reco rded and shows up as a d:lrk area on the radar ima ge .
    TIle quantitative expression of this smooth crucria is:
    ).
    I -- 25 siny '

    RA'

    (lJ-22J

    To illustrate , we will compute what the local height (h ) of


    obj ec ts Ie .g., grass and rocks in thi s exam ple ) must be in

    order to produce a smooth (dark) rada r return when an X


    hand O. - 3.0 em) rada r is used w ith a depression angle(11
    of .45 ( Figu re q 2(3 ). Substituting these valu es into EqIDnon 9 -2::?: y ie lds:

    1
    3c m
    1< 25 sin 45

    3c m

    t< 25 x 0.707 1I

    h <O.l7cm .
    This means that a resolution cell un iformly filled with dry
    grass that has a su rface height o f < 0 . 17 em should produce
    relat ivel y little rada r bac kscatte r and w ill therefore be
    recorded on the radar ima ge in a da rk ton e.
    A brigh t return is expec ted if the follow ing modifi ed Ray,
    leigh nmxh cri teria are used :

    315

    R Environment a l Con siderations

    ~9-4.

    Modified R.I) leigh scr fac c roughness c n ten a for


    three diller('1l! radar systems at t... (I different dcprcssion angles .

    Surla ce
    Roughness
    Categ ory
    Secorh, em

    htemrediatc. em

    Rough, em

    Aircraft
    K. -ban d

    Aircraft
    X b a nd

    s ea sat

    ),. : O.86cm

    i.. : 3 c m

    A: 23.5 cm

    1 '" 4 5'

    1: 45'

    1 '" 70

    h <0.17

    h < 1.00l

    h O,17

    h "'

    OJ}.I!(

    L-ba nd

    h = tHl4 K
    to 0.276

    to 0.9(,

    h = LOn
    to 5.fiR

    h > 0 .27(;

    h>O.%

    h >5,"','(

    h-.- .

    {tI-2JI

    4,4sm y

    itutmg the same wavelengt h and depression angle into


    equation yields:

    "

    ."
    se
    ,d

    3cm
    ~.4 x O. 70 7 11

    (.

    yl

    II > 0.96 em .

    ,-

    ca se the only para meter changed was the wavelength . If we


    c hanged both the wavelength a nd the dep ressitln angle (0 be
    lhat o f the Scasat SAR [Table Q.4J. we see that the snrne 0 .5
    em local re liefw ould produce a smooth (da r"') ret urn inthis
    l-band imagery. T he slgniflcancc o f this rel at io nship is that
    rh.. same terra in w ill appea r diffe rcruly in rada r image ry as a
    fu nctio n (\1' the sensor's depr css jon angle a nd wuvcjcngth
    (H enderson and Xia. 1998 ). Therefo re, it is diffic ult to create
    "radar imago: interpretat ion keys" o f selected phenomena.
    An analyst mu st co nstantly keep Ih i ~ in m ind" hen interpreting rada r imagery. Late r we will !>e-e tha t air cra ft. or spacecra ft look dire ction ab o impacts the bac ksca uc rcd energy.
    \il ikhai l CI al. 120011 suggest that the follow ing criteria can
    a lso he used 10 predic t whether a surface will yield a weak ,
    intermediate. or strong radar rerum:
    A surface wi ll produce a relatively wea k return if its local
    relie f is less than one- eight the incident radar waveleng th.
    In this case much of the incident microwave energy is
    scattered or spcc ula rly reflect..-d a ll ay from the antenna
    resulting in a we ak return .

    An inte rme dia te return i\ produced w hen thc' loc al rel ief
    ranges from on e-eight to one-hal f the inci dent radar
    w it \ cfength. These d iffuse reflectors disperse energy at <I ll
    angles and a mode rate port ion is backscau crcd to ward the
    radar anten na .
    A \ Irong radar return is prodncc-d when the loca l terrain
    rchcf is greater than nn e-h alf the inciden t radar
    wavele ngth,

    ~fore .

    if the uniformly d istri buted roc ks in the rcsolucell had a local relief o f> 0.96 em ( Figure q1OcI . then
    llJOng retu rn from the terra in wou ld he expected and
    oold lie recorded as a bright lone in the radar imag e.

    <the terrain w c re composed o f rock s w ith loca l re-lief

    l\or.r.'een 0.17 and 0 .lJ6 em . it would be considered to haw an


    ed/,ll!! surface nJUKJlI1t'_'i.\ for thi s com bination o f

    n velength and depression ang le and wo uld produce an


    mermed iate to ne o f gray on the- radar image.

    ,
    ,

    i is important 10 re mem ber that the radar back scatter I~


    ~denl on the wavelengt h and tho: depression ang lo:. Fer
    =umpit:. consider Table 9-4 where the modi lied Ra)k igh
    mria arc computed for three d ifferent radar wavelengths
    i. .=o O.Xfl. 3,lJ, ant.! 13.5 e m) at tWtl diffen: nl de prcss.ion
    lI'lgb (y . -l5 :.llld 70"). Tt'rrain with a loca l rclicfof O,5 em
    .'00111 al'pe-ar very nright Oil thc K. -hand imagery and as ,m
    ilIlffiTIediale sha\lc (If gray o n the X-ba nd imag ery. In thi!>

    The inc ident radar e!l<.'Tg) may he scat tered according 10


    both m...wsscale and macroscale surtace roughness criteria
    /1Icndcrson and lewis. 19C)Rj. A s mcnrioocd. the mic roscale
    roughn ess is a function of the size n f1ea\es.t w igs. and perhaps bra nches wit hin an indiv idua l reso lution cell. Con\ ~r:>c l). mesoscale sur face rough ness would be a function of
    the characteristic s with in numerous reso lution ce lls. perhaps
    covering the entire fo res t canopy. Based 011 this log ic. we
    would e-.\pe-el forest canopies 10 generally sh,)w up with a
    more coars e texture tha n g rassla nd s when recor ded in the
    same image at the sa me depression angle lind waveleng th.
    Finall y. III <1CI1!.\T/I!t, roughness would he influ enced greatly
    toy how the cmire forest canopy is situated on the hillsi de .
    Mac ro-cafe roughnes-.. is !>ignificallily in lluenced by Ihe
    lopograph ic sltlrc and aspc-et of the terrain w ith Iho: existen ce ()f ahse net' o fs hmiows play ing a \-ery importa nl ro le in
    cr t',tting imag e surface ruugh lle-ss.

    '3 16

    C11t\PT t:R

    9~

    Act ive and Pa ssive Microwave Rem ote Sensing

    Electrica l Chara c teristics (Comp lex Dielectric


    Constant) and the RelationShip with Moisture Content

    N'

    A radar sends our a pulse o f micro.... a ve energ y that interacts


    with the Earth's terrain. Different types o f terrain cond uct
    this elec tric ity better than others. One measu re o f a mate rial's clectncal characteristics is the complex dielectric COli'
    .HO n!. de fined as a measure o f the ability o f a material
    [vegetation. soil. rock. water, icc) 10 cond uct elec trical
    e nergy. Dry surface materials such as soil, rock. and even
    vegetation have d ielecrnc co nstants from 3 to x in the micro....ave portion of the spectrum. Conversely, wate r has a
    d ielectric co nstant of approx unmely RO. The mos t significan t parameter influe ncing a material's dielectric co nstant is
    its moisture conte nt, Th erefore. the amount of moisture in a
    soil , on a rock surface. o r w ith in vegetative t issue ma y hav e
    a significa nt impact on the amou nt of backsce ucred radar
    energy 1M ikha il er al., 200 I I.

    e:'ll

    ""~

    I"
    ,.

    S,
    "~

    c
    n

    f
    r

    b. SI R-C Ccband II \'.

    Mo ist soils reflect mo re radar energy than dry soils. .....hich


    abso rb more of Ihc rada r wav e. depending on the d ielectric
    constant o f the soil material. Rad ar images may be used 10
    es umate ha re ground SOli mo isture co ntent whe n the terrain
    is de void o f mo st ot her material suc h as plants and rocks 3nJ
    has a uni form surface roughness. Th e amount of so il rno isture influences ho.... dee p the inc ident elec tromag netic
    e nergy penetrates into the material. If the so il ha s a high surface soi l moi stu re c ontent. then the inc ident energy w ill only
    penetrate a few cerntmc tcrs ir nc the soil co lumn and be seattcred mo re at the surface produc ing a stro nger. brighte r
    return .

    The gene ral rule o f thu mb for how far m icro wa ve energy
    wi lt penetrate into a dry substance is that the penetrat ion
    should he equa l to the wavele ngth o f the radar system. Ho weve r. uctiv c mic ro w a ve energy may penetrate extremely dry
    so il several mete rs. Fo r examp le. Figure Q-21 depicts four
    views ofa part of'the Nile Rive r. near the Fourth Cataract in
    thc Sudan. T he: top image is a photog raph taken by the crew
    of the Space Shutt le CoII/I1IM'1in Novem ber 1995. T he three
    rada r ima ge s were acqu ired by the Shuttle Imag ing Rada r C?
    X-band Synthetic Ape rture Rada r (SIR-CIX-S A Rl on board
    Space Shu ttle Endeavor in April 1994; Ccbau d H V. L-ha nd
    H V. an d Lband HH. Each rada r image prov ides some
    un ique informat ion abo ut the: geo mo rpho log y o f the area .
    Th e thic k white hand in the top right oft he radar image is an
    anc ient c han ne l ofthe Nile that is now buried under lay ers o f
    sand. Th is chann el ca nno t be seen in the photograph. and its
    ex istence was not kno wn be fo re the radar image ry was proccseed . The area to the let l in bot h images shows ho w the

    d. S IK-C L-ha nd 111 1.


    Fig u re 9-21

    Example o f radar penetra tion o f J ry soil along the


    Nil... Rivet. Sudan. at Hlack-and-whhe version ofa
    color-infrared phot ogr aph acq uire d by Space Shilltle Cn/tl mhllJ crew in ~I}\ ... moer I'N5; b-d ] SIR-C
    X-S,\ R i lTlage~ acquired by the Spac... Shunlc 'I.
    d. 'tI m r in A pril 1<N4. Sulltle . d ifferen t infO/1llJ.l1(lIl
    is recorded in ca.:h of the three radar images. Ea:h

    re\ eets an ancient, pre\'iously un\,; nown d l:lnD<'1 at


    the Nile. Radar brightncss values arc inverted m
    these examp les ( courtesy Jet Propulsion Lab).

    R Environmental Considerations

    is forced

    10

    now through a set or fractures that ca uses

    riv er 10 break up into sma ller cha nnels. sugges ting that

    Xile has o nly recently established

    I h i ~ cou rse. The radar


    have a llowed scien t ists to deve lop ne w theories to
    bin the orig in of the "G reat Bend" of the Nile in the
    n. Colo r Plate 1) 1 is a color co mposite ofthe three rada r
    gc,. It provides more revea lin g visual information about
    regional geomorpho logy.
    _e"S

    surfaces have a vel')' h igh dielec tric consta nt with


    of th..: radar energy being re flected at the water's su r, The diel ectric co nstan t of snow depe nds upon ho ....
    It liquid water is in the snow. Thus. mic rowave rem ote
    <nsing can be used to determin e snow water conten t. S im ikrl~, there are differences in the dielectric con stants of icc,
    ~J i ng upon age. degree of com pacuou. and type of ice.
    wave remote sensing has been useful lo r the extra ction
    eese biophysical variables. Finall y. healt hy ag ric ultura l
    and forest canop~ leaves o ften have re latively large
    . e areas and high moi sture co nte nt (high re lative tu rty), Therefore. it is not su rpris ing that dense canopies of
    esr vegetation refle ct rada r energy wel t. In e ffect , a fully
    ~id vegetated fo re st ca nopy nets lik e a cloud of water
    lets hovering above the surface: o f the Earth. A lso. the
    eeper the depression ang le. the greater the scnsitiv ity of the
    to soi l and vegetation moisture con tent.
    ~etation

    Response to Mic rowave Energy

    hasis is being pla ced

    0 11

    qu antitatively monit or ing the

    3 17

    Any plant canop y [fore st. ngricuhure, grass land. et c.) ma y


    he thou ght o f as a seaso nally dynamic rhrec-dimcusional
    wa ter-bearing structure con sisting of fol iage components
    (lea\l'S) and woody components (Siems, trun k, stalks. and
    bra nches I. Rem ot e sensing sys tem, such as the Lan dsat Thematic Map pe r, SPOT, or ae ria l photography se nse re flected
    optical wavelength ene rgy measured in mic rome te rs that is
    reflect ed. scan crcd, transmiucd. and/o r absorbed by the first
    few lay ers of lea ves and stems of a hea lthy vegc ranon ca nopy. Wc typically get lin le mrcrrnaticn about the interna l
    c barac tcnsrics of the canopy. muc h less information about
    the surface roi l charact eristics lying below the canopy. Convcrsety, active micro w ave energy can pe netra te the can opy
    to varying de pths dependin g upo n the freq ue ncy. polarizetion. and incide nt angle of the rada r sys tem. Mic rowa ve
    energy respo nds 10 objects in the plan t's struc ture that are
    measu red in centimeters and even decimete rs. It is useful to
    identify the relat ionsh ip bet.... ec n the canopy components
    and how they influence the radar bac ksca ner mg.
    If a radar sends a pulse o f'vc rticully or horiz ontally polarized
    microwave energy to ..... ard a stand oftrees, it inter acts wit h
    rhe co mpone nts pres ent and scuucrs S('IlU: ofthe energy back
    toward the senso r, TIle amo unt of ene rgy receiv ed is propo rtiona l to the natu re o f the energy sent I its frequency and
    po lari l atil>n l and is depe ndent upon \\ hethcr or no t the canop~ components depolarize the sig nal. how far the signal
    penetrates into the ca nopy. and whether it eventually interacts wit h the grou nd soi l su rface.
    Pen ctr utl on l>i'pth and Potar ilati nn

    jal distribut ion, biomass. gross and net primal)" produc-

    -;, and condition of global vegetation communi ties. cs peJ) fOfl:sll; (approximately JJ percent o f the Earth's land
    mface), sc m i-ari d ecosystems of grassla nd steppe/desert,
    . cultural land 110 pe rce nt), and wetlands. Scie ntists ar c
    nerestcd ill how cnerg y and mailer move within these veg!l.llcd ecosy stems. Many of these vegetated areas are
    uded in pe renn ial clo ud cover. Sy nthetic a pertur e radar
    cry ma y provide som e of the foll ow ing vegetation h ioysical parameters tCa r...er, 19t1K):
    he

    , cano py water co nte nt:

    r"
    ",-

    CI
    :ir
    0"

    ,h

    or
    m

    , vegetation type:
    - bicmass by compcncm ( foliage-, hig her -order stems and
    lI\3in stem I:
    'cano py structure ( incl uding green leaf are a index). lea f
    orientation. mai n stem (lnmk) geo metry and ~Jl a li al
    distributio n. stem. branch Si lC, a nd angk di slribLll ion s.

    Like -po larization backscatter to.....ard the se nso r results from


    smg lc retlecnon s from canopy co mpone nts such as the
    lea ves. ste ms. bra nches, and trunk, Th ese retu rns arc ge nera lly vel') strong and are recor ded as brighl signa ls in likepolarized rada r imagery (HH o r VV ). Th is is often ca lled
    canopy surtace .1'c't/flerlIlK. Conversely, if the cnagy is scattcrcd mult iple times wuhin a diffuse volu me suc h as a sta nd
    ofpine trees [i.e.. from a need le, to a stem. to the tru nk. to a
    needle ], the energy may become depolarized . Th is is oft en
    called volume scattering. A radar can measu re the amoun t o f
    depolarized vo lume scattering that ta kes place f or exam ple.
    it is possible to co nfigure a rada r 10 send u vertically polarizcd pulse of ene rgy. Some o f this energy becomes dcpolarizcd in the cano py and e xits towa rd the sensor in the
    horizo ntal do main. The depo larized energy may then be
    reco rded by the sensor in VII mode - vertica l send and horizorna l recei ve.
    Kasi schkc and ll11urglauChllw Z (\99 7) provide ins igh tlls
    t(l how the radar hackseauering coe llici ent. a ". fro m ooth

    3 18

    Act ive and Pa s si ve Microwave Remote Sensing

    wood y ( forested ) and non -woody (e.g.. brush. scrub. cro ps!
    e nv ironme nts is produced whe n the terr ain is impacted by
    microwa ve energy ,

    To understand radar scatte ring from com plex vege tation


    cov e rs. it is neces sary tothink in term s ofthe d iffere m canI'P)' laye rs ani:clin~ the radar sig nature. For wet lands containing shrubs and Inrc s, then: arc three d istinct layers to
    consider. as shov..n in Figure ~-22a: I ) a canopy layer thai
    consists of small branc hes and foliage HC;Jn'sl. 2 ) a trunk
    layer that consi..ts o f large branc hes and trunk s or boles. an d
    3 1a surfac e laye r tha t may ur rna) not t-e co ..crcd by w all..r If
    .... ctland is present. For wetlan ds that do not c"Onta in woody
    plants. a sim ple two-la yer model can be used ( Figure Q-:~lb):
    II a cantlpy layer clmsisling of herbaceous vegeta tion. and
    .:n a surface layer that may be covered by' wa ter or soil. 111e:
    backscattc nng coefficient exit ing :J woody vegeta tion canopy' to\\ ard the radar sys tem is o -... and can be exp ressed a-,
    IWa ng ct al.. 1995; Dobson ct al.. 1995; Kasiscbkc and
    Bou rgcau-C hav C/; 1(97 ):

    W....ody (fon.... tcdt h'gClall{ln


    n" ,
    ".

    \ n"m )

    \..7

    (9-2 4 1

    Figu re 9-22
    \\ here

    o '; is the backscancr coe fficie nt of the can opy laye r (If
    smaller woody branc hes and foliage u.e.. surfa ce

    scaucnng ):

    G ~..

    is the multip le. path sca uering be tween the: gruu ml LInd
    ca nopy layer:
    G O, is

    d irect sealter ing from the tree trunks:

    ll <l~ i s the do uble-bounce scancnng between the trun ks and


    the g round.

    Hy e lim inating all tl'nns associated with the trunk layer, it i"
    possible to determ ine the total rada r-scatte ring coe tficie nr
    from terrain with non-w oody, herbaceou s vegetation, G '~:
    (9-25)
    The term s in Equations ~ - 24 and 9-25 arc de penden t on I }
    Ihc ty pe: o f \ cgetal io n presenl (which has an impact on sur-

    \ la)or sources of sceuenng from a} "'oN~ and


    bcrtracc...US \q,letalion canopies ,\ here 0 ' , is *':
    hack-caner cudlieknt (Iflh<" crown layer or ~IIIIIE
    woody bra nches and foliage u.e.. surface scaf!C'
    ing l. 0 .. is the multipk-path scaneri ng befYleellk
    t;n>un,t and emwp)' layer. 0 0 , is direct ><:alt~
    from the tree trunks. G O, is direc t surface back>eallcl
    fromthe ground. and (I Jis the dou ble-bounce ~
    (cring berweeu th", tree trunks dud ground(ad.JJ'4ed
    from Ka , i, .:hle aud B(lu rgcuu -C1HI\'CJ~ 1997)

    face Toug lllles,). 2 ) the wa ve length and poluri zanon of fir


    inc ident mic rowav e e nel)!Y. J ) the diel ectr ic co nstant of \hl:
    vcgc tnnou. and 4) the dielectric co nsta nt o f t he ground sur
    face. The , c a lt e rin g and a tte n ua tio n in the eq ua tions an::111
    dir ectly propor tional to the die lec tric constant. L ive VCj;l1!'
    tion . w ith a highe r wate r content ( tu rg id ity ) has a higher
    dielectric constant Ihan drie r or d ead vege tation . The presence of dew or moistu re acts 10 increase the d ie lectric constunt o f vegetated surfaces I Kcs isch kc an d Hou ~'I.'au
    Chav ez. 1997), O n eil, the prima ry q uantity governing the
    uncuumion coe fficient o f a vegetation cuno py is the wne
    content pl'r un it vo lume. not necessarily the act ua l scuctee
    and gel'lIletry (If the leaves. sie ms. and trunk o r the planIs.
    The co nduion of the grou nd laye r is also ve ry important il
    microwave scattering fro m vegetation surfaces. There art
    IWI) properties of'rhis layer that arc important. includin g: II
    the micro- and mesoscale surface ro ughn es s [relative 10 the
    radar .... avelcngth pre\ iotlsly d i-..:usS('J ), 311\1 2) th.: reneelio n cod liciellt. In ge nera l. a grcalcr surfact: roughn~s I)

    319

    leAR Environmental Co ns iderat io n s

    ' 'I' y

    py

    h)

    "er

    'r -

    "s

    ,.

    er

    ses the amo unt of micro .... uvc energy backsc ancrcd
    asing 0 ,). and 2) decrea se.. the amo unt of energy scatin the forwa rd d irection (dec reasing 0 .. and o "J). T he
    ion coef ficie nt is dependent on the die lectric co nsta nt
    conductivity] o fthe gro und layer, A d ry gro un d layer has
    ~"" dielec tric co nstant and there fore has 3 low reflec t ion
    ffic icnt. A ~ soi l moist ure inc rea ses. SoU doc s the diel ec tric
    t and . hence . the rc tlccnon coefficient. Given a co nsurface roughness. as the soil dielectric cons tant
    s. so dUL~ bot h tho: amou nt of backscaucrc d and forscattered micro.... ave energy (resulting in increases in
    ..0',. and o OJ)
    eerc is a laye r of wa ter over the grou nd su rface of a vcglandscape ... uch a.. in wetl and environments, t.... o
    s happen: I) it c1 iminaIL~ any sur face roughness, and :!)
    signilit"antly increases the reflectio n coetfcieru. In terms
    microwave sca tteri ng, the elimination of a ny surface
    ~n~~ means tllut all the energy is forward scattered,
    if\31ing the surface backscnttering term (0 ',) in the eq ua: and. the increased forwa rd sca ue nng an d higher
    ion coctficicm lead to sign ilicunt increases in the
    !lUUnd-lrunk and grou nd-ca nopy interaction tenus 0 ,J and
    ~J'l'<>rect i\"C ly IKasischke and Bourgeau-Chavcc; 1997 J.
    Proetra t inn Depth a nd h Nlu rn Q '
    The: longe r tho: micro .... a ve wav ele ngt h. the greater the pc ncnlion into the planl ca nopy ( ESA A SA R. 201Io ). For examFigure 1)-23 \kpicts the respnnse or a hy pothetical pine
    ~t to m icro wave energy, Surface scattering takes place at
    lbe lOp of the canopy as the ene rgy interacts with the leave s
    or needles ! and sterns . Volume scuttenug by the lea ves.
    serus. branches. and tru nk takes place thmughoutIhc stand.
    Il1d surface scattering can occur aga in at the soi l surface. A
    e mpans on (If the respo nse o f X-. C-. and Lban d microsave energy incid ent to the same ca no py is presented in fi glIIe 9-24a - c. Th e sho rter wave length X-band (3 em ) energy
    s anenuuted most hy su rface scatter ing at the top ofthe cancpy by foliage anti sou l! branc hes. T he Ccband (5,1\ em]
    energy experiences surface scatte ring at t he top (If the ca ncpy as we ll as some volu me scattering in the heart o f the
    5UJld, Liule energy reac hes the ground. Lcband (23 .5 cm)
    ecrowavc energy pcnctrates farther into rh... ca nopy. where
    \tIlume sca neriug among the leaves. sterns. branc hes. and
    eank cause thc bea m to becom e depolarized. A lso. nu mcrCllS pulses may be transm ute d to the groun d. where surface
    sancring fro m the soil-vegetation boundary layer may ta ke
    place. Lon ger P-bund radar lllo t shown) wo uld alTord the
    greatest pcn~...ration thro ugh the vegetation and ma in ly

    *.

    \
    surface scancrmg
    from lhe lop
    of lheeallOJ'y

    surface and
    volume scattering
    from the ground

    Figore 9-23 The types of ..(l ive microwave surface and volume
    scauenng thai might loIle place in a hypothetical
    pine fores t stand (after Carver. I QIl !l ).

    re flect off large ste ms and the soi l surface (Waring cr al..

    19951.

    Radar bac kscatt er incre ases ap proximately linearly w ith


    increasing biomass unti l it saturates at a bio mass leve l that
    dep ends on the radar freq uency, Fo r exam ple. Do bson et al.
    ( 1992 ) found that the biomass satura tion le\ cl wns about 200
    tons/ha ofl.ohlnlly pine usin g Pvband and 100 tons /ha for Lban d. anti tha t tho: Ccba ud backscuue ring coefficie nt showed
    mu ch less sens itivity to to ta l abov eground biomass. Wa ng et
    al. (141)41 evaluated Loblolly pine usi ng EH. S- l SAl{ backscatt er data. They a lso fou nd tha t tho: Ccbund func tioned
    poo rly d ue to its high sensitivity to so il mo isture and the
    steep local incide nt ;mgle o r the sensor (23 ). Gene rally.
    backscatter 31 lowe r frequen cies (P - and Lba nds) is do minated by scatto:ring processes involving the maj or woody
    l'Iiomass co mponents t tn mks and branches], while scat tering
    at high freq uencie s (C- a nd X-band s) is dominated by scarIcring procc'fos~"S in the top crown lay ("rof I1ran ches and toliage . Radar canopy meas ure men ts have also b<:en fo und to ~
    eorrdated wilh lea farea-indo:x (L A!) measurements ( Fran klin ct al .. 1<)94 1.

    ( ' l l ,~ "' l n~

    320

    "

    "

    I.-ha nd

    (" -h and

    B5

    ~.jol

    n il

    cm

    '\

    '\

    9~

    Act ive and Pass ive Microwave Remote Sensing

    o.

    "

    ' -han d
    .l ern

    '\

    f ,

    c
    H
    n

    ,
    t

    Figure 924

    or

    I he... ecucal rO:''I'''I/1_," a pme fore st ~1.!lIJ 10 X-. C -, and L-b.IlIJ uncrowa v0: cll<rg) . J he short e r thl' waveleng th, the ~
    the conm butio nlrom "'rj,,,'," -" "III,-ring. Tho: longer tho: wa, ..length. the bre~ l('r Ihe pencmuion inl\> the materia l and lhe~
    ...r the \Y,It",,,, "<-III, u n)::.

    Some other gc n<.'ml observations abo ut SA l{ vegetation


    in terpret at ion include

    Vertically polarized c ncn,;) is highly attcn uut cd hy the


    n>nicall y oriented C;lII" PY com pouem, (lc<:l\l~. stems.
    bra nche s, and trun k I while huriw1llally pola ri zed ellcrg)
    is

    11 0 1,

    TIll' brighte r the return onlikc-polurizcd rad ar images ( I [I I


    o r VV). th e greater the con tributio n Irorn sur face
    srallcr ing.

    T he brigh ter the retur n Oil LTllss.pnl3ri ze d images ( 1-1 \ ' nr


    VI I ). the gre ater the comriburiou fnnu volume (intana l
    canopy: scnncring.
    When the radar wav elength i~ upproximatcly the S:UI1C size
    thc C.II111P}' components (c.g .. C- or Xc bund 1. subs ta ntial
    sur face and vo lume sca ttering \\ ill take place an d li ttle
    energy may reac h the ground. Consequently, sho rter
    wavelength radars (2
    (, em ) Illay be preferred whe n
    m onitoring crop canople.. and tree leaves. Lenger
    wavelength radars (9 J(J cnu exhibit su bstan tia l volu me
    sC:Illering as incident cnergy interacts .... nh larger trunk
    and bran ch components. Surface <cnncr mg fro m the
    und c rfymg SOil m a~ also IIt:CU f ..... hich can cause
    confusion .

    ( ros ~- po l:l ri h'l.l l ma g('s t H\' or \' 1-1) a rc less senslti\c


    vlopc vuriauons. llus su~gests vcgctauou monitoring ill
    mountainous ar eas rna) best he performed us ing Clll>S-

    p olanzanon tcchmq ucs . A IM). the same row Cl"(IP plallkd


    in d ilTt:lenl drrcc uon s can produce like-polarized ir.lagtl
    that an: difficult hI interpret. Th is am biguity' may h(
    reduc ed when cross-polarized images are avai labk In
    addnion til hkc-polanzcd unagc s.
    O ne n l' the key vuriablcs necessary to mode l the
    hydrulogicul cvclc is how much wate r is be ing stored ln
    vege tation canopies uml the' rate 1) 1' cvn po rran spiratica
    tak ing.pl ac e . ticrn-rnlly. the more moisture in the structure,
    the' gr eater the die lec tri c cons ta nt a nd the hig her the radllr
    back scau cr return. Active microwav e re mot e sensi ng il
    capable o f se nsi ng ca nopy IO f l.:a1") water con tent ill
    ccruun iustunccs.

    :IS

    R ada r Imager) C;1Il PW\ ide' some informauo n 011


    land sca pe -ecology pa tch Slle and can op y gaps that are or

    value when mon itoring ecosystem frag me ntation and


    health (~ un andRanson. 11)<); I.
    Shunt ... Im'lging Radar C - a nd X-Ihnd S A R (S IR -C1X-S.-\R I
    imagc-, " I' the ..\ m u on rain fore-a obt ained on Apnl IQ
    1'19_1-. art: displayed H1 Mild . and white in Figure 9-:!5 anJl't
    .1 co lor composite in Color Plate q.:!. Thes e images ma~ be

    321

    R Env ironmental Considerations

    to demons tra te seve ral 1)1' the con cepts menrioncd.


    mthc muhitrcqucncy rad ar data reveals rap idly changing
    -usc patterns. and it als o demon strates the capability of
    dilicre m radar freque nci es (0 detect and pe netrat e heavy
    onn s. The to p Xcbnnd Ima ge has VV pola riva uon. the
    (-hand image IS IlV. and the bottom Lband image is
    ,A hea\y do w npour in the lo we r ccr ucr o f the image
    rs as a iliad. "cloud" in the x-band im age. more faim ly
    !he C-hand im age. and is im isiblc in the Lba nd image.
    hen combine d in the color cor nposnc. the rai n cell ap pears
    oN and ye llow. Although radar can usuall y penetrat e
    trough c1 0Ul!S, short ra dar wav el ength ( hig h freq ucncy ),
    has X- and C -band . can be chang cd hy un usuall y heavy
    cells. Lband. at ~".5 em (9 in.) .... avelcngth, is re lat ively
    rTectt'd b~ suc h rain cell s. Such information ha s been
    Oc:d 10 estimate rain fall rate , (N AS..\ 1PL, 19961 . O f'co urse .
    tere is very lilli e backscancr fro m the river in allt hre e ra dar
    go. causing it ru a ppe ar black.
    The area shown is in the state o f Rondo nia. in west ern B raThe pin k areas in the color composite arc pristine tro pi~ rain forest s. and the blac and green pat ches arc areas
    m..-re the fo rest has been cleared tor agri cultu re. Rad ar
    , mg can be u'>l;'d 10 monitor lIul on ly the rai n fores t mooion bur also the rat e\> (If rcccv cry of aban doned field s.
    kspoxtilln of the black and w hite images rev eals that as the
    savelength o f lhe rad ar prog resse s fW IlI X- to C - to L vband.
    to becomes easier 10 discriminate cl ea red land from rain for:10(, In the L-h:md bla ck -nn d- w hue imnge, the cleared land
    ~~a~ relativ ely dark while the rain fo rest appears very
    kighl. E\ idcnuy.thc cleared land comains sufficient scatterss lO cause il to a ppt'a r bngfn at X- and ('-band freq uenci e s.
    btl.: at L-Nmd frcqucncjes the incident energy 10 the
    tbrcd fiel d:> is re flected away from the radar rec e iver. The
    Qln forest appears rel an ve ty br ig ht in all images bec ause o f
    1) t!lt" tremendous num be r of leaves. branches, ste rns, and
    junks that <';,111 contrib ute ro ca nol') sur face sca ttering and
    rolume scattering v. irhin the ca nop y ( Lvband penet rates the
    ~alcsl d istance into tho: cano py and is bri ght.:r ), and 2)
    ttere is a high mo ist ure co nte nt in Ihe rai n fo rest cano py, furier increasing the amount of bac kscaner present in a ll three

    lan<h ('J AS:\ 11'1.. 19% ).

    Warer Response

    ro M ic rowave Energy

    Flooding oc curs in ma ny area s. and cloud cover obs cure s the


    tl'lIec liu n of dLlIll using olltica l and Ihl'nua l Sl'nSl,J~ . Fonu"h:ly, the s moo th sur tace o f st a nd ing wa ler rt'llects al most
    1I11he inci de nt mic-m .... a\t' radia lillO a.... ay fn.m lhe l>Cnsor
    unleSl> th~r e is a slrou g \IJI1 d .... ith 101.1> ofeh(Jp. which can

    Figu re 9 -25

    SJR-C/ X-S AR lina ges of a portion o f Rundunia,


    Hraztl, obtain ed on April W , 1'I1j4. al Xvband image ,,'illl VV polarization. b) C-baml image is B V.
    cl L-band image is H\', A hC'a \ y rain in lhl:' I" ....er
    cent er o f tho: ima ~e appears as a blac k "c1oud- in
    the- X-band image. more faintly in the C-band imugc. and IS invisible in the Lbend image. L-band,
    at ~ -\ em III in ) wavele ngth. is rc latively unaffected
    h)' such rain cells, A lso. the L'band image diffcrcnnates the pristine rain forest (hrighll tror nthe darker clear-c ur a reas beca use it pt:nClmtc's farther into
    Ih.: canopy. ('xpcrieneing grt"Jtt"r \ olume lOC8 n en ng.
    \Valer is <lark in al1 throx banJs . A color wrnpositc
    ('f th<:- three images is found in C<>lor Plale 9-2
    k.lI1f1e-;} 1\AS . \ Jet PruPIJ I~lon La b).

    322

    UI.-\PT Ut

    9'"

    Acti ve and Pas sive Microwave Rem ote Sensing

    ca use co nfus ion ), res ulting in lo.... c r backscatter than a UI)


    <urface. w hen stand ing water is present und...r vegetation, a
    uniq ue corncr-rctl cctiou back sca tter interac t ion betw ee n
    surfac e water an d tree ste ms resu lts in an extremely high
    bac ksc atter and allo ws inundation to be clearly mapped
    I Waring: .:1 al., 199 5). Fo rd et al. ( 198 6) demonstrated he ....
    wet lands a long the Sa vanna h Rive r appeared ~..s pccially
    bright compared 10 standing water an d other upla nd land
    COveTsuch as Lobloll y p ine. due to th is co rne r-reflector co nd ition oct.. . LOCII IhL' water and cy press- tupelo III:.: tru nks.

    L-hand rada r penetrates into hare. damp. smoot h soil 10 a


    maxima l depth of approximately 10 em. Shorter W3\'elengths pe net rate 10 only I - 3 em. In agricu ltural fields that
    have smoo th so il surfaces and biomass o fless than I mg ha.
    moisture co nte nt of su rfac e lay ers can be determined fair!)
    accurately' ( Wang et el.. 1994). O nce vegetation biom a ss
    exceeds a cenam limn, the abi lity o f rad ar 10 sense surface
    so il-wat er condi tions decreas es rapidly (Waring: et al., 1995).
    Under a den se forest canopy. the amount o f mo isture held in
    the leav es is so large that it imc rferes w ith any direc t assessm enl o f soil-wate r status (Jac kson and Sc hmugge. 199 1).
    Thus. the presence of vege tation over the so il surface ca n
    add consi derable compl e xity to measur ing ~i1 moisture
    using mic ro wa ve remote sensi ng tec hniques. Beca use the
    vegetat io n's Iransmi ss ivity decreases w ith increasing microwa ve frequency, it is be st to usc the lo nge st wa vel ength
    available for soi l mo isture mapp ing ( Dobso n a nd l.llahy,
    I lJ9i\ ). Th is wou ld he r -hand O. '" Il X em ) for aircraft SA Rs
    and Lsbund (A. .. 23 l:111 ) for satellite SA Rs. If the vegctariou
    b iomass is < 0.5 k g!m ~ , the cuccr o f the vegctntiou backs catte r may be igno red for like-polarized L band data. i.e., n ' n . .
    and a "HH. Unfcn unutely, when the biom ass is > U.5 kg/m ~. it
    is not cu rre nt ly po ssib le 10 dise ntangle the separ ate soil
    moiv tur... and vegetat ion buckscuuer comnbuuons.

    Urban Structure Response to Microwave Energy

    Urban bu ildi ngs. cars. fence s, bridges, erc., aC I as COffi n


    refl ector s that send m uch o f the incid.... nt energy hack to ward
    the antenna. Thi s gene rally results in bright s ig nat ures Cor
    urban phenom ena en the rada r image. Unfo rtunatel y. this
    ple tho ra o t'bnght returns is onen con fu sing in radar images
    o f urban areas es pecially .... hen Il the cardin a l effect ta kes
    place , and /or 21 the un agcry is o f relati vely low spatial rcso-

    luuon.

    FIQu re 9-26

    Ill... cardina l ...O..-C1 i~ re$JlOOsinle for the brigld


    nalure of poruons. ofSalllOl Monica and San ftl1llJdo in this S ll~>t IXSA R imap e of the I.O$A~
    basin uhlain..-..J on Octo ber 3. I 'N~. The 1000k dirlt
    non is fmm thcztop to the bottom of lhe image-Icc.
    l..~) I\ AS..\ Jcr Propulsion La boraro ryj.

    A S IRC/X-SA R ima ge of'Lo s Angclcs, CA , is found i n r~.


    lire 11-2(, It ha, ap prox imately J(J x 30 m resolution. TIr
    rad ar look d ire..' lio n is from the w p t<l the bottom of the
    imag e. O nly the major terr ain feature s can be rcsolvel
    including the free ways . major urban de velopment. the
    Pacific Ocean, and the mountainous terr ain. In general. his
    not possible to di stingu ish between commercia l and rcsiden.
    t ial connnuniues. I n ''''rl' ~ ti n gl y, there are some very hright
    p<l lygot1al ar eas ill the image . T hese are prod uced by Ih~
    rada r con lill" t lili'ct. Early in radar remote sensing ~5~mb
    it wa s nrsed tbar refl ections from urb an a rea s. often laid OIl
    a<:e<,rd lrt g to the cardina l po ints o f the com pass. caused sig.
    nificantly larg..-r returns w hen the linear fe atu res were illu.
    minat ed by the r adar en ergy at an ang le orthogonal
    (pe rpend ic ular } to the ir or ient at io n (Raney. 1998), Fa
    exa mple. 11K' re sid~'nl ia l comm unities (\ 1' San Fernandoand
    Sa nta Monica are for all practical purpo ses sim ilar in naum
    to othe r rcsidcuua l communiuc... in their vic inity (Figill\': 91 6) . How ever. d ue to the car dinal e ffect caused by tbOl
    uniq ue oricntanon relative to the SI R-C sen so r syste m al the
    time o f data eo llo:etion . Ihe~ appear in tho: radar image to
    contain land co..w th:lt is dram atica lly d itTerent from the

    SA

    RRemote Se ns ing from Space

    323

    a. Oblique photognuph of the Penta go n.


    ~ ure

    9-27

    b. Radar image of the Pentagon.

    a t l.cw-oblicuc aerial phUIO[:TiLpb of thc l'cruagon in Washingl,'n.


    tcsy Federation o f American Sdentislsl.

    nc t> , SYTIlhl.'lic aperture radar Imag e uf' thc I' .rua gon tcou rSAR Remo te Sen sing from Space

    residential communities found thro ughou t the Los


    I.n~cb bas in.

    ,-

    ,-

    es
    <u-

    ,rc

    "

    1.
    "

    is
    r-

    ha. been demonstnaled repeatedl y tha t two identical tracts


    urban land tc.g., two s ing le- family hou sing tracts] built at
    lit same time. with the same lot sb e. and using the same
    enerials w ill appear dra matically differen t from ,\I1e
    d er on radar image ry Hone is laid nu t in II d itfer cm onsanon than the othe r, e.g. one is laid ou t wuh stree ts tre ndIII northeast and on,' is laid ou t w ith stree ts trending due
    llJIth, Simi larly. the regu lar spac ing o f agri cultural row
    (l\Ip~ can prod uce a similar effect. Abo , the same parce l of
    shan land may appear quite different on rada r image ry
    ~u i r,-d o n h..o diffcre m da les if pract ically any of the sysen paramet ers are changed. es pecially loo k direction. Th is
    ~~s havoc when attempt ing to perform dig ita l change
    &.:(~cl i on using rad ar image ry.

    e
    h

    ,"-

    .,

    ,d
    ,

    ,
    ,

    !\D:\RSAT. JE RS- l. ERS-I.2, and Envisar ASAR wit h


    iJrJr rclati..ely coarse spalial reso lutions Hable q 11may he
    11'haltli: tor ob tain ing general L"'H:l I land c'over and land~\. inl'.mna llllll. When aucm puug tu extract Lc vcl H and III
    aban land cover and land -usc inforrnauon. optical remote
    ensor da ta is usual ly superio r. ll owevc r, if high spatial TeS(l/ution rad ar is available tc.g. from RAD:\RSAT-:~). thcn
    ku ilcd urban in fo rma tio n may ber extmc ted. For exa mple.n
    phl"llogmph anda high-resolution rad ar image ofthe Penta;0.111 are found in Figure <:J -27. Henderson and Xia ( 19l:J8)
    Jro\-ide examples of how set tle men t p.luems and socioecoiIOITIic infc rma uo n suc h as populat ion esumarcs rna) be
    extracted from radar dat a.

    The followi ng sec tion; summarize the cha racteristics o f the


    major satellite S.\R sen so r syste ms.

    Seasat

    Sca sat was laun ched b~ ~A SA on June ~ b. 1<:J7/i. an d function ...d lor 105 day s. 11 carried an L-band (::!J.5 crru act ive
    mic ro wave SAR at an altit ude Il l' XOO km. The- antenna was
    10.7 x 2. 16 III in dimension. It collected Hll -pola rizcd da ta
    at an lncntcm angle of 2 3 ~, It had a range resolution of25 m
    and an azim uth resolution o f 25 m. The swat h \\ idth \\ as 100
    km. The datn we re processed \\ ith "4 looks." Seasat had an
    or bital re peat cyc le of 17 days. Th c data were processed
    ori ginally optically and then dig itally ( b ens ct nl., 2lHlj ).

    Shuttle Imaging Radar SIR-A, SIR-B. SIR-C. and


    Shuttle Radar Top og rap hy Mission

    Severa l im porta nt scientific rada r msuumcms have been ca rried aboard 1\AS,,"s Space Shuttle and ope rated for a num ber of'days before return ing to Earth. SI R-A and SIRn we re
    la unche d 011 Nov ember 12. 19X1. and October 5. 14Xt
    respect ivel y, and we re in o rbit fo r 2.5 and Xday s. Both paylo,:uls con s i~t<:d o f an l -hand (2 3.5 ern) SA R.
    S IR-A had a 9.4 x 2.10 m antenna w ith II H polarization , T he
    incident angle was 50". Tit" sensor had a range and azimu th

    -,
    ( .'IIA I'I' ': I{

    324

    res olut ion of40 m with 6 10(11.;1>. The swath w idth was 50 km .
    Th e Sh uttle wa s in omit ,112('() km abo ve the Eart h. The data
    "CfC proc esse d op tically.
    S IR-B had a 10.7 x 2.11'1 m antenna with HH polariza tion . It
    had an incident angle of 15 - 64 0 lis azmnnh resolution was
    17 - 58 In an d its range resolution wa s :!5 m with 4 looks.
    The swath widt h was 10 - flO km . II operate d at 225 and 350
    km above the Earth. The data wen: proces sed both opt ica lly
    and digit ally .
    S IR.c " as a sign ific ant brea kthro ugh in radar remote scnsing . It wa s a joint proj ect between the Un ited Stales (N ASA
    JPL) and a consortium of European groups. SIR-C carried
    aloft a three frequency SAR : X-bamf (3 em). C-band (5.8
    em), and Lcband (23 .5 em). The three ante nnas we re pl aced

    on a common platform in the Shuttle bay. The L, and Cbands had quad polarizaucn [i.e . HIt BV. VV. and VlI )
    while the X -band ha d \'V polarizat ion. The incide nt angle
    wa s from 15 - 55 ~ . Th e range reso lution was 10- 30 rn. and
    the azimu th resolution was 30 m with ap pro ximately 4
    loo ks. The swath widt h was 15 - 90 km . It was flown at 22 5
    km above the ...:arth . The data were proces sed digi ta lly. This
    M"OJ

    the first lruc nndtifrequency: muhlpotarization space-

    borne SAR. Data from all three ba nds are exc ellent and
    widely available thro ugh JPL and ot her locat ions. Several
    e xam ple s ofSIR-C d ata arc found in this ch apter and in the
    color platc section .

    The Space Shuttle Rad ar Topogra phy M ission (SRTM) was


    launche d on Febru ary 11, 2000. and lasted I I days . It used
    C-band and Xcbaud interfe romet ric synthetic apert ure
    rada rs . S RT M cha rac teris tics arc discussed in the sec tion on
    rada r imc rfcromctry.

    RADARSAT and RADAR$ AT-2

    RAD AR $ AT wa s laun che d by [he Ca nadia n governme nt un


    No vem ber 4 , 1l)<)S. into a nca r-po lar, Sun-sy nchronous orb it
    79S km above the Earth. It has a dawn -to -du sk o rhit, meaning it c rosses the equ ator a t d awn anJ du sk (approxi mately
    ti:oo a .m . and p,m, loca l t ime) and is rarely in eclipse or
    dark ness. The or bita l incli nat ion is 9X.oG with a pe riod o f
    100.7 minutes and 14 orbits per day. It has a sing le C-band
    (5.6 em) active m icrowa ve sensor that transmits at 5..3 G Hz
    freq uency at a pu lse lengt h of-12.0 u s . The anten na size is 15
    x 1.5 m. Its polarization is ho rizon tal-send and horizonta lrccci ve (1111).
    Un like ma ny o f the o ther rada rs. RADARSAT pro vides a
    range o f spat ial reso lutions and geog raph ic coverages There

    9~

    Acti ve and Passive Microwave Rem o te sensing

    are sc ven image sizes, termed beam modes. summariza!


    Figu re ~-2!': and Table 9-5. Eac h bea m mode is defied
    the geographic area it covers and the spatia l reschnioa TIt
    bourn modes range from Fine. w hich co vers a 50 x ~
    area and has a I f) x 10 m spatial reso lution . to ScarrS.
    wide, wh ich co vers a 500 x 500 km area at [00 x loom.rial resolution.
    RAD A RSAT obtains da ta using. a range o f incident
    from less than 20 ( SIlOCp angle) 10 almost 60" (.
    angle). within each beam mode. a number o f incident
    pos itions arc a vailab lc ( Figure 9-28 and Table 9-5).1b
    are ca lled beam {H~filimu . For example, Standard bl3
    mode. whi ch COH~rs a lOti x 100 km area. has sc\enbem
    positions . By !>p'"(:if~ ing a beam position. one of scwlllOO
    100 km images wi th in a 500 km accessible swath 'oI-iD Ire
    co llec ted. Factors influencing the choice of beam
    incl ude the sensitivity of the application to incident ang.'t.
    type o f terrain , stereo req uirements. spat ial resoluti.:J
    desired. and how often co ve rage of the area is required.
    RADA RSAT's (lm it ha s a 2-1. day cycle. meaning it Tel'Jr:III
    to the same loca tion every 2-1 d ays . Ilo.... ever. it caD
    poin ted to provide a mo re freq uent revis u cycle. The ~
    also has the op tion o f collecting imagery based on two dlitcrent look directions . As RA DA RSAT descends from IX
    Nenh Po le (a descending or bita l pass ). it views the Eanha
    a westerly direction . As it asce nds from the South Pole I.
    ascen d 109 orbital pass ) it views the Earth in an easlelt!
    direction , This ca n be .... cry useful when wor king in ara;
    w ith high relief, when we arc interested in high lighting: fer
    tures with a parti cula r orien tatio n. and/or when the stud)req uires imagery acq uired in the early mo rnin g or earlj
    evening .
    RAD ,\RSAT-2 ls to he bunched in 2006 or 2007 (MD,-\,
    200(,n). It is has ma ny speci fications that are identical t~
    ]{,\[)ARSAT. how ev er. the re <Ire SO Il1C' very significant
    impro vem ents th;.)( make RA DARSAT-2 the prem ier canh
    ob serv atio n active microwa ve rem ote sensi ng sys tem. Firs~
    It is very import nm [(l mainta in con ti nuity in a scrics uf dedicutcd satellite rem ote sensing sys tems. T his allows manse
    applications to use the data prod uced hy the new sy~let1l
    Major coucidcrat lon s design ed to ma inta in co ntinuity WIth
    RADARSAT- l include the use of tile same altitude (i98 kml
    and o rbital path . an d all o f the Ccband imagi ng modes.
    Imp roved RADA RS.-\T-2 specifications incl ude a.IDA.
    2fHlfIah) :
    -c I s delay 10 switch be twee n imagi ng modes.

    325

    Remote sensing from Space

    ed in
    a by
    The
    km
    :SAl<
    pa-

    RAD:\RSAT

    1~ l c s

    110....
    ngle

    hese
    earn
    am

    x
    lbe

    c
    le.
    tion
    S~aoSI\R

    ~alT"'"

    ""
    be
    rscr
    :fifhe
    I in

    .,)
    an
    s

    eal<l}

    fqJre 9-28 The beam 1'TlOlk"!io and incident angJ.:uptioos fur acquiring RAD"RSAT dna.

    The size of the footprints provide information


    on the spaua t resolution. Reier 10Tahle '1.; for specifications (a fter ;\1D". 2nOnab ).

    ly

    - Fullpolari znrion imag ing mod es {HH, VV. vu.tIV ).


    10

    'Ill, h
    sr.

    '.~

    sensor that ca n look beth kt1 and right of nad ir, which is
    importa nt when lry ing to obtain da ta in an

    l'tI)'

    tme~ency.

    d-

    .re
    n.

    Ih
    oj

    \.

    L/,rafim.' beam mode (3.0 x 2A - J .4 m: azimuth a nd


    lIIlgt'. respectively]. which provides the hig hes t spatial
    rnolution of any commercial satellite SAR (Table 9-5 ).
    Ground swath coverage is limned [0 20 x :W km to keep
    die data rate .... ithin the reco rder limits. The set o f ultrafine beams cover any area ..... uhin the inc idence angle
    range of J O 10 .tOo. Images an: ge nerate d in a selec table,
    lingle pol arizat ion. Imp ro ved o bjec t de tec tio n and
    recognuio n enables a varie ty of new upplicmions
    incl uding de fense surv eillance and urb an ma pp ing at

    scales of I:20.00n \ Valltier Sanden anti Thoma s. 2004).

    M/Ii/i-Iook f ill j' beam mode, .... hich ob tain s data in the same
    s wath locat ions us the U ltra-line beam mod e w ith a spatial
    reso lution of 0 .9 x 7.4 - 9 .1 m: azi mu th and range .
    re spectiv ely ). Ho we ver. the se data have improved
    rad iom etr ic resolution becau se of multiple loo ks . The
    swath widt h is 50 x 50 km (Table 9-5 ). Data are collected
    in the incidence angle: range from 30 to 50. Multi-look
    fine-beam mode lmagl"S are gene rated in a single
    polanzauon.

    O nboa rd GPS receivers that mo nitor spacecraft position .


    \\ hrch yie lds more accura te geometric recrificauon o f the
    rada r image ry .... ithou t the need lor gro und -con tro l po ints
    (OCr ),
    First com merci al spaccb ornc SA R to o ffer quadraturepolarimetry (vq uad -pol ") capability whe re (lIIIJll i /mll' an d

    9~

    326

    Table 9-5.

    R..\ f)ARS:\T and R,\ nA RS:\T-2 beam posinon

    Operational
    Beam Modes

    Beam
    Position

    .:har~lI:h:rhli.:~( \ 1U.-\

    Inc ident
    Angle
    Pos itions
    (Degrees)
    JO--W

    Lhrafln e heam and


    ,\ 1u llip le-I........ fin e beam
    (only on RAn A Rs ..\T2 )

    30 - SO

    fin.,
    (5 J'<~i li ..ns l

    37 --4 0
    39 - 42

    ""
    "

    "

    S'
    S3

    S4
    55

    Tabl

    . 2(1(lf",l1 l.

    Nom inal Spatial

    Number 01

    Reso lu tion (m)


    [azimut h )( range)

    Nominal
    area (krn)

    Processing
    l ooks

    3.0)( 2.-1 - 3.4


    7.9)( 7.-1 'u

    20)( 20
    SOx SO

    Ixl

    IU

    50)(50

    .10

    100 x \00

    :0 - 27
    30 -37
    34 - -10
    36 - 42

    .,

    20 - 31

    W2

    J I - 39

    ISOx ISO

    WJ

    .W- 45

    1.'0>< U O

    Sl' 1

    :W - .w

    positions)

    S~2

    3 1 -46

    S ("llnSt\R Wi lk

    SW!

    ::(1 - 4<,1

    E\lcndcd Ilil.:h

    II I
    11 2

    4~ - 5~

    113

    52 - 55

    "'

    "

    11 5
    H6

    E\ll'lltkd I,m\

    II

    50 - 53

    3/1

    ]f>:" x]foS

    lx'

    ;0

    JI MI x JI WI

    2x2

    Hili

    ~ ( MI

    2 x4

    "

    \( 51)(1

    75 )( 75

    Ix4

    57

    56 - 5!'l
    57 - 5')

    1U-2 3

    or

    inform.uion arc retained. T here are a number


    uniq ue polarimetri c parameters thut ca n be derived from
    these dat a am l use d to dev elop an unders ta nd ing o f the
    features present in the radar inwgcry ll.'.g., co- polanved
    and cross- pola rize d rat io images: co -polarized corrcl arion
    coefficient im;lgl's) . Table IJ-Il summ arizes some ofth ese
    parameters and the expec ted rcsplJns~ for a spec ific type (,1'
    sur face I ~ 1DA, 2006h).
    flh l/.\!'

    1 x4

    24 -3 1

    \\ id l'

    (6 positions)

    45 - .IX

    (3 poloillllflSl

    !\urru ...

    xl

    .B _ ..t.

    57

    ~lI n ~A R

    "

    .11- +l-

    4 1 _.u.
    45 --N

    Sh

    (2

    SAR

    fJ
    f4

    SUnd"rd
    (7 pOMlIonsj

    Active and Passive Microwave Remote Sensing

    '.'

    I ~O x

    17n

    Ix4

    antenna and VV polarjzurion. It fu nctions wit h an ineider,1


    III and the azimuth
    reso lutio n i, .'w 111 with f> looks. II has a sw ath width of 100
    kill. It is in orb u appnl\ im' llcly 7X5 km above the Earth. The
    data arc processed digi tally . An identi ca l ERS-2 II:!>
    laun c hed in 199 5. FRS - I and r RS-2 have on occasion bee
    operated in tande m to prov jde image pairs for SAR interfercmctry research.

    angle of 23' . The range resolu tion is 26

    Europ ean Space Age ncy ERS-1 and ERS-2

    European Space Ag ency Envisat ASAR

    Th e Euro pea n Space Agency launched the ERS-I on Ju ly


    16. 199 1. It has a Ccband (5.6 crru SA R with a 10 x I m

    Launched in March I . 20m . Em isal i ~ the largest Earth


    Observation spacec ra ft eve r built. It carries 10 sophisticated

    327

    Remote Sensing from Space

    9-6.

    Several

    RA DA R S AT-~

    polarimetric pamtncrcrs and mtcrp n..t anon guid chncs , ~ lI)A, ~OObbl.

    Co- or like-polarized

    Cross-p olarized
    ratio

    rat io

    Param et er

    Co-polarized co rrelation
    co e fficie nt

    'Itrlfine

    it rbcr scalier

    low fors moOlh surfaceslending


    10 I as roughnes s incre ases

    Volumc sca tte r

    9-7.

    Discn mmauon betw c.....n surface

    Detection o f depolarization and double

    and volume ....altcring

    "",,",,0

    Vcry 10'" fur smooth surfaces,


    increases with surface roughness

    High-arnpluude (10'" depolari zation],


    small phase differe nce

    Rclarively high

    Luw-amplitudc (h igh depolarization).


    poorly defined phase diffe rence

    app roximately I

    EN\'ISAT Ad \arJC,-d 5} nlhc1ic Apertu re Radar (ASAR)

    ~p...cificali(lfls (ESA

    AS.,\ R , 2()()f,h)

    ASAR Mode

    Characteristics

    1IlI1II:C "Odl' (1:\1)

    30 x 30 III spatial resolution for the precision prod uct. VV or 111 1 p olarizatio n images from any
    of? selectable swaths. Swath width is between 056 " Ill (swath 7) and 100km (sv. ath 11 across-

    track.
    \lle rn a l i n~ rn h. rl ~ al ioo

    \ l ol'\(- (AI' )

    .l {J x

    jn

    m spatial resolution for the precision prod uct. Two co- regisu..red images per acquisiV. JlII,1IV. or VVNII.

    non. from any of7 sele ctable s";llh~. Polarization pairs possible: 11IW
    Wide 5"' luh :\Iooe (W 51
    Global !\Ionil"rin!: \1ode (C; \1 1

    Wa H' Moof' , \ , \')

    150 x 150 m spatial resohnion . Swath width is 400 krn. Po larization: VV or HH.
    Spatial rnolulion of 1(I()O )l 100ll m (vimu1h and range. respecti\elYJ for nominal prodcct,
    Up 10a full orb il or cover age . 11I1 or VV polarizatioo .
    Small imagcne tdimensions range between 10x 5 krn 105 x 5 lmJ is acquired 31 regular intervals of 100 km alon g-track. lr uagcue can be positioned anyw here in an Image Mod e swath.
    Pola rizatio n: VV or HH. hnagc uc s are converted 10 wave spectra for ocea n monitoring.

    u
    h

    o
    e

    ,s

    optical and radar instruments that provide co nt inuou s obscrIlion and monito ring of the Ea rth 's land. atmosphere.
    IteaI1S and icc caps (Tab le 9- 7). The Advanced Synthetic
    Apertu re Radar (A SA R) instru ment on board EN VISAT
    tltmds the mis sion of the Active Microwave Instru me nt
    :\.\l[) Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) instruments flown
    the c RS- 1 and ERS-2 sarenues.

    I.SAR uses a n ac tive phased-arr ay antenna, wit h incide nce


    egles betw ee n 15 and 45. Applicat ions for th is se nso r
    uclude the s tudy of ocean waves , sea-ic e ex tent and ruction,
    e d land-sur face stud ies, suc h as de fcrcst urion and dcsc niflation. In cont rast to the ERS- I an d -2 SARs, wh ich had a
    faed swa th po sit ion (23 mid-swath incidence angler,
    ASAR Image Mod e provides data acq uisi tion ill se ven dif-

    tcrcm swath posiuons (i.e. IS I co IS 7). giving incide nce


    ang les ran ging from 15 ~ to 4 5 ~ (Table 9- 1). One sign ificant
    ad vanta ge of h igh er incid ence angles is that terrain disto rtion is redu ced .

    JERS-1

    The Na tio na l Space Developmen t Age ncy (N AS D ,\ ) of


    Japan launched the Japanese Earth Resour ce Satellit e
    (JERS- I) on Febru a ry I I, I')92 . It wa s very s im ilar to the
    orig inal Scaset. It had an Lcband (23 .5 em) SA R with an
    Il.q x 2.4 m antenna and HH polarization. The incident
    angle "as 3':.l, Range and azimuth reso lution we re bo th 18
    m w ith 3 look s. The swath wid th was 75 k m. The SA R


    -,
    328

    Active and Passive Microw ave Remote 5ensin;

    C1L\t"It:R

    orb ited at app roximat ely 561\ km above Inc Earth. Th e data
    were processed dig itally. J ERS ] operation was rerrmnnted
    on Oc to ber 12. I'NK

    Aimaz'
    This SA R was place d in orbit by the former 50\1CI Union on
    Marc h 3 1. l INt. and funct ion ed for 1.5 years. II co nsisted o f
    an Scband 19.6 em) $A R with a 1.5 x 15 III antenna and 111 1
    potan vauo n. T he incid ent angle ranged from .10 - 00' .
    Range resolution w as 15 - 30 m, and azurnnh resolution was
    15 m wi th greater than 4 loo ks. Th e s w arh .... id th was !O - ~ 5
    krn. [I was placed in a Jon km Ofnit abo ve tho: Earth . Th e
    da ta \\ ere processed d igitall y.

    Radar Interferometry

    The previo u... d iscussion of s~ mheric ap ertu re radar systems


    was primarily concerne d .... ith collecting a sing le image of
    the terrain. II is possi ble 10 acq uire mu hip le SA R images o f
    me te rrain fro m aircraft o r spacecraft I(l extract valu able
    three-d ime ns ional and velocity in fonnauon. Imaging ra dar
    imerferomc trv is the proce ss w he-re by rada r images of the
    same- location tin the grou nd are recorded by anten nas at I )
    differen tlocutions or 2 ) different times (Madse n a nd Zcbker,
    1998; Ran us el al., 2003 : Hodgso n et al., 20(3 ). An a lysis of
    the result ing t.... (1 imcr fcrog rams a llow ve ry prec ise mea suremc nts ofthe range 10 any speci fic XcV"; point fo und in each
    ima ge of the inte rfe ro metr ic pa ir, Th e precis ion may be at
    the sub- wa velength scale.

    OIllCIl) ' and is ca lled 1I//llri,II.' -l'm .1 or repeat-pass intcrfm.


    ctry.
    In many ins tances, iutcrfcromcmc SA R data can pM
    topog raphic info rm.nion (.'9'':) that is j ust as aCCUrJIC a;~
    ital elevation mo d els derived usi ng tradiuona l optical p.
    grammcmc tech niq uel>. Howe ver. imc r fcrumetry C!t
    op erate thro ugh do uds, day or n ight . Th is is importaJl1
    cloud- ..hroud cd tro pica l or arct ic e nvironments or VI
    disasters st rike and one 1:00nl11lt wait for an utmosphcric a
    dow 10 obtain optical [photographic ] dna. Digital elc\
    mto rmanon derived from S IR-(' interferometric data are
    played in Co lor Plat es 9-3 and t)~ . The I:anogmphic ~
    munity is especially i nteres ted in interferometric SAR.
    Inte r ferom etric S.\ R ob tains digual elcv auon informat!oi
    the followi ng manner tJ PL. 1999hl. First. the t....o r*
    images mus t he pre<::ist:ly r...gisrc red . Then thei r geometr)
    such that the two radars and uny objec t on the ground I'm
    tria ng le [Figure 9-2%), If we Lnow the distance t~
    from each rada r to the IIhJl'Ct lin the ground (r 1 and r:~"
    d istance betw een the tv.u radars uhc baseline Rl and dIt
    ang le (If that base1inc . 0: (II ith respect 10 the horizontal). ~
    ca n U!'C trigono metry uh c cosine ruler to ..ralculare W
    h... ight. h, of one url he rada rs ubov c the position l\f thc objeC
    on the grou nd . Fro m Figure 929b we know that

    and

    toy the co sine rule,

    .... hic h is the sumc as

    Interferometric Topographic Mapp ing

    'lopog raphic map ping based on S A R interfe ro metry rel ics


    Oil acq uiring data (rum IWI! rhtfcrcnt look a ng les and
    assumes tha t the scene imag ed did not mo ve betwee n data
    acquisit ion s. Th e ev e measurements ca n be fro m two rada rs
    placed o n the sa me platfor mseparated by a few meters. T his
    is calle d single-pass i ll/aft'I1J III "" ) ', The first s ingle-pass
    inte rfe rometr ic SA R wa.~ lh... Sh utt le Radar Topo gra phy
    Mission (S RT "-I) launc hed nn h : brual')' I I, 2000. It had a ('.
    I'l a nd an d an X-ban d antenna in the ca rgo bay and a C-b and
    a nd an X-band anh:nn a att hc end o f a flO m mast ( Figure 929a ). Intcrf.:rome lry ma y illso ht" co nduc t...d usi ng a single
    radar that ol'lta ins two mcasur ...mcnts 011 d ilTerem o rbita l
    tracks that are c1O!iely sp aced hUI a day or so ara n. T his is
    the rncthoo\l logy used fur th... S IR-C a nd ERS- I.l inte rfer-

    We solve lor 0 , then for II (us ing II '" rl CO.~ 0 ,. This cnlculalion is repealed Il' r lvcry po int 011 the grou nd within t~
    image. If we determine the prec ise he ight o f one of ~
    rad ars a bove sea leve l. we can produce a ma p
    the surface
    hcig lns. It turns our that we can on ly preci sel y measure lhe
    relative d istance ( 1"2 1"1) Irom the phase diffe rence between
    clll'h pilir of fildar m.:asure ml-nts. Th i;; relative d istance can
    PI.' rt'lal.: d 10 thc hc i ~ht . h. aller SlIm.: addilional algebrJ
    (S IR-CE O hOl1le pa ge : J PL 1(1)%).

    or

    The Sp;.ll;'"Sh uttle Rilda r Tnp' lgraphy M i s ~ i on (S RT.\ l) used


    ('- band an d X,oolld interfcrume tric sylll hclic apc n ure radan
    I II'S ARs) 10 acq uire topog r:tphic d;lla o\"Cr RO pe rcent ofw
    Ean h \ landmilss Ixt .... l....n 00" :'II and 511" S during its 11 -~

    329

    rInterfero met ry

    'rum-

    In Ie rrc ro met r~S,\ R . 1

    t<

    ide
    , dig -

    1\

    1010-

    can
    t for

    - ben

    'I

    in-

    Ilion

    d is-

    om-

    nm

    rdar

    ::- is

    m,

    gel
    the
    the
    we

    ,.
    9-29

    b.

    a l Location " r the Cl>.and all<! X-toand anten na pain. on th.. space shuttle ",kd\'(Jr used '0 cone..:t imcr f....-olllctric data for the
    Shunl.. RaJ"r Topography \ 1ission (S RD,11. b) The geometric rela tion ship bctwccn ,,, ,, S..\ R S)stcms used for interferometry
    It! ('..tract l,~rarhic information (after :'>i..\ SA JPL I'N<.Ib).

    t he

    ec t

    !6)

    ton \l'ASA S RT \-!. 20(6). NASA J PL proc essed the C


    Inrcrfcronw tric data w hile the Germ an Aerospace Ccnprocessed the Xcband ime rte r ometnc data. Th e 101"0'"
    ic surfaces produ ced meet lmc rfcromcrric Terra in
    ~111 Data ( lT HD-l1 cpecifications. SRT\1 mapped
    Q7% of the l a ~eh:d land ill [cast once {11 1J.(lIlO.!J()(}km":

    OOOJ)(HJ mi: ). Thus. the li rst worldwi de collection or dig-

    !7)

    Sl

    a-

    "
    "

    :e
    te

    "n

    ekvati\lll data was acquired lIsing mterfcrom ctry, not


    ogrammctry, The ir nerteromctcr pa irs can also he of sig fi(a1\l value lo r man y Earth resou rc e applicat ions. R\ll!I ~l al. (:200 6 ) assesse d thc accur acy o f SRT Mvcd ele vat ion produc ts .
    !ll example Ill' a S RT M-u l' ri\'\'d d igi tal elevatio n mode l o f
    If wasatch front in Utuh is ,110WI1 in Figure 9-30a. It is

    /IIIl cd in perspe ct ive ~lIIJ is drupc d with a s ingle band of


    sal TM dat a. Color Plate 1)-5 depicts the SRTM-derived
    aof the Wasa tch from ;tS an anaglyp h and as a st erecpair.

    to the lnunch Il l' the S RTt-.l,l.y,: data were compiled


    a variety o f in sil/l a nd remere sen sing sources III proglobal DE~ s wuh a spatial resolution o f 30 arc sec ( 1
    I km) (e.g., GLO BE an d Gror o3 0). D F. ~ l S o f I arc sec
    ml (If 3 arc sec \ 110 111 ) were sti lllad.:ing for many part s
    lhe\\orlJ (Reb us cr aI., 10())), S RTM- deri\ed D E ~ls arc
    available fo r mu c h of the planet at a sp:ui al reso lution
    '3ere-sec f!X ) m j. However. a con-adorable amount of data

    have been proc essed 10 30 m . The data can he orde red


    through t he l'\ASA Jet Pro pulsion Laboratory,

    GTOI'OJ O1.1;11.1 arc maintained hy the USGS. A com parison


    o fa (;TO P{HO DEM and a S RT\1 -de riw'd DE,\1 o r Mou nt
    Kilim <1 l1ja w in Tanzania a nd Kenya is shu.... n in Col or Plate
    9-6 . Note hew much more deta il is available in the S RT Mde rive d d ataset for more e levatio n, slope, and aspect analy~i~ <1' well as dra inag e and geomorphic investiga tion s

    (Jensen ct al.. 20( 2).


    Private commercial companies a lso collec t lrucr fcrom ctric
    synthe tic apert ure radar (l FSAR) da ta , On e o f the most
    wide ly used is the lntcrmap Xcband Sta r 3i sys tem. which
    ge nerales hig h-qu alit y J x J III Xcbund mic row ave imagery
    plus a det ailed d igita l elevation mode l o f the terrain . A good
    exa mp le is shown in Figure 1)-3 1 with the X-hand image o f
    Bachelor Mountain. CA , onthe left a nd the di gita l elevation
    model on the right. O fcou rse, thc radar image and the O EM
    arc regislered. Such da ta a re very valuable lor lan d-use and
    land-co vcr an ,llysis as we ll as waters hed hydro logy stud ies,

    Interferome rric Velocity Mapp ing

    If the look angles o f multi p le da ta acquisitions are he ld constant. there is IlO sensitiv ity 10 topography. a nd the uucrfe rom ctry ca n be used to extract informat ion about things thai

    C1LWT ER

    330

    t:leu ri" n :\-Indd or lhe w ""alch hon t in na h Deri ved


    fro m S hLII II", Radar TOjH,gnphy .\ l i" j,," (SRT\ I) (Jata
    ()flIl"'tl .. llh t lu uh ll l Th ..matlr ;'Ilappl'r illl al(... r~

    Ili~i t al

    Active and Passive Microwave Remote sensing

    A s discu ssed in C hap ter 2. the Earth approx imates a 3(j


    blackbody .... ith a dom inant wa velength o f appro,'
    1J.7 urn. Wh ile the do m inant wa velen gth may be 9.7\1111
    co nt inuu m of energy is enuucd fro m the Eart h and tlle
    sp he re. In fac t. the Earth pass ively emus J. steady
    microwave energy, The o nly difference is tha i I) the Ed
    materials do not e mit a tremendo us am o unt of
    micro w ave ene rgy, and 2 ) w hat energy it does emit is.
    nve ly weak in intensity d ue to its lo ng .... avelen gth. '
    theless. a suite of radiometers ha ve been developed that
    record subt le, passive m icro w av-e energy, The in~
    measure the bnghm('u temperamrr of the terram IJ(
    atmosphere an d its co nstit uen ts,

    Passive Microwave Radiometers

    Pas..sive m icrowave re mote se nsing devices may he I)


    ing radiomet ers or 2) scanning radiometers. A profilingr
    om crcr simply stares at the tCIT:Iin d irectly beneath the

    Figure 9-30

    Pen.p.."Cti\ e vi... w of an SRTM-.derhl-U OE\I of the


    W~ sal ch Frnnl in Utah draped with Landsat n1
    baud 3 data. The C-oond SRT\{ data were ob tained
    Februa ry 1~ , 2000 (images cou rtesy NAS A Jet Propulsion Lab).

    hav e c hanged in the scene. Quant itat ive info rma tion about
    th e velocit y ufobjc crs lhal mo ved bet ween the two ob serv ation s ma y be ma de. Interfe rometry ha s been successfully
    ap plied to mea surin g mov em ent alo ng lim it lines, measu ring
    seis mic di splaceme nt due 10 eart hquak es. mapring glacier
    velo city. mo n itorin g ocean curr ents, and r ncaxuri ng wave
    spectra. In addition, inte rferometry can be used 10 determine
    ifmau-madc objects in the scene have moved. Thi s is very
    powerful for chan ge det ec tion purposes .

    Passive Mic rowave Rem ote Sens ing

    There is a great inte rest in the measu rement of passi ve


    m icrowave energ y to mo nitor some o f the more imp ort ant
    g lobal hydrologi c var iab les such as soi l mo istur e. prcc ipita rion . icc water content. and sea-s urface tem pera ture. In Iact,
    se vera l se nsors onboard l' ASt\'s Aqlld satellite lau nched on
    May -l . 200 2. inc lude specialized pass ive m icrowa ve radiom eters ~ASA A\'ISRE, 2(06).

    al na dir t or ot t- nadir if desired } and record... the rid'


    from .... ithin the instantaneous field o f vic.... of the
    Th e out put is 3 pro file of the micro wav e bri ghtnes s trmpclarurc n..co rded as the aircraft or spacecraft mo ves forw ard
    scanning m icrowav e radiometer is muc h like the ~
    thermal infrared rad iome ter d iscusse d in Chapter R. h at
    leers data across-trac k as the craft move, forward. The
    is a ma trix of brigh tness tem peratu re valu es that can be u'ld
    to con struct a passive m icr o.....av e image.
    Passi ve mic ro wave radiomete rs generally reco rd encrg;.
    the region betw een 0.15 and 30 em (between I and 2
    (; ~V:). well be yond the thermal infra red region (3 - 14 ~L
    The mic ro..... ave frequenc ies most commonly used arc cetercdm 1, 4.6, ]O, l X. 2 1. 37, 50, R5, 157, and 183 Gflz.
    T his means tha t it is theoretically possible to acquire multi
    spe ctra l passive micro wa ve imagery. The actual bandwidlhs
    (rung e o f frequencies ) recorded nrc usua lly fairly broads:
    tha t enoug h pass ive mi crowave energy is available 10 ~
    reco rded by the antenna , Similarly, the spa tia l resolutioaoi
    passiv e micro wave radiom ete rs is usually large so that sufficie nt energ y is collected wuhin the If'OV to he recordedb
    the antenna. Ain:ra ll sensors tlyln g closer to the ground1Ill)
    hav e spatia l resol ul illn s measur ed in meters whi le most S3lelhte passive microwav e scanning radiome ters have a spalla!
    reso lution measu red in kilo meters. The se nsor is actual~ I
    large antenna sc nsuivc tu pa ss ive mic ro .... ave energy.
    Spt'c ia l S4.' II..ur

    .\ l ic r() " a \ c/ hll a ~er

    (SS.\III)

    Une .If the first passive m icrowa ve sensors was the Special
    Sensor Mic rowavc lma gc r ISS M/1) onboard the Def~

    33 1

    slve Microwave Rem ote Sensing

    )0 K

    ucly
    m, a

    .mon of
    nh's

    sh e

    -etaver-

    ''''

    ems
    th'

    )li lJd i-

    , InlNTrldp SlaT 31

    nO

    nre
    sor.

    serI. A

    ing
    :01sult
    '>Cd

    :00
    nl.

    m-

    -l z.
    Iti-

    -hs

    so
    b,
    of
    foby
    ,y
    nial

    .,01.

    9-31

    X-h~rtJ

    lJll4!e.

    h. lr uerrnap digital terrain model &:rheJ from IFSAR data ,

    'i

    Illmcrmap Xh.1nd 'itJr ortborectrfied image of Hacbelor \ ""mllain, C.\ . h lllignal c!evali,m mndd 01 Ih<;< carne area derih'd u~in~ interfcromrtnc ~~lllhdJ': apertu re r,!lIar ( lI; S:\ R l le~ hn l <l u~", tcnhorcctificd i rnag ~T) ami GI"I."d Terrain Digi131
    Elevation " Iodel prt" ided h) lntcrmap Technolog !es. Inc I.

    l1roTolog k al Satellit e Progra m (D\.1 S Pj sutellucs since


    7. The De pa rtm en t o f De fense also rd\.'lht"s the data !O
    scientific comnumirv (Fig un: 9-3 2). T he 55 "" 1 is a fouruency, linearly polarized p:!ssi\ c m icrowave rad iom etric
    that mcasurcv <tlrlltl,pher io.:. oce an and terrain mien).
    Ie brightness tempe ratu res at 19.3, 22.3. 36.5. and 855
    I (Tablc <)-X), The SS \ 1/1 rota tes cominuoucly abo ut an
    pesaue !to the 10(':I! spal'l"c m li ve rtical and mea su res the
    clling scene bri gfuncss tcrnpc r.nu rcs . II is culibnucd
    g cold sky radintion and a hot refe rence ab sorber. Th e
    ,jlh is approximately 140(J kin. T he data an' conver ted
    sensor counts and trans mitte d to the Nauona l Environmal Satel lite. Data . and lnformution Servi ce (N ESDIS) .
    SSM/ I is a n excelle nt sen so r tor meas uring the hrigh ttemperature of VCl)' large regions. For example. a SSM..'
    lpassivc mi cro wav e image o f almost the e ntire Ama zon
    in is shown in Figure <}- j ::!.
    AA has de velo ped a 5S :-'1 I ra infal l algor ithm tha t utithe 1<5.5 Gill chann el III de tec t tilt" scattering of
    dling radia tion by precipitation-size icc part ic les w ithin
    rain laye r. The scattering tec hnique is applicable m er the
    anti the ocean . Rain rates ca n he derived ind irectly,
    on the rel at ions hip bet.... ccn the am o unt of icc in the
    layer an d ihc actual rainfall on the surface. In addition,
    !Ciltering-based global land rainfall lgoruhm has bee n
    loped. ~ Iunt hly ra infall at IOO x 100 km and ~ 50 x 250

    kr n grids ha ve been produced tor the period trom July, !lJX7


    to the preS<:111( Li c t 81.. IW X: I\SI IJC SS \V I. ::!{l()oj.

    T RJ\I" .' I i all\ \ :1\ e I m a~l' r (T :\I I I


    TIle Tropica l RalnfallMcasuring 'Yl issilln (TRMM) is Sptlllso red by NASA and the l'atilmal Space Developm ent
    A!!l'ney \ NA Sl JA ) of Ja pan til stu dy the tropical rainfa ll and
    the associated release of ene rgy that help s to power glob al
    annnsp hcric circ ula tio n (N /\S I\ T R M ~l 20(0 ). It carries
    li ve IIlStnltl len lS ant! was lnunched on Nove mber 2 7, 1<)<) 7.
    T he TR M \ 1 M icrowav e Imag e r (T Ml) is a pa ssive m icro wave sensor desig ned to provide quantitative rainfall informa tion over (I -11'\7 m ile (7 1'\0 k ill ) swath. I [ is based o n the
    design o f the SS l\l/l. lt measures the inte nsity o f radiat ion at
    five freque ncie s: 10 ,7 j45 kill spatia l rcso huionl, 19.4, 2 1.3.
    37. and K5.5 (I ll/IS km sp<l [ial resolution). Dua l polarizetion J [ fou r frcqucucics provides n ine channels. Th e 10 .7
    GII 7 frequency provide s a more linear response II)r the high
    ra infall rates common in tropical ramfall.
    Calcu lati ng the ra infall rates fro m both t he SS \ I/l and T\1 1
    Sen~()h requires comphc.ucd culculanous bec au se water
    bodies suc h as oceans and lakes emuonly abou t o ne.halfthe
    energy specified 11) Planc k's radiat ion law at microw ave Ire quenc ies. The refore. they appear III have only abou t hal f
    thei r act ua l tcmperat ure al Ih\," surf:l\.'e and appear WI)'

    Active and Passi ve Microw ave Remote Sensing

    332

    Table 98.

    Comparative operating charac teristics of SS MfI, .-\\1 SR E on Aqua, and AMS R on ADEOS-2 ( \lSmc, 2()116).

    Param et er

    SSMII
    (OMSP Fa. F10. su . F13)

    Tim e port ed

    7-()l,l-R7 to present

    r~ u l.'nc ie<>

    19.3, 22.3. 36.5. 85.5

    AM $R E on Aqua
    jQ4-.()2 10

    presen t

    6.925. 10,65. UP.


    HI'!. .\6.5.

    f ootprint , i7.... t" m j

    31)( Z!4 (37 G Hz)

    15 >( 13 (115.5 GIIz )

    74 )( 4 3 (6. '1 GHl )


    14 )( II (36.5 Gill)
    6)( 4

    "cold" to a passive microwave radiometer. Fortunat ely, rain dro ps appear 10 have a temperature that eq ua ls the ir real ternperature and appear "w arm" or bright to a passive
    microwave rad iometer. Th e mo re ra indrops. the wa nner the
    wh ole scen e appears . Research over the last three decades
    has made it possible to obtain relatively accurate ra infa ll
    rates based on the temperatu re o f the passive mic rowave
    scene .
    Land is very d ifferent from oceans in that it emits about 90
    pe rce nt o f its real temperat ure al microwave freq uencies .
    Thi s red uces the con tra st Ixtv. ee n the rain droplets and the
    land. Fort unat ely. high - frequ ency microwaves (R5.5 Gllz)
    are stro ng ly scaucrc d by ice pres ent in many m ining clouds.
    Th is redu ces the m icro wave signal of the min at the satellite
    and provides a con trast with the wann land bac kgrou nd.
    allow ing accu rate rain fall rates 10 be co mputed over land as
    wel l. A n example o f ra infall measu reme nt using the TR ~1 \1
    Mic rowa ve Imager is presented in Chapter 12 : Remote
    Sens ing of Water.

    The Adv anced M icrowave Scanning Radiomete r (A M5 R-E)


    is one o f s ix sensors onhoard AqulI (NASA AMS R-E, 2006),
    A MS R-E is a coopenuive e ffo rt betw een NASA and the
    Nationa l Space De velo pment Ag ency o f Japan. A MSR-E
    was mod ified fo r II 'II/(j based Oil the design o f A MSR nn the
    Jap anese A/) f:( ),)-] sarellue.
    AM S R-E is fl own in a pol ar. Sun-sy nchrono us orbi t. II is a
    six freq uency pass iv.: microwa ve radiometer that me asure s
    frequencies at 6.925 . 10.65. 18.7. 23 .8.36.5. a nd 89 ( IIV
    po larizatio n ). II has a mean spat ia l reso lution ufSA km at X9
    G Hz and 5<1 km at 6 .9 G Hz [Table 9-H) with a 1-145 km
    swath wi dth. T he Eart h-em itted microwave rad iat ion is col-

    ~~,O

    rsvn GHz)

    AM SR on ADEOS2
    121 4 021o pr~1

    6.925.10.65. 18.7. n.s.


    36.5. SO.3. 52.1!. 89.0
    74x 4]lb.9 GHzl
    14 x 8 (36.5 GH7.1
    6 x 4 (S9.0 Gll z l

    SS \IIJ l' as"h e\l k rcm llH' Im a ge of the Am alon BJIiI

    Figure 932 SSMIl 1'3ssive nucrowavc radiome ter imageofl!lr


    Amazon Basin obtained at a frequency of~ ~ GHl
    with, crtical potarizanon ~ CtlUrlesy D\1Sill.

    lcctcd by a pnrnholic refl ector 1.0 m in dia meter that SCll1S


    the Earth maintaining a constant Earth inci dence a ng l~ iii
    55 ". Si x data collec tion Ic cdhoms fo cus (he passive micro
    wave rad iat ion onto the six radio meters. Calibration H
    acco mplished by o bserving cosmic bac kground radiJliOl
    lind an onlmard wunn targ et.
    A MS K E measu res total wa ter-vilpnr con te nt. total liquidwater content. prec ip itati on. sno w-w ate r equi valent. loOi
    mois ture (using the 6.n 5 and Hl,M G Ill' frequ encies), setsur face temperature (S ST j, sea-surface w ind spee d, and saicc ext en t IN SIDe. 2006). Exa mple s (If AMSR-E dcrivtd
    sea-sur face tem peratu re (SST ) informatio n are provided R
    Co lo r Plate 9-7. T he SST surroundi ng Hurricane Katrirl
    A ug ust 25- 27, 200 5. is shown in Color Plate 9-7 b.

    333

    renees

    Fra nklin. S . E., M. n. La vigne , R. A. Wils on and E. R. Hunt.


    19114. "E mpirical Re lations lIe tween Bals am Fir Sta nd Co ndilio ns anti ERS- I SAR d ata in Weste rn Ne .... fou ndland... Cano-

    Re1erence s

    Jia" J""rn,,/

    "I R,'m" t.' S.'II I ing , :!o: 124-- 130 .

    er. K_R. l'JllR. SA R .\ )mh.'lic Ap t'rlll"" Radar - Ea rlh O/)


    inK S nlem. Vol .
    . ~33 p-

    nr, Whh mglun: I"A SA

    Instrument ee-

    .:r. K. R.. E. Elac hi and F. T, Ulahy. IQ1o: 5. ~'Il;rO"' a \e Ike Sensi ng from Space," l 'rYJ<:n J ing J of the / .
    ~6):1l70 _IN6.

    '"

    ~l . C. and F. T. Ula by, 1'198, - ~bp ping So il Moisture


    !lIslribulion wuh Imagmg Radar," Le.. is a nd He nders on
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    / Im"gmg Radar. -":Y;
    Wi1.:y. 40 7- .B 3 .

    \,t. C . F. T. Vlahy, L E. Pierce. T. L. Shan k. K. ~L Her-

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    ~

    !\ SAR, :!O()Il. A SA R

    u',rr'

    (;lIi<1.,. Eu ropean Space Age n-

    'y. hu p:/len \isill.o:,a j nllda ta prud ucl,.}asar 'C I"T R3. 1-2.hun.

    0-

    is

    '"
    .lIii

    ,,~

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    .J"''''.

    \,t. C . f . T. Ulilby. T. Le'Ioa n, A. Beaudo in. E. S. xab:hLe and ~ . Christensen, 199 :!. "Depen de nce of Ra da r
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    of

    He nde rson . f . \-1. and l Xia. ItN R. " Rada r Applicat ions in Urban l\ na lys is, Scule mem Detec tion anti Population Esnm alion : ' in Hend erso n and Lewis If'd s.l Pr mc ip lti'J an d .-1pp /icunons of ""'JIlI'I1l RtJ</".r. I"Y: Joh n W;1.:y, 733 -76 8 .

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    un. D, 1. a nd 12 co-a uthors. 2ml:'i, -scasar ~ 25 Yea r Legacy


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    Jp L. 1II4'/a, ShUll //' RlloI",- r;'I"'~""l'hy .\fj',l i"n , Pasade na: Jet

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    and B. Liutehus, I'N7. "tornmcrcial lmplicanons o f


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    JP t., I'I'I'/h. .lfo""fo 1: " ,,'" Hadarlmagmg Jfn,.,l;s: Imerj" nJl1Ictrv. l 'a ~ " d c ll a : 1<:1 Prop ulsion l ab. S IR-C Webs ite.

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    prop ulsio n La b. hUp:I!"" w- rad ur.jpl.uasa.gov /s rtm.

    Ka )isch lo.e. E. S .. G A. ~lc: atluw s and I'. L. Jackson. 19 11 4. Tit /!


    u..... ,ifSy" lh<'lk Ap .,-turcR",I",' 10 1J.'lecf f!<.:"rds 10 N'lI'igalion. Ann Arbor : Envrronmcr nal Research Inst illite of Michigan . Pubhc a tio n /I 169100-2 -1'. 19-1 p.
    L...bert . f. W. 1'/'10. Rad,jrgr<lmmetri, ImClX" PmceHmx. N or-

    wood: An cch Ilouse. 5Q5 p.

    ra

    J. P. J, n C im ino , B. Ho lt and M. R. RUL~k. IQ86 . Shuufe


    Imaging R...iar fi"ln Ih,' hlrth)m." Ch,llIeng ..r: S IRR Experimti' f/I. Pas aden a: ~ A SA Jet Propu ls io n Lab . 135 pp.

    Li.lJ_. R. Ferr aro and 1" . C . Grody, IW X. " Deta ile d Ana lysi s of
    lhe Err or A ~ s<x ia l<.-.J .. ilh the Ra in fall Retric\ c d b y the

    C1L\PTEK

    Act ive a n d Passive Microwave Remote Sensing

    Rainfall Algonthm: I' ;H! I:' j"uOI,1I


    G,oplr.pic'll R.vc-arch, IOJ\ I I ):4 1"1-417.

    Peake. W. II , ami T. L. Oli \<:r. I' H I, Rt:~p<m.", vjT"rr".itn:tJ1


    ;;" ''-' ,if \(i, 'm "" n '" Fn'I/'I', ,,d.... Ai r Force Avi Ollic~ Ii
    port o1T H_711_~ nl. L'olum bus: O h io State Univ.

    334

    ~ O.-\ "'\l ES U I S SS ~ I/I

    Mad sen. S. ~ , and II . A. Z.:hki: r. lWI'\ . " Imaging Ra da r lnte rfc romctry," ill He nderson and L..." is IEJs. , f'r mn p r..,. " nd .tpptt,',11;" " ' ,!/!m"J.:"'J.: R,lcI" r. ~Y: John Wi lc~'. J~<.j-3 S 0 .

    Price. A .. I ')<)0, - r yes of Engla nd," A ir.t Spact', 5(4)

    ~:

    Rd "U~ ,

    \ kG lun c, J. C. 2U114. .\I,.1I11' <I{ oj rll<Jt,,~r<lmm<,~. Sth Ed .. Be thcsda : ,\'\P & RS. 11 51 p.

    \ l ll;.hail. E. M. Bethel, J. S. and J. C . ~kG l onc . 100 1, Int mdr,,"


    li"n t" 1I,..I.m Ph" ' f11:rlltnm.'/ 'J '. NY: John \\l iley. 4 N p.

    11.. Emeder. M.. Roth. A.. and R. Bamle r. ~OO3,


    Shun le Radar To~...gra phy M i ~s i on - A Ne llo Class ef
    Ele vation \ 1<1<I0:Is acquired b) Spacebome Radar,"
    )1>11"''''/ ,,; 1'/'''''' KrU''l1l1t'try ,( R."",t<, S.'miIIK. 57;: 41-

    \ 10 ..\ . :!()()('.a. RADARS,fT}:

    Raney. K.. 1'N >i. " Radar f und .l me nta ls : Iechnical PmptClJ
    He nde rson and Le .... IS t Ed~ .I . I'rm eipl... " nd .4pp/r(
    lmd~ mg R" ,I" r. ~Y: J...h n Wile-y, -l:!_-l3 .

    MOA . l006 b.I'" /,,n m(,tr i. , PoIr,m ,"'.'rJ. Canada: \I D,\ Geo spa tial S<"I"\'I.:(',. hnp:/ ".-ww ra da Nllf:!in foi .

    ROOrljlUl"/.. E.. \1UfTis. C, S. and J . L !kIt.. :!oot>, ~A Globa!


    Sl"l's/lll"nl"f lhc S RT M Perf ormance," Phorngrram>n(fnf;
    gmt't' rm~ <\; Ik mn' l' St'", i,,>!. n (J 1 : 2 4~- :!(,().

    '''''''''<11;0'' in EIJr/I/ Ofown"<Jlw" .


    Lan ada : "I DA "e",-kcs, hl1 p:l .. w w . radars..:1I1.in(e>.

    Moor e , R. K.. 1910. " Imag lng Ra da r Sysl..rns,' .\lumm i of R.


    mOl,' Srmi,,~. ~nd Ed .. R Co lo.. e ll, ( Ed . t. Hethes da: ..\ S P& RS.

    r. F. 1<N7, Rt'"'''''' .~,,,, i"g. Principle.< ""d Inr"P'"


    ''''". .t nd Ed., \lY: Freeman. -l~ J p.

    Sab ins.

    -l~ ~ ~-l 7-l ,

    S ASA ,\ \t RS. E. l [)( lh. ,AI/WIIICN/ ,\ /iCI"(IW(/ l"f' Sconmng Ra -

    dmmeter; 'vlarshal S pace F Ii ~ht Ce nter. http. z/www.ghcc.msfc.nasa.govr/\ M S RI.


    ~ ASA

    J PL. 1~'I('. " Bra/il R,II11 forest: ' at Im"g"',1!. Radar Humo'

    !'uK" ( Im p: ' " "

    " .j p l , go~ ) .

    :'>lASA SR I \t, ~ H1 I('. SI"'/l l.' R"d" r TOl'oXr<Jpl'-' .\!i.-l im l. Pas a-

    den a: Jet Pro p ulsjon Lab .

    h ll p : II\\'\\'\\' 2 .jp l.n "~1I. goy/sn lll/i n .

    dex.luml.

    NASA JRMM . ~ H()6 , T/1Jl'i"' ,{ Ru i,!/illl ,.\{cu.' l/ l"ill g Mi.H i ml.


    Il<'!ls\'ille : Goddard Sp an - Hip ht Cen te r. hnp:/ 'lmml.gsl i: ,
    nasa. j,w v.'.

    ..1",.,,,,,','<1

    NS IDC . ~ llI l ft,


    ,1(i('n> \I'I/\ '" SC(/II/Iing Radiomctrr
    /14 M.W; f:'). Boulde r: Nal iu na l Srlt'w and lee Dalll Ce nte r. http:
    I/ns id e.mg/Jal.. 'docsdaac ams re_ In' lrumenLg d ,html.
    ~ SlJ) C

    SS,\ lI l. !UOh. /) \{\'f' SS W I f" JlIi(illda Dmh' E".-IS/A.ind

    Il I'iKhm,'. -';'11I1',,." 1"1', ,., Boulder- t\ al i'llla l Snow and tee

    I)ala ( "en ter, hll p:llnsr dc.nrg 'dai a/ns i,k -llll.l! .him I

    S un, G an d K J. Ran",". I' N5. - A Tbr ce -dirn cnsionel RD


    Heck sca tter \todd I'm f ur<;,s1 Ca no p ie s: ' !Eff Traor'adl
    ,," G" ..!",i<-I/n' //I I J R,'1II0h' S,II.,mK. 33:3 7 :! ~ 3 8 ~ .
    Vall ,tt:'f va nd en. J. J. and S , J. Th om as ( Ed s.I, 2f1(l-l. AppllC
    "oltntwl ofRA DA RSA T~ - S fll'p h m." , On t'oOua ...va: r
    ( " 'nl re for Remote Se nsi ng. 115 p\\':1I11l. Y. E. S . Kasischl..e. J. \t o Md ..ek. r; W. [)a ~ isandli,
    C hri ~l ~'",e n ,

    1"')4. " Th e Elf.'c ls o f Ch ange s in L,)hloll) fa


    Hiornnss and Sllil Moisture on ERS I SA R Ba,be atler:Ri
    molt' S<,II.W I,C " f hll\ ';I1}}", ,,I1 /. 49:25 - J 1.
    Wang. Y.. E. S . K l.~i'c h~ e. F. W. navis. J. 1<1, Mela ck and;.J, L
    (')l ri ~l ell 'ell , 1'1') 5, "T he Effects of (" ha n ge~ in r otc n i~n1J:ll
    <111 Radar 1I.Ir ksc.utc r f W IlI Tre e Cnn opics." /1II..nw/;wu
    .hJllr1Ii!l 0/ R.'lIlo'" S" II\1tI.~ . I ft : ;\ OJ -5 1~.

    Wa ri ng. R. I1.. J. Way, F.IL Hum . L Morriss ey. K. J. Ransonl


    F, Wcivha mp el. H, Or C-11 and S. 1:.. Frank lin. 1'/<) 5, - Jmagll!f
    Rada r fo r Eco sy stem Suuhc s." 8/u.'it'!ell:. -l5( IOI:715- m .

    LlDAR Remote Sensing

    10

    'J

    -rne

    igilJI

    ';PRS

    :,":"

    le\ alioll, ~nl~~a~i~n i~ a cri~ical ~on.lp\mC~1 of ~ cogl"3Jlhicdalah~scs ".scJ by


    many agencies (c.g., DOD. _000 , r EM.,\. ..004. USGS , 2(06). It IS so smportent that a Nauonat Digita l Elevat ion Program (~OE r) wa.. established to
    enhance data sharing among fed eral . stale. and local agencies. the co mmercia l sector, and academia 10 minimize redundant elevation data produ ction
    I~DEP. 2(06). These data are used in numerous practical appli cations suc h
    as 1100d LOrn: mapping. regional plann ing. and util ity s iting.
    :\\<.'1:>1 ele vatio n data arc stored in a d igital e te varion mood thai can be anaJYl CJ in co nj unction wuh ot her ~piJ(ial data in a G IS. A ,Iixitu! elevation
    "'mid (DEfo. l ) is de fined as a file o r da tabase co nta ining ele vation points over
    a co ntigu ous a rea (\ !ilk-r. 2()O.J: Ma, 2 (KI ~ I. DEMs may he slIndl\ ided into:

    a dar
    /<111'<

    J. dig ital S III!llCt> models (OS \ ') that contain ele vation info rmat ion about
    all featu res In the landscape . such ;I S n- gelali<>n_ nllildi ng... and other
    struc tures: and

    2.

    di.~lflll

    terrain nlf l(/t'/I (Dl \ ll that co nta in eleva tion information about
    the bare-Earth surface withou t the influence of \ cgctarion or man-made
    structures.

    Four major technologies are used to obtain elev ation information. includi ng
    (Bossler ct 31 . 2(02 ):

    I. l.
    :>ino:
    R.I.'-

    . 1..

    ill ,~1fI 1 survey ing:

    plHltngrllmml't ry (Chapter (,):


    lnrcrfcromctric Sy nthetic Aperture Radar (I FS:\ R l, (Cha pter l) J: and
    Light Detection and Ranging ( L1 DA R).

    J.

    m,
    9,

    III sstu survey ing using co nventional surveying (e.g. tolal stallon) or UP S
    instrumen ts ca n yield ,KCU rJte X,V,.: intonuurion. However. field surveys arc
    time-consuming and cxpc nsivc on ;1 per-po int basis. Even \\. ith (iPS msuu mcms. it is often difficult tor surveyors 10 nhtaiu po ints in thick undergrow th.
    Due to these obst acles. the densi ty O h .l': observations obt ained in an urcu is
    sometimes low. It then beco mes necessary to imcrpokue between dista nt
    points 10 produ ce a digital terrain mod el ( IHf\ 1) oft he area.
    Photogmmmctnc tec hn ique s an: routinely used to co llect ,l , I'': topographic
    info rmano n. Photogramm crric su rveys ca n mar large areas dur ing the lea f-

    335

    tnMl " ;lu.,n o.' J.I UUIIll:>J ;I~ .~s l nd ;1111


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    338

    10

    LlDAR Remote Sensi"'l

    LI[

    u.
    Table 10- 1.

    ("haradcrisllcs of L1DAR.Ja1a collected on the Sa vannah River Site on Octobe r 10. 200t

    Vend or

    Date

    pe r sec

    Sanborn. Inc.

    Optcch Al TM

    10-10-04

    50,000
    tSOk Hl)

    20~

    Nominal

    Pul ses

    UDAR
    sensor

    Wave length
    1046

    om

    Scan angle

    post spacing

    ;t1O

    C:Vl."ry J() em in r and}

    "i n

    a:
    ((

    th
    C
    te

    r,

    craft (h) AGL. th e instantaneous angular scanning speed


    (a...., ) in radians per second. and the instanran..-ous scan
    angle 10_> [ Baltsavias. 191)()b ):

    the scan angle orthe U DAR atj he lime of' the l ascr ~

    a
    o

    the effect o f atmos pheric refraction on the speed of light:

    I
    I

    (1O-5)

    Actual sampling dcns itic-s for an I1rt'<I also depend on the forward speed of the aircratl . Typical sampling densities on the
    2
    ground range between I po int ~r::!O m ~ to 20 po ints pe r m
    for a Ilying height o f 1000 rn ( Bo land .:1 al . 2()()4). These
    hig he r densities are typically ac hieved usi ng multiple overlapping Ilighthnes to cover the study area. The observed
    grou nd returns arc almost always less than the num ber of
    em iued pulses.

    the laser pulse travel t ime from the UDAR instruI:le!l


    the larget (ground) and lu ck.
    It is useful til delv e more deeply into several ofthese patm"
    eters. For the purposes o f discuss ion, we w ill use UD..IJ
    data of the Savannah Rive r Sue nea r A iken, SC collected
    October 10. 2004. The data " ere acq uired using a U DAl
    that transmitted ;O.()(M"} rll l ~s of near- infra red (\().16 iii
    11I"",r light pe r second, The UDAR data acqu isition ~ii
    cations arc surmu arizcd in Table 10-\ (Sa nborn. 2005)

    LlDAR Laser Location


    T he ma ximum u lT-l1<Jdir scan angle ca n be adjusted to meet
    the needs of a data-collection m ission. Th e grea ter the sca n
    angle off -nad ir. the more \egetatinn lha t will have to be penetrated to recei ve a pulse from the gro und assum ing a unifo rm canopy (Figure Irj-!c). U DA l{ data may be used 10
    prepa re dig ital terrain or surface models such as the one
    shown in Figure 10-1d which was used tu ldemify the op timum locanon for a ne w railroad line ncar Aiken, S (' (Cowen
    e t al., l OOO).
    LID.'\ R remote sensing avoid s the proble ms o f aeria l tn nngela tion and onhorccrificauon discussed in Chapter 6
    because eac h UD Al{ pu ~t i llg is indiv id ually georcfcrcuccd
    (Floo d and Gutclius. 1(jl}7 ). However. it takes subs tantia l
    processing 10 tum the lase r ra nge inform ation into gcorefercnced masspoims. Some of the most im po rtant vari ables
    used in the processing incl ude:
    the .t,I''': location o f the laser in three-d imensiona l spac e <It
    the time ofthe lnser pulse:
    the att itude (ro ll. pitch. and head ing] o f the laser OIl the
    time ofthe laser pu lse:

    lt i ~ import ant to know the exact loc at ion o r the U DAR jse
    at all rime s during data co llect ion. This is accomplisbcrl
    using Differcnuat Global Posit ioni ng Sys tem (D GI'Sj led\llo logy. lXi l'S is based on the use of tv.0 G PS rcc civ crs ue
    simulruucously record pos itiona l information. A tcrrcstria,
    (i I'S ba se station is located ;1\ a n accurat ely surveyed lea.
    tiou with well -docum ente d .r, y. and a-cocrdiuatcs. Thee rrcstr iu! ba se s t.uion record s its G I'S position for the duration
    of t he UDAR da ta co llectio n mis sion . The second GPS
    receiv er is located . HI the airc raft and record s the LlDAR
    antenna position at all times du ring data col lection.

    A tier the U DAR d ata an: co llected. the data from both GPi
    units (one on the grou nd an d one in the ai rcra ft) arc post-processed alo ng with the !.: nm\ n loca tion o f the base 5taliOG.
    ante nna. T his process de termines the exact location ofthc
    airc raft 's ante nna for the ent ire fligh t. The accuracy oftbt
    aircraft position is typica lly < 5- 10 cm, and is OU[PUI in units
    of latit ude, longitude. and ellips" idal height in a WGS S.l
    coordinate system.

    339

    RPrinc iples

    R Antenna A ttitud e (Orientation)

    lII."(:c:>~af)'

    be :

    1.1 1M, I~ Returns

    to have accu rate L1 DAR ante nna orientation

    (?-ii ,~

    auu n (roll . pitc h. a nd hc"Jing ) ar all times duri ng data


    ion. This is mea sured h)' an inertia l measuremen t un it
    I). The I\'I V uses ro ll. pitch, and yaw g )fOSCOp.:S and
    . accele romet ers 10 measu re the orientation o f the
    :\ R antenna at tho: exact moment ev ery pulse is transmitJlId received. Aftcr the L1DAR da ta are collected. data
    the I\1 U is pos t-processed along wuh the GPS-dcri\ed
    na position data to (llIlrUI a file ind icating the trajectory

    -""F

    ' .'1

    pulse A

    pu lse B

    ic aircraft and the laser antenna at all limes during the

    It;
    11

    to

    am-

    AR mission . The outpul ti le docume nts the pos ition of


    nrcraft {latitude. 1\1f1gitude. and e llipsoidal hei ght) and
    orio:nfalion (rol l. pu ch . and heading]. indexed by G PS

    R PostProcess;ng of Multip le Returns

    IA R

    Jon
    ':\ R

    -tm)
    ~i1i

    .ser
    l ed
    chhut
    ia l

    far we have col lec ted GI'S data. I\tl U data. and se nt
    received laser pulse s. 1I0w arc these data turne d into
    I elevation values at specific .r ,I" a nd locations on the
    :c of the ta n h'! Th is is accomplished thro ugh lI DA R
    -proccssmg wh ich tak es place after the aircraft has
    Postpru~cssing software is used to associ ate I )
    AR antenna X ,I'.:" pos ition. 2) antenn a roll. pitch. and
    "orientatio n, a nd 3) LID AR range (d istance ) in form at io n
    a set o f latitude . lo ng itud e. and altitude (x,v.=) coordtfor each L1 DAR retu rn . The outpu t is typica lly in a
    pact binary format o f W CiS S4 coordinates. with options
    convening the out pu t to ASCII fonn at s and/or UTM
    rdinatcs. Nul,', let us co nside r the chaructcris ucs of the
    iDAR dat a.

    e r-

    ""

    llD.\ R Returns

    P5

    ,"
    '5
    0-

    m
    ic

    rc
    ts
    i4

    mentioned, a pulse o f laser energy c:;; iting the trans m itter


    directed toward the terrain at a ce rtain ang le by the rutat ~ mirror. Depend ing upo n the altitud e of the UD AR
    rumem AGL and the a ng le :11 which the pul se is sent,
    n pulse' illuminates a ncar-circula r area on thc grou nd
    led the inxtantunrons laserJontprin t. e.g. 30 em in diarn[Fig ure 101 a ). Th is single pulse ca n gener ate one return
    multip le returns. Figure 10-2 depicts ho w multiple returns
    ght be produced from a single pu lse . A ll of the energy
    -itni n laser pulse A interact s w ith the gro und . One wou ld
    ssumc tha t th is wou ld ge ne rate' on ly a single return. How:'off. if there are any materials wha tsoever with loca l re lief
    -shin the instantaneo us laser footprin t te. g.. gr ass, small

    msrauranccu,
    laser

    footprint
    Figure 10-2

    I low muhiplc relums are generated from a single


    ofla ser light.

    pul~e

    roc ks. t>,>,'igsJ, then there will he mult iple returns. The hI
    will come from these mate rials that have local relief
    (even on the o rde r 01'3 to 5 em) and the 2n d and perhap s lus t
    retllrll wi ll co me fW111 the bare- Earth. A ltho ugh not idenrical, the ran ge [dis tanc e ] associated with the first and last
    return s will he very similar.
    n.'/1I1"/1

    Laser pu lse !J encounters two part s o f a tree ut different clc \"at icms and then the hare Earth. In the ex amp le. pan o f pu lse
    8 encounters a branc h at 3 m A(i L causing so me ofthe mcident laser p ulse to be bac kscauc rcd toward the UDA R
    receiv er. T his is recorded :Is till' tsr ft' lllrll ( Figure 10--2 ). The
    rem ainde r o f the pulse continues until at2 m AG L it e nco unten; another branch that scatters l'nergy hack toward the
    UD AR rece iver. T his is recorded as the l nd tt'rtlm. In this
    ex ample. appro ximate ly one -hal f o f the pu lse finall y rea ches
    the ground. and some o f it is backscancrcd tow ard the

    34 0

    L1 DAR rece iver. Th is is the I..w ref il m. If we wanted infe rrnation about the heig ht o f t he tree and its struct ural characteristics then we oul d 1'10: interes ted in the 151 and 2nd
    returns assoc iated nh pulse B. lf we arc only interested in
    creati ng a ba re-Earth d jgunltcrrain mode l then we woul d be
    especi ally interested in the las l return assoc iated w ith pulses
    .-I and B.
    Th us. each laser pulse tra nsmuted from the airc raft ca n y ield
    mu ltipk return s. Th is is re ferred 10 as multiple-return
    HOAR data . Pos t-p roce ssing the original da ta res ults in sev-

    era l LJDAR tiles co mmonly referred to as:


    1st return;
    possible intermed iate returns;
    last retu rn: and

    inte ns ity.

    TIle masspoims assoc iated with each return file (e.g.. lsi
    return) arc d istribu ted throu ghout the land scape ar various
    densities depending upon the scan angle. the number of
    pulses per second transmiucd (e.g., 50.000 pps). aircraft
    speed. an d the materials that the lase r pu lses encountered.
    Areas on the ground that do not yield any Ll DAR-relUm
    data arc referred to as data vo ids.
    Data co llect ion ve ndo rs del iver U DAR data acco rding to
    user specifl cuuons. For example, the Savan nah Rive r Sue
    UD AR retu rn dOl la we re delivered in ASC II form at as :

    CII.\I'n:H;

    10

    L1DAR Remote Sensing

    Extraction of Firs/' Intermediate, and/or Last Retum


    Digital Surfac e Models (DSMs)

    Massmnms assoc iated .....ith the las l returns from the UDAl
    m ission Ilown ov er the Savanna h Rive r Sue on October
    ~004 arc shown in Figure 1O-3a. Note the distribcnce
    density o f these po ints. Each masspoint has a uniqut'
    1\'1(,: <l tl(IO. Care ful e xaminauon re veals tha t the last
    dataset con tai ns points de rived from mu ltiple. evert
    flighthnes oflast-rerum U DA l{ data. In an interactive
    purer en vironment. .... e co uld cl ick on the individual poUt<
    Figu re Io.3a and ob tain the elevatio n . This is usefu l but
    not revea l any elevation patterns in the dataset. Therefce.
    is common to usc sev eral d ig ital image proces~ing m
    mq ucs to e nhance our unde rsta nd ing o f the mas
    dat aset. For examp le. the individ ua l masspoirn s were
    cessed u~ing in\ crsc distance ..... eight ing ( lO W) interpo!3lii
    log ic to c reate a raster (grid) of eleva tion values C\'cr:- 0':=
    x 0.~5 m (Figure I0-3b) (refe r to Je nsen (2005 J for a diiCiF
    siun of II>W). The intl.'rpolation process creates a dig/lei
    fa\(' moJ.-I I DS ~ l) which contains the ele
    characteristics of al l the tr C'CS. shrubs. and man- made SlIlI:.
    tu res. The brig hter the pixel in the DSM . the greater tbe~
    vation . Fo r e xample. the bu ildi ngs in Figu re !o.3b ~
    higher than the surround ing gro und th ere fore the build~
    a rc brighter tha n the gro und . The or ig ina l masspomu IIDl
    been o vcrlaid o nto the IDW dig ual surface model for i1l!lnative purp oses in Figure Ht-Jb. Many sc ientists emil
    DS:\1s using a tr iang ular irregular net" ork (T I!\J)data SIm:
    tu rc (to he sl1\1" n later).
    The U DAI{-JerivcJ [DW USM can be made even casit'l"to

    time o f day. .r-cunrdinntc, j-coo rdin atc. a-coordin ate. and


    intens ity.
    The si mple ASC lI format makes it stra ightfun.... urd to input
    the UDA R data into a G IS for ex aminat ion and ana lysis.
    The UJ)..\ R ret urns were processed by the vendor into scparate files u f:

    1st returns;
    last returns ; and
    bare-Ea rth re turns .

    Bare- Earth return s .... ere derived from tile li rst and last
    returns using a pos t-processing proc ed ure (to be: disc ussed ),

    interp ret by appl ying J shaded-relief algor ithm that high


    Ii ght ~ the terrain as if it were illuminated by the Sun froma
    specrflc direction ( c.g .. from the northw est ). An examples
    presented in Figure IO.k . The or ig ina l masspoinrs hare
    bee n overlai d o n the shaded-relief display fo r illustratia
    purposes. [)ra p ing masspuims onto onhophotog raphy is al' l\
    very usc ful t Figu re 10-3..1).
    Most LI[)A R p rojects generate som uc h data that it is necesary to subd ivide the d.ua sct intu t iles. w e ha ve been u amining a sma ll portion o f one t ile. T he first- and lasr-renss
    d igita l surface mod e ls fo r a n entire tile arc sho wn ill Figure
    10-4ab. Th is graphic dep icts both the first- and fust-re en
    dat a as Inverse d istance weighted l ID \\' ) d igital su~
    mod els I DS M). First- and last-retu rn ID\\" DS~h are thcI
    portraye d in shaded- relie f fo rmat.
    T he multiple ret urn DS\1 Illes arc of sign ifican t value fa
    mall>' upp hcanons such as the: cxuucuon of wgcta:Ka

    341

    RPrinciples

    "

    Varillll~ () i'ip la~ ' s

    of Las t-Rerum UI>.-\H. l\Iasspoi nts

    DAR
    10,

    and

    f~1

    xum

    ping
    -orn-

    Its 10

    does
    reo 11
    ecb-

    'Oint

    rrolion

    US

    cus-

    \ur-

    lion

    ,,<.

    ;:11,'

    ""

    Ilgs

    ave

    "0
    ate

    lIC-

    " I
    ~h.

    :gJre 10-3

    -r a
    is

    '"

    "
    '"

    om

    a) r-. l a '~f'I.,; nls can he viewed individually This proced ure is useful for identifying any data voids . On e can also set' that the
    data in th is 1,1SI return J"tas<;l carne from mu ltiple Ilightlinc s. Digital surface mu<k!s I[)SM j can he created usiu g inve rse dis lanc e wdglll ing (lD v..') as in (b ) or us ing triangular irrcg uh u netw ork s (T IN) data structures tn"l shown), c) The ID W d igital
    sur fnc-e model is p"nraycd in shaded-relief. The tcrram is modeled a, ifrhe sun were in the northwest casting shadows that fall
    toward the viewer, Canogmphic theory suggests that this is nne of the best "'~ ~s h' communicate three-dimensional informalion, d ) Last-return rmr ssr<.l i nt~ ov erlaid on dig ital orthophotcgr aphy can also be useful.

    kight and biomass and building heig ht informarion (e.g..


    ef-ky ct II I. 2005 ; 1\ ta. 2( 05 ). 111)1.\ ever hal i f .... I' desire a
    are-Earth d igitalte rrain model I DTM ) itho ut thc presence
    trees and or ma n- made structures? How is it created'!

    re
    m

    Extraction of Bare-Earth Digital Terrain Models (DTMs)

    '"

    the purpose o f a LIDA R overfl igtu is to collect J OlIOl to ereIe

    a digital terra in mod el. the presen ce of vegetatio n (and

    Ilbcr surface obstmcnons j ca n be a nuisance . In areas 1;0 \ mJ by dense \ egcunion. the major ity o f the LlDAR returns

    will he from the ca nopy. with only a few pul ses reach ing the
    ground . Hendrix l ll)l)9 ) found thai up III 9 ) '};' o f Ll DAR
    pu lse s neve r reached the ground in mixed bonomlund hardwo ods ncar Aike n. Sc. Separating gro und returns from vegetatio n ca nop y return s call be problematic. Nev crth etc ss. it
    ca n be don e.
    A ba re- Earth d igual terrain model I DT~I ) may be created by
    systemati ca lly rem ov ing masspoint s in the first , mtcrmcdiate. and/or last return UDA l{ data that co me fro m trees.
    shrubs. and ('\ en g rass that extend abo ve the bare grou nd.
    Th is procedure is typ ica lly performed in ' w 0 steps: I ) semi-

    C11 \ I'TFR

    342

    10

    L1DAR Remote sensing

    1I

    I.ID,\ I{ Dat a of th e Sa va n na h River Sill' O brat ncd o n Odn hl' r Ill, 21104

    S<

    "

    "
    a
    d
    I'

    Fig ure 104

    :H Inverse distance \\ clghung (1I)W) <lrplied 10 first-return lll H R data to create a digual surface modd IDS \1 I, b) lOW lip'
    pH<'\! \0 last-Mum UD:\I{ ,Ltla. c ) IDW app lied 10 edited massporrns 10 cr..... rc a bare-Earth d igil:.l l terr ain model (D IM). d-f)
    Shaded-relief \ crsk>n~ of a c

    343

    A Princ iples

    marie m a~sro inl filte ring. and b lru auualmasspoint edit_(Raber CI ul., :!002; Leonard, 200 5),

    tautuma uc \ 'eJ,:\'Ia liUII a lld/or \I a n-m ad e Structure


    point Fillt'rillJ,:
    ~

    landscapes contain dense vegetation. It is imperati ve


    a techn ique that remov Cl> ()() - <)8% of the abovevegetation masspoints . This is don e us ing a filtering
    thm that systematically P;hSI.~ through the lI D:\ R
    exam ining each masspoiru and the elevation characics associated w ith its II nearest-neighbors. The filter
    identifies those points thai arc a l bare ground. b) scrub. cttrccs. andor d) man-made structures. For example,
    ct a l. (2002 ) deve loped an adapt ive vegeta tio n
    val filter thai took into account the lIDAR- predic ted
    vcr type. Suholc and Vos.sclman (2004) rev iew eight
    erenr filters applied 10 twelve UDAR datasets. Progres s
    been made in the development of se mia unnnatic \ cgetaand/or man-made'ohjl't: l remo val algorit hms . New algo1111m will ho pdu lly he more efficient and accurate.
    !la\C

    Ilanoal \ 'li~cl a l i llll a nd /or \lall-mad l' ~r u (' l u r(' \ la ss~nl t~d it i n l:.

    lefonunatcly, scmlautoruu uc Ilhe ring rarely ide ntifies all


    u-"spoints acsoc tat ed w ith shrubs. trees, aud'or man- made
    ~s (Leonard. 2005 ). n is usua lly nec essary for a wellnincd analyst to visua lly e xam ine the re su lts of app lying
    Qcst'miau toma tic filte r and then selectivel y ide ntify and Sl:'t
    side an)' abov e-grou nd masspnints that wer e not detected
    emimuomancally. Th is approach may involve vie wing the
    im clouds in 3-d ime nsio ns o r o verlaying the ma sspnims
    00 rectified ae rial photog rap hy, The manually edi ted mas sloint' can 1I1I.'n be used to create' a hare-Earth digital terrain
    wodrl (DT M J. Figures 10-40: an d l u-a fdc pic t a bare-Earth
    DD,1in which allofrhc vcgctarion und huilJ ings ha ve bee n
    eeovcd. Figu re 10-5" presents an e n l ;\r~ l:d view o f a sllla ll
    pan of thl"lire;! show n in fi gu T<.' ] O-h; a nd I 0--4 f v, itll the lilkred bare- b rth m a s~ po i n ts uverla id on thc last rct urn ID\V
    OS\t NOle the {lata vo ids on the bui l,ling rtHl rto ps I I here Ihe
    rlmr oints v.'Crl"del eted hy aUlomated and/ llr man ua l Ii her{I~ The hare-Earth masspo illts can then be pn K:esscd to
    )ield a DTM that contains no huild ings <IS show n in Figurl,'
    1).5d, Note also that almost all (lfthe- vege-t;Hjon pres ent in
    it fi~t- and last-return U DAR d ,lla I Figures IO-~a . b and
    I)...Id.e) is go ne in Ihe oo.re-Elln h DT~ 1 shown in Fi ~u rc 10lo: and I(l...4 f.

    be' used h. mod e l the now o f wa ter on the ground. then we


    wou ld not want 10 usc the n TM show n in Fi gure IO-4 f(and
    Figure 1O..5d) bec ause the buil dings have bee-n removed.
    Instead . we wo uld want tu re move all above-grou nd veget atio n and the n create the D'Tj..l . The DT ~I wo uld con ta in
    bare-Ea rth and build ing elevation information. A hyd rologic
    mudd using th is DT \-t wouhl I1 m\ water co rrectly around
    bu ildings. not thro ugh them.

    xtost U D.-\ R ~)".tC'ms provrdc an mll.'flsity ti le in add ition 10


    the multiple reru m da ta For example.the intensity data produccd by the Lc ica A LS4 l1 50 L1 1)A R sy..tern rep resents the
    peak voltage o r the return ~ignal as recorded b) the system
    co ntroller (LI..mard, ::!OO5). The recorded imcnsity is in mos t
    cases not the integration of the' returned echo from all the
    pulse returns, but just ih maximum I Ba ltsa\ ia... 1 ~ ) . Th e-re
    a rc several factors which influence the inten s ity valu e.
    Fn-a. it is rmponaru III remember tha t laser light is mono-

    chromatic and has a n esucmcly smal l bandwid th (c .g .. ~ - 5


    nnu usua lly centered on a ncar-infrared wave lengt h (e .g..
    I n4t. nm). Conversely, mu ltispectra l remote sensing bandwidths an... o ften 50
    100 11m w ide al tho ugh hypcrspcctral
    senso rs might have bandwid ths as sma ll a s 10 nm ( Ba ltsavias. 144<) ,. Other signilica nt factors include the- ra nge to the
    target, an gle of incidence a nd atmosph eric dis persion. In
    add ition. the system controller also reco rds the state of the
    AGe (automa tic gai n co ntrol). Till: AGe ci rcui t (IdJush the
    retu rn signal gain in response 10 cha nges in ta~e't reneeranee. T he gain and irucnxity vafucs may vary ove r a sce ne
    ami from day 10 da y. This vnriahility in ga in conr rol can
    cause' problems v.hell inlt'lll rct ing intens ify da ta ( Leon ard,

    2no:,).
    I'heor elil'a lly, one would th ink tha t because the la ser uses
    nl'a r- infr;tn: d lighl that lhe intensi ty val lie lit eac h (lf the masspoi nt l(leations would 111 et l e'et ht' si milllr to the- relle-etane c
    fuun a w hen cu nduet ing Ilptiea l relllole se nsi ng in the n('arinfrar cd port ion o l" t he spc(l rum. Unlo l1unatcly. this is not
    the- case. !'or e xam p le. Figu re j(J(,a prese nls a D S ~ 1 pro duced usin g [DW a pplied to lasHet uru U DA R data . Figure
    1O-6 h i" an irncnsity DS\ 1 prod llCed using lO W. Th e iotensit~ image- contains 11 we alth 111" dcl ailltlld in many re-,;P'Xh
    1110 ks like 1I panchro matic aerial phutograph o f the' study
    area. 11 0w<\ er. Ihere ;Ire snm.: intt'resting annmlllies when
    we ellmpare the i n h:n s i t~ image tn v. hat WI.' wou ld ex pl.'t:t to
    lind in a t~ piea l b laek-andwh ite nl'a r-infrared ima ge.

    lis importantlo no te thal the linal har e-Earth DT fll mayor

    m;.. nOI include- man-made struClures such as bu ildlllgs. For


    fumple. if we' arc cu neertled w ith creating a DT\-1lhat will

    First. consitlcr the lal)!e forested area show n atlJ in Figure


    10-6b . Thi s is a malOre 1~) r~'St that has suh-Iant ial loca l re lie f

    nI Af'TEIt

    344

    10

    lI DAR Remot e Sensing

    ---

    Distribution of ;\I asspoint s After Digita l and vl anual Ed iti ng

    '.

    ~ ,.

    --.. );

    :./'''-

    .' " ' , ;-

    c. Edit...! I,u"'l",inh uvcrlafd on 1 x 1 III ll rlh opholo ,

    Rgure 10-5

    3) Edited rnlls~r "illl ~ ovcrkud nn the onginnllast-rctum Inw digital sur ra(~' mudd. h) Sbudcd-rclicf version "f (a). c) Edi[~
    tl\llss po irlls overlaid I'll an on hophotc. d j Har e-Earth digitalterrain mudd in a trian g ular irreg ular netw or k (T l f'; ) data slruC1Ur:

    as ev ide nced by the bngju ret urn i ll till' adjac ent last retu rn
    data set (Figu re 10-(,;1 ). We would normally e xpect this area
    ICl appear bright in a black-and- white nca r-infrared image.
    Conve rse ly, it ap pea rs qui tc dar k in the inte ns ity image.
    Simil arly. consul...r several ind i\ idua l decid uous trees at
    location h in Figure 10-6 11 and show n in Figu re 10-7. These
    IfC<:S a lso ex hib u less mrcn suy than ex pec ted . The natural
    grass surround ing these tree s has a higher intensity range
    than the trees I Fig ure H)-7..: l_
    Fina lly. convidcr the hrighl areas at location c in the mrencrty
    image I Figu re IO(,bl . The nort hern half o f three of the rest-

    pad mound s were cleared lind sodded with centipede grJli


    do not have as much biomass as rhe trees III a Of b.
    Nevertheless. they ex hibit II w ry hrigh l return in the mIl.'[)suy imag e ( Figure lO-6hl.

    T hC'~'

    In these ex amp les , it appears that when the Ll lJAR pulse


    encounter trees. vo lume sc.utcring wi thi n th..: tree canOl'!'
    red uces the amount o f ene rgy bnckscau crcd toward dt
    L1D..\ !t recei ver. Th is causes the lrees to appear dark in dt
    imcnsuy image ry, Conversely. L.IIH .R pulses that hit l!'t
    natura l gra ss at locauon h and new ly sodded cen npcde grail
    at locauon (' are not absorbed or scattered away, Ratho:r. l

    LIOA F

    34 5

    IJA R Princ iples

    LlIHR Last Return and lutcnsfty. nata

    a, UOAR lIl'''~~ distance wtl ghled


    last-return elevation.

    Figure 10 -6

    on

    b. L1D.\R intensity,

    Inverse distance \\ clghtmg applktl III L1 0AR last-return data. til IDW al'ph~.,j \0 L1IHR illlcnslt) data . Three ..rcas are highlighted for d iscus sion .

    ;1 )

    won g ret urn exit s these mixed grass a nd bare-Earth surfaces


    C3 using them to appear bright.

    Many of the buildings are " righ t in th... intensity image suggesting (hM most of the inc ide nt laser pulse is buckscauc red
    resulting in ~tf(lllg voltage read ings . The intens ity or thc
    return is a function of the rooft op material.
    leonard (2005) states thai ra nge and angle o f incidcnc.., al so
    hal e an effect on intensity readi ngs ov cr the cou rse o fa si ngle l1ightli nc . As the UD AR scanni ng mi rror moves fr om
    nadir III t he lodge or the fiel d of view mo re c nt:~y is
    rerlccrcd away from the receiver optics . A s a resu lt. ime nsity

    readi ngs arc higher closer III n,ld ir than at the edge. Range to
    larget is anot he r signif ica nt factor in intens ity normaliza tio n,
    Sho rter ra nges ha ve high er intensity readings due ttl less
    atmospheric signa l lo st.
    Cu rren tly, there are no rigorou s guideli nes about ho w ( 0
    inte rpret LIDA R intens ity images . Neve rtheless. it is clear
    th;II they contain a wealth o f inforrnano n. For exam p le. co nsider Color Plate 10..1 whic h de picts the intensity data
    dra ped o ver the last return elevation data for the dec iduo us
    trces shown at loc at ion h in Figure 10-6 b. When these data
    arc co lor-ended i Co lor Plate 10-1 ti} and e valua ted ubliq uc ly
    (Colnr Plate [Il-Le], it is cle ar t hat the intensity o f the return s

    346

    ClIAI'I HI

    UDAl{ L l..c(-t{eturn Eleva tio n C Ollipa red n it h

    a. In\l' J"',C distance "cighlcd last-return e1c\at ion.

    10
    1.11),\1{

    L1DAR Remote Sensin g

    Intt'Il'iily

    b. Shaded-rehef versjon of(a l.

    Figu re 10-7

    aj Inverse drstence ~cig h llnl:! applied


    to tasr.rerum data. h) Shaded-reliefver~ion of ta). c ) UDAl( inlcnsily data.

    c. LlDAI{ intensi ty.

    in The trees is a func tion Ilfhll\\ far the pu lses penet rated into
    the tree canopy, Such iufornuuion could 1\0: related to tree
    b iophysical cha ract eristic s (c.g .. LAI. perc ent canopy closure, biomass. basal area l.

    Contours

    or

    Sometimes it i., valuable [0 extract contours {lines


    equa l
    CIC \3I il' n ) from DS\1s or DT\1s to hig hlight subtle
    drtfcrc nces in the te rrain and 10 ide ntify lk rrcss inns. Fo r
    exa mple. co nsider tho: test pad mounds located at c- in Figu re
    10-6h. These rcstp..J s were engineered "'lCt.: ifica lly to tcst
    the effcc nvcncsv of venous clay-cap materials used 10
    protect subsurface hazar dous materials . var ious Iy ~ s of
    impe rmea hlc po lyure thane barriers .......rc plac...-d on the
    testpads. covered with clay. and planted wit h centipede
    grass . The surface.. ~ ere thc-n leli to the ravages of nature .
    L1DA R first-return data of'thc tesrpad .. processed using lOW

    a re presen ted in Figu re 10-1'01. A shaded -reliefv ersio n onhe


    I[)W OS I,,,j is sho wn in Fig ure ]{)Xb . Note that one-halfot
    the trees were re mo ved in the northern hnlf'o fthrcc ofih e
    test pads and not on th..., custcm -mo control testpad The
    clear ed arc us on the three ll:slpads were sodde d with nell
    cc ntip....dc grass at the time ufd.ua co llect io n.

    T he las t-return U [)AR da ta w ere filtered using automated


    und manua l proced ures to de rive thc har e- Eart h DT ~l shown
    in Fig ure IO-l,l,1. A s ...xpccted. almost all of the trees present
    in the first-return lima (fig ure W- X,,) hav e been removed
    De~ r itc its usefulness. it is not possiblc 10 visually extract
    quanti tative intorma non about the nat ure of the Icstpads
    from the bar e- Eanh DT\1 shown in Figu re 1O-9a . [I is onl~
    when wc der ive con tours ur other sy nthetic ]D
    rep resentat ions from the bare-Earth DTI\I thai we can
    appreciate the thrce-duncusional nature of the restpu ds aDd

    ~A R

    347

    Pr incipl es

    UUAR nata or t heTesl pa ds on th e Sanlll na h Rin- r Sill'

    3. t n\c~ distance weighted firsl- relUm elevati on.

    '.

    -ie

    ur

    -se
    rc
    w

    -d
    n

    u
    l.

    "s

    b. Shaded-rctief' version of (a).

    y
    )

    "j

    Figure 10-a 31 Inverse di~ilnco: wcighting applied 10 first- return dna, NulO: tho: 1'1\.""<.'1k:0: " f l....,... ~ on rhc 1.-stIMt!S and in the fores t to
    the east. bl Shaded -relief version ,If(a l

    10

    348

    UDAR Remot e Sensing

    AccU I

    Contours Ext rac ted Ircm thc Bare-Earth Digital Terrain :\Iodd of ti ll' Testpads
    T, bI

    me

    IcS

    .,
    L

    -------

    a. Inverse distance weighted bare-Earth elc....a uon,

    --......,_..-...,.,.,,.....,~-~

    h.
    v

    ;,
    2
    t
    I

    b. Contours (0.25 m interval) derived from (a ) OVC'Tl3ld on a shaded-relief model of (a).

    Figure 10- 9

    al ln\ erse distance "cighh:d b are-Earth elevation. ;";010: rharihe uee, hale been ~11I" \o:<J .... ben com pared 10 Figure
    10-8. b) Con tours y, uh II contour interval or O.~5 m arc ove rlaid on the shaded-relief version of (a) above.

    349

    lceu racy 01 L1DAR Me a surements

    Vcrucal accuracy of L1 IlAR-i.k ri\ed elevation data collected for the Savannah River Site on Oc t...bcr 10, 2004. using the
    G""'f'<,r/tll I'm/rion .k l'lI'C1C1SI,moardv Pan 3: ,\ m /on<l/ .')J" nd. m l/ i,r Sf'<Jti<11 /)(I/<I ~ f('lIr<l<Y ( NS SIlA 1( F{j IlC, l'l"l l'>l.

    'able 10-2.

    Vendo r
    :l.1IlOOm.lnc.

    LIDAR
    sensor
    Uptech
    AI.TM

    2050

    Dat e
    10-1()..1)4

    Ho rizontal
    datum
    un t
    NAD 83
    l one 17

    Unit s

    Verti cal
    d atum

    Number
    of c heck
    points

    ;';AVOIl8

    vs

    NSSDA
    RMSE

    NSSOA Vertical
    ac curacy at 95%
    confide nce Interval
    (1.96 x RMSEI

    6.6 em

    12.9 cm

    subtle depressions. espot'ciall~ on the most eastern


    tIlpa<I. The con tour iOlel'\a l was 0.25 m.

    Sensing (AS PRS I ASPRS ..feeurun Sial/Janis fw WIXt.'&/111' .\f<.qIJ published in 1990.

    -......

    Th e Gt'o.\f/i.J/i /J / An,lr<l(y Standard fo r horizo rnal and venica l accuracy of spati al produ cts pu t forth by the FGDC IS
    based o n the co mputatio n o f RM "E where ( Miller. :!(04)

    .~

    Accurac y of UDAR Measuremenrs

    LlD:\R is a rclauvely new technology . As such. there is


    Vllth)' skc pt icis m abou t its ability to provide x,v, and r -e te\'IlIon mformat um as accu ratel y as rraduional ill situ su rvey mg and pho togram mctry t e.g.. Bahsavia s, 1999; ~1cGlone.
    !(04). Fortun ately, there arc acc uracy assessment standa rds
    dial can hi: used to provide an unbia sed assessme nt of the
    accuracy o f LIDAR---de rived prod ucts.

    IISSDA Horizontal and

    venice; Ac cu racy Assessme nt

    Iodetcrminc the at'CU HKY o ta L1 IlAI{ ---dl' rived dig ital surfAce model (DS M I or bare-Earth J igital terrain model
    IDTM), it is customary to ide nti fy in si lll x,v.;: checkpoin ts
    lhmughnu tthe study urea us ing a higher accuracy technique.
    such as to tal station sun ... ytng o r diffe rential GP S. E~Kh ill
    l i/ll checkpo int is thc n loca ted in the 1.IDAR -dc rived DS r..t
    or DTM. The nearest L1 DA R-<Jerived in fo rma t ion is then
    compared w ith the loc at ion and elev at ion informat ion ass oriarcd with each in situ checkpoint. T his is performe d lor a
    eumber of check points. T he results are II1<.'ll used to co mpu te
    tilt horizoruu l a nd vertical acc urac y o f the Ll DAR -d.:rivcd
    data expressed as the root mea n squa red erro r ( RMS E).
    In 1998. the Federal Geographic D.lla Co mm ittee (FG DC)
    ?Ublished the G(..U//(l/itll Pnsinon Acc/lm q Standards Pan
    J: 'varianaf Ssandardfor Spalla/Dala AenmJty (NSS DA I
    fGOC. 1998), Th is standard rcplac cd both the Un;l.:d
    !lole.~ ;\"al;onal .Hal' Accl/m cy Sll1/ldan:J~ ( N\.t ASl put>.
    ls hed by the Offi ce ofManagemem and Bud get in 1 9~7 and
    l!lc American Society for Pho tog rarnmetry and Remot e

    R sts E

    ~"

    L a'

    (1 0-6 )

    t.=.l.-

    and ,\ is rhe difference between an in suu check po int measure me nt and a remote scns mg-dcnv ed measu rem ent at the
    same locati on. The standard rec ommends tha t a m inimu m o f
    ::!O ch eck po ints toe used . i.e.. 11 > 20. The check poi nts sho uld
    he o f substant ially h igh er acc uracy than the rem ote sensi ng.
    de rived product und er invcstig ation.

    u.e., circ ula r sta ndard error) assessment at the 95% confi denc e level is co mputed us ing

    t tonz ontot (/("('/lro(1'

    ( 10 7)

    Vertlca! (1('C/I/'(/ ( \ ' assessm ent at the 95% confi de nce level is
    compu ted usi ng
    I ." /I<<I! "

    1.9hx RM$E

    ( IOS)

    Equauons 10-7 and 10-8 assu me the e rro r distribu tion for .r,

    y, and z arc norm al ly dis mbuted. FEMA built upon these criteria and pro vides detailed accuracy assess rncru proced ures
    fo r its flood-hazard ma pp ing partners ( FE MA. 2004).
    The vert ical accu racy of the L1DA R-derived elevations o n
    the Savanna h River Site " as evalua ted using 95 c heckpoints
    (Table \0..21. T he spatia l dismbunon o f the checkpoints on
    the Mixed Waste Mana ge ment A rea and the tes tpa ds is
    show n in Figure 1()"lOa.b. The vertica l acc uracy of the


    OIAI'I EK

    350

    ,\ ~ s c ss lll c n i

    Chec kpoin t Locations for UDAR Accuracy

    a. Checkpoints on tho:

    ~l ix.:J

    10

    LlDAR Remote sensing

    011 the Sa vun uah River Site

    a. Checkpoi nts on the to

    wa ste Management Facility.

    pads.

    c. Relationship Between In S itu Ground Sun ('~: Eleva tio n a nd


    IJUARdcrind Etevanen for 95 C hec kpoi nts fin th e Sa vannah River Site
    " .00

    9':UI I

    1/

    y = I.OO27.f 0.253

    eo

    "
    E

    R2= O.'l'N2
    9!.OO

    .1f

    /"

    ~,,,

    ~.,

    .,w

    c.~

    ,J!:

    ""
    If'''

    ".
    rr~

    . ft

    f"

    HIUIO

    ~,

    LJ~
    1I7.UO

    X7.00

    XlU)(}

    10:\1.00

    'X1.OO

    <11.011

    <,l2.01l

    'HollO

    ll-l ,l)()

    LIDA R-J eri \'oo Elevation (meters )


    Fig ure 10-10 a ) Lo canon o r c hcd ,p'.linb on 11t.:- "'!Xed Wa~IC \1 anagc mcnI Faci lity. r hls area IS clay-cap ped and covered with Ccntipetk
    ~rass, h) Loc utions or c h~"Ckpoi nts on the teapad s. c) Stat ist ical rela tionship bet wee n <iI'S III <il" pound sun.l1' ell' \-alionII
    ':15 ch.xll'uin h an d L1UAK-tlerw etl ele vat ion at tfk, sa m... locatron extracted fh lll1 a bare- Earth TI ~ d igita l terrai n model
    ( DT \ 11. The ;\'lfifm<lf .'iI<lm l..zrJJor Sp",;"f /J<Jr" AC<"Ilrlh:Y ( t\ SSll A) vertic al ac..: urac)' ass.."S5ml"l1t statistics arc su mmarized

    ;11 Table 10-2.

    :DAR-d eri ved Veget ation In forma t io n

    UoAR da ta according to the :"SSDA specificanens was


    Qem. As e xpected . the U DA R- dc rived ele vation values
    ere highly correlated with the GP S insuu eleva tion meaems (Figure 1O-1Oc).
    iJJer(2004) stilted t hat LIDAR- derived vertica l accu racies
    r: usually in the 5 to 30 em range. Hut does this level of
    It\lracy hold up when the terrain is steep? Does it ho ld up
    IIr all land-cover types (e.g . bare soil , grassland . shrubJ
    mb. fores t, desert, water, shallow wa ter, icc. snow , urban
    EJaslructurerl Unlike photogrammctric surveys, can
    UOAR be used success fully dur ing leaf-on co nd itio ns? II is
    ecfulro consider some of thes e questions .

    )r;"uence of Land Cover, Slop e, and Leaf-on/off


    Condition on UDAR-derived Elevation Accuracy

    ~lany

    scientists are invesl igating the e ffect s of la nd cover;

    1l1pe. and lea f-on/o ff cond ition on L1DAR-d('ri\'('d elevaIloo accuracy.

    ;..~

    ......

    <...

    U DAR-derived VegetatiOn Information

    '

    The ability of LlDAR technology to obtain returns fro m


    hot h vegetation and the ground surface has useful appl icatio ns in measuring vegetation attribu tes. Weltz et al. ( 1994 1
    used a profil ing L1 DAR system to map vegetation height
    and canopy cover at the Wa lnut Gulch experimental watershed in Arizona. This study demo nstrated the ahi li t~ of
    L1DAR to distingui sh between different \ egctauon comm unities and ground-cover type s. 1'\il s~on ( 19<)6) exam ined the
    usefulness of 1. IDAR fo r csrimaung timber volume as a pan
    ofS.... eden's Nationa l f o rest Inve ntory.

    Zimble et al. (2003) were ab le III ex tract vertical forest s tructure information from small footprint L1DAR data. They
    obtained tree hcigfu information by subtracting the bareEarth DT M from the Ist-rcturn DSM. i.e. tree height DS~I
    ht return DSM - bare Earth DT~1.

    Hod gson et al. (200 5) invest igated thc effects

    ri land cover and surface slope using leaf-off L1DARiI:ri\'ed clevanon data for a watershed in the piedmont of
    ~orth

    351

    Carol ina. Survey-grade elevation checkpo ints ( 1,225)

    ferseven differen t land cove r classes were obtained. Lil lA R


    elevatton error fur points associ a ted with the seven landrover classes ranged from 14.5 em ill low grass to .~ 6 . 1 em
    or dense shrub/scrub. Eleva tions found in pine and deciduforest e xhibucd mean errors of 27.6 em and 27.3 em,
    respectivel y. On average, the Ll DAR-derived elevatio n
    . 'I"- pred ieted true elevation regard less o f land-cover rype.
    The under-pred iction was signific ant. and ranged up to 23.6
    ClII under dense pine land cove r.
    QIIS

    !II another study, less-dense pine exhibited elevation errors


    pavCI11':lU and low gras s ( Hodgson and Bresn ahan.
    10(4). The finding that scrub-shrub and deciduous landcover exhibited the highest error appe ars 10 be consistent
    regardless oficaf-o n/leaf-o lTcondition (e.g., Hodgson et af.
    2OO3ah; Hodgson and Bresnahan. 20041. Basically, it
    appears that the more dense scrub/shrub and deciduous landrever keep s laser pulses from reach ing the ground, ca using
    tIJt interpo lated elevation surface to he derived from the few
    points that do reach the groun d. The res uhing DSM or DTM
    may contain error.
    I> low as

    Carbo n sto rage in moderate to high biomass forest:> is d ifficu lt to estim ate with conventional opt ical or radar sen so rs.
    Lcfsky et al. (2H05) compared the re lationships between
    LlDA R-lIIeilsured canopy structure and co incident field
    measurements of forest stand structure at five locations in
    the Pacific Nort hwest. T hey obtained Coefficient of Determination values (R ~ l for LAI and ab oveground biomass of
    Kl % and 9.:! ~"'. respectively.
    "orris et a l. (2005 ) used L1DAR data 10 chara cterize the etcvaticn habitat of two salt marsh spec ies in North Inlet, Sc.
    Approximately IU)"/. of the Sf'/lrtmll alterniflora exi sted
    within the narrow elevation range from 0.22 - 0..181 m ASL
    whi le 80% of the } III/<'US roamerionns existed within the elevation range 01' 0.296 - n .9S 1 m ASL.

    LlDAA-derived Urban Information

    LJO,\ R--<k ri \ ed information are e tten used in urban applications such as:
    identifYing

    the

    locarion and

    elevation of milily

    transmissionJines (Maune. 200 J ):


    Hodgson ct al. (201l5) foun d that over the small slope range
    In their study area (0" to I tn . there was no t a struisucu lly
    ligni ficam increase in L1 DAR -d crivcd elevation error as rhc
    dopes increased . However. Ihey did find that slope errors
    from L1DAR-dcrived produ cts increased with increasi ng
    saface slope, typically undc r-prcdic un g true slope by 2 c.

    obtai ning accu rate building elevation (c.g ., Mn, 20(5 );


    meavuring the elevation c haracterisuc s of transportation
    infrastructure such as highw ays. bridges and overpasses
    (~CRST. 2( 04):

    10

    352

    L1DAR Rem ote Sensing

    L1IH I~-d l'rivt'd Ele vation uf :Xl'W Yurk C ity. r\Y. afte r Septem ber II , 21111 1

    Fig ure 10 -11

    Perspective \ icw of ]\"cw Vorl Cit}'. l\'Y. aficr September I I. ::00 1. 1111: pik uf rubble i~ associated with lhc Twin To... ~
    !h.! \W'rld Trade Center IIJ IMR data courtesy of Eanhltata lntcmanonal; Jen sen and Ilod gwn. :'!ClOI; 10llof>j.

    identifying optimum routes that require the least cu t and


    till (e.g.. Cow en ct al.1UOOJ; and
    urba n cnviroruncru visualization [Q ucija ct 31..1(105).
    Be fore and after L1 DA I{ -dcrivcd elevation data a TC t'SPCcially useful for calculating the J llW UnI of ma ter ia l cxcuvated (scoured }or deposited m a regio n (e.g . Shresth a et al..
    200 51. hIT e xample, LIIJ AJ{- ..lcrivcd elevation in fo rmat ion
    were used to compute the volume ofrubble assoc iated wi th

    the Twin To wers of the World TmM Center in New York


    City (Figure 10- 11) (Jen sen and Hodgson. :!OO(l).

    The Future of LlDAR Remote Sensing

    future (e.g.. LA I. biomass ). II wi ll also be use-d e xtensi~r!!


    to oh l;lin three-dimensional urban infrastructure informaia
    (e.g.. huilding foot pnm s and hcigh t). U l)AR in"trulOOl1l
    will eventually he flow n on unmanned aerial vehicles.

    z:~

    References

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    5-1:~ J --<,I-I,

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    co llection of digital surface models and d igualtcr rain modcis. LID:\ R sensors obtain hundreds ofthousands of mass po ints per second Ih.1I already possess accurate x~\". and acoordinates without the necess ity 1)1' uerutna ngularion. The
    accuracy of the onboard GPS and l'AUs continue to
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    co ntinues to improve. U DA R sensors arc becoming mo re
    affordable . All of these factors result in ever improving
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    provide con ..idcrnblc vegetation canopy info rma t ion in the'

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    l:r Jncl~.

    (,! J p.

    Cowen . Il C . Jensen. J. R. Hen dr ix. C. L Hod gson, M,E.1llId


    :).IC Schill. !(l(MI. " ,\ (j l~ -Assistct.l Ra il Construction Ecocc-

    353

    erences

    eemc ,\ I(",ld that I n .' or por ;l lc ~ llO . \ R Da la : ' PIIOI" g,r"m ...'Im ' EII.r;i"...ring ,~ H" mol" S,/l_i,,}.: . ""Ill j : I 32.'-1 U K.

    Jensen. J. It . 200 5. fmmJIlClm'Y /) ig iw l Image J''''('f!.umg , A


    He"'''/<' Se,,,,,,).! l 'a.'I,,,.'li ...,. 3r <.l E<.I. Upper 5 a<.l<.l le Ri ver :

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    \I"" 1(,,,1<., ,,,: (1/1<>,, ' G", d,'I",... " ",/ S~c,ji

    )UI'\e~ ing .- in

    "'i",,"

    ~i",,-, J'"
    fI"!,,r" .\ I""" i,,).! 1''''111<'' " , Wa.-. hinglo n;
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    m.p;" ,
    DC. I ONI(. G'"" l'dli"I I' ".<II' '''' An"r...."\" .'>!,m,WrJ.. "uri J :

    \"li""<l1 ,'>1<1'"'''''' ji" Sf'"ti,,1 1),,1<1 A'"'''(I(:\. Wa~h i nglon :


    FGIX' . hnp: Iw ww.ti;dc, !:-(lv/, tand ards slatussuh 1_ 3.hlm l.

    of

    lood. \1 .. and n . G utcliu s. 1'1'17. "Commercial lmplications of


    Topographic Terrain Ma pp inl! I '!;-Inl: Sca nr un g Airborne Laser

    Jensen. J. R. and ~ 1 , E. Il o<.l l:~on . ~U()f1. " Remote Scns kngof Natura l and Mau-madc Il a l ard s an d Disas ters," in .\ I(1I",,,f uj Rt'mot," S"ll~i"g: S,//hm,,,". M . K . Ri<1d (Ed.I, Bethesda:
    ..\ -;' P& RS, .tOI_~.t-l ,
    Jensen, J. R. Hod gson. \1 . E.. \lacke y. Jr. H . E. and W. Krabill .
    l inn . -Corrclauon Bet.... een A ireral\ :\IS5 a nd lID.-\ R Remolel y Sensed Da ta on a Forested WeI land , Gt'''.:""o InternaliOl" ' /. .t:3<) 54
    Jensen. J. R. a nd :\1. E. Il od j;M.n. 2004. " Remole Sensing of SelCC1."<i Bio physical Van a hle s and Urba n Suhu rt>an Phe no menon" III <it'0Kr"ph.\ <J"" Tn/lIl%ll" . Stanley D. Brunn . Susan
    L Cutter and J, W. Harrington. Jr. (Eds.], Dcrd rec ht: Kluwer,
    HI',q5-1 ,

    Konecny. G . 2003. G. ,,,i,,j,,'m,lIi,.,, ,' R""",/, S"m;ng, Ph.arogramm",,,r (",d G""grnplric InjiJrm."ioll Sy"em". london:
    'l ajlor & Francis . 241( p .

    R.1da f.- l'IWI" Krtm "".I" .. 1"_"Kill..rml! ,{ R"mul,' S<-,um.l!.

    Iy
    -n
    ts

    63:J~ i .

    Ikndri\. ( '._ I'1'N . 1''''''''''<'I,',-i;:,I/I'''' <IfLILJAR IIII':'-'1<'liull "il"


    lillduli"" e w ,,'!,Y ill <I F""" ,I,',) "'-;""11>"''''. Colum bia:
    l"nin.rslly "fS"uth ta rotm a. Ma, I':Ts 11l,-,sis. 1':;0 p.

    Lefsky, M. A.. Hudak. A. T. Coh e e. W. H. and S. .-\. Acker.


    2(105. "( 'el'gra phic Var iability in Lida r Predict ions of Forest
    SI;U1d Structure in the Paci fic Non hw est.- Remote S,'m;ng of
    F. 'II';nm m,'nl. <)5:532- 5-1 1< ,

    Leo nard . J.
    JlOO~:;un .

    \.i .E. aed P. Brcsl1a h:m . ~ nll,t -Accuracy "f Airborne'


    Lidar- Derrv ed Elcvanon : l.mp lrica l A ~ s(." m(.nl and Error

    .4f'fJ lYJ'l< h fi" L1D.~ R AIqrli..i,ion


    Frede ric k. r-.1Il : t-:arth ll ala Inc .. ~o p..

    ~ 005. r,rlminll

    alld l'mn"',liug,

    '" '" w.eanhda ra.corn.

    Budget." /'Jwl"~,.,,,m"<' I"I< ' I::11~u"'"ri1/J< & R,''''''''' S"lIsill~.

    :\\;1. K.. 2110:'\. " 1>1- \ 1 <icn..ration and Huildin g Det ection fro m

    70(J):BI -33').
    god gson. M. E.. Jensen, J, lL Schmidt. L , Sch il l. S, i.111<J u. A.
    DJ, i ~ . ~(]O.1a. "A n Evaluation " f I lD AR- and IFS/\ K[)eril ed Dlg il,ll Elev ation \-jude) , in Leat-o n Condi lions with

    ljSGS Le vel l and Le ve ll DI:M S : /kmo" S, 'lI.I i,,x of Envi-

    Lidar I>a la." 1'/"" " KrwlI llI,-lr k E" /o! ;n",,l'i' lg & R,'I""'" Se " ..-ill~. 7 l(i): R.t7 1I5\.
    Maune. D, F.. ( Hd.}, ,2011 1. /) lg ,I,, 11;./t' I'tl/iml ,\/" ,/", T<:d/llIJ l ogit'J
    ulld AI'I,/i"Uli'l/I,I': Till' DE.H Un''''' J/,IH""I. Bethesda:
    ASI' & KS.

    "" 111"'11/. H 4(~()()J ) :2' )~ -' OS,

    runts.

    Hndg:;nn. M. Eo. Jensen. J, IL


    J. A . Rio rdan. K. D . :1l1 <.1
    C. r-.1. Archer. ~003 h. "Synergistic Usc "I' U [M R and Co lor

    ~ -Ill

    p,

    MeG lon c. J. C. ~ Ofl4. '\(' ''' '1<11 of!'I"" og''''' ''',,"Il")'. Sth Ed.. Bethes da: AS P& KS. 115 1 p.

    Aerial Phm0l!raphy for \1:lr pmg Urba n Parcel Imperviou s-

    ness." f'/"'(lIg'''IIII1'''I'-I< El1x mn'l"i llg ,{ HL'mull! S,,"IlI1g.


    fli)('Jj :')73

    ') ~ n

    Mille r. S , D,.

    ~n04.

    -Photog ra rnrnctric Prod ucts," in Mc(i \o n(',

    J,. (Ed .), \/(/"11,,1 Ilf PI"" "g''flI"mt'lr~... 5t h Ed. Bethesda:

    ASI' & RS. ',1113 -11)[ 3.


    Hodgson. \I. E.. Jensen , J. R. Raber. n r.. Tullis. J. A.. Davis.
    H. A.. G Thompsun a nd 1<: . Schuc kman , ~005. -An Eva luation
    of LI1HH -{jcrlvC'<! Elevanon and te rrain ~l"po: 111 Leaf-O ff
    Conanions."

    "/"""-I(''''''I/I..,,.i, EIIf:mn',illX .<

    illg.711 11:1<1 7 S23

    R,"'WIO!: S.,,, .<~

    Mikhail. F.. M.. Bethel, J. S. an d J, C. \1 eG lon(', 2ClOI. " ,,",Jul'/101110 .\to".',n l'I"'lUgr"m""~'ln'. :,<, Y: John Wile) , .t79 p-

    ( IlA l' n :w.

    354

    Morris, J. T., Port er, n., I'\ccl. M.. Noble, r. A. Schmidt. l..
    La pine. L A. a nd J, It . J..n ~ e n, 20 11S, "lntegrann g L II)A R El-

    cvc uon 0 '113 . Mu ltisp ectr a l Imagery. an d Ne ura l Network


    \l"" k ling fur Marsh Ch aracte rization ," lmernanonal J""rn<ll
    'if Rf'm ot(' S<'/1un /:. 2N2J ):522 1-5234.
    :-.iC RST.

    ~OO4. X"rirmal CO/Ifor/Illm Ot/ Rt'''w /t,' Sen ring in

    t"thutn",,,", Santa Barham : r-.:CGIA De


    partment uf Cic u!!ra ph) . lJC SH; Was hingto n: DOT. 2 p. h up :1
    ,I.... '" w.ncgia.ucsb.c d u/nc rst researc h ncgia.html.

    10

    LIDAR Rem ote Sensing

    Vegeta tio n poim Remova l Pr ocess ," Phu/ugrummclfICUt


    n<'('r i"IJ & Hrm"''' SrmmK. 61'(( 12) : 1.'07-1 31 S.

    Snhclc. G. an d G vossctman, 200 t " Expe rimenta l Compel


    of Filler Algori lhm s fo r Hare- Eart h Extraction from Airb.:o
    Laser Scanmng Perm Clou ds:' /SI'RS J nurnai of P/l()/OfN"
    "'<'Ir)" & R,,",o l (' .~IL,mg . 51);85 - 105 .

    Tra n" p"r /<lt i",, '

    " DU ', 2U1)6 . V" ' I<,m<l1 DI/(I/<I' 1":1<01;0" I''''Kru m. Was hingto n:
    ~O Er. www. ndcp . gov.

    Nilsson. M.. 1996. " Esum a nou of Tree Heights and Stand Volume using an Airbc mc L1DAR system." R."mm e S':lu i"g of
    Environment, St>( I): 1- 7.
    Quc ij a. V. R.. Sto ker. J. \1 . and J.J . Kowv ich. 2005. " Rec en t
    U_SGS . Ap plicati on s of L1 () A I{ . ~ I'h(lfo!?ram m..,ric En!?,.

    " <'erin/{ &

    Re"llJle .~".""I/'.

    Sanborn. 2UtlS. LlD.4R Tf!.: llRu!uK"II. Colorado Spri ngs:


    Map C"mp.;lny. w~w.san born .com .

    Shn:'lha. R, L.. Caner. W.. Sarto ri, \t.. Luzum. B. 1. and ~


    Stillion. ~OO ~ . " Airhom.. La, ..r Swath Mapping : Quanti~
    Changes in Sandy Rea ches (WeT Time Scales of Weetl
    Y..ars . ~ !SPRS ;"'''RU! vj I'Jrul''Kru",motlry ,( R~lrlOle Steing . 59 :222-2.32.

    '10.

    U.S u S.. 200t>, SJV'lJ.trd_ fur DIK' ful He"vllOl/ MoJ..J).


    ing ton : USGS ~ at i onal \l app ing Div ision. hnp:!
    ping .usg ~. I!0\"S1 andard ~ index . btml.

    71( 1);1-5 .

    Ra be r. U . Hodgvon. \1. 1:::. and J. R. Je nse n. 211(1(,. "I m pact o f L1O:\ R Nominul Postmg Dcus uy till Il \1 Accu racy. Hyd ra ulic
    M odeling, a nd Floo d Zo ne Delineation ." f'/"'/(Igr <lmmClr ic

    Wel t!'. \t o r\ . J. C . Ritchi ... an d II . D , Fox . 11)9 t " Compm.


    o f Las.., and H e ld \t..a suee rnc ms o f Vegctarien Height .Ca no py Co' e r: 11 m.., Ruvu,.. ..j Rej'"u",h. 30151:1311D 11).

    t,'n gm" ('ri"K .{ R" nlf"" S.'R<lnK.72 : in p ress.


    Raber, G. T. Jc nce n. J. R,. S.h ill . S. R. and Ie Sc huc k man. 2002.

    "Creation of Digita l Ter rain

    " I odd ~

    USIng A n Adapnv e Lidar

    Llmblc.D. A.. Evan s, D. L.. Carlso n. G C . Pa rker. R. L Ot!doh . S C. a nd P. D. Gerard . 2003. "Characterizin g Vo:nial
    Fore se SlI1.1 ltU": U ~ i n g Small- footprint Airborn.. U DAR,"
    H,'mo/. ' S" Il.\/IIX '~I 1I\'i rullm " II/. 117 ; 17 l - l l'i 2 .

    Remote Sensing of Vegetation

    11

    son

    m,

    ern

    c.

    "''0,.

    PprO),imatel Y 10 percent of the Earth 's land surface is covered w ith vegctation. Fun rmcre. vegetation is one of the most Important components of
    ecosj stem s. K no.... ledge about variations ill ...egetaticn species and community distributio n patterns. alterations in "q;elll.lioll phenological (growth,
    cycles. and rnodificauons in the plant physic Ob'Y and morphology pro' ide
    valuable lO~ight into the cl ima tic . edaphic. ge\)logic. and physiographic characterisucs or au area (WCiCTS ~ al.. 2004 ; Jack - and Jensen. 2(05). Scienlists. hav c d,;"HliOO significant effort 10 develop sensors and ... isual 3nJ dillilal
    image processing algorithms to extract important '"-tlctatiIJIl bicphyslcal
    information from remotely sensed data te.g.. Town shend and Justice, 200 2) .
    Many o f the remote sensing tec hniq ues are generic in nature and may be
    applied 10 a variety of vegetatedlandscapes. including :
    agriculture

    forests
    rangeland
    v. et land

    man icured urban' cg etation,


    lo is ch apte r lnrr odaccs the fundamen tal conce l::i associated wi th vegeta tion
    biophysica l c hara<.' tcristlcs and how rem otely scns<.' u data cun he proc essed to
    prov ide un ique info rmat ion about these parn melers. It t hen sum mari zes some
    of the vege ta tion indi ces deve lope d to ex trac t h iophysil-al vegetalion informa tion from digital rem ote sen sor c ta. Seve ral o f the memes used by land scapc ecologists to extrac t meanin ul param eters ahour vegeta t ion patch
    sha pe. s ize, etc.. us ing remote sen su data arc then sunun ari/cd. C ase studies
    arc pro vided throughout the chapter n remote sensing ofngriculturc. inland
    wetland , coastal wetland. and biodiv ersity,
    Photosynthesis Fundamentals

    Oil and coal today prov ide mor e I n 90 percent of the energy needed 10
    po wer automobiles. trains. trucks. Sl lpS. airplanes. facto ries, and a myria d o f
    elec trically energized ap pliance s. comeuters, and co mmunication systems _
    The energy .... uhi n oil and coa l wa"...,riginally " ca ptured" from the Su n by

    355

    356

    plants grow ing millions o f years ago that were transfo rmed
    into fossil fucls by geological ti;l TCCS. Therefore. photosyn thes is. at least mdir ec tly, is n OI only tho: princi pa l me ans of
    enabl ing a civilized soc iety to func tion normally but al so the
    sole mean... of sustaining lite - ('<eept for a few bacteria that
    derive thei r energy from sulfur salts and other ino rganic
    compounds. Th is unique photosy nthe tic manu fact uring proces s of green plants furni shes raw mate rial, energy. and o xygen . In photosynthesis. energ y from the Sun is harnes sed and
    packed into sim ple sugar molecules made from water and
    carbon dioxide ((O!) w ith the a id of chlorophyll. O xygen
    to! ) is give n off as a by-prod uct of the process.
    The natu ra list Joseph Priestly discovered in 177::! thai whe n
    he placed a ca odtc in an Inverted jar il wou ld bum out
    quickly, lo ng be fore il ran out of "3'\. I le also found that a
    mouse wou ld die if placed under the same j ar. He believed
    that the air was injured by the candle and the mouse- bUI that
    it cou ld be resto red by placi ng a plant under the jar. Jan
    tngen -Hou sa hui ll on Priesuy's e xpe rimen ts and d isco vered
    in 1788 tha t the in fluence of sunlight on the p lant could
    cause it to resc ue the mo use in a few ho urs. In 1796 the
    French pastor Jean Scne bic r d isco vered that it wa s the ca rDon d iox ide. CO~ . in the jar that was the inj ured a ir and that
    it was act ua lly tak en up by the p lants . Finally. Theodore de
    Saussure dem on strated that the increase in the mass of the
    pla nt as it gro ws wa s due not only to the uptake of CO 2 b ut
    also to the uptake ofwlLIer. 1l20. In the early twe ntieth cen tury. sc ientists found tha t the oxygen for phot osynt hesis was
    deri . . 'cd Irom the wa ter. In effect. light energ y en tering the
    plant sp lits the wate r into oxygen a nd hydrogen. The photosynthetic process is described by the eq uation

    (" H A I' (Hol

    11

    Re mo te Sensing of Vegetation

    leaves and canopies appe ar sp ec trally .... hen recorded


    remote sensi ng instruments.

    Spec tral Charact eri stic s of Vegetation

    A healthy green leaf interce pts inci dent rad iant flux ( ~
    directly from the Sun or from d iffuse sky light scattered
    the lea f Th is inc ident elcctromagncnc ene rgy interact;
    the pigrn ems. water . and interce llu lar air spaces WIthin
    plant leaf. TI1.: amount of rad iant nUI\ reflected from the101
    ( $p I. thc amount of radi ant nux abso rbed by the l~f ( ltl.
    and the amount o f rad iant flux transmitted through tilt IelI
    ( ~ T ) can be carefully mea su red as we apply the ene~ b!!ance eqoanon and atte mpt to keep track o f what haf'PCD$
    all the inci dent e nergy. Th e ge ne ral equation for the m\tn:
    tion of.\]k(lml (i. ) rad iant nU_\ on and \\ uhin the leafis

    ""

    Divid ing eac h o f the variables hy the origina l inc ident ram.
    ant IlU\, 41,

    (ll-j
    yiel ds
    ( 1 1 ~1

    where P l.. is spectral hemisp herica l reflectance ufthc leal


    is spec tral hemispherica l ubsorptancc. and "ti. is Spcl1ral
    he mis pherica l trans mittance by the lea f Most remote ~cn)
    ing systems funct ion in the 0.35 - 3.0 urn reg ion mcasunng
    pri marily re fl ected energy, Th erefore . it is useful to thinkor
    this relationship a s
    Q ).

    Phomsymhesis is an energy-storing prec ess that lakes p lace


    in lea ves and other green part s o f plants in the presence o r
    ligh t. T he Iighl energy is stored in a simp le sugar mol ecu le
    (g lucose ) that is produc ed from car bo n diox ide (C0 2)
    present in the a ir and water l 1120) absorbed hy the plant p rimarily throug h the mo l sys te m. When the ca rbo n d ioxid e
    an d the water arc com bine d and fo rm a sugar molec ule
    (e(>B 1: ( in a ch loro plast, oxygen ga s tOll is re leased as a
    by-product. T he oxygen d iffuses out imo the at mosphe re.
    The ph otosy nthet ic proc ess begins " he n sunlig ht str ikes
    ch!o /TJplm ts. small bodies in thc lea f tha t co ntain a gree n
    substance ca lled chlorophyll.

    I I 1-5)

    .... he re the en ergy reflected from the plant leaf surface is


    eq ual to the incld em energy mi nu... the energy absorbed
    d irect ly h) the plant fo r photosynthetic or other pulpOSt'I
    and the amount of energy tran ...mined d irectl y through tk
    leaf onto other leaves or the ground beneath the ca nopy.

    Dominant Factors Controlling Leaf Reflectance


    Plants have adapted their internal and ex te rna l structure to
    perform pho tosynt hes is. Th is structure and its intera ction
    w ith electromagnetic energy has a direct impact on ho w

    Pioneering work b)' Gates et at. ( 19M ), G au ...mann er at.


    ( 1969 ). M) C~ (I nO) and ot hers demonstrated the impor

    Spo

    357

    ral Characterist ics 01 Vegetati on

    lS illg

    Spectr al C har acrer tstlcs (If

    Ih' lllth~- ( ; n '('11

    n 'l.:elalion

    Lei\f p1b'TTlc nlS


    in the palisa de

    Dum ina nt Fliclo n [

    mCMlphyl!:

    Contro lli ng Leaf


    Reflec ta nce

    ch lorophy ll u, b

    Sca tte ring in the

    !l-c;uulcne. CIC.

    J;po0g)' nlc'IophylJ

    LCJf water content

    1:': : : ;: : =:::: : : : : ==:::: : ::

    . [

    '0"

    (J)i )

    ;\'ith

    '00
    90

    '>(,"

    )1110

    I-

    '0

    I' rim ary-

    r hl" rop h>' 1

    the

    leaf

    71'

    ' I,

    h a nd ~

    50

    '0

    4"

    4"

    "

    Jll

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    20

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    f;

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    0.4

    .5

    "

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    "

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    .~" -a

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    3)

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    ",3
    ,

    3'

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    " I-

    3
    ~
    ~

    MI

    -"

    leaf

    70

    a h~ orp1ion

    ,.

    .7

    ,
    .Q

    1.0

    1.2

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    2.2

    2."

    2.6

    Wavclcng th. jrm


    I

    "

    I
    ,I

    F9Jre 11-1

    r-

    "f

    "

    Spect ra l rcuectancc characrc rbucs ofhcahhy green vegetation fur the \\ ilvc!l:nglh inlcn al 0 ,4 2.(' 11m, Th e dominant fact ors
    comrolhng k at" reflectance a n: the various leaf pigments in the pnlisadc mes" phy ll te.g.. chloro phyll (/ ami h. and li-ClI rolle" c).
    the .call.:ring o f nca r-mfrared ener gy in t he spongy mcsophyll. and th..: al11 (1unt "f" atcr in the plant. Tho: primary ..:hlowphyll
    al>~\lrp(illlll>alld ~ IIccur:1I n,O _ 0.4 5 J.Hn and 0.1i5 _ o.o li).Jm in the ,i slhl... region. rh c primar y wate r .d',orpt inn bauds llccu r
    ,ll {)<)7, U I/, 1.45, 1.')4. and 2.1 1Jrn,

    ance o f unders tamling ho w le a f pigllle'llIS , inter na l scatterIl@.. and leaf water content affect the' reflectance and
    ansminance propert ies of leave s (Peterson and Runnin g,
    9~Q }. Dominant factors co ntro lling lea f re flectance in th e
    egion from 0,35 - 2.6 11111 arc summarized in F ig ure II - I,
    laihle l.il);hl huera ctton wi th li ~ml.'lIh i n t he Pal i..a tlc
    'll'W p h ~ 1I

    Mrddle-iutra rcd

    Nc ar- infrared

    Cctb

    carbon diox ide (CO:)

    T he carbon dioxide fro m the a ir a nd the wate r p rovided by


    the root a nd ste m syste m repres ent the fu nd a m e ntal raw
    ma te ria ls of photo..ynrhcsis . Sunlig h t provid es the irradianc c

    The process of feod -mak ing via phottl s} nth..:sis determines

    IE~ 1

    Joy.' a leaf and the associated plan t ca nop y ac tually ap pear


    21iomc trically on remotely sensed images. A hea lth y leaf
    eeds three th ings III mak e food :

    sccuon of a Iypical green leaf if> sho wn in Figur e 11-2. The

    that powe rs photos ynthes is.

    The kat' j s the p ri mal}

    ph llIOS) llt he~ili ng

    organ. A c ross-

    cell struct ure o f lea ve." is high ly va riable .tc J'lC'nd ing upo n

    358

    ( ' II\ I"IE R

    Phloem
    tissue

    11

    Rem ote Sensing of Vegetation

    Xylem
    lis..sue

    Chloroplast

    Lower
    cpi&.:nllis

    SI"rnal.1

    Srong v

    parenchyma
    m~"">ph) II cell

    Actu al Lea r C re ss-sec tion

    Interce llu la r

    air space
    Figure 112

    Spongy pnrcncbymu
    mesophyll cell

    a) Hypothetica l cross -sccucn o f a typical hea lthy green leaf, showing b oth the lUI' a mi unders ide uf th... leaf. The chl(lfoph~ll
    pigments III th... roalis;HIc parenchyma cells have a signitkam impact on rhe ahsClrpliu n and reflec tance o f vis ible light (bl~,
    gr..-cu, <Hut red }, '" hi Ie the spong)' parenchyma mcsophyll cells ha v... a sign ilic3111 impact on the ahsorption and fC nccun-.:~of
    near-mtrared incident ene rgy. bj Elect ron microscope Image of a green lea t:

    species and e nvironmental condinons Ju ring gro wth. Carbon dioxide enters the lcaf'from the atmosphere through tiny
    pores called stomata or stnmu, located primarily on the
    underside: of the leaf on the /0" '(''' epidermis . Each stomata is
    surrounded by gmJr(1cells thai swell or cont ract. Wh e n they

    swel l. the stomata pun: opens and allows carbon dioxideIC


    enter the leaf. A typica l sun llo w cr leaf migfu have 2 millioD
    stomata. bur they make up nnly about I percent of the leafs
    sur face area, Usually, there are more stom ata on the: bottom

    Spectral Char acteristics 01 Veget ation

    aleaf; howeve r. on so me lea ves the stomata arc c\ en l)


    brributcd o n both the upper a nd lower epidermis
    top layer of lea f IIPP"" epidermis cells has a cuticnlor
    ace thai diffuses hut re fle cts very lillie light (Philpott.
    971). It is variable in thic knes s hili is oflcn on ly 3 - 5 tnu
    ~ i d, with cel l dimension s o f approximately 18 x 15 x 20
    ~. It is usefulto think ,ll" it M a waxy. mmsluccnt material
    smila r rorhe c ut icle 31 the lop ofyour fingern ai l. Leaves o f
    1Wl)' plants that gruw in br ight sunlight ha ve a thic k cutic le
    till can fi lter out so me lig ht a nd guard ag ainst e xces sive
    .wn .... ater loss . Conversely, so me pla nts suc h a\ terns and
    bll~' shrubs on the f(lrt.~1 Iloor must sun ivc in shaded conMions. The leav es of many of these p lants have a thin cu ntle"'O thai the p lant can couec t as muc h of the dim sun light
    "possible for pho tosy nthesis.
    Yany Iea\t."" in direct sunllg.h t have hairs gro\lling out ofthe
    IlppCT (and 10\-lcT) e pidermis. cau s ing them 10 fed fU/.z) .
    l1Ie~e hairs ca n be hendid:a l, ;ls they reduce the i nt c n ~i l Y o f
    Ik Incident sun light h' the plan t. Nevertheless . much o f the
    li,ihle and near-infrared wavelength ene rgy is transmitted
    d1 rough rhc cuticle and lIppl'r epidermis to the pulisude
    Nlrench) rna mcsoph y II cells a nd spongy parenchyma mesopbyll cells below.
    PhoIosynlhesis occ urs inside the typical green lea f in tw o
    uoo:> of food-making cells - l'alisIlJ~' p<1Il'lIchyma and
    lP"'ngy parenchyma mcsop hyl! cells. \100;,1 leaves haw a disIIFICI layer o f lon g pa lisad e parenchyma cells in the upper
    put of the mcsophyll and more irregu larly shaped, loosely
    eranged spon gy paren chyma ce lls in the 10 \-1 cr part of the
    eesophy ll, The pal is,l(!l' cel ls ten d totorm in the portion o f
    the mesophyll tow ard the side from which the light enters
    :he leat: In most horizontal t pla nophile j l e ;l \'C~ the: palisade
    ceils will be toward the upper sur face. but in leaves that
    grnw nearly vertical [crcctophilc ]. lhl' pal isadl' 1'e1 ls may
    fonn from hntll side s. In S(1m~' Icilves the clongat~'d palis,lde
    :lls arc entirely abs ent anu only spo ngy pllrl'llehyma cell s
    .,ill ex isl within the mesop hy l!.
    Ibl' ed lular slruc lure of the lea f is la'l!e co mpared to the
    of ligh t tha i inte ract wit h it. Pali ~uc cel ls arc
    typically 15 x 15 x no !Jm. whi te spongy me"llphyll parench)'ma ce lls are sma ller. T he- pa lisade paTl'nehy ma me:<o~)' II p lant ce lls co nta in r.: h1oroplasts w ith ch lorophyll
    pigmcnls.
    uH'le ngt h~

    The ch loro pbsts arc gcnera lly 5 - 8 11m in d iamet er and


    1bout I !Jm in w idth , As m..m y as 50 chloroplasls may be
    in caeh paren ch)'lI1a cel l. \\'ithill the chloro plasts arc
    long slender grlll/(/ slrands (n"l sh".... n l wi lh in whkh th..:

    prtSl'nt

    359

    chlorophy ll i.. actuall y located (approximately' 0.5 urn in


    lengt h and (l.OS urn III diameter) . The chloroplasts are generally more abundant tU" ;lrd urc upper side o f the leaf in the
    pa lisade cells and hence accou nt for the darker green appearnnce o f the uppe r lea f surface co mpa red with the bottom
    Ii~ht.:r surface.
    1\ molecule, wh en struck fly a wave or phot on of light ,

    rencct s some ofthe energy or it ca ll absorb the ener gy and


    thu s enter into a higher energy or exc ited state (refer to
    Ch ap ter 2 ), Eac h molec ule absorbs or re flect s its ow n characterb uc \\ a\ elengths o f light. Molecules in a typical green
    plant have evol ved to abso rb wa velengths of light in the visihlc region o f the spectrum (O.J5 - 0 .70 !Jm ) very well and
    arc called pigments. An absorption spec trum for a part icular
    pigmcru describes the wavelengths at whi ch it can absorb
    light and enter into a n exc ited stare. Figure II-Ja presents
    the absorp tion spec trum of pure chlo rophy ll p ig ments in
    so lut io n. C hlorophy ll " and b a n: the mo st impo rta nt p lant
    prgm ems ab sorbing blue a nd red ligh t: chlorophyll II at
    wavelengths of 0.43 und 0.(6)Jm a nd chlorophyll b at wavelengths 01'0.45 and 0.65 um (F arabee, 19( 7). A re lative lack
    of nbsorpnon in the wavelengths bet ween the two c hlorophy ll absorp tion bauds produces a trou gh in the absorption
    e fficiency at approx imately O.5-l !Jm in the green portion of
    the ele ctromagne tic spectrum (F igure 11-3a). Thu s. it is the
    r..: lat h el ) lower absorpt ion of green wavelength light (ccornpared to b lue and red light ) by the le af that causes healthy
    green folia ge to appear green to ou r eyes.
    There are othe r pigm ents pre sen t in the palisade mesophyll
    cel ts that are us uall y rna- ked by the abundance of chlorophyll pigments. For examp le. then: are yellow " ",n lt'" e.' and
    pule yellow xlImhopJry/l p igments, wuh strong absorption
    primarily in the blue wavelength region. T he [l-carotene
    absorption spec tra is shown ill f igu re 11-3b wi th its strong
    ah~orptinn band cc nt('rt'd (It abo ul 0.4 5 !Jm. Phy coerythrin
    p ignwllts Illay a ls,) bl: prescnt in the k af wh ich ah~o rb predUlllinaruly in the gree n regio n cent ered at about 0.55 !Jill.
    allow ing b lue an d red light to he reflected, P h.l'C (lQ l/Ili/l pigIll.:ntl> ab sorb pri ma rily III the gre",n and red reg ion .. cen lered
    al abl,lut 0.(>2 )Jill. al1u.... illg mueh ufthe b lue and som ... of the
    grt.'C1l liht ( i.e., the com hination prod uces eyan ) to he
    rel1 t~ (Fi gure 11 -3b ). Baus.: c hlo rophyll a and b chloroplast s a~ atso pr,,">Cnt and ha\e a si mi lar absorption band
    in I hi ~ h lue reg ion. the y tend 10 dom inate and mask the effecl
    of the other pigments present. \Vhcn a plant underg0C5
    St.l h:sce ncc in the fa ll or eneuunlcrs SITOS. the chlo rophy ll
    pigrnl'llI may disa ppear. allow ing the carolenes and other
    pigmen ts to hecome domi nant . For e xamplt: . in the fal l.
    chloTIJ phyll pruduction ceases. causi ng the ye llu w t'o lom tion
    <)1' the c,lrotcncs and ot her l>p.:c iti e pigm ents in the trce tol i

    ru \PT U I.

    360

    11

    Remote sensing 01VegetatiOll

    Phycocyanin

    Ch lorophyll h "

    ,\ h\ Orj llin n Sp ectra


    lIfC h l" r.. ph)lI " an d b

    Chlorophy ll "

    I
    .'.'i/ :.
    :

    .:'
    0.3

    O_ J~

    04

    0.-1 5

    rh'~lh~ f\

    0.5

    0.55

    0.(>

    { oj

    IIUti PhFuc)' lIni ll

    .....

    ..
    o.zs

    A!J.. .rpuou
    Spec tra
    of !M:a m l l"lIe.
    I' vcocrythrtn.

    / <
    0.65

    0.7

    vio let blue


    gre..n ycllo.... red
    Wavelength. u rn

    0.15

    0.3

    035

    0,-1

    0.-15

    vi" k l hlue

    05

    0.55

    ....
    0.6

    065

    0.7

    green ydlow red

    wavelength. urn

    h.
    =igu re 113

    .;I) Absorpnon spectra of chlorophyll (l :md h I'igm<:ms. ( 'hl" w phyll "and " pigment' in a tea f'absorf much ofthe incident ~
    .IIlJ red wavelength cncq:y. b! Ab sorpncn spec tra uf~-cawlcllc, which absorbs pruuarlly in the blue. Dthcr I'i gmcnls that mi@ll
    he foun d in a lea f inclu de Phyc oe rythrin which <l h,,,r(,~ pri nHirily grl>en lig ht, and Phycocyanin which ,11'o,,,rl'o, primanly gr~

    ~I IU

    red light Iutlcr Farabee. 1,-)<)7).

    age 10 bec ome mo re visible to our eyes. In add it io n. some


    tree.. produ ce grea t quanti ties of <ll1lh/J'Yll/l i" in the fa ll.
    cau sing the lca vcs to appear br ight red .

    The gree n leaf (a). ye llow leaf to). and red k a f (e ) were qi
    o n the Swee tgum tree at tJ1\: time o f data collec tio n. The dai
    brown leaf (d l was collected on the ground beneath tile lift.

    Fhe t w o optimum spec tral regions for sensing the chloroph:-11 absorption characteristics of a leaf arc believed to be
    0.45 - 0.52 urn and n.M - 0.69 11m ( Figure 11-3a ). The

    A GE R 1500 (Geophy sical & Env ironmental Resea rch be


    handheld spcctroradio mctc r wa s used to obtain speanI
    reflecta nce measuremen ts trem each otrhe leaves . The speenuradiomcrer obtained spectral re flectance mcusu rcmesas a
    5 12 bands in the ult raviolet , blue . green . red , and near-infrared spectral regions fro m J 50 - 1050 nm . Percent rclkctallre
    meas ure me nts were ob tain ed in the lab by measuring l~
    umounr o f energy reflected from the surface of the leaf (lhe
    target) di vided hy the amou nt or ener gy reflected from i
    Sp.:dralonE re flecta nce re ference (percent reflectance = argctJrefe re n,,;1.':X 1( 0) The re fl ectance measurements for eadl
    o fthe lea ves fro m " OU - W5U nm were ploued in a pl'1l.'CIl
    reflectance graph (Co lor Plate ll -Icj.

    fo rmer region is characte rized by strong absorption b)' caroteno ids and chlorop hylls. whereas the latter is characterized
    hy strong chlorophyll abso rption . Remote sensi ng of c hloroph yll absorption within a canopy represe nts a fundamenta l
    biophysical variable useful for many biogeographica l investigations. The absorption c haracterist ics o f plant canopies
    may be cou pled wuh other remotely sensed data to identity
    vegetation stress. y ield. and other hyb rid vnriahlcs. Thus.
    many remote sens ing studies are concerned wi th monitori ng
    wha t happens to the p J",ro.wnth.-/it"ulll <It'ti n- radiation
    ( PA R) as it interacts with mdividuallcavcs and ur the plant
    ca nopy. The uSC' of high spectral reso lution imaging spectrometers are particularly use ful fo r measu rin g the absorption and reflectance characteristic s o f'rhe photosymhcucally
    a CII\C radiation.
    To demonstrate these princ iples . consider the spectral rc flcc ranee cha racteristics of lo ur diff erent lean'S obtained from a
    single health y S.... cc tgum tree (Uquidwll!ml" .,lvrocif!ll(1 L. )
    on Nov embe r I I. 1905, in Colu mbia. SC (Color Plate 11. 1).

    The green 1ea f (C{llor Plate 1I la) wa s still photos yrubeseing and yielded a typica l heal thy green re fl ec tance sptn
    With stro ng chlorophyll absorption bands in the blue and red
    reg ions (a pprox imat ely II percent reflectance al 450 nmand
    5 percent at (150 1111\_ respec tiv ely). and a peak in rc flectarce
    in the green reg ion ofthe vis ible spectrum ( I I percent al550
    nm) . Ap proximately 76 percent o f the inc ident near-infrared
    rad iant nux was refl ected from the leaf at 000 nm.

    I Characteristics o f Vege tation

    ~ellow

    leaf [Co lo r Plate I I- I b ) was und ergoing sencsAs the in fl uence o f the ch lorophyll pig ments dimin relatively greate r amoun ts of gree n (2..J pe rcen t 31 550
    landred (3:! pe rce nt at b50 nun lig ht "ere re fl ected from
    kaf"result ing in a ye llow appearance. At 750 nm the yetleaf refl ected less ncar-in frared radi ant tlux than the
    Ith} greenleaf ]lIlW",, \ er. ncar-infrared reflectance <i t 90(j
    was abou t 76 percent. very similar \(l the healthy gre en

    leaf (Co lor Platt: I I - Ie ) re flected 7 percent o f the


    at ..J50 nm, b percent ofrhc green energy at 550 nm, and
    jere cnt o fthe inc ide nt red en ergy at 050 nm . Ncar-i n frareflectanc e at 900 nm dropped 10 70 pe rcent .
    1'1'.11

    dID. brown lea f (Color Pla t... 11-1d) produ ced a spect ral

    ,
    '"
    e

    .1

    ,,

    "

    b
    t

    tanc... cu rve with low blue ( 7 percent at ..J 50 nm ), gr een


    pmtlll at 550 nm I. and red reflectance (I ll percent at tl50
    ). lhis co mbinatio n produ ced a da rk brown ap pcurunccear-in frared reflecta nce d ropped ttl..J..J percent at (JOOnm.
    j, important to und erstand the physi ulugy of the plum s

    r iI1\ estiga tio n and cspeci;llly thei r pig mentation ch armsrics sothat we ca n ap preciat e how a typ ica l plan t will
    ar w hcu chlorophyll absorption starts to dec ree sc. euher
    10 seasonal senes cen ce or environm ental stress. As dcmted. when a plant is under stress an d 'or c h ltlroph~ II
    ion dec rea ses. \hI: lac k o f ch lo roph yll pigmentat ion
    I} causes the p la nt to absorb les s in the c hlorophyll
    ion bands. Such p lants will ha ve a muc h hight:'r
    huncc:. pa rtic ularly in the green and red port ion of the
    .,mrum. and therefore may appea r yello wish o r chlorotic,
    fact. Carter ( ! 9<n) suggests that in....n:ased rd k c t" nce in
    \i~l hle Spl"etru m is the mo st consis tent lea f rdkc lan ...c
    tIpOnse to plant stress. Inlbr....d relleet:mee r,:sfX' nd s eonT~nt l y nnly w hen strcss h:IS deve loped su!li('kn tly 1\1
    ,:w;e severe lea f deh ydration (to
    uelllonstrnll'd sllorlly).

    be

    Leaf spectral retkctan . . e is mllSI likd y til ind icat e p lant


    .;; Ii ~t in the sensitive 535 - MO and 6~ 5 - 700 11m \isi light wavelength ra nge s. Increa sed re lk'ctance ncar 700
    ~e nts the o tien reponed " b lue shi n of the r~ ~dge :'
    ,the shi ll IOward short~r wa \e lengt hs o f the red-in frared
    ition l;une that occurs in stres~d plan ts when retlccis p lo (led w rsus wa ve lengt h l C ibu la a nd Can~r.
    ~f. The shi ft toward short er "3\'ekn gth s in the region
    650 - 700 nm is part icular ly eviden t for the yell ow and
    III ren~cta nee eurws shnw n in Co lor Plat..: II-Ie. I{ernt'le
    rIlSing wilh in thes.: spect ra lly narrow ra nges may prov ide
    IIplO \ ed ca pability 10 detect pla nt stress nol ollly in imliv id.1I ~a\"es hU I for whole plan ts ,tllll p<."rhap s for dl' nsl' ly \'t'gf.lloo eanopics (Carter. 19'13; Ca rt.:r et a1.. 191}6 ).

    36 1

    Normal color film is scnsiuv c 10 b lue. green. a nd red wuvc len gth energy. Color-infrared lilm is sc ns mvc to gree n. red .
    and nea r-infra red energy a ttcr m inus-blue (yellow 1filtrat ion
    (re fe r to Chapter -I} T here fore, even the mOSI si mple cume ra
    with color or co lor-infrared fi lm and approp riate ha nd -pass
    filtrat ion ti.e.. o nly certai n wavelength, of light IIr~ allllw.:-(1
    to pass) can be used to remot ely sense d iffe rences in s pectr a l
    rcft cctnnc c caused by the pigmen ts p resent in thl' pa lisade
    parenchyma layer of cells in a typica l lea f However . to
    dctc-ct very subtle spectra l re flectance diffe rence s in the rclarivcly narrow ha nds suggested hy Cibula and Carte r ( 1<,1 <,1 2)
    and Ca rter et at. ( 1<,1 4(,). it may be neces sa ry 10 use a h igh
    spectral reso lution imagi ng spcc troru d iomcter that has very
    narrow hand" idths

    Near-tnrrared En erJt' In t...ract iun with in th e SponJt'


    " lc\f1llh~' 1 1

    Cl'lI \

    In a typ ical health y green lea f, the ncar-in frared re flectanc e


    12U() nm.
    inc reases d ramatically in the reg io n from 700
    For e xample. the health y gr een lea f in the pr..-\ iolls example
    reflected approximately 7(l pe rcent of the incident nearinfra red e nergy at 900 nm . llcnhh y greenleaves abs orb rad iau t ene rgy very etficicnrly ill the blue and roo po rtiolls ( I I' the
    spec trum wh ere incidc nt light is req u ired for photosy nthes is.
    BUl im med iatel y to the lon g w avclc ngth side of the red chloroph y ll absorption hand , " hy does the reflectance and tra nsr niuancc o f plant lcave s inc rease so dra mat ica lly. causin g the
    absorpianc e 10 fall to low values ( Figure I I - I f! Thi s co nditio n oc-curs throu ghout the ncar- infra red wa velengt h ra nge
    " here the dir ect sunlight incide nt o n p la nts has the hul k o f
    its energy. If plants a bso rbe d this energy with the sa me ertie ierl"-) as Ihey do in the \ isit>l e region. they could becom e
    mu d l 100 w an n and til\." prot e ins w(lulu be irr,,: vcl'5ibly' de natured. ..\ s a resu ll. plam s h;l\ e adapt ed so thcy do not use th is
    massive ;tI1ltl llnl ur n ea r-i n fra r~ d ene rgy an d s imply re!lect it
    or trans m it it throug h 10 underlyi ng leaves or til\." gWlInd .
    'l"h.: spo ngy lll~sliph y l l lay..-r in II gree n k ill' "-\lntro b the
    amount of nea r-in fr<l reu l"nergy Ihat is re llect..-d . Th.: spo ngy
    lncs<:' ph ylllayer typ ica lly lil's hel ow the pa lisade me snph y ll
    layer and is e(lmpo.)!o>Cd of many cells and int...rcel lula r ai r
    spaCl~as shown in Figure I I-:!. II is h.:-r..- that the o xyge n and
    carbon d ioxi de excha nge take s p lace for ph(llosYnl h~i s and
    r.:sp lr<lliu n. In the ncar-infrarl"ll reg ion. hea llhy gn....n \egelal iu n is gt:nerall)' cha.raetL'ri.lL"lI by high relke lane\." (40 - 60
    pt:'rt"ent) , high tr.lnsm itta nee (40 - bO pe rce nt) through the
    k a f nnlo unde rlyi ng lea \ es. and relat ive l) low abso rp tane..:
    (5 - 10 pt:r"-l"nt ). No ti..-e lhat a hea lthy gr..-el1 ka r s rd l cetan cc and transrnitl<l nee spect ra thro ugho ut lhe \ 'isi t> le and
    near-infrar....d port io n Ill" the spectrum art: almost m irror

    e ll \ I"T[R

    362

    =-

    Hi ~

    IOH

    11

    Remote sensing of Vegetation

    Btucst em Grass Absor ptton, Rcn ccran ce, and Tra nsmitta nce

    -,- 0

    '0

    I r a n \ mitl a nct'

    60
    e;

    40

    ,,
    E

    u
    0

    '.

    ,"~
    z

    40

    '"

    20

    +__~--~""'"'.w~~--~--~--_~--_+

    04

    0 .5

    0.('

    0.7

    08

    Wavelengt h, jun

    Fig ure 11-4

    0,9

    '0

    '00

    "

    Hemisphe rica l refle ctance. transuuttancc, a nd absorpuon characteris tics of Big l3luc stCI1l jp"a, s ada xiallea f su rfaces obtalIKl!
    using a labvrat"I)' Spl'(:ITor-adio Jllctcf. The reflectance and tra nsmittance curv es are almost mirror imagl'S of one anOOie'
    throu ghout the _lsi" lc and nea r-infrar ed portions o f the clcctrornegncuc spectrum. The blu e and red chlorophyll ill planb
    sum much o f t he incid...'llll'llcrg)' in till:' visible poruon o ft he spo:clrum (0 .4 - 0 .7 um r tatter Wa lter-Shea and Hrehl, I
    Imaging Spe'CIWIl1t:tCA such a" AVI RIS arc capable of Idl'll\lf~ i n~ small changes in IIJ<.o abwrpt ion an d relk.:t i..,n.:h.trxtmf.
    tics of plants because lh.: sensors Ofl~'Tl have channels Ih.u J.I\' onl} 10 nm lipan. i.c., WI: could have 10 channelv in !hefePi"
    from 0.6 - O. 7 urn (f>(ltl lo 700 nml .

    images of (JOe anot her. as show n in Figure 114 (Wal terShea


    and Bie hl. 19l)() .

    The hig h diffu se reflectance of the nca r-infrared (0.7 - 1.2


    11m) e nergy from plant leaves is due to the intern al scattering
    at Ihe cell wa ll-a ir interfaces w ithin the leaf (Ga usmann el
    al.. 1969; Peterson and Running . 1989 ). A w mer vapor
    absorption band exists at 0.92 - O.9g um : consequently, the
    opumum spect ral reg ion for sens ing in the near-infrared
    region is believed to be 0.74 - 0.90 11m (Tu cke r. 1978).
    The main reasons that hea lthy plant canopies re flect so muc h
    ncar-in frared energy arc :
    the lea f already refl ects 40 - 00 perc ent o f the incid ent
    ncar-in frared energy from the spongy mcsophyl l ( Fig ure
    l f -r j. and

    the rem ai ning -IS - 50 percent (If the ene rgy pcTldrar.:s
    ti.e.. is tra nsmitted ) th rough the lear and can he relll:\1d
    once again by leave s below it,
    This is called k l/( addtnve If / /eUllnCe. For e xample. amsider the re flectance and transmissio n characte ristics ofl!lt
    hypo thetical two-layer plant canopy sho w n in Figure Il,~
    Assume tha i leaf I re flects 50 percent o f the incident I'd
    infrared energy back into the atmosphere and that lit
    remaining 511 pt:reent o f the ncar-infrared e nergy is tr.m"lli
    1I..d thro ugh leaf I (Into lea f 2 , The trans mitted energy tIlCII
    falls 0 11 lea f.:! where 50 pcrecut aga in is unnsmiucd ( ~ 5 p.~.
    cent (11' the original) nnd 50 perce nt ts rcnccted Tht
    re flec ted ene rgy then r a" cs hac k through leaf I which
    <1110 \\ s ha lf (If tha t ene rgy l or 12.5 percen t of the originallll'
    he transmitted and haltrctlcctcd . The resu lting total energy
    ex iting lea f I m this two-la yer exam ple is 02 .5 percenlo ftbt
    inc ide llt energ y. Therefore. the greater the num ber of

    5,

    ral Characteristics o f Vegetation

    363

    .a ddu tve Reflec ta nce from Leaf I a nd l.('af 2


    Jot l ..

    T,

    Retlcctcd

    flux. <,I'T
    112 4>, -50"0

    raJ idHl
    RJ ~

    5 l\ 4>, - (,2,5%
    Transmirtcd
    radkun 111,1 ,\ . <I' ,
    T) - 1'2 H Z
    (or I/fo; <1>, ~ 125 %1

    Incid ent
    radtan tIlux.

    T ~~ 1/2 1{4

    (of \132 <1>i J

    "',

    I
    Le af I

    Trunsmincd
    flu ' . <.l' r

    ra(1i ~nl

    TI- 1'2 4>;

    Ltar 1

    T4~
    (OT

    Rgure 11-5

    112 R.

    I l fl 4>;)

    A hypothetica l exam ple of uddinv c refl ec tance from a canopy with lwo leaf laycrx. Fitly percent of the incident radiant flux.
    <1>,. 10 leaf I is Tetleck<.l (K, l. and the other 5(1 percent is transmuted,lI1to ka fl (Til. rifly pcrccm ofthe radiant Ilux incident
    10 leaf2 is tra ns mitted through k af2 (T!); the other 50 percent ISreflected toward the base of leaf I ( R~). Fifty percent ofthe
    energy incident errh.. ha...e ofleaf I is ua nsnuued through il (T ,) "hik III<: remaining 50 percent (R,) is relk cl<,..,J to.....m J leaf
    2 once aga in. AI Ihis point. all additional 12.5 percent (1 iiI reflec ta nce has been coetribeted hy leaf 2. bringing Ihe 100al reflee ted radra nt 111,1 '" ttl 02 .5 percent . H OWC'\ C'f. to be e ven more accurate. on..: " <lulll hav.. to also ta ke inlo accoururhc amount
    of energ) reflected from the base of leaf I (RJ ) onto leaf 2. the amount rd1,XI<.'<l from k a f :2 IR, I. and eventually transmitted
    IhrOl,lgh leaf I once again fr~ ). This proc....., would contmue.

    hyers in a hea lthy. mature canopy, theoret ica lly the greater

    me infrare d reflectance. Conversely, if the canopy is only


    mposcd of II single. sparse leaf layer then the ncar-inf rared
    etlecranc e w ill not be as great because the erwrg.:- thai is
    nns miu ed throug h the leaf layer may be absorbed by the
    !!OOnd cover beneath .
    t"Gmges in the ncar-infrared spec tral properties o f h<"a llh)
    ~'11 vcgetanon may provide informat ion abo ut plan t scncseece and/o r stress. For exam ple . co nside r the Ii-l UI' leaves
    lid their spectral reflectance ch arac teristics shown in Color
    ri.llc I I- I. The photo sym hesizing g reen Icaf (:!) c xhihired
    I(fIlng chloro phy ll abs orption in the blue anti red wavelength
    ~giol1s. an und erstandable increase in green reneelance . and
    lWroximatdy 76 percent refl ectance in rhe nenr-in trared
    ~on , Afte r a certain point. nca r-in fra red refl ec tance
    i:ma~ as the leav es scncsccd [b - ti l. 1I0 w ever, if the

    leav es were 10 dry out significamly du ring senescence.....c


    would expect 10 ~ L'(' milch higher reflect ance in the ncarinfrared reg ion (Ill be discussed short ly ).
    Sc icruists han' known since the 19(.,(ls tha t a direct re lationship exi~ls betw ee n res ponse in the near- in frared reg ion and
    various biomass mea surements . Converse ly. it ha s been
    shew n that an ifll't'He re lations hip exists between the
    res pon se in the vis ible reg ion . particularly the red . and plant
    biomass. The best way to apprecia te this is 10 p lot all of the
    pixels in a ty pical remote se ns ing scene in red and ncarinfrared reflectan ce space. For e xample. Fig ure 11-6 a
    depic ts where app roxima tely IO.GOl) pixels in a typ ical agr icu ltural seCIK' ar e located in red and nca r-in frared mu his pcctral featu re space t i.e.. w ith in the gray area ). Dry bare soi l
    fields and wet bare so il fields in the scene ....ould be loca ted
    J t opposite ends of the soi l line . This means that a wet bare

    11

    364

    High can"p>
    closure "r
    biomass

    Di vtr-lbuti u n of Piu1s in

    Red a nd xea r-Inrrarcc


    S jwclral Span'

    Rem ot e Sen si ng of Vegetation

    H igh (;In,,I"'>'
    closure or

    M i;::ralioll of a Pix el

    in Red a nd x ear-tnrrared

    biomass I" PC)

    S pe cara l S pace During


    :, G ro wi ng Sea..on

    A1 Jl\"~1

    ripe

    lnterrned iatc
    canopy closure
    or b i.>m.\M

    lI a rH'l>!C'd ;

    "' " 'egcWlloo

    rrt''lrnl ,m dry 'It.il

    Pla nted:
    Wei
    ba re "Oi l

    1\0 \~('\.;Il"""

    pr esen t on mOist so il
    It.-J kctk...tance
    b.

    k ed Re flecta nce

    a,
    Figure 11-6

    a) l ht: ul"lnbl.lli,Hl of a ll the pitch in a scene ill red and n.:.II-in fr.ar. J muluspcc trul space is foun d in the gruy s.hado:ln.
    Wet and moist bare soil fields arc loc ated along the soil line. The greate r the toj" m,lSs and.o r crop c3m'py closure. tile ~
    Ill<: ncar-uurarcd rer fec iance and the I".....r the red refl ectance . Th is cUll<li li"n n w\.~ the pi , o,:l ' s ' flCctr,d loc ation a pcrptadI:
    o

    ular dlrec nou away from the soil line. 11 )The nugranon of n single wgel;l1l'd agricultur al pixel in red and near-infraredmull.
    ~pt.'l:trnl space during a grtlWlIl1! season is sho wn. After Ihe cr"p elllergn. II de pan ~ fw m the ....,il line. eventually readlill:
    complete canopy closure. After h;lr\est ing. the pixel will he f" und on the ulImc.b m perhaps in a drier soil condition.

    soi l would hav e very low red an d ncar-infrared reflec tance.


    C onversely. a dry hare soil urea would probably have high
    red and high nca r-infrared re flectance. As a vcgcuuion ca nopy matures. it rc rlccts more nca r-infrare d e nerg y \\ hilc at
    the same nmc ahsn rhing more red radia nt tlux for phetosynthc ric pu rposes. T his lllS!.'S th e spectral reflec tance o f the
    pixel 10 m ove in a pcr pc udiculn r directio n awa y from the soil
    lin,' . As biomas s increas es an d as the plant cn nop y cover
    inc reases. th e field's loca tion in the re d and nca r- Infrare d
    s pect ral Sp,lCC mov e s farther aw ay Iro m tbc soil line .
    Figu re 11-6 b demonst ra tes how j ust on e ug ricull ural pixel

    mightmove abo ut in the red and nc ar-infrare d s pec tra l spac e


    during a typical growing seaso n. If the field was prepared
    properly, it 1.\I1u 1J proba bly be loca ted in the mois t ban: so il
    region o f the su il hue with 10 \\ red and low ncar-infra red
    reflecta nce a t the oc g in ning o ft he growi ng se aso n. A fter the
    crop emerges, it would de pa rt fro m the soi l line. eventual ly
    re ac hing com plete ca nopy cl os ure . A t th is poi mt he refl ected

    near-infrared radiant tlux .... ould IX' high and the red ren eelance .... ould be ksw. Aller ha rvcsuug, the pixel .... ould prob-

    ably he found once ag ain on the soi l li ne hut perhaps ill


    drier con du inn.

    The rl"l al ill nship between red and ncar-i n frared eanllp)'
    reflectan ce has resulted in the developm ent of numer~
    remote s,-ns ing vegcunion indices a nd biomnss-cstimauq
    techniques that utjliz c m ultip le measure me nts in the \'isib~

    aud nea r-in frared reg io n (e ,g.. Kichurdson a nd Eve riu, 1992.
    Lyon ct ul.. I')l)H ). The result is a linear com bination lh3r
    may hi: more highl y corr elated with biom ass than cithentd
    o r nea r-infrar ed mea-oucm en t alon e. Several of these algcrithms arc summarized in the sec t ion on Vcg.:ta tiun Indira
    in th is c ha pte r.

    Mlddle-Infr ured EII,' rI:J huera ctj ou with W at H in tk


    S IIU II~)"

    _' Ie ~ op h) 1I

    Plants require water to grow. A lea f ob tains wa te r th~


    the plant 's ro ots. T ho: wa ter tra vel s from the roo ts. up til
    SI,'I11. and enters the lea f thro ugh the />I'/;O/t' _ Veins ~
    .... a tcr 10 the cells in the le af. If a plant is wa te red so tIw:.

    I Chara cteristics or Vege ta t ion

    lIS as much wa te r as it call poss ibly ho ld at II given


    .ir is said \0 he fu lly nogtd. Much o f th e water is found
    IJIe spongy meceph yll port ion of the plane If we lilrgct III
    the plant or ra in fall decreases. the p lum w ill comain a n
    t of wa tcr thai is less than il can pote ntia lly ho ld. Th is
    led its relative tW1F,Mity . II would be usefu l to have a
    M.:nsing instrument that wa!!. sensilL \c to ho .... muc h

    lias actua lly in

    it

    plant leaf. Remote: sens ing in the

    le-mfrare d. therm al infrared (C hap ter X), and pa ssive


    wave (Cha pter 9) po rtio n o f [he elect romag netic sp ec'lIIl can provide such informa tion to a limited exte nt.

    id water in the atmosphere creates 11\ c major abso rption


    in the ncar-in frared through m iddle-in frar ed portions
    I!I( electromagnetic spt."i:lrum at O.Q7. I.IQ. 1.45. 1.94 .
    2.7 um ( Figure I I-I ). The fundamental vibrational
    -absorpuon band at 2.71101 is the stron gest in th is pa n
    lhe spectrum (t here i ~ ilbo one in the thermal infra red
    on at 6.27 J.Im ). Hu wcvcr.thcre is also a strung rel at ionbetween thc reflectan ce in the midd le-in fr ared reg ion
    1.3 - 2.5 J.I I1l and the amount of water present in the
    es of a plant canopy. Water ill plants absorb mc idcnr
    between the absorption ba nds with increas ing
    at longer wavelengths. In these middle-infra red
    elengths. vegetation reflectance peaks occur at about I. b
    2.2 11m. between t he maj or atmosp hcric water absorpbandsl l-'igun:: 11- 11.

    '.

    365

    Leaf re flectance in the middle-infrared region is inve rse ly


    related 10 the ubsorptancc of a lay er of water appruximurely
    I mm in de pth (Carter. 19( 1). The d egree 10 which incident
    so lar energy in the midd le- infrared region is a bso rbed by
    vegetation is a functi on of the tota l amount of water present
    in the lea f and the lea f thickness. Ifproper choices o f sensors
    and spe ctral ban ds are made. It is possible to monuor the re lative turg id ity in plants.
    \1 os1 optica l re mote sen sin g sy stem s (ex ce pt radar) are ge n-

    orally cons traine d 10 func t ion in the ..... uvclcngth inte rvals
    from 0.3 - 1.3. 1.5 - 1.11 . and 2.0 - 2.6 u m due to the stro ng
    atmospheric wate r absorpt ion bands at l AS. 1.9-1. and 2.7
    J.I m. Fortunate ly, as de monst rated in Figure 11-7. there is a
    strong "carryover" sensitivity 10 wat er co ntent in the 1.5 1.8 and 2.0 - 2.6 urn regions adjacent to the major water
    abso rpt ion ba nds. Th is is the reason that the La ndsat Themat ic Mapper (4 and 5) and Landsat 7 Enhanced Th ematic
    Mapper Plus ( Ell\-l ') were made sensuive to two hands in
    this reg ion: band 5 ( 1.55 - 1,75 ).l m ) an d ban d 7 (2. 0X- 2.3 5
    pm ). The 1.55 - 1.75 urn middle -infrurcd band has consiste ntly de mon strated a sensitivity to ca nopy moistu re content.
    For exam ple. Pierce et al. ( 1990 ) found that this band and
    vegetat ion indices produced usin g it were corre lated with
    canopy wa ter stress in coni ferous forests.
    Much ofthe water in a plant is 10 51 via transpiration . Tranoccurs as the Sun warms the water insidc the leaf
    ca usi ng some ufthc water to cha nge its stare to water vapo r
    that escapes through the stomata. Th e follow ing arc seve ral
    importam funcuons that tra nspi rat ion performs:

    ,lp ,,.lIf;OI/

    aer is a good abso rbe r o f middle-in frare d e nergy. so the


    tel' the turg idit y of the leav es. the lowe r t he mid dleiIated refle ctance . Co nve rse ly. as the mo isture co ntent o f
    es decreases. reflecta nce in the middle-infrare d region
    mascs substanually. As the amoun t n fp lant .... ater 10 the
    ellular air spaces decreases. this causes the incident
    delle-infrared energy 10 be more ink-nse ly sca tte red at the
    -=rface of the iruerccllulur walls resulung in greater m id-infrarcd reflectance from the leaf. FlO I' exa mple. consider
    spectral reflectan ce o f Magnolia leaf samples at Iivc difMOl moisture co ndiuon.. displayed over the wav elength
    31from 004 :!.5 um (fig ure 11-7 ). The m iddle- infrawavelength interv al, from abou t 1.5 - L k pm and from
    - 2.3 urn appear to be mo re sen~it i\ e to cha nges in the
    . ture comcr uof the pla ms than the visible o r neur-infra ltd portions of thc spcctnlrn (i.c. the )'-;I.\is distance
    lmI'('Cn Ihe spec tml reflel:lancl' I: ll T\ t'S is grealer a ~ Ihe
    DOislurc r.:u lllenl de c re a ~ e s ) , Also no le lhi.ll su b;,ti.lllti\c
    JIilIg.::s in the visi b le relleelance Cllr\-'es (0 04 - 0.7 J.I m ) did
    l:H:gin to appear until thl' pla nt moist ure in tht" I.:a ve s
    kttased 10 aboul 50 pt::rr.:r.:nt. When the rdati,c wa ter co nof the p lan t deereases 10 50 percent. a lmost an}' ptlrtion
    \h(- visibk. nea r- and m iddle- inlrnred reg ions might prowme \ a lua111e spectral re nl'Cta nr.:e infonn alioll .

    II cool s the inside o f the leaf because the escaping water

    \ apor coutams heal .


    11 keeps water !lowing up from the root s, throug h the stem.
    tothe leav es.
    II ensures a steady supply of d issolved m inera ls from the
    MliI.
    As molec ules of wa ter vapor at the top of the lea f in the tree
    arc lost to trans pirat ion. thc l'm ire colu mn of wat er is pulled
    upwa rd. Planls lose a r.:o nsidr.: rable amou nl o f waleI' thro ugh
    transp irat ion ear.: h day. For ex ample. a sing le com p lant ca n
    I\lse aboul ..j. quarts (3. X lilers) o f wate r on a very hot day. If
    the roots o f Ihe plant ea unot replar.: e this water. the l ea \ ~s
    w ilt. photosynt hesis stops . and the plant d ies. T hu,>. mo nitoring the m,. islure con ten t of plant canopies. which is co rrelated with r.tll'S of transp iratio n. r.:an pro vide \ alu ab le
    in lonnalion on the health of a crop or sta nd of vcgl'tatio n.
    Therma l infnt rcd and passi \e m icmwa\ c remote S(' nsing

    11

    366

    Rem ot e Sen sing 01 Vegetation

    Spectral Effects or Progressive Lear Or) illg

    1._+..... . .._.1

    Relativ e wate r content

    or \faw w li'l 1<!m ndlflora

    t
    0
    0

    25%

    40

    50''''
    75%

    "

    '"

    J()(l"~

    20 H~

    I ..

    . r,'-,

    '"

    o-I=,.-='~~~~-'l
    0.4 .5 f'> .7

    .s

    ,OJ 1.0

    1.1

    1.4

    I II

    1.11

    2,0

    2.2

    Wavelength. um
    Figu re 1t -7

    Reflectance l\.- :;pOI1\... of H ~ingJ.: magnohalcaf ( Mugnofi<J gnm.liflom ' to <I..-crcascd relative wat..... contem. A~ moisrure_
    terndecreased. reflectance increased lhmu ghou l lh<.- (J.4 - 25 IJ.nJ rcgeo n, 1I1,,,,<,\ <,r. the peale,", mcrease occurred in
    d je-infrar..-d region from 1.3 - 1.5 pm (afte r Can..rr, 19l1 1).

    have pmvidc-d va luable plan t ca nopy eva potranxp jrat jon

    infonna tion.
    The IUt'S! practical applica tion o f plant mois ture mforrnation
    is the regional asscssm..' llt o f cro p water co nditions for irri gat ion sch e-duling . stress assessmen t. a nd y ield mod e ling for
    ag ric ult ure. rangeland, and fore:st!) manage ment.

    Adv anced , '('I:t't:llion Sp('clra l Rcncctanee


    C ha rac le r islics: t he It ldlrcct jon a l Hdleclanl't'
    Dlstrtbuucn Functlun ( Il RHF)
    It would he wonderful i f a vcg vtatcd canopy suc h as a
    mature com crop or Loblolly pine plan tat io n reflected the
    sam e amount of radiant flux to wani the senso r irrespect ive
    Ill' I ) the solar incide nce and uznnu th ang les, Dr 2 ) thc sensor
    viewing geo metry , Th is wou ld ntcan tha t the vege tated can 0ry was a true Larnbcnian surface. i.e.. it reflec ts incide nt
    energy eq ually well in a ll directions. Un fortuna tely, considcrublc rcscurch has demonstrated that this is not the case
    (e.g., Kimes . 1')1\) ). tn fact, the: spectral radiantn ux leav ing
    a veg etation can op y is si~mi ficamly imp act ed by a nu mbe r of
    factors. man y of wh ich are listed in Table 11-1. We briefl y
    d iscuss the primary vegetation pa rll met c~ and then delve
    more de ep ly imu Sun illumina tion and sensor syste m geometric chaructcnsncs.

    The: amoun t and spectral distribution o f mdianr Ilux leaving


    a veg etated ca nopy is influ ence d by the t)'f'C o f ve getation

    tIle_

    presen t. Fur example , grasses ho pefully re flect ~ Iifcrcmly th an a matu re stan d of trees. Some vegetated ~
    pies heve 100 percent C{/ llllp.l clasurr meaning thal lll:
    understory and soil be neat h arc n OI visible through. !hee.
    t' PY. l"ol1\cn;cly. some canopies have < HIO percent camr.
    closure. allow ing portions o f the un dervtory and or soilI
    re flect ene rgy into the ins tantaneous field of view (IFO\i)li/
    the senso r, cre ating a hybrid o r mi xed pixel. It is po,si~I:'lI
    d isenlang le the -pcctrat con mhu uon fro m the indiv'idllll
    land covers. but it requ ires co nsi derable image proces>ing
    e xpertise.
    Some vegctnuon is oriented randomly. while ot her wgeution is o ften syste matic all y arr anged in row s in a c ~rdin!l
    dir ection ( O - 36 0"). Indi v idua l tree cro wns o ften halt
    unique shape s (c.g .. a conic alPonderosa pine crown or citeuler Blackja ck oak cro w n) with unique tree crown diameters that ma y be mcacured. Tree: trun ks or plant stems ha\~1
    cert a in de ns ity (c. g.. numbe r I l l' trunk s per uni t area! lIift
    uniq ue diumeter-at-b tvust-ltvight (D BH ) values.

    Lca(-m n limk'.\ (L A I) is th... total o nc-sid cd (or one balfd


    the tota l all- sid ed } green tea r area per un u gro und-surfxe
    area. It is a n important hio logical para meter beca use )) f
    defines the area that interacts w ith so lar radia tion and prt'"
    \ ide s m uch of the re mote se nsi ng signa l. an d .2 ) it is the >Itfa ce that is res ponsible fur ca rbo n absorpt ion and e, cllanrw ithin the atmosphere (Chen and Black. 199.2). Some ceepi cs hav e subs ta ntially higher lent-area-indic es than Olhm.

    I Charact eri stics

    at Vege ta tio n

    367

    Sensor

    o
    ..j , ,-

    O S~

    it'

    'ii'
    if

    Iii

    ..

    ".
    +75&

    I-'e11-8

    +01 5"

    backward scattering view

    The bidsrecuona l reflec tance dli:c t 00 field of I).:gfas", (Lt..Jium pell'nJw L. 1.~~'<1 umk..r dim..rlnt \'icwing an g l~'S in the
    solar principal plane from a n GO S mounted camera. Solar zenith angl ... was at 35" as indicated by tho: dashed arrows. The
    sensor \ n:\t ing angl~ are ~hown as black lines at nad ir (0') and at =~5' and ::!} 5 otTlll'Idlr(atk'rSandffil"icr and luen, IQW ).

    :k<Jj-angle-dislribmiul/ (LA D) may ch ange thro ughou t


    diy as the leaves orient the mselves toward or away from
    scident rad iation. So me leaves lie predom inantl y in fhe

    irontal plane (c.g., plan oph ilc leaves in many broadlcaf

    s]. while others arc oriented vertically k .g .. ercct ophile

    of coastal cordgrass marsh 1,

    of these vegetation factors can have a significant impa ct

    k reflection o f incid ent lig ht toward th e sensor sys tem.

    reforc. it is bes t to ho ld as many of them a . constant as

    >INc when atte mpting to extract bioph ysical information

    ras primary produ ctivity Of biomass usi ng multiple d ates


    ( mute sensor dura. Even if we held these variables as
    sam 3~ pos sible, the zenith and azimuth angles o f the
    dem solar radiat ion and the azimuth and Ilk-wing lingle
    l( sensor sys tem can introduce sud! dramatic effects that
    Day not be nblc to compa re our spec tral reflectance menmcnrs obtained at on e tim e with those o f a nother, FonuIy. if we know n gr eat deal abou t the veget ation
    actcrisrics of the ca no py (ju st d iscu ssed) and obtain
    einformation abo ut the bidi rect io na l reflectanc e chaructics ofth c solar angle-of-Incidence a nd the se nsor viewgeometry. it is poss ible to calib rate the remote senso r
    to extract useful biophysical info rma tion.

    rectlonal
    Reflectance
    ni~trihll l illn
    Fun cuon
    OF): Earl)' measurements u f hid irecuona l refle cta nce
    bed over vario us vegetation and soil s urfaces ..le moned that mo st terres trial surfaces ex hibit non-Larnbenian
    IOlropic) re fl ec tan ce cbar acrcris ucs (K imcs, 1983), In
    Ill.'il. bidirect ional reflectance effects of the land sur face

    did not pia) a maj or role in global chang e and ecologic al


    ana lysis, although they are ass u med to be crucial for mu ltitemporal studies with varying Sun incid ence ang les. Thi s
    was mai nly due to a lac k of bidirccnonal data avail able from
    remote se nso rs or acquired in fie ld campaigns . The impact
    o f the bidirectiona l re flectance d istribu tion funct io n is st ill
    not well und erstood desp ite the fact thai we know it e xists in
    mu ch o fthe remotely sense d data co mmon ly used for Earth
    obs erv atio n. especially for SC INI~ w ith large fiel ds ofview
    such a s the ?\OAA AVII RR t.l x 1.1 km da ta , A gre at
    amou nt of data fro m Sl'n son with off-n adi r vie w ing capa bi lity is becoming a vaila ble. especially From comme rc ial Slltellite s such as Space Imag ing 's IKO?\OS, and NASA's u:1'1Yl
    MO D IS and ~l l Sf{ (C hapter 7 ). To prop erly app ly these dat a
    in lund-usc change and ecolog ically relevant studies, the
    BRDF sho uld be wel l understood to ca librate the data
    t w elte r-Shea and Hichl. [I)l)n; Ahuelgnsim er al.. ll)lJl').
    Mos t terrain surfaces (soi l. veg etation. a nd even wate r}
    revea l a relat ionship between the am ount of re fle cted radiance . and I ) the geometric characteristics ofthe Sun's irradianee, and 2 ) the sens or viewing geomet ry, Hence the term
    bidirrcttonal. Dep end ing upon the speci fic irm dian cc and
    sensor viewing ang les. mos t sur faces ap pear brighter or
    da rker. We ha ve all witncsse d this e ffect. lf'wc wa lk around
    a patch of b-'1'3SS or a poo l of deep wa ter, it may appear
    brighte r or darker de pending upo n our vie w in~ ang le- in relation to the co nst ant iucidcm ang le of the Sun, For exam p le,
    Figure I I-X depicts a portion o f a rye gra ss lawn (LAIi" ",
    perenne L ) illumin ated by sunlig ht w ith a co nstant so lar
    ze nith ang le of J 5 ~ , Ind iv idual photographs of the same

    CII \PH'N

    368

    Tabl e 111.

    11

    Spo

    Rem ot e sensin g o f Vegetatioll

    \1 J.j ur varia bles al1i:, ting the bidirectional Telk e lance distribution func tion ( I-I RDF) of J. Hgctmc"tl

    canupy.

    Variab les Aff ecting Bidi recti onal Refl ectan ce


    f rom a Vegetated Canopy
    lIlumi nal i" n

    Geometry

    Sun angle cfmcidencc ior RADAR)


    - azimuth
    Spec tral characteristic ( ), j
    G <X>lllCIT)'

    _angkof \'iew [e.g .. 0 nadir]


    azim uth loo k direc tion (0 _ 3(>0)
    Spectra l SeTlsilh-ity O. l
    ' IFO V (m ilhr.l<.hans l

    .'

    Ca nopy
    - ()ire

    (pl:mt or tree nominal ' lass)

    clos ure (%)


    orientation
    - systematic (c.g . rows 0 _ J(i O"j
    unsystematic (rando m )
    Crown
    shape te.g.. circular. con ica l)
    d ia met er {ro l
    Tron L or Sian

    - density ( uni b per 011)


    diamctcr.ur-breasr-hcight (DAHl
    Lear

    R gure 119

    A hot , p,,1 ncar the k li 1i,lud ,1! mark 011 a 1(llQ


    aerial I'hu(ograph of Ih.. . Savan nah River ~W illl\P
    South Carolina, The t'vprcvs- Fupelo f"r,"led ~
    kutd ha' rdati\ dy uniform p<: rc.'rll cllIlI'JIl c
    in thi-, area Ill' tone and texture should I ppeliIlllI
    tivcly hon~eIK"lU~. but th~~ do not. A Ike I\lll
    produ.ed when the anglc of illurmnatton and
    \ ,..:wing angle arc nearly itilmtical andm W
    plane

    1r

    -fcaf-arca -indc x ( LAI )


    - leat-angh..-disuibu uon (LAO) [pla nophilc, erectop htlc )

    same- as veg etat ion

    s"u

    T':\ I"",

    Color
    Moisture con tent

    grass canopy arc obta ined at nadi r ( O ~ ) a nd at '::'4 5 and ~75 ~


    o ff- nadir (Sa nd mc ier and ln cn , ]IN '1), The terrain is genetall y brighter wh en the sensor records bac k-sca n cred ene rgy
    as opposed to Iorward-scancrc-d energy as the d iagra m
    rev eals u.e.. the image o n the le li prod uced b)' the -75
    back-scattered energy appears 10 he: the: br igh tes t!. No te.
    howev.. . r. tha t the +75" an d _75 images are ho th much
    brighter than the image acqui red at nadi r. n.
    The bid irect ional effect in remote sens ing data is most obv io us wh en the ang le o f illum inatio n and sensor vie wing ang le
    are nearly idenuca t and III the sa me plane. Thi s can prod uce
    a hul spos ( Lc., a shado w is nol visible]. The solar principal
    plane is formed when the sou rce. target . and the sensor a re in
    the same plane (in the sola r az imuth a ngle). Th is is where the

    BRDF e ffects arc I1W, t pronounced. A n example of a bvl


    SpOI in ae ria l photograph y is shown in Fig ur.... [ [.11.

    Fort unatel y, scientists have dC\e111p...d instru me nts to IIlQsu re the bidirect ional rctlectance d il'trihutinn runctiocl
    van ous surfaces . O ne or the most u.....ful insuumcms
    }!fJ/lio" u f.'r . Here we brie fly rev iew the tiel d goniornclll
    sys tem (FU iOS) dcsign....d by S . Sa ndrn eier. FI( iOS cons
    o fa compmcr-comrollc d GER 3700 specrrora diomcrer ~
    sittvc tothe wa velength imcrvn! from 300 - 2 ,4~ O nm in 71~
    band s with a spectral resolut ion l\f 1.5 nm [or the inlervl!
    30n - 1.0 5f1 nm and K.4 IUn for the interva l 1.050 2A:;l
    nm . It consists of three major parts: a zenith arc rail. an ill'
    muth rail. and a motorized sled \\ here the radinmdef
    mounted (F ig.urc 11- IOa. h ). The a lum inu m goniOOlCUl
    we ighs a pproxim ate ly 230 kg and may be transported
    fie ld si tes as show n. Mount ed o n the goniometer. the '<liS
    viewvan area in th... ve ry center o r the circle ap pf(l.\ i m~tc~
    10 .5 em in d iam ete r at nadir and ubour 41 cru {majo r axislin
    the most e xtreme view zenith angle position 0 1'75.

    is.

    Thus. it i\ possible in a very short period orrime while lit


    Sun is a ppr oximaret y in the S3ITH.' zenit h are ( 0,1and virmlll
    ,~ ), 10 vary the posiuon of' the rad io mete r 10 determine ifik
    amount o f rad ian t flux in \..:t') sp... citie wavelength regioos

    .
    ( ' 11 \ }' I

    370

    te.g.. blue. gree n. red. ncar-infrared. middle -infrared ) lcaving the target is intluc nccd by the senso r angle-of-view ( B, )

    t:I{

    11

    -I V/F(OO
    ,'I
    , .
    " '9" ... qI~,A

    and azimu th (9', ). I r it is nol o thc n we do II nl have 10 worry

    abou t UROF effects. If the reflectance results arc not unifonn as wi ll he demonstrated, then we may need 10 conce rn
    ourselves with allj u~ling for BRDF effec ts i f we want to
    compare rO:II1II10: sensor data obtained on multiple dates (\00 ith
    varyi ng Sun azmuuh and zenit h angle ) or by se nsors with
    multiple 1( 0 ),; ang les te.g. S POT da ta acq uired at 0" nad ir on

    day 1 and

    20 ~

    olT-nad ir on day 2).

    T he tndirectional reflectancr dl~fnhlllif}n Jimaio'l I"R DFl.


    f,. IS(I ). is formally defined as the ratio uf the radiance dl.,
    (\\.' m'! S( I nm"] reflected in one direction C8,~,1 to the
    Sun 's inc ident irradiance .1/:,', (\\' m '~ nm-I ) from direction
    (O,.rp,J [Sandmcicr. 1999 ; Sandmcicr and Inen. 1999):
    .
    .).. . JL~( O,. '9,;0... '9,:)..)
    f~(O " '9,.0.. 1+1,. I
    dE ;( 0,. '9,
    .) )
    .

    (11-6)

    Note tha t clL, and ,If; an: directional q uant ities measured in
    solid angle st..-raJ ians (sf I ) as sho w n in Figu rc 11-101.'.
    Normally. a bidirecnonal reflectance factor (HRF. a bo
    referred to as R) is computed . whic h is the radiance dL,
    reflected fro m a surface in a specific direction div ided by the
    radiance dl....,. re flec ted from a loslo- k~s La mbertian reference panel measured under ide ntical illumination geometry
    tSa ndrnc icr and tue n. lIJ1N ):
    (11-7)

    where R,,/ is OJ ca libration coe fficient determ ined ror the


    spect ral refle ctanc e pane l. Hidircctionul reflectance Factors
    (BR F) are d imen sion less. Both HRF and BRIJF take on va l,
    lies Irom zero lO inlin ily, Va llies > I fo r 13RF and > l in for
    BRDr arc ob la ined in pcak rc llel'l:111ce directions. such as
    the hot spnt. where th... rcl1ect ed flux from a ta rge t surface is
    h igher thallt he I1l1_' fwm il La mberti an sur face.

    11 is als o possihle to de n ' lop an (/IIj\'o/ll lflrfacror, v.hkh is


    used to analy/ e Ihe spc o.:t ra l vari abi lity ;n BRD F uata.
    An iMltmpy f;lo.:tors (A:-.l IF) all" ....' s... par,u illn of speclml
    RRD F effects trGrn the .~ pectra l ..ignat ure o f a targl'\. The)'
    are calcul:lted hy 1l110l1alil.ing bidirectional rd l cc ta nce data
    R to nad ir re ncc tance. R.. (Sandmei.::r ct al.. 1991!a: Sand meier an d Itt.:n. I'}(}l)j:

    Remote Sen sing 01 VegetatlOll

    R(O tt . -e ,n A.I
    " ....,. ,. ....,.
    R (0
    'AI

    (I

    " " '9"

    So what do thcs e mea..urcmcms tell us about the BRDF


    typica l ..urface? To answer this question. consider the
    normali rc-d ORDF data (i.e . the AN IF data ) of pertUl
    f)cgrass (l.olillnl perrnnc L) shown in Fig-ure 111Od.
    ing goniometer data collection the Sun zenith angle \\a:;'
    Spectra l results from ju"t four of th c 704 spectrcrad.
    bands arc presented using just the viewing zenith a.1p
    the solar princ ipa l plane . It reveals that BRDF etfects
    very pronounce d in the blue (4!'lO nm) and red (6-5
    chlo rophyll absorption ban ds previously discussed. w
    in the green and particularly in the- low absorb ing Ilea!"
    feu range, relauvcly low ORD!' effects were observed
    persons using remote sensor da ta might consider rad
    cally adjusting: th~' brighrnevv valu es assoc iated ",ith the
    and red bands, hut not necessarily the nea r-infrared
    under invcsriganon. Typical for vegetated surfaces. 111 iw
    hands exhibit a how l shape. hot spt)t, and forward-

    component.

    It is even more in ter~ting to view the ry... grass ani,


    facum, for the Iour w avclcngths of interes t according to
    only the viewi ng zenith angle of 00 but in a range from:.',
    ( Figun' I I-II ). Ideally. the enure three-dimensional ,urin
    sho uld be relatively n at ;I" '" ith the 750

    nm near-infl1l!r.

    example. meaning th..t meas ure ments in this specific ball


    arc relatively free of HRIJ F effec ts. Conversely, the ~80 .
    and 675 nrn ban ds exhibit significaru anis otropy factors. II
    the h i g h . ;I h ~ (lr h ing tl.c.. low-reflecting! wavelength ra~
    mu ltiple scancnng enects arc reduced due to the relativell10 \\ uuunnn o f rad iation in the canopy. TIIUS, the (ontl'l!lt
    between shndow cd and illuminated canopy co mponenu se
    en hance d. which then en hances the BRDf effects. BRDf
    effects arc rather sma ll in rbc low-absorbing (i.c., highre fle cting] gree n and ncnr-iu trarcd wa ve length rang es whm
    multiple scattering effects are strong and d iminish the ca.
    tra ~t in lhe o.:<lt lllPY (S ~lrt dl11cier ct al.. 1998 b),

    Iulure fie ld re ~e<lTc h using goniome-ter~ cou pled v.ith off


    rhluir pllinti ng :lirer :.l !\ and satdlil... re mote scnsi ng syst.:rn;
    such as Ta m MISR (Ch: lpter 7 ) w ill eve ntua lly docull1l'!l
    ", hcn \\ ... should he o.:n ncem...d with HRI) F cllccts. Such
    in fllrnMtior\ may help us I) ident ify anu sdect th... bandstha
    arc imp;lc ll'd th..: k u"t oy BRIJF dl"ects. 2) recognilt'tha
    there arc l'ertain Sun andlm ~ ... n~1lT ;mgk-of-\ iew relationsh ips that shou ld be avoided when colleo.:ting remo!t~
    ~n'ioCd d:lla. an u/o r 3) provide us wi th methods to radiOllld'
    rica lty aujus t the remote sc ns"r uata to mini mi:."e 8RDf
    dT\.'c~ .

    371

    Speclral Chara ct eri stics of Ve getation

    ')

    a
    r-

    "'.

    rr
    n

    - ...

    "

    ,,

    ;:.

    :-' ~

    ,
    . '

    ;. ' .'
    -.;

    ,"

    . '

    .--......

    ~, ..

    ._ ~ ~

    b.

    ,.
    - .,

    "

    , .
    .
    ,..
    -. '

    ; ,"
    ; ,

    ;: ,

    ,, ,,
    -

    ;.

    .; ,

    ;.

    . f'

    -.
    e.
    Figure 11 -11 Anisotropy factors (nadir-normalized flRDF dala ) of ryegrass (/.uli"", ("'N'fIIU'I.. ) fur f"UTspectral band, acquired with the
    l'I( iOS instrume nt wnf a Sun , ...nuh angle of 350 (atk r Sandmei er and Inen. I'I'N).

    One should he care ful not to infe r that Bf{[)F eff ects a rc all
    hod, Qi et a]. ( 19tj 5 j point our that mult idirectional remote
    easing me asu re ments ofthe terrain (e.g.. al view illg ang les
    off.nadir) ca n provide comp lementary info rmation to that
    ;'l'O\'ided by the nad ir measurem en t. In fact, a sing le nad ir
    \1(11 remote sensing measurement obtains in formatio n
    eout the surface 3 S if the surface had no ve rtica l struc tures,
    ehich is usua lly nor the case in practice , w hile off -nadir
    \icw measurements reveal diffe rent aspec ts of the ve rtica l
    eucrurcs such as vegetation he ight. Consequently: /(J objecIMly charocteri: e vegetanon hlOphysteat parameters. axinte \'iewi tl~ ~t'(} ltwt,.y te.g., at " ", Jir} mav be ifl.m[ficient.

    :\l mlcling Canop y Refl ectance


    Scientists hav e attempted 10 predic t e xactly how much radian I energy in speci fic ..... nvclcng ths should he e xiting a given
    leaf or vege tated ca nopy based on a numher of factors .
    inclu d ing (Danson. 11191\ ): the le af -urea-ind ex (L A !), soi l
    re flect ance prope rties be low the canopy, amount of d irect
    and/or d iffuse skylight onto the canopy, th e lcaf-an gle-dis tribu uon (ranging from erer tophile ca nop ies w ith vert ica l
    leav es at 90 0 inc lination to plano phile ca no pies do minated
    by horizonta l leaves ....ith 0" incl ination), and the RRDF
    intlu cnced by the- S un an gle and sen sor vie w ing angle geomell)' just discu ssed . For e xam ple. the S A IL model {Scattering. by Artntran ly Inclined Lea ves ! has been w idely used in
    re mote sensi ng rese arch for investigating the spectral and
    d irectiona l re flec tance properties o f vege tauon canopies. II

    11

    372

    uses radia tive trans fer equa tions 10 mood en ergy interac ting
    wit h a veg etation canopy in three d ist inct streams. includ ing
    a downward Il ux o f dir...ct rad iati on and a dow nwa rd and
    upward nu x of d i!fuse radia tion. [I ass umes thai the canopy
    may be rep resen ted hy sma ll abso rbing a nd scattering etcme nte (e.g . leaves } w ith known op tical prope rties . d istrib utcd randomly in ho riLonw l 1a)crs and w ith kno wn angu lar
    dis tribution. The model has been used 10 simulate the effec ts
    of otT-nadir viewing. to simulate spectral shills orthe red edge. and 10 estimate canopy properties directly from
    re motely sensed data.

    Similarly. the Li-Strahlcr model (1985. 199~) yie lds cstimates of the size and de nsity of rrecs from remotely se nse d
    images. The signal received by the sensor is modeled as consbting of reflected light from tree cro w ns, the ir shadows.
    and the backgroun d .... ithin the fie ld o f vie w of the sensor.
    Tho: reflec ted si~nal i.. modeled <I" a linear combination of
    four compon cnt.. and thei r ar cal proportions ( Woodcock c1
    al.. 1997):
    ( 11-9)
    where S is the brightne.... value ofa pixel, K~ A.'l'" A~ and A:
    stan d for the ureal pmportions of sunl it back ground...unlit
    cro w n, shado wed ern w n. and shadow ed bac kgro und. rc..peenvely, an d G C, T. and A are th... spec tral sig natur es o f th...
    rcspccuvc co mpo nen ts. This is called a mix ture mod el . o r a
    sce ne component model.
    The SA IL and Li-Srrahlcr mod els represent impo rtan t
    aucmpts to e xplici lly rn(>de l the e n~'rgy-m aller interactions
    t;lki ng pla l:c anoV<:'. in. am [ l'lelo.... lhe vcgclal i\ C I:allllpy. Scicn li..ts slr i\c to il1ver1 lh.: model s and usc I h ~ rel1ect anl:c
    char acteristi cs rt'Cordc d by the fI.'mOll' Sl' nsnr syst em to pro:dicl tlK' c harllclcris lics of spl'ci lk lypes of stru durc .... ilhin
    lhe 1::lllo PY. such lIS lr~c h.:ighl . de nsity. 1caf-ar.:a- inck x. ~t ~ .
    Unfo rtun atel y, il is oll en ditticul! TO cal ihrah: such 1110dels
    hcc aus.: Ml mu ch infnrnllllioll must h.: known about Ih.: kllf
    and canop y ehu ra~' teris lics. allllosp lK'ric condil ions. Sun
    angle and \ iew ing geome ll). and le rrain slope and aspe ct ,
    Thi s I!> a n illlpl.ln<tnl ar.:a o f rell1o!l' sensing researc h.
    Im a l:in l:: Spt'l' lrumd r) u f V('J!,ellilinn
    ,\ s d iscusscd in C haplcr 7, an imag ing speetwmele r co[!.:CIS
    a co ntin uous re l1cctancl' spcctmm o f lhe Eanh 's s u rt~ ce . But
    instea d of ha \'ing just four Ie.g.. S POT I or ei ~h l (e.g.. Land
    sat 7 Enhanct-d T hc matic ~I app,,; r Plus ) spec tral c h:1nnels to
    char3cte ri7e the veg.:tation spo:~tral cha racterislics. an imaging spt."Clwmo:ter ro:conJs in fonnation in hun dreds of spt.'Ctra l
    eh annds.

    Rem ot e Sensing of Vegetation

    lrnuging spe ct rometry 11<1-' gr<:a l potential for moniliXll!


    veget al ion lypt.' and b iop hysica l c haract eristics (Goi:tt
    199;). Vegcnuion re fle ctanc e spectra are ofte n qune inrl!
    mauv e. cont aining information on the vegetation chkno
    phy ll absorption bands in the \ isihle reg ion. the SUstalM
    h igh reflectance in the ncar-infrared reg ion. and the df~
    orplaru wa ter abso rption in the middle-infrared region.
    Geolog ists have been using hypcrs pcc uul ima pcry for:-m
    to d iscr imi nate between different rock I>pes based ontbci
    spectral renec tance and absorptio n characteristics. Tlr!'
    have prepared all c....hausuc e spec tra l library of 1M
    important minerals, soils, an d rock t) pes t e.g.. Clan l.'lIl
    .21)(13), When calibrated aubome hypcrspec rral imagt'f);It
    acquired. the) oft en compare lh..: spec tra obta in..-d from it
    airt-om..: data ttl the spec tra stored in Ihe database to deler
    mint' mine ral type and ot her c harartcrisrics. Several l.''<
    ple, arc PUl\ ideJ in Cha prcr I ~ I Remote Se nsing of Stit
    Mine rals and Geomorphology].
    Ideally. there would be a veget ation spectral databa nk 31m.
    able thai con tains in formation on : I I the spectral relk'CWl.'t
    and em itta nce c haracterisncs (>1'every tYf'< o f \egcl3tiooill
    tho: regum from 0.35 1.4 u rn. 1 ) how these data appearlK
    differe nt dal es throughout lh.: pcn inen t gro wing seasce,
    and .' 1 what these spec tra should look like in the cI'ent of
    sires.. or insect infestation. Un fortunately. suc h a daLll:m::
    docs nOI yet e\ist, Inste ad , it is Mill usua lly necessary to colICCI ;" ., ;1/1 ' pt.'clro rad itlml't.: r J al a of rhe \eg<,talion of inter,
    est ut the time of the ove rflig ht and the n usc this Wt3lO
    cuhbnnc the spect ra l re fl ectanc e information derived frOl'll
    t h~' airhome sr el-troradio lO\te r. "" hcn this is performed
    ca rd'ull}. il is pl.lssiblc 10 ..:x tra~'l \'cgeial illll typ..: and condi
    lion in ltlrnmlioll fro m Ih\' hypcr~l'erlr~l l d;lla.
    F Ill C\lll11pk. cIJllsidcr lhe A\"IRIS dal;r co l1c.:tcd o\ er thl
    S;il1 Luis Va[k y of Color;rdo on Sl'rlL'il1h~'r 3. I (jI) J , shol\n
    in l 'nlnr Plat~' I [-2a (Cl ark t:' t at., 111(5). Th .: 224 ,~etral
    ch unnds o f 20 x 20 III " VIR IS data wcr e r;"ji nlllelrkally
    Ctl lTecl~ d 10 fl'1110V': th.: d"ee l~ n f atm osp heric wal er vap
    and gco l11~tr ic al ly n:cli!;el[ III a sl;lndard map projcrlion.
    lJ. nd em 'er Ilf snm c oflhe Helds al l h~ ti me oflhc m erl1lgl1
    arr annlllaTcd in col or tlll to p Of lh~ single r\ VIRIS channel ill
    r o lor Phne 11-2a, i\ V1RIS re l1el:lance "I~ctra for stlmeof
    Ihcsc fi dJ ~_ ind uJ ing ptlta lo. a ll~ lfa _ ba rley. O<lt huy. canob.
    and pastu re afC ptlnraycd in Figure I J- Ila.b.

    The a lfalfa , can'lla. oa t h3) . and S uggel potato sJ)ectra ~


    the plallls 10 b<.' gree n and h..:a lthy t Figufl' 1112a). Barle:'
    had Inst all of ih c hl\lrnrh~ 11 re';pI.'nse al the time of the
    o\'l: rl1ight (Figurc ll- 11bl. ~tlrkot.1h potatocs were not
    b<.'ing irrig all-d as they \wrl' aholll to Ix' har.o:sled. and COl-

    373

    I Cha racteristics 01 Ve geta t io n

    bare field

    r....... ./'\" / _,\,,",,-0,,",

    >

    ....-"'
    I . . . . . ....
    barll'y.J

    '0

    50

    30

    ;'"
    ,

    ,
    a

    ....-"\

    ; .' 0

    carlOla/'

    i \/ \

    20
    '.,.' '.

    '"

    2U
    j_

    00.1 hay

    ---

    ~te

    10

    .. ......~

    ,~/

    0.5 0.7

    /
    .

    1.0
    1.5
    Wavelength. urn

    ...

    .................~
    2.0

    2.5

    r ., \

    .-' \ .
    /',

    /-"''''~.
    !
    _._.. " v

    i -

    i" FI.
    i ,r:, 'J(..,
    (<- h,en)

    11.
    \.,/'1,

    ...

    -,

    \",/-, .r', .\.

    '. ..-..\

    .\

    './,'-'.

    pa.~t~rc

    / / !

    .,"

    10

    , /

    1\

    0_ 0_ ",.. 0-:"",0_

    <,

    '

    "'. 1\",I"'13h r<>lalu


    -;

    ..

    .. .

    //

    o +,-."..,...,..~~~~~~~~~~...,... b
    2.0
    2.5
    0.5 0.7
    10
    1.5
    Wavelength . um

    1112 al Spectra of healthy g l"(1..'11 vegetation in th<." SJ n Luis Valle) of Colo rado obtain..-d on Scplelllo..-r J. I')'13. using AVI RIS;
    ~~ -l channels at ~ O )( 10 m ph,ds. b) \-lost of IJ1<:l.c' "Ih~..,. vegetation t)~ c xhit-ilcd r.."dIK<."<.1 chlorophyll allwrpt i"n effects.
    Note lboll lhe spectra are 011'-':1 h..-c1an t) (alter Clark ct al.. 1')<J51. Differ~'Tl~ "'" in th..: rcflcctaocc anu "r ab..orption eharactcrisncs of lhc vegelali"n make il possible in cena m msranc...s IIIdistingUl!l.h one vegetation type from another Of to ilkntify
    ifthe vegctanon is undergoing slres:; by "(lme ag..'1)1.

    ruly the), show w eak Chlorophyll and cel lulose ahsorpwith soil (clay) absorpnon from e xpo sed s.;1I1. Field
    rgano n revealed that the puL1IOCS \\ L'I""- also being
    JlQiOO with a de folia nt. Thus. the)' e xhibit decre ased chlo)'11 abso rptio n along w ith a shift of thc red-ellgl til
    Mer wavelengths as we wou ld expect. The Chic o and pa st spectra exhibit combinations o f chlorophyll and ccltu(dry veget ati on ) absorpt ion . The spectra from the
    n fields w as USL'tI in a special com putcr program called
    h urd,r. dc, eloped at the U.S. Geologi cal Survey . to iden~ other pixels in the study area with simi lar spectral
    'flilllnsr (Clark ct al., 1( 95). Th e result was a clussificurion
    "lap that was approximately 96 per cent accurate ((' oIM
    11-2b).
    ..' I al. ( 199 5 ) poi nt out tha t the long -wavelen gth side o f
    chloroph yll absorption [approxima tely (I,oX - 0.73 ~m )
    RlIms on... of rhc most extreme slopes fou nd in spectra til'
    ~lUfally occurring co mmon mal ... n'l ls , The ahsnrpTion is
    II)' very intense. ranging from a lo w relllX'tance o f < 5
    ~nt (near O.6R ~m) to a ncar infrared re flec lan..e m3xi
    ~ of ::: 50 percent (at approx ima tely 0.73 ~ml . Wh~ the
    rophyll absorption in the p lllm dec reases. th... ove rall
    .'iJrh of til.... absorplion ban d d"creases. Tll...s... facturs eause
    Ilhift to shorter wlIvcle ngl hs as Ih.. "'hlorophyl l ahsnrptinn
    meases. This is known as the " red --cllge sh iti'" or the "b lue
    'ft of the I'l"d edge" pr~"\ iou sly discusS<,.-d and can Ix: caused

    by natura l ....... nescence. water d c privation. or tox ic materials.


    Clar k et al. 11(95 ) fou nd that thc ,\ VIRIS data could dercct
    red -edge shirts o f < 0 . 1 nm . The red -ed ge shi ft information
    was analyzed llsinl: the I ricorder program and used (0 id....ntify \ cgctaucn und c tg oi n~ an y ty pe of stres s in the study
    urea (('olor PialI.' 11 2e ).

    Temporal Characteri stics of Vege tation

    Tim ing is very important \\ hen aucmpting to idenlify d iffer em veg....tanon types clr 10 cxtract use ful vegeta tio n biophysical informa tion te.g .. biomass. ch lorop hyll characrenstics j
    from rem..'tely sensed data . S....lccnng the mosl appropriate
    datL'iS) for dna ccllccrion requ ires an inti mate know ledge of
    lhl' plants' tem po ral I'IWllofogicflf (gmwlhl cycle. Plants
    \.\ hose leave .. drop seasonally Uri.' deciduous. Plants whose
    k a\"....s rema in from sea son to sca~\Jll are ('I Ylglt't'lI .
    A ntllt"d remot.... st"nsin g ......il;"llIist. [)a\ S imonett. o ft.... n sa id
    " Green is gn.:e n is ~recll. " B)' thi s he m an tthat iftwo different L' rops /L'.g. com and collon) were plant J m the slim ....
    time and had complele callilpy eklsur IJll lh sallW date as
    the rellllllcl y sc nsed dula were co lkcl d . t he spe"'1ral rctlectan..-c eham.. trrist ics o f Ihe IWO crop'" woul d mosl likely

    374

    appea r to be very simi lar throug hout the visible and ncarinfrared port ion of the spectru m. His commen t was based on
    tho: U~ of the rel ati vely broadba nd sensors ava ilable in the
    1970 5 and I ()gOs. We no w have hypc rspcctral sensors that
    allo w us to samp le in re latively n a IT OW portions of the spectrum. hopefully ident ifying unique abso rption featu res tha t
    will allow us to discri minate betwee n one vege tation type
    and another or 10 extract biophys ical inform at ion.

    C H A PT ER

    t 100

    11

    Remote Sensi ng of

    Cl' lIlnJ Va lle)'


    Californ ia

    ~ 75

    Vegetalio~

    xcreb Central

    1',";~
    ''"'''
    50 ~

    ] 50
    :... 25

    25

    J F MA \ IJ

    J FMA MJ IASOND

    Nevcrthclc-ss, Si moncu 's observation is still correct in man y


    instances. Often our on ly hope of disc riminat ing between
    1.....0 crops using relat ively co arse spec tra l resolut ion rem ote

    J A S O~

    [ :n ltrn

    lE1 ;~

    sensor tina (e.g.. Landsat Thematic Mapper, SPOT.


    l KOl\;QSI is ifthc cro ps were :

    25

    planted at slightly different times in the growing season


    Ie.g. 10 days apa rt), .....hic h caused o ne canopy tn l'IC tes s
    develo ped (lo we r pe rce nt ca nop y cl osure ) than the othe r;
    on e cro p rec eived sig ni ficantly different irrigation than the
    other. ca using it to prod uce more or less biom ass ;
    one crop mat ured mo re rap idly than the othe r (e .g.
    throu gh fcniliza uon o r care ful weeding ]:
    the row spacing or field o rientatio n w as dramatically
    diff erem fo r the t w o crops; or
    on e crop has a d ifferent canopy struc ture.
    The differen ce in crop pe rcent ca nopy clo sure . so il moi stur e,
    biomass. or the differen ce in row spacing or orientation
    might cause on e crop 10 ha ve d ramat ically di fferent re flecranee properties due to the influence of the background soil
    or understory materials present. Therefore. it is often the
    proportion of hac kg ruund material present within the instantancous field ofview ofthe sensor system (c.g.. perh aps I x
    I It for high reso lution co lor- in fra red aer ial ph otography: 30
    x 30 IT\ for Landsat Thema tic Ma ppe r imagery ) that allow s
    us 10 di scr imin ate betwe en the two vegetatio n types. The
    amount of und erstory backgroun d material present is largely
    a function of the stllge o f rhc plant in its phe no logica l cycle.
    Therefore , if a scie ntist is try ing to differentiate (classify )
    betw ee n several crops. wetland. or fo rest types usin g remote
    sen sor da ta. it is essc nua l to kno w the phenolog ical cycle
    characteristics o f all o f them . This in fc rma uc n is then use d
    to dete rmin e the opti mum time of yea r to co llect the
    re motely sense d data to dis criminate o ne lan d co ver or ve getatio n l)-PC fro m another.
    Anot her important te mporal factor ca nnot be o verlooked.
    Plant s req uire ....arcr to gro w, Th ere fore . the ir most prod uc-

    J FM AM J J .... SOl'O

    JFM A \l J J A , O~

    Figu re 1113 Predicted percent cloud cover in four arnsiD.


    Unne-d Sta tes. TIle greatest amount of cloud ct'I1:I
    is flflen a~..octated with the: heigbr of the plIf
    season. except for California. This can signi~
    wmplic:ale: the: collection of remote sensill~ data ir
    ve:ge:llIliun analysis.

    tive growth pe riod is oft en ass oci ated wuh the most inte!llt
    periods of prec ipitation and ass oci ated cloud cove. Fa
    example, Figu re 11- 13 ide nti ti es the annual percent clNl
    cover statistics for seve ral areas in the United States. E~~
    for Cal ifornia, w ith its low humid ity and low cloud coce
    most o f the areas have thei r greatest cloud cover at eu,,'1ljthe time when sci ent ists may want to collect the maxune
    amoun t o f remote se nsor data during the growing Sl'a500.
    Consequently. scientists mu st jug gle the identi fication ofthf
    optimum date of remote sensor d ata using the phenologicl
    calendar with the likely spec tre of co nsiderable cloud COle!
    be ing present This is wh y w e need h ighe r temporal rescu
    rion sensors.
    T he dev e lopment o f'tore sts, gra ss land . and wetland canopies
    folio,," relatively pred icta ble cycles each year except .... he;
    they are und er stres s from a pa thogen or w hen un seasooab~
    high or low temperatures occ ur. S imilarly. all managed agricu ltura l crops ha n ' rel at ively well-kno wn phenologies
    cyc les w ithi n a gi ven region , bu r these ma y be modified b
    indiv idua l farm ers . Th e refore. it is usefu l 10 re view the phfnologica l cy cles (If bo th natural vege talion systems ani
    ma naged agri cu ltural sys tems to gain insight into 1m
    impo rtant the cycl es are when using remote sensing III
    ex tra ct ve gerarion biophysical info rmatio n. Several casc
    studies are pro vided .

    375

    poral Cha rac te ris t ics of Vege tatio n

    ~raJ

    Phenological Cyc les

    Smoot h C " r cl l-:rlIs s (Sportina altvmiflorav


    ISOO

    . plan! species found in Iorcsrs , \\ etland, ran gela nd.


    .jave relatively e mquc phenological growth cycles.
    leaf-out. grow to maturity, and senesce at approxil~ the same time each year. Howe ver, unsea son ab ly
    er wcrrn tempe ratu res in the spring or 1'311 can shi ft thei r
    I phenological cycle'S by as much as thirty days, Therethe analyst must be aware of whether the remotely
    data were col lected in 3 typ ical or atypical year. If a
    is! is attempting 10 classify \ l1!l'lation using remote
    data. it is often wise 10 collect the data early in the
    ing season "hen the vegctanon are developing at di f;
    t rates. which yield different percent canopy closures.
    fully creating diffe rences in thei r spcctna 1 signatures.
    tumple, if one is attem pting to discriminate among varinland wetland species (e.g.. cattail. "illo", burton.l in the southeastern United Stares. it is bes t to collect
    from February IS through May I. After May l ,
    of the wetland vegetauon has achieved com plete can.-closure.and the spectral sigJlat urC'J. of the various canobecome similar, i.c., "Green is green is green:'

    ,IlIlmc1y. if the goal is 10 moni tor the biom ass of the veg'on. it is useful to co llect remote sensor dat a at the he ight
    lhe growing season when the maxim um biomass ex ists.
    wring biomass through ti me ca n provid e important
    ormation abo ut the stability of the nat ural ecosystem and
    \ether ~ ignifiea nt cha nge is taking place. The fo llowi ng
    eucn demo nstrate s this logic appl ied to mo nito ring coasta l
    'moolh Cordgrnss wet land ( Figure 11 1..1).

    Pbenolugica l Cy cle Il l'


    SJuth Ca rolin a

    ('c Hl ~ ta l

    S moo th C o r d gr ll\s in

    lbe annual phe nologi ca l cy cle o f evergreen Smoot h


    Iordgrass (5iJl/l"lin<l alll'l"l1If/om ), whi ch grows extensively
    Jl\!Ig the eastern coast o f the Unit ed States is sho wn in Fig.
    Jte II-I,t TIle decom posed S{JllI"fil/'lorgan ic mat ter {dctri115) is carried out to sea and represents the fo und at ion o f the
    oro chain thai supports the Eastern Se aboard ma rine fishery
    ildu.try, The tunc o f gre Jt e~t Sparnnu growt h a nd dry
    _~ghl

    biomass occurs from Ju ly throug h Oct ober. Thi s is


    k optimum time for remote sl'nsing data collect ion. It
    laws liulc purpose (0 obtain imagery of the Spartina in Ja nIIIYlhro ugh Marc h. whe n it is in a scncsccd [dorman t ] state.
    Stlli,one often encou nters pe rso ns who aucm prto U'C winter
    m1ger)" collected for some ot her purpose to monitor the
    Sfarril/Il wet land .

    -0-- Live biom ass

    1250

    ~~

    - 0 - Dea.1 bi'lma'l.~

    'd

    1000

    :::: 750

    ~
    ;.

    54JO

    250

    1.1

    \t

    S 0

    '\l

    Figu re 11-14 rh,:nolot;kal,;y,;le of Smooth Cordgrass (Spurt/nu


    dll"rlI!flnml hirnnass In Sou!h Carolina. The greatest ameura of live biomass is presen t from Jul}
    through October. Tbe greatest amounl of dead biomas~ is present from Janu.uy through ~' arc h. The
    marsh conta ins 31'f'roximalely equal proportions of
    li\ e and dead biomass ill December and June rencr
    Jcn"-l'TI ct al., 19'-11'1,

    Fig ure 1115 disp lays nine bands o f) x 3 m NASA Ca libratcd Airborne Muhis pcctral Scanner (C AMS) data of
    Murr ells Inlet, Sf. obtained o n August 2, 11J97 , during the
    high biomass nmc of year. In situ S moo th Cordgrass tota l
    dry bioma ss ( g/ m ~ ) measuremen ts were ob tain ed at 271 0e a
    uons on A ug.u~t 2 and 3,1997. T he ill situ data we re then
    corre lated with indi vid ual band brig hruess valuc s and veg etation rranstorrus of the orig inal CA MS data (J ensen er al.,
    [ 991\), Om' of the mus t imp ressive relat ionsh ips was
    between (he fundamental ncar-infrared band 6 CA MS data
    and the in situ measurements, wh ich yie lded a correlat ion
    coe fficie nt of (UIS and an ,-'-valuc o f 0 ,774 meaning thai
    ap proximatel y 77 percent ofthe vari ance \ HI S ucc uuutcd for
    ( Figure 11 10).

    Colo r Plate 11-3 is a ma p of the spa tial distributi on oftotal


    dry biom ass for a small portjon o f Murrel ls Inle t on August
    2, 11J1J7. It WIlS produced llsinl!! the reg ression equation;
    I' =

    3.4X9 1.t -23 .9

    (11-1 0)

    whe n: y is tota l biom ass (glm!) an d .1' is the C' A ~ IS blind 6


    " rightness value. Stud ies such as this pro vide impo rtan t
    baseline biophysical informa tion that can be co mpared
    against future studies ttl dctem line if dele terious ch anges in

    11

    376

    Cali b rated Air bo r ne Multispectra l Sca n ne r (C AMS) Data

    Rem ote Sens in g of Vegetation

    or ~Iurr cll s Inl et, SC

    Band J (red: 0.60 . O.6ll1m)

    Band 4 (rro 0.63 O,Mll m)

    Rand 7 (mld_onfrared:

    l.~~

    _ 1,75 1J ml

    B~n.J

    5 (ncarin fr-~tcd 069 . O.76 ll'n )

    Band ~ Imid-infrdred' 2 n~ - 2.l5 I,m)

    Band (, Inear-infrarcd: 0.76 OQO l-Im)

    Banrl Q Irhermnl-infrared: 104 - 12.5 ).1m )

    Figure 1115 Nine hands of J x J m Cahbrared Airborne Multispectral Scannc e ( CA~1S 1 tlala of \-lurrd ls lnlet. SC obtained on A~UlI ;'
    1997. TIle dalil .... ere .. !>tained at 4,000 1\ abo ve ground level.

    biomass arc occurri ng in the inlet. Comparative bio mass


    studies would req uire that most of the system and environmen ial variables remain con stant (c.g.. approxim ately the
    same sensor system con flgurauon and viewing geo metry.
    altitude above gro und level. atm ospheric conditions, unni-

    versary dale. time of day. a nd tidal cycle j. The limitalioo of


    using a regression approach w he n predicting biophysici
    variables using remotely sensed data are summarized in Qi
    et at (IW5).

    ~ra l

    Characteris tics 01Veget ati on

    377

    110

    = JA~Nlx

    160

    R2

    ,
    j
    ,

    0.77

    .; lJ1}

    120

    , 100
    ~

    ,, so
    ~

    t
    'a

    60

    .,

    - - -I

    "

    0 .......

    10

    - .

    .,.

    rh eo ll l(l~ iC3 1 Cycle of li a r d Red wlnter Whea l in t he


    'Iid \\ esl l'nitl'd St a lcs

    --'

    20

    30

    40

    CAr-IS Ban d 0 Ncar-infrared (0.7 0 _ 1I.'1l)


    ~ ure

    County agric ult ural extensio n agents and la nd-grant univc rsi ly scicnnsts know the loca l and regional cro p phenolog ica l
    cycles very well . T hey oncn represent the most impo rtant
    sources for valua ble ( W I' phe nology and so ils informatio n
    a nd any id ios yncrasies ass oc iated w ith loca l fanning practi("cs. lt is instructive 10 provide exam ples ofsevera l agric ultura l phenological cy cles that spa n the geog raphy o f the
    conte rmi nous Un ited States to de monstrate the importance
    of \ cgetatiotl phe nolog ica l mtormation. Th is w ill includ e
    case studies conc cm ing ha rd red w inte r wheat in the Midwest Unite d Slates. several major crops in South C aro lina.
    and remot e se nsing of su gar bee ts, cotton. an d al fa lfa in the
    Impe ria l Valley, CA. Each exam ple includes de tailed phenolog ical mto rmauon displayed in diffe rent forma ts .

    - 23 .9

    50
    ~un )

    11-16 Relaricnsbip 1Ic1"-1:1:11 Calib ruted Airborne Multispectral Scanner (CAMS) band 6 brightness values

    and in ,~II" measur ement of Sparli"" ulkrni/loru toral Ur)- biomass (J;.im 1) at twen ty-seven locauons in
    Murrells Inlet. SC obtained on August 2 and J. IIN7
    {Jensen ct al., 19')I().

    Iianaged Phen ological Cyc les

    Crops associated with mechanized forestry ami agri culture


    Irecstahlished, gro wn. and har ve sted accord ing to rela tively
    pedictablc phenologica l cycles. It wo uld be wonderful if a lJ
    t.mers. planted the sa me crop o n exactly the same dat e in a
    pven growing season . This w ould make the ana lysis (If
    tlITloldy sensed data straight fo rward. Fortunately for us.
    ,110 eat the bread o f the ir la bors. they do not do this. but
    adltr plam the crop base d on c urrent meteorologic al condi. the availability o f equipment, and heurist ic rules of
    m h. Therefore, nOI all cro ps of the same spec ies are
    pbnl~d during the same month o r ha rvested during the same
    eonth. If two identical com crops are plan ted twen ty days
    lpan, the ir spec tra l signatures will likel y be very d ifferent
    b'OUghllut the ir respective phenolog ical cycle s . T his co nd i00n may ca use prob lems when attemp ting 10 pe rform c rop
    ~enlifica lion using remote sen sor data ,

    The detailed ph... nolcgical cycle of hard TI:d winter wheal


    (trific<l/d grow n o n the prairie so ils in rhe Midwe st United
    States is shown in Figure 11 17. T he cro p is es ta blished in
    October and Novem ber. It lies dor mant under sno w cove r (i f
    present) until March, whe n growth resumes , Hard red wi nter
    wheal gree ns up in A pril and produces head s of grai n in
    May. It matu res by mid-June . It is usually ripe and harvested
    hy early Ju ly. Remote ly sen sed data acqui red in Oc tober and
    November pro vide information on the a mou nt of land prepared d uring the crop establish me nt period . Imagery
    acq uired during the green-up phase in April and May can be
    used tu extract informanon on standi ng-crop biomass and
    pe map:> pred ict the harves ted \I heat yield.
    Dera iled crop ca lendar information such as th is is used by
    governments. ind ividuals. ami private companies 10 acq uire
    re mot e sensing data (II n ptim um da tes in the phenologic al
    cycle in o rde r to mode l and pred ict the production of spe c ific
    food for sale on the wo rld marker. Such mon itoring may in
    ce rtain insta nces a lso 1'0" used to prcdict future agricultural
    disaste rs du e to sev ere d rough t. hopefully alleviating suffering duc' to famine.
    l'hl' nf)l,,~ica l

    Cy c le of

    .-\~ricu lt u ra l

    C ro ps in Stlu th

    C a r olina
    The pheno log ical cycle... o f natural and cu hivated veg etation
    varie s gre atly by region. Fo r exam ple. ira scie ntist wan ted (0
    mo nitor the cond itio n oft he w heat crop in So uth Carolina, it
    is I/O/ possible to usc the Mrdwe"!>t w heat phenologica l info rmat ion presented in Figure 11-17. Th e phe nolog ical cycles
    lo r wheat and South Caroli na 's ot her major cas h crops are
    presented in Fig ures 11 - [S and 11-19.

    C H ,\I'T E R

    378

    11

    Remote Sens ing of Vegetation

    Ph eno log) or
    Winl er Wheat

    - - - - -

    SlO P

    DK

    Ot:1

    linow cover

    ]A'l'

    ~.op,..al>I .. hed

    '"-11>- 1-- to 14
    5o,," t Ttllcnng

    ---+-

    I O ~ d~)' s

    14

    Dorm ancy

    Emc rl1ence

    h.ad i"l ......,.


    l~

    14

    Grcv h Jo ;m ;nl1
    resume s

    ,., "

    21<

    479~

    IIca<.h n l/
    ROOI
    Soft

    ",,--,..._";:"L~--,

    Uead

    n,.

    Ha rd do ugh

    dUligh

    Figure 11-17 The phcnoillgical c ycle of ha rd red winter wheal in the Grcat Plums of the Unit..-d States. l' he crop is established in Oc~
    and November.

    n ucs dormant

    under snow

    ,,0\''' ' until ~hrch. when g row th resumes . Th e plerus green Ilr

    in April. produu'

    head... of grain in May. and mature by mid-JuncoThe wheat is usually dead npc and harvested by early July. Re motely ~
    data acquired In Oc tober and Novem ber provide information on the a mount o f la nd prepared during the nor c51ablilohmcrr.
    period. Irn ~~eT) acquired during the green-up phase in April and 1\1 ~y can 1:>0: used to e~ lfitd infonnauon un standing-crop IlK>mass and perhaps predictthe harvested wheat yield,

    Whea t beads in late May and early Ju ne in the Midwest.


    Wheal heads ill early May in So uth Carolina . ap proximately
    15 days ahead ofthe Mid we st phenol ogic al cycle for wheat ,
    pr ima rily du e 10 an ea rl ier and long er Fros t- free gro wing season. Imagery acquired in the Mid west in June mighl be va luable for invento rying whe at produc tio n, wh ereas imagery
    ob tained in Jun e in South Ca ro lina m ighl well revea l that the
    whea t crop has a lready been har vested.
    T he crop cale ndars also rev eal that it should he straightfo rward to ide nt ify whe al production in So uth Ca rolina by
    acq uiring a sing le image in March or ea rly Ap ril whe n \\ heat
    is th... only cro p in existe nce with a compler... can opy clo sure.
    Conversely. il may be difficult to diffe rentiate between
    tobacco and corn un tcss we ob ta in a m id-J une image and
    hope thai th... tobacco is jea fed out more than com. resu lting:
    in a d ifference in spc ctral res ponse. Similarly. it may be po ssible to discrimi nate be twee n soybeans and cotton if a late
    July Of early August date is selected and soybeans have a
    greater ca nopy closure tha n cot ton . If all the pheno logical

    cycles o r the major C fllP~ we re ex act ly the same for Souu


    Caro lina. wuh complete canopy clos ure ut rhc same time of
    ye ar, 11 wou ld he diffl culrro usc remotely sensed d ata t(ldir.
    crimi nate between the vegetal ion I ) pes. How ever. because
    thei r phen o logical cycles arc sl;lggc rcd throug ho utthe growing seaso n In som e degree, it is possible In dis criminate
    between them ifthe imagery is col leered at nptimum times in
    the growing season (Sa vitsky, 1986).
    Phl' /luIUl!iclil C )cll' o r Acrieultura l C roj, in t he Imp erial
    VlIl1e), C A

    The I mpe ria l Valley o f Cahfomia i.. one of the most ptoductivc agr icult ura l ecosystems in the world, produ cing greer
    qua ntities of' sugnrbccts. co lton, and a lfatta . The phenolopca l cycles of se veral of its major crops ere summarized ill
    Color r latl' I I.... (G RSU, 1( 99 ), Each cale ndar dep icts a single field monitored throughout a twelve -mo nt h period using
    7<J x 7<J m Land-at Muluspecual Scanner (~ ISS) dala t RGB
    - ban ds 4,2.1). The brighter red {magenta] the signature. the'

    To

    'llIlporal Characteristics o f Vegetation

    379

    Phenological Cycle or Soybeans and Co r n in South Ca r olina

    ,>- '00'"

    ~"

    50

    115

    em height

    JA'\'

    a.

    So~ hn n~

    f+U

    I :'dAR I ,\ 1'1{ I

    Dormant or multi-c roppe d

    \1 A Y

    1000/.
    ground
    co ver

    5~.

    I JU,\ I

    I Initial grow th

    - jOO

    I .\ l lt ; I Sf'.J'

    WI

    l OC I

    mc

    MlV

    Harvest

    Mat urity

    [) nd "l'n1cnl

    Cern

    hi

    - 250

    1--100

    I
    I

    100"/.

    I-

    150

    f- ,oo

    /50%

    I-

    75

    l-

    50

    25 e m heig ht

    JA'

    I'F D

    MAR

    I ,\ r R

    Dormant or multi-c ro pped

    .:
    \ 1AY

    x-le af

    JUN

    JUl.

    --

    \
    ,\l)(j

    10 12\ 4 Tao, le lJI"tcr

    leaf

    ~E r

    Dcntfl lar ..es t

    OCT

    l\C1\ '

    I P IT

    Dorm ant or multi-cropped

    i'lgure 11-18 Phenological cycles of soybeans (al and com (b) in South Carolina (Savitsky. 19&6),

    jreater the amou nt of biomass and crop cano py' closu re,
    Sugarbects are established in early Se ptember. emerge in
    Xovember, and are harvested in April and early May, B~'
    !allo', cotto n must be planted in March and harvested and
    plo.... ed under in .o vember of eac h year to control Bole
    l\'cn il. In 1982. the plow-down date \\o as January I, Alfalfa

    is planted year-round and may be harvested fi..'e or six times


    per year as dep icted in the crop calendar.

    It is poss ible to identify the type ofcrop in each field if imagery is obtained at rimes of the year that maximize the spectral con trast bet w een crops. Fo r example. Figure 11-20

    11

    3BO

    Rem o te Sen sing o f VegelatlO!1

    Pbcnolouical C ycle of W heat. Cotton. and Tobacco in Sou t h Ca rolina

    ----

    I~I

    ~I

    W inlt'r Wheal

    "

    '0
    r-

    ~S

    lOO"~

    grou nd
    cover

    em
    ~l l",..

    Boolmg

    Tillering

    Ij~

    I\()\

    HI

    J"

    J"

    Dormant or m ulu-cro poed

    H :l IY e<;I

    ISO

    b.
    Catto n

    _ l .! ~

    l Oll

    "

    ll)(l""

    gm unJ

    so

    COH'T

    2S em height
    \1,\'1

    J\

    O[C

    "'

    Sc<:J i n ~

    [)" nnanl or m ulliuoppo.:d

    MJ hm l)"harve st

    12<
    -

    1\

    l Oll

    TOblu.eu /

    75

    H~ J'.

    '"
    2~

    em height

    J,"

    lU I

    \1.\R

    Dormant or multi-cropped

    \1'R

    \,lW

    ~ II",

    I JLr-.
    I
    ,

    l'fJllsp)anlinJ;l lk ,<clupmcnl

    .Il! L

    1,,1'

    1
    c.

    -J

    \
    ,\ l {i

    Mil lu rily/h;lf\ C~1

    SU'

    - ,

    0 (1

    \JlJ\ "

    I DEC

    Dcumur uut muln-cropped

    Fig u re 11 -19 Phcn<l lllgic al c) c1..... of win te r wheat t al, COU011 [ h], and tobacco lei in So mh Cn rolm .. I he information was obtamed fl'\llll
    cuullly agric uhuru l ex tension agc rlls. Clemson l.md-grum univ en.'l) C\lC lhi\ll] personnel. and li d d I'.url (Sa vitsky. 191'.6).

    depicts SCH'n bands of Landsat Thematic Mapper image ry


    obtai ned on Decembe r 10. II)K2. Six ofthe ha nds are at 30 x
    30 m. while thc therm el infrared hand ( h ) is at 120 x 120 m

    spatia l resolu tion, " grou nd re ference crop map provided b:the Imperial valley Irrigation Hoard is a lso included (Haarl
    and Jarnpoler, 1<)'15 1.

    parol Cha racte ristics of Ve g e ta tio n

    38 1

    La nd sat Thematic vlapper Im agery or Imperial "aile)'. c.\. on December 10. 1982

    a [land I (tllue: !lAS - 0.51 j.lm)

    tI. Band 2 (gr<:en: 0 ,52 - O.M ) J-l m)

    d. Band 4 (ncar-in frared : 0.76 0.9(1 j.l m ) t Band 5 Imid-infrared: 1.55- 1.75 j.lml

    e . Hand J (red: 0.63 - 0 ,69 ).1 m )

    f. H3nd 7 (mid -infrar ed : l.Ot! - 1.35 J-lm )

    1.(,J:..n d :

    SU!!arbcet~

    D
    g na nd (, (mid-i nfrared : 10 ,.\ - 11.S ~lm \

    Alfa lfa

    I:{:I
    0

    Colt""

    Fall""

    Ground re ference information

    Fqure 11-20 lndividual bands of Landsat 'Jhematic ~ ' appw imagery of a po rtion of lilt Imperial Valley, CA, ob tain ed oil December JO,
    J' S2. Hand, J - .5 a nd 7 haw <l sl't:ll ia l re solu tion of 30 x 3tt m . Band n has a spanal rcsoluuon o f 12n x 120 m. Sugar beets
    MC bng br m the ncar-Infrared hand .j data and da rk 111 both the uuddlc-mfrarcd bands (5 anti 7). Fallo w fiel ds an: gray in all
    bands e xcept ban d 4

    ( m:ar- iJ1 fl;l r~'dI .

    "hich is dark ( images courtesy Space Imaging, tnc.j.

    four color co mposites show n in COIM Plate 11-5 dcmte the import a nce of the mid dle-mfrurcd bands whe n
    piing tu d iscriminate am o ng crop I ~ pes . The fundallr:II131 \ isiblc ( RG B = ha nd;; 3.2.1 ) and nea r-infrared co lor
    itt's ( RG B = ba nd s 4.3.2 , arc not nearly as e ffect ive
    \ isual determination of the crop types as the \ is iblc an d
    je-m frarcd cumpllsit,;-s (RG H = ha nds 5.3.2 and RGH =
    Unds 7.3.21. :\OIC that all the suga rbcct fields show up as

    blac k in th... m iddle -in frared ector co mposite (Co lor Pla te
    ban ds 5.3.:! ) and in the ind ivid ua l hand 5
    1I 5e: RG B
    image ( Figu re 11-20).
    Bec ause o f the significa nt spectral co ntra st among the cro ps
    in t h i~ December 10, 19X2, Landsat Ttl.! image. il is possible
    10 per form a vis ua l cla ssification of the H OpS based on an
    exam inatio n of the individ ual bands in Figure 11-20. FOI

    11

    382

    'raeiett -a.

    Tona l charac terisucs of ind ividua l crop typo:s in


    Nac k-and-whue L andsat T M images of Impena l
    Valley. C A, (Figure 1110 ) obta ined on Dec ember
    10, 1<l~2 ID " dark; G .. mid-gray; HI'= brighter)

    Crop Type

    TMI

    T"' T"' T"'

    Sug~

    II

    II

    Alfalfa

    II

    Conon

    fallow land

    TM'

    TM7

    B,

    B,

    B,

    B'

    ex ample. aft er care ful e sa mi nauon we see that the heuri stic
    rules summarized in Table 11-2 co uld be used 10 cla ssify the

    scene.
    It is also pos sible to program a co mputer to take into account
    the se sa me spectra l che ractcrisrics and perform a cl assifi ca tion . Color Plate 11-5e displays a remote sensing-derived
    d igita l cla ssification ma p of the study area . When compared
    with the grou nd re feren ce map in Figure 11 20 . il is abo ut 85
    percent accura te . It was produ ced us ing TM ba nds I - 5 and
    7 and a supervised maxim um likelihood class ification a lgorithm [please re fer t(l Jense n (2 005 ) for informatio n abo ut
    d igita l image classificatio n ]. Haack and Ja mpoler ( 1994 ,
    199 5 ) evaluate d this same Lan dsa t T M sce ne and achieved
    an overall accu racy of 90 pe rce nt us ing different bands.

    The accu racy o f a remote sen sing der ived cro p cla ssifica tion
    map is a lways depend ent upon there being a significa nt differen ce in the spect ra l respons e between the various crop
    types. T he on ly way to identify w hen th is max imum contrast
    amo ng spec tral response sho uld ta ke place is to eva luate the
    pheno log ica l c rop cale ndars lind se lectthe approp riate date s
    o f imagery fo r analys is. TIlCn classification ma ps, such a s
    the one shown in Color PI::l1e 11-5. ca n be used to pred ict the
    amoun t ofacreage in spec ific cro ps at a given instant in time .
    Such information co upled with ugncultural-rnctcorologi cal
    models can be used to predict crop yie ld .

    Rem ote Sens Ing or Vegetation

    relat ive abund anc e an d ac tivity o f gree n veg etation. i~

    ing leaf-area-index (LA I). po: rcc ntage gree n cover. cbJoco.
    phyll conte nt. gree n biomass. and absorbed phOl0SY~ ~
    a lly active radia tion (A P,\ R). A vegetatio n index .~
    ( Run ning et a t. 1994; Hucte and Justice . 1')99):

    maximize sensitivity 10 p lan! biophysica l paramc!rn..


    pre ferably w ith a linear response in o rder that scnsitilll:
    be availa ble for a wide ran ge o f vegeieuon co nditioRS. atll:
    to faci litate vahdaric n an d calibratio n ofthe index:
    norma lize or mod el external e ffects suc h as Sun .
    view ing ang le, and the atmosphere for co nsistent spaIiI!
    and tem pora l comparisons;
    norma lize inte rna l e ffects suc h as ca no py back~
    variations incl ud ing topography (slope and aspect), soi
    vanauons, an d d ilTe-ren ces in senesccd or \Iiooc!:'
    vegetatio n ( non pholos yn thet ic ca nopy co mpo nents);
    be co upled 10 sllme specific measura ble biophy;d
    para meter such as bio mass. LA!. or APAR as pan of the
    val idation effort and qua lity co ntrol.

    T he re ar e many vegetation indices. A few o f th e most \\' ide~


    ado pted arc summa rized in Table 11-3. ~ a n y are funcrieea lly eq uivale nt (re du ndant) in inforrna rion con tent IPtn:
    and Laute nschla ger, 19S41. and some pro vide unique billph ys ica l info rmation (Q i c1 31.. 1(95 ). It is use ful 10 rCliri'
    the historica l dev elopment o f the m ain ind ices and PTOli
    in forma uo n about rece nt adva nces in index devclopmea
    De ta iled summaries are fou nd in Runn ing et at. ( 1 99~)and
    l yo n dil l. (I 'N X). \.1;I11Y indices ma ke usc of the inverse
    relat ionship between red and nca r- infra red reflectance associnted with healthy gree n vegetation ( ri gu re I [-2 Ia ),
    Simple Rat!o -

    Sit

    Co he n ( 199 1) suggests that the ti rst true vegetation indet


    was the Simple Ratio (S R), which is the rat io o f red retlcctel
    radi ant Ilux (p,...) to nca r-infrare d radiant flux (P.,,) as
    described in Birt h and Mc'vcy ( 19M!):

    Vegetation Indices
    {lI-11J

    S ince the 19OOs, sci enlists have extracted a nd mod ele d various vegetation biophys ica l variables usi ng remotely sensed
    data, Much o f this e ffort has invo lved the use ot vegetation
    in<lJn'.~--di me nsionl es.s, radiome tric mea sures ma r indicate

    The s impl e rat io p rovides valuable inform atio n about veg~


    tenon biom ass o r LAI (Schlerf et al., 2005 ). It is especially
    se nsitive to b iomass and /o r l r\ l vari atio ns in high-biomass
    veg etation such 3~ fo rest s IHue te et al., 2002b),

    v,

    383

    tali on Indices

    , I
    I

    .~

    C aru tenuid anti

    r " lillr

    ch lfl nl p h~ J1

    re rtec ta nce

    a bsorption

    "'1:-- - - -

    ,-

    .i .-' - - ,
    Eo

    .......

    S(\\\

    .......

    2<J

    Li4 uid .. a tcr


    aw.orJllion

    ..........
    ....
    .

    (r

    ;v
    :: ..:'

    ".

    ~ .:

    V .\

    a,
    2~ 300 )504UO <1,0 :<f1ll ~~t.IJO

    so 71M)

    7~O XlM . ~ ~u ~J(J <J5U

    Wa\'cl...'Tl~l.h.

    IIU I 12!>U

    1500

    1750

    2000

    22SO

    2500

    run

    Rdationship Bcfn t.'('n Sim p)" R:lI in an d :""1)\'1

    '0

    /P~CO

    c>

    z 0.8

    '.

    "
    .~

    "

    Cl

    0.0

    ~
    ..;.I
    ~

    "u

    ~ 0'

    ""-e

    ,"
    ~

    "

    Wdh:r

    Arid

    Se mi-arid

    ( ira"s

    Con ikHMJ.~ IOrc~1

    Deciduous fore st

    (1.1

    z
    h.

    15
    10
    Sim ple Ratio. Red/Nea r-infrared

    '"

    rh~s iolq:ical hasis toe developing \~cla: ion ind,,:~ Typ.....a l spec tral reflectance characrensucs for hea lthy green grass
    and bare ..II) Sl'lil f,'II" the Il a\ etength rmerval from 250 to 1.000 om. bl Th e ND, ' I i~ a ncrmalizc... ratio o f lhc ncar-in frared
    and red bands. The I'D'I is functi ona lly C\juhalcnt to and i~ 3 no nlinear tran sform (If the simple rati., [adapted from Hucre
    et al.. 2OCI2b).

    F'9ure 1121 a l

    384

    C II -\I' I

    Table 11-3 .

    S~I.'(:k--d

    11

    t: ~

    Remote Sensi ng of Vegetation

    remo te sensing vcgcra uon indices.

    Ref erences

    Equ atio n

    Veg etatio n Indn

    Binh andMcvey.

    Si m ple Rat io (S R I

    SR

    I~

    Colombo et al.. 2003


    Sch lcrf~"l al., 2005

    Normalized Dittercnce Ve-gelation Index

    ~ ()U-;(" et al., 1974


    Dee ring et al.. 1975
    Hoete et al., 2oo2a
    Schk'Tf rl al. ::005

    Pni, - P..J
    P"" + p'~J

    rrcovn

    .VD V/

    Kauth-Tho mas Transformation


    Bnghmess
    Greenness

    La ndsat Multispectra l Scan ner V.1SS)


    B = O.332 .\fSSI"- 0.603 'ISS! '" O.675u~'ij

    '"

    0.262 1Ci.,'i4

    Kauth and Thomes. 1'17(>


    Kauth e\ al .. 1979

    G = - O.283.llSSf - 0.660 \IS.\'l-+- 0.577 .4o.-U" 0.J!'i8.1.1SS4

    Ydluw stuff
    Son.'-.",ch

    r .. - 0.!'i9<).\'&1 '" Oo4::!lhoS..'';' 0.07l:> \.&J .v '"' - 0.0 16.ussl -+- 0.13 I -'lSs..' -

    0.04 1MSS-#

    GA5::! ltSSJ ';' 0.81<2~Sl

    Landsat Thematic Mappe r (T M)


    B '" O.2Q09 T.lfl - 0.24'l3 T \12 -+- Oo4IIOt:' TM3 .;.

    Brig htness
    Greenness

    055MI T.H4 .;. 0.4HlIDf5 ... 0.17'* Dn

    Wetness

    = -

    O.::!7:?l1T...fl - 0.2174 T.\l2 - 05 50llTM3 .;.

    0.722 1TM4.;. 0.0733T.lf5 - O.IMll nn


    II' .. O.I44(>T \-I1 .;. 0.1761 TM2

    -+-

    Crist and Kauih. 19%


    Lune tta et al.. 2002
    Price ct al., 200::!
    Rogan et al.. 2002
    Jin and Sade r, 2005
    Schlerf et al., 2005

    0..H22nn ...

    0.3396 T,\ l4 - 0.62 10T 115 - 0041116 T An


    Normalized OilTercl\Cl: Moi~lu rc or Water
    lndcx (1'\0 \11 or "nWlj

    NIJ .\fI or NOW/

    .\'fRTl H - \l itJl R r M5

    ,VIR l1 H.;. ,\ fil/f R r m

    lIardi ~ky ct

    011..

    19113;

    Gal.'. 19%;
    Jackson cl 011.. 2004
    Gal\'30 ct al.. 2005
    Jin and Sade r, 2005

    Richardson and Wiegand.

    Perpendic ular Vegetat iun Inde x (P YI)

    19 77

    Lea f Rela tive w ater Content lndcx ( LWel l

    -log[ I ~ U.,'I RTm - "'fi d l H. T.If~) J

    I. WCI

    Soi l Adj usted Veget ation Inde x (S ,>\V I) ami

    Modified

    SA VI =

    SAY l l ~l SAV Il

    - Iog1I - N I R TM4 - Al idlN. I'II ~I' I

    ( I + L)(P"ir - Pm I1
    P"ir + PrcJ + L

    Atm ospherically Resistant Vl." g.'ta ti, 'n Inde x

    (A RYl)

    Soi l and Atmos pher ically Resistant

    lion Index (SARYI)

    P* "" ~ P* r~~

    ( p*",r '" p*r'J

    AR V/

    Veg~a

    S AR Vl =

    Enhanced Vegelation lndex (EVil

    fVI

    Hunt ct ill., 1987

    p*,,)r - p*rb
    P*",, +P*rb + L

    P 'I"

    p. "" -p",,.J
    , l foL
    .... C 1p. r~" - C ~ p. I>I,,~ ... L
    )

    Hucrc. 19R8; Huere and


    Liu. 1'194 ; Runnin g 0:1 al.,
    1994 ; Q i et al., 1995

    Kaufman and Tanrc,19'l~;


    l l ucte and Liu. I YOM

    II1Ictc and Liu. I'.N4: Running et 31.. ICN4

    I lllckctal., I9Q7
    fluctc and Justice. 1m
    Hucte l-t a1., 2oo2a
    l'BftS. 2U03

    385

    'legetalion Indi c e s

    table 11-3 .

    Selec ted rem ote scnsmg veg etation indices .

    Eq uatio n

    Vege ta tion In de.

    Sf;'\\-' Vegetat ion Indc.. (NVI)

    Reference s
    (jupta et a l., 2001

    .VVI .. P 7n - P 747
    Plm

    Aerosol Fret' Vegetation Indc x (AFRII

    (P"i' - O.o<>p I~ "m)


    (P"" - o.eeo 1 ~I, m )

    Kamid i lot .II., ~OOl

    (P"" - 0.5P 21 pm)


    (P.."

    0.5P2 1I' m)
    Brogc .and Leblanc, 2000

    Triangular Vegetation lnde.. In' ll

    Reduced Simpk Ratio \ RSR)

    RSR ""

    P"i' ( 1
    P...J

    R1Iuo TCARI ,'()SAV\

    P..." - P.....,"',,, )
    p...,, "" u + r..."..,,,

    3[(P700- P670)- O.2(P700- P~~)(~::)]

    TeAR/ "

    Chen et .II.. 2002

    OSA VI ~ (I + 0. 16)( p!lOO -Plo7u)


    (PlIOO + P670 + 0. 16)

    Kim cl al., 1lJ94


    Rondca ux et al., 1996

    Daughtry el er, 2000

    Habcedane et al.. 2002

    TeA R/

    OSA VI
    Gitclson

    Visible Atmospherically Rcsistam lndc..


    (YARIl
    vormalizcd Difference Huilt-uplndcc
    I\'OBl)

    ND B / =

    ,\/iJ/R",~ - N/R " "


    . .
    Mid/R T,\ f~ + N/ RT.\I4

    hui tt- up",.,,,


    Red-edge Position

    krence

    11(';,:,-",lIiO/l /11,),'.1 (N OV I ):

    NOV I .. P"i' - p,,,J

    p""

    (\1 - 12)

    + P,~J

    TIt..: r.;OVI is funct ionally eq uivalent 10 the simple rnio: tha i


    u. there is no sca tter in an SR vs. SOVI plot, and each SR

    .II., 2002

    Zha et .II., 2003

    ,VDB/- ND V/

    REP " 7 0() + 40 [P ( r~-4 cJ~c l -P I 7t11) ~"\l]


    P P 41lnml - P 17I\lnm)
    where

    Rouse 1.'1 a1. t 1")74 1 developed the generic NOnJ/llkl',1 Dif

    ~'1

    Ckvn . , 1'194

    Dawson and Curran, I'N S


    Baranos ki. 2005

    value has a fixed :'>J DVI value. When we plot the mean
    NOVI and SI{ values tor var ious biomes, v.~ li nd that the
    NO V I a pproximates a nonlinear tra ns form or the simple
    rol lin {Figure 11 -21 hI ( Huctc 1.'1 al., 20()2h J. The :'>J OYI is an
    important vegeta tion index because:

    Seasonal and inter-an nual ch anges in vcgctauon growt h


    and act iviry call be mo nito rc-d,

    ("I IAPTE~

    386

    The rauoing reduces man) forms of l/Iultiplin lfi H! noise

    di"ilJva nla~cs

    Remot e Sensi ng of Vegetation

    :\ UVI Im llt.:t' r C hllr l."tun. SC.


    l. a n d ~1I 1 Th.'IIHllic :\ l lIp pl' r Data

    (Sun illumination d irfcr cnccs. clou d shadows. som e


    atmospheric attenuation. "1'01 <: \op ngl1lphk variat ions)
    prese nt in mu ltiple bands ofm uhiplc-datc image ry.

    Following an: the

    11

    [)l. r iH'd rmm

    of rhe ;,\OVI tHuete cl al.,

    10023; Wa ng ct al., 2005):

    The rauo..b'N: J index is nonlinear and can be influenced


    by u""itin' noise effects such as atmospheric path
    radiance (C hap ler Il).
    ~D V I is uSU311y highlyco",:LJIL-d with \ cgctatlon leaf area
    index ( LAII . However. the relat ions hip may not !)C as
    strong Ju ring per iods of ma xim um LA I. apparently due to
    the sa tura non {lf ~ DV I when LAI is WI'} high (Wang <:131..
    20051. For exam ple. Figure 112 1h revea ls that the NDV I
    dyna mic range is stre tch..-d in favor of low-bio mass
    conditions and co mp ress,.-d in hi gh-biomass. forested
    regions. The opposite is tru e for the Simple Ratio. in w hich
    mosl of the dynamic range encompasses the hig h-biomass
    fores ts wit h lillie variation reserv ed for the lowe r-biomass
    regions (grassland , semi -arid, an d ari d biomes ].

    II is ' 1.'1)' sensitive to canopy back ground vari at ions (c.g..


    SOli vis ibk thro ugh the canopy). 1\1)\ '1 \'3111CS are
    particularly high \\ ith dar kl'r-Callup y back grou nd s.
    The N DVI indcx was w idel y adopted and appl ied 10 the
    o rigina l Land sat \l SS d igital remote sensor da ta. De-cring d
    al. ( IQ75) add.... d 0.5 to the !\' I)Vlln avoid negative values
    and too k the square roo t of the resu lt to stabilize the var iuncc. This index is I'd c n ed to as the Tr,IIl.I! il/'llll''' Vt'j!t'f<lliol/
    III"n' (T V I), These three ind ice s (SR, NDV I, a nd TVI)
    respond to c hanges in the amo unt o f gr een biomass.

    Many sc ientists continue 10 USl" the N DVI (c.g .. Miura ct al.,


    2(}f )1: Tr ishcenko et :11. , 21102: Galv ao ct al.. 2( 1)S). In fact.
    two of the standard \ IO OIS land produ c ts urc s ixteen-day
    co mposi te NOV! d.nas c(s of'thc wo rld at a spatial reso lutio n
    o f SOO m and 1 km (Huc tc c t nl., 2002 a ). An N[) VI image
    derived Iroru Charleston Landsat The ma tic Mappe r dataset
    is shown in Fig ure 11 -22.

    Ftgu re 11-22 Xorm ali .....-d olill,:rcncc vegetat ion inde.\ {~D\l
    imagc o r ChilrlC-;lon , ,-C derived using UnlU
    Thematic "'appcr l'...nds 3 and 4.

    index rG I. ).:110\\ stu ll" ind c,\ OJ , and no ne-such ( \-1 Tk


    names attached III the nc " axes indicate t he c haracter isio
    the indices were intend c J In mea sure . The coe ffic ients art
    (Ka uth ct at.. 19 71)):
    0 .33:! IlI.H < 0 ,(,(13,11.....1'. t Of,iS ,lf ssJ

    lJ

    O. :! 8 3 lf~"' 1 - O.(,(>IlM,\',~ _' +

    o.sn

    + O.:!6:!MTI4

    \I.~\J

    ( 11.13)

    + O.311 fi ,I!5S4 111gl

    - O.fi<)' )II.\S I i

    0.4 2N11.1',\_"+ IJ. Oi (, l/.\SJ - 0,1)4] ,1r;S4 1111;1

    /I'

    0,tll(, ,\(,\.1' I

    II. 131 M,\\_' - 0 .4 52 .\I.\S.I + O.l(x:! IN 4 ,(11.16)

    Cr ist lin d Kauth t 19 X6 ) derived the visible. ncar-infrared


    and midd le-infrar ed coc tfici....nrs tor transformin g Landsat
    Thematic \1<1 Pl'c r imagery into hrig hlness , greenness. ilnd
    wet ness variables :
    II

    n ,4 ~()(, TAIJ

    O.:!'lO,) TJIl

    0 .24'13 7 All

    O.55Ml n /~

    0,44Jll 1 .\( 5 + O.170f.lT,\n

    Ci ~ - O.:!72XT.\ /1 -

    o.~

    174 1 M2 - 0.5508 TM3 +

    Ill ISi

    11.72:!1 1'\14 + 11.07.'.\ T\15 - H.I 04>1 n n

    Kauth a nd Thomas 111)7" I prod uced an orthogona l transfermutton o f the orig inal Landsa t \i SS data space to a new
    four-d ime nsiona l featu re space . 11 wa s ca lled th.... fa.H elnl
    cap or A:m.th ThlJma.\ fmml",.,nmion . lt created four new
    3 :\CS : thc soil br ighmc'!>S index (B), gr........ nncss vegetation

    II' _ O,1 44/'> 1.H I + 11.1701 f At), + n..H :!21',HJ-

    (11 -191

    O.-'JW,Ht4 - 0 .fl21117"'5 - (l.-1 l x6 n n .


    [t is called the tasseled ~'3P transforma uon bec ause of its C3p
    shape (F igu rl'S 11-23a c) , C rist and C tconc ( 1QR41 identified

    !!gelatio n Ind ices

    Table 11-4,

    Index

    ""'-

    Gn:mnM~

    ,-

    ....,
    ''''

    Su.

    387

    Tasseled t ar coeffi cients for usc with I.andsat 7


    Enhanced Thematic \o1<lpp<:r Plus da!<l (Huang er
    al., :WO.:! ,.

    TM.

    TM2

    TM3

    ,,.,

    wn

    J~

    ..J ~

    .3'>-1

    . ,ol'>t-

    1()~ 1>

    ,21 ol1

    U>lt~

    _.Mel

    ...

    -.020

    .1!~

    " ~

    IT

    TM'

    TM'
    . t ~%

    .01ol

    - :t.J

    CW2/>

    ~~ll6

    M,.

    ..~I>l

    d l9

    ,..,.

    _. I,1l

    ~n:

    _,m

    -,

    M"

    . U 9

    _, n ~7

    J 'J~

    TM'
    ~.

    """

    _. HW

    . _

    :'II or lll llli l~'d

    [) ifr~'n'lI c c

    Mots turc or W:t1cr Index -

    :'11 1)\ 11 or \1)) \\ I


    Info rmation abou t vegetation water conte nt has wide-spread
    utility in agri cu lture , forestry. and hydro logy (Galvao cr al.,
    20(5), Hardi-k y et 81. ( 1~K 3) a nd Gall (1996) found tha t the
    Normulized D!ffi:1l!//I.' .\foimlll: or 11<11e,. IIIJ.x (N D.\l1 or
    :'>IDW!) based on La ndsat T ro. l near- a nd middle-infrared
    bands.

    ,VlHII or S H WI

    /1'1H. r.IN - MidI R nt.


    :\' I H. n f4 + MI "' R n/~ '

    (11-20)

    I1tHrd component that is related to soil fe-ature-s. including


    ecisure status (Figure 1I.:!3d). Thus. an important source
    i soil information is avai lable through the inclusion of the
    liddle-infrared bands of the- Th e-matic Mapper (Price et al.,
    lXl~).

    The' Charlcsron Landsat T.\' scene I ~ tra nsformed 11lIO


    lIrightnt.oss. greenness. and wet ness (moisture] content
    .ages in Figu re 11-24 based on the use of the T M tasseled
    tzP coeffic ients I Eq uations 11-17 through 11-19). Urbanikd areas arc particularly evident in the brightness image .
    The greater the bio mass. the brighter the pixel value in the
    !'tt"ncess image. Tbe wetn ess illlagl: provides subtle in formation concerni ng the moisture stat us of the we tland cnv iratmenr. As expected. the gre ate r the- moisture co nte nt, the
    lri~ter the rl:sIX11N::. As ex pected. wa ter bodies arc brig ht.
    Inst and Kauth (1IJH6) identified the fourth tassele d cap
    iWameter as " e ing have.

    was high ly correlated with ca nop y water content and more


    closely uacked ch anges in plaru biomass and wa ter stress
    than did the ND\T Jackson cr al. (:!~) found tha t the:
    "ID VI saturated whi le the 1\1>\\11 conun ued to document
    chan ge s in com and soy bea n \egclation water content. Jin
    and Sader 12(05 ) compared the ~D\,tt and the tasseled cap
    wetness rransforrn auon lo r detec t ing forest disturbance.

    Pe r pen d ic ula r

    Y("~e l :uiun

    Inde:\ -

    Richardson a nd Wiq :a nd (1977) used the perpendicular distance to the -soilliuc" as an indicato r of p lant dev elopment .
    The "soil line : ' w hich is a t.... o-dimensional analog o f the
    Kauth-Thomas soi l bright ness index. .... as csurnatcd by linear reg ress ion. The r .'rl" 'I/, /i clI lar Vi..g<'/alioll 111IIe_,[ ( PVI'l
    based o n !\lSS hand 4 data was

    PV I oJ (",)~' Ir~SI

    I ' I~~

    '

    m s.') - t o \'~ ,\ 'SS) _ 1I , ~ S1 AtS'\:J

    Lcut w nrer Cnnt cut ludc The tasseled cap trans formatio n is a glo bal vegetatio n index.
    Themetica lly, it can h~' used any .... here III the w orld to disaggrugall: the amoun t of so il luiglnncss. vcgc tutinn, a nd mcis1~!\' content in ind ividu a l pixels in a Landsat \i SS or
    Ilematic M appe r image. Pract icall y. however. it is bette r to
    ro mpute the coc fflcicms based on local cond itions. Jackson
    (1983 ) prov ide" a computer program to r this purposc.
    The Kauth-Tho mas tasse led cap transfo rmation continues to
    be widely used (e .g . Lunetta et al .. 2002; Price cr al.. 2002 ;
    Rogan et al., 2002) . Huan g ct at (:!00 2) developed tasseled
    QP coefficien ts for use with Landsat' Enha nced Thematic
    'tJppc r Plus at-satell ite re flectance data. These coe tflcie ms
    are most a ppro priate for regional applicauons wher ... atmospheric co rrection is not feasible . T he cocfflcicrus arc SUl1l earizcd in Table II - t

    I'n

    r, (11 2 1)

    I.\ \' C I

    Hunt ct al. ( I\lX') dev elo ped the L('lI( lI'tJle!" Content i ndex
    ( l Wei ) 10 asse ss WOller stress in leaves:

    t wc t

    - Mi,J1Rn ls )J
    ( 11.22 )
    - log [ 1 (NIR r M 4" .Hi,J1R r ,lf5"lJ'

    - l,)g [ I -

    (NIRt ,\f~

    where ft represents refl ectanc e in the- specified bands when


    lcaves arc urthcir maxi mum relative wate r content (fully tu rgid: I{ \\T) defi ned as :
    I{ \ \ 'C =

    'ield we ight - o\'en dry wt.ight x 100 jl l-23)


    turg id .... eigh t oven dl) .... eig ht

    The utility ofthe nonna tize-d difference \ egetaucn index and


    related ind ices for sa tellite and airborne asscssrucru o f the

    .......

    nI API E~

    388

    11

    Remote Sens in g o f Vegetation

    Cnaractcrts ncs of t he Ka uth-T ho ma s Ta \ sdrd Cap Tr an vror manon

    ,,
    "
    ~ (br

    Bn~htnc.'S~

    II Cror de...~k'!"ffi"ll in ee !a'l...... II cal"


    bri gh mess-greenness 1r.1Il~ formation .

    Hrigh tn.",

    II t.ocauoe of land "'''\<''1" "hen r lolled


    in lho: hrighll\C'<, .gtecnr\C!<.' ' J"'.'("ll':Il sr ace.

    Bri!!hITll;s.o;

    c..Actual r lOiof brig htness and b'Tecnncss


    value'< Ior an agricultural area . The shape
    ",f IlIC ,ji~tnbu IJun I""ks like a ca p.

    d . .\rrm, imaIC dH\'('1;on M moisture


    variation in the pla ne " f , ,, ils. The: arrow
    rOlnls in the <,li l.:<;llUn o f k"" m" isture.

    Figure 11-23 C har acteri stics o ft hc Kauth-Thomas tasseled Clip transformation 13,13J'lt'd fmm ( "risl , I 'll<:"; C rist and Kaut h. 1'I!(6). ThcliSselcd cap transformation is applied eUITL"1:lly if the tasseled cap's ba..: is parallel " ith Iho:: brightness, axis.

    Earth's veg etation cover has been demonstrated for alm os t


    three decades. The time scri ...s analysis of seasonal NOV I
    d ata have pro vided a metho d of esti mating net primary pmduc uon ever varyi ng biomc types , o f monitoring Ilhenol ogi ca l paucms ofthe Earth's vegetated surface, and o f asse ss ing
    the lengt h of till.' gro wing season an d dry -down periods
    ( Huete and Liu, 1<,1 <,14; Rumsey ,'I al.. [(95). Fo r example.
    global vegetation una lysis W:l S initially based on linearly
    regressi ng: NDY I valu es (derived fro m AVHRR . Landsat
    \-l SS. Lands<ll "1 M. and S POT IlRV da ta l w ith ill ,~illI measurcrucnts of LA !. A PAR. pe rcen t cov er. and /or biomass.
    Th is empirica l appr oach revol ution ized global science land cover biophysic al analysis in just 011e decad e (R unn ing: et
    al., 199-1). Unfornnuuely, stud ies hav e fo und that the empirically derive d N DYI prod ucts ca n he unstable, varying wit h
    soi! col or and mois ture conditions. bid irecti ona l reflectanc e
    dis trib ution function (BRDFl effects (re fer 10 Cha pter I).
    at mosph eric cc nduions. a nd the pre se nce o f dead materi al in
    the canopy itsL'i f (Q i el al., 199 5) , Fo r exa mple, Go ward 1.'1
    al. ( 199 I ) found e rrors of !. 50% in ;'\0\'1 Images used fur
    glob al vegetatio n studies derived fro m the NO AA G loba l
    veeerauon Index product. w hat is nee ded arc globally accurate l'\ D\'I-relal,'d products that do nut need to be calibrated

    by ill snu measu rement w ithin each glXlgra phic area yetwi
    rema in constant und er ch ang ing atmos pher ic and soil bedground conditions [Huctc and Justice . 19'N ).
    l'bcrcfc rc. emphasis h;l~ bee n giv en to the dcvelopmcmcr
    impro ved vegetation indices thut lak e advan tage of ralibrated se nsor syste ms such as the Moderate Rt"Slllutioo
    Imag ing Spectromete r (MO DIS ) {Running ct al.. 1 994~
    A lthou gh the NDYI has be en sho wn to he use ful in esrimain!;! vegeuuion prop ertie s, many important ex ternal and
    internal influences restric t its g loba l uti liry, The improved
    indic es typically incorponu c u soi l background and/or armosph eric adj ust ment factor.
    The Soil Al(ill.l1<'d l 'cgl '!lIlion Index (SAYI) is
    S:W I =

    ( I + I. HP"" - P,,.,j l

    rIO ,,'" P,,,,t + /.

    where L is a ca n,lpy backgrou nd adjustment factor tl:w


    account s lor ditfcrcnual red and near-infrared exuncnce
    thro ugh the canopy tH uete. 19K"; Huete

    C(

    al., 1992; Kam:-

    clioet al., 2(0 1), An L va lue of 0.5 in reflectance space \lo a:;

    369

    tatton Indices

    a. Brightness.

    Kauth-Thomas [Ta vselcd Cap)


    G reen ne..... a nd wetness
    Transformation of Landsat Thematic
    lj ata ror Charleston, SC
    Bri~hln l"\s.

    c. \\'cmcss.
    Figure 11-24 Brig htness. greenness, and wetness imag es de rived hy applying Kauth -Thomas la'Sl-kd cap
    Charleslnll, SC, Thematic Mapper data \6l>.1ndsl.

    foond to minimize soil hrighll1l.'SS variations and e liminate


    ~ need for additional calib ration for ditf crcnt so ils (l luete
    ed Liu, 19( 4). The utility of SAVI for mini milillg the so il
    "aoise" inherent in the N[)VI has been corroborated in many
    iIIldies. Qi ct al. ( 1l)l)SI develope d a modi fied SAVI, called
    \lSAVI.l hat uses au iterative. continuous L function to opti1111.1: soil adjustmen t and increase the dynamic range of
    iWI.

    SAVI ....as made less sensi tive tl) atmosphe ric effects by nor.Iiling the radiance in the blue. red. and nea r- infrared
    jeds. This became the A/II/lu pht'rio /Ill' Resistant l e~L'/u
    1M Index (A RVI):

    uansrormaoon coefficients to the

    (1 1-25)

    ( I J 26 )

    TIle technique requires prior correc tion for mo lecular scarIcr ing and ozone al'l snrptjon of the blue. red. and near-infrared remot e sensor data. hence the ter m [1. ARVI uses the
    differe nce in the radiance betwee n the blue chan nel and the
    red channel to COITcct the radiance in the red channel and
    thus reduce at mospher ic effects . Unle..s the aerosol model is
    kno wn a prior i. gamma Iyl is nor mally equal to 1.0 to minirnizc atmospheric effects. Ka ufma n and Tanre (1\)1)2 ) provid... guideline" w here d ifferent gammas might be used over

    390

    11

    O 'A I" I t:H:

    continental, mariti me. desert (c. g. the Sa he l). or heav ily


    vegetated areas.

    \l UI)tS t :nh a" ,.-d "'oK.'Jalj "n " "t n " 'r'''\
    t",t01 ,,"r r II"" ", \"o~rl.l'"

    ~" r",ali l<'d Il jffn~"ct \ ,~.'t " t j""

    10 .0

    Soil a nd

    Atmosflh rriellll~

    Resistant ' "e!:d al ion Ind t''l.. -

    S.\ R \ ' )

    -e

    -.,
    .

    Ji

    Huett' a nd Liu ( 19Q-l) integra ted the L funct ion from SAVI
    and the blue-band norma lization in A RVI [0 derive a Soil
    (111.1 "'tll/ 'l.lpherica!(I' Rrsistont I' X t'/utio!l lades (SA RVI)
    that corrects for both soil and atmos pher ic noise . as would II
    mod ified Si\ RV I (MS I\ RV I):

    SA RV I :

    p. It;. - p h

    ( 11 27 )

    p "" +p*,,,+L

    Remo te Sensing of Vege tation

    oS

    ~ e.e

    1 I I I I I 1 I .-+, I I
    M>Vl ,lmoN

    "''I' > ""'I"lIId' '' j/

    ~';'F t"'''''-ti

    , -+-

    r-

    ..

    J ,. \ ..'\

    01

    . --.

    ,"'-

    ..- -

    I-+-f.'...,' .:'"'"
    " ,t,.t;-..; ~ '-+''' 1-1
    ,;,' : .-i~ r: I I

    1iO

    '.

    ....,.
    ~'."

    ..
    -.~~~lI ,-+-1-+":
    ' ....I...
    r
    ~

    J!

    :5 2.0 -r-t-r- _. 1l

    ~ a,
    , ::-'--"-1
    ' - '. EVt" ol"t~
    -.#>! "+~r:"
    r-'1

    . ,' ,!

    ""'_ ~' - "'--.-

    '_+--+_+-1

    )., .... .i-:- "~ _ . -f-I--I-H


    ,
    ::''11'"
    -r-i--+--+--j-I-I-H
    ,

    ...:... ';- +--+- +--+- +-+-1


    1 --I-,..~
    " ' -'I' +++++++-1
    r .,..,:'-t-+-+-t-H-+-+-+--I
    +
    ~

    en

    -2.110

    0 00

    H UCh.' [l!IU Liu ( 191)4 ) perf ormed a sensitivit y analysis 011 the

    orig mal .\IDV I and improved vege tation ind ices (SAV!.
    ARVI. SARVL MSARVI I and drew these concl usions :

    (p",y - O.66P I6I,m)


    AF RI I.6"m -

    If there we re a partial atmospheric correctio n 10 rem ove


    the Rayleigh and MOlle component s, then the ~I
    vegetation ind ices wo uld be the SAR\ 'I and ~I S A R V I.
    wnh the r-; OVI and ARVI being rhc \\ OThI.

    become slightl y wo rse hut sti ll wou ld have the least


    ove rall no ise . T he NDV I and A RVI woul d have the mtl~ l
    nois e and e rror.

    Acreeol Free \ 'Cl;:Clal ion Inde ' -

    An U

    Kamiel i er al. C::!{)(JI ) fou nd that unde r clea r sky con ditions
    the spec tra l ba nds ce ntered on 1.6 and z.t u m arc high ly corre lated w ith visible spectral bands centered on blue (0.469
    11m ). gree n (0.555 11m ), and red (O.M5 11m ). F. m pirica l lincar
    re lat ion sh ips such as PIJ4~~ m - () . 2 5p~ 111m' PO ~~~ m :
    O.33P2 111 m and POb4 ~lI m - O.66P I I\jl m were found to be statistically significant. Therefore. based on these and e ther retationships,l\\ oAerm ol Free lege/,ll/On InJICt',~ (AFR I) were
    developed:

    am

    600

    Figure 1125 A ccmpanscn of the sensitivity of the MOl)I').de.


    rived Norm alized Difference VC~"lali()fl Illlb
    (NDVI) values ami MODIS Enhanced V~
    IOOe' ( EVil val ues for dense vegetation (Did-.
    :::002).

    If there we re a total atmospheric correcuon. then then:


    wou ld main ly be " soil noise.' and the SA\ ' I and MSA RVI
    would be the best equ ations tu usc. and the N OV I an d
    A\{ Vl would be the worst.

    If there we re lill atmospheric correction at all {i.e.. 1\(1


    Rayleigh. ozone, or aerosol correc tion], the SA RVI \.I ou ld

    2.00

    !,,,ba nco,):VC~''," i<'n !oklo, 10J

    (11. 2XI

    MSAR\I

    0=

    (P II "

    + O.66 p I "Ilm)

    and

    ( PilI' - O.5 P ~ .ljl m )

    (1 1-)0

    ro.." + O .5P ~.llt m)


    Under

    cle ar

    sky

    cond itions,

    the

    (11-191

    A J'Rls

    (especief

    A FR I~.I I,m ) resu lt in values vel)' si mi lar to NDV!. HO\\"CleI, I


    if the at mosphe ric colum n co nta ins smoke or sulfates then
    the A t.'Rls are su perior to NOV ls. T h is is heca use the electro magncuc energy cen tered al 1.6 and 2. 1 jllll is able to penetrate the atmospher ic co lum n better than rL'<I wa'ielcnglb
    energ y used In the N DV I. Therefore. the AF Ris hne'
    major appl ication in a sses sing vegetation in the preserce et
    smoke. anth ropogenic pollution, and volc anic plumes. Lim- I
    lied SUl'cess is ex pected in the case o f d ust due to presenceel
    large r part icles that are sim ilar in size til the wavele ngth. and
    ther e fore notrranspercnt ut 2. 1 1J 111 (K au fma n c r al., 20(0). I
    Thc A t' Rls can he imp lemen ted usi ng any se nsor that irccrpcrates bands cent ere d on 1.6 and/or 2.1 um such as the
    Landsat T M, and ETM ' , MO DIS. AST ER_an d the Japanese
    Earth Resource Sa tellite-Opnca! System (1E RS---OPS~
    SPOT 4-\'egctalion . and IRS-I u D.

    392

    C Il -\ 1'1 ~:R

    11

    Remote Sens ing of Vegetation

    Lane

    used the SenSOT10 nMp the leaf-area-index o r Canada. The

    760

    Nt'dut't''' Si lllf'/r HI/f io ( I{SJ{, is:

    IheS'

    bane

    RSR '"
    w here

    Pm r (

    I _ P " - P ""',,. )
    Pr,.J
    P ,,"'... . . p 'TI'''n

    ( 11-33)

    P,.._,,, a nd P...,,-... arc the m inimum and max imum

    SWI R reflectan ce fo und in ea ch image and deli ned as the I


    pe rce nt min imum and maximum cuto ff points in the h istograms o fS W IR reflectance in a scene . Tho:major advantag es
    o f RSR ov er 5R are a) the differenc e be tween land -cover
    typ...~ is much red uc.ed so that tho: acc uracy for leaf area
    index retriev al for mixed CO\ C T I)-J'('s ca n be improv ed o r a
    sing le LAI alg or ith m call he dev eloped ....ithour resortin g 10
    coregjsterc-d la nd-cov er ma p" as jhe first apprcxunarion, and
    bJ the: backgrou nd (UndeI'MO!)', litter, and so il) in fl uence is
    suppressed using RSR because th... SWIR band is mo st sensitive to the amount o r vegc tauon co ntaini ng liqu id wa ter in
    the bac kgrou nd (C hen ct al., 20(12).
    Chloroll h~ 1I A bsl .rpt iun ill Kcncetlillcel nd c\ - C A KI;
    .\ Iod ifk d C h lo rllllh) II A" s.. r pt iun in Ke Ilcct an ce Indc \
    - Urc..\KI ; 0pli mi/cd SlIiI.Adj u,t\'d V{"J.:I'l aliun I nd el
    - O SA\"I ; Iblio -I CA Kl iO S.-\\" 1

    Ma rty scientists are interested in the amoun t o f chloro phyll


    in vege tation [e.g.. Daughtry C! a l.. ::!OOO). Kim CI a l. ( 199-JI
    de ve lope d the Ch/olTlJ'hy/l Ah.lOrl'tioll ill Refh- clilllce Index
    leARI). It was modified to becom e the Transformed
    Absurp tioll ill Relh'("f<lllce II/dn (TCARI ):

    It uses bands corresp onding to the min imum absorption of


    the photosynthetic pigments, cente red at 550 and 700 nm . in
    conj unc tion with the ch lo rophy ll (I ma ximum absorp tion
    h:111d. around 67 0 nrn . The choice of 700 nm is dill' to its
    location at the boundary be tween the region where vcgctalion reflectance is dominated by p igmellt absorption and the
    beginning of the red ed ge po rtion where veg etatio n stru cturu! cha rac terist ics {i.c., the SPOllll ) mcsophyll] have more
    infl uence (In reflec tance (Ki m cr al., 1994),
    Un fortunately, TeARI is still sc n~ il i \ c III the underly ing so il
    refl ectan ce properties. purticularly fo r vegetat ion with a low
    leaf area inde x. There fo re , Daugh try et nl. (2 UOO) proposed
    that TeA RI be combined with a soi l line vegeta tion index
    like the 0 l'lim i:<'" S"/l.Adjml.clligl'f<l/ioll / ,,dlX (O SI\V I)
    (Rondeaux er a l., I ~\)n ) :

    bilit
    wau

    T hc ratio bec ame

    Te A RI
    OSAV I

    W ill

    and is hig hly correlated w ith vcgeta uon


    (llaboudanc er al . 1002 ),

    chloroph~1I

    wI>

    7
    WII

    Many reso urce mana gers would like vegeta tion fracbI
    in fonn ation te.g ., 60"10) (R undq uist. 2002 )_ Building
    the Atm osph erically Rl'sist.ll1t \ 'egl'talion Index, ~
    developed the Vi_tiMe Afm(lJI'}/I;riCll /~l' Reslstar u
    (VARI) comput..-d as (Gitclson cl .111 . 2(02):

    inc!

    R.

    n
    'p
    <h
    lh
    m

    The index was mi nima lly se nsitive to atmospheric dedi.


    allo wing est ima tilln o r vege tation fraction with an error Ii
    < I 0" ;' in a wide range of annosphc nc optica l thickncr.s.

    b<
    Co

    "
    S

    :\url1l ali/l..J Ditferen ce Built-up Inde\ -

    ,\ IUII

    Many professionals " 'Or"in!:: on ur ban/subu rban problellll


    art.' interes ted in monitoring the spatial distribution aDd
    gr ow th or urban built-up areas. These da ta can be used f(ll:
    watershed runoff prediction and ot her p lanning applicatica
    Zha ct al. (20 03 ) calculated a Nonnolized Difference B~i/l'
    Ill' tudes (,,"'O BI ):

    (l 13S\
    wh ere

    "if".'"

    '1"";"-'""'"-,,,.';0":,";,'
    fi" = ,.-.';;

    .V1R r \l4 + .\fitIlR rM~

    (1l,39)

    Th is resulted in un ou tpu t in1>lge that contain ed only built'lJ!l


    an d barr en pixe ls haloing ptlsiti\C values whi le all other land
    cover hada va lue ot'u or - 254 , Th e technique was reponed
    to be 92 pe rcent acc urate.

    The ncar-in frared hands found on Landsat Til.l- J\OA.~


    AVIIRR. and the Imlian Remote Sens ing Linear Imaging
    Se lf Scan ning ( LlSS) sc nsor al e in the region 770 to 860.

    b
    r
    I

    135 )

    3 6)

    393

    scape Ecology Metri cs

    10 9(10. and 725 to 1100 om. respectively. Unfortunately,


    rear-infrared region s include wa ter v3por ab sorp tion
    Therefore . 10 improve the biomass mon itorin g capn. of the 1\OV I. G upta cr at (200 1) c hose (0 exclude
    u por abso rption hands in the creat ion o f a ,VI'\\" leg.

    as their biophysical (e.g.. LA I, biomass. APAR) a nd


    struc tura l (c .g.. pe rcent eanu py closure ) properties.
    \llln itllrin g these churactcnsucs thro ugh space and time will
    prov ide valuable information for unde rstanding the Earth as
    a system (Townshend and Just ice. :.!OO2).

    fndt'x(f\V I) :

    Land scape Ecology Metrics


    WI :; P7T/ - P 14 ~

    uent

    lion

    PO"

    tists

    1I 1.....(J)

    P to73

    Pm . P 7~7' an d Pto' ) an: the rertccra nc-cs cen tered at


    ,7-17. and n73 om. respectively, in J- 10 IO-om bandhypcrsp<."Ctral data . Outer narrow -band veg eta tion
    are found in Jensen (2005).
    2e Podtlnn Det ermination -

    Rt:I'

    -dex

    3 7)

    rts,

    of

    TIS

    od

    abrupt cha nge in the fixO-liOH om region of retlecrance


    of lea" ..." !; l:3 UM.-d by tho: combined effec ts of strung.
    hyll abso rption and leaf internal scattering is called
    ltd edge. The red i'tlKI' position ( REP) is the m int o f
    urn slo pe on a vegetation refle cta nce spec tru m
    een the red and ncar-lg wav ele ngt hs. The red edge was
    descn bed by Collm s ( l IJ7K). a nd is perha ps the mo st
    ied feature on the vegetation spectral cu rvc accordi ng 10
    erfand AlZbcrg... r (2001). T he REP is usefu l because it
    5lr('lflgly correlated w ith fo liar chlorophy11 co nte nt and can
    rsenslnvc indic ator o f vegetatio n stress . Determining the
    edge position using remote se nsi ng data usua lly requires
    collection of'hvpe rspcctrnl dat a.

    vegetati on indices are useful fo r rnomroring the co ndition


    and bcalt b o f vegetated pi\ e b . Ho wever, such pe r-pixel
    an alysi s doc s not provide any informatio n abou t the nature
    o f surroundi ng pixe ls, inc[udlll g thei r site and association
    charactcnstic.s, Landsc ape ecology principles haw been
    dev eloped that mcr casin gj y incorporate remote se nsor data
    to JS'>t"S.~ the health am i di, ers ity of veg eta tio n and ot her
    variables withi n entir e l,.'\:osy!>te11ls. Th is has res ulted in the
    dcvclopmcrn o f numerou s 1'lIId~Coll"Jt' ecology maries or
    imJicalO~ Ihat arc o f .;.jgmficanl value when anal yzing
    rangeland. gr ass land. forests, and wetlan d (F roh n. 1998:
    \IcGariga l et al., 2(06 ). Numerous govern ment agen cies.
    suc h as the Environmental Protect io n Agency. base much of
    their en vironme ntal modeli ng and landscape character izat ion on these mctrics and indicators (ErA Landsc ape Eco logy. :.!UOlil. There fore. it is use ful to pro vide a brief review
    o f their or igin and summa rize se vera l of the more important
    landscape ecology metr ic varia bles thai can be extracted
    from rem otely sensed d ata .

    'Or

    ".
    ,,-

    .,
    'J

    lmcar method proposed by Clcvcrs ( 1994 ) ca n be impletoo that make s use o f four narrow bands and is co rn-

    ed as follow s:
    REI> '" 700 + 4 0 [P (led ~Irc) - P (7IKlnm1] .
    1-l 17Jlln,n ) P I 71 ~ ) n m i

    p ( l>7U,onl )

    + Pn~u"r,, )

    (1 1-.\1)

    (1 1--12)

    wson and Cu rran I I99!l ) and Haranos k i and Rokn ... (2005 )
    rizc add uio nal met hods used to determine the rcd
    _ position.
    .enusts throug hout the world are studyi ng till: ro le of
    ial vegetatio n in large-scale g lob al proce sses. Thi s is
    sary in orde r to unders tand how the Earth funct ion s as
    s ystem. Veget ati on indices are bein g used to accu rately
    mlory the global d istri bution o f vcgcrauon type s as wd l

    The t... 011 llIlli!" '<lfI(' ("-f/logy w as first introd uced by the Ocrma n geog ra pher Carl Troll (19 .NI who mad e widesp read usc
    o f the II1<:n 11<:1V technique o f aer ia l photography. Tro ll
    intended for the term lnrulscupc ecology 10 d ist inguish his
    approach to r u ~ i ng such irnllgl'r y to interp ret the interaction
    of water. land surfaces. soil. veget ation, and land USl' from
    th.u or conventiona l photographic intcrprctnrion and cartogmph)'. Landscape ecology has been intensively pract iced in
    Euro pe fur man y decades lind became gene rally rec ogn ized
    in the United State s in about 191<0 . S ince then. landsc ape
    ecology ha-, rapid ly evo lved as a discipline, spurred by the
    s~ n<:rg istie nucracuons between remot e sensi ng and GIS
    techniques nnd adv ances in ecological theory.
    J.ill/JR'I,I!' " n,llJ~Y i~ the study o f the struct ure. function.
    and c hanges in he te rogen eo us land arcus com posed o f interacrin g organi sm s (Bou rgeron and Jense n, 19931. It is the
    study of the interac tio n betw een land scape pa uc ms a nd L'Cologica l processes. espec ially the influe nce of landscape pat tern on the flow s of'water. energ...\ , nutrient s. a nd biota . What
    J ist ing ui::.he:. landscapo:eeul ogy from the ma ny separate d is-

    394

    ciplincs that it embraces Ie.g.. geog raphy. bio logy. eco logy.
    hydrology ) is that it provides a hierarchica l fram ewo rk for
    interp reting ecologica l struc ture. funct ion. cha nge. and resiliency at multiple sca les ofinquiry.

    Tmditio na! measu res 10 protect the enviro nment. such a ~


    preventin g water po llution Of prorccring biodiversity, often
    focused on specific e ffluent d ischarges or fine-scale hab itat
    requi reme ms. Th is method has been described as the tinefilter app roach. In con trast. tho: coarse-filter approach to
    resource conservation states that -b)' managing aggregates
    (e.g.. communities. ecosystems. landscapes I. the ccmponer us of' these aggregates .... ill he managed as wdl", f1llurgcro n and Jensen. 1993). In other words. the most costeffective stra tegy to mai ntain the resiliency and productivity
    ofecological sysn..ms is II,) conserve (or reston..) the dih,:~il~
    of species. ec osystem processes. and landscape pa tterns that
    crea te the systems (Jensen and Everett. IlJlJ31. Applying: this
    coarse- filte r manage me nt met hod requires that landscape
    pa tte rns be eva luated at mu ltiple spatial and temporal scales
    rather than sim ply at the trnduional scales of crrcam reach or
    fOR'St stand.

    C11 ,\ PTU~

    11

    Remot e Sens ing of Vegetation

    pattern III/il is a collection of measurement units


    patch units that haw the property of being the minimum
    descripto r of a large r spa tial area. The scales otee
    qucsnous and indic ators suggest two types of landsi:IJ
    units: watersheds an d lundscapc patlc m types (lPTl('"
    ham and "'Ilr!on. IQlJ-I). watersheds and l PTs caphR
    bound four important Iluw processes operating "ithin
    among landscapes: tlo .... s o f enl'Tg). water, nutnents,
    biota . Scales '11" wutershedv and l PTs range from apjIll
    110
    mat cl~ 10
    10" umt s in cxtcnt, and fro m Ito lOOba.

    Landscape Indicators and Patch MetriCs

    Jones et a!. (liN!'!) ~U~l"l-I that tancscepe integril) ca


    moni tored by carefull~ wa tching the status of the folIo.
    indicators:
    land-cover com pO"itioll and patt ern
    riparian exrem and distribulion
    ground .... mer

    Hierarc hy theory allows landscape ecologists 10 integrate


    mu ltiple scales of information to determine w hcth cr landscape pauerns arc sufflcicm W 3110 w ecolog ical processes 10
    ope rate at the necessary scales. The objective is 10 investigate changes in the distribu tion. domi nance. and connectivity of ecosystem co mpon ents and the effect of these changes
    on eco log ica l and biological reso urces. For ex am ple. eCl1SYStern fragme ntat ion has been implic ate d in the dec line of biological diversity and eco system suctainabihty at a number (If
    spat ia l scales (Forman . 1995: Jones ...\ al., [\jl)S). Derermin ing stat us an d trends in the pattern nflundscapc s is cmiculto
    understanding the overal l con dition 1'1' ecological resources.
    Landscap e patt ern s thus prov ide 11 set \) 1' indic ators, (e.g .. patte rn shape . dominance . connectivit y, config uration ) that can
    be used to usse ss eco logical status and trends nt a vur icty o f
    sca les.
    A hie rarchic al framew ork also permits two important type s
    o f co rnpnrisons: 1) to co mpa re co nd itions within and acm s-,
    lan dscapes. an d 2) to co mpare conditions across diff eren t
    type s of ecologica l risks . Suc h eco logical risks include the
    risk of eros ion_ loss of sni l prod ucti\ it)!. loss of hydrologic
    function. and lo ss o f hiod i\'C~i t)!.
    Sca lolble units are nCl-ded 10 add ress landscape t'eo logy
    issues at multiple sca!..:s within a hierarchical fra mework.
    Exam ples of scalahle units inclu de palcht's. patterns. and
    land s.capes. A patch IInil is a s.:1 of co ntigU\lUS measurement
    units (e.g.. pixels ) that ha\e the sa m..- numerical \alue. A

    grccnn....ss paucm
    degree (l ftllorh~ sica ! constraints

    erosion porcnual.
    Monitoring these landscape Ind icators req uires PI"lXi>/.
    repeatable measurements of terrai n {'tllclles such as indi\'i~
    ual forest vtandx. rang eland. wetland. and/or agricultu!1l
    fields (Table 11-5). It is also importantto ident ify palchl'S1l!
    pure urban structure such as rc~ i dent ial and cornmerciallars
    lise. Thes c Illl'asure llU:llls of I.. . rruin patches arc roulinely
    refe rred ttl as /wI<I''"<lI'" 1-'<1111"1"11 and .l'11"I/("/11l"r mm icr
    ( ~ lc(i3r ig :l1 ct ul., 2(1(11,).
    Nu merous landscape structure mc trics have been developed
    (e.g. Rurcrs cr nl., 11195: Schutt c t 31.. 1999: w cicrs e el
    2(05)..\1 <111)' of these land-cup.... ecology memes are alai
    ublc in FR.IGST.17'S - A Sp<lll,,1 Pattern A IIUlysi.I PmgtO/f
    for C"lt'gOriCII! Mi/I 'J f\kOa rig lll and Marks, 19'f,l,
    \1 eC arigal et a l.. 211(6). ~ lailY ...cle mists use this prugramlD
    extract putdl. d uss. a nd landscape indic es (e.g., \1i llj n~
    ct al.. 20u3 : Jad."llll ;md JC'n~en, 2UIlS).
    O'l\eill et al. ( 199 71suggesl that the hea llh of an L'COS}stewI
    cou ld he mon itored if the "...lIow ing three 13ndscape C'OOior.
    m,;-tries were flloniturc d Lhrougb lim,;-: dominance. ClJIIlt.
    gion. and fracta l dimension.

    Ta t

    395

    .JIldsc a pe Ecology Metric s

    ~ 11 5 .

    Societal values. ellample indicators, ami candidate landscape olog) mcuics.


    Indicator

    Socie ta l Value

    3iOOin ' H it ) '

    \\Itrn. hed

    l n l~ ri l ~

    Llnd, u pe resilk-nc e

    ~illul/ce.

    Candidate Metric s

    wildlife habitat suitability

    patch statistics (number. total area. average size. largest size. distance
    betv..cen, ratio penmeser to area. shape . fractal dimension . square pixel
    model, etc.] , Iragmcmation. cOllwgi"n . zone fragmer uanon index, patch
    per-unit-area index. domina nce. adjacency of laml-cover IYJlCS. Shannon
    diversity, biophysical attribute peuerns

    stream biological cr,odltion

    di\l:'f'S1l}. square pue! mod el. dom inance. fragmcmarion. zone tragmcntation index. p.uch per-una-area index. adjacency of land-cover types.
    sl0J'C. elevanon . diffusion rates, percolation threshold. erosion mdex.
    texture. bi..,ph}SJcai aUrioole patterns. geochemical attributes

    forest plant species richness

    diversity, dominance. fragmentationzone tragmcnuuion index. patch


    per-unit-area index. slope, erosion index. texture. patch srarisncs, square
    pixel model. biophysical attrib ute patterns

    landscape ~uslai nab i llt)

    patch sM islics. contagion, zone fragmentation index, p"t<:h per-uniturea index. fragmenta tion. texture. domman ce. fractal dimension.
    """uare pnel model. biophysical attribute patterns

    water quality

    patch statistics. erosion index. hydrologic modiflcarion . adja cency of


    land-cover IYJle~. domina nce, contagion. IUllC fragmentation index.
    patch per unit area index. fractal dimensi on. square pixel model. elevation, slope. biophysica l attribute patterns. geochemical aunbures

    vulncrnbibty 10 lloooiul;:

    patch Sl<ltlst ie~. adjacency of land-cover lyp-cs. erosion indcx. dominancc. contagion. ,W IlC fragmenta tion index. patch per-unit-area index.
    fractal dimen sion. square I'h:.el model. hydrolog ic modification. 1'1.:\'11tion. slope . texture. biop hysic a l attri bute patterns

    land scape sustainabiluy

    patch statistics, dominance , contagion. lone fragmentat ion index, patch


    per-unit-area index, tragmemarion, fractal dimension, square pixel
    model. biophysical attribute peucms

    D. is the information theoretic inde x thai idc nu-

    ~ the extent to which the landscape is d omina ted by a si nland-co ver type- The metric. 0 < D < I, is com puted as

    D-

    1- [2:<-p, ,np,)]

    ( I I- H )

    In (II )

    ~ O < p~ < I is the proportion o f land-co, er type k , and"


    the total number o r lan d-cover types presen t in the land-

    pe.

    "'I

    where
    is the probabili ty that a pixel (Ifco ver type j is adjaccm to type j .
    T hc f ;-(/<"10 1 dimens ion, F. of parches indicates the exten t o f
    human re-s ha p ing: o f land sc ape struct ure (ON ... ill ct al..
    19971. Hu ma ns cr...ate sim ple landscape patterns: nat ure ere;;I t.:S complex patte rns . The fractal dunc usion index is calculated by regressin g the I\)g o fthe patch perimeter aga inst the
    log o f the pa tch area fo r each pat ch on the landsc ape. The
    index eq uals tw ice the slope of the regression line. Patch es
    of four (If fe we r pix els arc excluded because reso lution probte rns distort the ir true sha pe .

    lPnlagil:m. C. expresses the probab ility that land cove r is


    re "cl um ped" than the ran dom ex pec tation . HII' index . 0
    C < I. is

    " Inp"l]
    c = 1_[2:2:<-P
    2In (/I)
    ,,

    (11--441

    O ' Neill cr at. ( 1(97 ) suggesr th.u th is se l o f three indices


    may ca ptu re fund ame nta l aspects of landscape pattern that
    infl uence ecological processes. Sign ificant changes in these
    indi ces for an eco~y~lcrn might indicate that pe rhaps deleterious processes arc at work in th e envi ronment. For example,

    (U \ "l ~.H.

    39

    . , -,,-_ b

    an> l.md
    cover I ~T"''''

    ~""""""''!''''''''i''
    mndllicd
    C" nra;:i" n, C
    moee

    clumped

    nOIclumped

    FIgure 11-27 A hYJ'Olh~'1;cal dq nc lu.lfl o f a thrcc-dimcnsso nal


    landscape metric feature space . Point <1 represents
    where a stable, unmodi fied ecosystem might reside
    in ucnunance. contagion. and fractal dimension te a ture space. Wlk"Tllhe landscape is modified b> man
    or natu ral forces. il may mo ve 10 point h with mall)'
    land-cover Iyrc~ being introd uced tdontiucncc
    chllIlgc l. be less clumped (con tagio n). and ex hil:>it a

    more modified fractal dimension. This could be


    good or bad. Remote sen sing of vegetation is cnucat In tho.' extraction of landscape Pilh:h memes.

    cons ider 3 small ecos)slem that exhibits a less mollified


    frac ta l d ime nsion. is highly du mped. and has relativ ely few
    land -cov er types wit hin n. [t might appear in a thrce- dunensional landscape metric space allocat ion a in Figure I I-.:n.
    If t his small ecosystem we re subd ivided with se veral new
    roads and fragmented. its loc ation migh t mo ve in th reespace to b with many land -co ver types be:ing introd uced
    (dominance change], be: tess cfurnpc d [contagion], with a
    me re modi lied fractal di men sion , Thi s co uld be: good or had .
    In face the relati on ships between the metric values and how
    they ac tuall y re late to eco logical principles are still being
    determined. Remote sensing oj vegrtanon K-ifhm these
    patches is I 'el)' importunr <llId constitutes 01/1' uf the major
    factors responsiblefor whether 01" not t/1I' mrtric:s (11"(' rahnst
    and usefid for ec ologica l modeling
    Riu ers et al. ( 199 5) rev iewe d 55 patc h me trics and co neluded that the following memes accounted for most o f me
    \ arian ce , including: the number of annbute cover types in a
    region (11 ); contagion [previou sly discussed); ave rage pcrirnctcr-arca rat io; perimeter-area scaling: average large-patch
    den sity-area sca ling; standardized patch shape; and patch
    perimeter-area scaling. The algorithms for all 55 memes are
    prov ided in the pap er,

    Re m ote Sensing of VegelatiOll

    Applying tho: principles o f landscape ecology requirt$


    understanding ofthe natura l variability oflandscape
    and proc<."l<oscs across bo th space and time. Estimaleo;of
    variubiluy arc css cn ual to dete rmini ng whether the cum:I
    condition o f landsca pe is sus tain able. given its hi!>toric~
    terns and proce sses (Jensen and Everett. 11)1)3). MOIeC''Ct
    the estimates arc extremely useful in both broaJ-kIll
    ass essment o f ri~k 10 reso urces , as w ell as to finer
    as sessments.

    less

    lnoJi lk d

    11

    T he goal is usually til

    estimate, on

    J reg iona l basis and with kno.... n confidcnx.


    the curre nt vtatus , trends. and changes III se
    indicators u fthe importantlandsca pe s:

    csnmate w nh know n co nfidence the geo graphic CO\C!J!t


    and extent ofrhe land sc ape s" pattern s and types :
    seek a ssoci ation s hl:t.... cen ~e lo:':: l<:d indicators of
    and anthropo geni c s trcss o rs and indic ators of la~
    condi tion : and
    pro vide statist ical summ aries and periodic
    the condition of the landsca pes .

    asscssm~

    Moni toring the vcgcnnion in land scape parches us


    rcrnotcly se nsed data an d deriv ing acc urate mentes
    these data is becom ing a very important component of~
    ecosystem monitori ng pw gram s. For exa mple. AlTO)
    Moya cr al. (2005) usc-d remote ..ens ing-tkrived lan~
    ecology memes to anal) lO: forest fragmentation"
    regrow th characteristics ill Costa Rica fro m 1%1) - 2001
    Jac kson and Jensen l 2()(15 ) used remote scnsing-lkri\d
    land scape ecOI'I~Y memes 10 perform reservoir short.
    envuonmcmulmonitoring in So uth Carolina .
    II is also imponam to mon itor the hea lth of CCOS}M{'1lI~atlb:
    reg iona l an d nat ion al kwh to iden tify sign ificant ~
    areas rhar may he experiencing u loss of'biodivereuy Oee Ii
    the most use fu l me thods o f mnintainjug biodiversity that ~
    based on the use of remote se nsing derived vegetation dalJ6
    Gap Analysis .

    Biodi versi ty and Gap An alysi s

    t he rap id lo ss o f biol \lg ieal div ersity {biod iversit y] remaiI


    one Ill" ma nki nd's greatest threats. T he convemiOMi
    approach to mai nta llling biodivers ity generillly has bn ttl

    Ron

    pN
    \I ,

    'b \

    '"
    o
    r

    r
    I,

    c:

    "
    \

    397

    mote Sen sin g o f Ve getati on Ch ang e

    '"

    rms

    this

    <0'

    )at-

    ccd species b)' en dange red speci es and threat by threat.


    illiin the Unit ed Stores. the primary mean s o f stemm ing
    loss is the Endang e red Spec ies Act (E SAI. Some have
    , izcd the ESA for ...cvcrat reasons, incl ud ing a bac klog
    unaddressed pennons, fail ure to develop and implement
    ery plans in a timely fashion. and lack ofedequa te
    eg to meet objectives. A prim ary ca use o f these probis that the Ac t focuses on individual species. Effort
    dcd on this. ... pccics-by-spccies approach is inefficient.
    sivc. and b iased toward charismatic mt'gdfwflllI hallbroad public a ppeal
    a cute an imal is more likely to
    prol~ too than a not-so-cute ani ma l I. Last -min ute protecefforts also contribut e to economic conflict becau se
    fail to pro vide a reasonable planning fram ew ork for
    ic inte rests (e.~.. be tween bi~l log: is1s and logg ing
    ies). Wh ile necessary. these effons need to be comnted with mo re proact ive met hods that attempt 10
    in speciers and eeu syste ms while the) are sti ll com(Edwardsct al.. 1995; Millington cr al., :!O(3).

    u.e.

    co.
    "d

    .ge

    approach lo r ass<:ssing the current status of biodi ve rsity

    scntcd in exist ing mana gement are as. It functions as a pre limin ary step 10 the more deta iled st ud ies need ed to establish
    ac tua l boundaries for po tential biodiversity management
    areas. Gap Analysi s, by focusin g on higher levels o f'biol og ical organizations. is likely to he less ex pens ive and mo re
    hkely III succee d than conservation pro gram s focus ed o n
    single species or po pulations {Sco n ct a l.. 19(3).
    On e of the lirst G ap Analy ses focused on enda nge red forest
    birds in Hawa ii (Sn 'U cr al.. 19 87). When compared w ith a
    ma p o fthe exist ing rese rves. -c 10 percent of the geographic
    ranges of endangered fore-st bi rds \\ eft' protected . i.e.. there
    were signific.a nt gaps in the exist ing biodi vers ily prut ect iun
    sc heme. Several areas wi th highl y endangered bird species
    richness have since bee n protected by the Nat ure Co nse rvancy a nd stale and federa l ag enc ies. Succ essful G ap Anal ysis has tak en place in man) locat ions. inclu di ng Haw aii,
    Ltah. Pue rto Rsco. and California. G ap A na ly.- sis is under
    way in many ot her states and cou ntries [Sa vitsk y, 1998 ).

    Rem ote Sen sing o f Veg et at ion Change

    elllevels, not just en dangered s pc-cics. is called Gal' ."'111/of

    '.
    m

    'y

    e-

    . As an evaluano n pr oc ess, it prov ides a systematic


    ch for dete rmin ing the protection a fford c-d bio logical
    ,mity in g iven are as . lis fund amentals arc prese nted here
    use- it is heavily based on the use of remote sensing and
    graphic infor mat ion ~)st..ms (G IS) to idcnnfy gaps in
    iu'rsity prote ction that IllJ) he filled h) the est ablishI (If new preserves or c hang es in land-use practice-s
    netal..19l}J; b lward s ct al. .1 99 51.

    )e

    ,d

    o.

    !)'!lical Oap An alys ts inclu des the crea uon and anal ys is of
    primary G IS layers:

    ,d
    the distribution o f act ua l vegeta tion-cov er types
    deli neated from sa te llite and a ircr;l!\ remotely se nsed datu
    mdancillary in Ionmnion:

    "n

    Ana lyzing a n ind ividua l date o f remote sensor da ta to e xtract


    me an ingf ul vegetation bioph ys ica l information is o ften or
    value. 1I,1We\ Cr. to apprecia te the dy namics of the ecosystem. it is necessary to mo nitor the vege ta tion through time
    and det er m ine what changes in succ c -oion are tak ing: place .
    Rela tively h igh tempo ral res olution satellite data is o ften of
    value when conducting suc h successiona l studies. Th e follu wing case stud y docu ments the usl'!oll1l:s, o f S POT
    remote sens or d.ua and the methods used to monitor wetland
    c hange in ;I freshwa ter reservoi r.

    Remote Sensing Inland Wetland Successional


    Changes

    ' land 01'. ncrship :

    .r
    s

    and-manag ement status;


    distribution o f terrestr ial verteb rates a s predicted fro m the
    distrihution ctvegemnon a nd if! situ ob servatio ns.
    Analys is provi des an o vervie w o f the d istri bution and
    of seve ra l co mpone nts of biodiv ers uy, II use-s
    distribut ion oractual \ egctation type s an d terrestrial vcrte and. whe n av aila ble , invertebrate taxa as indic ators
    ates j for biodivers uy, Digital ma p po lygon overlay's
    .G IS an: used 10 ide ntiry indiv idu al speci es. speciers-rich
    . and cover tylXs that arc unre presented o r under-rep resetv arion

    Inland wetland s assi mil ate pollutaurs, cont rol floods, and
    ser ve as breedin g, nu rsery , an d feedi ng g round s lo r fi sh and
    w ild life . Unfo rtuna te ly. the conterminous Un ited States lost
    53 per cent of its we tlands tu agr icu ltura l. resident ia l. and.o r
    co mme rcial land usc from the 17Xlh to 19ROs. Accu rate and
    timely in formunon un .... ctla nd dist r ibutio n is essen tial for
    effect ive protectio n and ma nagement. T his case study docu ment s the use of m ulup le-season a nd mult iple-yea r SPOT
    sate llite multispectra l data for mon itor ing inla nd wetl and
    successional changes in Par Pond on the Sava nna h River
    Site. Sc. ca u.se-d by the d raw-do .... n o f the reservoir 's water
    leve l from J une 19'11 thro ugh Oc tob er 199-1 (Je nse n ct al.,

    398

    J'1'1 7) . The ~ lll Lly brings to hear man y ofrhc considerations


    d iscu ssed ill this ch apter.

    C H.\ V I t :K

    11
    ('~ l' l ~

    1'1I" uul"t:: i,'al

    ,,( Ca ll1li l ~ and WlI lcrlilk, in I'ar Pllnd.~'

    Ca ttails arc green with fullcanopy

    Par Pund Rht'r\t1ir .stud~' Area


    Par Po nd is a 10 12-ha reservoir orig ina lly crea ted in 195 t! to
    rece ive reacto r cool ing wate r. but now rece ives no w.
    through wurcr from 1111: Savannah River. Par Pond has a stable. pred ictabl e cattai l and wmerlily ma rrophyte co mmunity
    when wate r le vels tl uctua te < I m per yea r.
    App roximately 30 macrophyte plant spec ies an: found in Par
    Pond . bUI o nly a lc" dom inate :
    Cnnmls ( Typha spp. ) aTC persistent emergent mac rophytes
    thai exist year-rou nd in Par Pond. They begin to " gree n
    up" in ca rly to mid -April and oft en form a de nse. green
    canopy by late \by. as doc ume nted in the phen ological
    calendar sho wn in Figure 1I'::!8. Ca tta ils scn cscc in late
    Sep tember or early October, remain ing brown thro ughou t
    the w inter mo nths . Canails are normally found in shallow
    \.\, mer < I m in J':IHh adjaccrn to the rese rvoir shoreli ne.
    watcrhhes l .\)'ml >h<ll?fl od" "olo l are dominant tloaring
    macrop hytes Ihal do not pe rsist thro ugh the w imer ( Figure
    11-2 8) . They appear at the o uter ed ge o f the ca nails fly late
    A pril or early May and reac h full grow th cix 10 eigfu
    wc:cks later. Waterl ily be ds expand into the ope n-water
    areas of the re servoir through September and typ ica lly
    extend 10 dep th s of 2 - 5 m. T he hc:d" pers ist until mid October 10 mid -November and then disappear.
    Before June. lIN I, the wa ter level o f Par Po nd \\ as rcl at i\ e1 ~
    stable at 200 ft above mean sea leve l (ms l). tluctuaun g <
    0 .15 m in most ~ cars . Extensive bed s of cattails and wa rerlilics from 20 - 15U rn in wid th ex ten ded out into the lake .
    Fro m June 23. 109 1. throug h September 15, 1991 , the wate r
    level Ill' Par Pond wa s low ered to IXI II above msl fo r reservoir repair. Th e 19 It ta ppro xima tely b mj d ro p in .... ater level
    turn ed a submerged zone a long th e sho reline abo ut 50 - 25 f1
    ill in w id th into upland. This exposed the em ergent and non em erge nt aquatic rnacrophvrc bed s (,I' the Par Pond shoreli ne
    to drying. co nditions lor abo ut four years, until the wa ter
    level was wised 10 100 tt once ag a in in 19',15.

    R.

    Re mo te Sensing of VegetatlOll

    r-l"~ Calt,ulsa:\:

    !
    C' alt a i l~

    arc

    brown

    '

    Waterfihcs arc

    green with full canopy \

    bl\l\' n

    \, ,

    "

    Figu re 11-28 Annual phenological cycle of inland "'~lland ~


    Llih and wah:rlilks in Par rund 0 11 lh~ Sanlla
    River Site in South Carolina. Cattails m ~
    emergent marsh \ egetalion that green up CIfk
    than warcrhlies in late :\larch and ...ady Apnl T'i/I
    begm scncecing in late October and hr dormD
    over the "inter, Wat... rlU ics disappcar cuml'letcl) bl
    November each year and reappear in late Apr.L
    n ulh cattail and waterlily have a full, ,knse ~
    througboen the summer months.

    SI'Ol HltV images used to doc umentthe . cgo:lao


    tion succcs..ion ofPar Pond.

    Table t 1-6.

    Date

    S POT
    Oal a Type

    Refenlnce Cotot
    Inlrared Aerial
    Photog raphy

    HRV- XS

    January J I. 19'12

    May 5.1 ')')2

    HRV XS

    ~l <l Y

    October 13, 19<)2

    lI RV XS

    August 10. 19'12

    :\13) 1O.loNJ

    HRV- XS

    April 23. 1<J'I3

    October 28, IIN3

    I:IRV,XS

    January 22. 1m

    April 2, 1Q'14

    HIW-XS

    April

    October 25, 1<1',1"-

    HRV- XS

    M arch 14,

    19'J ~

    2. 1<)')2

    t ~,

    1'1'14

    Remnte Se n\u r- Oata


    Sun ang le and seas ona l soi l mo isture (Je nse n et at.,
    Seven S POT multispec tra l (XS ) images acqu ired in the
    spring and fall o f 1992, 1993, a nd 199 4 were analyzed
    (Tabl e 11-6 ). Nc ar-ann iversary dales were selecte d when ever p ossible to minimize c hanges in reflect ance caused by

    I99S ~

    Co lor-infrared aeria l phot ography was also available fOf~


    expe riment. SPO T image-to- map recuflcauon was based ee
    the lise o f approximately 50 ground-con trol po ints per d:ltc
    and nearest-ne ighbor rcs ampling III 11 Un iversal Transverse
    Mercator projection. Tota l geometric roru-rucan-squae-

    ,n

    te Sensing of veqe tetrcn Change

    ~d .SC

    399

    '0 , - - - - - - - ---------c

    Irtetal iun x ucce....iun

    on Par Pond

    ,,

    ,,
    ,
    ,,
    ,

    . ." _

    - - Old f ielel
    1'" ,,,
    _. ..... Ib. hlwood

    Wal ~ r

    IHZ'f/?'~ Ikad \ 'q

    Old Fid d

    Sr ,kcnI,h

    Pinc
    Hanlv.o.>d

    11>1 < SoI l

    ,,
    I cal-

    ,
    ,,'
    -., ,

    "

    :t m ah

    en t
    jrhe r

    1l1Cy
    t m nl

    b,
    Til.
    .~,

    " I"cd

    ;;pe 11-29

    "e

    ~
    "e

    II

    ~b5

    3 11

    ~ 1~

    Days since

    a.

    f, ~ 7

    (,/~ 3 '<) I

    ~ ~~

    Hll4

    1120

    Dr:lw-dul'o II

    b.

    3 ' Pcrspcx-tivc \ ic.... o fthe percentage oflarul cover in Par Pond from March 14. 1l)<J2. through Octobe r 25, ['N.j. derived Irum
    "na l y ~ i ~ o f se ven .laic's n f S I>( IT H RV XS data . Exte nsive a rca~ o f d.:;,o<,\ \ C~':(;Jt il" 1 \\ .:r" pr( S<'O! in ",arly 11,1'1 2. 'pile-rush do minated in late 199 2 and ear ly IIN) . Ol d ti... ld natural S\)l'Ce-sj, ,,, dominated in lOll ... 1Q93 and thwu ghoul 1994. Pme and hard.... ood seed hngs were colo nizmg ex tensiv ely by October 25. 1'1'14. h I The percen t land cover of ~rikcnl ~h , 01,1 field , and pine '
    hardw ood vcgctauon e n draw -dow n areas of Par Pond from Ju ne 23. 1'NI , lhrl'l lgh Ocsobcr ~5 , 1'1'14, <Ire presented as raw
    data and mode led ... ith the usc o ffi fth-orde r polynomial cquauons {Je nsen L"I al.. 1'1'171.

    (R\ ISE ) was !. 0.5 pixel (:t. 20 m) for each date of


    gcry. All terrain > l OU ft abov e mst was masked OUI of
    study area.
    ::e C lassifica lion a nd C h a n~e Derectlu n

    'ift: spec trally unique clusters were extrac ted from each
    of imager)' usi ng an lmcracuv e Self O'1!ani7ing Data
    lysis Techniq ue - ISOD:\TA (re fer 10 Jensen. 2lKJ5).
    clusters were labe led to produce sew n land-cove r maps
    cvcrull accu racy lor two of the classiflcanon maps
    reer 2S. llNJ . and A pril 2. 1994 ) was 75,6 percen t and
    - .9 perce nt. respectively. This level of ,tCCUr:lC)' i.'i abou t
    I ls expected from simple three-baud 2n x 20 m SPOT
    I_reclra l data [Je nsen l'l al., 199 5).
    goal of this study ..... as to document the ecological
    ge in vegetat ion co ver in the draw-down area, using.
    Iple J aIl' S of remote se nsor data. This required the usc of
    rnangc,(kleClion algorithm that provided "from-to" map
    non, i.e.. a 20 x 20 m pixel of Dead Vegetation in
    2changed into a pixel ofSp ikcruch by IQ9:\. Twen ty-one
    ge detection map s were produced and may be seen in
    >tn at ai, (1 l)lJ7).

    Rou lh

    The percentage of lend-cove r in each category on each date


    fro m .\1arch 14, IW2,Ihwugh October 25, I()l)4, for the Par
    Pond srudy area arc grap hed in Figure 11 293. Th is mfo rmanon documen ts the lo ur year \ cgctation succe ssion trend s on
    the Par Pond e xposed sho reline, On .\l arch 14. 1991. Dead
    Vcgctano n occ upied ap pro ximately 35 .4S percent of the
    study area. The catta il and warcrfily aquatic macrophytes d id
    net survive the draw-dow n. Atso prese nt were 7.46 percent
    Rare So il and 8.74 percent ea rly invas ion by Spikerush. As
    nme p,b'>l'O, the Dead \ 'cgcla ti,)n areas were co lonized by
    other specie s. By October 25, 19(,14 , no Dead Vegetat ion was
    prese nt ,

    Two maJ' lr types of' succevsional de velopmenttook place on


    the Dead Vcgel;ltion and Hare Suil d raw-down arcus. FiNI,
    there .... as a sig nificant inc rease in Spikc rush in 1'192. H)'
    \lay 5, 1992, Spi k em ~h occupied 20,2X percen t of the slUd~
    area. As the so il dried out ill su bseq uent years. Spikerush
    cov erage declined In about 10.75 po.'rcent by October 25,
    199 4 .

    Spikeru...h a nd Bare Soil were succeeded primarily by O ld


    Fid d spl"l.:ics as t'.\p.."lIt'J. and at a Vl' I')' rap id r:ltc". Thl' most

    11

    400

    dramat ic increase was fro m May 10, 1993 to Octobe r 2l(


    1993, which sa"" O ld Field land cove r im::rC3SC from almost
    nothing 10 25.62 perce nt of the study area. Pine/Hardwood
    seedling cove rage also increased steadi ly from almost no
    cover in 1992 to 10.25 perce nt by Oct ober 25. IQQ4 . Irthe
    draw- down areas were unmoles ted to r approx imately 75
    years. oollh id.ory climax vegetatio n w ould be prese nt in a ll
    the draw-do.... n a reas.
    Using the laud-co ve r statis tics de rived from multiple-date
    remote sensor data. it was possib le to develop predict ive
    successiona l moods tor eac h of the land-cov er vegetation
    types in the dra w-down a rea. For exam ple. Figure 11-29b
    ..jepic ts the act ual and pred icted pc.-rt"cnt of the scene occupied by Spi ke-rush at different dates since the initiation o f
    draw-dow n on June: 23. 199 1. The Spikerush success ion was
    mod eled us ing a fift h-orde r polyno mial \\ here
    %Spikc rush '" -0.0 12\)x ~

    -t

    0.-\0 I Hx 4 H19H9x1 + 1 5 .3 H3x ~ .

    14.-125x.
    w ith R ~ = 0.992 . U ~ i n g this equ at ion it was possible to pred ict the pe rcent of Spikc rus h thai wou ld be presen t at U'K'rspecified dates after a se rious reservoir draw- dow n. Similarly, O ld Field and Pine/Hard wood land-c over succ ess ion
    were modeled using the equa tions

    %0 ](1 Ficld -0.1>4 1hX ~

    -t

    0.6421 x4 - 3.060-1.\1

    5. 1495x2

    2.32 75.\, and


    % Pine ,Hard wlXl(j .. O.OO76 2x s - O. 15 4 3 x~ ~ 1.097h J
    2 .9 5 39 x ~ -+ 2.4909,. .

    The: pol ynom ial mood for O ld Field ( R2 = 0.89 ) d id not


    e xpla in the successi on as well as the Pine,'Hardwood predictive model (I~ 2 = 0.1)4). The fi rst de rivat ive ofrhese mode ls
    ca n be used til predic t the rate-of-change {gradient) in perce tu o f land co ver on .. speci fic day since draw -down.
    The ana lysis of the land-c ov er a nd change-detection map s
    derived from satellit e remot e sensor data q uamu auvely doc u men ted 1) the spatia l dis trib utio n of the ..ucccssiona l
    cha nges in land co ve r, a nd 1 ) the rare o f successional change
    in Par Pond ca used by the dr aw-down .
    Numerous stare an d govemmcm agencies recognize the
    importance of ulihz ing remote se nsor data for mo nitor ing
    thei r sensi uve vegetation resources. For ex ample. the first
    comprehcn s ive inventory of the vegetation at the plant community le\'el of Ihe Everg ladl'S in Florida was co mpleted
    using a co mbination of ~t ellile i ma ger~y, aeri al phol<,grap hy,
    G PS. and G IS ll'Chnoltlg ies I Doren et al.. 1999 ).

    Remote Sensing of VegetatiOn

    Remote Sensing South African Agriculture

    Many coun tries usc remote sensing to obtain cnucal


    physica l information to help protect its citizens from
    du ring ... ustai ned drough t. For exam ple . the Republ",
    Suu th A fri ca Department of Water Aff airs & F~
    mandated by the Somn African Nouonat woter ..k l (1m
    ob tain inform ation on the sp atial d istribut ion oral! agr:~'"
    turc tha t uses water each year. All agricultural water ~
    must become "re gistered water lIS I:I1' '' in order tn kgall)1J!i
    liz c the nauon's ...carce water resources. The DWAf
    respo nsible for conducti ng the water usc accounting lIld!
    the w ater Auth orizat io n and Resource Mana gement 5)!tCI
    ( WAR.\1S) spatial dec isio n support syste m. Remote semiIt
    is on e of the primary method .. used 10obtain the agri
    wa te r u...e into rmauo n. A f' AS A. ... ponso rcd snrdy ass~
    the DWAF to de cclop remote sensing-assist ed t~'Chniqll.~
    obtain the nece ssar y agricultu ral water use intomuri
    [ Jensen \' 1 al.. 200n ).
    Si udy :\na
    Th e siudy was con d ucted in Water Ma na gemem Area ~
    Usuru and Mh lathu zc River cat chments (F igure ll JCl
    The area co ntai ns natu ra l vegetation co nsisting uf forest .
    sc rub-s hrub (bushvehh, non- irr igated dry land fanning. aDd
    irrigated agr iculture c'lllsi sling primari ly o f sugarcane lid
    citrus . SI'( jl" remote sensor data a nd ill .\' ;111 ground rcferm:e
    mformarion wen.. used to train a nd e 1a~s ify the imagL'l)'mw
    agricuhu ral land-c o vct classes.

    Many o f the agricu ltura l fields in the U.n l i ll and Hhl<lllna


    River water 'vla nagc ruent Area arc < 100 ha . Therefore.a
    was necessary to use remote sensing imagery with a Sp.ltial
    resolution o f < 30 x JIl m to idl'11l ily the c rop type lI'ithii
    such small fields. Sensors like MODIS (NAS Al. MERIS
    (Europe....n Space Agency] and ,W IIRR ('l'OAA) \\ ere of.
    value d ue to the ir coa rse spatia l reso lutions t e.g.. 250 m. 301
    m. and 1100 m. res pectively). After analy zing cro p calnJdlr
    info rmat ion. DWA I' obt a ined the lo llowing remote ie!OO"
    data :
    SPOT 5 1Iigh Resolution Visihle Infrared (HRVIR)
    imagery ob ta ined on January \). 2(H14 1multispectral ha~
    1-4 ar l Ox 10 Ill : panc hrom at ic band 5 at 5 x 5 m].
    A S~ H image o f the "tud)' area is ~how n in Fig ure 11 3lll
    .-\ S POT C\llo r ..:ompos ile is sho\\ n in Co lor Plate 11-6a.

    Re

    Ta

    nces

    11-7.

    .f

    Citru s

    Forest

    Bushveld

    I :!(.I

    161

    744

    F~...

    13

    Bushveld

    "

    ..

    )ugatCanc
    0

    Ubjcct-oncr ncd inmg:.: !>\:~lnent;<tion c1 a~sj li' ati\ln o f $POT


    o f an nrca in the Rep ublic ofSou th Atnca

    Sugar
    ca ne

    Class
    I

    401

    ,
    87

    13

    Rood

    g
    .1

    lI'ater

    Fallol"

    1J411

    .'1 " 2

    10 1

    93.55

    M. 31

    1I1'>.14

    II lndbreak

    .....

    '_0
    1&1

    "

    Producer's
    AccufaC)"

    d
    d

    {hl'rllil

    ( OlflT,fi('nt

    Wat er

    44

    133 5

    '14. 4(,

    <,1).8':

    140

    h:! .14

    '"

    55.11.1

    57

    7R.<,1j

    ",

    <)5.M

    4"

    7'1.5<,1

    30

    44

    XIX~

    sh.'l7

    ,
    ,
    ,

    ,
    0

    User's
    Ac cu..
    racy

    Fall ow

    ,"

    4S

    Ba na n a

    Row
    Tota l

    Wind..
    bre ak

    10

    00

    ev

    103

    '0

    5(1

    "

    so

    ....

    26l':2

    7'l h l

    -o

    "

    72.22

    '1.'.750

    IN .-l%

    83. 7 ~.

    I.S itu (;rnund Reference n a ta

    muh ispo.:dral ttn x 10 m ) and panchromati c (5 x 5 ml daw

    ,trrurIlC ~'

    li.appll

    S2

    "

    25

    Ro a d

    ~(l()..j

    D\\AF obt a ined in .Ii/ll grou nd reference info rmation 011 the
    l!'fI': of agricu lture present in 261Q fields in the stud y area .
    ~ centroids (I t" many of the fields arc ove rlaid Oil I: I 0,000
    irgcscak ort hop hotography in Fig ure 11-30 b,

    The SPOT data were su bjected to an object-oriented image

    Color Plate I IMt . The overall accuracy was ~N .4 perce nt


    w ith a Kap pa cccfficicm of agrccn wru of ~3 . 7 (Table 11..7).
    Th e use r's ,l<;curnc) tin sugarc ane and citrus \\Il'f\'l)4.4 b percern and 'l J.i'Q percent. rc~ rccl i\ cl )i whi le the producer's
    uccuracics were 93,55 percent and 86.3 I percent. respective ly. This lyp..' of ag ricu ltural land co ver infumuuion is
    uscd hy the Republic of Su uth .Africa Department of Water
    A ITairs & Forestry a !> input to the Watcr A urhor izruion an d
    Reso urce \-la na g,,'mcnt System (Wt\ R\1SI spatia l decis io n
    support s)sl<:m tcourte, Jensen cr a l.. 20061 .

    ~tat ion

    classification that takes into accoun t both the


    and spatial information inherent in the SPOT da ta
    refe r 10 Jen sen. 20115. for information about obj ec rltTlh.:d image ~eg m e n l 'l lio n).
    ~lrJI

    Referen ces

    t.

    A. t\ .. tlopul. s . anJ A .II . Slrah k r. 1')L}Il, rnrwanl


    and Rever-ie Modeling ofCanopy I )lrccli" n31 Reflectance Us..
    Ing a J\ ...ural f\ ..\" urli. .. H",.",I.: <;,-11\/"1{ or /:.'", ',n""',,,nf_
    S'IAS; CT

    A hudgJ~jm .

    !he objcct-o ricruc d !>egmentat ion classi fica uon us ing both
    SfQT 2004 m ultisp ec tra l radia nce 110 x 10 m l and pench ro..
    ic (5 )( 5 III1data) ield cd the clasvificarion ma p show 11 ill

    402

    {I! .... PH.H

    11

    Rem ote Sen sing of Vegetalion

    R.

    SPOT Data of the Mh lathuze River in So ut h Afr-ica

    a. Part o f Water Management Area #0: Usu tu and Mhlath uvc River catc hmen ts
    recorded on SPOT 5 red band imagery collected on January 9. 2004.

    b. Ground reference points overlaid on onho photography


    Figure 11-30 al ~ I'O I tlRVIR image l,f an area along the Mhldlhu/ l: River in the Republic .. t ~'lll i h Africa. 0) A portion or the :?b~1 fiddI
    used IV assess the agr jcuhu ralland CO\ cr classi fication accuracy em: overlaid t il l I :IO.OOl)..scak orthopb otographv IJ~
    al.. 200fll.

    I
    403

    eierenees

    eyo-Moy u, J. 1'. Sa uchcz-Avofcifa. (j. A.. Rivard . B.. Calve,


    J. C. and O. I J, Jan ze n. ~OOS. "Dyna mic s in Landsca pe Struc1m': and Compovirion tor Ch omlega RCgHln. Costa Rica from
    1%0 to ::!1I0U:" Agr,..,/lwr<!'. fn,.,ult'm, 'IIIJ Em"It",,,,,,'''I,

    106D -J9.
    :li. G. V. ami J. u Rok ne. 2UllS. - A l'rac uca ! Approach
    {or Estimating tho; Red Edge Posiuon of Pla ut Leaf Rcflcctina. - ",,1. J"lIrn,,! nl Hl'molt' 'ii,'mi"g. ~N ,\1:503-521.

    Clar k. R. '\I . King. r . V....\ gc r.l'. and (l A. Scuvzc. 1")'}5. " Iniria l Vegetation Spec ies and Scne~cc ncciS lr.ss Indic ator Mappm g m the Sa n Luis Valley. CO . Us m~ Imaging Sp cctr omcter
    Da ta." /,,,,,.,dill!!..,. Sununitvitle Foru m; II. 1'0 ' 9 . J. Pcudc tton. a nd D. Van Iyl, II .d,.), Colorado C.eo logk:ll SlJr\'C~ PuhIiCIIlio n I'l l<. n4-1>'.I; hup :/, ~1'<'C 'a b.er. usgs.Bu' .
    Clark. R. :\.. S wa F~'. (i A .. wise. R.. Livo. K. E.. Hcc fc n. T.
    \ 1.. Kok aly . R .. and S. J. SUlky, 2Ull.1. USGS VI~il<l' Spt'clmll.ihrary ,' pl ihlJ5<1, U~ (jS Open fi le I{c lJ'Vrt 03-J'I5.

    i. G.. S and (i \k"cy. I'lM( M\1.:a<u ri ng: the Col .... o r GrowTurf .. iIh a Re fle cta nc e xpcctmphotometer." Al,:'rr",,,",\"
    Joflma/. f>O:o.:o-b-l3.
    lllg

    Wj?e>n. P. S. a nd \ l . E. Jen':'n. ] tN .\ . -,\n Overview o f 1:1.'0-

    0<:\1.'1'1. J. ( i. I ~, -Imaglllg ~ll<"lmm('11') in Agricufrure: Plant


    \"iu lit)' and Yield Indicators." IIIHill. J. and J. \ k gi..-r 11:<6. 1./",aging ,V"-c-m",..-!ry I Ti.,,! 1''' t:""i"",,,,nu'l/ Oh"T\"<I/i,,,,-,.
    Doedrecht. Sct herlands: "'I ll" " A\at!<'rmc. 1'(\-11 <I

    k:>giC1lI Principles for ECOS)SII:m \ 1.ma!!.:mcnt.- in Jensen. \1 .

    r,.......,'

    :md P. Bourgcron tEds.). ,,'''u/.'


    E"'HY""m /I...lth
    h<t':'.m,,'nl. \ '0 1. II. E, ..".nIUff M""<lX..m c'nt: Principle. am/

    ,4ppllC'alicJ/l,'. \ lIM.oul .. : U:,l> \

    I'orc~l Sef\l ~e.N -M).

    . '" H. and E. Leblanc. 2UIMI. "Comr;lrinll Pr t'di cti,m Power


    IIlds.tabl lit) ur Broadban d and Ilypo: rspcc tral \ .... geLlti\lll Indin."
    rc. Estimation of Green L ear Area Ind." .md C31l('f'~' Chl"n..
    pbyll Ik n, i, y.- Remo'e .'W.-""",!! of t'-m'I'''''''''''''' 7ft: I ;1>-172.
    Iller. Ci ,\ .. l'lq I, " rrimar~ and Sc:~\,udal) Err.... cts of the Wate r
    (omcm on lhc Spect rat 1{000110:0elanee o f Leav es." .~",e"i'll"
    }"urt/<1l ot Bolall l'. 7XI 7 J:'/16 - '/ 24.

    (a ner. G. A .. I'N .1. " I{l",p" nso:olo of L.. af S pectral Reflecta nce III
    Plant SIre"." ' '''' '''it '<l11J mmwl ,,1 11"/<111 1'. 1101J ):~J 10-243.

    un.. . r. <i

    A., (' ihul a. W. (i an d I{ , I.. Milk r, 1<1'11" "Na rrowband Rcflcctun cc huegcry Cu mpa rc:d wuh Thermal Illla!!ery
    for Ea rlv Detec tion "I' 1' l,lIlt Str t's, ," .10111"11'11 0/ 1'1",,, "".ni"l .
    ul{l'.1 4 1l :SI :'i - ; 22 ,

    Cohen. \\'. B . l'Wl, "RCSp<ffiSC nf Vq!,'lJ li"n Indices tn Cha ng_

    es In Three vtcasures of teal' Wa t ~'r


    EII}!III<:~r/ll!!. J: R,'m,,'~' S",,-,UI/!.

    :-'lrC"".~ "h(lI(J~m",m,'f,.i("

    5712 I: 1" 5 21l2.

    Collin... W.. 1<1 7 10:. "R e mote ".'us ing nfCrnp Type and \ la turiI~ . - PhtJl<J~r<1IU"',-/,-" E".-.:.m,<"r"'''- .{ R. '1Jl"',' S~'I/.,i,,~. 4 J -55.
    COI" mN'_ R.. Bellm ge n. D.. Fasoluu. n and l". \1. Manoo. 2HtlJ,
    " Relne,oI] of Leaf Area lndc x in UilTo:rent \ c l!O:lalion T~ pcs L'sing I' ig h R ~'""hll i"n Satelluc [l ata: ' RC'mo/<- ....mlllg "IE/win",-

    II"''''.!'in: 12u- 1.11 .

    Crist. F. 1'.. I " ,"I~_ MA Tbcm.nic \h pp cr Tas seled C ap Eq uiv ale nt


    for Retlecran ce F;tClnr Oa l;' : ' R.-lImt~' SCII'HIj! ,,' 1;IIl"/mll m"ll/ , 17:J( Jf - J O/>.
    ln s!. E, P. and R, (". Cirone. I'I H4, " Alll' lir<Hi,' n ofth... Ta..sel...d
    Cal' ("" lllo:!,t tll Shuul.ncd Tucnunic Mappe r Dala: ','I",t"!!.r",,,
    111<'/1";" Fug m ,'ailr/!. ,I,' R.',., ot" Scm'mg . ~ U:J4J- J52.
    Crist. E, P. aru l It J. Kuutb. I'JHI>. "The Tasseled

    ~1 .

    and T. A , Black. 1'1'12 , " Den ning Le af ..\ rea lnd.... x


    for Non-fhu t.eaves." 1'1<1111. ('<,! f ,m" "'-""irnnmellf, 1;:42 1-

    (Mn, T.

    Ikd ,"

    Pho togr'IIl/llh '!ri<' F llglII" "I"mJ; .(-

    ('ill' ])e-l11y~li

    H,'mol.'

    5;" II.'i llg.

    52 t l ):Xl-l<t> .

    U~ ,

    ~'l.J.

    M.. Pavhc . Ii. Hm ..... n. L.. L'thlar. L I chl ane.:-' . U . Whil....


    II. P. lI all. R. J. l'cddk D, R.. Kiug. U. L rro rylllo" . J. A .
    S" ift. E.. Van d.'r Sandc n. J.. and r. K. '.... Ilil ka. ':W02. " [krivation and Vali dathm nf( an ada-wid.' ( 'o ursc-rl'S'Jl ull.lrl Lca f A r...a
    loon \, ,,p:. U~ing Illgll-rc,olutiul1Salclli le Imagery anti (jrvu nd
    ' lea.;uremcnls: Ro",,!. S"'",i,,~ "/I.";n",,,,,,'II. ~O: I ft ~ 1R4.

    Dan, on . F. \1 , 1' 1'll<. " Tcaclnng the Phyvica l Pnn cipics of Vegl"latu m Cannpy I{dl cela n.c Us inl! th. SAIL ,\1n l1 e l: ' }'/W!Og m mm..tri,' t: lIg lll" " r i ll/! J: H,'11ml<' S"II,' III/!, 6 4( ~ ) : 110 I CJ III 2.

    lh ugh lry. ( . s, r.. Wa llhilii. C. L . Kirn. \.1. S.. Hro" " dl" ( 'u1>roo n.
    E. 'ill<.l J. E. \ k \ l unr cy Ill . :!IlOll, "E~lillla ling Corn LcafCh lorophy ll r nnccnt.... li"n fn>m I c,tf and Ca n" p) Rcllo:<:lall\-,\,: ' R~'_
    ' I/I.tt! Semi,,/!. Of t:",inmmt'lt/. 74:12~2J<I.

    ~u!a.

    \Ii. <.i a nd ( i A. ("J rL er. 19')2. " Idcntifica lion o f a Fa r-

    Red Rdlcdann' Rc spunsc 1<> t.."c-Iom.'....'rr},i:.l(' in Slash P inc-. ~


    {1r/emal"",,,1 J"ur",,1 .. rR"",ol" S,,".dIlK. ' .11; l:<l2~-<I J 2.

    [)a" S('ln. T. P. and P. J Curran. l'1'I X. -.J\ !\ c w Tec hniqu e' f'lr Inler[llliali ng Ihe Re t]cela J1e. Rcd Itigc P.....\lnn: /1IIt'nlafmn,,1J, ,,,r1/<1/ vi R,'/tICJI.' S.-"WI/!, I ~ I ' I: ~ I B

    :! lJ').

    C1I W Tt-:H

    404

    Deering, D. W.. I{<lu sc. J. W. Haa s. R.I I. and J. A. Schell. 1975.


    "Meas urmg Pot age Prod uction of Cira li ng Un its from Landsal
    MSS Data." Pmn!'l'JInK.~. 10th lntl. Sympos ium on Re mer ...
    Se nsmg of En vironme nt, Ann Arbor: ER IM. 2: 1169 - 111K.

    11

    Rem o te Se n s ing of Vegetation

    Gausmann, II, W.. Allen. W. A . und J{, Ca rd enas , 1969, "R(~


    lance o f ('oll,m Leaves and the ir Str uct ure." R.'ml>/r
    '!/ fmmm ml'nI. I :110-22.
    Gi ldson. A. A., Ka ufm an. Y, J ~ Stark , R. .md D. Rundquist.

    Didan. K., 2n02 .\fOOIS ~ "JW"'/I"n Ind. ,x Prod"c tion ..flgorllhm.


    \ 10UlS \'~ctal lon Workshup. Missoula. MO. l uly 15-1 8: Tcrre-tria l Biop hysics and Re mote Sensin g .'.IO OIS Team. Tucson :
    Univ, of Ari Tool!. _-v..n l~g.uml.<'tlw' MOI) I SConfindc\.tllmJ.
    ~lrcn .

    R. F., Rutch...)'. R. ami R. Wckh. I'm , "The h ... rgjades:

    " ~o\'e l

    Aigmi lhm" for Remot e Esumation of VcgeuEioll flI

    non," R.w w l .' s..'I ISIIIK tJ{ IlII1V"m,'tII. !!0:76 S7.

    ( ioe l/, A f . H. l tN~. ~ I mag m !t Spcclrom.:lry for RcmOI


    ing : Vision to Rea lity in IS Years." Frocvedingi, SPI
    na tio na l Societ y f{lf Op lic al Engine... rs. 24 ~0: 12 pp.

    t\ PCI"\pliH' on [he Re qu ire ments and Application s for veg-

    e tanon 'lap and Da tab ase Products." ph ()fog r" mmcu "ie Eng l",('ring ,,11</ R.'m,," S.:n.mg. 65 (2): I55- 161 .

    t>u. Y. 1 cillcL

    P. .\1. and J. Cihlar. ~OO~. " Radiom etric Xcrmalization or \ lullitl' mporal ll igh' TewolUl ion Satellite Images with
    Qua lity Control for Land Cover Ch ange Detec non," ReR/me
    S,n.""K vi Em irw1tl 1<."t. H2;123-134.

    Edw ards, T. c.. ll omer. (' fL Ba ssett . S. C.. Falcon e r. ..\ .. Ramst y. R. U. and U. W Wight. 19"5. Utah Gap Analys i. : ,41/ Enr i n m m.' m ,,/ hlj"rm"'i,,n .\ n l.,,,,. Log an: L:lah Cooperative
    F i ~ h & Wildlife Research Urur. Mot pp.

    EPA Landscape r COI'Il;Y. 2(10(,. l.amlscape Er%K). Wash ingIon: En viro nrne neal Proiec rion Agcnc ). hup-Z'w w w.epa.g ov /
    ncrlcsd 1rland- sc i.dcfau It, hun.

    Goward. S. N.. Markham. n . Dye. D. n , Dulaney. \\. ..


    Yalll!, I'N I, " ~ omla li ud Difference Vegetation Indel
    sure mc nts from lhe Adva nced Ve ry High ReS<.' lulion
    el.:r. ~ Rc''''ol t!' Se't'i" l: ul E",'irwI",..,I/. 35:257 -:!77.

    G RSIJ. I tN~ , Phem ./t>J:ical C.,ftndan ul Se /t'cNJ C...'.


    Barbera: Geograp hy Remote Sern.illg Unit.
    G upta. R, K., ViJ3ylln. I) , and T. S . Prasad . 20u l . ~:-';ew H~~
    tral Ycg etanon Char acteriza tion Parameters ." . ~Jt',mc:t'S U! ~
    R" .'I<" I>1h. :!I\(I 1:2 0 1-:!06.
    Haack . B. and S . Jum pol cr. l <)<J~ . - A gric ul tu ra l CbSlifialllll
    Compansons Us ing Landsat Thcmanc \ la ppt."f Data." f1(
    J mmla l, 1 'W~(2):] 13-1 11'.

    Fara bee. M , J. 1'1'l7. Pho l" .fynl hf!',l i,l , hllp:lfge ncd .t mc.ma ricopa.ed urbio/b ic 1!!I!U IO IJKi ll iolJou l.. PS .hUll I

    lI alll:I.., B. and S , Jam pole r. 1INS. "C010u r Composite C~


    ",'I ns for A gr icu ltura l A sses sm.. nrs." lntl. Journ al of ReIJII'
    S,m IllK. t(,( 9 ) : I ~IHO-1 5 9 ~ .

    Fo rm an . R. I .. l'N~ . -S om e Ge ner a l Pr inciples o f Land sca pe

    Hardick y, M . A " Klc mas. V, and \1 . Smart. 1 9 ~ 3 . "Tile Infiue1lCf

    and Regiunal Ecology," Landscape Ecv!"XI', 10 (31: lJ 3-1 ~2 .


    Fro hn . R. C . I 'I<)I( H<'I11"' <' Sell-l' ing j i,r [.<l/ld' C<lI '" t:co(ogy.

    Boc a Ra rou: Lew is.

    l) <)

    of S" il Salinity, Grow th Form .t ll d Leaf Mo isture on theSf'


    tral Radian ce (,f Spartina Altcmif'lo ra Ca no pies," fh a'fIg_a"..
    melric !\nKI IW"I"I IiX ,\, Hemo'.' S"m'III!!. ~1J: 7 7-~ 3 .

    p.

    r rate s, D. M.. .I, J. Keegan. J, C . Schleter and Y. R. We id ne r,


    1'J()5, "S pccrrul Properties " I' Plants." Applied Opl in ,
    ~(l l : I1 - 2 0 .

    Hahoudan c. D.. Miller, .I, R" Trem bla y, N.. zarco- Tej ada.P j, .l:"~
    L Dextrave, 1002. "hncgratcd Narrow- ha nd Vegetation Indim

    for Predic tion o f Cr llp Clilowph yll Contcru for Applicatire ~


    R,'''''''CS,'n "-,,!! '!l f:nrinmm "m. xI:J I6-

    Pre ci sion Agricultu re."


    ~ 1 ('1 .

    Ga tvao . L. S.. Forrna gpic, A . R. and U. A. Tisol , 20 05. " Dbcr im ina t io n of Surface Variel ies in Southeaste rn Bra zil with
    EO- I H) penon Data." Ht'm ol e Sen'ln/( of [ n vi r</IJmt'lII.
    'J~ : 5 2 3 -S 3 4 .

    Ga o. R C. I' N n. -N U WI-A Normalized Differe nce Water Index for Re mote S"'ll~ing o f vc gctanon L i,!ui d WOller from
    Sp ace. R"""".' s. 'm;ng 01 f) ll'i n ",,,,.,'II. 51\:257 - 261''1 .

    Huang. C . Wylie , B.. Ynng, L., Horn e r, C . and (i l~ lSlra. :I;'


    "'n e rivalioll of a Tass eled Ca p T ransform ation bas.:d on LandlI

    7 at-satellite Refl ectance," 1."'- )mll"n<ll


    2.' 11< ); 17~ 1 174 :<

    'if R,'"'''''' St-1If14

    Huctc. A. R. l'l l<!l. - A Suil-adJlisI<...t Vegcta tio n lnde, {SA\1).- hmOl" ,"'-m i"R nl f m'm mm",u , 25 :2'l5 -31l'l .

    405

    ~rences

    ,A. R. and C Justice. I'I<N, \f() {JlS ' '''}:<,I ,J/It ''' I/ldt'x ,M OD
    131 A /~orilhm Tht't>rl.'liml 8uH~ D(>,,-,,",,'III. Gn.',:nhcll: :-.l ASA

    Goddard Space Flight Center. htlp:rm()d:lIl:h.~~ ti:, n3s3.gov/


    MOL>I S 'Li\ ~D lIn: gclatio n. ind k .:.., 12'1 p.

    A. R ~ Did an. K.. Miura. T.. Rndrigul'l . E. 1'" ( ;30. X. and (,


    Ferreira. ~OO1a. "UWr\lew of the Radi ometric and B i{'Ph y~ k al
    h!form:ull:e orue \ IOOlS Veg"l" ti"n lndices." R" m" lt' Srm ;" 1-:

    t/'fI";rnllm('7lf. 113 : 11,15-2 13.

    Je nsen. J. R. Coom bs. C . Po rte r, O. Jones. B.. Sc hill, S. a nJ D.


    While. I'NJoI. " Extraction o f Smo oth Fo rdg rass. I S,,<ln/no <11I('rn!f{nml B ioma ss and Leaf Ar e a Inde x Para mete rs from
    High R" w lu ti "u Im..gc ry," Ococarto 11I/4'n/uli"""/, 13(4 J: ~5 -

    ".

    Jensen . J . R.. Hua ng, X. and II . 1::.\l ack e) , 19'J7, - Rc moic Se nsing ot S ucccssiona l Cllang{'s in WeIland Vegeta tion as Mon itored ()urlllg a Four-Yea r Dra .... ,Ju.... n of a Former Coohng
    Lakc.- Appllo:J Gt'O~'<lI'JlI< SI"JIO:.' . 1111:31-44.

    . A_ R.. Didan. K, and Y. Yin. 2oo2h, .\fOOlS 1'-g_'It/fi,m


    I'tri.,"",",p. \1i~sou la. \-1 oTJfa na , Jill)' 15- lll ; Terres tria l Hil'(' hyso.md Rem" le Sensmg nURSI MODIS Team, L'ruvcrerty of
    Wooa. hu p:lfuL1m.gcophy's.ulah .cd ll!d,(lt,L,.lgg5~7 modi .. '",.I.
    IiIlmI.

    Jen sen. J. R. Ga rcia-Quijan u. M .. Had l... ~ . II. tm. J. Wa ng, L..


    Nel. A . L. . Tcrx erra. E. ;m d n A. Da<j",. :!006 , - Rc mole Sen..ing Agric ultu ral C rop Type for Sustainable Developmen t in
    South Arnca." (;"'>("'1"" 1m",.."",,,,,,,, .~ .l r,,(luli....iplillu0

    Juurnul 0/ Relllul"
    A. R. ll ua. Ci, Q i, .t.Cbehboeni J\. and W. l . Van Lccu .... ern.
    1'l92, "Normahza li..n of \ t ult idlT<'Cl ioo al Red and jvea r-intrared
    ldecum:es .... ilh the: SAVI.- R"fJ/<Jf': !Wlt>/I",! of Dll"IllIn",enl.
    .ltJ:1-20.

    . A. It. and 11.1). Liu. 1'1':/4. "An Errv r ant! S.:n~l tivlly Ana lof the Atnl(lspkri,' ami s..il(\lrrccl; n~ vanams "f lhe
    \0" [ fo r the MO DIS-H >S.' IFf.' " rrwI.>'I<" if>('~ ml ( ;",-,," '1.'11("<'
    .m Rem,,,., ,s.-" " "j!. 3~141:!I'n-9(J5 ,

    s.."UUlK

    "mJ GIS, 111 press.

    Je nsen. J. R. Rutc he y, K. , Koc h. ~ I , S , and S. Narumala ni, 1'N5.


    " Inland We tla nd Cha nge De tectio n in the Evc rg ]..d es Water
    Conservation Ar ... a 2A L:s;ng a Time Scric.. of Xo rm alized Remorely Sensed Dala : ' 1'lm/oK'amlll,,'r/, f:" J("'<'I!r illJ( 4<. Remote S.:m 1fIj!. (,II ~ l : I <r1..:!Q4J ,

    .m

    e.,"'. R., Liu. H Q.. Balchl[Y. K and \V. J. van Leeuwen. 1'1'17,

    Jensen, M . L a nd 1', S. Bourg...ron (I-.ds. l. 11,11,1 3. la'h ide F o rt'.'f


    E. VB}I ..." ""<llth . h ~,'-'-' ''' '''', \;'.1. ll. (,(>),.1"'" \f""t-l}:t-'m<,l1/: l 'rmd l' ln amI .'p" '''' al;,,'''. M i s~ul a , M T: L' S[)A
    Fore st Serv ice , P :,\\V-(ilI{3Ix.

    ".-4. Comparison o f Vcgcrauon Indices ( h er a Globa l Se r o f T \ t


    lmagc~ for

    [ OS MO OlS.- N" """,' SC" .'''};

    "I

    Environment,

    19440----451.
    l. E. R. Roc k, B, :-I. a nd P. S, l\ohcl. 1'111 7, " \lcasur<'mc nt
    of leaf Relativ e Wa ter L'outcnt hy lntrarcd Refl ecta nce." H...,11101,'

    kn sen, M. E. and R. Fvercn. 1'NJ , "An Over view {If Ecosystem


    Man agement Prurciplcs,' in Jcn~el1, :\1. E., and I', S. Bourg" ro n (G.Is.I. Emhi,k nl1"(~1 1-'."0.'.1'.11" 111 (I<o<1{l h A.I,..'.unr,/II.
    Vol. I I . J-.''''',>.I".,lclII ..\ (""ag"" ,,,m.' ""'-n.ip"',I' <1'1,1 Apl'licu l;om ,
    Missoula : lJS IM h'r..-sl Ser vin'. 7- l h.

    S,11.\ i lljl uf Environment, 22:421 0---435.

    kson. R, n., 1'/'< .\ "Sp,-,ct ra l Indices in n. Spact'. " H." II/" Io'
    S,' " ,illl-! "1l:.'nl'ir(lllJn<'IlI. 1J :40'! 421.
    son, M. \'v'. and J. R. Jensen, 20ll5, "A n Evalu ation o f n eacre Sensing-de rive d Laml scnpc Ecu luj() Metric s for Reser I'Olr Shere! inc En v ir"n m enta I Monito ring." PI",t"!:"", ,,,,, '/ri,'
    En~j",'e"!l,~ ,{ H...",<>I.' .\<,11.\ I!l,~. 71C 12 1: I ~ x 7 ~ 1.\'1 7.

    n. T. .t. Chell. n,. Cos h. M. I.i . 1'. An derson . M . Wa h hIII.C.. Donaswamy. 1'. an d E. I{. Hunt 2()(j4. "Vegetation water Ce me m Map ping usin g l.ands al Dat" de riv ed No rm.ihzcd
    Difference Water Ind e:>. for Corn and S(lyheans,~ Nt'''WI,'
    Smsin.l! nj EIIl';nmm"nI, 1,12 :4 75---4111 .

    , J. R..

    ~OO5 ,

    Rtonoft' S~n.<ing
    H~1. 325 p.

    In/rodrt" "ry Digll..1 Inl<J.~" I'rocc'" ing: A


    1','r,pe,'I""', L:ppcr Sa,ldle: Rl\\.'r: Prenl ice:-

    Jin. S. ;In(1 S , A S;uk r, 2005. "( 'um p;,ris"n otFirue Serie s 'Insscled Ca r \\ l' lness a nd the ,",ornlltli/ .:d t une r.... ne e \-l" isture
    InJ,,\ in D" l" ctin g F" resl Dis turbances ." N,'mol" S" /I,I'I1I1-: ,,/
    E/l\' /n ll/It/' ' IJ/, '1.1 :.1 (,4 - 372.
    Ju ne s. K . B.. Riu c rs. K. I I.. wickjuuu, 1. D , Tanker s ley. R. D.,
    ( ), :-.J eil l. R. V.. Ch; II\'"d. [) .I. S mirh. E, R, and 1\. C. Neale,
    I OJ'} !!. feuf,,),! waf " l ".,,'.~., ''''''If '11 /I,.. Lni,.," SI,l/e,l: .HidA I /lllI fit RI 'jl ;UII , Washin g lon: [1' ''\ . 1IJ.' p.

    Kamieli. A.. Keu tuurn, Y. J. Remer, L. <Ind A . Wald. 211C)]. "A FR]:
    Acrusol Free Vcgctauon InJn .- R,"'M. S"Il,ing
    II,,'m. 77:10 -21.

    ,if Em '/ron -

    Kau fman, Y. l . and D. Tanr c. l'ltJ2. "Aunosphcncally Rcs isl ant


    Vegetalinl1 [nd..., (A RV!) tor EOS_MO DIS:' IfEE TrUIl." " I/<Im

    UII

    Cie" ."I"" c" "",1 R"mole S"mi"jl. 30(2): 261-270.

    11

    406

    Kaufman. Y. J. Karmc h. A. ;nu l l L'I an rc. ~ I M IiJ. "Detection " f UlISI


    Over Deserts Us inlC S:1\0.:1I110: Oat;, in the S olar ....;H <: I<'I1gth, :
    f f f.}: Tran.., u-/;'", < (;"O"l'lf" I<"t' ,\, R,'",o", S"m mg, 3li:525- 53 1.

    Rem ot e Sensing of Vegetaticn

    M il/fa, l., Huc tc. ,\ . F. Yuslm'b. H. and H_N. Holben, ~OOI.


    Error and s... n~l t i \il y An,L1 ysis of Atm ospheri c R~",isW.l\ .
    tron Indice s Dcn ved no m Dar k Target-based '\ lmospbenc
    rccuon.. H..:" " ,I..: .k "' \ltlK ot E,wmmm, til. 71\:18 4- : 98.

    Ka uth. R. J a nd" S . Th.Hllas. 1<) 76. - ne Tasse led Ca p


    :\
    G raphi c ncscnpuon uf th e Spect ral-Temporal Develo pmen t
    of ' \ !lric liliura l ( ' w p s as Seen b} Landsat." PnK ..di" -.:_ "'a ch ine Proc c"'inl; "f Rem "lel) SCll>.eJ [l ata. WeM Lafay cuc:
    l.abomtnry for the Ap pli catio ns of Ke mo!e "ens ing. -l l _:"I .
    Kau th. R. J.. Lambcck, r I Ric ha rdson . W.. Thomas. G. S.md
    A. P. Pentl and . I ~7~. "Feature 1-:"11"3,:1 1011 App lied 10 :\ gn c ultural C rups as See n b> La nd sat." / 'nJ<-':<'dillJ!', L \CI E Sym(JOSlum. IIl.usb ''': :"lASA, 7115 7:! I.

    \k( i'1T1gal. K a n~l H J ' ta rh . 1'1'1-1. I-RAGSTtf 'fS: SI" JlIdi

    A/h,Il ..., I'ttn:' <lm,Ii" (I"''''I,~i -m,t: LJ Ild."<JIl<! Sln/('/UII',


    1. \\'lshi ngtoll l :Sll .\ rote,1 S...n-ice. 141 p.
    \ldian g..t1. K ... ' '-uslun an . S. A xcct. \ 1. C. and E.. Eoe. _
    r R.IGST Jr.-;. S/~l/i,,1 Pall,", A/I"~l.,;, Prugwm fo r C;

    If"" e,

    V<'!"'IOO I .

    uma"".cdu landcc,' rcscarchJfra~ulS. faq.'f r a;!Sl.1 l>_ f3q.}D.


    \l~ers.

    \ . I.. 1'170 . " "<>1 1.. WOl ler an d Plant Relation s." R

    Dau~h try. L ~ .. C happel l<-. L W. \ kMunrcy Ill. J. E.


    and C . l. Wahha11, )9<J..t "The Usc of Ilit:h Spectral R~"iOIU1ion
    Rands fOl' h llm alin!:t :\ h,;,lrt'o:d Pht){tl'i~ J1l hel lea ll~' Activ e Radr-

    $"'~" ":I:

    anon lA I':\IU: ,'f1Jf......,l i" j!., . 6 th S~ mfl<-'!>l Ul1l ..n Ph ), i.:O) \11:.1"
    ..urcmerus, and S ignOllun.~ in Remote Sensing, J anua~ 17-1 1.
    \ 'a l ln '-tTC'. Fra nce, 2'N _~ nf>.

    (" ~ c i ll . R.

    Kim. \1 .

    Kimes , n S .. 1 Q ll ~ . ~D~'na mICs olDirccnonal Re flec tance Fee..


    tor D,stn hullt>n s fo r Vege tauon ("an op ICs.- 4r p/i,(IOr ' in .

    12('1/:13M - 1j 71..

    Am h"'r<l: l 01 \ o f \1 :t.~<at'hu.....u ", bnp:

    ' 1'1 111 S,"""ldl R,I.n"~~ lu .l >:rI~'"IIUn: and f,


    " catk-Ill) of Sc i..ne e-s. 15 3-~"7

    \V3sh in ~l{ln . ~ al i.'n'll

    Y.. lI un" Ol cr. C. T.. k'n c".. K. B.. Riuo:rs. l\.


    Wick ha m. J. O. S,h\\ ar/. p . Good man . I , A.. JJd.son. B
    \II S, Iia illar!:t<."{>n, 1<.1'17. M"nll"nng l- nvironmemal
    atthe Landscape S cale." R/IIS,/<',,, ,,,,. 4 7t X\:513- 5 19..

    I..rr~ . I,'. R. an d L ~ Lauten schlager.. 1"'''4. - I' llnclumal


    a fcnc c ...[S pect ra l \ cpcta uon Ind ice s,- /( ,'m o l <"S""'-""ll'~ l
    ..in ","''''''. 14 1f>{J 11\2 .

    Li. X . a nd A . H Strah ler. 1'11\:' . ... ( eomcmc-opnca l \l ode l i n~ of


    a C"ni rcr I, mc,t ("<I n''I1Y: ' IJ::LE l i',III.' ,(d /'-,,/," G C:OH ;Ol<."t Rc:"'''1(' S.., / I/IIS:, 1-'(5 ):7lJ.'i 71 1.

    l'c lcr, ,, Il.. D. l. and S, \\ . K llllnJll~. I 'Il':<). "A pplicanonsinf


    c'sl Sd..nee am t Man ugcmcm." in Th,',,'".l' w /(f Al'l' liruliNiI
    11,,11("(/ 1 l/...,mJl(' S l'I1\ /IIK. ~ Y:

    Jo hn .... iley. -I21O--4 2 ~~ .

    Lt. X , and A . It Sua hlc r. 199 2. "Gcomctnc -op ucul bid irection a l

    Reflectance nl, ,,Jeling <If l hc Duc rcre-Crow n Vcgctauon Can op y: f':n h "l o f ( 'w " n 'i h,lpe and "l ll1ual .... hUlt"'\ ing." It:fI.'
    1""'11/"'1< '1"''','

    (j,'o.\ ,.;,'tI ... I/. C"'1<I/< S"''-'Ulj! ..

    30 :1;6-291..

    Pierce. 1 , L , Runnin g, S , W. and Ci. A, Itiggs. 1(!QO. "Rcrn<t:


    Dcrccuon III ('~n "py W" l ~' r Str..-" in L'oniferous Foreas I
    iu!! NSOIl I Thematic \-lill'l'cr Shuulutor an d the Thcrm.l m.
    Irarcd M\l l l i ~ pcdr:t1 Scanne r.... 1'11I"" !! I',II>m",I /",(' fngillcl"tl'

    Lunetta. It. x.. Fl1iri\\ Ickrcrua. J.. Johnson. D, /1-1.. I.Y'lIl, J. (1, ;lIld

    ,\' I/.em o ll' S "/I " /I/.~ , .'i h(

    -" ): -" 7 II)--.~ X I,

    A. .\1 cKcrw w. 1001. "I mp acts of \'q;cluti"ll l)ynami ,''; un lhc'


    Id" nli fic ati"n "I' Lund-cover Change in :l Biu lllgic.t11 ) C"m plex
    C" 111 m ul11 ly in No rth L'arolma. u s,\: I/..-mole Sell, ill.'! l.nvi-

    or

    ' lJIlIIl< /i I .

    H2 :25H-1 70 .

    Price. K. 1'. (;\10. X. :lnd 1- M. Snl cs, 2002. " Opti mal Llodiloll nt
    Hand ( '''l1lh i n a l i ''T I ~ ;\Illt Vc!!c1at ion tndiccs fur Di,;(rimi nalloo

    S ix lj ra~, I'lllo.! T) P<-'. ill Easte rn Kansas." Iml. ;"",""1,,,- R<II

    S" II.\I"L!.1J :50.' I 5{ln.


    Lynn . .I. (1 . Yua n. l r.. Lunetta. K. .... nn d C . 1>.
    C h an ~e l)c1ee t i~,n

    F.1\' i d ~e .

    b .perimcnl U..ing Vcgelatio ll

    1'l" S. "A
    l n d ke~: '

    l'I", /oK"w/I III ,./,.;,. E ll gilll ,,'r ;1I1; ,{- R,'",o /t ' SN,smg. 0-112 ): (.p-

    150 .

    \1 il1 ing1<>n.. A , C..

    \ ~" k/ ..l.icntlu.

    .X. \ 1 ;mo.! A. \' Rr'l d k y. 100 l .

    - Se a l,' 1>cpcnd c ncc in \1 11 lti lc m pn ra l ~I a p p i n g " I' t'flfCSl Fra!!m":l1\al i ~l n in Hu h \ ia: 1I1lI1 Ik at i...n~ fur E.\ plai ni ng. Te mpora l

    Tre nds in

    I. a nd~c'l pl"

    l~ C on ~cT\ al l (ln .

    Fc"I" IIY an d :\ p p l i ca l i on ~ 10 R iod i ~c rsi .


    fSI'HS J""m<ll ntl'lmlogramnlt'/n' & H.--

    IIIO/<' S,,mi/l)<. 57: ;S"

    1'1').

    ("Ii. J . Cab.. !..!'...\ I,'rall . M. S . ,mJ G. Dcd icu. I\JlJ5, "Bioph)


    ( :11 l'aramCI"r I-' ~ l i rn 'l t i o n ~ L! s lllg \ tu ltiJ ircctiona) Speo.:mI.
    ro.1<"lsu rerne nh. " N,''''0 1,' .'I,'''' m>: o{ f:" vim"",,,,,,. 5-1 :1 1 ~ j
    R,' nl w y.. R D .. A . LI Ie-,'na and J . R. Jensen. 19'15. - Till: R~
    l i l 'n , h l l1 l\c t ~ ecn '\ O .-\ o\_AVII KK O\I>VI an d EcoregiOll.l Il
    C lah. R"""",t<. S."., mll

    "r Em 'in ",,,,,"," . 53: I Sl':- 19S..

    407

    ee rences

    hardson , A. J, and C. L. V.' it!.tanJ, 1~ 77 , "Distin gurshing


    regetauo n from Soi l Backgro unJ ln fornunion." R,'m" '" Sr:m ing of t'nw'nmmenl , ~ : 3() 7 -3 1 2 .

    Sa ndm cicr. S_. Mull er. c., llosgoo d. II. a nc.!

    (i

    A ndre oli. 1<J'.lSb.

    "Sensitivity Analysi:; and Qua lit y ,\S SCS' llle nt Ill' Labo ratory
    BRDf Data." Hr",,, I,, S,' II.U" I! III f .",;m nml'nI. f>4 (2 ):11f>1'i r.

    chardsc n. A. J. and J. 11. Eve ritt . I'N2. " Us ing Spec tra l Veg cutiOll Indices 10 Estimate Rangeland Producnv uy." Gl:(I{'GrlO
    hI/I.. 1:63- 77.
    . ers. K . H., R. V, O ' ~ e i11 . C. T. Hunsak er. J. n. Wickh am . n.
    H. Yankee . S. I', Timnl1n~ , K. II Jun.... ~ anJ B. L Jackson ,
    1995."" Fac tor A nalysis c f Landwape Patt ern and Structure
    \ trnes:' /.(Im/oc" ,..' Ecol" g.!', 1 0l11 :2 3 -J ~ .

    UII, G . Steven. \-to and f . BaH'!, IQ% . -Opnm ization of


    Soil-adjusted \'e-geJaIlOll Indices." RI'm<'! " S"n ' ;nK (~f Em'In!_

    Sa\ ils ky. fl . ( i, 1<,1 >\1,. A/trU'/(l lfC r,11 H"llIflf'" S,,"mr:;: ill S Oll/ h
    Cun,J",u : A 51/(.11' uf Cm p 1J,,"t t}iwliUlI CUfl<lhih li".\ Cli/~
    i n!: L,md.a/ .\!III I ;.'f't-'.-tr ,,1Snu",..r [}al". unpubli-shed maslers
    thesis, Colum tna: l ni \ . o f S"U1h Camlina {;CU1! raphy Dep t..
    78 pp.
    Savitsky. H. ( i.. I <,I"'. "(hervle~ o f (j ap Anal y.i s" (;/S Me/had U/Ul<!ll'~ fur Dt:l'CloptnX C" >t.vrvvno n Str<lI. 'g iC$, Il G Sa\ ilsly and T. E. I aeher, Jr, ( " us.). )\'Y: Colu mbia U mv. Press.
    15 1- 15 _

    t. 55: Q5- 107.

    hsan- 1.. Franklin, J . and U. A . Rohen s. 21102. "A C(lmpariwn of


    ~lethods

    for \-ton itorin,g \1u ltitem poral V~lioo Ch an ge Us-

    ~ Tbcmatjc ~l appo.." lmagery... R"mol" s..'m i,,1' of Emi,.,,,,-

    Schill . S.. Jense n. 1. R.. Ralx'r a nd D. E. Porter,10().l, "Te mpo ra l


    ~t ooe li n g of tt ld lrt.'eli o nal Ref'lecncn I)isuihuti"n Function
    ( URO!') in CUi\stal Vegeta tion." GIS,: i<'lIn ' .i R..m,,!c 5.mi ng, 4 1(2 ): I Is - u s

    .,,1. 1\0: 143 ISf>.

    1oo!oe_ 1. W., Haas. R. II., SchelL 1. r\. and D. W. rk~ri n g. 19; 4.


    "\lonito ring Vegetation Sy stems in the G reat Pl a ins with
    ERTS: ' Prrn.-et'JmX.' , T hird Earth Resour ces Technolog y Sal(ilile- I Sy mpos ium. G reenbelt: ~ ;\ S A SP-3S1. 30 10- 3017 .
    lundquist. B. C. 2002. "Thcln llucnc e IIfl'alw py Green V.:gr:ta liun
    FraCliun 011 Spectral \1casurem,'nt s o.... r )\',1I i\'e Tallgrass Praine." Rl'm,,/(' S('1I.HIlJ: '!! f" n m nml'lII. I'( I : 12'J--1J5 .
    Ienning, S W., J ustice . C , 0 ., S"l om on ~(ln , Y., Hall . D. Bar ker.

    I" Kaufmann , Y, J., Strahler. A. II., llue tc, A. R. .. \-tllikr. J. P..


    vande rbilt . V.. Wan. l. I\L Tci lkt. l'. and D. t'arn~ g gie . I'N4 ,
    -Tcrrcsmal Remote SCI1:;inl:\ Scie nce and Algorithms Plann ed
    for EOS/~1( IDls," In/I, ,/"'/1'1101 ol H"fIlmt> S.ming ,
    15(17 }:35 l\7 - J I,:!(> ,
    Sandmeicr, S. R.. 1'l'N , ( ;lI id<'llm ',I' "ml H,'COIIIIII('IIt!lIIitJIl' Ji ll'
    Iht' Use I!( III.. S,,,,dm<,ia f 'i<-'t! (lul/iulU,"a /i ". Ill.: A'ASA

    St",,"i,\ SI',I"" C,'fII' '/'. Washmgt on: ~ j\ SA , 4 7 1".


    Sandmeier, S. R. and K. l. tuc n. 1'.l'N. " l'icit.! (juI li"mde r Sysrem (F IGOS) lo r Acquiviuon of Hypcrspcctral BRD F Data."

    lEt T

    Tr"n"'lCl i""..

    "If (il'fJ,. ci" Il" t' ,"

    Ht'''''' f' '

    .'>''/1.';111:,

    Sc h lc rf. \.1. and A tzbcrgct. C .. 2(1llI. " Ima g illg Spe ct rometry and
    Veg<'lal ion Sere ne.... - in 1"",g ilJg Sp<'('/mnWl rr Ba. il' PrmcipIe.' <J//(I/'"" I'('('II1'1: Al'p li<'Uli flll ' . I'. van del' Meer and S. de

    Jo ng. EUs. Dordrccht: Klu wcr. 111- 15 5.


    Sc hlerf, \1 .. A17hel'j,'er. C. and J . Hill. 2UllS. -Remoie Sensin g of
    Forest Biophysica l Variable s U~ in l.l lt y~l a p Imaging Spec t rom ctcr Da ta." Re lllo l.. Sl'II'illlf oj !:'1Il'Jr<m tll,n!. \}!i: 1 77- I ~4 .
    Sc hu ft cM . J. \1 '.1 ~CI . T. J .. Wil;:i nt o l1 ,1'. J.. Ste vens. D. l.. ~lcA I
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    ment of La nd sca pe Met rics for C h'lraclc ri, illg Ripar ia nStream ~ctw " lk s. "I 'I!<JI(/~ I'<IfIII/l,,,h l:.'ll~ il! ,',"il!l!'~ H,/I", I..
    S..millg . Ii:' ! 10 ): 1157- 11(,7,

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    Diver ' it)": ' H", .'l.-i,'m l' . .l 7:7l\2- 7XH.
    SCUll. J . M ., Davis, 1'.. Cs.ni. II., Ne ss, R.. Huttcrflcld, R.
    Gro ves. C Anderson . II.. Caicco. S., D' Erc hiu. F.. Edward.
    R._Llllimau. J . and R. G. Wrigh!. I'N'>. "G all Analysis: A Geographic Approach to prorc cnon o f Biological Diversity,"
    Jl ddh le ,.\f" '/lJgmp h . 123: 1-4 1.

    371 11 : 'n K-~1l (,.

    Sandrneier, S., \1tlll er, C .. Hosgood. B. and (i Andre oli. 1<,I <,IXa,

    Physical ~l ee ha llls Rls in lI ypc rspec tra lll RD F Data o f (i rass


    and Walerert:ss: ' R,m"I. S" ".\I"I: of E",in",,,,.',,I. 61;:222

    m.

    T BRS, 20tH , Enh''''<'ed Ji'g,'Mli"" /mk r. Terrestrial Biophycics


    and g emorc Sen., ing La b. l ;'ll\ . of Arizona, httpv/t brs.ariz ona .
    edu. pru1~'C\l MOIllS e \ i.php.
    Tow nshend. J . R.

    { i. a nd l' O . Jus tice, 200 2. "Towar ds O perat jon al \ Ionu oring ufTcrrest ria l Sptcms by Modcr atc -resolu-

    { 'IL\PTER

    40B

    non Rem ote '..-nsing." /let/WI.,

    S"It.~illl!

    /' l /-;",;rm m,elll.

    l'l3 :35 1- 3S'I.

    Trull. C . I ~ _W . Luf'tbildpl.m and okologische Bcd entors chung.


    I I. G... [r,li.llnd.' , Be rl in : 141 - :'911.

    11

    Remote Sensing of Vegetation

    WCIO:rs. S. Boc k, \,.1 ,. Wi ' WII. ~l _ and (i \{o ss llt"f. 100-l. "Mappillg and lndic. uor Approac hes fur the ,\ ~ ......ssmcm oflb bit:e
    at Different Sca l e~ usi ng Rcm ore Sen~ing: a nd (l IS :\leth<wll.:
    /."'"/".,,,'" ..",t! lJ'r/J, ,,,

    "/,"'''''',<, h7>B ~65.

    Wickh am, J. D. and D . J. "Ionon. 1l,ll,l4, " Mapping and


    Tuck er. C. 1~ 7 1( ",\ COlllparhun of Satelfue S.:-nsur Bands for
    Yegetanon \ lo nil<,)ring. " !'h lltugra mmd ri", Engin" erillg &. R,-
    ",,,,,, S,mm~ . 44 : I J(, 1O- I .lll(J.

    lllg L a mbcllpc Panc ms.-

    A~

    I.dll'''''''''''' f.,.. f,,~y. 'J( 11:7-:3.

    u.

    Walter -Shea. E. A. and L l. Biehl . 19<Xl. " ~ lcasu ring Ycgctalion Spectral Propcntc~. " R.'", Mo'Sl'''' ;ng R... in n . 5( II :17'1205.

    Woodcock , C. 1-"., I 'oums. J. B Jaka hhazy. V. 1>.,


    X., \IIC<lrnb.:r.:-i . A . and Y, wu. 1'N7, " In\ crsi" n o f me U-Stml8
    C'am'PY Reflectance \ ludel fur Ma pping Forest Slroo
    ,t:EF-: 1""'''''1<"/ ,,,/1.< Gt<t'-" cicllct' ,mol H,'mort' .wn <i" ll,
    3512 ):~05-4 1 4 ,

    Wang. fJ. Ad lku . " . Tcn bencn . J a nd ,\ ( iranit'T. l f)(15. -Cm tbe
    R...lano nstup of ~(}\'I with Leaf Area lndc \ in a Deciduous
    Fore st Sil c." H,"",m,"
    E nv tronment, ')4 :: 4" :'55.

    Iha.. Y , Gao . J. ~nd" Ni. 200.~ , "Lse o f ~ onna li:rro D1ffc:rs.1


    Built-up Inlk'\ in AU\lluullo;ally \-l appi n ~ Urban ..\ rca, fll)lll IV
    Imagery." //111 J,mnl<'/ ,,/ R.,,,,,,,e S... n illg, 2-'lJJ:583-59.:

    s..."""g.,

    12

    Remote Sensing of Water

    3h:r cov ers ap proximately 74 pe rce nt o f t he Eart h's surface. xo.... here els e in
    the kno .... n unive rse is suc h an abundance of liqu id .....ntcr fo und . Almolot <)7

    percent of the Earth's volume of "

    31fT

    is in the great saline oceans. Only

    abou t 0.02 pe rce nt of the Earth's water is found in fres hwater streams. Til ers.
    la kes. and rcscrv oirs. TIle remaining \\ arcr is contained in underground aquifcrs (O.fl percent]. the Earth 's atmosp here in the forrn of wa ter vapor IIUMl!
    percen t ], and me in -cap (approxima tely 2.2 percent].

    Wate r exi sts in various states o n Earth. inc luding fre sh.... ater, saltwater, '" mer
    vapo r. rai n. snow. and icce. Meteorologists. oceanographers. hydrolo~iSl:>.
    some geo graphers, and others devote their lives to mca"uring. mon itoring,
    and pred icting the spatial distribution. volume. and movement Ilf water as it
    prog resses through the hydrol ogic cycle.
    It is poss ible to obt ain ill snu mea surements Il l" va n o uv hydTll logic (" aler)
    para meten. suc h as precipitation. wate r depth. temperatu re, sa linity. \ clccity.
    volume, etc .. at \\:'1)-- spe cific loc ations. Fo r e xam ple. the U.S. G...-olog jcal
    Survey ma intains a de nse net.... o rk o f in W/l river- flow gauges on major
    strea ms an d rive rs that provides cont inuous r...x o rds of ri\ er stagc (hci gh ll
    a nd vcloc uy. Major cities and airports collect insitu precipita tion (m in an d
    sno w I info rrnarion. Depar tmen ts of hea lth and environmenta l control are
    ut kn mand ated It ) collect water-qualit y samples fro m rive rs. lakes, reser vo irs. a nd estuaries. Thes e poi nt mcasurc m...-ms arc ve ry impo rtant. If enough
    of the poi nt obse rvations are collected throu ghout a region. il is possi h le 10
    interpolate between the point observ ation s an d infer regional ge og raphic patterns. Ijnforumatclythcrc arc usually 1101en ough pointobse rvation s to crea te
    a st,ltiSlically s jgnificant d istribution ma p (K r oger and La w, :!tH ).'i ). In fact. it
    is etten diffi cult to obtain reg ional spatial inform ation using ill .\ i lll point
    o bse rvations fo r a number of the most import ant hydro logic va riab les.
    includ ing :

    water-su rface area (st rea ms, rive rs. po nd". lakes. reservoirs, an d seas).
    water constituents (o rgan ic <nul Incr ganic t.
    water depth Ihath ymet rv l,

    ~ nll\' -surface

    area.

    sntm -w eter equiv alent.

    12

    4 10

    icc-s urfa ce area.

    Rem o te Sensing of Water

    'I Ol al

    lk>wnwell in~

    Sun and sky


    irnadianc e

    icc-wa ter equi valent.

    Lf

    "

    rld i~ n ,

    Lf' + L,r + LI , + Lb

    cloud cover,
    prccipua uon . and
    water vapor.

    Therefore. a sigrnficarn amount of research has ta ken p lace


    10 develop remote ~nsing methods that can o btai n q uan titative, spatia l mcasurem cms of these important hydrologic

    variables [e.g., Gregg and Casey,

    ~()()~:

    Karaska et al..

    20f1.4). Th is chapter introduces the fundamental principles


    associated w ith remote sensing surface water and its constituen ts : clouds. water vapor, prec ipitation, and snow. II cond udes w ilh a nonpoin t source po llut ion .... ater -qu aluy study,

    Remote Sensing Surface Water


    Biophysical Characteristics
    Figure 12 1

    This sect ion rcvic.... s how remote sc nJO ing ca ll be used 10


    invent ory and monitor the spa tial ext er n. o rganic . inorganic
    co nstituen t", de pth. and tempe rature 11f wa ter in rivers, la kes.
    reserv oirs. seas. and oc eans. It is import ant to first ob rain an
    ap prcci auo n for the e nergy-ma no r inte ractions that may
    impact our abi lity til perform an acc ura te aq uatic remote
    se ns;ni; im e stigat io n.

    Water Surface. Subsu rface Volumetric, and Bottom


    Radiance

    The tota l radia nce. (/ .,) recorded hy the sensor (Inboard the
    aircra ft o r satellite is a funct ion nf the clc ctromagncuc
    ene rgy from the fou r s(Jurccs identified ill Figure 12-1
    {Hukutu Cl al., 1995 : Lcglcitcr und Rubens. 20(5):

    ( 1::! -I )
    w here

    Lp is the pornon of the rad ian ce recorded by a remote


    sensing mstmrnem resu lting from the do .... nwetlmg sol ar
    (I:'o;",,) and sky (t:<hl radiat ion that neve r actuall y reaches
    the water surface. T his is atmospheric noise and may be
    considered to he the un....an ted pmh radiance discussed in
    Chapter 2.

    Water bodies receive madiance from the Sun\f,.


    and atmosphere If.'.. , ). The totalradiance upvoellq
    (e\lli ngl from 011 water bod)' 10...ard the n.'1lIOteSCll\llr i~ a funcnon of the radiance from at~
    s'all<;rillll tL,.I.... atcr-surfacc radiance (L,\.
    face volumctnc radrancel!"I. and radiancefrOIlldli:
    bouom (/.~) uf the water holly tallcr Bukata
    lIN; ),

    sum

    et'"

    L, is the radiance fnuu the dow nwel ling so lar and sl)
    radiation that reach es the air-wa ter interface (somelimr;
    culled I IK.II~'e- \ III:filn' lave r I'T houndary layer), but only
    penetrates il a millime ter or so and is the n cssl.'lttialll'
    reflected from the water sur face. T his re flected energy
    contains valuable spectral information abo ut the n.:ar
    sur face charucrcristlcs of t ill: Willer body (F igur e 12 ~ at
    Unfortunately, if the sola r ze nit h angl e and senso r viewing
    angle an: almost ide ntic al. then we may gel a pure1r
    spe cula r re flection from the surface o f the water hody.
    which provides wry liule useful spectral information
    (Fig ur... 12-2 11 ). Sud' .mnglim is to be avoided ...hcneve
    pos s ible . This is why we rare ly collect rem otely sensed
    data at nadir within one or two hours o floc al no on .

    L" is the radiance fhau rhc down welling solar and s~-y
    radia tion that act ually penetrates the air-water interface,
    inte racts with the water and organic/inorga nic co nsrituere
    and then exits the wate r column without encou ntering the
    honom [call ed wlhfllr!n("(' volumetric radiance). Thl'i
    radiance prov ides valuable infonnauon abou t the intc:mal
    bul k c haracteristics o f tho: .... atcr co lumn.

    ,
    Remote Sens ing Su rface Water Biop h ysi cal Cha ract eris tic s

    a, mad-and.." hue mfr.lI'l:..J pholograph


    of wmcr

    f'9ure 12-2

    "".h.. . in FI"n Ja-

    b. B1"d.-aoo..wh;le infrared J'l!<"op:tf'h with :runtltmt

    or

    01 ):\ blac k-arut-w hill.' in frared photograph


    an area in ['It,rida ." Iltili lli ll~ nat ural veg etation. a !Coif course. and fair ly deep
    nonturbrd "liter bodies. b) In this example. epccularly reflected ~lIn~hrn II< pre-sent tha i seriously impcd ..... ou r ahi!ily III..xrrac t
    usdul information, The onl) d'"la of value are the '" md-strca k paucrus \,n th......etc r surfac ... llul pro,itlc ,;<lfll<: infonnaliOll
    on wind d irccuon atthe time of dat ... collection.

    . L~ is that portion o f the reco rded mdianc... resulting from


    !bedown.... d ling solar and sky radiann that penetrate..... the
    arr-w ate r interface. reaches the bo ttom of tile wat er bod)'.
    is propagate d bac k thro ugh till' wate r column. and then
    ni ts the wa ter co lumn. l fw c want ttl ob tain infor mation
    abo;lut the bottom. such 35 when performing bathymet ric
    tdeprh l ma pping or co ral reef mappi ng, then this radia nce
    trom the bottom may be of sign iii cant value [ Mumby ct
    al., J lJlJ7: Pnsquafini c t ul.. 19 1J7 1. Howe ver. rad iance fro m
    ihe bottom ma kes II \ cl) difficult to proper ly ch arac terize
    the water column above u. Basic<l U}, it is di fficuh 10
    disen tangle or disagg rcg.lte L" an d 1. ~ [Je nsen ct al.. 19X9:
    1,13111 ct a l., 20n~).

    The goal of 1II0si aquauc remote "cnsing is 10 extract till.'


    edbncc of interest fro m all the other radiance com ponents
    being reco rded by the sensor sys te lll l l) t1 \a ran cr al., 2001 1.
    for example. the scientist inte res ted in iden li fying the
    and inorganic concrituems in the water column te .g.,
    sspcndcd sediment or chlorophyll II) is mos t conc erned
    ';lh isolating till: subs urface vo lumet ric radia nce (I., I CI1I11putcd as:
    Ol"~nic

    L,

    411

    ( 11-2)

    This usually involves ca reful radio metric currccrion Ill' the


    remote sensor data to remo ve atmospher ic atten uation (Lf.l,

    surface sun-gli nt and other surface reflection IL,). and 0..11tum re flecta nce (1. 10 ) Ie .g., \t ust.u d <:1 al.. 2001 J.
    Scien tists interested III mOllitorin!,: wa ter dep th (bathym ctl}' )
    or bottom cha racrcrisrlc s such as ree f structure arc mos t
    interested in prec ise measur eme nts of bouom radia nce ILIoI,
    so they must attemp t to remove atmosphe ric. surface. an d
    subs urface volume radiance.

    Spec /ral Resp onse of Water as a Function of


    Waveleng th

    When conducting a remot e sensing invesngnrion un water


    bodies. it is first usc fulro understand how /,un' water sclccliH:ty absurb, an d or sca ucrs the Inc ident. dtl\\ nc c tlmg sunligln in the wa ter column , Late r we w ill consider bow the
    incident light is affected w hen the w,111'r co lum n is IlO! pure.
    hUI con taut - organic and inorg anic ma terials .
    Pure water is fre e from orga nic lind inorga nic mauc r, Bukata
    al. ( l lJ'l5 j sum ma rized t IH.: absorption coe fflcic nr f~ A) , the
    scancnng cocffic jcm 11(;' ). and the total atten ua tion coc tficrcm ('(AI of pu re water molecules at wavclengjhs from 250
    - }l(1I1 nm from a numb er ofstudies (Table 11-1 ). Several
    irnpurtant relationships arc o bserved when the nbvnrpno n
    and sca tte ring da ta are gra phed, as s hown in Figure 12-3.
    t.'t

    12

    412

    Rem ote Sen sing of Water

    Rerr

    C).I

    0.'"

    Abscr-ptlon and Sca tt er ing


    Atten u ation in Pure water

    o.oe

    0.07

    0,06

    ."= 0.05

    ""

    Absorption

    z
    ]

    fJJ~

    .
    E

    .\

    =
    E-

    ,E
    ~

    0, 112

    -e
    0,0 I

    Scattering

    ull nl\ jolt'!

    hl"1I

    \'Iolet

    dark
    hlue

    -~

    ~\' I hl\'

    Ii~ht

    ""

    '.

    .,

    urun l:1.'

    grc cu

    "' ~ - - -

    ' C, '

    l__

    near -

    ITOI

    infrared

    ~ ,

    ...

    2 4 (12'112~ 1) 1 1~ )12014nl~1"n.lOO420 ~n4M 4W~OO~2()~411~h ns" nl ~n'2n'.ln'h06~1)~~ 172 () 7 4' )7MI7 ~O ~ (II)

    w avelen gth ( n m)
    Figure 12-3

    Absorption ~n(1 scatteri ng of light in pure wat er, Mole cular wate r absorption dominates in the ultraviole t 41 K) 11m) and in
    the ycllo w through the nca r-inlrurcd portion urthe spectru m (> SilO 11m). A lrnu,t 0111 uf the incidcmnear- an d middle-infral\'d
    (740 - 2~1 1(f nm) radiant flux cnll'Ti ng:1 pure .... mer body is abso rbed wilh ncgligihlc scaue nng taking place. This is whyiiiail'!
    is so dark on black-and-white infrared or color-infrared film. Seallcnn.: in the water column IS especially important in thev,.
    nlet. dark ollie. and light hillt' p ortions Ilf lh~ spectrum (41)(1 -.:"00 nm ]. This i> tilt"reu...m water appears hluc 10 our eyes. These
    data .... ere derived trom a \ arkt) " r sourccs by Buk,lta el al. (I IN.:"). I he graph IrUl ll'uk-:- the ah"" rrlion attenuation infomalioa
    In Ihe ultraviolet and m the yt'II11\\ Ihfllugh ncar-infrared regi{)n~ because the .1l!enu.Llion is "'-' gn::lI. Refer to Table 121fOl
    absorpt io n attenua tion infofm 311tlll inthe,c reg ions.

    The most not icea ble characteristic is that the /t'/1,H amo u nt of
    absorpt ion /I11.J scanen ng of incident Iighl in the wate r column (the refore the best transm ission] lal.cl' pla ce in the: b lue:
    wavelength region fro m appro ximatel y 400 - SOO nm, with

    the mi nimum located al a ppro xim atel y 460 - -IROnm. These:


    wa \ c lcn ~'1h s of violet 10 lig hl blue light penet rate funae
    than any ot her type of light into Ihe water col umn (C larket
    31. 1991).

    413

    Rem ote Sensing Surface Water Biophysical Characteristics

    Palancar Red nn Cozume l Istan d . Quin la na Roo , .\ It'\ il'n

    COJUmel
    lsIan<J

    4. sroT Band 1 (0.50 - 0.59 Jim ).

    Figure 12-4

    b. SroT Band :! t0 6 1 - 0.68 JIm).

    e. SPOT Udn<J .1 iO 791 - O.IlQ Jim),

    Individual band s of SPOT XS d;lla of Co zumel. Mexico. lncrdent green and red radian! nux (ban ds I and 2) penetrate through
    the water column and are reflected by the sand. bard-bottom, and Palanca r k eef C(l(l\crsdy. much of the green and red ene rgy
    is absorbed by' terrestrial \ .gdalioll. causing it 10 appear dark. lt is d,ffieull III identify the land-water interface (boundary!
    u~mg thC!< vivible bands, Waler ah".)rb~ 81n1ll"t all of the incide nt ncar-mtrared radia m nux, while the te rrestri al vege tation
    reflects mcs t of Ihe mcidcm ncar-infrared ,..ner~'Y, The res ult is that waler appears alm ost black on the nca r-infrared (band J)
    data. \\ hilc the upland vt'gt'latilln appears " rigJlI. rhis makes it easy It> i,k nlify the land-water boundary i " SI' UT Image. lnc.].

    Incident gree n and yello w light from 520 - 51<:0 nm is


    ah&'rb.:d w ry well by the water col umn with relatively little
    scattering taking place, Si m ilarly. sl"ltHe ring o f orange and
    red wa velen gt h ene rgy (5 fiO 740 run } by Willer molecules
    beco mes insig nifi cant when co mpared 10 nbso rprion by
    wate r molec ule s . A l n lD ~t all of the incident ncar- and mi ddle-infru rcd (7 40 - :;000 runl radian t fl ux en ter ing a deep.
    pure water body is absorbed w ith ncg lig ihle scaneri ng tak mg place ( Figure 12-.\ I.

    m iddle-infrared regions. water bodie s appear very dark.


    even black. because they abso rb almos t all o f the inc ident
    rad iant flux, espec ially whe n the water is deep and pure with
    no suspende d sedime nt or organic matter in it (c.g.. Figure
    12-2a) , Conversely, land surfaces an: typ ical ly c ompo sed o f
    vegetation and bare so il lhat refl ect significant amo unts of
    ncar- and middle-infra red energy. as summarized in prev iou s
    c hapters. Th is caus es the land surfaces to appear relatively
    brig ht in nea r- and mid dle-infra red bands uf imagery.

    Thus, molecu lar scatte ring Ill' vinlcr an d blue lighl t-c 520
    nm) in 3 WOller column and signifl...mt absorption o f g reen.
    yellow, or ange. and red wa cclc ugt h light (520 - 700 nm ) in
    lhe same water co lumn . cause purl' wa ter to appea r blue to
    oor eyes. T he blue color is es pecia lly evide nt in pu re m idocean WOlle r and dee p nomurbid inland .... atcr bod ies.

    For examp le. consid er the green (ba nd I ). red (band 2 ). and
    near- infra red (ba nd J) SPO T It RV XS images o f'a portion of
    rhc Palancar Rcct'j ust o ffshore rho island o f'C ozumcl. Q uintana R{\(}. Mexico ( Figure 12-4 ). Unde rwater visib ility in
    this po rtion o f the Ca ribbea n Sea is usua lly 80 - 120 It. Incident green and red wa ve length energy fr om the Sun peneirate throug h the water co lumn and are re flected by bouorn
    sand, hard-bottom. and COrd i red . No te how the details o f
    the reef arc more clearly seen in the green (band I ) and red
    (band 2 ) images than in the nea r-in frare d hand J image ( Figure 12--H.

    \ l lJn it o r i n ~

    th e Surfa ce t: \ len l or Wal('r Bodi e'

    The best wavelength region for d iscnm maring lan d fro m


    pure .... ater is the ncar-in frare d and rmdd je- in fra red reg ions
    11 \\ a\ckngths be t.... cc n 740 2 500 nm . In the near- and

    12

    414

    Re mote Sens ing of Walet

    Reo

    .\ li ssissip l)i River Delta


    Table 121.

    Op tical properties of pure wmcr (de rived from var-

    ious sourc es

    Or

    Hukata ct al.. 1',1'151.

    Tota l
    Absorpllon
    a l i,)
    (m")

    Scattering

    bl'1

    0(' 1

    (m " )

    {m"l

    P"

    2SU - Ultnl'i.l ld

    (I,I~ I

    (I,4)3~

    U.!2tMI

    va
    illl

    J.'

    "ltra'ID let

    O.(j..jO

    0.n 15

    0.0550

    l:u-utm."i<>lCl:

    (!.len

    oou

    n,o,l:!u

    (e

    350 - ultr'3' k>l"'-

    11.0\ 2

    O.U082

    0.0201

    sl i

    ,-iok!

    1l0l 1t1

    (u ..~ s

    (),OIO ~

    ~ 10

    _ \1"1....

    O,IMIS

    0 1. 140

    O,((1'lO

    ~u

    - "olf1

    U l Ml-\

    {lOCH!

    n oon

    0 .002

    0 002 7

    uooo

    hi ",..

    (lI Mn

    {I

    n0 22

    O.fl(IS:'

    500 - ligh t bll.lC

    0.Oll6

    0 .0019

    IUlU;9

    ~1n

    IUII-I

    f UM I ] "

    OO I~ h

    5-10 - I't!:'<'n

    11.01'1

    0 .00 14

    0. 030-1

    Shl l -

    I.t:""""

    iI,n.w

    IUMI12

    O.ll-l!l1

    580 -

    ~'dl""

    IUl7 4

    (LOO II

    0.07 5 l

    nc. l _

    "rd !l~l'

    11.20

    I HS ~l'I,\

    0 11M~1

    610 - " rallt'"

    41.14

    U OOX!

    (I.24m:

    1'>-1(1 - n' d

    /1.27

    0.\1(. 172

    0.27(17

    M O - ", d

    0,J l 0

    o.I)("IM

    O. 31!1(>

    I,SII _ rc d

    H.,;S

    I I .l K H~ h

    IU S/ N,

    701l - rcd

    (l ,f>O

    1 ),(~IO S

    O.IiIXIS

    7-111 - near-Inlran:d

    2.2~

    U.l " ~J.l

    1.1504

    76 0 -

    ncar.infrared

    2. ~ (,

    (I.(xms

    156W

    ~( H I

    ncn. lI\lran:,J

    2,111

    (I.(XHlN

    2.l ~:2ll.\

    Wave len gth


    (n m)

    .;l MI -

    Attenuat ion

    Th

    un

    m-

    2(
    \\
    w

    -Wl _
    ~ ~u

    darl blue

    - darl

    on"

    Wh ile the subsurfa ce info rmation availa ble in th... gree n and
    red SPOT images (ha lld~ 1 a nd ~ ) is use ful for ma ny reaso ns.
    it is not of m uch value whcn trying to identify the land-warc r
    mtc rface. i.c .. the actua l edge orthe 1.. land of Cozumel. h 1rtunatcly. the water abso rbs almost all the incident ncar-infra-

    Figure 12-5

    PtK\lI>gl<tr h of the \ ll ..~i ~~i rrl River delta jlN NIl'" New OrlciUl). LA, I.Ibtain"d b~ Sp.ol'C SIud:
    dMronaut< dunng \ ll s~lon S'fS 51. 111l'"slISf'l'"IIOtd
    scdrmcnt in Ihe "ater is rl:lk"t iug m uch of th: iI,:>.
    dent radia nt tlu x bad ; into the atmos phere. ( oe.
    vcrscly, rhc

    Il1 llIT

    pure water. farther offshore.

    nt>sorhinF m0S1of the incident rad iant nux. caU>1~!


    il 1(, l1pp.:ar da rk. The bou nd ary I Irouu ret"IIthc
    sc...hmcnl-In,!l-n " a1<,' r and the nonturhrd ....-alel"
    quuc e, idl.,] t (courtes y K . l u lla. !'\A:SA Joomoo
    Spal'l"Cl'ru" r).

    red radianl nux (as shown in lig urc 12-+0:1. cau sing lht
    SPOT lI RV hand 3 Sl'n,or to record oc ea n water as blacl
    while the uplaml vcgc tuuon re flects much ofrh... ncar-In trared radium Jlu-c. ca using il to uppcur bnght. The refo re. it isJ
    ,tra ighl furw a rd rusk 10 delin eate the tend -water imcrface
    usin g the S POT ncnr-infrured band J image.
    Care 11 H1 ~ 1 he exe rc ised. however. wh en lhe re arc olJ.!-anic
    and inorganic co nstituents in the "mer column ( c'p<." ial ~
    thl'~l' IlC>Lf the ~ u rf,ll' el beca use these m.ncnuts will cause
    ncar-infrared surfac e rc tlccnou an d subs ur fa ce volumetric
    scaueri ng III take p lace, drama tically inc rcaving the amoolll
    o f ncar-in frared radiaru Ilu\ lcuving thc surface nf the " ;llrr
    bod y. FI'r e xample. consider thc Spac e Shuttle phl1lOgraph
    o fthe \ll~SI~s i pp i I{i\ t'r delta in Figure 11 -5. Fhe sU 'Jl""~ded
    sedim ent in the water co lum n o.:iIUM:) significa nt scanenng
    and re flect ion of radiu m nux h ick toward the se nsor S}stem,
    ca ll~ i n g the water III appear almost as hrig ht as the few land
    fcatun , III thi) bud's- foot delta.

    a
    L

    ,
    a
    I

    ='!mote Sensing Surface Water Bi ophysical Characteristics

    Spectraf Resp onse of Water as a Function of Organic


    rid Inorganic Cons tituents - Monitoring Suspended
    llinerals (Turbid ity), Chlorophyll, and Dissolved
    ()ganic Matter

    Thw. far we ha\ c main l} con sidered the spec tra l response of
    xtosr natu ral water bodies , ho wev er. con ta in 3
    of organic (e.g. phytopla nkto n chlorophyll (1) and
    eorgamc l c.g . suspended minerals) const ituen ts. Wh en natml waters co ntain n mi xture of these materials. one III' the
    10>1 difficult remote sensing problems Is til disentangle
    it\tr~ 1"1) quantitative infon narion abou t these spec ific con!lituenls from the remotely sensed data (Doxaran et al.,
    . 2; Karaska ct 31.. 200H,
    water.

    1Intt~

    ''hen conducting wa ter-quality studies or ll)ing

    10 predi ct
    Iller productivity using remotely ..cnsc d data , we arc usudl) most interested in the ,' /lh.' II// tin.' l'rJ!lmwlr;c rat/iII/let"
    L, (Figure 1:2- 1). .... hich is the radianc c [rom the down"elling solar and s"y rad iation that act ua lly penetrates till'
    e-watcr interface , interacts \\ uh the wa ter and organic.ino rfII1 lC constitue nts. and then e xus th e wa ter co lumn toward
    (1l -.l.l!" withoul enco unte ring the bouom The subsurface
    !Q/uml.>trie rad ianc e exiting the .... arcr column tow ard the
    ensor (I. ,) is a function of the concentration of pu re water
    ~'). inorgan ic sus pended mi ne rals (5 !'f ) , organic chlorophy II
    ~ IChI), dissolved organic mater ial (I)(}\f). and the Im,11
    snount of absorption and scnncring attenuation thai rakes
    place in the water column due to each ofthese constitucms.

    415

    than I u rn in diameter. Thus. sus pended mineral concentralion is usuall y o f no sig nific ance In deep ocean re mote scns lug surdfcs. Th is is important since the contributions from
    suspen ded rnme rals can onen be ru led out w hen conducting
    a deep ocean re mot e sensing inves tigatio n. Co nve rse ly.
    inland and nearshore water bod ies may carry a significan t
    load o fsuspe nded scd imcru that can dramatically impecttbc
    spectral rell..x tance cha racteristics o f the wat er bodi es
    (l\.l iller and l\. k Kee. 10(4).
    .\1o nilnrillg the type . amoun t. and spatia l dis tribu t ion of sus pcndcd minerals in in land and nearshore water bodies is
    ve ry important. For exa mple. so il erosion in a watersh ed
    co nmbmes sediment loads to surface waters, wh ich resu lts
    in faster filling o f major rivers . reservo irs, farm ponds.
    tlood-cenrrol impoundmenls. a nd estuaries. Th is can shorten
    the usctul Iifc o f rese rvoi rs. po nd s. and flood-contro l devices
    and req uire dredg ing o f rivers and es tua ries . For exa mple .
    the reduction in storage capaci ty in rese rvoi rs in the United
    SI:IlI.'S caused by the in fus ion uf suspended sediment res ults
    in a loss \,f >$ I OO mil lio n annua lly. Sedi me nt also affects
    wate r quality and i l~ suitabilu y for drinking, recrea tion. a nd
    industrtal purposes. II serves as a carrier and storage age nt o f
    pesticides. ab sorbed phosphorus, nitrogen, and organic compounds and ca n he an indicator of pollution. Suspended sedimenr-, can impede the transmission of solar radi ation and
    red uce pho tosynthesis in submerged aq uatic vegetation a nd
    rt ear-bottnm phyto plan kton. T he nquar ic vegetation and phytnplan ktuu play a vita l ro le in the food cha in o f the aq uatic
    ecosystem .

    i.1. Lc.,
    (12-3)

    krs mstructivc ro look atthe effect that each of these concurDel11~ has on the spectral rcfl cctuncc ch aracteristics o f a

    water column.

    \Iiner:l ls such as si lico n, 3Juminum, and iron oxidt""S an'

    Fonunarely, remot e sensing ca n be used 10 monitor the suspend ..oJ m ineral concentrations in water bod ies . Thi s usually
    requires obtainm g in situ measurements of suspend..-d min era! concenrrauons and rela ting it 10 the re mot e sensor data
    to deriv e a quant itati ve relat ionship. It is good pract ice to
    collect bot h the remote sen sor data a nd the in ,\';111 suspen ded
    s<:di metl! mea"ure rnents on d"ys that have littlc wind, WindTOughe ned sur l:lce waler cre, lIes specu lar rel k elion s. w hich
    C:1O he dl.'1t"l.:-rioUS to lX'mOle se ns ing o f suspended sed imenl
    wnccnlml ion s l i la n and Rundquist. 1995 I.

    bJnd in suspe ns ion in most nalural wa ler bodi ..-s. The panid~

    r:lnge from lint' cla y pani....1cs (3 - -I!Jm in diameler) . to


    lilt \5 - 41) ~Im) , til Hne-gra in sand (-II - 130 pm ), and coarse
    1f'lln ~and ( 13 1- 250 !Jill), Thl.' sed imen t wl1\es from a \ari
    rty of sources including upland ag ric ultural cro pland t'Ttl~on. wellthering o f mountainou s Ic rrain . sh('reli ne eTtls ioll
    ClIU~ed hy nat ura l "aves or bolll tra nk. and volca nic erup101I (ash ). .\lo SI o flhe suspe nded m ineral M'd iment i... co nmltr31t'd in the inland and nearshore Willer nod i"'" ( Bukala
    eul.. Il)IJ5). ('kar, d.:ep ocean (relcrrl.'li 10 as Case I water )
    f.u- from shore rarel) conla ins suspendtXI miner als gre :uer

    The spcc lral retl eetance of su"pcndtXI sed Iment in surface


    .... aten. is a fum:tio n of both the qua ll1ily an d ch ar:J.e teristi cs
    (pan ic le ~izl.', abso rplion) of The ma leria l in the waTer. Sus
    pcm h.'d s\,d inw llt co nce ntral ill n is lllea sured ill sifll us ing
    eilher a secehi tJj.,k l'r a nt'phcl t'll\ etrie turb idit)" un it (N TU)
    detedor. Th c seCt-hi d isk ( Figure 12-0 ) is a c ircu lar plale that
    i ~ lo.....ered in\ll the ..... ater unt il it eannot he ""'en. T his secch i
    deplh is ill\C'rscl ) eorrel at~d with the amount ofsuspendC'd
    m;uerial in Ihe w" ler. l1lc greater the amounl of suspended

    ( 'II,\I' IE K

    4 16

    12

    Rem ote Sensing of Water

    Spt'cl r nr a d iOIll\"1 1'1'"

    16S cm

    Figure 12-6

    A sccchi disk is used ro measure suspende-d sedirncnt In "";Iter bodies b) l l"' ..:rmg II uuo rhc water
    co lumn and dctemu mng tho;' dCf'lh al which II disappo:M!>. Tbc .I.:c ur:to:y of the measurement is it Iunclion "f the v"ual acuny " I' th..." ,,1> serve"1". '" hicb can
    ' dry d rama tica lly.

    Figure 12 -7

    A "!'L-':lruradi"rncIL"( may be used 10 mcasuremllll


    <['l"("lrdl reflectance characteri stics of pure \\1ICI'
    dOJ water \lo llh l an('us sus pen ded ><Jimrnl alii
    ch l"T<lph~ II <I conccerruuons {after !.odhi et at

    1'1'-171.

    material. the less the sccch i de pth. i.c.. it II ill d isappear [ W ill
    view rr-lntivcly quickly. lhis met hod relics on human visual
    perception . which is no l con-aam among scic ruisrs. The
    more rigo rous nephelometer detect or pa"scs light through it
    sam ple ofwater oh tamcd at vuriouv depths to . . lctc rr ninc its
    transmission characteristics that are refuted III suspended
    m ateri al ill the water,
    Research has documented (he gene ral impac t of increased
    suspe nd ed mine ral COIK' ClI (H1till ll in wate r bod ies in the visi ble and ncar-infra red portion of the spe ctrum. For cxnmplc.
    co ns ider the expe riment conducted by l.odhi et a l. (l l)\)7).
    which dete rmined th... spect ra l reflectance characteristics of
    lWO Nebraska so il type s (d ay ey and si lly) ut \,aTlOUS suspended sediment concentrariouv III water.
    Figu re 12-7 depicts till' e xpc rim cnta l d es ign .... here a spectro radiomerer was used 10 collect spec tral re fl ectanc e data
    fro m a he ighl of 165 ..:tIl dir ...ctly above a cont rolle d wate r
    sur face . T he spectral rn ca surcm cms were made in 15 2 dis c rete spectra l ha nds between Jill, and 1.11~ nm. T ill' spectreradiometer \HIS calibrated with a gray card ( 18 percen t
    rencctc ncct that lIas cross -refe renced to u BaSO~ calibrauon panel. Rc tlcctan ce. I'll" \13'. calc ula ted as a simple ral i"
    us ing the c...uaucn I Markham and Barker. 1986 1:

    /. ,
    -xl..
    I.,

    (1 2-11

    wlt{r..-[., is rho rad iance measured from the ....-arcr surface.I,


    is the radiance fro m the Ib S()~ panel, and k is a calibratice
    factor for tile lJaSO.1 pane l (refer ro Ch apter 15),

    Fip lrcs 12-l\a. 1I depic t the spectral refle ctance o f cleat 113\('(
    and wa ter \\ ith varying suspended sedi ment couccmrarioa
    o f clayey nnd si lty so il. Sp ect ra l refl ectance o f the clear
    water drops continuous ly a fter about :'i !\(J nm due to ahsorption in the water COI UlIlll. as previously desc ribed (refer ttl
    Figure 12-."\ ). As the suspen ded sed iment conc entr ation is
    increased. re flectanc e increases at a ll wavele ngths for both
    clayey and s illy solls. T he c layey soi l (Figure 12-lla) h.1J
    mo re organic nuncr and w as darker in co lo r. ....hich resulted
    in app rox imately 10 percent lo w er vo lume re flectance at all
    wave leng lhs than tho: liglu-culored s illy soi l (F igure 1 2- gb~
    Reflecta nce inc reased in the 5S0 6 1}(1nm region and in the
    near-infra red regi on as more m inera ls .... e re suspended III the
    \.I ater buJies. T11/1,~. fill' [Jl'llli. retlectonce .I[urn toward longtY
    wavctongths ill the visible ft'gi"" as more suspended .wdi
    m(''''~ lIrt' U,/(/I'd. " lo re green. red. and ncar-infra red l1KIiJ1l
    l1 u.\ is reflec ted from the water body and recorded by tbc
    remote sensi ng ~ystl' m ... \ wate r body with suspended st\fi.

    Re<

    417

    emote Sensing Surface Water Biophysical Characteristics

    ,
    "

    clear water

    1., T------~

    u
    ...

    41)0

    ~VI

    500

    5:;(}

    IiOO 650
    100
    .... ,, ,,,length IJlm l

    i~

    ~10

    ll~

    <Hlll

    I.OOOmlPl

    ""

    me m in it will generally appear brigh te r in ima g.cry than a


    nea rby wat erbod y without any suspended sediment.
    Correlation cocfficicms lr) were co mpu ted ttl descr ibe the
    relationship between suspt:ndcd sedimcm concent ration a nd
    !be re flecta nce at eac h o f the :!5:! spccuul sam p ling po ints.
    For the cl ayey so il. the values ranged fro m n.2X- tJ.97. and

    for the silly soil. the runge was n.7x - ().II X. For borh soils the
    \ alu~~ of r .> I).'XI oc c urred in the ncur-inf'rurcd region
    betw een 7J.l and XXO om, .Is expected (I Ian and Rundqu ist,
    l'N 4).
    Th ese resu lts

    su gg~'st t hal :

    418

    (' lI A I' 1tR

    12

    Remot e Sensing of Water

    Re n

    c;lrl

    Diat um

    ther

    as
    chlo n ' p lasl
    ma te ria l

    wh
    hm

    set
    ,0<

    _ - - cell wall

    de.

    inl

    eh

    ,rr
    re
    ca

    Figure 12-9

    Oil A micrograph " rhlu~' rCn L'CI"d lig ht fwm,) phnIOS)lI\n.:sizi nl! d ia\tlm r ) A micwgrarh .. r hluc n: n ec'l...- dIight froma ~
    algae .:<.'1 1( Jflr ""'f"r/,l\ .p_l_ 1~ chloropla-" l mat crra tm tho,> rente ShO.'"S up in da rk II e,; beca u.... the chlorop hyll a pigmell
    .jh",.,.h much (,f ' l1<: mci..k ll1 blue light d uring phorosyn tbesis,

    "
    ic

    d.
    T

    a
    the \ isible wa\ c-lcngth ran ge of ; :\11 - (,911 nm may provide

    infon nat ion on the


    sur face \\ .ucrs: and

    ~11Jt

    ofsuspclldcJ sedi ments (will in

    the ncar- infrar ed wa velength range o f ? 1" - IlM) nm ma y


    hi: a use ful \\. ;lld,nglh ran ge for determining the lIIIIO/III'
    orsu..pendcd minerals in surface warers where suspended
    minerals arc the prcdomiuam consmucm.

    These rd atilln,I'up' milY nnt be universally applic able. Scienusrs attempting tu remotely sens e susp ...-ndcd sediment
    concent rations should im estigatc the spectral absorption
    and '\c;lt1l'ring cha racte ristics o f the water and soils in thei r
    geographic area of Intere st.

    the visible reg ion (e.g.. (,flS nm). They sugges ted thaI ...
    stutl) attem pting to mouuor suspended sediment usifl!
    remote se nsing sho uld he ba ..cd on a thor ough kllOwlcdgcaf
    the panicle grai n si/ e and composiuon hc ing examined
    Miller and \k Kee (~OIl4l found a robu st linear rclation.-mp
    ( R~ = 1I .!\~1 between MO DIS b and I (o2() - ('7(J nm)l5()x

    250 m data and ill n u tota l suspended sediment measunmcnt s in the (j u ll' of ," lex ico.
    C h lll ru p h~ 1I

    Plankton is the generic term used to describe all the Ij\ing


    and :Illirn;t)) present in a water body lhat
    ca nno t resis t the current (unlike fish). Plankton may be subt)rgal1islll .~ I plant

    For example. Dux aran ct <II. (201l2) USl'J SPOT satellite data
    to measure suspended sediment in the Girondc es tuary in
    southwest France. The hL'St cnrrclations between SPO T data
    and slJspl'l1(kJ sedil11CIll were oluaincd lIsi ng a ) rhe atmospherically-corrected N IR hand XS] (790 - 1) 0 nm) w hen
    suspended sediment con centration was hig h, :111d b ) the
    ratios [XS.l 1 XS I I or [XS.' / XS21 when the suspended sediment conc ent ration was low. The sus pended sediment concemrauons within the sur fac e wntcts in the est uary were
    est imated up to 2(ltll) mg I.

    divi ded further into algal p lant organisms (phyt/lflll1llklOn~


    animal \lrg all i.llls (;;/lopl.lllkllllll. bac teria (/}(/c1Cri(Jp!lInl.
    /m l), nnd 1o"" cr r I:1111 fo rms such as a lgal fungi , I 'h.r!op!anl.
    /011 are sing k-ecllc d plums smaller than the size of a
    pinhead. Micrograph-, uf the blue rad iant energy rellet:tcJ
    from a dknom and a single cell or gree n algae arc shown in
    Figun: 12-l)a.h, In both inst anl'es, the chlorophyll a pigmen b ill the plants absorb most of the incident blue light
    cnuving IhL' photosynthetic portion of cuch to appear dark

    Similarly, Binding et al. ,20IlS) foun d thaI the successfu l USl'


    (If Nl R wavdt:ngths for meas uring ,uspl'nJed sedime nt was
    d<:p<:ndcm un tho: filet that in highly turbid v.ah:rs then.- is
    su fticicnl scattering to m l'rcome the strtl ng ahsorpt ion by
    v.;Iter at these wa \dength:. . In less turbid w<ttef!>. SlKh as the
    Irish Sea, the wavdengths sui table fo r mi n<:ral sus pcn dl'd
    sed imem algori lhm dc \(' I{lpmenl may he n.. ~t rie t cd 10 on ly

    stances that contain carbon. Phytoplankton sink to the OCcall

    Ph) toplan knm , like plants on 1;IllJ. arc composed of subor wate r-bod y tloor when they d ie. Zooplan kton migr:lte K\
    th.: ~ urfaee al nigh t tu Icell lln 1ivo: phytoplan kto n and tkn
    sinl to great er dept hs du ring the da y. When :zooplankton die.
    the~ a lso silll to the hottom. carT)' ing Ihe ir ca rbon \\ ith lhem.
    Tho: carbon in the dead phy topl anktoll alld zoo planlton is
    S()(ln C(lvcred ll) othl'r sclliments. Also . phytop lankton usc

    IT

    4 19

    emote Sensi ng S u rface Water Bioph ys ic a l Cha racteristics

    n dioxi de and produce ".\)gcn during the photosvnic process. In th iv way. rhc water bodies a nd OCI:',tO S act
    a fjlrh""l i"I.. 1I place that dil-il"l-c~ of g toba l carbon,
    kh orhcrw isc '::111 accumulate in lhe unuosphcrc :I~ cardioxide. Other gtoba l sinks include land \cgel,ll ion and
    I. However. the carbon III Ihel-l.' sinks frellllcntl) IS
    cd III the atmosphe re a~ carbon dioxi de hy burning or
    mposuion. teo o ne knows cxactly how muc h carbon the
    and water bodies and ocean accumulate. Alo suc h. the
    actcrisucs of phy ropla uk ton and Illuplankion an: \ cry
    IIlJ'OfUnl 10 o ur knowledge of the glohal ",11*,,)0 cyclc a-, 11
    esems a s i~ni l1cant carbon 101IIk tor inereJ.M:d levels of
    D dioxide in the atmosphere (Bu kal a o:t al.. 191);).

    Ih ,nl'r la nl. " r C1t'ar and


    ,\ Iga.'-I;u lt'n " ah'r

    ,
    -'
    >

    ">

    25

    " ,

    >

    '"=0

    :E'"

    ( "lear
    \\:ller

    05
    AI phylllplankhJn

    III .... urcr btllhe!>

    cem.nn the photnsyntho:t-

    Il~ active p igment o:h1,'rof'h~ II a 110\\ ever. chlorophyl l r ,

    m even c ma~ also he rT'l."S<.'1l1 and at \ arious depths.


    are 1.... 1' othe r ph)'tup lanklUlI pllt'II",~nthcloi/ ing
    ~b: nIlVlt//oi.l.l' and I'lryn>hilim . Bukara ,'1 al. (l iN;)
    ~ I:'\l. however, that chlororh~ II " ma) he considered a
    !J:a. mable ..urruglll, fur rhc organic C\lmpOIICJlI of op tically
    mmp1c:l. natura l \\o atcn. Fortunately, because diffe rent IHloI:S
    ph~ lop la nkton have differen t concemranon.. of chtoro~11. thl:'~ appear a!o di fferent

    colors III scnsi uv C remere senThus. recording the color o f a ll urea of the ocean or
    (lhcr water body allows u-, It> esumatcthe a moun t and genealtypc ufphytoplan ktun in umr urea and Id b u.. abou t the
    leaIth and chemistry of the water body. Co mpari ng images
    uken ut different times Iells us nbour changes rhar occur .' \ ..r
    arne and thc pr'lCt.'~s":l- <II wor k.
    lIll'S.

    'DtIOWl'hyll <I mrroduccd to pure wa ter changes il.. spectral


    eflectancc character istics. i.c.. il~ color. Fur example. Fig1!\' 12-1 0;1 depict s the spectral reflectance chamctcrisuc s of
    dear ""31~'r and thc same water laden with algae l')lll-ist ing
    jrimarily of culorophy II II tf lan. IIJ<J7). Clear water reflected
    pproximatcly ~ percent between ~ I)O and ; O(] 11 m and
    proppo.::d grad ua lly 10 less than I p~' rct.'111 at \\; I\I;'ktl !,: th~
    ~)'"1(1 710 11 m. as exp C.:lo:d. l'lll1 V<: I',,'ly. llJU I' PWlloull.:cd
    ;SCJnering/abs orptioll fc;lIurO:l- " I' chlorop hyll lin.' t.'vi dO: Il1 in
    e algae.ladcli Wllll,' r:
    ' strung chloru phyll 'I ah->t,rplillll OI' h1IIC lighlht.'IWl,'';-11 ~ 1l11
    and SOli JIm:
    chl orophyll II ab->tlrpliol\ 1'1' red
    appw xlmalely n 75 nm I ( j ild o;l'n. I 'N;! ):

    ,Irung

    lighl

    at

    rcncdancc llIi1ximum :lrllund 550 nm (g r.en pc'lk I l:,IUs,"d


    br n:laril'l.'1r lower ahsorplio n of green Iighl hy algae
    iGildsoll. I IN;!);

    II
    4

    25

    >

    ;;

    '"

    ,,

    soe

    ~"
    .\ Iga t"-I:ld e n \ \ at.. r with \ ari"l1 \
    SIl..pe nded S.:d iment C "nr l'nlrllli{tll'

    '"

    soc IJ\~ 1

    "
    10

    ;
    /

    500

    b.

    (,I~ t

    70(1

    SOO

    lJ(J(J

    Wave length 111 m)

    "':l-

    Figure 12-10 :'I) 1"'rn 'T11 rcllcctnncc ,,( clear aml ~l lg "elll d c l\
    tcr t>"".:d on 1/1 ., i lll spcct romdiomc rvr measure11l~1l1.

    hI

    I'e r~, n l r<'ll~,I;\ nc ....

    " I' <llg,I~'-la<,kn \\a lcr

    h \ ,lri,'us ....1'nc"lllr.lli"ns of ' usl....ndo:d ,cdim cnt

    \I' it

    rllnging l'nlill 0

    5nn I11g/l hl1.:r lIan.

    1 1J~ 7 ).

    pwminclll rcllcc lanct: pcak armllld 1',<)0 - 700 11m ClllI""U


    and a mi nimu m
    "u mbincd d 1l.."cl uf pigmclll and wato:r ahsl'rpti,'II. T he
    height I' f lh l!' [1<." lk aOO\l: \h,' haseline (;IhSl}rptio n ITfl ugh )
    ea ll he u..... J 10 ,Iccu raldy m.... llloUro: ch lorllph)'ll a moun l
    ( RUlldllU i~ICI al.. 11)1)5).
    h~ an intn ,Klioll I ll' alga l-cdl scallcr ing

    HlI..i<:all), 01.. ,'hl"rt'ph)1I ,'o llcO:lllr,ll lUIl i no.:rO:;ll>O:~ tn Ih..:


    \\alo:r cu lum n. lho: r.... is a sig niticall1lkn~ase tlllh, rdal i\ c

    420

    C" II-\P" l t :lt

    amou nt o f energy reflected In the blue and red .... evctcn grhs.
    bUI an increase in green wa vele ngth refl ectance.
    When both suspended min era l sedime nt and chlorophyll an.'
    pres...nt in till: wa ter body at the same lime . a dramatically
    d ilTerent spect ra l response is produ ced, f o r exa m ple, Figure
    12- 1tlb demo nstrates w hal ha ppe ns 10 the spectral response

    of water as red lI...m sediment concemranore, from 0 - sou


    mg.'l an: added tu water tha i nllliains alg ae (chlorophy ll <II.
    Fnr algae-la den water. the peak reflectance in the vis jblc
    region sh ifkd

    rrom 5~7 nm (green light l al 0 mg. l to 5% om

    (o range) at SOO mg I.

    Rundqu ist ct a l. (1 1J96 1 and IIl1 n and Rundq uis t (1 91)7 )


    obt ai ned accurate estimates o f alga! c h l ll ruph~' 11 pig ment

    amount in surface water using a simr k ncar-infrared 0 0:;


    nm ) 1 red (CJ70 run ) rat io when the conccmration ofchlorophyll .... as rela tively low. Com pc ung the first dc rivu uvc uf
    re flec tance aroun d h'Xl nm produced the best results when
    a lga l ch lorophyll co nce ntration WOi~ re lat ively high.
    Chln rop hy ll in Ocea n \ Val er : 11 is assumed that a remo te
    es tima te of near-surface chloroph yll concentration consnlute-S a rem ote esurnatc of ncar-surface biomass tor prima l)
    producnvityj fo r dee p oce-an (em: I) wa ter .... her e there is
    liulc danger o f suspended minera l sediment comatuinarion.
    Nume rous studies have documented a rela tionship hctw cell
    sel ected spect ral hands and ocean chlorophy ll co nce-ntrati on
    (Chf) using the- equation Ie.g, Gordo n et at. IIIX3 ):

    ( I:!-5;
    whe re LO'I) and LfA: ) are the up.... ell ing radiancl.'s al
    selec te-d wa \ekng lhs rccu rded by Ihe remote sensing sysh.'m
    and ,\' and y are empirica lly de rin'J constant" Bukata ct :II.
    ( 1995 1 poi nt Illit tha i this approach docs Il ll! tah' intn
    acc uunl lhe absorptiun and M.:atl cring chanu.: teri~ lie' 0 1" lhe
    inorganic an d 0lli an ic CI'lh tituc nl, lIf lhe stud) ilrea The
    only reason it is <,ueces...lul is that 1ll the m id-Ix' ean , l'hlllWphy ll pi gme nt~ ilre lhe princi pa l co lo rant Of C b e- I "atef"O.
    Salel lite remOh.' M.'flsing syslems used to measure ocean
    eol ur are summari,t...-d in Table 12-2 . Tho:- l'PCral l. mal a lgnnt hms used 10 e:\t ract phYlop lilnkton ab undance info mlatioll
    fro m severa l o f thes e satel lite remote s('nsinl,! sy"tems are
    summarized in Tah k 12-] . lI 11p...fully. the upna liol1<l1 J Igorithm s arc sp;lli" lly an d temporall y invaria nt. mean ing Ilu l
    th~'y w ill wil rk nlll,a a nyw hl' re, anytime .
    The SCil-view ing Wide Field of View Sensur ,Sea WiFS)
    laun ehc-d in 1(jq7 "as designed by ;,\AS .-\ and ind ustry

    12

    Re mote Sensing 0 1 Water

    IO RRI\ 1.-\GE, lnc. ) to bu ild o n wha t " J ~ teamed U~ iDgtb:


    ( 'oastal Zo ne Color Scanner. Sea WiFS has additional b.mlI
    ill 4 12 n111 (In ident ify yellow substanc es tilrough t he lr ~hl
    wa\ dcnglh absor ption). at -190 mn (to increase ~ l' ll ~ i li vityll
    chlorophyll concenrration j. and in the 7(,5 and ~ (> 5 nm na
    infra red no assi~ l in remo ving atmospheric anenu auom
    Hecause of the role of phyto pln nkron in the global em
    cycle. SeaWiFS data arc usc,d to a~ses.... the ocean's role
    the global carbo n cycle and to ex amine ocean ic (J..1vrs
    atfect g loba l climate cha nge ( Pink ert on et at.. 2005). <:;a.
    Wif S data an: used to ide nnfy the mag nitude and \ anabllily
    of the an nua l cycle of primary prod uc tion by marine pbJ.
    topta nkron aml tu determine the distr ibution ond timing 01
    ~ pri n !! bloollls. The obscrvauon-, help sc kn lis!s u nd~l'li!Jnd
    the dYl1 illllie s Ill" oc ean a nd coastal c urren ts. the physks ol
    m ixing. ami Ihe re lationship.. betwee n oc ean phys ics and
    large-scale paucm-, (I f prod ucuvuy.
    Sea\\ 'if-S research mcorporat...... atmospheric correc tion mt
    improved ill}!:orithms applied 1\1 ocean imagery, The ltll.ll.
    impo rtan t SeaWiFS operational a lgorith ms. involve ue ee
    ofband- 4-1 .'- -I'-IlI. or 5 1U nm div ided by the hand at 555nm
    (I"ahk ~-3J (F'll kll\\'s ki et al., IYt,lX: Pinke rton t't al.. 2005
    For exam ple . consider seve ra l ex amples o f the oceana
    llpplicat illll' Il l' Sc-a WiFS datn in Color Plate 12- 1. The tiT>l
    image is a gllllxd map o f chlorophyll a der ived from a compo snc of imag es obtained from Septe mber ]. 199 7. throog!;
    December ~ I. 1\)\)7 (Color PI:tIl' I 2-l a). Th e next imageisl
    true-color composite ofa portion o f'thc ea stern Unncd StaI<5
    at a spat ia l res..lution of 1.13 x 1. 13 km (Color Plate 12-lhl
    1 he true-color image i.. a color cornpos ue of'ba nds 670. 55'
    and -II:! nm (RG BI and hlllhli ghts veg etation as>tlCwtll
    .... ;th land morpho logy. Wh ile area... ilre elllud s and dense
    a<,"fOsl,l s, ('ol,'r Plate 12-l c ]lres~'nt s the chlorophyll o COlIl"Clllr:ltilllh on September JO. 1'197. Rl.'d collie'S reveal high
    l'lllwl' l1 lrat ions 0 1" chloroph yll. yd lows and gTl'cns inditalr
    ink rnlt'd iate co ncentr at io ns o f l' hlorophy ll. and blues and
    purples d, 'CUl11ellllllw chloro phy ll eo ncc- ntra tiolls .
    rang ('I a l. (:21)(1.') found g'-.od agr~mcnt wi th SEAWiFS
    dala and ill .illl ch lllTOphy II <I lIIea~uremcnh in Ihe Gulfof
    Tl)nk in. South China Sea . (jrcg~ and Ca sey (;;004) c0mpar ed lhl.' S~';I Wi ~S ehlo mphyll da lO! Sl'l 10 glohal JIld
    reg ional ilrc hives of :\ASA and ~ OAA ill .j/lt c hl\lro~n
    data. The globa l curnp' lrison yicldl-d a roo t me,m squm
    (I{ ~ l S ) log erro r \It" J I%. with a cocllicient of dl'temlinaliOll
    t R ~) o t"O. 76 . lP;ing -I. 1M; J ata pllilll~ , RMS lllg elTu r foro~n
    on':1Il (de fined :IS bOl to m dcp th >2()f) m ) w as 27.7% with R:
    '" 0 .71. eompilred tv .U % R ~ I S log l' rTOr and I{ ~ '" O.6Ih ear
    the cua"b .

    42 1

    mote Se nsing Su rface Wat er Biophysical Ch ara cteristics

    12-2.

    Satellite rcrmuc scnsillb ~}Sl<, rn~ U~L-d to measure ocean euler (courtesy of Intem;llinnal Ocean Colour Coordinating Group.
    hllp:llwww.l<)Ccg.0TW'><:ns<lrs)

    Sen so r

    Ag e nc y

    Satel lite

    Sp atia l
    Res olut io n
    1m )

    Number
    o f bands

    Spect ra l
    c overage
    (nm)

    rzrs

    NASA \ USA )

    Nimhus--7 IUSA )

    I Oi24 '7S-Q6l22,1l6

    1115

    ecrs

    ?\ASll (Japan )

    xoros (bp;tn l

    es- t 71'%-0710 1V7

    ADEOS (Japan)

    0&1 7rw,..n7101,V7

    '000

    ",

    411:! IZ500

    CNES (Frnlltt)

    "'"

    DI.R W c rman}')

    IRS P3 (India)

    Launch 03/21 91>

    suo

    -Wli-I600

    NASA\USA)

    OrbView-Z

    Launch 0810\/97

    1100

    OCI

    "' IT (Japan)

    ROCSA r - 1(Talw ;ml

    Launch 01'W

    l<2 ~

    OC\1

    ISKO tl ndia)

    IRS-N (India)

    Launch 05126iY<}

    3"

    "
    ,
    ,

    ~IODlS-To:rT<l

    NASA tUSA)

    r.,rTU (USA)

    launch I2IUi'Q<)

    1 5fl1~ 001 1 000

    OS\U

    KA Rl (Korea)

    KOM PSAT\ Korea)

    l aunch 12f10i y<}

    1!50

    \tERIS

    E...SA 1Europe!

    ES V ISA f 1 [Europe !

    b unch 03/0 1'()2

    ) 00 1100

    \IODIS-Aqlw

    :"lASA tUSA)

    tlqllo(USA)

    La unch 05104-'02

    oronts

    CI's S\ \China)

    xhen l ..hou-3 IC hina)

    eOCTS

    C\'\5A IChi na)

    Ibi Yang- 1 (Chin a)

    ell

    ('\,\5,\ (China)

    llai Yang- 1 (Chi na)

    0;

    15iO~_WI~5 i03

    250

    (;U

    NASDA (Japan)

    AI>EOS-ll (Japan)

    11,'14/0Z-I 0125/03

    250/10tlfl

    CNES (Fruncc ]

    A1>EOS-1l (Jupan)

    12, 14!O~ 10,25103

    6000

    """"1
    ~IOS

    )eaWiFS

    Pt,lder-.2

    The primary insrrurncm for ass,,; ~s in g (}CC,Ul product ivity on


    Ihe EOS Terra spucccruf is M ODIS. MOD IS bands X - Ill,
    r!nging from 405 - '(1, 77 nm at 101 11.1x 1(1)0 m spatia l resoluuon. arc particularly well suited 10 the collection o f" infbrmaion on oc ean co lor, phytoplankton concentration. and
    hogeochcmistry ( ~ I O IJ IS, 200(,). Ti.'nu I'I l () DIS produ ct
    numhcr l\10D .2 I , parameter numbe rs 26 and 27 (C hlor_a_2
    md a_3, respectively] can be USl ' U to extrac t Chlorophyll a
    eeccrnration informal io n from Case I and Case .2 water
    ising the algorith ms fo und in Table 12-3 (O' Reilly cr al..
    ~)()(); Card er ct nl.. 2002 : Darccki and Stramski. 2(114). A
    IMp of the chlorop hyll 'I dist ributiun ulong the so uthern
    Lnncd State s on Nov.. . t uber 23, 200 3, derived using the
    MODIS Ch]('r_3_2 a fgonthm is shown in C o lor Plate 12-2.

    lnfon una rely, 0..'\ en these algor ithms semcnmcs have diffi erlry ex tracting c hlorop hyll " inform mion from o ptica llycomple-c water such as the Baltic Sea {lIarecki and Strarnski.

    Operat ing
    Oate s

    Jf>

    4.l312500

    433910

    e.sas
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    401885
    405_1 43s5

    o-soc

    Z50f.'iOO/\OOO

    ,."

    4 1210."0
    405- 1431!.'i

    113 lSf02-O'lll .'i112

    400

    J4

    403- 12500

    Launch 05/ \ 5102

    1100

    10

    402- 12500

    ,.

    421l..Kl/ CI

    ,
    ,

    375-12500
    ~4 .1 _9 1O

    20(4 ). Maruorcna and Siegel (20ns ) presen ted a W:lY to


    merge satelluc OC<:11I1 color da ta streams From MO DIS "no
    Se" Wi!'S to improve global daily coverage infor mation.
    C h lo ro p h}'11 in ('n:ls l ;l l ll nd In lnnll " 'ntl'!": For inland and
    nca r-coa sta l wate r hudics , i t is ofte n difficult to discntuug fc

    the Information about the phytoplankton pigrncnrs in the


    rem ote sensor data fro m the c uecrs of sus pended ino rganic
    materials or dissolvcJ org anic maucr (DOM ). T h is norm ally
    requires the lI SC nf sop histicat ed atmospheric correc tio n
    technique, appl ied to the re mote sensor data te.g.. Ram sey et
    al., 19921 and a complex multi ple-co mponent extrac tion

    methodology t c.g., Bukata cI nl.. 1')1)5 ). For example.


    Karaska et al. (20114) docume nted the usc of Airborn e Visible.l nfrared Imaging Spectro meter (AV IRIS ) hypcrspcctra l
    da ta to map chlorophyll <I in coastal and es tuarine Case 2
    .... ater associated wi th the Neuse Rive r in North Carolina.

    12

    422

    Table 12 3 .

    Rem ote Sen s ing of Watar

    S...leered opcrauona l hand-rollina lgorithms for remote se ns ing ph)10pl,m kltln abundance .
    Algorithm

    sens or and A lg orithm

    OCTSc s..'aOAS 4 .3
    C hi _DC"'"

    C"

    (O.S SOOl>' M'l7RI


    .[0

    "

    References
    O 'Rci ll}'':1 al. I

    ere

    Pinkerton d at...

    R
    Sea V.W:o. UC: ~ v4
    Sca OAS 4 .3
    c h l_......2

    R l490I]
    R - lu!! w Rr- 555
    L

    S..:aWiFS 0 ('4,4

    n(

    "hcr.:,, = [O.J J'I. -1 .J_~t>.H.1I7" ..0. I J~ . (1.011 1

    O"Rcillyo:taL .

    Sl.-aIlAs-J.3

    chl _oc4
    chlo r_ 3

    R "" llI '

    "

    fIIa.r I R, (+*3). R (4901. R (510I J]

    '

    ~lU [

    ' S

    R (<;55)
    .

    "

    o =- IO.J66.J.007. 1.930. G.oN. -1.Sl! 1


    O-Rdll}.1 al.,~{((r

    ....IOOIS D ,-\.\C-V4
    C hlo r _1I_2

    .... Iorel and Anloik


    2000;

    (based on Sc'aWiFS oc,


    algon thm wnh modified
    band s)

    "as '" L
    __,+I
    _ '_) und r J ,
    /.(551 )
    .

    =-

    Darecki and S:,'1lIlIski.100t


    Pinkerton et 31.. 2Q(\\

    L(448 )
    L( 55 1)

    where <I =- Ifl.211.1. -2 .7~] . IA 57. 111>' '1. 1..J.U.l J


    ....10 1)15 UA /\ C V4
    ch hl r_ \ 10 Ul S

    \tOlll S Il\:\('- V4
    { -hlu r _Il_J
    (fo r ('a"" I und (',I": 2
    wlllcrsl

    [0'

    C" '"

    C1~f".

    ",,[_
    L=(..,'",,
    ,, )]-IAO
    -: ""

    D Jrc'd;.i and SU1lIlI-

    "

    ,, - [H.2IN.

    ski. 2004 :
    Carder <:1 ,11.. ~()(l:

    -x.z, 1.2J

    ~klrcl

    MERIS-C

    l oon

    [ R" I'-")]

    R '" !t)111 Rrs(SOO )

    itT.. <: L then ~ ,=4.B and a .. [0,1. J 15, -1.1.; 44. 1.21': 1.. -2.747. 2.S65. -1.2(l4J.
    if 1 ~ C.. 5 10. then >..u=.4')O and II = [O.311Nl, 2.020. 2.572 7.15". III IS. -0,S95J.

    if Ca > 10. rhcn 1,,)>=5 10 and a =- 10.390. -3. litH, J.I MI. -20.33. 63.2 I. 11 J.'l].

    N .\S n \ l' rnCI'""r C hi"

    c:"
    R

    :JX~

    L" n( 550)

    ESA "' rm' \'~ ,ur c'nu

    liLl O(' . H .iLl

    I'/<J7:

    Pinkerton el al.,

    ""

    (/~

    I0"

    "'10[

    I OI "" - " , H ~ " , R ~ ,, , f/

    where

    lII m l /".. ~ ( -1 'B ) , L..,,( -160 j. L ~ ,, (S2 0) 1 ]

    1... ~ ( 5 -1 5 )

    (05 12. -3.(.5. 4 ,45:. -2..175. -ll,167J

    31\(1Antoine.

    ,
    te se nsing Surface Water Biop hysical Characteristics

    ssotved Orl:an ic Ma lt'rial


    light pe netrates into the wate r co lumn a certa in photic

    , h uhe verti cal distanc e fro m III.: \.\ atc r surface 10 the I
    t subsurface irradmn ce le\ el} , Phytoplankto n w ithin
    phone depth o f tile \.\ ater co lum n con sumo: numerus lind
    vert them into organic maucr " ill pho tosynthesis. Thisis
    jed p rim m ')'1',.".Ju("li(", . Zooplan kton cat the phyto plan k-

    and create organic matter. Hactenoplankron decompose


    m.s organic mutte r. All thi s conv ers ion introd uces Ji.HO/I'l,d
    Of!:mlic malleI" ( DO I\l) into oceanic, nea rshore. and inland
    Iller bod ies . In ce rtain instan ce s. uicrv ma y be su fflcicm
    dssolv cd organ ic maucr in the wat er 10 reduce the pcn ctra lion of light in the wat er column (Buk.1l3 et al., 1 ~ 5 ).

    The decomposi t ion of phytoplankto n cell s yields ca rbo n


    ecxidc. ino rga nic nitro gen. sulfu r. a nd phosph oru s co m;JOOnd~. The more product ive the phy topl ank ton, the greater
    tile release o f dis solved organic matt e r. ln add ition, humic
    J~b,'/aJIC{,S ma y he produced . Th ese often ha ve a yellow
    rppearance and represent an important colorant agent in the
    laler co lumn, .... hich rnay need 10 be taken into con sider Ilion. These d issolved humic substa nces are called vetto.....
    ~lonce or Ge/h.\ /olJe and ca n I ) impact the absorption and
    lQtlering of light in the .... arcr column. a nd .::! , change the
    color o f the wat er.
    There arc so urces of d issol ved organic matte r other than
    pIly1 op lan kton . For exa mple , the bro wnish-y ellow color 01"
    1M water in ma ny rive rs in the nonhcm United Stares is due
    LO the high conccmra uons of tannin fro m the eastern hem Jod ( I ,f uga c(IIICld(1/.~ i.~ I and va riou s other spec ies o f trees
    IlId plant- gro .... n in bog s in these areas [ Hoffer, 1971\ ).
    Ibese tann ins can cre ate pro blems .....he n remote se ns ing
    eland wate r bodies.

    Water Penetration and Bathymetry

    423

    ope d a special wutcr pcnctnuion film in the 1970s thai was


    sensitive to the wavele ngth interva l OA4 - 0,54 urn anc r tiltranon. Tlus infor mation was also used when sped(ving the
    blec-scns iuv c band (OA 5 - 0.5 2 pm) r>1I the Landsat T hema lic M a p~r se nsor sys te m. ....hich is o nen ca lled the water
    pc netranon band . If the .... atc r column is exceptionally clear,
    it is pos sible to see subsurface features to a depth of 10 - 30
    m by :'\.' n ~ing in these .... a\ ele ngihs.
    Bathym etric mapping in the 1l.4 ~ - () , 5~ u rn port ion o f the
    spectrum requi res thatthe wate r be almost free Irom org anic
    and inorganic ccnstuucnrs such as c hlorophy ll and suspended sediments thai ....ould cause sca tter ing and/or absorpnon to ta ke pla ce and obsc ure thc bonom topography.
    1I0 \\ <:\er, as dem on strated in the Cc zumel. Mexico, example l Figure: 12-4 J. even th e green a nd red wavelength re gion
    arc o f vafue tor water penetration when the water is clear.
    But what happens whe n wa ter is not clear? Perhaps the blueg ree n portion o f the spectrum may not he the mos t ide al
    region to usc if the water co nta ins s uspended sedi ment.
    Lcglcitcr ct ill. (2004) do cumented the effe cts o f cha nnel
    water de pth o n remote se ns ing refl ecta nce (Figure I.:! II).
    They found that at wa velengths <560 nm. remote se nsing
    refl ectance from the bo n om substrate increased as de pth
    increased from 5 to XO ern. Conversely. as de pth increas ed .
    the remote sensi ng measu red refl ec tance in the red and part icularly the ncar-infrared spec tral regions decreased du e to
    the slWllg ab sorption by pure wate r as previously d iscu ssed .
    A crossover ponu of equa l re flectan ce for all dep ths separated scanerin g and absorpnon-dommarcd reg ime s [ Le gleiter c t al . 2IJlM),
    Based o n these results, Leglcit cr ct al . 121)(M ) found that thc
    natural log o f the simp le rat io of t....u ban ds o f hypcrspcctral
    dahl center ed on 560 nm and 690 nm correla ted well w ith
    stream wate r de pth (wd):

    ... d = In[/. (5 60 )] .
    Bathymet ric ma pp ing can be pe rfo rme d using passive optical tc.g., aeria l photograp hy} or act iv'e re:motc scnsing ~ys
    lClllS.
    MO'it g..'O~ph iea l1y e:\tcn~ i v e and aeo:urate
    bathymetric o:harting is perfomK-tl us ing act ive SO :'liA R
    t\\hich rellcets S('u nd wa \C~ o tr the Otl!tom ) and L1DA R
    (which rd klts laser light o lTl ho: botto m ).
    Balh)-nw lr ic :\lappinJ:
    SeI1VillJ:

    I :~ i n ~

    P:", i\{' Optica l It e mnte

    The opt imu m optical wavel en gt hs to ornai n t>a thymet ric


    (depth) informatllm arc from app rox imately 0.4-1 to 0 .54 ),Ull
    based on Figur e 1.:!-3. In fact, Koda k. Inc.. seicll1 ists devc!

    /. ( 6 QO)

    ( 12-61

    ac ross a broad rang e o f strea m conditions ( R 2 = 0.79). Th is


    techniq ue oUlperformed th e line ar lrans lClnn me thod used in
    h l ~!clrical ro.:nWle sensing b<lthymctr ie mappi ng studies in
    shallow cO:lslal waters. Legle iler and Robc ns (2005) subseque nt ly st llrlied the etre cts of c hanne l mo rpho logy and scnsor spa lial re ~() I U1 i ()n on dep lh estim ate s deriv ed using the
    sallie rOit io . LJfon et aL (2oo.::!) found that acc urat e bath)metric mCilsu rements in CA SE II tidal in let wa ler cou ld beob ta ined usi ng. SPOT muh i!iopl.'Ctral da ta iflhe data .....ere cal
    ibrated us ing III ~Itu dc pth measurement s.

    424

    n l \l"

    t: rr... d . " r\\ al l'r n cprf u n lh e "tt'mul e St'n,i ng


    R... Ifv... tan...... of a x rr eam ( "hannd

    enu
    O.O I ~

    "k

    0 III

    - _. 5 till J c plh
    --- 2U em
    _.'/1 em
    50 cm
    65
    ~U crn

    'Ill

    ~:H

    Remot e S e n s ing of WOller

    sendi ng acoustic puls es via it tran sducer. The ,lcoUSlic llu!sl:l


    arc reflected h) the sea Floor and the reflected echoes n
    rcccivcd by the transd ucer. I'he elapsed time belli-em
    ou tgo ing pulse and the retu rn echo can be used to accUI1td
    determin e depth , There a rc t h ree main IYflL'S of SO"lAR'i!"
    terns { ~ ()A A e s c, 2UOf, j :
    xinglc beam

    12

    S() ~ .-\ R:

    ~ O.OlJll

    mul tiple beam SO ~A R:

    o.e..
    0 ,00'

    .,-jJ.i::
    ->~.,.

    '"

    O,OO:?

    5 em

    Pcnph yt.... ... INr.au


    SaI,""'n1 c.--..nl,. .....

    W,IId >f'C"'l 5

    ,no'.

    side-scan SO;.JA K.

    '-. ~o .

    ' m, L
    \"." <m,_

    IlOcm ~

    Smg h '-hf!l1m S(}',,"--fR-~ usc a transducer th at em its a s.i~

    sound p ulse into the \\ are r co lumn at s pecific intel'\'als'll


    a narrcw acoustic footprint (F ig ure I :!I::!). Th e ~OUnd"'i~':

    reflects o fft he seafloor (or fish !) a nd the return is capwml


    R gur e 12-1' t he ... nec ts ot warcr d,,..lh on remote se'flsi ng retlec1aIl<:<: from a ~lf("am channel. This particular a ream
    ch annel bonom substrate .... as covered with Peripb)1011 'a curnph:\ lIIalri, of alga... ami heterotrophic
    microbes attached 10 submerged mat erial in almost
    all a'l ual1c l."\:,,,,y~kms) which has a ,uung absorpl ion f,'i\IU!'t' at (>7 5 r un. The stre am ....arer contained
    ap proJHmaldy 2 mgll llf suspclH.kd scdrrncm. 1'\, .1<,:th at as,h,.. dep eh o (lh,' wat er inc reased truro 5 10 llO
    e m. the red and ncar-infrared re flectance fm m the
    Y" Il~" column dcnc;l'...d. Conversely. as the deplh
    uf the W ~ ler increased. Ihc greater the reflecta nce
    from w avc fcug ths -c ;(,.0 nm. A reflectance crossover occ urred at epproximatcly .'\hOnm ILcglcite r cl
    a I., :!OO-\ : reprinted with pcnnission fmm EI"",'i<:rl ,

    Wh c n cond uc ting bathym . . lric surveys using photog rallllllclric techniqu es. it im pon :llll to l:lke il1!o :lCCO U11l th e t:1Ct th:ll
    lhe light from Ihe Sun is hen t fro m lIs trul: Cll ur~c in holli lhe
    atmosp h....re and in the wa ler ....Ohllllll. ....ausing balh ym .... tri.... (: 1
    in format ion in the im:lg('I)' 10 /l ll ' h(' in ilS pro per pl:lnimetr ic
    (x ,l 'l po silion. Th..:refo re, ll1e ind.... x (l t~ rcfnl cl i o n pr....\i ous ly
    disc uss....d in Cllilplcr 2 mllsl be l;lken imo ....onsid.... ration
    whenever ren1\)te sensi ng n1l'thod s arc used to pe rfo ml
    bathym .-trk ma pp ing .

    Balhlm('trk I\lappl n::: Using . \ Cll\ (' SO:'llA R


    TIle a.... ronym SO ~ A R ( SOund, NA vigation and Rang ing ) is
    a n Am..:rica n ll' nn tirst lIsed in World War II. The Brit is h cal l
    SO NA K, AS O le s (A nti-Suh ma rine lklL"t:tion 1m eSligalitm
    (olll minee ). SO ~ A R tCl'hlltll(lgy may b<: us..:d to collect
    measurem ents o f the scal1oor. When ac tive SO ;.JAR is used
    10 l11ea sun: the d islall....e to th.... tll.lllllm, it is lnll" n as I'clw
    ,\ fJI l11d i ll};. Ec hu S\lunde f1i, arc uSt.'d to measure wa tL'r deplh by

    hy the transduc e r t~O :\ I\ esc ::!006}. Smgk-a


    SO~ :\ R data arc collec ted along transectlines and t~ p~
    ca nnot provide co nnn uous coverag e n f'thc seafloor. The:
    put resolu tion (,I' the da ta a rc determined b) the JCOJSJiI.'
    foot print SiLC. s;lIupling inter. al, sam pling speed, and diIta nce between transects . Single-beam se nsors may colko
    f>alhymltry dina (lr he calibrated til idL'ntify seafloor habllA
    fish. or subsurface sedimen ts. Many of the systerm .-r
    dL'signed tn he l'asily transported a nd used in small boats thlI
    can access shallow areas. Recreatio nal fisherman use rdauvcly inex pensive single beam SONAR sys tems.

    Htdfl/,le' '' ,'dm SO.YA H\ pmvide users with twn kinds of


    data: bathy mctric (depth I and .. ucoustic backscatter" (Gard
    ncr. ::!on::! ). T hey can he used in extremely deep water (up10
    11,0( 1(' Ill ). ' I ' h e~e sen st' rs rmit multiple sound pul~
    (b.. . ams l that cov cr lar ge overlapping swa ths of the scallooL
    .:-nanli ng cnn ti nunus CnVl'f:lgc nf the sca llnnr, The backscat
    ler sig nals 1.'(111 be IIsell for ha hilllt o r fc,llure mapp ing.
    Mu ltIp le heam ;!c('Iuslic Sl'\lS(lfS arc Iyp icall y mo unted onthe
    ship's hu ll. Th e ,onar s<:It,], a t:lll o t"sound energy to\\ aldtht
    s....a tloor. tlK'n re....ord, thl: re tlected suu nd th rough a set of
    naITO\\ rece iw rs a imed al d il1"ercnl an gle s ( rigtl~ 12-12l. 1t
    call delec l feillures as sma ll ;I S o ne meter a.... HJss and ]OCJlt
    lhe m 10 wilh in u ne m.... t.... r o f the ir true geographic location
    ( NO AA Olli e~ ('I f Coa:'lt Sliney. 2(1)0 ). Fnr example, 1M
    K\lIlgsbcrg EM ..002 multipk b<:am echo so unde r has I
    n"min al frcl.j uc n.... y l,f 300 t.. 11:.- wilh an angular eo\ m gr
    he lllw the ship 0 1 ~ 2 00~ and up 10 50l( ac oust ic soundings
    jl\:r p ll1 g as narro w ;I ~ I J e);:ree (Kong sb<: ~ , 2005 J. Aehie\
    an k S\\ ath " iJlh (lli a nat OU!lOIll is nnm lJ Jly up to I0 ti~
    thc water dl'plh_ T he sp.1c ing hclween sound ings as well as
    lhe ilcoustic 1lltltp rinlS l"an ~ sel nea rly co nstant over the

    te Sensing Surfac e Water B iophy s ica l Characteristic s

    425

    Side-scan SO'.jAR., <Ire usually lowed be hind a bo at l re ferred


    \ !Ullir k -b.:;,m
    "O'i AR

    SO ~ ,\ R

    H ath~ m t'tr~

    S .n,l~ am

    SCl"M R

    _-

    Tr;ul5l1Ul .In.! 1~"'6V'C

    ......

    '9Jre 12-12 Single- and mutuple-bcam SnS .,\R s. A Singlebeam SO;";A R Imnloa'l \ <'1" ...."tId~ out a singh: puis.<:
    ot acousnc ,,,,'und ) ,'n,'fS) usually dir,-ctl) beneath
    the boar. The acoesuc enefl!.Y trefcrr curo as a p mg l
    is rclkct.-d oITthe ""Ullin (or any intervening (ll>jecl
    - uch as II ~hl ...1 u f fish l lind IS reco ....kJ by the
    tran sceive r, It is then I'"ssi t-k 1<> de tcrmme lhl.'
    de pth t{llal}!<"1~ ha....'<I ,'Il ho\\' IUIl I,! il l<>u I.. the pubc
    lu return to the surfac... an d a knowledge ufth e speed
    of "",,00 In wa ter \t Ulll pk -w m ~( ) "l ARs transrmt
    n};lIlY beams per ae{lu"tk ping Ie.g , > 5001as narrow
    as I degrl:\"amle:lnk(l,rlr:tel..nf~xllell) \\hen lhey
    encounte r the bou.eu torother features in the wate r.

    sanh in order to pnwid c a unifo r m and h igh detection and


    lllJpping pc rforrnanc c . An acoustic im"b'c o f thc sea bed
    fkor can a lso hc produ ced fnnuthc da ta (Kon gsbc rg. 2(H15 ).
    Color Plate 12-3a dcpict-, thc shaded reli ef bathymetry of
    lake Tah oe . C;ll iforni aN c vada. It W<l S create-d by co mbining bathyme tric datu obtained by n K (lI1 j;sbe r~ multiple'X'llm SO NA K syste m (to r depths > I 5 In l and d ata ohta ined
    from the S I IOA LS U DA l{ ~ ys l .: m (for depths from 0 tu 15
    m ~ (Gardne r ct al.. :WO(); U.s.G.S" 20(6). TIle cum hine d
    Mhymetry data is color-cndell fo r de plh and me'l!ed with
    lmdsal-7 inmgery l RG B = han ds J. 2. I) u f the surrou ndi ng
    bntl. An aeou~ tic backsc~l1ter map oft.lIke 1 .,hol..' is slum n in
    Cclor Platc 12-30. T he orif'hter to ns's indil'atl: hardl:r surlilct's suc h as roe l... wh ik the dJ rker tn llC;, iud u.:ale ~one r surlict:s such as sedime nt. TIle surmunding I;md is a sl13ded
    Klier' image gencrated from US( jS IO-m !>E\1;" I\n nhlique
    ie\\ o f Ihe bathymctf)' is ~ho\\ 11 in Color Pla te 11-3e
    USGS, 20(6). The lake is alx>ut 34 km (21 mite-- ) lo ng.
    llllI1h 10 SOUlh (Oa rdnc r et '11.,1110()1.

    to as tow - fish ). Th ey arc use d pr imarily for searching for a nd


    detecting objects o n the sea floor, nOI for bathymetric mappin g. The to .... -fish SO:'>lA R points multiple bea ms ar ang tes
    and covers large overlapping swaths. ena bling cont inuous
    coverage of Ihe: seafloor. The rmn smin cd energy is funned
    into the shape o f a filii thai s.... ec ps the sca noor from direc tly
    un der the towflsh ro cn ncr side. Like ot hcr SOf\A RS. a side
    scan transmits sound ~ nergy and a nalyzes the return signa l
    [echu ) renectcd oil' the sea floo r or other objects. The
    st rengt h nfthc retu rn l....ho is continuously reco rded creating
    a ' picture' o f the ocean bonom where objects t hai pro trude
    from th... bottom crea te a Jar\.. image [strong return) and
    shadows from these objects arc light area s (little or no
    rerum ). Wh ile the shape: uf the seafloor and objects on it ca n
    be well depic ted , most s id...-scan systems do nor pro, ide
    depth informatiun . However, the y can be deplo yed in w at ers
    up 10 I I.tJ()() l11... tcrs deep and pro vide data wit h a resolu tion
    of a Ie" centimeters.

    Bathymet ric information can he accurately extracted usin g


    UIJ..\ R ( L,g ht Detection An d Rangi ngl remote se nsi ng
    (re fer to Chapter 10 fllf iufonuauon on terrestrial U DA R
    app licatio ns) , Gucm cr ct al. ( 2f1nO) provid ed a detailed h istory of airborn e U DA R bath ymetric ma pp ing . T he Scanning Hydro graphic O perationa l Air borne Lidar Survey
    (SHOALS ) system is the most adva nced airborne U DA R
    bathymetric nl<l pp ing sys tem (\\'I:s[ and Wigg ins. 2(1)();
    Oprcc h. 2/)06; USAC E. 20(6). $ 1I01\ LS typically operates
    o n a Twin O ucr or a helicopter. S HO A l.S sim ultaneously
    Iires a near-i nfrared { IOfl-l. mn t pulse and a gree n (532 r un t
    pu lse o f lase r liglu toward the wurcr surracc ut th... sa me
    insta nt in time ( Figur e 121J ) (O ptec h. 2(1 (16 ). Much o f the
    near- infrared pulse is uhsorbed by th e water as expe cted . hut
    a certain ;U 1l0 UI I I is rc Fleeted back toward the UDAR
    rece iver (Fig ure 12- 13) 1\ po rtio n ofthe green laser pul se is
    a lso ahs nrhed hy llle "";tte r Cilium n. hut hope fully a su lli ciClll amoun t reilc he~ the boll om and is rc n ...cted ba..k
    tow ard the UD A R reCl' i\"cr . (i reen ligh t is sekcteJ for botto m detl:c tion hl'eause lhat is the .... av.:!e nglh wit hin the 0.-14
    tll 0 .5-1. lllll regi t.Hl lhat p.:nl'tl'atcs lY lli..al eo ast:ll wakrs with
    the Il'ast atten uation . As thc lig ht tra \.:!s throug h the watcr
    col um n :md rl'fkcts otr lhe st:llll",or. 1o.cullering , abso rptio n,
    and refr adion all ..:ornbine 10 Iimitt hc stre ngth o rthe bo tto m
    relUm, lind thcrl'!i.'re the systcm's max imum ext incti on
    depth . Its ma \ imu m .... atl:r ~nctrdt io n dept h is ap proxi maldy flO 111 or 2 to 3 t i llle~ thc S<.'Ceh i Jc pth . Thc wat ...r
    de pth is ca lcu lated from the tim ... diff erencc o.:twce n Ihe

    ( 'I IAnt:R

    426

    .--- "'f". !

    Si multancoue
    tran smi~~ ion of _

    ",

    ,,
    :j

    H alh~

    .,: i

    '.

    "i

    :_

    Rem ote Se nsin g 01 Water

    ta l pmi litJn acc urate 10 J m and a vert ical position aeeum


    to 15 em. SI IOA LS is man aged by the Joi nt Airbome Lss
    Bathym etry Techn ical Cen ter of Expertise bused out ofQr
    US Army Eng ineer District in Mobile . A labama . An eumpic o f SI IOALS ba thymet ric info rmation is shtl" n in ( iii
    Plate 12-3a wh ere il .... as used 10 co llect 0 to 15 m bathYIl'l!ric data of Lake Tahoe.

    metry
    Airbo m c UDA R bath ymet ry overcomes the limitation>
    acoustic ISO 'lAR ) sensors in so me key areas :

    Xcar-mfrared

    surface return

    ..I

    Airborne
    LID.-\R

    ';

    ncar-intirated 110M nm)


    , rn1 green (SJZ nm)
    .~ J'ul~ loward
    wa ter bod} '

    ...-'~

    12

    II pe rform s especially wel l in sha llow wa ter where ro.


    mig ht run aground.

    WaleT

    ,~ Green
    ,,-bonom
    return

    Bol ,om

    Figure 12 13 Airt>omc lIf)AR hal h) 'rnl.'t r)' sen ds tw o lase r pu lses


    [ncar-infrared and l?fe..;l\ I IUWMd the .. aler at cxa...' t-

    Iy the same instant . The nca r-infrared pulse is refleeted from the water surface toward the U DAR
    rKCI VCI. TIle green pulse penetra tes into the water
    co lum n. lf the wah:r is clear enough ant! the dep th is
    nottoo great, a pt.rtion of the gr<X"TI pu lse is rdlec tcd by the bouom substrate bad . toward the rec eiver.
    The difference in time betwccn the rec eption of the
    ncar-in frared return and the grc....n return is used ttl
    comput e the wa te r depth. The imcnsity I,f the hackscattere d t illAR pulse can also he record ed (ada ptcd fnnu SHOALS. 20(5).

    near-infra red surface return and the green bottom return and
    (he speed of Iight in a ir and water (Guenther t' t a l.. 20(0 ),
    Terrestrial L10A R s)'stt:ms send out > )(}O,OO{) pulses per
    second ty pically with a 10 nanosecond pu lse length. U [)A R
    bathymetry systems operate ;\1 a much slower rate. c.g .,
    I,GOO pu lses [i.e.. sound ings ) per seco nd with a 250 nano second pulse lengt h. The longer pu lse length is necessary
    because a short laser pu lse would be scaucrcd in the water
    column (O ptcc h. .:!O()tl).

    The SIIOALS system ca n surve y up to 32 km 2 in one hour,


    at an a ltitude of .:!OO 10 -100 rn a bove sea level (A SL ) with
    speeds up to I I S kno ts. Th e S ilO..... LS sys tem. depe nd ing. on
    ahitude and speed. i" capable o f co llec ting depth S(Jundings
    on a -I m l:! rid . Using a kinematic global posit ioning s)"item,
    SHOALS references eal'h depth mea.,;un:mt: nl to a horizo n-

    It allows surveys of hazardou s coastal areas Ie.g.,


    high "urf) 10 be conducted in com parative safety .
    It is mobile, allowi ng rap id res pon se in emel]m.'

    situanons,
    Large are as can lJC'
    economic adv antages.

    inventoried quickly

    pro\-~

    U DAR an d SON AR harhyrncrric mapping co mplirn<ntlH


    anothe r. LIIJAR is l'l>pe..:ial1) useful for hig h resoluticc

    bathymcmc map ping in shallow water em ironmcm


    wherea s sing le rm d muluple team SO'lAR are useful fer
    bathymetric mapp ing in ime nucdiate a nd deep watcr.

    Water Surface Temperature

    We know from Chapter II (T herma l Infra red Remote Sen..


    ing) thai we may ob tain the temperature of inland ....'ater bcdics and sea-s urface tcmpc ruturc (SS T) during daylight hOOT>
    and nt night using thermal in frared remote sens ing ted!
    niqucs. Unlike land surfucc s. howe ver, water bodies Iransfer
    energ y primarily throu gh ...onvcction. Therefore, any helt
    enc'r gy introduced into the system may he transferred hUlldrcds ormeters 111\0 the wa ter body. T his mix ing is rcspons.
    blc for the relat ively un i form surface temperature of a ",am
    hod y both day and nig ht. Thu s, water bodies generally hal'(
    hig h thermal inertia. mean ing that there may only be a few
    deg rees diffe rence bet.... cen the daytime and nighttime
    wa ter-surfa ce temperature . T his resu lts in water bodes
    uppc ariu g rela tive ly cooler than the land during da ) Iighl
    hours <I n(1 rela tively warm er than surround ing land during
    pr eda....n hours. as dem on -armed in the therm al infra red dr.',
    ti me and nig.huime image~ of Atlanta, G A. in Chapter 8.
    Waler has an emi ssivity 10 \C l) clos e 10 1_ Therefore. it is
    pt.l..siblc to ubtain rclati\e ly aCCUralc .... ater-surface tem~

    427

    eaote Sens ing S urface Wat er Biophysical Cha racteristics

    Sea-sur face Temperature Maps Derived from NO AA AVII I{R nata

    .,

    .-

    .."",7........
    .

    -.

    ,
    ,

    - '

    .~

    -. .
    --, ,

    a.
    ~ re

    b.

    1214 S...a-surface temperature t<;ST) maps derive d from a threc-day co mposite 01 ' OAA A\"HRR therm al infra red dal3 cent cred
    on \'I,lTd, -I. I'J'N. Elich pi... .:1 .... ;0' alloc at..xl the highc,1 scrtace rcmp... r..turc lhal occurred Ju ri n~ lh..: three J a) s. a ) This ternperature "':II' has Ixx-n adjusted In highlig hl the coo l water adj acent 10 the fkorg la and Snulh Carolina coastline. b t Th is map
    has been adj u, l"d Itl highlighl the circulation pauc rns 4'''''CI4k'tf wllh the .... an n tl shorc ( julf Srrcum. A color com posite of
    rhccc imag", lh ;lt pro. ides addiTion:.1 infor mation is found in Color r l ;l k ' 124:. I":"U("-S) ~OAA I

    measurem ents becaus e the (0.:11I011: sen sor rad unu remjeraturc measurement ( r "h l ) is approximately equal 10 the
    l\I~ kinetic ternpcrtuurc II j,,,l, assllm ing the ct fccts of the
    m elting uunusphcrc arc accounted tor. [I is important III
    encmbcr, how eve r, uiut it is only a surface mcavurcruent. If
    ibere is a signilie;Il11e hmlgt.' ill temperature just a lew me ters
    !l:low the surface (i.c.. a thcnuocliuc l, il ma y Il o t he de tected
    i!' the therm al infrared detectors.
    Ire

    ~' O of the mos t importam rhcnna l in fra red remote sen sing
    ssuumcnrs used III measure sen-surfac e tempe rature arc
    nd on the ;.,lOA,\ Adva nced very High Resolution Radi~e(er (AVI IRR I and the :'\I()AA GClIl>latilll1ary Operational
    Iavironmcnta! Satellite (G() FS I. Their spa tial. spec tral. a nd
    enporn l characte ristics arc sumrnnrivcd in th e pte r 7, Datil
    ium these sensors i ~ in the pu blic domain. ava ilable at a reaenable price , and are used ht.':lVil) to ob tain sea -surface
    eopemturc l S S n rncav uremen rs ove r la rge oc eanic surbees usu ally at a spatia l reso lution of > I x I km . For exam~. SST m ea sure me nts o lT the so utheastern CI>.lS t of the
    lniloo Slates ot>t3 i n ~'d o n :\la rch -I, 1 ~, hy thc SO:\ ,-\
    AVHRR arc ShO\lll in Figure I::!I -I and in Color I[att.' I ~--In.

    The SS T imat!cs depictthe co ol wate r adjacent 10 the Gcorg ia and South Caro lina sho reli ne ca used hy the influx ofcool
    wate r from me major nv crs . A lso note the location of th e
    warm Gul f'Sucam \~ indin~ its WII ) northw ard from the lip o f
    Florida a!l'llg the Eastern Seaboard. Tang er al. (2003b)
    c xanuncd lU M ):\ !\ ,\ Vll f{ f{ therma l infrared images to
    monitor the tempera ture chnractcrisrics of the thermal plume
    'lss,'c i;ll,'d \\1111 (hi lw's first nuclear powe r station {Dayn
    H<lY) nnd the larp cst fore ign invc~t !l1l'lll project in China,
    GOES-X sea SUI fac e tcmpc rnrurc measurements have been
    documented to he ac cura te 10 within 1.0 0 lo r B ra zil ia n
    co asta l wa ter (Franca and Cllr\ alh o. 20( 4).
    [ I :'oI ino and l.a :\ ina

    A g tobal sea-s ur face tempe ratu re (SST I map is sho wn in


    Color Plate 11-4b. It \\ :IS created using day, n ight f\OAA - 14
    thermal dam collected fro m xfurch '1- 13, 14'1<l. SST maps
    such us this have been indis pe nsable ill m a p ping the dismbu tiun and m ov em cm of the [ I Ni no Sout hern O scillation
    ( Ef\SOl . [II n11l1-E I Nino conditions, the trade w inds blow
    ((I.... I N Ih.: .... esl ;t e ro~s the tropical lacilic. These \I inds pile

    428

    up .... ann surfac e water in (he .... es tern Pac ific. 'i(l thai the sea
    su rface is about 0.5 m higher ncar Indones ia than ncar Ecuador. SOUlh America. The sea-surface te mperature is a lso
    abou t ll"C highe r in th... west. Cooler tempcrauues exist off
    Sou th Am e rica due III un upwel ling of cold wate r from
    dee pe r levels. T his cold water is nutrient-rich, sup port ing
    high levels of primary prod ucti vity. di verse marine ccos ysIl' J11 S. a nd major lishc ri...s. Rain fal l is found in rising ;Ji T ove r
    the warmest water. and the east ern Pacifi c is relati vely dry .
    Every t w 0 to seven Yl'an, the trade ....'tIU.!S relax in the ce ntral
    and western Pacific Ocea n When this occ urs. the ocean currents an d w inds off'the .... es tern coast o f South America shift.
    brin~ in!! warm watcr east wa rd, di splacing the nutrie nt-rich
    cold w utcr that normally wells up fro m dee p in the ocean .
    Th i.. invasion of wann .... ater d isrupts thlo mari ne food chain
    and the economics of coastal communities. Fisherm en
    named the phenomeno n EI Nmo (the Christ Child ) because
    it oc curred du ring the C hristmas s...aeon . Thus. EI Ni no is
    characterize d by unusuall y ....arru oc ean tem peratures. especia lly in the eas tern eq uatorial Pacific Ocea n. La Nina is
    churuc tcrlzed hy unusually cool ocean hcmpc rutures in the
    equatoria l Pacifi c Ocean . Tree ring ana lys is has doc umented
    that these southe rn osc illat ions are not new. hut ha ve been
    occurring syst...ma rically for more than a hundred ) C;J P.;
    (NOAA. 1999).

    EI 'vino can be seen in measure ments of the sea-surface temperat ure . For ex ample. Color Pla te l:! 5 depicts three different sea-s urface temperatu re conditions for selected
    Decembers : a La Nina in ItJH loi. a nonnal mon th in [9<JO_ and
    an El Nino in 199 7. These arc Reyno lds Mon th l)' SST (T )
    ma ps derived hy analyzing satellite thermali nfrared data in
    co nj unct ion \\ ith d<ti l) tem perature measur ements telcmcrcrcd fwm an arra y o fN O AA-spo nso n..d buuys straTcgically
    placed in the equalorial l'ac itic O cean ( Re)'no lds and Sm ith.
    1994). Th i ~ is a go od l:.\<llllpJe o (" thc UTi liT y u f usi ng both in
    .\illl and rl:II101e \>ensi ng to imp rove The ac( urao:y of a prod uc t. Unfo rtu nalely. des pile our a hility to acn lr:llc1y map the
    sea-surface temjll:'ratun: of thc EI Nino S('uThem Oso:il1atilln,
    a \>ub~tantia l am ounl o f lite an d property is .\>till los t whl'n
    Ihl' y occur. mainl y d u(' In poor preparat ion t>y local aUlho rilies ISupke, 19':1tJl. ,\ ST ER an d MODI S therma l infrared
    data arc also useful for monitoring wall' r surface tcmperalure .

    C11:\PTF:R

    Remote Sens ing of Water

    of \ ery small reservoirs. lakes. ponds. ctc.. then


    infrare d sensors Jlo wn on suborbita l mrcraft Im)< ~
    req uired . An exam ple of using an a ircra ft-mou nted thalli
    infrared r nuhispectral sca nner to map the rcmpcranre
    wate r in the Sava nnah River is fou nd in C hapter 8 IThaml
    lntrarcd Remote Se ns i n~).
    P re c ip it a t io n

    Precipitation may be measured operationa lly on a locaI


    regional bas is usin~ ground-based (terres tr ial) active mi.:nlW3\(' remote sensing . For e xample, the re a re more tIw1151
    Ne>;t tiencrauon Radar (~EX RAD) W SR, /iJoi D s~.-TtII
    (.!"'Crating: in the United Stares tr-;OAA ROC. ~OO5 ~ lk
    ~E XRAD antenna is enclosed in a rado mc ( Figure 12-15al
    and e mil!' a bu rs.t o t'microw ave energ)' 0.. " 11.1 em}. If_
    ...ne rgy strikes an ohjec t (raind ro p. snowflake. hailstooc.
    bug. bird. etc .). the energy is scatte red. A sma ll fraClioo et
    The scattered e nerg y may he directed back toward ibe radJr
    antenna. Co mputers analyze the strength o f the rctumcl
    pu lse nncasurcd in decibels, d I3Z ). the t ime it roo k to tT'ilvd
    til the object a nd back. and The dopp ler phase shift ofth:
    pulse. T his proc...ss of cmuting a pulsed microwave s i~
    lisll' ning for an y returned s igna l, then emitting the neu sig
    nat, tak es place very fast. up to a pproxi mately 1300 1lIDtl
    each seco nd. The maximum ran ge o f th... radar is approllm;Jtc ly ~50 mill'S.
    ~EX RA D functions in t w II modes: ctear air mode andprrd l'i/llfjo/f mode. In Clear Air mod e il produces an upd:uct
    ima ge every 10 or I I minu tes. In Prec ipitancn mnde il ~
    duces an update d image e very 6 minutes. In both mode,
    wha l is important to loo k ...t is the level of rl'lk e ti\ity metsure d in dHI.. The slronge r the retu rn. The highl'f the dBl .1II
    C1car Ai r 1l1OLk, the sca h: gucs as lOll as -2 8, which is \lhy~
    is [lossihle to occas iol1ally detect dust or pollen in lhe air, 10
    Precip it,u illl1 mode, lhc sc all' goes as hig h as 75, whichindic-ales Sl'verc weather . The rclk c tivity info rma tion is used111
    ma ke preei pilation ma ps . Fo r (".'(amp le. a map of precipilltil)n in S,)uth Caro lina on July 30_ ~IKI5 . at tJ:IKI p.m. produo:cd fwm l\:EX RA D WSR S8D Prec ipiu tio n modc &u li
    show n in Figure 12-1 5h .

    Weath...r Sen icc Forecast Olliecs use th:


    WSR -S8D s)'stems to provide re...l-lime infonJlto
    tinn (lII lhe location o f dangero us \\eather and the amounTof
    precipitutiun. In Ihe UniT...d 51;lles. T hc Wc;lthcr e haMcl
    use s NEX RAD in!\'mKltio n to pro\ 'idl' n ... I time local and
    reg ;lllw i weather filrccasts. Sim ilar systems function in
    Eu rope (I3agd la et :l1.. 20(5 ),
    J"ationa l

    When h igh spiltial resol ul ion sea-sur fil...e tcm pc ralurc dala is
    needed, it may he possible to usc Landsat T hem at ic r.lapper
    (T M I data. For cX<lm plc. Thomas et a l. (2t102 1 used 23 La ndsat TM band 6 thcrmaJ iltfrarcd images ubtained from 19R6
    - [tj\j6 to mon itor the sen surfac e tem perature along t he
    enast o f Maine . When il is necessary to map the l<:mper;JTU rc

    12

    ~r:XRA D

    Precipitatlo n

    429

    .' EXU." I> 'te r rcstr ta r Remo te

    St> n~ i n ~

    S) ste m

    a.

    r-;nll!cncr~li,,,,

    Radar t:"L\R:\OI
    "<:alllc:r naJ.lr ;IfI1~"'I"'.

    b,

    '
    ,

    NE.XRAD pn:dpil.l.lion milp OfSoulh Carolina


    ,>NalllC:',J OI l 'I ( ~) r Ill. un Jul~' 3H, 20ll S.

    -gum 12-15 01) .\ :!s n , d iamete r \:C\ t g"''flcl'illiun Radar ('EXRA Oj .... "atho;r raJar anlenna i~ hUU'i<:tl in side a protective 30 ft. diameter
    spherica l radome suuaied un a IflO It . tower. In precipitation mode. the volume scan of the radar i ~ co mpn sed of 11 lu ll 3(,00
    sweeps at nine uni'luc d C\i11;OO angk... tbctweeeu 0.5" and 19.5o i1oo\e the 100; 011 huril lm). ' I,XR..\O data is updated e\'L"t)' 6
    numnes when lhe radar is in precipitation mode. h I Retlectivity pre..irntatl"o map
    "'uUlh r'arohna Mlai nl.'d from the
    :'>lEXRAD in Co lumbia. SC. ob tained on J ul ~ JO. ~OOS. "ilh II>.: :"l I:.XR..\ O \\ SR-lum III precipitation mode. The reflectivity
    data .... en.. pnll:e~Sl'(t 10 hlghlil;'! ht prec spitanon associated \\ llh a "'-"\ ere thunde....torm rll~,ing from wc~t 10cast. Intense thundcrstonn precipitation is highlighlL"d in .... hit\.'.

    or

    ntonu nutcly, the maj ority of the world's land sur faces do
    "I enjoy such coverage h) weather radars or t' \ en rain

    'Pu!;!.t' networks. an d will no! for the foresee able future.


    ueteorological sat ellites arc the o nly systems capable of
    );Ijuirin!;!. rainfall data over \ a~ 1 dismnccs. Fortunately, it is
    JlOII poss ible III moni tor selec ted continents on a contin uous
    jesis and to do so for a sl11:l11 fraction Ilf tllecllst ofa sur facebased observing network or eqllival.: nl spat ial density
    ISmilh et al. . 2004 ). Unli.1J1U1111tdy. ins tead of direct ly mea1IJring rain fall usin g a ra in gauge. remot e s~'lls i ng methods
    mu,t rely on using indirect remotely sen sed data o n cloud
    eflcctunce. cloud-top tempe rature, and/or the presence of
    fozen prccipuation nlott to est imate the surface rain rate.

    Visible - Infrared Technique s

    The earliest prccipnarion esumarion methods were based on


    die assum pt ion that the hrig htncss o f refl ected sunlight in the
    vsible and near-inf rared port ion o f the- spectrum fro m
    doudsmigh t gi ve an indication of'their thickness and thu s of
    tbcir likeli hoo d of bearing ra m. Un fortunately. nOI allbnght
    douds produce- prec ipitation . Sirmla rty, the te mperature of
    fie lop of douds was USl.-U to es timate prc-cipuauon. G cncr-

    ally. the colde r the cloud top, the grea ter the likelihood of
    precipuauon, Unforuuuucly, not all cold cl oud top s prod uce

    prccipiunion. Neverthe less, some very use ful precipitation


    csuuuuion k' l'h ni'll tl'S were de\ c lnp'..d based on visible and
    in fra red d.ua, inc lcding I ) twice-dutly esuuuues o f ou tgo ing
    Iongwavc rudiution from polar-orbiting infrared senso rs
    onbonrd A\' I IRR to cs urnatc monthly rainfall. and 2 ) n
    ( ,O IS f'reclpil;llinll Inde x (( i l' l) bused on an an <ll ysis of
    therm a l infr.ucd data, where pixel s W CR ' cla ssified as "rainil1g" atthe rare o f J rum hr' if the cloud- top tcmpcrmurc wns
    <: 235 K. At one time. the 01' 1 wa s the standa rd c firnatological rain fall prod uct that provi ded a cttm.uc-scalc precipuation reco rd th roug hou t the tro pics and subrropics
    A lgorithms have a lso been de veloped Ihlll mil i,e multiple
    images o btained throu gh tim e to re line the rail' of ra in fa ll
    estim ates.

    Ac tive and Passive Mic rowave Techniques

    A major milestone in satellite p recipitation -rar e estimatio n


    wa s the <.1<.'\ efop mc nt o f mic rowave remot e se nsi ng ins trumc ms that respo nd in a more physically dilcr way 10 the
    presence o f prccipuarion-size wat er and'or icc panicles

    430

    ell

    Tropk...1 Rain fall

    " l e;lsun'III ~'nl

    \pn~R

    Mission ('1'10 11\1)

    12

    IlII a:': l'r~

    Remote Sensing of Water

    tin "larch 9.1998

    Aen

    Gal

    ."rna
    ",,,

    '"'
    vid
    am
    Th

    n
    gl

    ",

    Fig ure 12-16 ( )rhll'II .l a[,H;('lk~li"n Ctl\<:TOI!'C Il~ Ihe r [<'pl,il l Ram!,,11 ~ lc:\Sll[Cl1h:llt \ llssi "n l 'l R \1\\) M,,:ro W3\ C Imager ('I Mljon ~1Jld
    'I. 1' 1'J ~ . :-Jll! icc lhal Ihe 35 0 Ilililk " f inc! in.u jon obtaius L,; '" " I ,'llIW :'gC "I' til", tropical and subtropical po nj " ns of lh ~ Eartl
    ..\ 11 intense frolltat sy stem is uvcr southern Hundn. A b o pl.:aw refer hI Color Pial," I ~-ha (WlIl tcS) ]\ASA <imlllJrJ TRWJ
    (>I1i ..'c and J" l',lIl l"ati' "la l Space [1<;1d"l'llWlll Agency '

    E
    ir
    rc

    r,

    c
    .... ithin the clouds. althoug h rema ining inscnsi ti\c III 1101!"
    precipitating clouds. Th e first Special Sensor \f icnlW3\ <:
    Irnagcr( SS ~1. 1 1 \\11'0 launc hed in IlJx7 and included a highIrcq uency channel at l:'5.5 GI ll. Basil-a ll) . prccipnauon-sizc
    ice partic k " and 1.:lrge ra mdrops ~ig:nific;lnlly red uce the
    t"nlls~i\ ily ofthe cloud and thus depress it~ t-righlnl'l'lO remperat ure H~ below a no minal background Ic:\ ct. This allows a
    rainfa ll es timate III he co mputed. T his se nso r could d isnngursh ra infall over land w ith reaso nable co n", i",ICrll') at 15 x
    15 kill spatial resolution (A ll a~ c t al.. 20051. T he SS \l!1 has
    provided wo rldwide prccipit.uion estimates since Il)X7,
    ~ illt!1c

    mos t important ev ent in rainfall es timation (cspcfor tropical and subtropical reg ions 1 was the launch of
    the Tro pic al Rainf all Mca -unn g "lis~ i,," (T R\ I""l 0 11
    Novembe r ~7. 199 7, h) ~AS :\ and the National Space
    Developmen t Agency (1\AS D:\l of Japa n tTR M\1 , 2IM "'I,
    I bc satellue is in a ';50 kr n orbu ar an mchn.uion o f 35 ' .
    T R\ l.\ ! carries five instrumen ts onboard: till" Precipitation
    Rada r (I'Rt, the TR \ I~ 1 :\lic rowave Imager (T\l II, Visih le
    Infrared Scanner ( \ ' IRS), Light ning Imag ing Sensor ( LISt
    and the Clouds and Earth's Radia nt Energy System
    Th e

    cia t l~

    {<.'FRES I.

    The T R M\1 Mi.;rowu \e Imager lT~II ) is ,I passive rni..:mwnw ~c n snT dc signl'd to r rnvid c 'lu ant ita live rai ntitli inliJr
    Illat io n nn th". illle gratl'd c" llIl11 n p r".~' ipi til ti l111 e\l nt ~ l1ll1\' CT a

    4~7

    mi ll' (il\O knu swath, 11 is re~t suited for rainfall estimates over oc eans wh..,n.' data are needed most for clirw
    model verification. It lIlCasUR"S the inh: nsi ty ofraJiatiOl
    li\ ..- frequencies: 10 ,7 t '; 5 km spatial rcso hnion I, 19.-', ~t.3
    37, and x:".:" <1Hz I; km -paual resolurionj. II has dual pcUiza tion at fou r of the frell \l~ ne ies , The 10,7 G il l fn."t:!lJCl);\'
    pro \ ides a mo re linear response for high rain fall rates ca.
    mon III tropic al r'lInl;111. .-\ composite tmage Ill' alllh:
    TI{ "' I ~f .\ l ieruwa \c lrnagcr orh ua l pa ths on Murch 9, 1m,
    arc presented in Figure 12-16 and Cotor Pknc 12-6<1, \ ett
    the intens e Iinc oftlumderstorrns nH'T southern Florida,
    The TI~I\IM Prccipitmion Rada r II' R), the 1i""1 in space.
    111.." l'li re" the thrcc-duncre.iona l ra infall distribution o'er
    l\t'lh laml and oceans. It de fi nes tilt' layer dept h o f the precipuauon and provide s informat ion about the rain fall actual~

    reaehmg the surface. .... hich i ~ used 10 dcrcrrn me the 121Clll


    heat o f the atmosphe re IT R \. I ~ 1. 20061. Passiv e microwee
    scusors ha l c diftku h) mea-c uring ra in ever land areas ldilcussed rn Lhaprer 'l }, .... berea- the scann ing radar npefal~
    at I r.s Gl lll l l ll l provides accu rate prccipitanon data 01'0'
    land at a spatia l reso lution of 4.3 km at nadi r and a S\l<ah
    Width of220 krn. TR:I,l ~I Prec ipitat ion l{allllT data over Flor
    ida obt aine d on March 'J. 19lJil is sho.... n as an ohli llue im:Jg(
    in ( '" lnr Plate 12-hh and ;1, an alnng- lr:tck crn ss-sccticmm
    ('o l" r Plate 12-llc. T h... crll' ~ ~cl t i lln pro \'i(les 1I s ignifkJnl
    ;IIllOlJllI ofin li.mllalioll ,lbo u! clo ud he igh t ,IUd prl'cipita!ion

    43 1

    JemSOIS a nd C lo ud s

    lJa et al. (2005) found tha t the T R ~ I M Prec ipitatio n


    r estimates we re good agree me nt with g round-based
    preci pitation meas urements , Alias er al. (2(05 ) found
    precipitation esti mates from T R \I ~ 1 Preci pitat ion Radar
    the Special Sensor M icro w ave Imager (SS \1 ' I) proexcellent rai nfa ll tn forrna non for use in hurricane
    ysis and forec asting.
    TR\t\1 Visi ble Infrared Scanner (VI I{S) pro v ides high
    tion in forma tion o n cloud cove rage. type. and cl oudtemperatures. It is a five cha nnel cross-track scanning
    mercr opcra ung at O.f.\ , Lb. 3.75. lO.lUl. and 12 u rn. It
    ins ~. I km da ta at nadi r .... ith a s w ath wi dth of approxiy 720 km .
    II: TRM~1

    Lightning. Ima gin g Sensor f l iS) inventories the


    incidence ofl ig htning using an optical remote sensi ng
    em opt"rating at 0 .777 um uh a spa lial resofu uon 01'5 x
    lm at nadir and a 590 km s at h \\ id rh. The Clouds and
    h's Rad ia nt Energy System (CE RES) is a visihlc a nd
    se nsor designed especially III measu re emiucd a nd
    lectcd rad iative energy fro m the sur face of th c Ea rth. a nd
    the atm osphere and its consutucms te.g. clouds. aero$1. It is a hroadhand sca nning radiomete r w ith a total
    cl spec tral ra nge of 0 .3 50 m m.
    ~I M 's

    uni que combmauon of senso r wa velength.... coverand resole ing capab ilit ies wuh its lo w-altitude. non-sync hronous orbi t provide mont hly precip itation
    urns to a 50U x 500 kill grid (T R/l. I\ 1. 2(l()6). Unfon uely. a, can be se en in Figure 12- 16 . si nce the T R!\I/l.1 mis was mea nt to co ver tro pical latitudes. its 35 degree
    tude lim it e m braces lill ie Il f Europe a nd nume ro us othe r
    !I1POrtalll land areas in the Ncrthc m 1Icnusphcrc (Ga bcllu ct
    .20(5).

    an advanced , large apertu re. multic hanne l passi ve


    mi cro wave ra in radio meter referred as the GP\ 1
    .\1 icrowave Im ager 'G :\II).
    This e tfort is prim ar ily a tuncuon of the Earth Observat ion
    Summit (EO S, held in July . 2t1( U . in Washin gto n . ur ..
    whe re more than thirty na tions mer to addr ess glo ba l cnviron mc ntal ami economic challenges. As a rc.... uh o ft he EOS
    Summit. an ad hoc Group on Earth O h......rvanons .... as established to prepare a tell-year im plemen tation p lan for a coord inated, sustained Earth O bser vation System .
    The G lobal Prcc ipita ncn ~ lca~u rellle ni m i~si()n .... ill hopefull y he launched in 2009 20 W . Tbc G M !"s sp atial rcsc !unon .... ill exc ec-d thai of lln~' current or p lanned micro ave
    radi ometer, incl udi ng the nc.... Conica l-sca nning Mi cro ave
    Imager-Sound er \C ,\ li S , radiometer being developed for the
    :-.10.......... Pilla r Orbiter En \ u omn enta l Satellite S~slem
    (:,\POESS) (Smith et al, 200l).

    Aerosol s and Clouds

    :-JASA Ea rth Science Enterprise scientists state that more


    info rmat ion is needed on the fo llow ing variables if we are to
    be able 10 model ami u nde rstan d the force, modifyi ng the
    Earth ' s global climate S~'st L'l11 ( Ka hn, 199Q):
    the amount and ty pe o f atmospheric partieiL's (llerosols).
    incl ud ing those fo rmed by 1I011ure OI11d by huma n ac tiviti cs:
    the amount. type. and height (.r elo lnk a nd
    the distribution of lun d-s urfuc c co ve r. including ve geta tio n
    cano py structure.

    hrem utlonn l (;l uhall'n' l'iIJil ut illn M cnsurcmcnr ((;1'1\1 )


    Pm ~ r~ 1l1

    lin d

    Aero sols

    !' Ii ~~ i ll n

    lm rovcd microwuvc-d crived rainfall datu will likel y


    ecomc availa ble in thc fu ture. In particu lar, the proposed
    ~matiUl1<l 1 Globall'rccipinnion Mea... urcru ern tG P\1 ) mis~ cons isting o f a co ns tellunou o f eight or more satellites
    Ny provide approximately three-h o ur sam p ling o f ra infall
    boany gi\ en Earth coo rd in:lle appm'l irnat dy 90 pe n:e nt o f
    ~ time (S m ith c t al .. 2004; Atlas et al.. 2005 ). One of these
    Iellites will be si m ilar to the T R/l.1M sa lellite. rel"errL'dto as
    'it GPM Core sa ldli....., T he (i P\.1 Core will hav e ll\r its
    min pa)10.1 d t\\O ra in-measuring insl n mle nts:
    dual-frL'tj uenc y ( Ka.- Ku- band)
    rrfem-d to as tho: DrR, and

    ' 3

    pr..'Cipitat illn

    radar

    A eroso l part icles may be soli d or liqu id and rang e in size


    fro m 0.0 I u r n to ... cv crel tens o f micrometers. Cigarette
    sm oke particle s a rc in the mi dd le of this size range; typical
    clo ud d rops are 10 or more mic rometers in diam eter. Aerosols lend tl) coni the surface bel l)w tho: rn ht:eau se most ;Ief()sols rellect Sunlight b;lCl lo spac t: reduc ing th... am uu nt o f
    solar rad iatIOn that ca n hi.: :th...orhcd by th.... surl:1Ce be low
    I Ka hn. IIN\) I. The lll11gnitude o f th is ... rreel depe nds o n the
    size and cornpositi<ll1 o f IhL' aLfIlso1s. and Oil Ih,' rc n ecting
    properties o f th~ un derlying su rface. Snln e h..- Iie\'e that the
    cooli ng elli.'Ct d ue to i nLTea~ed amoun t!; of ao: m~o rs may
    actually fLJ UlL or del ay some o f the ex pec ted warming due

    432

    10 inc reasc-, in the amoun t of atlTK.hph<:ric ca rbon dioxide.


    Perha ps more smog is good! Others d isa gree .
    A ltho ugh rem ote sensing aerosol ret rieval science has bee n
    taking p lace for mor e than t.... cn ty years. um il recently I h l'1"C
    was no method of obtaining inform ation on ncrosol amount
    and d istri bution (called optica l dept h ) and pan icle propertie s
    (Bojinski l ' t al.. 200~ ) . Th e EOS Terra Mu lti-angle Ima ging
    Spcctr o k adio mcrcr ( ~ lIS R\ col lects such information using
    four spectral hands (blue. gree n. red. and near-infrare d ) and
    nine." look angles (refer to C ha pter 7 for a J<:IJ,i k J dcs criptio n]. Fo ur o f the linea r-array sensors look forwar d at an
    ob lique angle (~ f, .I <>. 45./, ". I'll". and 70.5 ". respec tively).
    one loo ks directly do.... n (nadir). and four look aft at the same
    oblique angles. This provides multiple looks 3t exactly thc
    same pan of the atmosphere [and the surface o f the Ea rth I.
    allowing quantitative m formarion 10 be derived abou t aerosol location an d content ( Dine r ct al.. :m O; ). Aerosol characterisncs o fthe enure Earth may he ob tained eve ry nine days
    Tang ct al. (:!OO5 ) reponed on the ex traction oi'ecrosol m for marion using Terra a nd Aqlla r<.t OD IS data. Boji ns ki et al.
    j2 004 l provides II history Ill' aerosol map pm g and a ne w
    aerosol retrie va l algorithm using hypcrspcc tra l dau.

    Clouds

    Ctouds playa major ro le in cont rolling the Eanh's climate.


    xtorc than any oth er component of the climate syst em,
    douds affect the Ilow of energy within the Earth's atmosphere. A cloud may warm or coo l the Earth . depending
    upon its thickn ess an d height above the surface. Lllw. thick
    clouds retlccr incom ing solar rad iat io n hack In space. which
    ea uSl"S c\Mlli ng. High clouds lra p omg,)ing infm red radiation
    and prod uce grecnho\lsl' ' Hu m ing. Oeo.: ause c1(' ud lype.
    hei ghl, moislu re CO!ll.:'nl. and locat ion nrc s(\ var iahle . Ihl' ir
    I:l1"ect o n glo ha l c1iIllallJ is \ cry dini cult Wllh:lISlln:. So me
    bdieve that Ihl.' lal'gl.'sl ullccrt ainty in climatc prcd icl io n
    mod el s is how 10 chnrac l~'ri;{e and par amelc rin ' the radi at ive
    and physical propert i e~ of cluuds.

    The lin-I metel-'rological satelliles (lnly measured \-isibk


    cnergy n:fketcd from clouds (0.-1 - O.7IJm) CiOES ....nSOf<;
    provide data in hn lh the visihle and lhl.TITlal infrared po rtion
    of lhe spl."Ctrum. as summarized in Ch apler 7. In Ihe da)-li!;hl
    hou rs, visi ble imagcry prov ides detailed vicws oflh~' c1nud
    patterns Ihat clo~c1y mall'h our visual senses. i,e.. d ouds
    usu:llly appear brigh l \\ hite l:tnd a nd wa leI' appear darker on
    Ik illlnge,. C o nsi d~'r lypica l v isihlc imago:s of h('lh tIll' \n ' slI:rrl and eaSlern Un iled Slill...s o bta ined hy (iOES-l-:ast and

    C11W1TR

    12

    Remot e Sen s ing 01Water

    liOl~-Wesllln

    Apr il 17. 1'1"~ (Figure 12-1 7a.b).I\<*


    large low -pressure frontal system upproachmg Wash _
    slate from the Bny o fAl:hka . T here is also a significanr
    pressure system located along the Eastern Seahoanllllll
    throughout the southeast. GOES was first laun ched (11\ Oc
    ber Ih, 1'-175. Since that rime many new GO ES salelhlll
    have been par ked (I I 35,790 kill in go.:ust;lli(.rhlry orbit~
    obnnn visible and infrurcd imagery. They nrc used 10 mM
    lor fronta l systems. inte nse thunde rstorm activity a~so.:isce
    with tornadoes. a nd hurrica nes.
    FUWpl' has a system similar 10 GO I-'S. called METEOi~
    \ lET I.OS:\T 4 is a geostationary me teoro logical sal
    located 31 O' of latitude and long itude. It contin
    ob<.('f\cS the vv hole I'arth disk. The images gathered
    to. IE1TOS AT in three channcls-c-visiblc to.4
    1.14
    thermal in fra red ( 105 1:!5 IJ.m)and w mer vapor(5.1 - umj-c-nrc transmuted .:\ery )0 min . T ho: METF.os,\T
    irnagcs avai lable in hig h resolu tion mode have 5000)(500'
    pixels lo r the visible channel and 2500 X 251)() pads fOlmt
    infrared anti water vapor cha nnels rAmeur cl al., 2tlO4l.
    "'l ost remote sc nsi11g systems ,1pCral ing in Ihe visible [l(1niali
    of the spectrum can only collect data d uring the da}time.
    How ever. a lig hH .ens it ivc instrument onboard the DefelL'l:
    Mcl l'tlwlog ical Satellite Program (D MS P) ca n obtain visible
    imaj!l's <I I nighl. I"his IS done by reco rd ing the features iIunuuatcd at niglu b~' moonlight.
    In general, clouds do nill reflect solar radianon equally
    in all directions. Therefore. a sin~ 1c measu rement of n:l1.
    tiviry from a single direction (e.g.. 31 nad ir ) makes II diffiai
    In detcrmme the nual amount of light re flected by lbec
    Iils "Ih,'du) rd alivc to lhe ino.:ido.: nt energy. Ono.: soluti{l\llSll
    (,hta in mu ltiple inwges ill' a cloud from d ilt"e renl van13!""
    plllllls, T his illlrodlll.'~s slo.:rcOsc(\pic pitfalla,. The EOS
    1('1""<1 ~lI SR co ll..,,ts stercoscop ic dO lld illromlation b)
    \ in \ ing cill"h clou d fro m nine :mgles pn:viotlsly discussed
    Tht' stereosc,' pie dal a e:m he an alyzed 10 yield thrce--dirnt:\lsillllal 4ualllitall\ e i nl~'mlJ.tioJl 3bou l cloud height. s1.rucIlJ~
    thid. lll'SS. shape. and roughness of cloud IOPS_ ,\ lXlif3It
    alhedo inlonn:ll il)ll can a lso t"C computed.
    Cloud s in T hl.'rm 91 Infra rt'd

    Im a ~ ('ry

    The nlllsi l.'OmlnUIl lhernlal infrnn.-d band used in mcleorolugkal investigations is 10 - 12.5 jJm. The atmo~pht-re1S
    rd,lt i,cl) lran,:.pa renl III thiS .... avC' k ngl h <.'Tlergy UP\\tIlill!
    fwrn lhe Earth's su rfao.:c and dOI.lJs. ,\IS Il. thennal iofnrd
    imag"s o.:an be oht:Jined al n ighl. so we can have a conunuOl!S
    24-h r n:c l,rd nf c loud Pilltcill s Ihat incl ud<.'s importa nt lllt'k(lrolngio.: a l c,enls lakin!! plao.:c al nigh l.

    Aero !

    sols and Clouds

    "

    433

    GOES-Wes t and

    CO ES-Ea~t

    Images

    Figure 12 1 7

    a. GO ES-West visible.

    b. GOES-East visible .

    e. GOE S- West thermal infrared.

    d. GO ESEa~t thermal infrared.

    c. GO ES-West wate r vapor.

    f. GOES East water vapor.

    E".Hll P Ic~ IIf GOlS-L!"t and

    GO[S- Wesl irnal,:cs o f'thc Unncd States and p ortions of' Ccmra t America ootam c..1on Ap ril 17.

    I Ql/N ( L.ltlr1 ~y ..... OAA)

    ( ' H A P n :1{

    434

    Col d

    .::.)nh-..:tiV':'~'~':O:"d:':,,:~~;::)
    m iddle -lev el
    clouds or
    m idd le-leve l
    conv ectivc clouds

    10\\ cumuli form


    clouds

    land

    Warm

    .....- - -- - - - -Bri~gh t

    Om

    Vh ibk

    Rem o te Sensing of Wa ter

    red ba nds.joc atcs it in the diagra m. and idcmiflcs thcnabtt:


    o f the clou d under investigation.

    lOps of la rge

    semi-transparent
    high ck.uu!>

    12

    Figu re 12 18 II is po~sillie 10 determ ine cloud type based on multispectral measurements in the visj blc and thermal
    infrared portion o f the electromagnet ic spectrum
    (a ficrOo:sboisctal..1911 2).

    In satell ite meteorology. infrared images arc normally


    inverted. i.c. tl lC gtcarc r the radiance of a pixel, the darke r
    the pi xel. Th is way. clo uds. whic h are usually co lder tha n th e
    surface o r the Earth. appe ar while . an d the wann er grou nd or
    ocean surfaces appear darker than cloud s, as in visible
    image s. T hermal infrared GOES-west an d loD ES-east
    images o f tile Uni ted Stales ,HI: show n in Figure 12 17c.d. II
    is easier 10 ilklltify the edge of frontal systems us ing the
    therm al in frared imag ery. Also , the [and-w ater boundaries
    arc more distin ct .
    It has been known for so me t ime that it is possible to extract
    information on the type of clouds and thei r he ight using multispcctra l re mote sens ing. One ofthe earliest relation ship s is
    demo nstrated in Fig ure 12- I K where visible and infrared
    data can be used to differentiate be twe en the sea. land,
    cumulifcrm clo uds. se mitransparent h igh clouds. and co nvec tive clouds ( like th understorrns t. Tall co nvec tive cu mulo nimbus clou ds arc co ld und bright. The sea and lan d
    surface are warm an d dark ( Dcsbois cr al.. 19lC). Th e analyst extrac ts the pixel value in the v isib le and therm al infra -

    N umerous scientists have aucmptcd h) detect the presence


    cloud s usi ng a the rmal infra red clou d tem perature thresMl
    value. The goal is to identify low-temperature pixels till
    co rrespo nd to medium- or high-alt itude clo uds. The Il\3!I
    prohlem is usua lly the s~'Citkation o f the exact lernpeTlllr.
    thr esho ld v alue. For e xam ple, Franca and C racknell (1995
    deve loped the different cloud-detection algori thms btiej
    o n visible and infra red spectra l in form ation us ing \OU
    A\' ~IRR daytime data for tropical areas. Fcidas ct al. (2
    developed a clou d classificati on scheme .... here thick op3lpiiI
    convecti ve douds correspond III classes .... ith the kMtf
    brig.htne~~ temperatures (Th) in both the thermal infurel
    [below 223 K) and water vapor band ( bel ow 223 K). Frida
    and Carralis (20115) buill upon thic wo rk and devetoped a
    au tomatic a lgorith m for uackin g convecnv c cloud cells.Te
    Sur",alb-" Diff':,.,:ncl' Snow tndex (NDSI) d iscu ssed in tit:
    Snow section of Ihis chapter can also he used to identIi\
    clo uds U~ illg se nsors thai con ta in a \ isible and mid-infrared
    ba nd Ic.g .. Land sat TM ba nds 2 and 5) ( Hall ct al.. 1995
    Choi and Bmdschadler, 20(111.
    Cl oud- height informat ion ext racted from the rma l infmtd
    data ca n be use d to gene rate pse udo ihree-dirnenscrsl
    ob lique images o f major storm events. For example. tile
    :\VII RR visible and in frared images in Fig ure 12 1cab capture Hu rricane Andre w moving toward Louisiana in 1'2.1n
    these cxurnplcs. the v isib le (band I; 0.58 - 0.68 ~ m ) aM
    ncar- infra red images (hand 2; 0.725 - I. 10 Ilm) arc draped
    ov er the cloud -he ight information de rived from themW
    infrared data (band 5; 11.5 - 12.5 1l 111)_
    The TRM1\1 Visible Infra red Scann er ( VIRS) launched in
    [997 provi des infur murion o n c loud ty pe and cloud -top tl'1ll'
    pcraturcs using a five channe l cros s-track sc anning radiometer. The terra 1\1 IS H. se nso r co llects Infor mation in only the
    vis ible an d ncur-ln frarcd portions u f the spcc uum. while the
    Terra Clou ds and Eart h's Radi an t Ene rgy Sys tem (CER ES)
    sensor co llects data from Just one look angle. hut across !he
    entire sola r spec trum. C ER ES meas ures both sola r-reflected
    and gart h-em itted radi ation from the top of the ntmosphere
    to the surface. It a lso dcremunes cloud properties i ndudlll~
    amount. heig ht. thick ness. an d particle size. Thus , the \'IRS.
    MISR , and CE RES instn nncnts co mplement o ne anotherin
    the collection o f clou d info rmation. MO DIS obta ins cloudtop info rmatio n frum bauds 33 - 36 in the thermal infrared
    regi on from 13.1 loiS - 14 .3K5 urn .

    w.

    ~ate r

    435

    Vapor

    AV IIRR I mager)' ur Hu r ri cane A ndrew un A ugust 25. 1992

    ,.

    a , Visihle band 1 (O.5R - O.6R j.1ml.

    b. Ncar- infrared hand 2 (o.ns . I. III um).

    Fgure 12 19 :11A\ 'HRR " lsi!'> le band I (0-:")0( - O.b!!J.1m ) IlTI3gCf)' oll-lurricant' Andrew bearing do.. n on I .("'ll ~iana obtained on A U~'11st ~ 5.
    1'I"I:!. Oil ~n: 2 0 UT. I hl.. epparcr u height of the pcl'l;fll.."'I:li\'c r"'rnk rllljo: is il1\cr.ocly f'TupUrtl\,n,,1II' 1m: cloud te mperatures obsesv cd in baud 5 ( 115 1:!.5 j.lm). OI I\\"HRR band:! 10. T!5 - I. III j.1 m ) ncar-mfrarcd data (courtesy ofF lIa'-lcr. K Palaniappan. M . MiUl~'ln and II. I'lcr.:.:. :'>I..\ SA (j"ddard Space ~ li ~h l Cemcrr

    Water Vap or

    \\aler vapor is esse nnalfo r precipn auon. 1\'ut on ly i ~ wa te r


    vapor the most important gre enhouse gas in the at mosphere
    (Chylek er al.. ::!O(J()4 1. but thi s varia ble also plays a key role
    ft1l' the undcrste nd mg and predic tion o f mo~t important
    weather pro eess c,s Imm convection. to the fo rrnauon of
    cloud. and precipitation . 10 the formation of severe storms
    IWul fmey\.'r ct al., 2()()5). 11 is possible 10 map wa ter vapo r
    b}' sens ing in water-vapor ubsorpuon han ds. Several wavelengths can he used. hUI on e o fthe most common is centered
    around 6 .7 u rn . I\ILTEOSr\T I , launched in I ll7!'i by the
    Eu ropean Sp ace Agency, was the first gcostutiormry satellite
    to obtai n images of mid - III upp er-troposphere w ate r vapor in
    the 6.7 J.1m regi on in ukluicuto visible a nd 10 - 12 Jim infrared images. ~ IET EOSAT 4 collects wutcr vapor information
    inthe spectra l region fro m 5.1 - 7. 1 um (Amour et al.. 2iIl 14).

    GOES sensors routine ly provide w.ucr-vapor images


    obtained in the 1:>.71J11\ region . A t this wavelength. most o f
    the- radiation sensed by the surcltitc comes from the atmospheric laye r betwee n 300 and (,I)(} kill. i.c . from the m iddle
    layers 0 1" th e tro pos phere. h gures 12-1 7e .f de pict watervapor images of the western ami eastern Uni ted States. Note
    the tremendous amoun t (If water vapor in th.., a pproa ch ing
    storm in the western Un ited Sla tes and the departing storm in
    the eas tern U ni ted Stares. A bo note the lad: of ...aicr vapor
    on this particular date around Hawaii a nd in the lower pur-

    t io n or the (iulf {If \1.:\;co ncar Coz umc l, vtcxfco . The


    wea ther was very co mfortable on th is dayin these area s. Th e
    rela tive humidity is likely to he higher in brightareas than in
    dar k areas on a water-vapor image . Bright and d ark areas
    may also indicatc rising an d sink ing motions. respectively.

    It is ab o possible to e.\lm.:l water \upo r information in the


    ncar-infrared portion of tile spectrum whic h has seve ral fenrurcs that ma ke It anmctive for remote water \'aror retr ieva l.
    It I;. a reg io n where the so lar rad iation is still q uite strong:
    and the re nrc spectral bands wit hin the nca r-infrared whe re
    int er fer ence from other armnsnhcric gases is we ak. wuhin
    the wav elength spau from ,lbol1t X9(J to (NO 11111 the re arc
    th ree maj or wurcr vap or uhsorptiun hand s: a strong absorption han d centered ncar l)42 nm a nd wea ker absorption
    hand, centered around l)(jll and ')77 um IChyle k ct a I.. ::!OO-t).
    \-IODI S has several bands that arc sensitive to atmospher ic
    water \'apn r in these rl'gin ns, includ ing hand 17 (890 - 920
    nm j, I ~ (9.'1 - 94 1 unu. and 19 \ 9 15
    965 nmj. In the
    future . the European Span' Agency ll1i.1) launch the Water
    Vapo ur l. idar Ex pcnmcm in Span' ( WA I. ES I using a di ffere miul abs orption Lida r twulfmc ycr ct <II., ~OO5l.

    Snow

    Snow runo ff can be both beneficial an d d isastrous. Spring:


    runoff is the lili..blood tor most ag ricu ltura l activ ities in

    12

    ( 'H M ' n :N.

    436

    semiarid cl imate s and pro... ides muc h of the po table drinking


    wa ter (in ad d ition In gro undwa ter ]. Unfortunately, a rremendous bu ildup n f snl'.... or an unt imely thaw can cause sev ere
    flooding and c on ~c4UCn l l ) II.I~s of life and prope rty Therefore. mc rcorologisrs. hydrologists. an d g lac iologists \\ork to
    identi fy l ] the geographic extent of the snowpack O il a "1:.1son al basis. and ~ l il!> water equivalent.

    Rem ote Se ns ing of Water

    ThO"
    retries

    Rt,nt'chl lin ' Ill' e lllud .. anti Snu"


    SIl

    Water

    _._.,._-......

    Deper

    snow
    .... ater
    transl
    mapp

    \'.'

    regio

    2005
    \SA 1
    discr
    and ,

    Snow in the Visible Spectrum

    When clo uds arc no t prese nt in a , i" lble and/or near-infrared


    image. il is a relati vel y st raightforw ard tas k to identify the:
    spatial dismbunon of snow becausc' it is generally much
    brig hte r than the \ egetauon....)il, or water nearby that is not
    cov ered wi th snow. A ls-o. one of the major diagnost ic clu es
    that can he used 10 d istingu ish het" cell c louds and sno ....' is 10
    obt ain numemuv unages of the terrain in a relali\ d y short
    time period using AVIIRR or GOES data. Clouds mov e
    snow does not .

    Snow

    men

    ~ "a

    1J.!'"'r-i";-, r r nn, -T, r r r;rl'-rT-l"1


    U.4

    U,7

    I II

    15

    2_0

    15

    Wave length, lIm

    or

    Figure 12-20 R...Ilectance o:I"lJd~ and ~n,," In the ...aH~I.


    internl 0.4 1<1 :!.5 11m (alicr AvC1)' and Bmia.

    '"'
    extr.
    gen.

    exre
    p4 n

    m'l

    Snow in fhe Middle-Infrared and M icrowave Regions

    Hc wcvcr. if one can only' obt ain a si ngle image of the terrain
    and it contains both clouds and snow, the n it is possible 10
    utilize the middle-infrared portion of the spec trum to d iffer en tiate oct .... een snow and clo ud cover. Th e reaso n is made
    dea r in Figu re 12-2 0. Th roughout the visible a nd ncar -in frared portions of the spe ctrum. d o uds and sn ow reflect
    appro ximately equa l amounts of radiant l1u.'< .ln the middleinfra red po rtio n (If the spect rum tcspcc ially 1.5 - 2.5 pm)
    clouds continue 10 reflect It subslanlial a mo unt o f en ergy,
    whi le sno w rc tl ccurucc d rop s 10 near J:eruil lal1 ct al., J()95;
    Choi and Hindschndlc r. 20( 4 ). T his relationship was first
    documented by Sky lab sensors operat ing in the region 1,55
    - 1,75 um. In this ba nd, clo uds ha ve a ver y high reflectance
    and appear w hile in the imagery. whi le the sno.... has a very
    low re flect ance lind appear s black . Th us, the Land sat T hema tic Mapper hand 5 ( 1.55 1.75 Illll) and the SPO T 4 senso r with its middle-infrared band ca n be used to discrirninn re
    be twee n clou ds and snml co ver, T he de crease in re fl ectance
    of snow from SO - 90 percent at wuvclc ngths < 1 u rn to < 10
    perce nt at approximately
    um i ~ ex traordinary when compared with the re flec tance cha racte ristics of other Earth su rfac e mater ia ls. Based on these relatio nships. lIa ll et ;)1.
    ( IQ(5) de veloped the /' /11/(1,(1/ Tvt Normafi:etl f)/j!<'n.'nce
    SI/OM I", I/lx ( t\ DS I, h.IWll n n ba nd 2 and band 5 dala:

    t.s

    Land sat H I :-a>SI

    ( [.\12

    T~ t5)

    ( H f ~ ' T M5)

    (1 2-7)

    A thn:s ho ld appli ed 10 the NIlSI image is used to separ.ll~


    cloud pixels from non-cloud {snow 1 pi_\c1!>. The automate
    cloud cover assess ment a lgo rithm (ACTA ) developed ~
    Irish ( .:!:II/10 ) used 0 .7 as the th re..hold value (C hoi and Bindschadler. .20041. However, the optimu m threshold can val)
    from one 1'\ DSI-derin'tl image 10 anot her,

    MO lllS data na ve been used 10 prod uce global MtO.... -c OI I:f


    map prod ucts s ince Septe mber 13, 2000 at 500 x 500 m resohnron (Dozier and Painter, .2fMI4 ). The automated MODIS
    sno w-map ping algorithm uses at- satell ite rcflectances in
    MODI S band s 4 (0.545 0.565 p m ) and (, ( 1.62S - 1.1>52
    u rn} I II calc ula te the l/o n lS Norlll l/ {i:t'd IJ(lkl't'l1ce Sm)),
    Index ( i la ll 1.'1 ul., .2002 : Saknuonson and A ppel. 2( 04):

    Su
    SO l

    tiv
    10<
    do

    p<

    10

    til

    d.
    I,

    re
    c:

    o
    r-. fODI S NDSI ( r-.10 lJ IS 4 - "-10D IS 6 ) .
    ( "-10 n lS ~ + \ lO[)JS 6)

    (12.8\

    II

    "c
    A pixel in a non -dense ly forested reg ion w ill be mapped as
    snow ifl ho.: \-IOmS N I)S I ' s e 0.4 and re flectance in "-IDOlS
    han d 1 is ::: l l~ ; " How eve r, if thc MOD IS band 4 refl ectance
    is < 10 .., then the pixel will nor be mapped as sno w 1.'\1.'0 if
    the lither criteria ar e met [ Hal l ct ul., 20(2 ), This prevents
    pixels co nta ining very dark targets such as black spruce forests fro m bein g map ped as snow. Sa l(lm<mson and Appel
    (20 t141 repllrt ed lhat the rclatillllsh ip oc lwecn fractional
    snow eo'er and r.IO DIS I'DS I is rea sonably rob ust when
    applied loca lly an d o ver large areas like :"o n h Aml"rica
    Zho u l.'l al. (2 005 1 round MO DIS MIO\\-eOVl.'r prod ucts 10 Ix
    o f val ue for mode ling slrea mt1o.... .

    Qua lity Modeling

    aicrowave region of the spectrum offer, promise for


    'ing importaru 500.... information (Foster et .11.. 2(MI5).
    ding upo n the .... avele ngth, estimates of the depth,
    .... atcr equivalent. and the amoum/prescnce of liqu id
    in the snow pack arc possible. In addition, clou ds are
    sparent to ma ny of the mic rowave frequencie s so tha t
    ing of the snow are a and pro perties is possible even in
    re s " here clouds arc co mmo n and at nigh t (Foste r et al..
    5). AircrllH and SP;lCCShun lc Synthetic Aperture Radur
    RI measure ments hav e show" that SA R can he used to
    minatc betwe en snow :111d glaciers and between WL' I
    dr) xnu.... (Shi et al.. 1'N..f). Derk sen cl at. (20U5) docuhow data from the passive microwave Special Senuicro....ave-Imager (55 \ 1/1) .... ...ore use d 10 successfully
    snow .... ater equivalent unormauon over Canada, In
    I. optical remote sensing used 10 map snow areal
    (S:\E) has milch higher spatial resolut ion when com.... ith micro.... ave remote M'nsing w hich ca n be used to
    sno w water eq uivalent (SWEl [Zhou et .11.. ::!OO5).
    Water Quality Modeling

    and county agenci es arc req uired to red uce point


    e discharges to sur face wa ters. Po int sources arc rela ~ ea~y 10 control and regulate because of their kno.... n
    n. A phenomenon more common and mon.. difficult to
    is 1/''''poIIII source pol/llti"" I ~PS). t<\ ps is defined as
    ion originaling fro m urban runoff. construction, hydromodificauon. sil viculturc, mining. agncuhurc. urigareturn 110 w s. solid-waste disposal. atmospheric
    snion. stream ban k erosion. a nd sewage disposal.
    Is o f " PS include dccr":'lscd recreatio na l wate r usc;
    ..nion of wa ter sto rage capacity in st rea ms. lakes and
    uaries: clogging of drainage ditches and irrigation ca na ls;
    rcssivc en richment and scdhn cnt auon of surface \\.-atL'rs
    ,on trihutl' tn Ihe loss o f fis h. shcllthh and w ild life hahand a reduct ion in the aest hct ic qua litics o f thc ;u..j u:tti\
    ironment (C(,rbill. 1990).
    itiollill i/l sim me asurt'mt'nl tech niquL"S ha l e had a limdTn't on identifying and mt1dcling no npui nl '>C.'uree po lScic11li~t... !la\ e found tha t an Illt...g
    . ratlon of ill Jim an d
    e "<:nsing data eolk-ction .... ith GIS modding t<.'Chcan provide some \ef) u!i.cful .... ate r-ljua lily infonnaIn fact. remote ~nsing dal a col h:ction comhmed wilh
    - mudding (,ITen; 3 mea ns of ide11lifying and ranking
    Ws pOlcnt ial in su rl"a":L' wat ers with o utput that is relat ively
    ) for the general pu hlic to understa nd. Se hu hl ( I'IXXI
    vidcs e >.ample s nflw w ren wtc! y sc ns.;d biophysic al \ari-

    43 7

    ables such as slope. S<.lils and land-cover cbaractcrisucs can


    be used as il1pul to hydrolog ica l models.

    An Integrated Remote Sensing and GIS WaterOuality


    Model

    T his brief ca se stud y evaluates water-qua lity deg rad ation


    and iurpucts from urba n runoff with in the Withers Swash
    water shed in Myrt le Beach . Sc. Wither s Swash is an urha nized wate rshed (.~ ..f% impervious ) that coven; app m xi mntely
    -i.2 mi ~ and includes ind ustria l. resident ia l. commercial,
    ugricukural, recreational. and undevel oped land uses. Th e
    .... atersbed i ~ d ivided into IWO ""uhbasins (Figure 122Ial.
    \\ hich drain into a tidal pool designed to capt ure sediment
    before emptying imo the Arlnntic Ocean. A study was conducted using remotely' ..enced data 10 deriv e land -cov er
    information which was then integrated .... uh other spatial
    information such as hyd roll' gy. topography, and soil da ta ,
    into a (i IS database. The data .... ere then analyzed using the
    A:~rh'/I!t/lr"II\'oIlPoiIlJ Source (t\ GN I'S I pollution mud d to
    g ...ncr.nc wate r-quality predic tinns ( USDA . I99X; Sc hill and
    Jen sen . 1'1'11'),
    The ,.\(j ~ I' S wa ter-qu ality mode l USL'S e ight d irecnonaltlow
    attributes determined hy tlllltigra phy and channel charac te risti.:!> to route storm .... arcr th roughou t the wa tershe d to a si ngle outlet cell i Cronshcy and Theurer, 199 8 ). A pp roximate ly
    one third of the mod el input parameters are derived from
    tupugraphy (figure L!-l l b ). These parameters include tcrra in sl"pe. the Universal Soil Loss Equation (liSLE) slope
    leng lh. and ~ Inpe shape . Soil annbute, incl ud ing erod ability
    (US U : K I;v.: tor) and te xture. were ver ified through field
    sa mpling and sicvc t csts ( Figure 12-2 1c). Lan d-co ver informar ion .... :IS deri ved fro m 1:11l,(ltll)-sca k ector-infrared
    aerial ph\llogm phy anti from r\ AS A' s Air borne Terrestrial
    Appli \atiolls Sl'I1S0r (l\T t./vS ) J )( 3 m multispectral data
    (Figure 12-2 Id j. From lht'se land -co \'er alt nhuh:s. the SCS
    curve num ber (ass igncd by sui l hy dru l\,gic g.rtIU p) . Mann ing
    rou ghness coeflicient. US LE C (croppi ng ) and !' (pract ice)
    fal' tnrs. so il L-(llldition nlllstant. a nJ ch<.'m ieal \l.\ygen
    dema nd ICOD I .... <.'r<.' de rived based on loo kup tabk s in
    Young ct a i, (l9tI-t).
    Belo re e\L'\:ulin g Ihe mOOcl. all sPJ.lial dala wcre ass ignt.-d 10
    a 30 )( 30 m cell (0.2 )( 0.2 ac re) lo r eac h o f the: 1....0 subb;lsins. A single stoml e\ ent ....as si mulal t'd us ing Ihe tiJl lu.... ing paral11<:lers; stonn enef!:)' inlens ily (r ractor ) o f 1)5.39.
    sturm du ral ion of2..f hours. tllt;ll slOn n ra infa ll eq ual to 2 .t1 R
    in.. am i ra inta lt nitrogen COlll'cntnl tillns of O. Sll pp m. An
    l'x a111pk u l" two lIlodd output pur3mLters incluJ.: COl1eel1tratl' d Pl':lk !low in nJ p<.'r -,;c\.,nd (cfs) (Fi gure 12-2 1c) und

    438

    C H.. \ "T ~:H

    12

    Remote Sens ing 01 Water

    Rete

    tct a'
    resu

    Xon pclnt So urce Pollu tion Mo tlcl in:,::

    usc,

    , nd
    ua r
    h'"
    oth
    ~p

    L'
    RJ

    c Pea k now (chI

    o o. o n ~
    o u ~ .n l ~
    () 1 ~ -02~

    \U5 -o :\(1

    r ('e ll emSIon
    I (U II>

    per ""'1'1: )

    d. Land cover den,ell fronl remcic SC I1,'<,(lr 0:111;1

    Fig u re 12 -21 :"ollpoilll source pull uliull mod eling using Illc Agri cu ltural ~"nPtli ll! Sou rce (AGNPS l pclluuon water-q uality nlOl.kl :tpplifl!
    In two ~lI h.lla~i ns. at H)d rolog) ot'the Withl."l1' Sw ash waters h..-d in M) n le Beach. SC \1 oo t'ling was OOSl"d on 30 >< ., 0 mctUI
    and a !.IlX in. ra il' ill 1 -4 huurs. bl Topography was Jcri n~J photogra mmctrjcully and U5'"U 10 cvrrac t slope inform ation. cjSoil
    d.na " con: ,;.;,mrletl in the field. dl Land cover charack"Oslicl> were derived from I O<l. lys'i o f aenal photogra plTy and .-\TL~
    muluspeciral sc anner data . 1." 1 \ 1odd ..'l.l concentrated peak 110w in It \ p'..r S<."\:o,llI. l) ~ lodc l cJ tut al cell ...rosion in tons per u
    (Schill and Jcn ......"Tl. 1''')1\)

    439

    Ilferenc es

    111 cell erosion in tons per ac re IFigu re 12-2 10. Mod el

    ::lulls have been compared with ill J im measurements and

    ltd 10 locat e areas of increased sediment and nutr ient loss


    ill to ind icate the spatial extent o f nutrie nt and sediment

    Choi, II . a nd R. Hindschadlcr, 20U4, "Cloud Detec tion in La nd sal Imag ery of le e Sheers usi ng Shad"" Millc hingl cchniq uc
    and A utomatic No rmalized Diffe renc e Sno w Inde x Thre shold
    Value," R<'nw l<" S..".i"K o/f."m'''''mm",,', ~ I :237 ~2"2

    espon. depo sit ion and accumulat ion. Th is in fo rmat ion


    been used 10 spa tially alloca te vegetated bu ffer stri ~ and
    ~I manag ement pra ctices (ll\1Ps). Kin g ct al (200 5)
    eon on the use o f re mo te sens mg land -usc input s from
    ..dsar T i\! data a nd surface ro ughness inp uts from
    !ADARSAT 10 the ST REA M run off and erosion model.

    ter

    Dar ec ki, M. and u. Strams ki. 20ll4, " An Eva luation o f MOD IS
    an d Sea WirS Bi, '-u plica l Algorithms in lhe Balli c Sea: ' R<,

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    Chy le" . P.. Clodi us. W. B " Bender. S. C.. Atki ns. W. H. a nd L.
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    C H . \ "T E~

    12

    Re m o te Sens ing of Waler

    lIa ll. O. K.. Ri l?~ s. t:..i. A , S..lomonso n. DiGirolamo.:-i. tao:


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    S(''''m~ <>1 /:'Il' ;mllm l',r/, 10: .1 : IXI- I<,14,

    K in~

    $,

    .,
    m

    Ib n. 1... I'N7" "S pectral Refl ecta nce w ilh Varyin!! S u~


    Sedime nt Concemrauons In Cl... ar and Alg ae-Laden \~al<f\
    "h"t" .I:ru",,,,,/rt. t:/1.l{m ..ri l1):. .{ R,-muf" !i.'mill!!._63(6).' 8
    70.'1 .
    Ha n, L. amI D. C . Run .J<lu i ~t . I'N". - The Respon se o f Buth s.fa ce Rellecl,m c('" a nd the Unde rwater Lig ht Field 10 \'
    Levels .. f~u 'l"C'nded Scdi m"Tlls: Prehrmn ary Results." P
    ):.ro.lI'""e/rK E".~m..'ri"J! ,{ R,"""" .li,.'lI." " J!. /:10: 1-:>3-1~7 1
    Ha n, L. a nd D. C. Rund 'lU1Si. l'N7, - Com p"T1 M'n o f ~ I R RUl
    Ra uc a nd Fin;t Dc rhati\ " o f Reflec ta nce in Estimating ~
    Chl orop hyll Conce ntrati on: A (";1'," SIU.Jy in :I Turbid R~
    \ nir.,W", i,rx <IfE"",n",,,,,,,,', 0 2:253--20 1,

    N,",,,,,,

    Kor

    l4

    L.

    -rne

    lI.m , I.. and 1>. C. Ru ndquist. 191,111.


    Imp act of a \\iII<irou gh... ned Water Surface o n Hemlll" Melhu rem o.'n ls nflar
    bidl1> .- ,"" . Juur/l <11 of Rnlll' I,' S,mill,!! . 1911): IQ5-201.
    Honer, H.. I q 7~ . "SpectralCh aracterivncs o f w ater a nd SIXII':
    R"",,,t.' .'i,' II""'I{: rh,' QUlIllllt"I" .. .~pp/'U<Jl h, P. Swain BlldS
    Davi s (l'ds.). l\Y: ~ l'GrJW 11111.

    (ji te lsnn. ,\_ A .. 1'1'12. "The P"al ,.....ar 700 nm o n Rad iance
    Spectra of Algae and water : R cl al ion ~h i ps of its \l a ~n il u de
    and Position with Chloro phyll Cn nct"nlra lion, lml. j""mlll of
    lkm"' ,, ,~',m i,rx. 13:3.1t>7-3.\ 73.

    Insh. R., 200 0. "Landsat-? Automatic ("Iuud Cover AS6cs;,mm


    Algo rithm s tor Mulrispcctrnl. Hypcrs pectral. and Uhras~
    trallmauc ry," SPIf.". 4114 ~ :.l4X -.3 ~ 5 .

    Gordon. II. n., [) K. rlarl. 1. v,... Bro wn, O. a . Rr<mn . R. II .


    ba ns and W. W. Hroenkow. I ~x .\ . "Phytoplank ton Pigment
    Conccmratiuns in the Midd le Atlantic Il ig ht: CUlllparisoli uf
    Ship Determinations and CZCS Estima tes." Applied Op'ic",

    Is1:\lO, A .. Gao . J. Ahm ;.d. W.; Neil. D. and I'. He ll. 2(10~ , "A
    ("uml'"site DOl' App wach hi Excluding Ih,tlnm Reflectance
    in Map ping w ater Para me te rs o f Shal low Coastal ZU!lC' from
    '1:\1 Imagery. n Remll'" S"/lsii/g " f !':m 'lml1llh'/II, <)~ :4n-51.

    22:2 0- .\/"

    Gregg. W. W, uud N. W. Casey, 2004, "O I(l h~IJ a nd Regional


    Eva lua tion of the Sl'aWiFS Ch lorop hyll Data Set." H('m "l"
    Scmill):. vf /:'m'II"oIIIII,'''', '!.3 :4().3-l7'J.

    ,len,en. J . R., Kjcr fvc, B. K., Ra mse') Ill. E. W., Magill, K, Fo.
    r>.1cd ciros,C. and J E. Sneed. J, E. I'lX'l. "Remote SensinpJld
    lvu rnc rical Mod e lling of Suspended Sl'dunenl in Laguna ~
    Tc rminos. Cumpc chc . i\l e, ic o .~ R,'"",/< S"".dng ufEm;ron
    mem. 2X:.\ 3--44 .

    Guen ther . (j. C.. Cunnin gha m , A. G . La koc que. I' . E. and D. J.
    Reid. 2000. "Meetingthe Accu racy Cha lleng e in Airborne L1 [HR Bathymetry." "'.'ARSEI. "l'n w"",lill g.1 '~l,h,' LJDAR
    IJi,rk, h"p.l )re....fcn . Junc 10-1 7, 1: 1- 2 7,

    Kah n. R ., Iqq,!. G.-na ,,! 11I/"II,IIl<"l"' '' t il .HISH. Pasadena,


    t\AS.-\ JP1.. hllp :/lw ww -mi sr.jp l.na sa .g o\ imi inlr o,hlml.

    us u. n K. Riggs. C; A. and V, V. Sal"ml,nso n. I'N5 . -nevet.


    opme nt o f Method s for ~ a r p ing (jlohal Snow Cover u ~i n g
    Modcra re Reso lution Imag ing Spect rometer Oala:' H.-",u l l!
    .li,.m ing of E""; ",,,,,,...,,. 54 : 127 14(1

    Re fe

    Ka r.iska. M. /\., Hu gueni n. R. L.. Beac ham . J. L.. Wang, \1.,


    Jen sen , J R. and R. S. l.a urm a nn, :!:1l0 .j. nAVINIS Measureme ms ,,' Chlu rophyll, Suspen ded \-tlllerai s. Di~,,,h'cd Organic Carbon. and Turbidity in lhe Ne use River. ~C.W Ph",...
    g,."mm,'/rll ' EIJgm ,.'r;nl: & R"""",' S,'milrg. 711f I) :125-133.

    44 1

    "elerence s

    King, c., Lecomte. v., Bissonnais. Y. L.. Gag hda di. :-I.,
    Secchc rc, V. and 0 Ccr dan, .2005. "R e mote -sens ing Da ta 35
    an .'\ ltc m 3tiH' lnl"ut for the ST RF A M Runoff \1odel: ' Cat(' -

    110. (>.2 :1.25- 135.

    Morel. A, a nd D. Antoine. 1000, I'j~">t'l11 ",da R.'/ri" ",, 1 ill


    ew.. I " ' lfer. ~ IER IS Algor ith m Tbeoreucal Basi ~ Documem A I HIl 2 . "'. p. 25. hllp:1 en vivat.esa.intrmstrumcrus/meris. pd f atbd _1 _(N . pd f.

    tOllgsbcq; , l OllS. F. .\11:11 \I" ltjhe'lm Ec ho SOl"',}"", Ho rte n.


    'lOf>l.ay: "'"n gs her~ , l ne . , hllp ;II\\ \\\\ ,l.nugs b<rg.culO.

    M umby, P. J. E. P. Green. A. J. Edwa rds lind C. D. Cl ar k. 1<)9 7,


    "C.. tal Reef Habua t-m..ppmg : Hu w Much De tail ca n Remo te
    Se nsing Pro vide?" \tarim>HinluK.... 1311: 1<).' -202.

    {roger, S. and R. J law, 1(11)5. "Sens ing lhe Sea ," Tn'n, /.'
    81OIcchnoflJ/{l. 13 15 1;2 5tl-2 50.

    \1 l1~ t.ard. J . F. Staid, \ 1. 1. a nd \\i. J. Fri pp, ~OOI. " A sc mianalyt-

    j"

    tncn. \'. Frordefond . 1. \ 1.. l.a het F. and P. Casta ing. 1/102,
    ""'>POT Sha llo \\ w erer Ua lh) metr) o f A \h>tlcrald y Turb id
    Tidal Inlet Ba se d o u ricld Mcasu rcme nrs," R,mOl.' .~mjng

    vr

    ical Approac h to the Cahbranon of AVIRIS Data to Reflecta nce Ov er wa ter :\ prl icalion in a Terllpcr ate Est uary," H.:mut~' S<!mi" x

    "r ""/"''' ''' <:111, 75 :33S - 34Q.

    ",.i" ",m, tI/, 1I 1; 1.\0- 14 1\ ,


    legleuer. C. 1. diU.! D. A . Roberts . 1005 . - Effec ts of Chan nel
    \lorpholog) and Sensor :-. ratial It.;,s o hu i,.n on Ima ge-derive d
    Depth Esum ares." R"""" .: s.mlllg (If Environment. '>1 5 ;2) 1147,

    NOA,' csc, 1/ll)(>. SinK'" H,'"", Smwr. Ch arleston: 1'0AA


    Coastal Sef\h;-cs Cc nlt'r, www.csc .noaa.g ov 'crs rs_appp~
    sensors. single _lxa m. hlm.
    :'ol O 4, .~ ()m <:c of ( ">ii.;t Survc y. 20111>. S/d...Scan untl .\Iltfltb.!um

    lq k iter, C. J. g o bcrts. D. A.. Ma rcu e, \\' A and M . A. Fonsrad,


    1004. - Passi ve Optica l Remote Sen sin g o f River Chan nel
    \t ()rpho lllg) and in-s trea m Habitat: Ph ys ical Ba sis and Feast~ihly," R.'m ole Sens ing of Em 'm "'''' ,''' ' , '>1 ) :4<) ) -51 0.

    SOVA R_ Wa.-, llL ngton: :-IOAA Omce of CO~1 Sune)". bllp :1f
    cbart ma kcr ne d. noaa.g o v' u s n 'wrec ks, hrm l.
    ;..lOAA ROC. 10115. ~ EX RAD WS R-!':Rn. Was hington : J'\OAA
    Radar Oper atio ns. hn p:li \\ ww.roc noaa.gov.

    Lod hi. \1. A ., IJ. C . Rund q uist. I.. Han and M ,:-' . J uzila . 1'1"'7.
    "The Potcnnal f<lf R..me te Sem lllg o f Loe ss Su ils Suspe nde d
    in Surfa ce Wa ters ," Jol,m<l1'iflh,' Am" ,icml If;,,,'r Resource s
    j , w><'imin /f, 3' 1I ): 111- 117,
    \!JrilOren a. Sand 1>. A. S i cg ~ 1. 200 5. "C o nsis tent Me rg ing (If
    Satellite Oc ean Color I>ata Sds Usin tj A Hie -optical Model : '
    R~mol" S"IH iIiX or EIIl'm m""' /It. 'J4 :-ll'J-4 4ll.
    !I1ark h ~ IJ1 , It l.. and

    J C. Harker, I'1St> . "Landsat MSS an d 1 M

    O pl.-..: h, ::'0 06. S!fO.U.S- / (J()() , Toronto : Opt..eh. Inc . Hll p:1
    \\ ww.o ptech.o n.ca.
    O'Reilly, J. E., Maritorcnu . S. , Mitche ll. G., S i..gcl. 1),."1 . Ca rd er , K. L . Garve r, S. A.. ("I a t . Ill'l l'< . "() ee" n Colou r Alg orilhms for ScaWiFS:' .Immwl '~I (,",' 0I'h,\',I'i<"l11 Research,
    10 3(C II ):249 37-2 -1 '153 ,

    aud 2 1 co -a utho rs, 2\1110. "Ocean C olo r Cblorophyl l Alg urithm s for Se:t Wi rs, OC2 , anti OC4: Ver s io n 4 ." in

    t ) ' Rerlly . .I, E.

    Post-Cahbrarion Dyn am ic Ranges, Exua tmo sphc ric Rc Fl e elance and nt S,Llc ]lile Temp erature." f. w H/s'" r,' "!llIi,:ul ,Il,'"t,.,,

    S HiHooker and E. R. F i rc ~t <ln e {Eels. I. St'II U"if'S I'o ,' /millch

    l:3 - K.

    ( 'uli nr" t ilJlI lim/ Vo l idllt iOIl A 11<111,....". Part 3. J'\A SA Tech nical
    Memora ndum. 20nO2 06lN 1. G re enbelt: c s rc. II :<)-1 7,

    n."-

    Miller. R. L. and
    Mcx cc . 2004, " Using \ IOO IS Tt'rm 150
    m Imagery to ~lap L'oncentrnncns o f Tota l Su sp e nded Matte r
    In Coa sta l wasc rs." H,'", ol" S " f1SIII.I{ "I EIII'irullm" llf. 'J): 2:59-

    260.

    Pasqualini. V.. C- l' ergelil-f',Iart ine . C . Fe rnand ez and G Pcrgcnt.


    I</lJ 7, " The Usc of Airborne Remote Se nsing for Benthic Cartography : Advantages lind Re tiah ifny," lntl. JOUr/wI of Re-

    m" /.. S"I/,in!!, 1!l(5) :1107- 1177.


    Milche ll. H. G. , ~ fJ(H. 0 /" ",-,1 /IIIU/.:' " IC I./) Slu" JurJ ..fl);!urillm ls
    10,I-lI. CORO U ,,,,,I };4 911/ : Cu /ihmfi,,,, " ".J 1;,/id,lIio'l . htlp:llsha raku. en rc. nasda.go.jp ( j U / m l.'c tl 2(11l ll( 1_0 5.pd f.

    '.tODlS. 20M, .\fOV IS II" ",.' rag... Gr eenbelt: J'\ASA Goddard


    Space Fhght Ceme r, htt p:/o mo,tis.gslc. nasa. go vi.

    Pinkerton, \1 . H.. Richardson. K. \1 . Boyd, I', W.. Gall . M.P.,


    Zc!d ls. J. L.. 0 11\ cr. \1 U. and R. J. M urphy . 2005, " Intcrcomp" risun o f Ocea n Colour (b nd-ratiu A lgor ith ms fo r Ch loroph ~ ll Co ncc ntration in the S uhtrop ica l Front East of New
    Zealan d : ' H.,,,,,,1l' S"", jn.l{ o f E"vmmm,mf. 'J7:)8!----402 .

    Cll w n :n

    442

    Rams e y. E. \V. J. R. Jcns... n, II. E. Mack ey and J. Gladden. 1 ~<,l2.


    " Re mo te Se ns ing o f Wate r Q uali ty in Act ive 10 Inactive Coo ling Water Re se rvoirs,' {111/. J""rnn/ of Remote Sen.om g.
    t3( IXI:3465--34IlX.

    Re ynu lds. R. W. and T. \1 . Smllh. l'N4. "Im prov ed G lo ba l se asurface: Temperature An alyses Using Opurnc m lntc rpola lion, ~ J ,mrn<11 vi e li",,,,e, 7 :')l 9 'J-Ilt.

    -ne

    Rundq uis t, D , c.. J. t . Schatlcs and J. S. Pc-a lo e. 19'15.


    Response o f Volume Refl ec tance
    Man ipulat ed AIg.. ! Co nccn aauons A bove Bri gh t and Dar k Bottom s a t Varicuv Dep th s in
    an Expcnmc ntal Pool," C<',....<1r1<J tmt.. 105- 14.

    '0

    12

    Rem ote Sen s ing of Water

    Measurements Ilf lhe ThermalPlume from the Daya Bal.~


    d ea r r o wer Stanon. C hina ." Rt'/Iwte S",,~ in.g of En"iron
    1I~ : 5()n-5 1 5 .

    Tan g. J., Xue. Y., Yu, T. and Y. Gu a u. 200 5. MA crosoI Optd


    Th ick ness Dctcrrmnauon h~' Exploinng the Synl'rgy ofn i
    RA and A lJ Uc\ MO(}lS: ' H"molt:: s..n.~mx oj E,r_in!/!_
    Q~ : J ::i -3 3 .J .

    Th oma s. !\ .. Byrn e, D. a nd R. We athe rbe e. 2(102. Coa.w SQ


    Surfac.: Temp...raru rc Var iabi lil) from Land sat Infrared DaD.'
    HeM"/" .w m mg of tom itT/nmi'nI. l\ I :1n 2-272.

    r....

    Ru ndquist , () C . l. Il an . J. I". Sc ha llcs a nd J. S. Peak e, 1'1%.


    " Re mo te \ka surc rncnl of ,\ 1 ~ .11 Chlorophyll in Surface walen : The Case for the nrst Dc rivanv c of Refl ec tan ce Nca r
    MIO nm ," PholO~'am m,,/'i(" EnK", et',mK & ReRJ(,te Sen .unK_
    61(21: 19 5- 100 .

    TR \t \ t. ::00ti,
    I 'i<ul Rui"ft,fl Jk<-l-.ufl.Mt'm Mis' ion (TRW
    If"",e P"g e, (jrt"e'n..,... li: (i S~C . hll,, : ll l nnm . g~fc .nasa , ~ov,

    L 5.-\C E, 2006. SHO ALS, \l o hile : U. S . ,\ nn) Co rps ofElgine ers , htt p://shn.ak sam .usace.anny.m il defa uh.htm.
    US D:\. 1<Nil .~G,"''PS 9/1 .4g, i,ulfll m l .....on-Point SoUI't't'

    Sch ill. S. R. and

    J. Jensen. I'N l... ~ M odeli ng 10 Predict St onn~'a

    ter Runo ff i n Withe rs S wash Mvrtl c Beac h. Sc." /'ro..eedmKj.


    Urban and RegionalIn formation Sy stems. Char jone: 83 - 93.

    l jS ( iS . 2U(ln. I'o r i/ it" ,'ieo -f/fH>r Mt1Jll1l" g Image.f .

    Sch ultz. G. A. 1':11111. "R em ote Sensing in Hydrology." Journal

    ,if / ( I'd",I" KY'

    l oo:1 3lJ 2 6 ~.

    1 'J'I~ ... Snu ....' \1app ing ill Al pine


    Rc gions with Synt hetic Ape rt ur... Radar ," IEE E Transactions
    ,m (i('m , ,..", e (m d H('mote ,""mlll.l':. 32{ 11.

    Shi. J. J. Dozie r and H. Ron.

    p,..

    1m" H""eI (l j'rwm .' III. \-lorri s: USDA Agricultural R~


    search Se n ice]. h www.flc .nrcs .u!>da.jo:llVi!.luv.q ag nps.hun.
    W;l~hing1oXl:

    U.S . <k v I01/ical Su m:)' West ern Rcgiou Coa stal & MariIlI:
    Ge olo gy. hll p;lIwa lru s.\ r,usg s.g.. vip:lemapsl .

    wc. G. R, and C. E. Wigg ins. 1000,

    "Airborne Lida r BllIbllll-

    ctry inrhc Management of Florida's Coastal ZOnc.Illfegr(ll(ol


    efll /"/ Lo u... AUl umn :nl) - 72.

    S mith. E. A . and III others, 2 00~ . "Intcruancnal G lobal Mea s ure mcnt (0 1'\-1) Prog ram an d Mis sio n: An O verview." in V.
    Lcvizzani and 1'. J. Turk . bh. Me'I,lI/rilli< l' rccipuouonfrom
    Sp(/n ': F.URAINSj T and 110(' Filum' , London : Kluwcr, ~ 3 p.
    hl1p:J/gpm .gsfc.llasa.gov /g pm _overv icw.prlf

    Wulfmcycr, V., Bau er. II.. Girolamo. P. D. and C. Serio, 200:.


    "Compa ri son of A ctiv e and Pass ive Wa ter Vapor Remolt
    Se- nsin l;l frlllil Space : An Analysis Based o n the Simulal~
    l'crformuucc of I/\SI and Space Borne Diffe rential l.bsor)'"
    linn l.l DAR ." " .'moll' Sl'I1" 'ill~ nj f.'ll l'i r m mr.'nI. <,1S :11 1-2 30,

    Suplee. C.. 19'1'l. "El Nino nnd La Nina : Nature's Vicious Cycle." NIJliml<l1 (f" ,)gra l' nic. 1'15(3):73-'1 S.

    YUIJnl;l . R. A .. C . /\ . O nsl ad. D. D. Busch. and \1/, P. Andersen,

    Tang, D. Kawamura, 11.. l.ee , M. and T. V. Dicn, 10 03, "S easuna! and Spatia l Il islri hlltio n o f Chlorop hyll , I Co ncentra tio ns
    and Wate r Co ndnic ns in the Liulf uf Tonkin, Sou th China
    S ca ." R,'lI w /e Seming "/ Environment, llS : ~ 7 5---4113 .
    Tang. IL Keete r, D. R.. \\/'IlJI,t. Z .. Lien . J. a nd II . Kawamura.
    200J b. " ,\ VIl RR Satellite Remole Sensing a nd Shipboard

    Iu'J4 . "1!/"ic lllw m l ,v",r l'o i m SIIU R '., /'o/llllioll lft!<lt'I (AG
    /IPS!. St. Jose ph: U.S. Dept . o f t\ grieu h urt'.
    Zhou. X . Xi e. H. and J. M, H. Hendrich, 2nDS, -Stansneal

    Eva luatiun o f Re motel y Sensed S no w-cov er Products "i lh


    Constraints from Streamfl ow and Sr-,;O T EL M easur ements,"
    Hem,,/(, S<,mm~ II) f.II\'im lml<'lIf. ')4 : 2 1 ~ -2J I.

    13

    Remote Sensing the Urban Landscape

    rban landscapes are composed of a diverse assemblage of materials (concre te. asphalt, metal. plas tic, shingles. glass. water. grass, shrubbery, trees.
    and soil) arranged by humans in complex W3)' S to huild hous ing . tran sponntion systems. utilities, commerc ial and industrial facili ties. and recreationa l
    landscapes (e.g. Small. 2 ~). The goal o f this cons uuctic n is hopefully to
    improve the quality o f life. In many instances. urbanaanon is lak ing place at
    a drarnanc rate te.g . A U~'h et al.. 2(04). often without planned development
    {referred to as urban sprawl) (Clapham. ~OO3 : Wilson l' \ al., 20033). A significam number of bus inessmen and .... omen. pub lic organiza tio ns . and sclc n11Sls constannv require up-to-date in formation about the city and suburban
    infras tructure (Carlson. 200 3; Herold e r al., 1003, 20041. For example.
    detailed urban information is required hy :
    city. county. and regional councils (If governrn ents tha t a] legi sla te zo ning
    regul ations to hopefully improve the quality of life in urbanized are a", and
    bj would like 10 model [predict I me.' locat ion of' furure urban gr owth:
    cit)" and sta le de partments of commerce , .....hich are mandated
    development, onco to increase the tax ba se ;

    10

    st im ulate

    tax -assessor offices, which must maintain lega l geographic descriptions of


    every pa rcel oflaud. ass ess its value. and le vy uiux-rn lflagc rate;
    county and stale dc panments of transportat ion that maintain ex istin g
    facilities. hopefull y bu ild ne w Iac iluics w ithout damag ing the
    environment. and prep are for future tra nsportat ion dem and:
    puhlic an d pr ivate utili ty compan ies [e .g . water, se.... cr. gas , clcct ncny,
    teleph on e.'. cab le ) 10 predict whe re ncw dc r nund wi ll oc cur and plan for the
    mos t e fficient and cos t-cffccriv... metho d ofdel ivering the se rvic es:
    pub lic service co mmissions, wh ich arc mandated to make the utili ty
    se rvices availa ble economica lly 10the consumer:
    depart ments of parks. recreatio n, and to urism to improve public recre ation
    facilit ies;
    de pa rtrnerus of emergency management/preparedness and homeland
    security, whic h are responsible lo r remov ing rhe threat and/or m itigating
    destructi on and allocating. resourc es in the event ofa disaster or terror ism :

    -143

    ...

    C11 ,\pn:n

    374

    appear to
    infrarcl
    the uI 7

    III to lind the ideal


    and residential

    \ 1.

    <f'

    .'

    mmercial.

    and

    ...dn hydro logic cond itions. cli mate


    .,nar) ' prod ucnv ny te.g.. Imho ff: 2005,.
    .: educated , professional users o f urban info rma tion
    oJ' hngworth, lyQ7; Jensen a nd Hodgson. :!0(4 ). The
    urban suburban land they manage or develop is o f signil1cant monetary value. Therefor e, it is not surp ris ing that c it)".
    county. and slate agencies as we ll as private co mpa nies
    mvest hundreds o f milliuns of doll ars eac h yea r ob ta ining
    acrial phot ography and other form s of remotely se nsed data
    10 extract the requ ired urban mformauon, Idea lly'. most o f
    thi......patlal urban informurion il> placed in a national spatial
    data infrastructure where it ca n be accessed by a variety of
    public and private users .

    13

    Re mote Sen s ing th e Urban Landscape

    govc rnrncms, the priv ate sector a nd acade mic c


    and the internati onal community [Jensen ct al.. 200~1
    l "kwf0l'illK Spa lin/ lhll" Infrastructure: Tile SDI C~
    ,GSD 1. :!OO(,) introduces reg ional. national and
    nat ional organizations to the co nce pts and su ndalds
    implcrncming a g lohally eornpa nble Spat ial Data In
    nn e. Se lected da taba ses from the South Carolina Data Infrastructure are show n in Fig ure J3-lb i!.J1d C
    Plate l.~-I .
    Urba n Re s o lu tion C onsidera tion s

    Many of the de tailed urban/suburban attribu tes that


    ncsscs and agen c ies requ ire are summarized in TaNt r
    and Figure 13-2. Thi~ cha ptcr review s how remotely
    data may be of valu e for the collection of these aunbae,
    rem otely se nse urba n pheno me na . it is tirst IICces~
    apprecia te the urban anribute's te mpora l. spec tral. and
    lia l rcsoluuon cha ructcnsucs.

    Nationa l Spat ial Da ta In fra s t ru c tu re

    Urban/Subu rba n Tempo ral Resolution Consideraxa

    In the Unit ed Stales (a nd many o ther nations) . an interagen cy Federa l Geograph ic Data Committ ee / FGDC I pro motes ihc coordinate d devel o pment. Ul>C. sharing. and
    d issc mina lioll l1 f the nat io n's d igi w l geog ruphic informauon
    re sources ( FODe , 2( 06). T hi s na tionw ide dat a publishing
    effort is known as the Nal irll1<11 .'i" lIia/ lJ<lw ln trastructure
    (NS lJ l).
    lhe NSD I l'onsi sts of thr ee II'I/Inl'wol'k foundation sf/o l ia l
    da li/h.lSt,s (F ig urc 13- 1a):
    geodetic control
    digitalterrain (clcvnuun and bat hymetry]
    d igital ort horcc tiflc d image ry

    Th ree typcs o f tem pora l resolution should be consitkret


    whe n mo nitoring urba n enviro nme nts using remote
    dat a. First. urban/suburban phenomena often prog:i:SS
    thro ugh an id\' lllitia hle (/el'e/opml'lI/al cycl~ much l ike \~

    tauon progresses through a pht/I<I[o)!./cu/ q 'c le (Chapter 11


    fur e xample. Jens en a nd Toll ( 19&3) docu mented a 1 0-~
    single- fa mily residentia l hou sing development cycle atll'(If!
    in suburhun Denver, ("0, thut progressed from \lagt[undc veloped r'ln ge la ndl to stage. j 0 (ful ly landscaped res
    denua l hou~ ing ) . often within j ust six mon ths ( F i~ure 1.1.
    3u). ril e stage s o f rcsidcnual dc velupmcnt were idclitiflill
    ba sed on till' presence or absence o f li ve major facjn,
    including :
    I . parcel clea ring [partial or complete)

    four !rtllflt'wl'l"k Ihemll/if' (IOlah, l ln:


    cadastral

    boundarie s or poluical un it..


    hydrology
    trans po rtal io n

    and several nth ..r themattr t"'I"n.t.~I'\. suc h as urb an/sue urban land usc and land cc vcr.
    The H IDC dc\c1,)pl> gCl>l> patial data standa rds for implemen ting the 7'lSDI. in cooperation w ith stat e. loc al. and tr iba l

    2. land subdiv ision [l.c. parce ls su rvey ed and gradcdt


    3. roadst din or puved j
    4 . hu ildi ngs (presenc e or ab se nce )

    5. landscapi ng (partial or complete].


    Single- fam ily re...ilknl ial ho us ing dev elopm en ts III S.
    Diego . CA. undergo a sunilar cycle [Figures 13-3bc).lt

    445

    Urban Re s olution Cons iderations

    it)'.

    Sc !t'ct('d Ij araba scs rrum ~lIIl t h Ca r ulina 's


    S p a li a l l) a t a f nrr a srr uctu r c

    .'Iati u nal S p a lh ll llli la t nrr as rrucrurv

    rho

    ""h ifor
    ,,-

    Dig,tal

    Other
    then....ic
    Data

    ia l
    10<

    ()nh.,re-.:I, rL~...t
    lmagel)'

    Wgctal ion

    D'gJl.IJT..' rr:l.ln
    Balh ~mdr)

    Tran"p" m u .o..
    l\ound.1I'ie-. {J:""cmmcnu l ueru I

    ;i-I
    -d

    Tra nSJ'O'Ution
    landco,,'t1'
    1..;Indll>'e

    "

    Fr.uncwon

    .,

    Foundanen
    D at.:l

    (j<"O<kt lC ( 'ol\lrol

    Figure 13 -1

    b.

    at National Spatial Data Infrastructure frame wo rk foundanon . thematic and lither layers (a fter I GIX' , 20061.
    b l Selec ted data base s Innu Sou th Car olin a's spatial 1.1"13 mfractru ctu rc ( pl.:a'>C s..' t: C.. lor Plale 13- 1).

    ,
    imperative thai the image ana lysl understand the tempo ral
    development cycle of'r he ur ba n phe nom cn .. heing a na lyzed .
    lfi t is not understood. embarrass ing and costly image interprctation mistakes can he made.
    The second type Ill' temporal resolu tion is how often it is
    possible for the remote sen sor sy stem to colle ct data of the
    urban landscape, e.g.. eve ry X days, I fJ days, or on demand.
    Current infur nuuion is critica l for mos t urb an applications.
    Generally, sensors that can he pointed o ff-na dir t c.g.. Gc-oEye IKONt )S; Dig illllGlooe Quick Hirdl have higher temporal resolution than sensors thut only sense the terrain at nadi r
    (e.g., Landsat Thematic Mapper). Urban nppllcntions are
    usually nut as time-sensitive as thnse dea ling with high ly
    dynamic phenomena suc h as vegetation where a life cycl e
    might take place durin g a sing le seaso n. For these reasons.
    most urban app lications tcece pt traffi c count trans po rtation
    studies and emergencie s) only requ ire that imagery be colleered every year or so . Orh ital charac re ns ncs of the satellite
    platform and th...' latitude of the study ar ea also impact the
    revisit schcdul c . Remote se nsor da ta may be co llected o n
    demand from su bo rbita l mrcraf (a irp lanes. helicopters] if
    weather co nditions permit.

    Fina lly. tem poral resolut ion may refe-r to ho \\ often la nd


    managers requir e a cc n am type of infonna uon. For ex ample.
    local planning agcnci cs may need precise population csnmate s every 5 - 7 years in ,u1d iti(l!1 III the est imates prov ided
    hy th c de cennial census. The temporal resolut ion requiremears for many ur ban application s arc summariz ed in Table
    1.1 -1 and show n grnphieally in Hgurc 1] -2.

    Urban/Suburban Spectral Resolution Considerations

    Most imugc nualyst s would ag ree that when ex tmcnng


    urba n/suburban in formation h o m remotely sensed data , it is
    o ften more important III have high spatial reso lution (c.g.. S
    5 x 5 Ill) tha n h igh spectral reStI]utio n {i.c., a large number o f
    hand s). For e xample. loc al po pulat io n est ima tes based on
    building unit co unts usually require a m inim um spatia l rcsolution nfO . ~ 5 - 5 m to .X2 n - 16.4 fl ) to dct cct. d istinguish
    betw een. and-or identi fy the type- of ind ivid ua l bu ildi ngs.
    pracuc ully any \isiblc band tc .g.. gre en o r red) o r near-infrared spectral band at this spatial r~'S(llul ion will do . O f cou rse.
    there must he sunlc tem spec tral contrast be tween the object
    of i nle re~t (e. g.. a building I and ih bad, ground [e.g.. the su r-

    13

    446

    (J,3

    10'

    4,

    "
    "

    3 )'

    '"
    II ;

    I ,

    "."'" "

    Ill"

    L1

    LJ

    ,. ,

    "

    IRO d

    ,
    3

    c
    e

    =
    e

    1('"

    " ,3
    ~
    e W)
    ,

    1I

    \ 1'01 11M' l ..t.l...

    ..
    ::0.

    ~. I O. I O

    ",,, ::U.

    Ill~

    Table

    lOll

    Sl

    ur

    , "
    s "
    3

    .20 30

    III

    1\ :

    55 d
    44 d
    30d

    .22 d

    S
    S

    .26 oJ

    "' d
    Qd

    I
    I

    10.000 min

    5d
    4d

    3d

    e-

    'd

    LorIo min

    '~
    "- Lm
    O~ .O.!I

    I
    h

    111' 2

    O :<lJ, O , ~Lm
    U.. _ l. I~",

    !!\ lI ~N ~ \ 1

    12 11r

    Afmnl . I I ...
    T I ~ "l l ..

    ,~ ,

    II ,

    Ih .~ .I ' ; ~ ~ .. . (J.;" U'~d


    ,1l ~1.1l 6 Ion

    1).,< ,
    ~"

    p;'" I .. I ,"

    ..

    ~.1 .'" ': '

    1'-"' ,

    rn

    ' ;,,,1,),,, ", b H,~

    ~l

    on

    \>111<1 \1\1 :

    ~~~;~l

    C===':"::,'

    I.IJ 1m

    A'lune

    I ;,\(. < 1m

    ...

    ...

    I ' ~'rn

    1'>0 I , I",
    MS < ~ , ~

    1 hr

    ' I~lr ~ .

    ...

    II!!';

    \1 SS 111\ 111 m

    \" . lu~M,I,,1 P hu'u~,,,ph ,

    " ..'5. ,, ~ ; ," , 0 .0"

    u." n.)

    1 , l n , i1 , ~ , l , S I'-l

    min

    n; ~; ,, 1"I'r" ".
    (.n.... . In" ",,,

    ,
    3

    I
    I
    I
    0.2 1l.J 0,5 .ll 1.0

    i
    3

    rJ R hHm

    ' all,...
    \' 1\

    IXI

    It:."",

    V I' I ~l.j.lj 'm

    ~m

    111l ", " "

    I
    I

    ~ Q,1' , U..'5 m 'II '~ , U, S! fl. )


    I I

    \11

    ",

    I':onB\l .' m

    '",,

    ~",

    1.",,-1.1 .1.1 . ,.

    ,j..

    1 1 1".~,

    ' ....... ..~ - II..' ' '' ''

    ]Oil min

    ..

    ~ ._-," . ~ ~

    \I'< )U, 2 4.4 ..

    M~ :;~"

    :-<'~.1h

    r ...

    \o. I"$!.
    " r ll; ~ j l
    \ ,'r i . 1
    l'I",I ''lI:r.~ h1

    I,l

    ' 1H lJl~

    "~

    1O~

    .....

    SI"l IT C;

    'd

    .0

    . \O. ! 3.' . !I .I

    ,
    I

    I
    10 1520

    III

    I ,

    JU
    3

    I
    5

    I I I
    2 34 5

    .'luminal Sp utiul Resnlu ttun (ml'tl' rs)


    Figu re 13-2

    clear p.. l y~oll~ rcprcw nt thc spaual and temporal r.....utrcmcnte for sd\'Ch:d urban annbutcs hs ted in Table 13-1. Gray
    boxes de pil:t the spana l and tempora l charac teristics o f the majo r rcmo ..: sensmg ,)'\ lcnt5 111.11 may lie used to ex tract the requircd urban infurma llc," (adapted from Je nsen and Cowe n. I<JON; Jensen and tlvdpon. ltllJ.t Jensen. 20(5).
    Till;

    ur ber

    IS "

    III )

    u.s

    Remote Sensing the Urba n Landscape

    447

    an Resolution Co nsid e ratio ns

    Relations hip between urban/suburban euri butes and (he minim um remote sensing resoluucns req uired 10 provid e such data
    tad aptcd from Jt'n"",n and Cowe n. 1'N'J; Jensen and Hodgson. 200..\:Je nsen, 2n(5 ).

    JUe 13 1.

    Mi n imu m Res olution Requireme nts

    l.oad"..!I... nd~n'f"r
    ~LSGS I...c,d l
    '~l 'S( iSLC'\C"1 1l

    U -l'SGS
    l~-l'SGS

    L~,d

    III
    Le'd IV

    Boildint:.Dd r ....lJ<"ny~l.i n~ Infr. , tru el " ....


    pCflmclL'f,.on:~ , ...Iumo:. h~,l',ht
    C - <'3<b51T31m (onnallOO lJ"l'f'l"C'f1) I,nc<i \

    II _ bI"khn~

    S -lO ycMS
    .5 - 10 years
    J - S yUr5

    2 0~

    I - 3 y'L'al'S

    0.Z5

    100m

    ~-::Um

    1-5 m
    1m

    l -S~'c:-an;

    0.::S ~0. 5m

    I - 6 """'Ills

    0.25 - 0. 5 m

    .5~7 ~ean

    v , ;.;IR . \1111. .Jbdar


    \ ' _;';IR _.\1111. RaJar
    P:on . V . !'IR - MIll.
    Pal1chromatie ( l'an)

    Stern> ran - V.ltD-\R


    Stereo P<lIl ' V

    "-<-..con omic ( h.ne l~d ,li~


    ), -I<ol;.l popu lal"" N "nauon
    regional national populat;OO C'Slimali,,"

    5 - 15 YClUS

    0.25-5m
    5 -Z0m

    g-qualily o (h(~ indlC:ll<>!'S

    5 -lOyc"""

    0.::~ -30 m

    Pan\' !' 1R.ltDAR


    Pany - M R
    Pan Y . !'IR

    0_=5- 1m
    1-5 m

    1 1k

    ~. I"' m ~ nd

    .nd ( 'on\('" ali"n

    II ~ en'''ll~ do: nwtd IUld prod""'I "'" potential


    C - k"ld Lnll-lnLul.l"," ... n e~ s
    l",u'I""'t.t iu" In fr lruel " r r
    1- ~ ... I n." '" crolerline
    12 prt'C ir;c n.wl " io.ltb

    T3 - lrallie counl S!oo>es (.....'5. ~,I"f>L"'.,'"

    1- 5 )'''' ''''

    t'tt.:. l

    TJ - ... 1'1."'11 " ud,,,,,


    tlilil~

    lI3 - I"C~1I""

    or p" Ie., m~nll<,I"s uh,llIli,~u

    [li~i l. 1 H e..tinn Model (l) F:~11


    0 1 cl igllal'''l f~c~ model u"d 'ur d 'll'lu lt"mll n n",<tel
    02- ~I""" mup (d"n' <'(j Imm III M)

    \ltlell...,I"r.: in l lJ " lll


    \! I ~ w""l h...r r r,~\ld iuTl
    \12 CUfTC1l1 Irmp",alut'C
    \!J - , ,",,, "i r alld pr"C ;r i l~ I''' " mud "
    \14_ "",.,,'" well,her m,,,,"
    \15 ,m" nno,in!! mh,," h"al i,I Llnd ellect
    l'rhllllll) d r"I"I!..\ '
    HI impervi ous ,urr",,~ m"pp",!!
    H2- ,ucam ~enl"rhtl e and n,>od p lain dc l ill~all un
    ("ririrs l .:,,,; rnn ,,,," t.l ,\ ru , \ " ~,, m " n l
    Cl _ " ..hie "",,,, ill' " ,,"' ;ronmclIls
    C2- d)'113mic ...:nsu;,., "''''i",nmcll b
    Di...

    1- 2 years
    5 - 10 m;n
    10 -6Om;n

    "a" .\" _!'I R. un....R

    0.2~ - O. ~ m
    0.25 -0.5 m

    Pan _\' - MR
    Pen- V" ihlc
    Pan Vi, ihlc
    I'an _ Vi.iblc

    1- 3U m
    IU5 _ 11.6 m

    .'a" _V, UDAll

    I - 30m
    0.25 - n.s m

    In(ra,' r u rl u ,-r

    UI - ~",IIII, lny hn'-IlI.lII'I''''l!.nd r"ull ng


    V2 - rn: c '",: ""lily line " 'idlh, ri~h ... ,(-,.."y

    't'" I'm" rJ:~nc)

    5 yean.

    1- 2 ycal'1<
    1_:: ) ""n.

    tlZ~

    n,t> m

    I'an . \1- !'I k

    r .m,h",nlal'C, lt D AIl

    5 _ 10 )'c"n.
    5 - to year'

    0.25 - 0.5 m
    0.25 -0. 5 til

    Sl"rw J'an .V;, ihle, l. tnA R


    Stereo l'all -Vi, ihle, lt DAR.

    3 - 25 min

    I - Sl m
    I - S km
    I 4 km
    I -4 km
    5 -;\O m

    V - Mk- n lt
    Till
    WS lt llKll R"dm
    WSK_llKIl R." d" ,

    3 -25 min
    5 - lOmin
    5 - llI min
    12 _ 24 hr

    I -~ y cars

    0.25 - 10 m
    1 30 In

    I - 2 yea rs
    l -b "" "'Ih,

    (US -2m

    I - 5 years

    ," m

    '"
    V _ NI It \<i l R, LlDAI(
    V . NI R \-1IR.UlJAR

    V _ M R \<i IR
    Y .S1 R - \ t1kll R

    Rr'\.IIn. c

    Dfl -

    rn:-cmt'rg""c ~' '1lI.lI~n)

    DE1

    ~-~mc'1!<'llI.l' i m3~"ry

    D13 - damaj!'...t hUII.Utg scod


    OfA - damaj!cd 1ran'P''''.I;on
    Df.$ - datn:JgN "ti\lti"", r;cn ;""

    ...

    Spectral

    Spa t ial

    Tem poral

    Anribute s

    1 - 5ycan
    12 hr -Zday..

    1- 2 days
    1-2daya

    1 - 2days

    1- 5 m
    U2 5 - 2m
    02 5 - 1 m
    0.25 - l m
    0_2~ - 1 m

    P"n ' V , !'IR


    P.n "Ill - Radar
    Plln ~ lll.
    Pan _ ~ lll.
    Pan - NIR

    C1 IAPTER

    448

    13

    Rem ote Sens ing t he Urban l andscape

    a. Single-fami ly rcsidcnua l development ncar D..."T1\l.'f. co. A pared ofland 1n3)' progress
    from rangeland (stage 111<) fully deve loped, landscaped, single-fanuly residenual housing.
    (stage IO).Th e stages o f reside ntia l developme nt w crc identified based on the presence or
    ab-ence of five fa ctors. including pa rce l clearing, subdivision, road.., buildings, and degree
    oflandsc aping (Jense n and Toll. 1983),

    h, Cleared. subdivided. terraced lots with dirt wads 0 11 SIl'eP


    slures being de veloped I'msingle-family r~':;I ..lcntia l housing in
    San Diego. C,\.

    Figure 1303

    c. Smgle-family rl.'si tknlia l hllus ing in various stages of I;l\Usuucuou. Ro.... s on e und hll' ill Illl: IOIl1c1l have foundation f,"-llings. Rows three and four have sub tlooring and arc being framed

    Examples {If slages in the development cycjc of single-family rcsi.lcn li,\l housing in Denver, CO, and San
    Diego, ( 'A Remote sensor data may capture urban hllld use in 011<: 01 many sl<t~C' o f development.

    ro unding landscape ] in orde r to d e tect. dis tinguish be tween.


    and ide ntify the object from its bac kground.
    Th ere are relat ively co arse regions o f the electromag net ic
    spectrum that arc very use ful fill extracting certain types of

    urban, sub urban info rmal ion ITable [3-1). For exarople.
    USGS Lc vcl Ifl l.mdcovcr is bes t acq uired usi ng the visible
    (0 .-1 0.7IJ m: V). near-in frared (0.7 - r.t u m : t\ IR I. middle
    infrared (1.5 - 1.5 um: \ lI R ), and or panc hrom at ic (0.5 - 0.;
    j.I\\1) portions of the spectrum. Bu ild ing perime ter, area, and

    u,

    n Resolution Considerations

    II HI

    449

    '"
    "'"

    70 -

    .'III(S -

    ", -

    .," '"

    !O - '

    ,
    s

    "

    '"

    ~"

    ..

    Urba n/Subu rban Spa tial Resolution Considerations

    .."'
    - ,
    ....!~~ll!'
    "
    ..

    O '~ ===

    ~ "i

    00 - -

    11 1

    "'

    '"
    Figure 13-4

    II

    III

    [V

    Lind Cover Cia" Level


    Retanonsnip he m e,.'111 'SGS Land-useLand-cover
    ("Iasslli<,;"l illn Sysrcm and the , pallal rcsoteuon uf
    the remote sensing sY_" <'m totte n referred I" as

    ground -resolved d i,la llce in HI d e rs ), The Nuunnal


    Image lntcrp rcta bilny Rating 'ccalc (~II RS t is provrdcd fur comparison. A l"'IIRS vcru rating Sl.Igfcsts
    lhatlhc imcrpretabibty "fthe- imag e i<precluded by
    utN:Uf1lt iOfl, dc:grJdll ltlfl. or poor resolution,
    ~ighl

    information an.' bes t acquired usi ng black-a ud-whnc


    panchrornuric (0 .5
    0 .7 pm) o r col or image ry (004 n.7
    uml, The thermal infrared po rtion Ill' the spec trum t3 - 12
    urn: T IKJ may be us ed lu obta in urba n surface tempe rature
    measure ments (DouSSI.'I and Gourmc rcn 2003 ). Acnv e
    microwave sensors may Ilhla in imilgeT) o f dllud-shroudt'd
    urban aTt'as (c .g.. Canadiiln RADARS AT C band . and European Spac.: Agency FRS- I.2 C -tMnd ). l'l'H infrared l a~ cr
    lighl (e.g. IO::!4 nnt) can 1'0..: USl.'d til l.'olke t U DA R digita l
    !ourran' model Iinot. illl..:rm.:diatl' and lasl retu rns plus inlensity data ( Iit'lJg..s"n d 31.. 20(5 ).

    oc

    Unfortun atel y. they also encountered co nsidera b le sp ectral


    con tusio n betwee n so me urban land cover ty pes te.g . spe ci fic roo f a nd road t~ pes ]. Smal l (2()()2 ; 200 3; 2~ ) summaril ed how different materia ls fo u nd wi thin the IFOV of a
    sensor s),>I..:m treterred 10 as endmrmberv s uc h as co nc re te.
    aspha lt vegetat ion. .: 1<,;. ) contribute to urban spec tra l reflccrane e and how the y ca n he discnuin gted using spec tral mi xtUI'<' analysis [re fer III Jensen (2005) fo r ,I discussion or
    spectral mixtu re analysis]. So metimes the only way to
    extrac t the urban infonna uo n req ui red is to utilize mufuple
    lyres (If remote M'nsu r data 1I1 the san lt' ruvcstigauon
    refc rrcd 10 <.I.S melts-sensor data fusion (Gam ba ct 31.. 2003 I.

    \lan ~ urban applil'i1liuns can also


    conducted using hYPI:r.
    sp\:c tral fem tlte sensor da la_ I krold cl al. (::!U04 ) oolkcll'<l
    field uman s j'lectr.ll measu rc ml'nl S from 350 III 2400 nm and
    lilund putelllia[ fo r [ugh s pee tfill-n:~ol u !i"n rcmut e sen si ng
    ror Je w.ileJ li la pp ing " r UI'LXlll II/</h'rial.\ 'Ill'[ thl' ir t:ond ition ,

    tra ined image an a lysts do rely tin black-and-whitc ton ... or


    c;slor ill aeria l photog rap hy or other types o f imagery to

    e xtrac t usefu l urba n in formauon, How eve r. in many


    mstance, the Ib'omt" /ri.. spa tial clements of ima ge intcrprcranon such as obj ect shape, size, tex ture. orie ntanon, partern .
    and shado w srtbouene nrc onen j ust a ~ useful if not more
    useful ~ a ll c !.... mcms ar .... discussed in Chapter 5), Generally,
    thc h igh cr the spat ial resolution (If the rem ote sensor data .
    the more detailed info rma tion that ca n be e xtracted in the
    urban envmmmem. Uut ho\lo do \lo t' know " hat spaual resolut ion ima geI') to 1L..... fo r a speci fic urban app lica tion" Fonu n<l t.:ly. there are seve ra l method s available for asscss ing the
    mtcrpr.... tubiluy o f inta gery for urban apphc.utcns based
    lnrgc ly on till' s pat i ul rC S(1 [lit ion of the remote sensor data.
    .'IJR~

    ( 'rileria

    One solut ion migh t he 10 use the milua ry and or civilnm vers ions o f the National Image lmcrp rcunion Rating Scales
    (N [IRS ) de\ do ped by the lmagc Re solution Asses sment and
    Reponing Sl;lnda rd~ Committee ( 1RARS ). :"J [1 RS is the met ric use d by the intel ligclll'e comm unity to charcctcrizc the
    usefulness o f imag..:I') for intelligence ptlTJllISCS [ Leachtenauc r er 31,. 11)9X: Logicon , 19'J 7; Pike . 2U(J6; FAS . 20( 6 ).
    \I any urban una gc-imcrprcta rion las lu. arc sim ilar to rhosc
    re'luired lo r int.:lligl' l1ce app lication s. Ttl.: f\ IIRS criteri a
    consist Ill' 10 rating It' \" els (O-I)J till' a gi \-C:n Iyl'\: o f imagery
    3rrhcd al thw ugh <,valuation by tra in.... d image ana lyst s. Th ....
    IR..\RS cllm m itk l makes it c ko.,r lhal spiltia [ resolUlion
    (grountl-reso lved d ist3nl'el is Ililly I'n e of Ihe mcasuft'S of
    th... inte rpre tab ility of an image. althoug h il is 3 \-"Cry imporlanl onc {Figu rc 13-n O lher (;ll-tOrs such as film quali~',
    at mosrh~rie haze . Cll/llraSI. ang le of oblh.luit y. and no is..: ean
    rl'<l UCe th.... ahilit) o f a \I el l-tra ined ana lyst to detect, d isl inguish h..:twcell. nlld idc nlil): mi litary and civilian objects in
    nn image , While it Wllliid he us<'!ul tn usc thc N I1RS cr it.:r ia.

    450

    C1LU'ln{

    it is nOI opt imu m to r this discu ssion because I ) the civil


    NIIRS criteria were o nly recently made available t Leachtcna uer e t al.. l ')<J~; F,\S. 20()(,). 2 ) ther e has not been sufficic m time for the ci vil ian community to fami liar ize itself
    with the co ncept. and cons...-qucntly 3 ) the civilian communuy has rarel y reported its c-ollccuvc ex periences in urba n/
    suburban informa rion cxtrucuon using the :-.lIlRS system.

    A figure of merit fo r measuring the reso habi lity o f a film


    ca mera syste m oft en used by pbotogremmernsts is call ed the

    area ... dgJII.,'; '"'I.'r<lg" resolunan (AWAR ). measured in


    line-p airs-per-m ulimcrer (Ip mm) ( Light. j<)Q3). A li ne pair
    is the width of on... Mad " bar a nd o m: .... hite space as contai ned on r...~lI UliCl n targets recorded in an aeria l ph otograph.
    Together. they form a pa ir and serve as a meas ure of image
    q uali ty for the acnalfllm camera industry. Th e five essential
    elcm ems that ma ke up the system AWAR ar c the lens. film .
    image blur t smean on the film d ue 10 aircra ft In " vard ve locity, a ngular mo tion. and the resolution o f the du plicaung
    fi lm. Al so , scene cont rast of the Earth an d atmo sphere play
    a ro le in sys te m resolu tio n.
    Sc ient ists haw stud ie-d tho: general rel at ion sh ip bet .... cen
    aeria l photograph y scale a nd AWA R. For example. Light
    ( 1993, 1996) docume nted IhOl I if .... e ass ume that the Earth is
    a low-co ntrast sce ne. the I :40,OOO-sca l.: Nati onal Aerial
    Photography Pro gra m (:-.JAP P) photography exhibit s
    approximatel y 39 lp.rnm a nd yi cl d~ approximately 25 IJ m
    for th e size o f I lp in the ima ge. At 1:40 ,000 scale. 25 um
    eq uate to a ground resolut ion ( I f I x I m for low-cont rast
    sce nes. T here fore. a minimum of I m ground rcsolu uon can
    be expected throu ghout the photographic mission . In fa ct.
    the LiS{jS digital onhophoro quarter-quad files produced
    from 1:40,O(lO-scule NA 1'1' phu log ruphy ure prov ided a l I x
    I rn (3.211 x 3.2X fl) spa tial resolution by sl:ann ing the pho
    \ogrH phy with 11 p ixe l si ll" (If I I ~lrn . Ligh t (19911) suggests
    Ihat there is a general linea r rdat iunship fllr largcr scalc
    aeri a l pho tography l'b tained using metri c eal11~'ras , i..:.,
    I:20,OOOscale phn lngrarhy equ ates to approx imalely 0,5 x
    0.5 m ( 1.64 x 1.64 ttl ; I : IO,Cll)(lscale phlJtllgrarhy t(l 0.25 x
    0.25 m (O.K2 x O.K2 H); and I :S,OOOsca lc photog raphy 10
    0 . 125 x 0 .125 m to .4 1 x 0.4 1 fl.). Unlnrtunately. most per
    sons usi ng renWh: sensor da til Illr r rac tica l urThm appl ications do no t report their 1i11l.li ngs in ternls o f AWA R criteria.
    :"ominal Spa lllli RC ~lI hll iu n t G rou ml Resoln"d Oist a nl.'" e)
    The Ct \ ilian user com mun ity usua lly report.~ thl: util it) of a
    gi \'e n ty pe of imagl:1') lo r ex tnl ct ing urban in fo nnatiOl1
    baSl-d o n the co rnpa rati'iely easyto- undc rstand concept of

    13

    Re mo te Sens ing Ih e Urba n Landscape

    aeroe

    lIumill" I .lpal i,, { It'.'IIIUliu l/ ( al ~(J call ed K,v,md-r~.\IJI\'ed

    TablE

    ex am ple , the Land sat 7 Enhanced Thema


    Mar re r Plus ha s cix multispectral bands at J O x 30 m
    nal spatial resolution . a 15 x 15 OJ panchromatic ba.nd.w
    flO x 60 m therma l in fra red band . The S POT 3 HR\'
    has three mul tispec tral ha nds w ith 20 x 20 rn nominal
    reso lutio n and a sing le panchromatic band at 10 x 10 m.

    fa n c.. ). For

    Another ge neral. nom inal spatia l resohnion rule is that ~


    needs to be a mi nimum o f four spati al o bservations It,,pix els ) w ithin an urba n object 1(1 idcnufy it. Stated anodllr
    w 01)'. the sensor spat ial resolunon should ~ one-half
    widt h ofthe smallest obj ..ret of mtcrc'lit. For exam ple.toidelti l) mo b ile homes that arc 5 01 wid e , the m inimum sp.vilI
    reso lution o f image ry needed wuhour haze or osher pm..
    lcms is ~ 2.5 x 2.5 III pix els (Jensen and Co w en. I ml.
    II is p..l:-:-iblc III idcnt ify IIr hmJifmi/llIp la nd cover versus
    other land cover for regional u r global applica tions ~
    co arse spatia l re solution satellite re mote sensor dati. FIl
    ex ample. Giri ct al. 120(15) compared the agreement bl1\l~
    the Glob al Land Cover 2000 dataset derived from the FrClld:
    S POT I x I km \ cgl,.'1a tion sensor- data, and the MODlSG\(l.
    ha l Land Co ver da taset de rived from .\10 DIS 25 0 and 500 11
    data rcsam pled to I x 1 km . Unfortunately. tho: pcca
    agree ment fo r the IIr h(/l1lhllllfUP land-cover class at the pc"
    pixelleve l was poor in 15 ofthe 16 biomes examined.
    T he temporal, ~Pl"CI r.lI, and spati al resolution requirements
    lor selected urban aunbute, summarized in Table 13-1 atlIJ
    Figure 132 .... ere synthesized Inuu practica l cxpcricrcs
    report ed in j ournal art ic les, sy mposi a. chapters in books.and
    go vern ment ami stll,. il:ty manuals [e.g.. Avery and Bellin,
    19'J2; Light ( 1'l 93. 19% 1; Ph ilipso n, 1'l9 7; Haack ct al,
    1l)'J7; Jensen and Cowen. I IIQ<); Donnay et nl., 2001 ; Jensen
    et al.. 2002 .lenscn <lnd J It'dgso n. 201l4; Jensen. 2llO5; Pi k~.
    2006 lind others in the individual sectiuns]. llopctll ily. there
    w ill always he il remote sl'!lsing system available lhal can
    ob tain images of the tl'rrain thal sat isfy the urban attribUles'
    res" luti(Hl r.:qllir.:me nls (T"b!.: 13-1 ).

    Remote Sensing Lan d Use and Land Cover

    Th e te rm !tm,I II.'e refers ttl hllW thl' la nd is be ing USI."<! by


    huma n hcin~s. La//J l"tIVt'r rclers to the biophysil,.al malcria6
    fou nd on the land. ror C.'\lllllPIc. a state park ma y be used for
    reerealiclIl hUI ha n- a co ni fcrous !n fC'lt COVel'. Ur han land-use
    or land-l."over in l(lnnat itlll is required fo r a great vari.:ty of
    app ticat ionl'i incl uding. rcsidc:ntial-i ndu!>t rial-I:o mmercial silt

    c<

    IIOte sensing land Us e and l and Cover

    )e

    13-2 .

    Four levels of lhe USGS r.oml-( .:",/I.'lIId C ,,,",,r


    CI""'I!kmioll "1'.<Iem {o" V,H' wuh Remotely .'\.'11..... <1
    D.J,U "nil l'l,.pn:""'lU;llhe typo.-s of I'l,.l ntlt...ly sensed
    data 1 ~ J"lca l l y used to prm ill< rhe infollTlalltln

    :lassifica l ion
    Level

    Remote senso r Data Characterislics

    NOAA AVIIRR (I. I)( I.ll..rnl./'o.l()J)IS


    250 m: SUO x 500 m), Landsat \tSS
    (7\1 >( 79 mi. Thematic Mapper 00 x 30 mi.
    Indian llSS (n,; x 72.S m: ) n,25 x .'n.25
    m: 23.5 x 2.U mi. SPOT \"egeLJlion 11 x I
    km l. RA DA RSAT II 00 x 100 ml. aerial
    (~ 5 0)(

    photography 1:120.000 10 I c .ro.ooosca le.

    II

    LJndsal 7 Hnhnnccd Thematic Mapper Plus


    pan (I S x 15 m\. SPOT URV Jl'l1l11O x 10
    mi. SPOT II R\ ' XS (:!O x zn m).lndian
    IItS pan 'S .lI x s.s mi. ( i,'I.'!:Y": IKO\,;OS I I
    x I m pan :" x ..j m mult isp.:ctral l.
    RA[)A RSAT (11 x 'I rr u. acn al pll(lI~ra
    phy 1:60.000 to l : l l0.000 ~;Ik

    Indinn IKS pnn (S.f\ x 5.S rnl. (ieo!-:ye


    111

    IV

    IKONOS l l x 1 m punt, [)j ~ i l<tI G1HIl<."


    Qu ick Bird panW. 6 1 x O.t',l mi. Orh\icv.' 3
    ( I x I m pan I. aeria l analog or drgnal pholtl1,'T"aphy 1:10 .000 10 I :flO,OOO (I ~ mj.

    Uigilal( IIntllt ()Ul(I..Blrll pan CO.nl x 0 .61


    m). aerial alM I"g Ill" digitul phl' lllgraphy
    I :t>,(IO() ro I :20J)(Kl(O,25 - I Ill) ,

    htion. popu lation estima tion. lax asscss meru . dC\l:lopen of l oning regulation... etc. (Cu ll ing",~nh. 199 7: Willi et al.. :!OO3b ). This me ans Ilt31 urban information
    ~led fo r one applicatio n might h" u ~cfu l in another.

    andUseILand-Cover Clas sification Schemos

    ~ best ....ay to en!Sure that UrOOll infnmlation ueri\ed from


    rote se nsor da la is use ful in many applic;t1i(1ns i~ t(1 Org:llle II acrord ing til a sta nu" ru ll.eu lam.l-IIW Il r 1<llId -t'm';!r
    b.liliCllfio" sd,,'lIIt' (Cltell and 510..... ::0(3).

    .mcr ir lill P la n ning ,\s..lIda tiu n " I ,llntl- Ullsetl


    ], \..ificalioll ,sta nd a r d"

    lit m()'o.t com prehe nsin: hierarchical c1a..si ticalion lo),st...m


    urban/ su burbll n la nd us.:: is Ihl' L<l",/-Bu.wd C/".'.fijiCllfiulI
    ro,,<1o,..1 (L OeS I dc \cl0pl'd by thc Ameriean PI:lIlntng

    Jsoeiatio n ( 20IJh j, Th is standard u pdates the ltJb5 S'<lIIjJrJ L<llId U'(! CodlllX .\I<1 l/1w l . wh ich is eross-rcfe ren n: u

    451

    w ith the I f),'{ 7 ....'<111.1",." IlIdll"''';u! CIa", ilk" ,ion (S 1(' ) '\/(1/1'
    lit/I and me updated vorth Aml'rinm 1",IIHfr;af CfoHi(kotinn .\Jullliord i :\A ICS. :!()(l(,l. The L. ll e S requires ex tcnsivc
    inp ut from i ll .f ill' da ta collection. ae rial photography. and
    satellite remote sensor data 10 obtain mformation atthe pareel leve l on III..: rilllo\1 ing Ii \ c ch urac rcnstics: uctivuy. func t ion. own ersh ip. site. structure (F igure 13-51 (American
    Planning Assoc iation . 20(0 ). The "ysll'lT1 provides <I unique
    code and description lo r almost e\lel") commercial and
    industrial land-usc activuy. TII.:- LHC S does not provide
    mto rrnanon on tend-cover or vegt:llliion charac t... nst ics in
    the urb an ,"n\ irc nmcm. ,h it relics on the Federal Gcographic Data Commiuce standards o n this topic. Users are
    enco urage d 10 keep abreast o fthe L.RCS .md 10 uulizc it for
    intensive urba n studie s tluu require detailed co mmerci al!
    indu strial (" 1a~si tk:tlion codex.

    LS.

    GCt.l l .~.: ical Su nc~

    -Land-L'se/L an d -Cover

    Cla,,\jli cal illn !")"1(,111 for \'''r wjth Remot... St' n" nr Data"
    Th.: U.S. Gc" lug i':-lll Survey L.mJ- CldL.llld-Conr Classification ,S:r." Im (Anderson et al.. 1'n 6; USO S. 1(,1(,12 ) wa s sp ecifically de sigu c d I" he re source-or iented (land cov en in
    con tra..l .... uh vario us people or ac tivity (land -usc ) oriented
    sys tems. such as the SI<1l1d<ln l l.al/(/- U.~1' Codmg\!"mml.
    The USC,S rationale \.I a.. tha i "althll(Jgh there .... a .. an o bv ious need for an urbc n-oncutcd land-usc classiflcnion syste m. there wa s also a need for a resourcc-orierucd
    ctasstncauon "y..rem wh ose primary emphasis w ould be rhc
    remainin g lJ5 pe rc ent o f the Un ited Snnc s la nd area." Tit c
    USG S ctassi ficauon system lIas designed 10 he d riven p rima rily to> the rrucrpretauon ofremote sensor da ta obtained
    ar various scales and resolutions (Figure 13--4: TaM c D-~)
    and nl11 data co llec ted in sun The L:SGS ~yMem addressee
    th is need .... illt ..:ight (If the nin.:- le~d I cal.:gories lreating
    land area that is nOI in urhillt ur !'lIill-III' cal.:-gories (Tab ll's
    13-3 10 13-(1). The classitiea t\\lI1 sysll' l11 was im liall)' d.... \dopel! 1\1 indud.: land-usc dalil thaI wa s \' b ll<lll} pho tointe rpr.:t.:d. illthuug.h it hilS be.... n widel} used for d igital
    nlult isp,'Clral remotc sen~mg c1as~ilication stu di.:s .
    \Vilik the USGS 1..J1Jd-Jlw /I.",,,I-cu\ ,: r ("il.l .~tfinlti()11 SH was nllt uri{;inall) Ilcs igned e" c1u~ivcl)' to in':llrporale
    de tail c"d urna n atlrinlll... infor ma l ion. il nc\e rth.:less has been
    us ed .:\t.:nsi ldy f{1I lllllr" lhJll twn dec;ldes for urban landusc slud i...s . This is llsua lly pcrtf>nn...d 1- .:m tJd li, h ing lhe
    cl assifica llon s~ " em \\ ith d,'la iled Le \ d IIL IV. and \ . urban
    class detinitions su.:h a~ lito ",' sho.... n in Tatok-s 13-4 t,l 13-6 .
    Th.:- utilily \~ f Ihe mocJilied ~ysll'm i.. that il may be adapted
    to include liS man) leI ds .., llesir.:d ).:t i.. upwardl) compatib le \\ ith ;111 Ihe USG S Leve l l ,\IlU /I lanJ, u' l: a nd IllndCOWl' dat n ':\'lIl pikd I-oy ne ighhn ring eilies. count ies. stat,', .
    f.'11/

    452

    (U.\l'TF I~

    13

    Remo te Sen s ing t he Urban Lan dscape

    American "I ;to ni" !.: ,\ s\ocia linn I ,a nd -lb \ f,>(1Clas,ifka li on

    ralTt'1 III
    IO-S-I Ol:I

    10 , 100
    10-5- 100
    lU-:"i- IOU
    10-5 100

    Fig ure 13 5

    Actil ll,

    Dl.'5C'ription

    Funt'tlon

    S, ' 1('01

    l>r...:riplkJn

    2 100
    2200

    , hI.'l"I'mg

    2 1HI

    r....U ur.m t

    ~S1 0

    U-la,1 ...10 and .."...ICeo


    full . """, ic,", resta ura nt

    "'''''

    """131. n"lJg lU\J."

    tx>: u

    r ch g l UU> 11ll>\JIU\lum

    f ll m il U.-c'

    2121

    fu m ll ll ~

    "c hicub r pan ing

    5200

    f'o1r~ j n l:

    e tc .

    etc.

    etc.

    2 111U
    5210

    fXl lil1es

    The Am erican Pbul1ing As"udatiun developed the L..md-LJ'I.>.-.I Cf""\i{icu/i",, S:r "/t"1IJ (Lile S ) that contains
    rtctniled de finttious (If urban/suburban lnndus c. The system incnrflnr alcs mformntio n dcnvcd il1~ilrl and using
    remote ~cll"ing ll: dll1i,-!un, Thi s is an oblique aerial ph ul,,~rarh Ill' II 1ll.11I in Ontario. CA. H ypothet ical ucuvU)' and structure codes associa ted with this large parcel nrc idcnufl ed. Sil,' de velopmen t and ownership infor-

    m.nion uuributc tables arc not shown (concept eOI<l1....sy American l'lutuung

    or nations, For example, Table 137 documents how the


    i.and-Use/l.and-t;'ovrr Clw" ilit-arion ,~~'~ relll for Use wilh
    Remote Sensor Dolo has been modified to include 22 class es
    for the vanonot tund-Cover Characterization based on continuous production of a U,S. Nanonal Lend-C over Dataset
    (NLCD ) derive d fWlII Landsat Thematic ~l a pp,; r or other
    data. Many of the Level II classes arc best derived using
    aerial photography (US(iS. 2nOfi).
    The same classes arc also used by the NOAA Coastal Services Cen ter in the creation orthe Coa stal Cha nge Analysis
    Prog ram (C-CAP) products . l\OAA C-CA P produc ts
    include land cover for the most current date available, a fiveyear retrospective land-cover product, and a prod uct that
    documents changes between the two dates (1' OAA. 2(04 ).

    "" sn,: i ~ l i " n l ,

    Urban Land -Use! Land -Cover Classification (Levels I


    to IV) Using Remote Senso r Data

    The ge neral rd,ltitlilship he1.... ee n USGS lund-cover c1a>sifi.


    cation system le vels (l - IV) and the nom inal spatial 1'l.'SOllC
    tion Ill' the senso r system (ground -resolved distance ill
    mcwrsj was prese nted in Figure 13-4. Generally. CSGS
    Lc"c1 1 classes may be inventoried e ff ect ively using sersos
    with a no minal spatial res olution of 20 - 100 III such as !be
    Landsat Multispectral Scanner (~ 'SS ) with 79 x 79 III oonunal spuual reso lution. the Thcmauc Ma pper (T r-. I) at 30)(30
    m. S POT HRV XS at ~O x ~O m. and Indian LISS 1-3 t7~j
    x 72.5 m: 30.25 x .' <>.25 m: 23.5 x 23.5 m. respceliwl)"l- or
    COUI'Sl:. any sensor system .... ith higher spat ial resolution C<1It

    R.

    453

    Remote Sensing Land Use and Land Cover

    Table 13 3.

    U.S. Geological Survey I.tI/ld, C,,'/Lm,I,ClJ"t"r


    ( /u ,..,j i< Yll j" Il .\\'., (<:m Ii,,' Use 'nIh R,mo,<".'Wn.wr

    Ta ble 13-4 ,

    Uroan Residential. Commercial and Services - Levcl l aud II arc rfl)l1l lh~ I./SG!lwnd-U.", if-" " dC",<'r
    CI,t"I![i,"tirlll S\" "',,, .lor f " ' j ' ,,"lIh
    -nsor
    lJulu. L ~ vc b Ill . IV. and V are log ica l ext...nsions.

    R""w,,' ....

    lAsl,s (A n..krwn 1:1 al . 197 6 ).

    Classifi catio n Leve l

    Classil lc atlon Level

    l' rb a n o r S .. ill. .. p La nd
    II

    R~"krmal

    12Con uncn: ial and Scn ice'l


    13 111IJustn a i
    14 T rnn, ponal;on . COO1 munkanOOs, and l"l ihl i~

    15 loouw1aJ and Commo.-n:ial C"rnrl<'''~'lo


    16 Mncd L:rt>.In or Hu,lt-up
    17 \;1Nn or BuilH,&p Land
    1 "'ltrk ullunll . n d
    ~1 {"ror1and and f>aSIUtt
    ~2 Un;1\lanh. GIU,n. \-1I>C~1ll"Ib.. Oman...~ ,u.IIl"rh"ul'ufC

    11 _

    01
    111 ........ 1 _ ~

    11 1 ' 1 \ _ . - . " , , _
    111: \_1<_
    I I : ~I_,-...

    1I11 '~

    ,IJ,....
    .. ( _ (
    n:._ I< _ '........,....
    II::':

    II:t~~

    I :C_ ....... _

    . l...... _ ... - , .... '

    I:lllr-...
    11111'... _

    1:11) - " "


    1: 11. ..... "" .. _

    '21: _
    l:ll l ~

    1: 1 1 : _

    m ll .......... " I : 'l l~ _

    Ill l '
    11 11:

    _~_l<" ,

    \Io .. '-I>R. ~ ..... ,

    ~.

    11.. ' _

    hr... 1 l and
    4 1 [kc,dlJ<'tl, h >rnt l aoo
    42 h ..-rgrccn r........' Lan d
    4:! Mv.ed f urnl. lalld

    ..... _

    ....._

    11' l _
    11 11 _

    23 (" OI"lr",c d fC'Cdma 0",:..,,,,,,,,


    ~4 0dl0If A grM:ull ....lland
    Ita nllel a nd
    31 Ilemaceo\" Ran ~d.nd
    32 Shrut>-Brudl land ltantleland
    H " n ed ~tld:md

    . _

    m.I_

    ' _

    ...

    '_~

    1:1':_

    l11U~"'_
    I:I ~("---

    , l Il F_

    -.l 0r4

    1 : 1l1 ~
    1:11:'~

    Water
    5\ Slream. and ('anal.

    121 l J R _
    111. 1.....,m
    111.1 \~ " 1oOI)
    1: 1"2["........., ..... ~~ _

    52 La~ c ,
    53 Rc.....rH" ..
    54

    ~a~ $

    u.:.-,_ary)

    1111
    Ul1ll101el
    l1I ' :M....

    3-noJ E,luancs

    lJPH ~

    6 Wetlan d
    61 f ure ' leoJ Wetl.."d
    1>1 Nu n1i',",,' I..-d Wetland

    1:1 .11"""'-" ... ......

    Oll rtell I.an d

    11Dry Sa il Flats
    72 llcllcne,
    73 Sund y A reas (lIner '1han B.-a.,nes
    74 H;H"e 1:0\p<'l'1."d 11.,,<;10:.
    7S SII'p Mines, Qu alne. , .. ( iruvd Pil'

    Ill " R........_.....-.:"'I


    ,..t>I"l
    111~ j """'''''''''''' ~ I
    ' .."''''''' " ,",".,1< ~1I)
    1:191 11,"0"')1
    ll ll f',," ~.I ' .u,"'O'"'''''
    U I\I-l(""lf
    111'l,w,"," "",,
    12' '''' '\<oJ ,W1", lnw l0i'" '1_ J
    111.7

    r",.,,,

    I.' Ihr.''''' 1"""1wJ<o "'"" ;r''''


    111" l it" ltl
    lJ

    11201,Il20 1 W,

    tI"

    76 1'ran,i,,, ,,,,,1 Areas


    77 Miu oG Barren I...ml

    I!1QIw

    Tund ra

    Snn,h and Bru, n Tun.ll;,


    ~ 1 I krN" Cl IoU' Tu", lri
    ~1

    10 Bare Ground l'undm


    ~4

    Wet Tundra

    H5 MC'N TWldra
    'I

    h a nn ial Sill'" " r I....


    'II P"n"lln,al $no",f,c1d.
    '12 G ille": '"

    ~ ..
    " ;'p' .. II",~ ,,1

    12: I. 11.....,.,.;".....'1""""
    III s<"".. U'. ~ I " ,...l
    I~

    0""'"

    1'ul<1~

    rr;",.,

    lUl l " d "' , "i~lJI\"'"


    l1llZ f'<!u<ot. ..

    f l<mm...,

    tW : l \ h ddl<

    l:2Ill ll'gIo"",,,,",
    '!ZIl. U"......
    ~
    lUl l ,~. I'<>h, ~ .......
    UZI' 11<0'''' ond ,"_ <0...
    Inl' I;....,.
    Inl ~ ...... nrr.,.
    I nl7 "*",,

    .,OI,...

    un MaI",,1

    Il .:.!1 HooJolaI

    I znl Oll"" ..
    IWR.Iop>oI ( _ )

    "''''';''1

    , ~r.l l) ,.

    "",O;l,op 00<1 ..." ';1.......

    1 ~ l! 1

    w...

    hq...ll

    ( 'H ,\ITt :H.

    454

    Ta ble 135.

    Urban lndustna l Land-usc Classificatio n - Leve l I


    and II are nom the USu S 1...l'ld- U-",il.u",'Cm'er
    Cl"" ',14kllU" 1I "'.1'.1/. ,,,,fi'r U.fC ,,#11 R,'mo{t' St'II.l<Jr
    1),/1<1, Levels Ill. IV, and V are logical extension s.

    13

    Rem ote Sensin g th e Urban Lan dscape

    Table 13-6

    Urban Tr.ltl~p,m,l\ i un.

    C'om m uni~alit'ns.

    Utilities.

    Table'

    and I'ldu sirilll/( 'ommcrcrat Com otexes- LevelIMol

    II das...:s urc fro m the USGS L.,md-U,,jwnJ(ortJ

    (,'l.... "inmnn Splt'ml"r I ', t' ,,'illl H..,nm<!.~


    DuM. Levels 1II. IV .InJ V arc logical nt.::rlSioo!.

    C lallS iflcatJo n level


    C lassification Le ve l
    UI_
    IJI~,_

    1111~
    Il" ' ~

    U Tr . .......... ' io.n. ("0..... . ., 1... ' ...... . nd l' , ib. ...

    _ _"

    11112 _ _ ........ . . . - . . _ _

    J:

    l ~lll l)jn

    1'111('"""",
    IJI!.l(;",.....
    Lllll _ _"" - . - . l

    I1Ul _..
    Ill):,....
    IJUJ~
    1llJ.l ~ _

    1.ll~ '~""'l,L-.o,j,; __ 1 Y"~

    IJI O g " p - .

    1 . I ~J

    n.. ,coel

    14 1 ~4

    \11 '2(101_

    Ill'.'"
    1l1S1 _

    I 40 '" IrjIOI1

    14 131 K.....

    a'......,

    lJl'~S_...

    l.n~Hupr

    141)) 1"",,,..al

    on-

    1lI~~_

    lll . I ' _ ~ " , ~


    ..

    1)ll~._ _

    """,,",

    1414 hoD'i.l:upo

    ....

    1 .:C,-....._~

    1 4~1

    1J11 " l _

    0111 ............. _

    ....

    I.J

    S,p.

    ~J1-.l

    IJ211Yol><>1 . k> ' ....... l abloo


    F..:,bl"'"

    ~ Iil .,)

    1 431llc<'ro:"~

    n211~1_

    IUllH~I""" ..

    ,....

    ' J 1 1~o.. _

    111Us...._
    llll~~r""

    1l1IHT _ _

    _ _ If>J_r........

    IJ!H.lo<m
    !J!: 1(1I1

    ~ ....

    1 43~ J\al
    14B 1'<1

    p'
    ""

    14 14 W ....

    1l217Tullk

    n:: .,..rr.>l

    1"""....1
    Ilnd(lr

    111') "'_

    1>21: ~~'I
    11:~ 11"' ..<lo

    ,,
    ,

    IJ!12I'a'N
    1411J L'm""" ....>o (l~"", 1011,
    lal 141m"",hanee
    IJJ I <I'an.,"III
    I U IIoHndf<
    I 41~ Radn rod
    IJI~I T,ad

    lJlJ I!
    _
    120_
    .....

    Il n l

    IJ

    IJII R- ', ..,.J Ih , h.. ayl

    lJll OpM",,_

    IllI 9

    I JI T ~

    1~ I. ....,or '.l . . ... ('<""".1'<1.1 l -.. " 'pk.....

    151 IOOl<>ln'" """'pl., lp.v ~ I


    IS: (..... ,,,,,,,,.1&1 "",,,pic, ,,,,. 111

    <l<.......

    "'r....,.

    """""",,,,,,~. I

    lJ l : ~ M .........

    .............

    Ill:l ,,," I, (>)1IIhO:1

    I.In" ....,."J I,,,,,,.,,,,"


    Ill) II ...

    11HI

    ( . ~ i ...

    ,.".<1<

    1J1)J('<",....

    11l Jl n.,. I"'ot.....


    111)4
    IJllI<11 . ..
    I J ll ~ 1", " .,HI ~<el
    Illllu.d
    I JlJ~ I ,;"",
    I Ill' 1<1><10.. r.dl;,!"
    Il 2..1_
    1.10<,,.,
    Il 241 7.;1'1<
    III hbo><.. ..,

    r_, ,,,,,,'''oil

    nom

    J"'l "'" rO'"

    rm H -o
    IlJII
    I Hil

    II.",~

    mu

    . h,I"

    ~.,

    JJJI4'\ono::
    Imwp

    ml<h llW<Y ("'1I,I<'ImI, ... 1

    ~ , ...,.

    ......11<,,,... ..-4 f<l"W

    ""'"

    ' _I ~_

    Ill !1 ..."""'ft........t>l)o
    lJJ12 " .........,. . _ , " 1-. ..... ""'-. .. _ '.. ,
    DJJJ _
    IlJlH_
    U JJ5 U...r<oU<l

    bo.Io"""- ond_..-

    lJJ~~I"'-'~ ~

    IJll 1 ~ I..o
    ..
    llJl
    proolom

    be used to acquire Level I dal:.l. Color Plate 132 presents


    Le vel 1 urban \":II, non-urban land-cover information for three
    counties centered 0 11 Charleston, SC', extra cted
    Landsat
    .V1 SS da ta ac quired 011 six dates from February 14 . IlJ75.1o
    Feb rua ry 3. IIN4, Fo r glohnl projccn, Level I landcovcr rna}'
    be extracted from more C tl lt r s,' -atial resolution imagery
    /c .g ., AVI1RR at 1.1 x 1.1 km
    )[S250x 250111(1r500
    x 500 m H e .g.. G iri c t al.. 20 1
    Typ ical urban spectral re f
    n zed in Figurc 1., -6 . LJ r'

    "steel -gray" on color-i


    because the urban le rm i,
    nnd asphalt roads, parkin
    ically reflec ts h igh prol
    a nd ncar -infrared radi..r.r
    lure co ntrasts sharply'
    brigh t red ,' r m llgcl1la t ,
    vegetation reflects s u.

    .ia.unurcs arc summa,I, r typ icall y appears


    , 'I' -om p os uc images

    I'

    .i .narily of ccncree
    "

    'lnd hare soil. typ-

    ,I

    , -,

    II

    .idem green. red.

    tt'; 'ray' urban signaraces that appear


    1: 1 sges because til<::
    11

    (If

    near-infrared

    455

    ftmote Sen sing Land Use and Land Cover

    13-7.

    LalHlfll lnry Sp c'el r n nu liom...ler ne necteoce


    C o m mo n Urban .\ Ia te r ia ls

    U.s . Gt"vlogieal Survey L,,,,d_V.\tif.<I,,,I_CO I'l'r


    ( ./"",\'i/k<lli(Jn .\)',, /<,'" Ji" CI<, wah Remote .....mor
    Da ta rnooilieJ for lhe ;..Ialional Land-cover l1i.1 (ascl
    and the l\ OAA Coosl,ll Chang<.' An alysi~ Program
    I ~ O:\A, 2(14161,

    Characteri~lifs tlf

    .i..\~'i;

    "",~G -

    30

    : Ot'H lul!"'d
    21 Low-lntcnsuy Residential
    22 High-Imcnsuy Rcsid<:nl ial

    23 Commen;i"li lndustriaVrransponalinn

    . . .. . - - - -

    ."0

    ,.

    ./!
    -. /-. '

    FON""i tl'd l lpland


    41 Decidcous For",...,
    ~2 Evergreen Forest
    43 '-1i.\..-..I Forest

    Shru hl a nd
    51 Shrubland

    6 .\ on-:'\a tu ra l \\ "'HI )'

    M Orchards.Vmcyard-, Uthcr
    - Herhaceo u. l 'pla nd "'lllluraIlS,'minalur al Vi1:..' lllliun
    71 Ij rasslands.He rbaceo us
    i Herb aceous 1'1an ll'd iC u lli n ll"ll

    SI Pasture.Hay
    lI2 Row Creps
    S.' Small Grain s
    S4 la llow
    lI5 Urban/R ecreation
    Sf, G rasses
    q W"'lland
    \II Woody

    Wetlands

    92 Em ergent I lcrbaccoux Wet lands

    mcrgy wh ile abso rbin g mu ch of th e inc ide nt green and red


    ~a\( le ngt h energy, as d isc ussed in Charter 4. Water abso rbs
    most of the incident radium I1U \ , causi ng it to a ppea r d a rk o n
    color-in frar e d imagery, easily d istinguishal'lk from the
    urban lands cape, Co lor co mposites o f ..lownrown C harl l:SkKI. SC produced usi ng many orthe major se nsor systems,
    are provided in Chapter 7,

    __

    ~~

    ~t
    Health y gra...~

    10

    ,- --- _.- ..j

    A ~troturf

    j Barren

    31 Bare Roc k/Sand tl ay


    32Quarric~tnp \ linCS<Gralci rib
    33 Transiuonal

    ..

    Brick ' red)

    J:

    ' -

    "," . ....... Y
    x

    ~,
    ~e'"

    S\~\e.~
    ,....-"'.- -......... . . Concrelc

    Classi fication Level

    Waler
    11 Op..m Waler
    I! Perennial lcerSno ....

    gra.;;S

    ,...." ,." '

    _...1 ., _ .__/

    Figure 13-6

    05

    Asphah sh ingle (b lack)

    o
    (1.4

    0.7
    0.'
    0.6
    Wa\ e le nglh , um

    O.Q

    (0, 0

    Pc re<"m reflectance curve s for com mon materi a ls


    found in urban en v rroemcnts. The reflec tance spectra \\ ,' reobtilin,'tl in a co ntrolled laboratory enviro nm<nl us inl!{ l1GE l{ I soc spcc troradiometer.

    Senso rs with a min imum sral ial reso lution o f 5 - 20 m are


    generally requ ired to .. ibtain Le vel II mform ation. SPOT 5
    sensor sys tems provid e \0 " 10 m multispectral and 5 x 5 m
    panchro m atic data . RADA RSAT pro vides I I " Q m spatial
    resolut ion data for Le vel I and II land -cov er inventories even
    in cloud-sh rouded u opic al land scapcs. The Landsat 7 ET M"
    has II 15 " 15 m panchromatic ha nd,
    More detailed Leve l III cla sses may be inve ntoried usi ng a
    sens o r with a spatia l reso lut ion o f llpprox imatcly I - 5 m
    such as: IRS- l e D ran (5 . ~ x 5.1\ t11 da ta rcsumplcd to 5 x 5
    Ill): la rge-sc ale aerial photo graph y; IKO NOS ( I x 1 m pan:
    4 x 4 III mulnspcctral): Q uick Bird (0.01 x 0.6 1 m pan: 2.44
    x 2.44 m multi spectra l): and O rbvtcw 3 (1 x I m pan: 4 x 4
    III m ultis pectral], The sy ncrg istic use o f high spatial resol ution panchromat ic d ata (c.g., I x I m ), merge d w ith lower
    spa tial reso lution mul tispe ctra l data (e.g.. 4 x 4 Ill), provides
    an image-inte rp retation enviro nment that is s upe rior 10 using
    panc hnunatic dat a alene (G amba 1'1nl., 201H: Je nse n, l Oll5 ).
    Le vel IV cla sses an d ca dastral (propert y-li ne) info rmation is
    be st monitored using high spatial reso lutio n panchrom atic
    se nso r>. including Quick Hird ll.6 1 "n.b! m panchromatic
    d a ta. ste re oscop ic analog aer ial photog raph )" (~0.25 - I m)

    456

    (, lI A rn:l~

    a nd stereosco pic dig ital frame camera image r)' [c.g. Le ica
    \rcn Systc ms A irbo rne Dig ita l Scnsor ADS-IO ~ 5 x 5 c m j].
    Urba n land-usc and land-cover cla sses in Lc\d s [ throu gh
    IV have temporal attribute requ ire ments ran ging from 1 -10
    years (Table [J-I and Figure 13-21. A ll o fthe sensors mentioned ha ve tem poral resolutions of' < 55 da ys. so the te mpoTa l reso lution of the la nd-usc-hi nd-cover attribut es is
    satisfied by the CUTTent and pr opo sed senso r sys tems .

    aeerc

    Rem o te Se ns ing th e Urba n Landscape

    a detac hed d welling composed of severa l ana ched


    (this is not true in the centra l bus iness d istrict ). COlllend'.
    a company producing finis hc d sle c1ty pically requireu 1o:!'
    large, line, lr bui lding (I~l ml ) that can h uu~e the varioussea
    processing acuviucs (function} , An ana lyst must be Cart
    howcvcr, because a huilJing 's usc may ch ange over nee
    T hus, a kno wkdgl' Il l' the seq uence- of-occ upance of Ni...
    ings in a region becomes important.

    Single-Family versus Mu ltifamily Resid ential

    As previously mcnuoncd. urban land scap es are noto riously


    comple x ( RiJ d. I QQ5: Small. 211UI: 2(04). While simple
    binary urban/non-urban information is valuable for assessing grow th trends t c .g.. Color Plate 13-2 ), it docs oot provid ...
    the kH~1 of land-use land-cover derail necessary 10 mak e
    wise decisions. Therefore, it i ~ use ful to provide add itiona l
    deta il aOOUI the e xtraction of the follow ing urban land -usc.'
    inform ation from remote sensor data :

    rc..ide ntic ! hou sing

    indu stria l

    A ., illjl f,,-j.,mif r ft','i,I... ltt' i~ de tached fWI11 any olh..T!loIl-ing struc ture. In de ve loped co umric-s il usua lly has J ~
    driveway. a sidew alk leading 10 the from door. a front yri
    a hack yard (linen fcnc c"lII. and a garage Ill' carport, It is llllIo
    ally .:::: 3 stories in heig ht. Several s ingle- fam ily homes'
    Richmond , C A , are in the process ofh.:ing framed in FipiR
    13-7a. Completely laudccapcd single-family residences
    Boc a Rato n, Flo and San Diego. CA , arc show n in Fi~
    13-'tb,c. ,\ I (lhilC' homes (t rai lers l in d... \ d oped countries m
    usua ll) much sma ller tha n orhcr singfc-farnily homes
    [a pp roxima tely 5 III single- wid e; 10 III doublc-w idct, tardy
    haw a ga rage (bu t may ha ve a carport) . and may or maytKt
    have a pal cd d ri\ ewa) or sidc walk I Fig ure 13-7dl.

    transpo rtatio n infrast ruc tu re


    co mm unic atio ns and ut ilities ,

    Residential l and Use

    The home in almo st allcultures is the single mo st im portant


    JlI lssession a person acquires in a lifet ime. It shehers (he
    fam ily and usuall y repres ents the household's greatest ceo nom ic investment. Inventory ing (he locat ion, typ e, condition. and nu m ber of residences is on e o frh e most imponam
    tasks performed us ing remote se nsor data . D iscrim inating
    between Leve l II res ident ia l. c01l1ll1('rcia l. indus trial. and
    tran sp.lrtatio ll la nd-uses re<luires a ~nsor s)'stem wilh a spatia l resolution lrmn 5 - 20 Ill. Ident i(y ing Lc vd III rcs ident ia l land-usc classes requi res a sputia l reS(l]u(ion from I - 5
    m (Table 13- ); Figu re lJ-H,
    Prior 10 in\'e stigaling ho w res ident ial land use appe ars on
    remol e ly ~ n sed d;tta. il is importa nt 10 inuu d ul'e the co nce pt
    o f form and j imctiul/, Basica lly. thl' funclion o f a buildin g
    o ften dlcules its lo nn. In fact, we otlcn S.1Y "fonn fo llow s
    function " or " !i)nn is dlclat ed hy functil)ll: ' For e'iJmpk , lht"
    n...'Cd to hou se iJ single fiJlIIil) IIften results in the creat ion o f

    In developing count ries. si ng le-fam ily res idences ma~ COl\lOist o f a bu ild ing, hut. tent. or lean-to dependin g upon
    cultu re. For example. lrad itio n:tl housing assoc iated wilb !
    pa sto ral vill'lge in Kenya is show n in Hgu re 13-1'a. It may te
    permanent or temporary (seasol1al I. The st ruct ures may con,
    ta in individ ual or exte nded fatui lies. Somer uncs it is difncull
    III identify suc h structu res in developing countries because
    they :lI' C made oftbc sa me mate rials found in the surrounding comurysidc, resulting ill low object-to-back ground con,
    t ras! (Jensen et al., 20ll::!l.

    In developed countries, l/IullifJ h':/i/ll/il.I' residences USUJ II~


    have mor e than O1\e side walk. may ha ve large collective
    abo veground o r bc lowground park ing gilfages O( parking
    l(ltS, may he ~ 2 stor ies in hc ig ht. :md shaw front and bad
    yards tF igure 13\).. ). The rl' may h..' a co mmun ity pool and;
    or lenn is COlllt, VII I,/c.\('.1 (two attac hed housing units) and
    tl' iph '.H',' (lhree allnclll'u ho u" ing unils ) ulOua lly have tI\<oor
    Ihree walk.... ays and dr i\ cw 'I) S, resp...'Cti vely. Somelime~ I
    co mmon par k.i ng are a i ~ pw \' ided . It is olk n d illicult to
    det eml ine hl)W ma ny fami lies occ upy s ingle res id....ncl'S in
    del eloping cn untr ies. When there are mo r.: than thl'
    allached hou sing un its. it is usua lly ca lled an apartme nl DI'
    condo mini um ( l'igurt.' 13-9I"1,c ). Such co mplexes olkrt
    I,,"'C UP) a n c\tens ive a rea oflant!. rise man) "ttlries ahtl\"e tbc
    gwund, an d in larg.. . e itlc" lila) be h igh-riw bu ild ings.

    a.

    "

    ident ial land Use

    457

    Several sing lc-f:'nni ly reside nces IWlIlg framed in Richmond. CA


    et r I II ) lcouncsy l ' ri ~ C. B":l1l<'Il 1.

    b. /\ single-family reside nce in Boc a 1(;11 <111, Pl., ..... ith one sidewal k.
    OI1e d n veway, lind II fCIKCd b~I.. YJrd ( k vd 1111).

    UIl,,'I)' spaced s ing le- fa illily residenc e in San Diego, CA, with
    sidewal k, one driveway. a nd 'It;ca''l~ IJlly a s mall swimmmg
    [level II r I),

    d. Si n\!k -fami ly traile rs {mobile homes ) in a tra iler pa rk l1t'ar \1yn lt'
    !'k 'lCh. Sl Clew II I 12).

    lilt

    Fig ure 13-7

    Examples of surgle-family residcmiat hl' lI,i ng CI"', d I I I I.

    13

    458

    Remote sensi ng t he Urb an Landscape

    :'oi airoh i. Kto) 1t

    --

    -.
    --.

    '0Traditional

    Kenyan villa ge ... ith indIvidual


    0.1 " dl ings sum..und..:d b)"a communal IiU"l;lock
    corral .
    Figure 13-8

    O. Meltiple-farmlv informal
    skirts ofNairobi, Ken ya.

    (~ uallcn

    Examples o f single- and multiple-ram iI)" residential housmg in

    In developing countries, rural peo ple tl ock to the city to


    hopefully obtain an improved qu ality o f life only 10 lind few
    jobs and no available housi ng (Da Costa and Cjmra, 19(9).

    This often resul ts in the crca uo n (If mtormol [squ atter ]


    developments whe re mu ltiple families Iiv!.' in buildi ngs consuucted with any materials that can he: found (Je nsen ct al.,
    2002 ). An inlonn a! sett lement o n the outski rts of Nairobi.
    Kenya . is shown in Figu re 13Kb.
    It is usu ally possible 10 dete rmine if a bui ldi ng is a single or
    multiple-family resi de nce using ima gc ry with a spatial resolution fro m 1 -5 m. Sometimes it is necessaryto me rge multiple types of imagery such as Landsat Thematic Mapper and
    rad ar imager y to identify villages in tro pica l part s of the
    world ( Haack and Sloneckc r, 1( 1)4 ),
    O n numerou s occasion s visual, head s-up o n-screen image
    interpret atio n of ur ban struc ture ou tper form s co mputerass iste d d igital image proc ess ing (Jense n, 2( 115 ), Visua l
    image inte rprete rs arc able to ta ke into acc o unt the sire. situ' Ilion, and associat ion o f structures , These clements of
    image interp retation have been very d iflieu h to incorporate
    into an alytic al methods of d ig itul ima ge classification. Only
    no w are analyt ical neural net wor k-based image interpretation syste ms begi nn ing to include the fundamental elements
    o f vis ual image interp retatio n into the image-analysis process (Jensen et al., :!OOI : Qi u and Jensen. 200..t ). For examp le, Figu re 13- 10 dep icts the user interface associated with a
    neu ra l networ k-based d igital image processing system that

    It

    h,...,..ing on 11k' out-

    dc\el "l"m~

    t'tlUnll")- .

    assists a n unagc interp reter to arrive at the co rrect lMd-

    (OH'r or land- usc cla ssification for a parti cular pared ~


    land, ln the pa st, th..- interpreter had to rely on complfi
    branching dich otomous keys to ass ist in the inlel'J'rdatlOll
    process . 1'0 w. the ima ge ana lyst ca n draw a polygon al'Ollnl
    a feat ure suc h as the on e she w n in Figure 13 IOa and then
    enter in the cbaractc rtsnc s observed in the polygon of iraeest using; a sim ple poin t-and-click menu such as the roc
    shown in Figure 1.'- lOh, The c baractensncs might indUlk
    the number of sidewalks. th... prese nce (If II driveway and:
    garage, park ing lots , mu ltip le stories, and ge neral sizc oftle
    phenomena. The neu ra l netwo rk then processes this infor,
    marion and reports hnck tothe image analys t what it hd i ~vt\
    i ~ the mo st appropriate lund- usc ur land -co ver code. Tht
    neura l netwo rk is trained using real-world empi rical example" and in cuecr it 1"/11'//,1', Thc neural netwo rk classifies.
    non system C' 1J1 also be used 10 photointcrprct other lam!
    uses. incl uding comme rcial. services. an d industri al (Jensen
    et al.. :!O(j I), Neura l network or e xpert ..ystc m-assisted intl.'!prcrction systems wi ll mosr likely be the means in the iimm
    by which most derail ed urhnn mfomuuion is e\entUJ.I~'
    extracted from digital remote sensor dl1ta (J en sen and 1I0llg
    SOli,

    lOW I.

    Building and Cadastral (Propert y-Une) Infrastructure

    In addition to fundamental nominal scale land-use and laMcover info rmatio n (i.c. ide nt ifying whether an object is I

    Res

    4 59

    Resident ial L and Use

    L Condomi nium rCl'i,k nlia l h,>u~; ng in Colorado (Ie\ el 11131_lbe


    numm of dli\el'ay~. sidewa ll-s. ,111..1 no" r structures mdrcates how
    many housing units are present. I hc !",, -Ieft condo i~ a Iourplex.
    The 101' righ t b a S<.-\~"1l "le'\ . Ihe b onum1"0 condos an: lht"plc ~ .

    b. Two- Sl" !) ' apa rtmen t com plcx in Cohrmbia. SC (le vel 1123 ). '" nh
    sidt"" al" and pa rkin g around the perimeter.

    num~'TOUS

    Figure 13-9

    c. Twelve-story sludcnl -holl~i ng apartment com rlc\; at the Univcr.ity ofSouth Ca rolm a (Ic\cl 112.1 ),

    Examples " I' rnuluple-family rusidcnual housing


    (b el li ::! ).

    C II .-\I'TF.R

    460

    13

    --

    gem ct e Sensi ng t he Urban Landscape

    :'rl l'ural
    I ma~l'

    E=

    Reside

    ~t' h'lJrk

    In terp reta tkm S p lclII

    -=

    """,.

    -- - - ------"----- _-.. -~

    """,_

    r'_ ..._ _

    ~-..-..

    a. User -interface.

    -'

    b. Data collection interface.

    Figure 13-10 a ) The lIscr; "I~rrace of a Neural ~CI'" ork Image Interpretation System Ih313M;S(S an image a nalyst in the classiIicano n of diflkult urban landuse In this e xample. the analy~llIst'd \ Isual on-screen dlglli..mg to outline an unknow n objec t o f interest. b) The interpreter then used a point-and-cfick d ialog 1'>0.\ ' 0 i<lcmify prim itive auributcs
    1\ uhin lh,' object o r inte rest. suc h as the e xistence of park mg 100(s l. Side...alkc . etc . T he ern pincal mformarion i,
    pass ed (0 Ih..: ne ural networ k. ...hich then compares this paucm w ith pn:\ iuus panems (acluall)' " ... ights l and atte mpls to identify the un know n object as a multiple lamily resid entialhou sing cem pl.., O,,"~ n " I al., 200 11.

    ..

    a
    si ng le- tinn ily residence ( I f a commercial buildi ng). tran sportenon plann ers. utility co m panies. tax assessors. and otbcrs
    req uire more detai led info rmanon on huilding footpri nt
    pe rimet er. area. height. driv ewa ys, patios. fences, pool s.
    sturagc build ings. aud the distribution <11' landscaping every
    on e 10 fiv e years (Tab le l.~ -l ) ,

    ca n he identified b)' a surveyor in the field and the information overla id onto the enhophotograph or planimetric map
    database to represent the legal cadastral ( pro~ny ) map.
    Many munic ipalities ill the U.S. usc h igh spatial resolution
    ima ger)' as the sou rce for some of the cad a stral information
    and as a n image hackd rup upo n which surveyed cadamal
    an d tax in fo rmation arc pcrtrnyed (Cowell ami Cra ig. 2 0lM~

    It is possible 10 identify the presenc e o f indiv idual build ings


    using monos copi c images and several clements o f image
    interpretat ion such as sil l.'. shape and context (Tullis and
    Je nsen. 2003 ; Je nse n cr ;11,. 200S ). I Iowcvcr. dera iled building foo tprints lind propert y lines arc hes t obtained using stereoscopic (ove rlap ping: I panc hromatic aerial pho togra phy or
    ot her remote sensor data w ith a spatial reso lution of ~ 0.2 5 0.5 m t e.g.. Ehlers et a l.. 2tlll3 ). Fo r ...s ample. panchrom atic
    stereosc opic aeria l pho tograp hy w ith 0.25 x 0.25 m ( I OJ
    spatial reso lutio n was used to extract tile e xact d imcnsions
    o f Indi vid ual houses and outbuildings. trees . pool s. dri veways, r... nccs. and contours for the single- fa mily residential
    area in Figure l j- Lla.b . In many instan ce s. the fen ce lines
    arc the ca das tral property line-soIf the fe nc... lines an: not \isiblc or ar e nor truly o n the property tine. the- property lines

    Detaile d buildi ng he ight and volume data can also be


    ex tracted fro m high s patial re solution (O.::!5 - 0.5 m ) stereoscop ic imagery (C hapte r 6 ). For exam ple. consi de r the wirefr ame thr.....-dime nsicnu l ou t line of the United Stutes Capitol
    shown in Fig ure 131 Ie. The pe rime te r. area , volu mc. crd
    squ are foota ge of l h i ~ hu ildin g are now available. Such
    det ailed building informa tion ma y al10\\ the exact type of
    roof to be idc nuficd (c.g., riJ ge. mansard. hip ped, lean-to.
    Ilal. ctc.). which rna)' he used to infer the date o f hllilding
    co nsrrucuon I Lo and Yeung. 20(2). Bu ilding informanoe
    ca n also be o btain ed from high spatial resolutio n satellite
    imagery. For e xample. Fraser et a t. (200 2) fo und thar buildings co uld be ex tracted fro m -aereo IKOf'OS I x I m imag-

    er

    nlial Lan d Use

    461

    .-

    temcel panchromatic I :2 .400-~le aerial phot ography


    I'LmlTll<.'1ril: (."(.y) cad astral lnforrnancn ':Atra l:t..-..I from the
    "~",,,;ic aerial photngTaphy. includinl,! 2-ft eon loIH'I. I"-llldfoctpnms, fences. r.:uining w alt,....nd larg.: trees (1enlo<:n
    [o""ClI.19991.

    c . Wire-frame mrormanon "fthe U.S. Capit ..,1 ':Alracto;o.! from lo~c


    scale \ " n ;cOI I a"r;0I1 r ""I"I;1'3l"h). mcludmg precise b uilding footprim,
    height. area. peruneter..lIld volume. The 1"'0 ph,,'lngraphs mOl) be
    \ ic"' ..-.J 101\-'fl.,\)!i,wpi''0I11) (C(lurk'S>" UI S)~I..-ms. U C. San Diego. C 1\.
    and f\larclIni Integ rated Sy~l ...ms. Inc.: (.~ S()(!:. r Sell.

    Extraction of cadastral inform1ltiun fro m stereoscopic vertical m-nal photography using a ) trad itional, a nd b.c ) soft-copy phn

    togrammctric t ...r hniqucs 11'1...,.-<:, ref...r 10 ( hapl...r (,), Such infurmali"n i, \ ilal III tlie Jccurate inventory vf residential, com
    mcrciul. JnJ industrialIaudusc. Itcan be acquired us ing traditional sure c) illg or ph"\ "grmmn"tric techniques.

    with an .l.y accuracy o f 0 .3 - 0 .6 m and he ig ht a ccuracy

    Pop ul a rlon ":\ tim:uin n

    8S - 0.9 m.
    oecooomic Characteristics Derived from Sing le
    Multifamily Residential-Housing Information

    led socioeconomic aunbutes ma y be e xtract ed dir ectly


    remote sensor data or via surrogate inforrnuuon
    ic ed from tile imagery. Two of the most important are
    lation es timation and quo li!.. f!(It(e ind ica to rs. derived
    til) from sing le- and muluple- family rcside nt tal- housstock information .

    Know ing how many people Ii, e with in a specific geo gra phic
    area or ad ministranve unit te.g.. cit y. cou nty, state. co untry ]
    is \ 'CI") powe rful mfomunion (Je nsen ... t al.. 2002 ). In fact.
    some hav e sugges ted tha i the g lobal e ff ec ts o f inc reased
    populauon density and ecosys tem land-cover convers ion
    may be muc h r no rc significant than those aris ing fro m cl ima te change (S kolc , 19( 4 ). Population estimation can be
    pe rform ed at the loc al. regional. and na tionalleve l based on :
    coun ts of individ ual dwe lling units (req uire s 0.25 - 5 m
    nom ina l sp anal resolution (Je nsen e l 31., 20 lJ5):

    t3

    462

    meas urement of urbanizedland areas (often rcfc rrc-d to as


    settlement siTe) {e.g .. Tatem et al., :!OO-ll;
    esumau..' s deri ved fro m land- use/land-cover classification
    (1.0, 1995; Sulton et al.. 199 7; Sunon, ::00 3 1.
    Remote sensing tec hniques may provide population ..-sumales tha t approac h the acc uracy oftradiriona t c-cnsus meth ods if su fficient ly acc urate in .ifu (1;113 arc available til
    calibrate th... rem ote sensing moo d . Un fortuu arcly, the
    grounJ.ha-.cu po pulat ion estimarionc arc often ..voefully
    inac curate. In many instances. the remore se ns ing me thods
    may b.. MIIK'riM 10 the g roun d-based met hod s.

    or

    Th e mos t acc urate remote sen sin g method


    estimating the
    pop ulation of a local area is til count illdi l'idlm l d lld/il l):
    l/11il.\ based on the foll owing assu mp tion s II indgrcn. 191\5;
    Ln. 199 5: 11,, 11., 19KX; Haack et al., 199 7 ):
    T he image ry mu st have sufficient spnua! reso lut ion III
    allow idcuuficauon
    ind ividual structures even through
    sparse tree cover and 10 determine whe ther the struct ures
    an: rcsidcnrial. commercial, o r industrial.

    .,1'

    Some csumcrc o f the average number of persons pe r


    d"elling unit must he available.
    Some e-umate of the number of homeless. seasonal. and
    migratory workers is requ ired.

    It i" assumed all dw elling units arc occupied. and on l~ /I


    fami lies live in each unu tca librutcd us ing ill situ

    Remote Sensing th e Urban Landscape

    is toe time-consum ing a nd co sil y (Su lton ct al., 1997


    han- suggested that this method req uires so much jll
    til calibrate the remote sensor da ta that it can become
    ncnally impractical. Therefore. othe r methods hal(
    developed.
    T heil' is a relations hip be tween the urba nized built-t4'
    (scnlcmem site) e xtracted from 3 remo tely sensed
    and senlcment population (Olorun fcnn, 19X-'I:
    r

    /,/>

    where I" is the radiu s o f the pop ulmc d area circle. e s


    empi rica lly der ived co nstant of preporuonalny, P is thc~
    ul.nion. and h is an empirically derived exponent. Estiw
    o f the se parameters arc Fairly cons istent ut regional _
    bUI the es tim ate of th e 1I pa ra mete r varies between re~Ofl>
    Sutton \'1 ul. (1t,l'J7) used Defen se 1I 1d l.'Ilruiogicai Sale
    Pro gram Operational Linc scan S)'stC11l (DMSP-OLS) \
    near-infra red nigh tt ime 1 x 1 km imagery In inventory
    cxmu for the en ure Unite d Stat ....s ( Figure 13-12). Whell1k
    d:lt;l lIere uggrcgatcd to the state o r county level.
    analysis (If the- ct ustcrs o f the saturated pi"el s predic:ed Polulanon wnh an ,;' '"' 0.81 once aga in. Sutton (2003)
    nightumc I>"- I$ P-OLS imagery to measure per capiuill
    usc consumption as an aggregate index for Ihe spatiall~
    tiguous urban areas o f the conterminous Unitcd Staes
    populauon ol'2:: 50,000. Tatum ct al. (2lX)41delineated ~
    mcms in Kenya using Landsat T \1 and J ERS- \ symbdi.
    aperture radar (S A RI data wj th the glial of p~
    medium-scale population ma ps for improved public
    planning.

    informauon j.

    This is usuall y perf orm ed CICI) the In seven years and


    requires high spat ial resolution rCI11(lh:~ )Y sl'I1SCl! d,lta (0.25 5 m). For ex am ple. ind ivid ual J wdl iug units in lnnc, SC
    were c\ tr:lclld Irom 2.5 x 2.5 m airc ra tl l11 uhispl'c tnll data .
    ( 'o rrdatillll of the remote sCllsing----l.l<:rlvcll dwd lillg IInil d:lta
    with 13ure:au "fthe: Census dwel ling unit d,lta for the 31 census h loc k arC:l ) iclded an R.' - l Ul l. "hil'h accou nted l(lr XI
    JlC"1"l-'\:'nt Of lhc ~;I rianee_ T llese lin din g, suggest Ilwl the ne l\
    h ig h spat ial reso lution pam:h rul11;l li..: '>Clblll"S may pw \- ido: :l
    good sllurec Ill' inro ml:ll ion for moni toring the housing stock
    of a Ctlmmun ll~ \lll a w utine l>a,i,. f h is " ill en ahk InClll
    go\ernmcnts to an tIcipate and plan for s..:hooh and othcr :>cr\ ices" ith data that h:b a much more frequl.'nl h.'mporal re solut ion tha n lhe decennial census. ThIS da la will alSl,' be u f
    \ alue for rCOl I es!.atc. marketing.. and otht'r bU:>Lne:>s applications . Unfnrtun;Jtc!y, thl' d \\ el ling -ull1t approach is not suitahll.' for a reglona lma tional Cl:nsus of J'I..pu latillll lx'Cause il

    Re s id e

    Fig'

    Q.

    A.
    se

    'q'"
    E
    br
    aj

    ..\ lIotlll'r widely ado pted populanon cs tuuanon tC'C hni'lllC&


    based on the use o f the Level I - [II land -use inlilrmaTIil
    " his app roach l1SS U111CS thai land usc ill an urban am! ~
    closely cor re late d with popu lation densit y, Re,c~rclIrn
    e~ t ;;l h l ish nn l.' mr iti cal v31ue tOT the po pulation den~ ity fll
    ":<I..:h lan d U Sl ' hy tid d survey \' r ce nsus dala l e.g.. multlplt
    fam ily resi de ntial huusi ng m ay cl' ntain fi\ c pcrsoll.\ popi\d " hcn using 30 x J o m Them at il' MaPJll' r data; M
    li.1R.'"stl-d arcas m ighl ha lO: onl) 0 .20 po: rson s per pi'c
    Thl'n. hy measu ring the 10l.al area for l'aeh l:mdu!'>C eale~
    I he~ eSlimau the total f".p ul:l1io n for lna l categOf)'. S;m.
    minjl Ihe l'st ima lt'd lota ls !t.r ca..:h land-us<: catcgory p1"
    \ ides Ih..: lol al J'l.Jplllation projeclillll ( Lo. I
    J.
    bu ilt-up area and land- usc dal <l ml'l hod can t>e m!<d on~
    ..:uarse spatial resol ution mu ltisp...'Ctr;l1remote s<:nsordaul5
    20 mJ e\ cry 5 15 yean;. I lc nderwn and Xia t \9QSldil.
    CllS~ hn" radar imagery ca n t>e of \alue w hen cooductil!
    ll'<.pul;llIClIl estimates lLsing thcM: same te..:h niqucs.

    qqs

    1lIe.

    ,,

    463

    lSidential la nd Us e

    JUre 13-12 Defense Met.,:o rolugieal Satellite Program Opcr"lional Lincscan System (O\tSP-OlS) , i~ihle l>Cilf_mff3rC'd nigh ttime 1 x I
    km imagery of the con terminous Unncd Stat..,;. w hen the data .... ere aggregated to the ~I.ale or county jcvet , ~['lI tial analysis of
    the c1 11~ter,. of the ",-luraleJ pixc b, predicted pu pu !dliOll with an R? c O_I' I (Sulton ct al.. IQQ7; e"Une~) Am.TIc:m Society for
    PhOlogTilmmctry & Remote

    IJ l i l~.O r. l .i re

    ~~~mg ~.

    Im lica lo n

    kquate incom e. dece nt hous ing. good edu cauon, health


    vices. and a goo d physical cnv ironment (c.g., no hazards
    refuse) are important ind icat ors lit" . . lll:ial well-be ing and
    olity uf !lfi.' (Lo and Faber, IW S: Lo and Yeung 2002 ),
    :aJualing the quality Ill' life of a population o n a con tinuing
    5i, is imponar nbe cause il he lps planners and governmen t
    enctes involv ed with the delivery Ill' huma n services to be
    areof pmhk-m are as .

    OlSt quality-of-f Ic studies have been based (Ill the analysis


    socioeconomic informtnion derived fro m ill situ cnumcrIn. Rem ote ly sensed images have rarely been use d in
    .ial studies, Only recently huvc facto r unalysis studies
    rencntc d how qua lity lit' lite indicators (such as ho use
    ue. median family inco me, ave rage numbe r of rooms.
    nagc relit. and education] CUll be estimated by C-\lrucli ng
    urban attributes fou nd in Table 13-X from relatively high
    nal resolut ion t ll.25 - .10 m ] image ry (L indgren. It,lX5;
    lz. J9lo!8 : Met)' and Bcr liu. 1991 ; Hauck et al. 1991; l,o
    IFaber. 1995; 0.1 Costa and ("inlra. I"}lll); Lo and Yeung.
    12: Jen sen et al.. 2005 1. Note rhar the au ntuues arc
    mged by silt' (bui lding and lot) and situation. The site
    y he situated in positive and ncgmn e surro und ings.
    remote sensing- d..-r i\ cd ullTi butcs mu sl be corr c lat..-d
    h ill sit u censu s oMen:ll illns to compute thc q uali ty-o f..

    :!<

    life indicators Lo and Faller (I t,lI}X I suggesl thai in many cities gree n vegetation is \1.'1)' prec ious and cos ily. and thai
    un ly the wealthy can a fford to include grass and trees in the ir
    living environment. T hey found that greenness mtorma non
    de rived from Tl\1 da ta was highly co rrelated w ith quality o f
    lifc . Qualit y-o f-fife indicators arc usua lly co llec ted every 5
    I (J years_

    EnvlrunmcmalIu flucnc cs i\ ~ ~u d a t l'd w illi ZOll l n J:


    Lon ing i, a tuolurbuu plunncrs usc 10 control physical charucrerisrics o f dcveloping landsca pes by imposing restriction
    o n vnriahlcs such as ma ximum huilding height and dens ity,
    extent lit" impcrv il\lIs surface and ope n Sp<lcc. and land use
    types and aerie nic s. Thc sc variables. in turn. influence cn viro nmenral
    r roc essl'~
    o f atmosphe re/surface ene rgy
    exchange, surface and subsurface hydrologi c ~YStC IllS, an d
    micro- to mcsoscalc weather and clim.ne re gime s. Wilson ct
    nl. (200Jh ) found that the re were sigmficam differences in
    rad iant sur face tem peratu re and the t\ o rma li/ cd Diffe rence
    vcgcranon Index ( ~ D V I ) derived fro m Lan dsat 7 E'I'M "
    imagery for drtfcrent types of :loning in Indianapolis. 1:'-1 .
    Ihis suggests that the uue grurion I1 r a city's G IS voning da ta
    w ith remote sensing mea surements of surfac e temperature
    and l" DV I can help plann ers gain in ~i gh t into Ihe environmen tal consequences o f Itl n i n~ decisions.

    C HA Pn :1{

    464

    Table 13-8 .

    Urban/S uburban anrib urcs that may be c~ tracl"d


    from remote ~n",'r data and USloJ IIl1lS~SS huusing
    4L!il l i ly and.or "lual il} of life.

    Fac tor

    Sil"

    A ttributes

    Buildinll
    single Of multiple-family
    sin ' ( m~
    height (m l
    age [derived hy convergence (If evidence )
    ~aragc [attached. detached!
    Lot
    s ill: { m~ l

    sensed data. First . the St.juilrc footage (or m:) ofindivi


    buildings is determ ined trom high sp;l1ia l reso lution imatery, Loca l ground- reference in fo rma non abou t cnc'1!) CISsu mpuon is then o bta ined for a representa tive sample
    hom es in the are a. Regress ion rela tio nsh ips are then denll'l
    III predi ct the antici pated en"rgy co ns ump tio n for the l"t]!'
    It is also possible 10 pre d ict ho w m uch solar photo\ olllt
    enc rgy poten tial a geograp hic reg ion ha s hy modeling .
    ind i\ idual roofi t,p square footage a nd or ientation It
    knott n phutovoltaic generatio n co nstrain ts. Both applicJ.
    nons require high spalial resolu tion imagery (0,:;:5 - I
    (Curra n and Hobson. It,lX 7; OOL :!()f15 ). Regional .
    national energy co ns ump tio n may also be predicted ~
    D~l SP image l')- tc .g.. 1".1\ idge et al., IIN 7: Sulton eI

    that
    ty pe
    sim I
    foro:

    oftl
    10 ')

    rcrr
    see
    cor
    me

    tiOI

    1'0147 ).

    backy ard 1m: )

    street frllnWge lml


    drive.... ay (pa ved . unpa ved)

    fenced
    pool tmgroend. aboveground )
    patio. deck
    ou tbui ld mgs (s heds)
    dcn sll y ofbuild ins per l()[
    percentlandscaped
    health o f scgelation (e.g.. ;";DVI greenness ]
    fron ts pal ed ( II" unpaved road

    abandoned autos
    refuse
    ..\ d ja{e m:~ 10 Co n lln u " i l ~ Am" lIitks

    schools
    , h" Plllllg
    ch urches
    IlI'spi"" s

    tire station
    Il]X"1l '1';1':1:, parks.\! lllf cour ses
    marsh
    . \ I1 J :l n m ~ I" ~ t1 i"Ul n'\ or lIal ard \

    heavy strcctrra fl'ic


    railroad or switc hynrd

    airports and -or

    Com

    Rem ote Sensing th e Urban Landscape

    a.

    Iroru yard 1m:)

    Situa tio n

    13

    ll i~h lpa lh

    Numcrou -,stud ie-s have doc um ented hllw high vpaual ~


    tion ( I - 5 r n} pred aw n therm al infra red image ry (I( - IJ !1A
    can be used to incemory the fI.' lal i\ equality ofhuusing imtltauon if Ljthc rooftop materia l ic known te .g.. asphalt \Cl'SllS
    wood ~hin!:des). 2 ) nil moisture is pre-em on the roof. and]
    the orient ation and slope o f the roof arc known (Eliassoo.
    ItN:! ). If energy con servation or the generation of solar ~
    10\ onaic pow cr we re important in cou nmcs. these \aria~
    wo uld prob ably be collected every o n,' 10 Ii \ e years.
    Ac tive and p<lssi, e usc Ill'sola r energy can be used to redIlC(
    cl...ctrica! e nergy cons ump tion in bu ildin gs and thert:b):
    reduce the con sumpt ion of fos sil fuel s. Ham me r et a! C.OOl t
    demonstrated h'lll the amouru til' sur face so lar irradiancc ca
    be dcrcnumcd from ge'l~tal itln al)" satelli te remote scn>Ol
    J aw and then used in a prcdicuv c modeIIH U ,IOSi\T) f('(
    sola r energy predicuous. rite gllal is to provide near rca\.
    time intelligent buildi ng Icmpernture -colllrollcchniql1l:sthi!
    lake into account syste ms unu II SI' solnr energy teg .. solar
    rands... kylighls )_

    Comme rcia l and Services Land Use

    freew ay
    l ocate d 011 n Iloodplain
    sc wage-l rr nlm,nl plant
    mdustrial .u cu

    power plant or ' Ubsl;}ll,' n


    ove rhead uulity lin,."
    steep lelTain

    Energy Demand and Conservation

    Loca l uThan suh urhan energy tk ma nd (s ometi mes referred


    10 as h,at- I'lild J" ns it~) rnay hi: csti rnJt,-d using. rcm lltd ~

    People eng age in commerce (husinc ....) til provide food,


    c lolh ing . and ..hd ter lilr thenheh es ;md thei r extended families . Many \-Iorl.; in the sl:T\in' indu sl';"s p rovidi ng ,'duca
    linn . m,-dil'a t sani tation. tir l' a nd po lice protec tion, etc . ttl
    imp ro\-c Ihe quality o f life li' r Ihe en llre co m munity _ l nt~
    estmg.ly. man y \lf lhesc ac ti\-iI16 arc \is ihle in tho: land:;ca ~_
    C('lIlm e rcial and s\:rvice ael i\ ities o ften hal e a un ique nJ
    rura' .{;gnamn dd i nl-d as Ih..: assemhlage o f s[lC'Cili c mat";"
    a ls an d strur.: tu res Ihal r.:harnc lcriL": c.:nain :111.1\ iti;:s in a
    part icul.lr cult ure. Each cu lture has cu mme rce and ser..iccs

    er

    cc

    '""
    f,

    rc

    p
    o

    c
    s

    465

    Commerc ial and Se rv ice s Land Use

    ilt arc unique to tha t culture. For example. there arc many
    ~pes of commerce found in Asia tic urban enviro nme nts that
    SIm ply arc not found in Western urban landscapes. Therefon:. an interpreter must understand we ll the cu ltural milieu
    i the count')' o f interest before he or she attempts 10 iO\ enU) and map the commerce and se rvice activitie s using
    smote se nso r data. In fact . if an interprete r has not act ua lly
    een the phenomena on the grou nd and docs not understand
    pletely the cult ural signi ficance and purpose o f the comeercc or acti vuy. then it is un likdy that 3 co rrect imc rprcran wi ll be ma de [Jen sen et 31.. 2no2 ).
    The author extended the L"SGS l.A.md- LselLt.md-Co \'('rCtassfication System in Tabl es 13-110 J.l-h 10 include Le\'e1 IV
    llld sometim es Level V clas ses. Thi s extension is prima ri ly
    .. U. S. an d wcsrcm European land",apo.'S but ma y be generally applicable to ot her dev eloped nations. It represents a
    rommon- ,cnse hieran:hi eal system thai can be aggregated
    leek to Levels I and II. It is nOl complete in con tent ; rather,
    ~ reflects an attempt to categori ze the land use that accounts
    b approximately Q; percent of the urban land ucc cncou nrreo.1 in mo st developed cities. 11 uses common terminolog y
    whenev e r po ssible. A detail ed dcflninon of eac h class is not
    pr(l\'idcd he re. However. it is instructive to provide numc r!XIS exam pl es of the va rious ty pes of land UM: and C0l11111eni
    00 unique characteri st ics that al low on e Iype of comme rce or
    service 10 he di stinguished from others.

    The Central Business District

    The central business district (CB Il I of man y ciuec is the


    m(l~t distinctive urban landscape With ill' high-rise buildings
    lIld the highes t densi ty of land usc . Muny CllDs have
    changed co nsiderab ly in recent yea rs. particularly in the
    Uni ted SIMes. Urban geographers usc the term deindll'\lrializanon IU de scribe the loss o f manufacturing industries in
    Cities today. an d the rise of ,,/"Ii(l/)' and qUall'rnar)' commercial activi ties. notably financial services. insurance. and real
    esta te. There arc also many other profe ssional services tha t
    characterize the modem cures and the phe nomenon of slIh~rh,miziJtirlll . Ix",. ruow n Scaute. \VA , is an excellent exam~c ora central business dis tric t ( F i~ ure 13,13). Numerous
    high-rise office buildings hou se the financial se rvic es. insurance. and real estate lion s . I tow ever. some (If the towers also
    remain singtc- and multiple-Family residences.

    The C HD" of so me cities in the Un ited States have bee n I)


    transfo rmed into po vert y urcas. ~) genuilicd . meaning that
    onlyolder people live in thl'm and that ,<'ery ti:w yo ung la mlliesare pres ent. and o r 3) r~-Cll n struClcd \00 ith ne\Oo bui ldings

    Figu re 13 - 13 .-\ fl<lrlion III' t~ ("1'''''<1/ Im.'IIIt''' <li."T,e' CCRO ) of


    d"",nh'\>. n Sc aulc, \VA. TI'e ll."J;ion has been 0.1.:(01"cered. II is flrimarily co m pos...-d of impcrv ious highri.... huil<lings thai contain financial "".. rviccs. insu rancc, and real t'~lalt' compa nies . :'>l unlt'rollS multipk-lot<lf) a p.lr1 mcn t complews arc also present. A
    rectangula r, '~.ll'mm ica lly surveyed lra nspunalion
    lo}slern sc..... es Ihe area. A new ull k.: building is un,k'r constrncuon III the top' le ft portion of thc irnage.
    l his is a I x I In A UA I{5500 dig ital frame camera

    Image {colln.,s)'

    1' (l SI II \ '1.' Systl.'ms.

    Inc_I.

    III attrac t p rofe ssional middle-class people and thei r small

    famil ies (usua lly ~ 2 child ren) to return and stay. These and
    other condi tions mak e it difficult In identify the exact land
    use ora particular parcel of land in tile central busi ness di strie r. lnstm obse rvation is usua lly required in add ition to the
    analy sis of remotely sensed data,

    Commercial Land Use

    .<\ utllmn th l' and "uIII


    The developed world and es pecially the Unite d States is
    enamored w ith the nutornobrle an d other loons of personal
    trunspon auon. incl ud ing trucks, sport uti lity vehic les . rcc rcauon \ chides. and boa ts . Much of our d isposable income is
    spent acq ulTing and mainta ining lht....c veh icle s. Th ~rcloH: .
    the- urba n land scape is lith:rcd w ith dca le r-; hips tll se ll them.
    sen-icc stati "ns til li ll thcm up wi th petroleum di sti llate

    466

    C H:\ pn ;R

    3. Automobile dealership in Columbia. SC (level 12 11 1). Can for


    sa le are arranged systrmallcally for t>uYo:'f inspeclion and .:'3'< of
    exit and return .

    13

    Remote Sensing the Ur ban L andscape

    b. T)l" <:31a utomotive So.'I"\IC'e Mall.m '" j,h multiple islands iOf Ihpcusmg gaso hne Of I.h,,-s.:l f\ll:l aOO a ma in bu ild ing coru.ir.u~ Ii
    .-.cr\ icc bays or mirn- rnarkct 11.:-, ...1I :!l l:n Jhe c ircular 'op$ lillrf
    underground petroleum slur-J.~'" u.nls arc \ iSlbk in this c:umrle.

    Figure 13 14 Examples of comm.. reral aUlolT1l .ol lc establishments 1k\ o:l 12 11).

    products. and bus incs~:; that repai r the m. Finally, their


    rema ins can often he see n in automobile junkyards.
    New an d used ca r. truck, and boat deale rships arc rclmiv cly
    easy to idcnlil)"due to the myriad of'vehicles Of bo ats pa rked
    systema tica lly in large parking lots, thc presence of large
    show rooms and att ached service ce nters ( Fig ure IJ lb ).
    Isolate d se rvice and repair businesses arc mor e ditfl cu tr 10
    identify but usually have sma ller p.trking lot s with many
    can; prese nt in the lot in various slates o f rep air.
    Gas service stations o ften have a se parat e island str ucture
    with ils own cano py \\ here the fuel is d ispe nsed . a detached
    buildi ng that is usually a mini- market. and occasionally
    anoth er bui lding when: automo biles arc w ashed. Gas statio ns arc 0 111;11 IIKalel! (HI corner lots (Figure 13-I-Ib) .
    Numero us cars are o ften located around the perip hery of the
    service- stuuons.

    bu ild ing tc.g.. sporti ng goo ds. garden, cl othing. market.


    toys ). The building usuall y is one of the large-.t (m~) in the
    region ( Figure 13- 15 location <I I. :\ very larg e parking lotit
    adjacen t to it. Isolate d dcparuucnr stores often haw 'iIOIlgl:
    loc ations in the ~Irking hIt \ 1 her e ca rts ca n be returned.
    Conve rse ly, a ma ll is a collection o f multiple dc partmes
    stores rl'ig ure 1) 15 loca tions hed). II is us ually the large;<
    bu ildin g. co m plex in the region (m 2 ). The d epartment , 10m
    w ith in the mall arc usually connec ted hy a centra l .... alk\\al
    that is o ften enclos ed. Skyl igh ls arc oncn located above the
    centra! walkway. The mall is o ften comple tely encircled
    wi th sing le or multiple lew is o f pa rki ng, w ith perhaps some
    unde rground parking. Department stor es and malls arc often
    located at the j unction (If major highwa ys . T hey ure usuall!
    straig ht forwar d 10 idcnufy be cause ofrh cir extreme size and
    sit ua nou .

    Fi nan ce li n d ('o nst r uc ti on


    Junk ynrd s have ;1 largl' num be r o f ve hicles arranged in II
    haphaz ard fashion. runny m i..sing hoo ds and trun ks. Als o.
    grass may be grow ing bet ween the cars. ma king it stra ightforward 10 drsun guis h it fro m a dealership.

    Department stores t e.g . \ValMa rt, K-Man . Scars-Roebuck )


    co ntain many type s of prod uc ts locancd .... ithin a single

    Com

    T her e art: ofte n a tremendo us numbe r o f banks. brokerage


    firm s, insurance agencies, con struction fi rms. and real esne
    offices in the ce ntra l busincss d istrict or a majo r cit} te.g.,
    re fer to the image o f' Scaulc. \VA in Figu re 13-13\. Parking
    may be \ iviblc abovegro und. in multiple-story aboveground
    parking struct ures. or unde rg rou nd . For exam ple. consider
    the Affi nity Office Building loc ated in dcwrucwn Columba,
    SC (F igure IJ-l t><I ). II is the ta lle st building in
    city and

    me

    Commercial and services Land Use

    467

    Figure 13-15 Example of dcpanrucm ~ll)fe "nd mall commercia! [and us.: in sorne developed c<"mlnc'S. An isol.ucd Toy....RUs. Inc. defl'l rtmclll store Iat IS Independenl ufl tlc mall t lcvt'l [113 11. 1l1c m,,11 commercial cl>mpk" Ct<:\c1 12 [32) i~ anchored 11)' three
    maJur chains: Scars-Roebuck, Inc. tb). BcI~. Inc. Cc l. and Dillal,l,. lnc . (d l. The centra ! walkway of the mall is encl"'e...l "llh
    occasional s kylights. The m;.11 is completely ""rro untlc>J II) p;lrk lll~. some Ill' whi.:h I" aSl'h.lh (\laTin and sonic concrete
    (light). I hc roof uf Whi l.:" department store Ce ) is asphalt. barely d i'li lL~ lI j , hahk from the {'nrking 1m. ~ " I e' the rmnu-ruus airconditioning unils on each huild ing.

    bcuscs banking, brokerage fi rms. insura nce agencies , an d an


    airline ticket o tfice. Parking for chis bu ildi ng is pnmarrly
    aboveground. It is impossible 10 idc mify (he specific act i\ ities laking place .....ithin this office building. Therefore . it is
    often necessary 10 sim ply label the hui Ming or parce l a:.
    being ('fml/>/t'I"!::i<l/ lan d usc. Field work or census euumcr ulion can provide some ofthe mfo rmauo n
    l arge multiple-story buildings like this nrc commonplace in
    major cities ofth e world. On large-scale ae ria l photography
    relief d isp lacem ent of the top o f the build ing is a funct ion of
    II how high the bui lding is above the loca l datum.:!j the a h itudeo f the aircraft al the instant o f exposure. and J ) how far
    the buildi ng is located aw ay fro m the princ jpa l point of the
    pbotog raph. A lso . rhc bui ldings tend to cast long shadows.
    The relief displacement and the shadows ca n both hinder
    and hel p in buildi n~ idcnuficanon . In this exam ple. rchcf
    displace ment aids in the idcmificanon, ,I" the sides (la \"ade )
    of'buitdi ngs a re actua lly visib le provi d ing a good impression
    ofbuildin g vert ica l relict. Shad ows help to setthe buildings
    (lIT from the remainder
    the sce ne. when using such aerial
    photog ra phy . it is necessary to usc photogram mcrric techniques ro co mpe nsate lor the rel ief dis placement if one

    or

    desir es 10 ma p the' e xact perim eter of the bu ild ing in its


    proper planimetric: (.l.y) posinon, O ne ca nno t simply draw a
    polygon around thc hlp o f the hllilding an d ass ume thlll il is
    in us proper planimetric position. O ne might thin k tha I relief
    displuccr ncru would be absent from high spa tial resolut ion

    imagery obtained fro m sensors placed in o rbit. Unfo nuna tel y. lhls IS nOI Ihl' case. 'IS de monstrated in the GeoE)'e
    IKU :-.J OS I x I 111 imag e of downtown Sea u le. \VA . where
    bui ld ing displaccmcrn is srill apparent (Figure I .~ -I J}.

    Isola ted. detached banking faciluics typically have a d rivethro ugh po rtico struct ure w here fina nc ial transac tio ns lake
    place (Figurl' D]hh). O ne pa rking a rea is usua lly a"..o cratcd v\ith v.a lk-in ban kin g. \\ hilc the other pomon o f the
    parking area ~o:" ices the dri ve-tbmugh traffic. One must be
    care fu l not 10 con fuse the d rive-through hank bui lding v. ith
    a gas station that also has a drive- thro ugh portico.
    t'onsuuc uon companies ot len ha H~ heav y equipme nt (buc khoes, dump truc ks, ct c. jlocmed on the prope rty. as well as
    stacks or piles o f raw materials (c.g . lumber, cement. palC!lI;"S ofbricks).

    46B

    ( ' I L\ I'TE R

    a l"llmm"'1 ~ ial finand al ".,0 leo. . ind udin!! banking (I....d 12141).
    insurance [level 12142 1. and real esta te transacnons [le vel 1214} 1.
    take plac... in th... A ml1l l~' Ottlcc nu i1dil1~ in dow ntown Columbia.
    Sc. Building relief displa cement in l h i ~ original 1:b.lMlO-sca k vertical se n..1pho!\lgrd phy prv it.l..-s lktaiktl info rmation abcet rhe Iacadc

    13

    Remote Sensing th e Urban Landscape

    b. An ist>ldkd ,;mall b<lIlking ..-"wblis hl1lClll [Icvel I:l~ l


    Clnnpldt' '" llh the m;lln huil<ling and atta ched limeIhm ugh td ler sy-rcm. In thi, e xample. one parLlOg lR'a IS
    as sc.. ia....tl '" Ith walk-in ban king " hil l' Ik- other pOI1JOl1 01
    th..' r arklllg arca S('l"\ ICt'l' the dn ve-through customers.

    (sid c ) of th ... f,IlI1 d ing and :Ji,ts in huild ing im age iml.TJll\"lation.

    Fig ure 13- 16 F'Iamplcs of commercial financmt ....-rvices (level 121';1

    Food a nd Dru g
    The urban landscape is replete \\ ith many food and d rug
    busi ness es tabl ishmen ts . Chninsrorc markets and drugst ores
    occupy larg e hUlldi ngs " ilh ex tensive parking facrlities.
    T hey may be isolated . but arc oft en [uuud attac hed . Fur
    example. consider the unachcd drugstore (1) and supc rma rkct (2 ) shown in Figu re 1.\- 171\. T he IiIOU and drug esta blishmcnts share a large common parking lot. The cxact land- usc
    code of suc h buildings is ofte n difficult to dete rmine wit hout
    ill ",jill inspection beca use the large extended building and
    p'lrk illg fuciluics ma y ap pear sim ilar to other commercial

    enterprises.
    Fast-food rcstuurams geucrully occupy n-lariv cty small, sing jc-stcry huil din gs. T hey arc located on both majo r an d
    minor roads. ha ve modest hut adequa te pa rking fac iliti es.
    a nd often exhibit a " ing lc automobile d rivc-th rough wi ndow
    lane thai encircles the t>u ilding ( Figure 1]1 7t>c). T his is
    important bec ause drive-t hrough hanks typ ically ha vc mu ltiple drive -th rough lanes. There arc usua lly numerous
    entrance s and exits tll the 101 . The lot is usua lly modestly
    land scaped. Som et im..-s there arc elaborate playgrounds with
    gymnasium equipmcru present in front oflhl.' rl.'stau r.mt s.

    More- ex pensiv e. upscale restaurants arc larger in si/e (m-],


    have wett-manic ur..'d lawn and tree landscaping. occupy a
    much larger lor. and have large r park ing areas than fast-food
    res taurants . Both fas t-food and upscale restaurants have a
    large number of vents 1111 t heir rootlop s. Sometimes the
    smo ke discharged from the vents disculors the rooftops .

    Fun eral al ul

    (' l'nh'h' l"~

    Hav ing traveled the equivalent of 100 rimes aro und the
    Earth in our aumnmbilcs during a lifetime {the Earth is llnl}
    ~5.0 0n miles in circumfcrcncc t ;Ind c.ucn at far too muny
    fast -food restaurant s, American and Western Europeans
    linally reside ill a cemetery " r mausoleum . Interestingl)',
    cemeteries ofte n con found image inte rpreters. yet they have
    unique charactcnsncs ( Figu re 13- IXI. In developed nations
    they gcncmlly ucrupy all expensive and ex tens ive tract of
    land. often udjaccmto churches. The landscap ing is usually
    meticulous The ro ad nl'IWl1rk is intrica te. w ith man y narrow
    roads. O ften. the road-, Iolluw the contour of the land . But
    must important. there arc hu ndr c-ds ofsystematically spaced
    sma ll wh ite dots o n the landscape. There is otlcn a shed on
    the propert y w ith heav y equipment tbackhoc l and \JUllS
    locatcd in Ihl;' shl,.-d tlr 1>11 Ihc g ruuml out of sight from tbe

    Comn

    ".12
    f,

    469

    ommerc lal and Serv ice s l and Use

    LExample of d drugst"TC (r.:~'d I:!I SI ) (lfI the kfl (11au...:hed 10 a supermarket (lew l
    l~l S2 1

    on the r ight (2). The smalloue -story hlll!<l ing m thc par kin g

    fOlomat (3l.

    r", j ,

    a 01ll."-h' HIT

    h. A fact-food restaura nt (le \ e1 12 153 ). r-;Ille


    the ample p<lrki ng andthe dri ve -throu gh WIIldow june.

    Ftgure 13 -17 b,am pll-'; of I.""" ,moJ


    I levc11215)

    oJru~

    commercial businesses

    t . A,nuther fast-food n..~laur;ml (k\ d 12 1:53) Again nUle Ihe dri\ cthrough window lane loaded", Ilh cars.

    pohlic. A mortua ry or funeral home may he located on the


    property, II is o ften a sing le large- t'ouilding with subvra nrial
    parking.

    People thro ughout the .... orld )\lVC 10 go (In ov ernight and
    extended vacau ons . Th is has resulted in a p lethora o f small
    motels that ca ter to the motori st and large r hotel s that arc
    used lor roth husin~~s and pleasure. One Ilfthl' major d ill er -

    cnccs be twee n a mo re l and a hotel is size, Morel s lend III he


    smaller and have fewe r stories (Fig un: 13-ll)a) . Hote ls arc
    etten impnsing struct ures risi ng 2: 4 sto ries (Figure 13- 1%).
    Both motels and hotels usuall y ha ve large par king areas and
    s.... imrning pl lol(s). Mo te l pnrkin g is etten d irectly in front o r
    the ren tal un it, whe reas hote ls oft en have large und erg round
    parking areas Ihal at c d iOicll lt to detect. Hotels often ha.....
    tennis courus. whereas molds us ua lly do nul. large hote ls
    tend to h.: located nea r major thoroughfares. airports. and
    limned-acecss highways while motels may he loc ated j ust

    13

    470

    Remote Sensing th e Urban Landscape

    Con

    ,Ix>
    seal

    Th.
    "I
    ind

    P"
    Th
    ,~

    ..

    ,n
    II

    T
    Ftgu re 13-1 6 A purtiun .,1' Ill.: Elmwood Cern ..,~'I)' in Columt>ia. SC (1ev ,;1 111(1). ori~in ally
    recorded 011 1:10.000-sea 1C' aerial ph,,'u~'T;Iphy_ Th.. small white dots are mdividual headstones. The larger white seructures ... nh shado.. s are mausoleums. llIc
    t>u i ldil1~ at the right is a large ma usoleum .

    a. The 1!eM! of Cawlina :\Iv l..:! {le,,:1 121721.


    Many ofthe cars arc par ked d il\'clly In fnl ll1 o f

    h. I cm porury h"u~i ng .il lh.. Columbia Plaza 111'10:1 (J,,: \c1 1117l l. Nut.. the high-rise hottl
    complex. the 1<l111\' p;lrKing 3 l\':J. and attached conn-n lln n hall wuh its \lwn elevated ramp

    the patron's ruvms.

    for [oaili ng and unloading convennon exhibus. TIle po,,[ is ins ide til.: building.
    Fig u re 13-19 Commercia! motel ami hold temporary

    hou~ ing

    (Ic\ cl 12171.

    "a

    s
    a

    ~ me rc ia l

    a nd Servic es land Use

    47 1

    anyw lll..rc. Hotel s usually have me re luxur iant land-

    fairw ays, numerous brigh t sa nd traps. and well-manicu red


    gree ns ( Figure 1323).

    arc al so sp,..ciahzed campgrounds that cate r spccifi:lilyto the motorist . Th..-se han: unique attrib ute s. incl ud ing
    lIdi,'idua l d riveways wher e the car is parked and CIllJcrete
    peds where a lent o r recreat ional vehicle may be placed.
    e is oft en a centrally loca ted sw immi ng pool and oth er
    ecreetionat am enities. Th e campgrou nd is o ften q uite large
    t!Id loca ted nca r a major high .... ay. Campgrounds arc usual ly
    ...ell-manicured.

    Sw immin g pools arc easy to iden til).' if on e re mem bers that


    there is usually a dark er deep end to the pool and that many
    pools have pa ra llel swim min g. lane lines o n the bo ttom o f the
    pool. They co me in a trem endou s variety of shapes an d sin'S
    hut a lmost alwa ys hav e a signi ficant amount of dec k surroun d ing the m. T.... 0 e xamples are shown in Fig ure 13-24.

    110 0101.'

    lind Gard en

    This type orbusiness (e.g. Lowes. 110mc, n l.'pot ) usua lly ba-,
    asinglc large building. atta ched greenhouse(s). and rows o f
    shrubbery outside or adj acent 10 the building. A lso visi ble
    art palette s of fertilizer and other mat eri als, yard machinery
    loch as 1.1'" n tractors and tra iler s sitt ing outside the b uild ing.
    md a large pa rking 101. It is usuall y situated in the city on a
    major highway or in suburbia near residential ho usi ng.
    Recreauc n
    The post -w w lt ba by boome rs arc mat uring rap id l)' and so
    the ir chi ldren and grandc hi ldre n. Msn y of the adults are
    out of shape. ha ve substant ia l disposab le ince rne. and .... ill
    obtain mo re and mo re leisure time, es pecially \l hen thl.'Y
    retire. Th c-refore, it is nOI surprisi ng that a great dea l oft ime .
    money. a nd landscape is devor ..rd to public and co mmercial
    recreation facilities. especially golf. Also. num erou s amu se ment parks are now rounne ly ava ilable that co nta in a variety
    ofrecreational facilities. These arc rel at ively ea sy to ide ntify
    on rem otely sensed data d ue to their un ique shapes and curvilincnr patte rns. For ex am ple , co nside r the roller-coaster.
    go-cart track and water-s lide faciliri..,s located in Myrtle
    Beach. SC , in Figure 13-20 .
    In.'

    It is a re latively straig htfo rwa rd ta sk to idennty basebal l dia munds. foo tba ll or socc er fields. running tracks. and tennis
    courts usin g remo tely sensed data. because they arc la id Oil!
    according til st rict spec ifications. Examp les of these acuvines and the d ime nsion s of the d iamond s, fields. and co urts
    are sum marized in Figu res 132 1 a nd 13-22.
    Perhaps the g.re<l test Ct.lll"umt.'f o f pri me land in antl around
    citiC'S are commercial a nd public gol f COUf'!;CS . They co me in
    an endless varict)' o f fairv. ay shap<.'S and si/es and may
    indud" 9 , 18. and l.'Ven 36 hol es . The)' arl.'l.'spccially cas)' 10
    identily o n remotely se nsed data bttau<;c they al way s
    include a c1uhhous.: w ilh ample parking. It.l n~ cu.....,ilinea r

    Man y co mmunities usc tax doll a rs to support public stadiums. coli seum s. or co ncert ha lls . A good ex ample is the Univc rsu y o f South Carolina Coliseum (F igure 1).25 ). These
    taciluics arc used for an amazing varie ty o f recreational and!
    or c-erer uonial purposes. includ ing illdl.m bas ketball. circuscs. trac tor-pulls. roc k concerts. grad ua tions. ere. The)' a rc
    usually e xtremely large multiple-story buildings that are
    well-landscaped and have extensive park ing.

    It is practicall y impossible to identify a movi e thea ter


    locat ed with in a ma ll. Howe ver, man y thea ter complexes arc
    now bu ilt unatt ached w ith num ero us large screening rooms
    and am ple pa rking. Some co mmu nities still ha ve a dri ve -in
    movi e thea ter that at times has been one: of the most diffi cult
    feat ure-s to iden tify in the urban landscape. Th e drive-in
    movie t heater s ite is us ually fan-shaped . With a large vertical
    structure at the apex of the fan (the sere-cn ). It lypiea lly ea~L"
    a lon g sha dow, de pending o n the t ime of day . A fan-sh aped
    mad netw ork is fo und w ith in the site. and there are po les
    placed sys temat ical ly about every 5 m on the g round that
    hol d the detachable spea ker. T he co ncession sta nd is almost
    a lways located in the cente r of the sill.'. There is usua lly no
    landscap ing. the terr ain bein g com posed of asphalt or gra vel.
    W:lrrho ll\in wS hi p pin g
    w arehouses receive goods and then reo rganize the mater ials
    acco rding to a hil l of lade n fo r shipmen t via truc ks. railroad .
    or sh ip to an inter im or fina l destinat ion. T he)' a rc usua lly
    \'cry large bu ildings w ith modestlandscaping In the case o f
    truc k transpo rt. there is usu a lly a large parking lot w ith an
    elc vat..-d 15 tl high 1doc king system on o ne or multiple sides
    o r rhc bu ildin g. Forklifts arc oft en present inthe ya rd . Oc casionally. so me nonperishable com moduies o r container
    C3r}!O box es may- bl.' X'l:n o utside in the parking arca . The
    mos t diagnostic Icatu rC'S arc th e tractor tra ilers that are situale-c! with Ihl.'ir ha,,' k doors aga inst thc hu ild ing or arrange-c!
    sys tematically throughout thc sitl.'out \If harm's way.
    Shipp ing and warehousing alon g harbor waterfronts usua lly
    invoh~ e:lItremcly large warchouscs sit uatl.'d o n the doc ks
    or iml1lc:diately inl;md . For example. cons ider the ae rial pho-

    C H,\ P I F R

    472

    13

    Remote Sen sing th e Urban Land scape

    Co n

    J'

    a.

    Roltcr-cua~l ...r

    reereanonal facilit) , 31 the M)rt lc Beach. Sc. Pavilion am usemen t park (lev el 11191),

    b. A lypical go-can trac k. The O\'Crp.1S' and musl,,1"


    the corners an,' ccncretc. "hik the remainder oftl1l,'

    c. A waH.r-slide ride tha t empties into a pool.

    track i~ asphalt.
    Fig ur e 1320 L'cmmcrcia l recreation amusement-park t':!c itillcs (revet 121',l11.

    tograph (If a portion Ill' the Scanl..., \VA. harbor ill Figure 13:!6. llcrc. piles of minerals ore being loaded omc the ship
    fro m the conica l storage str uctures using a sop his ticated
    overhead conveyor- heft system. Extensive la rge warehouses
    arc als o located nearby. TIll' minera ls were brought to the
    shi pping facilhy most lik ely hy the adjacent railro ad.

    O ther Commercial
    Fina lly, there is the mauer ofwhat tu do about allt he other
    my riad uf commercial landuscs Ih;1\ arc found in alm os t
    every urban landsca pe (hobby .c;h0!'K, Forom ars. clo rhing
    -aores. bow ling aile)'". etc.j. It i~ im possible 10 determ ine
    what typo: o f bu siness i ~ be ing conducted from their re mote
    sens ing attr ibutes. Only in J im mvest igation w ill 3.t!ow them
    to escape from la nd-use class / 7, Othe r Urban or BI/ill-llp
    L.mdcalegory in Table 13-3.

    Services (Public and Private)

    In developed countries. mankind has organized a sophi.ti


    cured in frustrucrure of pnh l i c scrv ices to i III prov e the quality
    o f life . Some of the bui ldings a nd grounds assoc iated with
    thes e ser vices have relunv ely diagnos tic c haracter istics lhat
    a llow them Itl be identified in remote se nso r data,

    Puhlic lJ u ild in ~s a nd "'acililil's (Ad m inisl r atin n. Flre.


    Ponce. Rl'WUC. Post :.I. Llbru rtcs, J' r iw lIs)
    Preenunent puhhc facihucs SLJ.:h as state capitols (Figure 13

    n al ;II\U major admi nisuauvc bu ildi ngs ( Figure 13-2ib) art


    re latively easy to idcnnf y in remote sensor data. They usaa lly have ..trikmg architecture because they are SUPpl.1Sl>d to
    last an d inspi re us fur many gene rations. They typically have

    473

    Commerci al and Service s Land Use

    ...111
    R~ ...," ~l1
    lli~m " ..d

    b. Capuol C lf) 11.omh...'T"i (lmfeMlonal rmnoe-Jeague baseball stadium. L'ofurnbia. SC (origma ll) I :n .()()() scale].

    c. High schoolbuschall diamond.

    d. Atlanta Fulton County stadium. horne uf the protc ssion al Atlanta Braves hasch alltcam (originally 2)< 2 Ill ).

    Figure 13-21 Examples of high school. millor-kagu., ami professional basc bnl! diamonds [leve l 12 1')~ ). l h. baseball-dia mond
    (hme'1lsions remain the same while the facilities for the team ami SpeC!; IIHrS chenpc drama lka lly.

    ....'ell-landscaped grou nds and am ple parking. w hich may he


    located in m u ltip le-sto ry parking garages. Nationa l monuments suc h as the S ta tue o f Libert)' in New York and L'Arc
    de Triomphc in Paris. France, otlcn have vel')' diagnostic
    architect ure (Figure 13-::!7cd . resrccll\dy).

    Conversely.the only way to idcmify fire-and-res cue services


    is if the engines. res cue vehicles . and'or lin:lighling or rescue equipment arc te m poraril y visjble ours.ide the bu ilding.
    Also. some lire- statio ns have a t....o or th ree-story towe r
    nearby " here they practice Ilreflghting. It i:; possib le to

    13

    474

    teo

    ,m,

    ,~I

    Fo ol ltall

    ,~

    ~
    IL r-,
    I .,. .
    ... ',.. .... -. ..........
    .", ~

    Rem ote Se ns in g th e Urban Lan dscape

    ~
    <,

    -,
    -,

    ""I.

    aoo
    ve-

    ~ I so~

    II. Dlm~slons of II f'lOIhall

    li~ld .

    b.

    L:n i\~i l y

    o f Sou th Cllft' hna fonlOitti stadium Oeve1 121931.

    1
    i

    'r
    >

    .;
    ~

    !"I - h '

    ~4'

    .-

    ..

    I..

    .:r

    31M! _ l 'lIf
    c . [ ) lm c ll s illIl S o f 3

    soccer field .

    d. High school soccer field and track [le ve l 12 IQJ) , The goal peru;
    revealth at the lit'ld is alsoused tor I(ltllhall

    i
    78

    ,.-

    ....,

    :!

    c. Drrucnsious of a tenni s court.


    Figure 13-22

    E:\a mpl~'l> o f II univer;j[~

    f. Muluplc re mus courts at a tcnnrs dub ( I<: \ cl 12 1'ol7j.

    football stadium. high .;chool socce r fie ld and track. and com munity tenms club.

    Comr

    475

    temmercra t and SCrvices Land Use

    F"tgure 13-23 L c... -ot-l iq~ lK'Ii.11 pht>lOj,.'Taphy of .1 gnl r COUI"'!>C near A tlanta. GA. with multiple
    long. cureilincar ruirvo O1y5. bright sandtraps. and m..nicured gr~'l;n~ (lc\ c1 1219.. j ,

    Figure 13-2 4 Large-scale vertical ucriul phtltugr<lphy nf s" Imming ptK,ls (1.' \c1 121'15 ) and aS~K; iateti decking. T he pool
    onthe lell has swimming lanes. The p'K\1onthe right has debris in it. Horh pou ls haw shallow anti deep ends.

    identify a po lice sreuou i f the cars parked ou tside have numbers on their roo fs.

    buildings. with a mp le parking nearby. In fad. rhey may be


    indist ingu ishable fro m lcc al Iibrancs .

    Regionat po st offices arc large buildings wit h extensive


    parking and a sign ilkan t number o f postal trucks and
    smaller post a l vehicles present. Local rost offi ces art': difficult to ident ity because the y arc small . well- la ndsca ped

    Prison s art: usua lly easy to ident ify because they have large
    buildings. amp le parking. guard rowers. mul tiple rows o f
    very high fencin g. and restricted access. Exercise fields arc
    usua lly prese nt \\ ithinrhc fenc ed perimeter.

    476

    C I L\ I" I EH

    Remote Se ns ing the Urb an Landscape

    Figure 13-25 M ult ipurpose coliseum tadium l associated with the Unh,t"I"1\,ly "fSt"Uh ra rolina tlcv el l~ I,}(,). A rec reatio nal u r c ultura l nell! is laki n~ plac.. 011 this date.

    Figure 13-26 Shipping ;lnd ....arehousing of groin and other commodities in th...
    Seattle. WA, harbo r. ;-':Oll.' the conica l M"r,l~c structu res. th... danorale c"n\l<.'}'or -l>clt system. 111..- 13I);c rec ta ngular warehouses. arid
    railroad Sf'll'S that transport raw matcna!s 10 and fromthe facility.

    corm

    ~merc ia t

    and services Land Use

    a. Sl"t..- Capitol "f S"lJlh Carolina In L'olumbia l lc\ d 1:'.11 1).

    c. Ellis Island and lhe Statue of Liberty


    '\3ti"n,,1Park in '\ew YI'Th. ~,. ( 122 17 )

    d. Low-obliq ue "",rial photo,:r"p h "f I: Arc de Triomphe in Paris (122 17 ).

    Figure 13-27 Public ad ministra tion buildin gs, nat ional parks, J.ntl monume nts.

    4 78

    CU \1'1 F!<

    Remote Se n s ing the Urban Landscape

    Ind.

    i1 IT
    U!>U

    An

    oft

    ote
    So
    0'

    "sI

    b.

    a.
    Fig u re 13-28

    E~ampk'to

    (If univ crsit) public ed ucation facilities {level I ~:!l:! -\ I. a.] Vertica l aeria l phuwl;rap h of the manicured
    (lllh.. Umversuy o(Soulh Carolina. founded in 11<111 . At one tim",ruostofthe buildings surrounding tk
    hON;SIMC were fur udminist rarors, class...s. and students and their cucndon ts. ~ " ..... most o f the bui ld ings facing the
    horseshoe are admhustrauve. This t}TJ('" of archncctura! design is common on other south ern campuses such as the
    CnlHni ty of Georgia. b.t Low-ob lique photograph of the Uuivcrsuy of Cal ifornia at Sam.. Barbara in Goleta. CA.
    w ith its varied arcfutectura l forms. well-m anicu red landscape. and nuncare net work o f w<llkways between huildmgs.

    "h(lrs~h(l"'''

    Edueatiun
    Universities arc rela tively easy til ide nt it): in high spatia l resol utio n remote sensor data. Except in the dm\ ntown ar eas of
    the largest cuies (e.g.. New York. Chicago. AtlilnLH I. unive rsit ies us ual ly e xhibit a gellgraphic ally extensiv e collection
    of build ings. ope n SI1ilCCS , rec reat iona l f,lcil itics Is\.\ Imming
    pools, baseball, tc.lolha ll, socce r. trac k. te nnis'), gym nasiums.
    coliseums. and stad iums. Many Ill' the ed ucation buil di ngs
    arc mulnplc-siory. Als o. large uon nitorics ,In.' often prescm.
    Tilt' problem is usual ly de c id ing whe re the forma l university
    begins and cuds. Two diffcrcnr examples of umvc rsuic s arc
    provided in Figure 13-~R. T he University of So uth Carolina
    was founded in l xn l . All of ih... original administration
    buildings. studcm donnuorics, anJ teaching facilities were
    systematically or iented to look ou t upon a landscaped par k
    ca lled the ..horscsho...." (''In\ l.... c1y, the oblique aerial pho tograph of a portion of the Uni\ersity of Ca lifornia at Santa

    Barha m reveals the unsystcnuuic place ment of facilities


    interspersed w ith <I complex networ k of s idewalks.
    Most high schools andmiddle sc hoo ls hav e large buihlings.
    am ple pilrki ng, and outdoor tic Ids for ba schall, football. soc'
    cer. tra ck, ami/or tennis. High schools usually have it football
    stadium and a poo l, whereas middle schools do not. In cold
    climates. till' pool mllY be Indoo rs. High schools and middle
    sc hools arc often kn eed .

    Elementary l'Chonl<, have relative ly s maller bui ldings, ample


    parking, and a few outdoor flckls. TIICY ra rely have a poolor
    a foot pall stadium. Eleme nta ry schoo ls may he fenced.

    It is difficult 10 itk nlif; medica l business omces or health


    and fitness clubs. They appear sim ilar to ma ny other nonde-

    scrip t commercial acuviucs rhat can take place in a building.

    :fustrial Lan d Use

    cwevcr. it is relati vely easy to iden tify hospitals. The)' arc


    sually \cry large multistory buildings with man y add ition s.
    .mple pa rking is necessary, Walkways. tramways . et c.
    hen connect one buildin g 10 anome r. Sorneumes it is possiIe 10 detect t he emergency-roo m automotive entrance.
    omc hosp ita ls have a hel icop ter land ing pad on the gro und
    ron top ofa building .

    Indu strial Land Use

    1Ihis section inuod uces the concept of imug..: inte rpretat ion
    r the analysis of aerial photography and othe r types of high
    rial resolu tion re mo te sensor data for ex tracting industria l
    douse informauon. Th e heurist ic rules discu ssed lire
    igned 10 ena ble the interpreter who is not II specia hs r in
    dustrial image interpreta tion 10 ident ify those industries
    imarily from their image s a lone. If the image an alys t ca nlKIl spec ifically idcruify an indust ry. how ever. he o r she
    ;houkl st ill he' able In place it in a category that limits the
    lind of mdusrry it may be . The term industry include s those
    oo,incssl's engag ed in the extraction of raw materials. the
    proces.\i/l.l: of materials. and the fabri cation o f imcrmcd iatc

    and finished products.


    First. howe ver. il sho uld come as no surprise that milita ry
    intelligence g:n h",ring orga nizations throughout the wo rld
    are very interested in monitori ng the industrial land-use of
    foreig n co untries . The y have developed excellent ind ustrial
    urget image ana lysis manuals that may a lso be used for
    civilian applicuuons. Several ofthe more impo rtan t ma nuals
    focu~ on I ) gene ral indus trial target analys is logi c IDuD.
    I(7 6). 2 ) the coke. iron and sted indu stries (DoD. Il)nla). 31
    power and water faci li tk~ (DoD. 1(77). and 4) the petrolcum industry (OuD, 197Xhl. Co pies of these manuals mny
    be viewed at the Federation o f American Scienti sts hom",
    page {Appe nd b, A I.

    4 79

    from their d istin ctive forms. patterns. and rel ationships. one
    freq uen tly can infer the kind of ma terial or equipment
    obscured fro m view. For instance . unusually sha ped buildings may he specially de signed to ho use speci fic kinds of
    eq uiprnem. S im ilarly, ch imneys and stac ks by their number
    and arrangement may indicate the specific kind o f furnace or
    oven from which smo ke o r nox iuus gase s arc being vent ed.
    ldcnnficarion o f the various industry-related co mpo nents in
    an image may a llow the industry to be placed into one of
    three maj or ind ustrial catego ries (e.g. ", PIC, 1'161 : Avery
    and Berlin. 11)92):
    extraction
    pnl(;cssing:
    fuhric urion ,

    When allc mpting 10 categorize a n indu stry using remote


    sensing dna. il is recommended tbar the analyst I ) first
    decide whether it is an e xtract ion. precessing, or fabricat ion
    ind ustry: 2 \ if il is ,I proc essing ind ustry. deckle whether it is
    chemical. heal , or mec han ical processing . in that order; and
    ]) if it is a fabrication ind ustry. decid e whether it is light or
    heav y tabricauon. T here arc a tremendous variety of Industries. It is only possib le 10 prov ide a fo: w reprcse ntativc
    examples o f each major industry category.

    Extraction Industries

    EJ,II',/Cf/IC' ind ustr ies extract the natural resou rces of the
    Earth \\ ith the minimum handling requi red to accumulate
    raw materials in a form suitable for tra nsport atio n or pro
    cess mg. The ext ract ion usually take s place from a sha ll
    mine. opcn-p u m ine. well . or cu tt ing field. e.g .. forestry
    clear- cu rung o r hig h-grading {Tnble 134). Extractive industries typically have seve ral o f the toltowing diagnostic recognition tcutu res:

    Industrial uma-Use Classification Logic


    the presen ce o f open-pit e xca vatio ns. ponds. mine
    openings o r derrick s:
    Industries o tteu have uniq ue' assemblages o f raw ma terials.
    equipme nt. final products and wa ste. as well as buildings
    that cha racterize the indu stry. Somcrirues these industryrelated compo nents are visible 011 the phot ography or imagery: at other times the equipment or material may he: sh eltered in build ings or otherwise o bsc ured from view. In th is
    case. images of other compone nts. not signific ant in themselv es bu t closel y associa ted w ith the hidde n e ssen tia l components. may still he: recorded on the image ry. Moreover.

    normal and ove rsized handling eq uipment including


    bulldozers, dump truc ks. c ranes. pow er shovels. dredge s.
    tree-c utters. and mine cars;
    an clabornre transpo rtation syste m to mo ve the raw
    material about the site . incl ud ing conveyo rs. pipel il1 <:s.
    railro ad s. drag lines. and/or road network :

    480

    C H .\ P I } :K

    13

    Remote Sens in g the Urban Land scape

    Indust

    Catchment basin
    Tai lings pile

    n-

    Open-pit m ine

    ,u
    Tail i ng~

    pile

    Figure 13-29 Panchmrnnuc ~lc r" "pair Ill' lhe Kenl1<."1:o11 Rl<lgt'way Minin!,! Company local...u ncar Ridgeway.
    Sc. nil March If>, I'J'J:! (k v.:1 IJ 12) (ctlUrlc,y K"l\lIcc"ll Ri<!gcW;IYMining COl1lpany).

    ex tracte d hulk materia ls stored in piles. pond s, hop pers. or


    tan ks; and
    p iles or ponds o r wa sil" that haw be en separated from the
    valuab le materia l o f inIe rest .

    Allthe ext ract ive industry features are rarely seen at any one
    loc ation . O tte n the surroundi ng count!') sid ... shl)", c\ ide nee
    of rect a mauon. reforesta tion , c IC. in an attempt to repa ir the
    e ffect s o f the ex tractive industry.
    A 1:19.200-scak black-and- w hire penchromatic srcreopa ir
    of the Kennec ott Ridgeway l\Imi ng C ompany located nea r
    Ridgew ay, SC , ob ta ined on March 16. 1991. IS she.... n in Figure 13-29 . T.... o wry large open -pit mine s arc visjblc in the

    pho togra phs . They arc surr ounded prima rily by lohlolly rlO~
    plantatio ns , The raw o re-be ar ing ma terial is extracted from
    the earth using hug h shovels with in the ope n-pit mines. It is
    transpo rted to the central facility by d um p truck s using I
    complex networ k of w ads. T he gold is separat ed from the
    ore -bearing roc k using a chemical proc ess at the mine- centra l procescing facility. Two elevated r i b o f material thal
    have already been proc essed (\II1.:n referred to as tailings
    piks) arc \ isjblc. No te that a substantial amoun t of lhe prece s-ed roc k material also has been used 10 construct a catchmeru basin . The m ine .... as de..... omrn ission..-d in 1999. The
    process of resto ration is underway.
    The larg.est "fltm-pil mme in the w odd is the Hingham Canyon Cop pe r xt inc ncar Sa lt Lake Ciry, UT. operated by Ken-

    481

    iIlus tri al La nd Use

    a. lu'" -obhquc _,,;rial phvlv graph of the Bingham Can-

    b. Tertesrna l photograph o r the mmc reveals o re trains,

    yon Copper Mmc n~,1T Salt Lake L'ny, UT. the larl!...sl
    open-pitmine in the world .

    huge shovels. and a lk nsc nt;lwork of pllwcr-line JlI'ks.

    Figure 13 -30 TIll: Bingham Can~'ofl COPJXr \t ine nca r Sal! Lake Cily. UT. ISan ext racuve indusny (1.\,e1 l3 1:!1 1.

    nteOU Copper Corpora tion. II is -I km in length and has a


    depth ofl\()() m. II is one ofthe fl;:\'\ featu res that man has erened unn can be seen from ~ rac ... (another is the G reat Vi all
    of Ch ina) . \-Im c tha n J billion to ns o f co pper ha ve been
    extracted. mor t' than five tunes the material excavated for
    l!le Panama Canal. Figure 13-30.1 is a low -oblique aerial
    photograph c tth e min e. Figure lJ-Jllh is a terres tria l photograph tak en w ith in the m ine. The ter restr ial photograp h pro vidcs inform.uion on j usl how large the mine is when we
    discove r th at the da rk linear fea tures located a lo ng: the farthesl wal l are act ua lly four lung tra ins that arc used to
    remove ma teria l from the minco The rai lroad tracks spiral
    down ro the IO\\ C"'1 lev el.

    open-pit g ravelmine in South Carolina is show n in Figure D-] Ia. Material is dyna m uc d fr om the wa lls of the
    excavatio n a nd ca rried by' truc k to a collection po int at the
    base o f IIle m ine. A conveyor belt then ca rries the unsorted
    material up IUti III to the surface. w hero: it is sorted into various gra des o f g ravel and sand. The so rted material is then
    transported by truc ks to fiual destinations. Precipitation cnnnot e scape the pn. resulting in all interna l drainage pond ut
    mebase ofthe m ine.
    1\ 11

    Figure I3-J I b dep icts a sma ll portio n o f a petroleum extraclion we ll field situated in the mountainous wr rain behind
    Ventura, C A. Each c1<.'aring co nta ins line or more ni l we lts
    that an' connected via an intricate svsrcm of dirt roads . The
    oil is actuall y pum ped by pipeline from the wells to collec ting po ints not present in thc pho tograph.

    Processin g Industries

    rmn:.~.\;lJfI, ind ustries subject the accumulated raw materials


    to me chan ica l. che mic al. or heat treatment 10 rend er them
    su itable for further processing. or to produce materials from
    which goods and equipment can be made.

    The processin g industries art' c harac teri zed by the presence


    of faci litie s for the storage and ha ndling o f large quant ities
    of bulk materials.These materials may he sto red in the open
    in pil es . ponds or reservoirs, or in stor age containers such ilS
    silos. bins. hoppers. bunkers. and open o r closed tanks. The
    materials arc ha ndled by p ipe lines. co nve yors. and fixed
    cranes . 11'; well as ra ilro ad cars and other mobile eq uipmen t.
    The \:011\ eyer-belt system used to sort the gravel in the ope np it m in", pre viously discussed is a good example. In addition. other outdoor equipment arc commonly present.
    inclcding blast furnaces, kilns. chemical -p rocessing towers.
    la rge chim neys o r many stac ks. indicative of'rhe kind o f proccsses being carrie d out.
    Th e precesses invo lved usually req uir... la fl!l' qua ntities o f
    power. which is ind icated b~' the presence- o f coal piles. fue l
    tank s. boiler houses. o r transformer yards if electric power is
    employed or produced. Th... buildings thai ho use the processing equipment frequcmly arc largc or at least complex ill
    outline and roo f struc ture . Since the process ing ofmw mate rials usually invo lves refine me nt . piles and ponds o f waste

    13

    482

    Remote sensing th e Urban Landscape

    mousu

    arc co

    waste
    The p

    ;mag(
    me

    ch
    he

    \ 1eo
    a An opcn-pu gravel mine in S"ulh Carolina (1o:'\(:l lJ l21:). The gravel is Im" Sport ed from the: base (lrlhe mme \ ia OJ "inglc conveyor ben rc several sorters al the:
    lop of the mine. Truc ks transport the 501'1I:d mat erial 10 final des tina tio ns.

    h. Petro k um c\lracl ion from 011 ....ells in the __


    lams t>chind vcmura, CA I level 1315 II. Each c~

    contams ('Ille or mO' oil wclh that afe corm\Cd \


    an intricale sys tem of..hrt roads.

    Figure 13 -3 1 E\a ml' lcs o f ope n-I'll mining and petroleum ... \ lraclion ind ustries.

    erv

    m'
    m'
    sto
    SU I

    cr.

    ;n
    ca

    or

    o
    c

    ,,

    a . Lew -obliq ue photogra ph o f mech anica l processing 31 an

    agric ultural milt .... here wheal is processed into bak ing
    Ilour for human consum ption and animal feed . T he grain
    is stored in III... :>ilu~. and the prtll:css ing la~cs place in the
    buildin gs. Flour and t....... d are transported 10 market b)'
    In/f,;1.( 1.:\.: 1 131 11 ).

    b. Low -oblique photo of mechanical processing laking


    place er a scwugc-rrcanncnt plant in Ne wport Beac h, CA
    (leve l 13215 ). Soh d, nrc mec hanically se parated fromhquids. hence th.. term mec hanic al proc essing . to.:OIC the :;.o:tlling and acration ponds. Purified etllucnt is pumped son m
    10a submerg..od out fall 111 Ilk- l'ac sfic ( kean tlcv el 131151.

    Figure t3-3 2 Examples of mec harucal-proce ssmg industries Hevel IJZ I ).

    lustrlal Land Use

    483

    ~ commo n. and care is req uired 10 dist ingu i!>h betw een
    rste \ crsus use ful raw marena ts store d in a sim itJ r manner.

    merged outfall in the Pacifi c Oc ean . Water p uri fi catio n


    insta ll,ltio ns a re a lso mechanic a l-proce ss ing indust ries .

    processin g indust ries can be subd ivided on the basis of


    rage componems into three .suoca ll.'gtlric:s:

    A hyd roelectric ptl.... ..n plan t ut ili7cs the "hy drost atic he ad "
    of wa ter stored in rhclake to spin turbines that create elcc tnc uy. For example. co nsider the hydroelectric generati ng
    facilities at the Lake M urray Dam nca r Co furubia. SC { Figure 13-33}. Fo ur int ake to.... e..... transport wat er do.... n 200 11
    10 the turbine IWUM:: \I here the water pressure sp ins the tur b inl.'s gel1l:rating electricity. T he water then enters the Sa luda
    River. The electric ity is trans port ed to the reg io na l pow er
    grid \ ia a large substation co mplex. T here is also a thermalelectric po we r plan t at this locat ion whic h w ill he di scussed
    in the heat -proce ssing indu stry sec tion

    Ie

    mechanical

    chem ical

    beat processing,
    '!Ie subca tegories

    hav e funct ional sig nificance.

    C h e lllic:l l - r ron'~s i nl:

    ..x hanical- pmcessing ind ustrie s size. son. se para te . o r orh-ise change the physical fo nn or appearanc e of the raw
    lerials. The image com pone nts that cha racte rize the
    IleChanical-pll'Ct.'Ssing indu,tries art: the: bulk ma terials
    scred in pile s. pond s. or reservoir s. o r o utdoor eq uipme nt
    sach as silos, bins. bunker s or ope n tank s. as \I ell av a n abun4mce til' handl ing eq uip me nt such as conveyors. la unders.
    cranes, rai l cars. a nd other mo bi le equipment. The proc essi1~ involv ed may requ ire large qua ntit ies of powe r. as indieted by.. the presence of bo iler houses \I ith the ir fuel s upply.
    or transformer ya rds when electric powe r is em ployed.
    Many of the bui ldin gs may be large or 'It least com plex in
    'lllltlinc and roo f stru cture. Piles o r pon ds of waste a rc qu ite
    common. The iudu suics in the mec han ical-pr ocessing cme'gory diller from the other procl::ssing industries in rluu they
    ve fe.... pipelines. closed or ta ll ta nk". or stacks other th an
    boiler hIlUSl'S. Fu rthe rmore. there is a n absence nf the:
    ilns associated w ith the heat-processing indu-a ncs.
    uec hamca! proc,,'ssi ng take s p lace at the Adlu h f lour M ea l
    and Feed C ompany {level 132 11 ) in Columbia. SC' ( Fig.u rc
    1~-32a l. G rain arr ives at the m ill by .... ay of a ra ilroad spur
    behind the build ings or by truck. Th ree large concrete s ilos
    ore the unprocessed wh..':II. Wheat milling takes plac e in
    lafl!c. co mple x buildi ng 10 lhl.' right Trac tor tra ilo: rs
    I:tao:led up to the build ing tran :>pon Ihe tinishcd llour to loca l
    Jnd regio nal m.lrkcl.
    Figure 13-32 b dep icts a 10.... -ubliquo: ph(llo graph o f mec hanical processing ta king p lace at a se wagc-tre:<llmo:lll p la nt
    (Ind 132 1; ) in Ne wpo rt Ik ;lCh. CA . T hc sl'wage is rou l..'d
    [rom the nearby comm un itit.'S 10 Ihe p lant \ia u nd e~'TOund
    pipchnes. Mechan ica l pmccs<;ing at Ihc plan t ,,'pamlt.-s tho:
    wlids from the liqu id . V.ninus set tl ing ponds. encl osed
    tan ~s. ae ralon.. anJ anerob ic baCleria facilit ies purity the
    :;ewage so that it C:1fl e\enlua tly l'>e pum p.: d 500 m Itl a sub-

    luduv n-ics

    Chemical-p roc essing ind ustries utilize che micals or chem ica l proce sses to separate or rea rra nge the chem ical consutucrus ef thc raw ma ter ials, Petro leum refi neries and fertilize r
    p lant s nrc good examples . Pressure, hea t and catalysts, or
    other chemical s may be emp loyed. C losed ves se ls for ho lding. or han dl ing fluid s. gases. or suspens ions o f solids in liquids. and the u-c of fluid 110\\ in process ing the raw
    mate ria ls arc typica l of these indu stries. Consequently, the
    image co mponents that c haracte rize the chemical -proc essing indust ries are an ab undance o f d osed ta nks, p ipelines ,
    and such large proc ess ing equipme nt :\s lowe rs for c racking
    or distillation . As \\ ith a ll pwcessing industries. those in th is
    cat egory ha ve facil it ies for the storage and hand ling o f hu lk
    mater ials and require large quant ities of po.... cr. The building:l. frequently are complex. a nd extensive waste pi les o r
    pon ds are common.
    The AI Qa im superp hosp ha te: tenilizer plant in Iraq is she.... n
    in Figu re 13-3 ~, No te the exis tenc e o f numerous enclosed
    stora ge tan ks. a large conica l pi le o f mw ma terials, a ci rcul ar
    p ond. and la fl!1.' p rl1cess ing huildings (sever al with recent
    bom h damage). Phosphates ma y he used to produ ce explosives suc h as those usc.1 in the Okl a homa li.'d e rnl buil d ing
    homhing. Thai is why thc)' ar.:: talltetl'd Juring war.
    Indu st ry gcn er;ltcs a sig nificant am ou nt of chemical halard(IUS wasles, So mc I." lrnpanies USl rl' llw te sl:lIsing data 10 do c
    umen t the ini tia l con diti ons undc r wh ich the materia ls are
    store d and then mo nitor Ihc surfa ce e Xpfe"SiOll all er they arc
    stnre d. r or ex amp le. Figure 13-35a is :l II,.... -u hlil.j ul: aerial
    phohlg nlp h o f the l o .... -lcvel Wa ste Mana geml' nt s ite al the
    Dcpartm.::nl l,f Ene rgy's IOO EI ;'\lev'lda Tl' st Site. Th is 1000ation pnw ide s etli ciem d isllPsa l llf radi oa..:ti\ e chcmical
    ....ast ..... gl' uer,lll'd in the nuclear \\ capons progra m. Waste is
    trucl t.-d tOlhe site in Dl'pan ment (lf Transpu n ati on appro\ ed

    484

    Remote Sensing the Urba n Lands cape

    FiglJre 13-33 Aerial photograph of'tbc Lake I\lum~ Da


    S( ', hyJ rt'l("k-c-mc rower planl lle\d t;!1
    anJ the S..ludarbcrmat-ct..-ctric puv. ..'T~
    F r intake lowers provide lhe hl~
    sure water thaI dri\l"" the turbines tb3l: P""
    ducc lhe elec tricuy, The 1h<.nnal-cld1r.c
    power pl.ull bums coal thai produces see
    In drive the separate turhi lll"S that pmlIct
    d ..-..:tn<.:i l}.Tho: cool is dehcered

    ~)

    and lransported from the railroad cars roil


    pi!.: \ ia clime) .'!" bell,. The elc..~ &
    d,strihul..>J from the sire Imto the regiaul
    rower gnd via lhe:SIlbl.lalion

    containers (i n this exam ple dnuust ami buried in the large


    trench . As it fills. the pit is cove red ~ jill Sl';1.
    Figure IJJSh is a low-oblique photog raph of radinac uv e
    wa SI;: be ing stored in a !;lI1k fa rm at the llanta rd . WA. DO E
    facility, The lank farm- store hy-produr t materials len On-T
    from plutonium extrucuou o perat ions pr ior to pcrmnncm
    disposal. T his by-product mate rial ha s no useful purpose a nd
    is stored in a pprox imate ly 177 underground storage tan ks
    with a cumulative 101<11 o f 55 rmflion gallons capacity. with

    so me individualmuks wllgil1g up III LooO,OOO g'llln!ls. The


    trailers and cars in the ]OW l.'T right o f the photograp h provide
    some idea o fthe s il o.: ofthe Wilks.

    Petroleum chemical-processing mdusmcs co nve rt raw crude


    oil into gasolmc. diese l fuel. synthetic textiles. and plastic.
    The plants usua lly have a n ex tensive. ofte n dense nctw ork of
    above nr underground pipel ines suc h a ~ those found in a
    petrole um re fin ery in Tc'(a., ( Fig ure 13-36;)_ Storage tan ks
    arc etten com pletely su rrounded hy Eart h dike revetments
    that can contam the chemical i f a sp ill occu rs. For ex ampl e.
    Fig ure 13+3bh dep icts a tnnk farm at the petroleum re finery
    at ,\ 1 Ba srah.l raq , in le)'}t. Several o f the tan h arc on tire

    and kak ing . The ta nh J iles arc containing mu ch of the


    spill. Figure 13-3(,c depicts tho:A llan tic Richfield pt:tIllkllm
    storage and transport fac ilities 111 Seattle. WA.

    The heat-p rocessing indus tries utilize primarily hear to


    re fine. scpur.uc, or re- form lite raw materials. or to derive
    energy Irom them. [ron and steel production and therma le lect ric powe r plants Ihal burnnil o r coal a n: good examples.
    The image com ponents th.u d ist inguish this category are the
    large quanuucs of coni or other fuel. large chimneys. large
    numbers Ill' ~tac b, !lu es and ki lns o f var ious kind>.
    Althoug h pipelines and tanks Ircqucmly arc e mploye d in
    rh..-se ind uv ries they aTI;" us ually not abundant. and their
    presence i ~ outw e ighed by the image compo nent s cvidencing the usc or heal. As w itll Ihe other proc es sing industries,
    these ha ve ex tens ive taci fnic s for han dlin g and storing bulk
    mat erials and req uire large <.luilrt t i t i e~ o f fuel or ~)w er_ lJfl!e
    ou tdoor equ ipment. suc h as bla st furnaces an d kil ns, onee
    are employed . The hu ild lngs trcqucmly are complex. and
    piles o f "aste arc com mon.

    In'

    485

    Industria l La nd Us e

    FIg ure 13 34 Imag."!) ..,f lht' AI Q ain. supcrp hospllale fertilizer plant in Iraq. obunn...-d during lht' Gulf War in 199 1
    (U.S. Navy TARPS image released
    under the Freedom of Informa lion
    .\ ( 1 10 WilIiam ~ . A rkin) .

    --

    a. R.,di" 'll"li ve hanrdllllS waste h..-ing , t<'n." ! in drums al the


    Department ,,1 1.lIng)'"s Nt'\ "d a Tes t snc Lo.... -Lcvcl W", IC Man~gemenl facility. Th e wa.' le is e\eI1l1l;11I) covere d with sa nd (CO UflOy Dt'p;lf1rn"nl of fn erg) . ID W1\2 12; Julin Prke. FAS ),

    11. Hazardous-waste orage l'lIlk~ ntrhe DO E Hanford . WA facility,


    At one lime ap pru.\ i tlldtc1) 2,300 person nel sllpptlfted the total tank
    farm activities HI Hanford (co urtesy Department \ )1' Energy. I D 303-

    Iron a nd sled heal proc !.'ssing ind ustries are US tl 311y straightfonl ani 10 id...-ntify on re mote sen~tlr data. Fo r example. Figure 13-37 is a historica l ae rial photograph o f a small portion

    house thc, steel rolling mill.. and hla..t furn aces, many support buildings. and considerable smoke from large stacks .

    cfr hc Bcthlchc-m Sled Company at Sparrows Point, ~ D. in

    Nuclear faci 1ilief> are abo relative ly easy to ide ntify. The
    Fast Flux Test Facility at the Han fo rd si te in eastern Washin gtc n if> a ';OO.megawatt therm al reactor cooled by liq uid

    1952. The photogra ph record.. num ....rous lo ng bui ld ing s th at

    .....

    OSllUot; John Pike. Federation of American Scienlists).

    486

    CHA t>T ER

    a. Large-sca le v...r nca l aerial photograp h of a dense network of


    pipes ,11 a petroleum refiner)' in Texu .

    13

    Remote Sens ing t he Urb an Landscape

    b. P<:l rol~ m refinery at AI Hasrah. lraq. Kote lht: targe tanl-s lllIl
    Eart h dikes that separate the 111_ Th i~ photograph was acq uired in 1991
    durmg the {,ul f War, and some tanks are on fire and leaking (l~
    Na vy TARrS imagc released under the Freedom o f Illfonn aliOll .-\cl
    10 Wi1I i3m M. Ar kirn.

    Fig ure 13-36 l-xamplc s o f chcmrc af-pr cc e- smg

    (bcl l.l 22).

    c. Chemical proccssmg, )lvragc. and transportation of petroleum


    products atthe Allant ic Rich field tncrhnes in Seattle. WA. ~Olc the
    petroleum tank farms. tanker )h,ps. and railroa d tan l.. CaN.

    indusme s

    lndl

    487

    ncr strtar Land Use

    Figure 13-37 Bethlehem Steel Company 81 Sparrows P(\1nl . \H>. ("IfI ,\ priI 2';. Il,lS2.

    sodium (Fig ure I3 -J Xal . [I .... as built in 1'17X 10 test pla nt


    eqcipmeru and fuel lo r the U.S. Government's liquid me ta l
    reactor deve lopment program . This program dc mon srrau..'d
    me techno logy nf commercia! breeder reactors . The co ntainmen! dome is easily identified in the image . A bove ground
    esung of nuclear materials has been banned for deca des.
    However. underground testing continues. Figure U -3Kb
    depit: ts the res ults o f one test at the Nev ada Test Si te wh en:
    a 100 kiloton explosive was burie d und er 635 fee t of desert
    alluvium and det on ated on July fl , 1962. displac ing 12 milhen IOns of earth, Unde rg roun d tests cond ucted by nat ions
    through out the worl d o ften leave craters suc h a~ these as ev idence ofwhat has take n pla ce .
    Below Me some add itiona l Iund.nuenta l image-recognition

    features that may he use d til distingu ish among the three
    Iypc~ 01" proc essing industries:
    itechanical-Proccssing Indus trie s :
    few pipe lines or closed tanks
    little fuel
    conveyor-belt syst e ms etten present
    few stacks
    no kilns.
    Chemical- Processing lndusrnes :
    man)' closed or tall tanks. inel ud ing gasholdcrs
    many' pipelines
    much large out donr processing equipment

    Heat-Processing Indus tries:


    a few pipelines or tanks
    large acrive chi mneys and.or stacks
    large quantities offucl
    kilns,

    Fabrication Industries

    Fabrication indu stries assemble the mechanical and che mical subcom ponents into finished prod ucts such as auromohiles, truc ks, boars und sh ips, trai lers. hea vy equi pme nt (e.g..
    b ulldozers], plastic prod uct s. and electronic devic es. The
    fa brication ind ustries may be subdivide d into heavy and
    light fa b rication . Heavv-fabrication indu stries oft en have
    tall heavy stee l fr<l111C one-story bu ild ings, storage yards with
    heavy lifting eq uipme nt and cra nes. and occasionally rail
    lines entering buildings. l.iXht-jilhriclllion ind ustries oft en
    ma ke usc o f ligh t steel an d wood -fra me bui ld ings (perhaps
    mu ltistory) and typica lly lack heavy- lifting equipme nt.
    Heavy Fabri cation
    Below arc some o f the funda men ta l image-recognition features th at may be: used to d istingu ish amo ng the major
    heavy- fab rication ind ustries. Heavy fab rication is a lmost
    universally associa ted .... itlt Ia rge buildings.

    Tran

    Rem ot e Sensin g th e Ur ban Landscape

    ' BB

    o.
    Figure 13-38 a ) The Dcpanmeraof t:n<'" rg}' Fast Flu>.: Test Facility at Hanford, WA, has a 40(1-mega...an thermal reactor. 1110." dome 'Sill:
    c"()fIlai nm....lI slnKlun:, b) The Sedan Crater Il.;b form cd .... ben 11 lOO-L iiotOll C''''p losi\l~ buried 635 fl beneath lhc ikso:n
    detona ted on July to, I'Hi::!. at rhe Nevada Test Silo.". displacing 12 million tOIlS of earth. The massive crater is 320 1'I~.
    1.2l.iO n in diamc lcr. T\O,o cra l,;n formed from OIhn dt"lon al io ns arc ...-en in the dista nce tcou ncsy Dep t. o f Energy).

    He3\ )' Machinery Fabr icati on:


    storage yard (or heav y me tal shapes
    piles ofstructu ra l steel and other ma terials
    finished hea vy m ach inery .
    Ra ilroa d Machinery Manufa cture and Repair:
    railroad locomotives and'or cars unde r con str uction
    ra ilroad track ne two rk.

    transported 10 an d from the busi ness eit her b) truck or III


    the railroad spur.
    A vertica l pl.' l'Spe..:ti\ c of him s uch structura l st~'t:l is useda
    the buildin g o fa pt' wer plant is presented in Figure 13-39\!.
    Aerial images such as this can document the progress
    spec ific dates in the cons rrcct iou proc ess .

    OIl

    Li ght Fa b r tca t lnn


    Shipbu ildin g :
    sto rage yards fu r sled plate
    extens ive dry -do ck an d ramp facil ities
    shi ps unde r con structio n
    large cra nes.
    Struc tura l Stee l f abricat io n:
    stor age ya rds ofstructural stcd
    struct ura l steel fabricunon ya rd.
    A structura l stee l fabric at ion ind ustry is show n in Figure 13393. The actu a l fabncauon o f the iron-and-s teel girders used
    in build ing and bridge co nstruction takes place inside the
    large elongated bu ildi ngs . The iron and stee l stoc k mater ia ls
    a n: so rted by si/e and type in the ce ntral ope n-a ir sto rage
    yard. Two o verhead cranes (not visible) move the iro n-and stee l raw materi als back and forth (left 10 rig ht ) into the
    bu ildin gs to r fabrication . Raw an d finish ed materi a ls are

    Belo w arc some or the fundamental image-recognition features that cau be used In dis tinguish among the major light.
    fabr ica tion indu strie s.
    Aircraft As sembly;

    aircraft or seaplane r,11l1pS(II' taxiways adja cent 10 or


    connected to the fab rication building
    hangars
    finished airc raft stor ed in the op.:n.
    A utom obile

    ,\ s~ e m h l y

    tea rs, truc ks. motorcy cles ):

    s ingle - or m ultipl e-s tory buildings


    finished pa rked vehic les a rrang ed in an orderly system
    tcstt rackrs]
    tractor-trai ler shirring facilirics w ith cars on trailers
    rai l shirpi ng container curs .
    Boa t Bui ld ing and Repair:


    489

    portat ion Infra stru c tu re

    ,;wy fabrication at th... Khne lron and SI...e1CO, in Columbia. St: . lrun 3ml
    ~Iod i. '>IlR.'J b) ~iLe and rypc in the two open-air storage )'3nh, Fabricatakes place inside the buildings_ Raw materials and finished products arc
    poned 10and frum the faciluy \ ia truck s or the railroad spur{ le\ d 13314).

    b. A dewiled vertical "erial pho!<ll;rap h of a power pla nt


    under constmcnon. The project contains signilicam liliant i l l"~ of prefabricated struc tural iro n and slc'l'"l (coon \"S)'
    Eastman Kod., k Company).

    Figu re 13-39 Examples of iron and ~ted fabrication and the 11:< of such makrials in the building of a power plant.

    shipped from the sh ipr ing bays located at the back llf the
    building .

    boa t com po nents stor ed in the o pen

    Ilbcrglass form s
    bu ilding where li hc'l! l3 ~s appl icatio n ta kes place
    boartrailers
    finished boa rs in oren sto rage .

    A f ish-canning plaru loca ted in SJ n Ped ro Hamo r. C A. is


    found in Figu re 13--10b . H IC ships moor ar thc dock ne xt to
    the plant. TIle ma nu facturing p roc ess (canning) takes place
    w ithin the Inrgc buildin g. Num erous tanks hold chemicals
    used d uring the- ca nn ing proc es s. The plau t is dischJ rg ing
    effluent into the harbor using an undergro und pipe .

    I Packing:

    hold ing pens


    a few ta nks

    railroad s id ing
    Transportation Infrastructure

    tractor-trailer parking.

    iles;
    tractor- trailer shi pping and rece iving
    bales orcotton or ot her raw materia l

    Transportation planners ett en usc remote sensor data

    p ipel ine s and ta nks when creatin g synthet ic fabrics


    autom ouv e-compone nt

    manufacturing

    eo mp;tn )

    III

    nubia. sc. is show n in Figure 13--IOa . Raw materials


    are not s uscepnblc to damage by the Su n o r prcc ipnat ion
    sorted and stored fly type ill the ope n a ir. Fab rication
    s place ins ide the building. T ile finished products arc

    10

    upda te transpo n anon net.... o r\. maps. evaluate road and railroad conditions. sludy urban traffic paucrns at chok e po ints
    such as tun nels. bridges. shopping malls. a nd a irpo rts. and
    co nduct par king studie.. ( 1 I a a~ L. ct a l.. 1997 ). Th e mm t comprchcn sive wo rk to date ( I n remote se nsin g ap p lied 10 tra nspo rtation problems was cond ucte d hy the Nat ion a l

    13

    490

    a. Light fabrication compan)". Some of the 1'3'" materials arc sorted b)"I)-PC:
    in the open air. Fahrication \.al~ place in !he Nn ldmg.

    Remote Sensi ng t he Urba n Landscape

    b. A Iish-canmng

    Jl lan ll~C'1

    13324) in San Pedro Haro,."(,

    CA. and iii as:;oo,:ialL"d pollution.

    Ftgure 13-4 0 Examples of light fahricalivn (manufacturing).

    Con sortium o n Rem ote S<:n~ing in Tran sportation sponsored


    by NASA and the Department of Transportation tf\ ( RST.
    ~(06). Th irumala i (lOO)) re viewed "eRST research performed by co nso rtium me mbe rs on: a ] envi ron men tal impa ct
    for mult imodal co rrid or imp act p lanning. hI haza rd and
    d isaster prepared ness and li feli nes secur ity. d in fra structure
    asset managem ent and sec urity, and d) multirn odal tra nspo rtation flow manag ement .

    Road s a nd 1IiJ,:lnn l)'S


    Road, may he un pave d OT pav ed, Paved highways rna) he
    access ible to motorists at almost an y locat ion along their
    rout e or they may he limited-access (freeway s, 1011 ). T he
    general updat ing of II mad or highway networ k cen terline
    map is a fundamental task . Th is is often done every one 10
    five yea rs and , in area s w ith min imum tree density, can he
    acco mplished using imagery .... ith a spat ial resolu tion o f I 30 m (Lacy, 19(2). If mor e precise road dimensions arc
    requ ired suc h as the ex act wi dth of the TO;\ d and sidew a lks.
    then a spatial resolution 01" 0.25 - 0.5 III is required (Jen sen
    ct al ., 1(94). Currently, o nly large-scale aeri a l p hotog raphy
    can prov ide suc h planimetric informa tion . In addition. consider the aerial pho tograp h of the intersect ion sh ow n in Figure 13-41a. Th e stoplig hts suspend ed across the street.
    ind ivid ua l cars and truc ks, and e ven the right-o f-wa y w hite
    roa d ma rkings arc visible. Future unma nned aerial veh icles
    (U AVs) ca rryin g lightwei ght d ig ita l ca me ras might we ll provide sim ila r high -resolution inform ation at a reasonable cost
    l " e RST. 2(}(X1).

    Ili gh....uy interchanges arc use d 10 route tra ffic onto and off
    nflimued-accev s highways. They com e in an end less \'~
    of shapes and siz es a nd are relati vely ea sy to distinguish ea
    remote sensor data . For exa mple. conside r the classic limired-access interc hange show n in Figure 13--41 b. It is gClld:o
    slop ing a nd has very long entranc e an d exit ramp s lhat allcs
    tra ffic 1\, merge carefully w ith ot her tra tfl c .
    J'\e_\t to lIIcteomlog ica l investigation s. truffle count stud io
    of automobiles. airplanes. hoats, ped estrian s, and pcopl( in
    groups requ ire the highest te mporal reso lut ion daraonee
    ran g in ~ from 5 III 10 minutes. h is difficuh to resolve lIle
    type of ca r or boat usin g even I x I OJ data . This task
    requ ires high spatia l reso lution imagery fro m 0.25 - 0,5 m.
    Such information cun only be acquired using aer ial photograph y (' I' v ideo sensor s that arc l jlocarcd on the l Op edges of
    hu ildin gs looking obliquely nt the te rrai n. (II' 2) placed in aircra ft or helic opte rs and Flown repeti tively ov er the stud)'
    are as. Figure 13-4 1c captures the pmking chamc rcrisricson
    parking lilt at It siug le insuuu In time . Whcn such informslion is collec ted at an o ptimum time of J ay. future parking
    and tra ffic mov ement decisions can he made. Parking smdies requ ire the same high spat ial reso lution (0.25 - 0.5 ml
    but sl ight ly 10" er tempo ral resolu tio n I 10 - 60 m inutes).
    Roa d. ra ilroad. and bridge cond itions (cracks. pot holcs.eic.j
    arc routine ly monitored both ill snu lind occ asionally usir.g
    high spaua l reso lution remote senso r data . For examp le. Figure 13-4 1d presents a pa nch roma tic image o f a highway and
    ra ilroad br idge. Careful inspec tion by' a trained analyst pro-

    Tm

    49'

    tra nsportat i o n In fr ast ru ctu re

    a. lligh spatial rt"IDIUl iOll image o f an intersection acqu ired


    usin~ kite aer ial plmt,,~raphy.

    b. A hm ucd-accc ...... highway Ink'l\:hange In T.:'l.as.

    d . A ~-ria l phologruphy of highway and railroad bridges.

    Figure 13-4 1 Example s 01 roods. hrr uted-accesv highways. 11l1<.-re hang<.-,;. par king. and bridges reco rded usin g
    \arium scales of ae ria l pho tography (level 14 11)_

    vides significa nt infonunnon aboutthe couduicn ofthe wad


    and bridge. Road and bridge cond uion call be doc ume nted
    using hig h spat ial reso lution ae rial photog raphy 0.25 x
    O.~ 5

    rm

    Ibilru lul~

    Ranroa drracks. focornonv es. ca rs. and tenuiualtaciliucs arc


    relaliH'I) easy to dist inguish o n high spatial resolu tion
    im a ge f)-- be ca use

    CHA PTE R

    492

    13

    Remote Sensing the Urban Landscape

    Tra n s

    Z u ric h Tra in Statio n. S \\-itll'r land

    Figure 13-42 The train stali,," in Zurich. S.. itzerlend. recoorccd on Augusl 16, 1002 IcI,urt.:S) Illg ltalGlobo:. lnc.).

    the trac ks rarel y mllv c from yea r h i ye ar:

    lon g runwayt s }

    the: tracks have no right ;mgt.:s. o nly gradual curvilinear

    flight-tra ffic control Io\~ er(s)

    turns:
    tcrmmafrs l lciv ilia l\]

    railroad bridges become narrow as opposed to highway


    bridg es. which generall y sl ay the same width as the road:

    han gar s

    railroad cross ing signpllsts and thei r attendant shadowsan:


    located at almost every maj or inte rsection with a Wild ;

    an extens ive tarmac mad network coneccnng the hang;m


    and terminals with the runways

    railroad tracks rarely cr oss other railroad track s: and

    large pnrking areas

    locom otiv es and railroad ca rs arc large. long, and linea r,

    visible aircratt.

    m ak ing them fairl y easy III identify.

    Much o fth e ac tua l work or a ra ilroad lakes place in the rai lroad marshalling (, Iassilk a tioll) yard. 11 is hen: thur railroad
    cars go ing the same direc tion d ow n the line or railroad ca rs
    goi ng to the identical destination <Ire placed in a spec ific
    trai n. Figure 13 ~2 depicts the Zurich Train Station termi na l
    a nd ra ilroa d marsh allin g yard.

    Airpu rt
    C ivil ian and milit ary airports usua lly have:

    Rural airports etten have a sing le run way. a w indsock. \ ISI'


    hie planes. and II hang,tTo r two.
    Fig ure 13- B;1depicts a bip lane reco rde d at appro:\ima!ety6
    x (l in . spatial resolu tion. The bipl ane photog mph we,
    acqu ired using kuc ae rial photograp hy. A po rtion of the El
    Toro\larinc Air Stat ion , C . \ ( I x I It).reeordedusingacon
    ventirmal camera is found in Figure I]~ J h . An IKO\ OSII
    x I til) imag e o f the Rona ld Reagan l'\3tional Airpo rt is presente d in Figure 13-43 c . The civilian airport has an e:\ltllsivc termina l system to move people to a nd from the plane.

    a,
    01

    493

    jra nspc rt at lo n Infrastructure

    ./

    A \ ima g... biplan... ,,,,-oro..>d OIl appro:\lmat...l y 0 x (> 10. spat ial res lIiulioo u~i ng kite aerial phn((,;;rap hy rcounesy C ri!> C & '1l(00),

    I.

    b. JC'I aircraft OI l the 1-,1 1 0..-0 ..h rin e \ 11 Stalion. CA , recorded OIl
    appro:\imalclr I x I ft s(lillial resolu tion

    c.Panchromauc I x I m im.lge uf Ru ua h.l Rcal.!"n "' alional AlrptlM in


    [court cs)' Space lm aging. (f Cf\l'yc, lnc.j.

    Y,:a~hlllg h 'll,

    DC. reco rded by the U;.o:,\O S ... tclhtc in I ~J<,l

    Fig ure 13 -43 Examplc-, " I' aucran. tarmac. hangar>. and ml lna r) and ( 1\ ,11.ln rcrmmals ( Ie \ od 1-1 1J j.

    C II.\ PTER

    494

    a. Sailbo.lts at illll:ho' in a harbor ncar San


    Francisco. C t\ [ courtes y ens C. H..-nIOO ).

    Remote Sensing the Urban Landscape

    b. lligh spanal rC!iOlulion vertical aerial phtltug ntl'h uf t\loche


    barges on l~ \1 i s~i ~s i rri Rive.. t1cin{l pushed tly two tugboats.

    c. Four battles hips, ' .,.,0 troop transp o rts. ami an aircrnft currie r in stora ge at National C it)', Still Diego, C 1\

    Figu re 13-44 E~ 'Ulll'lc 'i of'boats and ships reco rded on remotely 'cn~c'tt image!")' dcv et I ~ 14 1.

    Conversely, so me military mrport s do not have terminals. as


    the crews are ferried 10 and h um the uircraft by vehicle.

    T hey are o ften seen as iso la t...\1 man-made reflective


    o~j cxts on a relat ively uniform wurcr su rface. \\ hich can
    increase their objec t-to-background co ntrast.

    "mils a nd Shi p..

    Small boats and large ~hip!o arc rclanvelj easy to id,'mify


    using: high spatial recolunon rem, lie sensor data for the follow ing reasons:

    Boars and ships have rclauv e ly unique shapes (i.e.. tk


    length is almost al.... cys at leas t t.... o times greater than the
    wid th. .... .th a rda ti\ d) p ointed 00.... I becau se they need to

    Co

    495

    munl c a tlo ns a nd Utilitie s

    :\I ilita r)-Appticanons


    - .....,.,
    ,.....,..........

    a Submarine base at Andreyeva Guba. Russia.


    obtained lin February Q.:':()().l

    b. Aircraft grav eyard nt Davis-Mom han Air force Base


    ncar TU~Ml n . AZ. on August 11. 2002.

    ;:jgore 13-45 .. Two submarmcs are present at In.: Andrc~e"'l1 Uuba. Russia, submarine base (image courtesy (If l ma~eSat Internall,mal.
    In~ . l h. Th<, Aen"f"lcc \-ta i nt~n ance and Rcgcncranon Center (" \-iRe ) at !)avisMonlhan Air Force Base in Tucson. AZ.
    ,h'n:s more than :'i.OUOaircra ft and providl's spare parts for n ld....r aircran in S<.'I":I ~'" thro ugho Ulllll' ""m id. The center annua lly
    take'!> in abou! -lon aircran for slorage and ." pons about tile loame number for return to active sel'\ice. N"llte lhc B-52 bombers
    In the !o" ....r lel\ poruon of the image that han' been cut into piec .... using a large blade dropped by a crane . The pieces are lell
    o ut in u.c open for an expended period o f umc fur snetlnc nuticua l technic al means ( i.e . spy s.ue [[lle} verific atio n as part of
    lhe strategic arms limitation treaty (SA LT II Treaty lind Protocol) agrtt ille nls be twc-en 111<: United States and the Union of Soykt Socialist Rcput>lics umage court esy o f OigitalGlobc. lnc.j.

    hydrod ynamicall y s fice thro ugh the "" urcr with a m inimu m
    amount o f fr iction.
    Boars and ships range in Sill,' from rhe sm a ll fami ly row ooals. pow.. r bll<t l~. and sailboa ts from 3 - 10 m in length
    F i~urc 13-44al to e xtre mely large cru ise ShlJh, pa\osen gcr
    liners. ni l tanke rs. h3U!c'hlps. submarines, a nd a ircra ft carril'I'S. Figu re I J 44h depi cts twelve co mm ercial barges on t he
    ~1 1 ~ si s;; i pp i Ri\ et being pushc-d by IWO tu gboat s. xcmerous
    large military shi ps are in storage in National C ity. Sa n
    Dcgo . CA. in Figure 1344c.
    Military orga nizunons throughou t the world usc h igh spatial

    and spect ral reso lution re mote se ns ing technology to mon itor the locat ion and d isposition of military equipment. For

    example. Figur e 134 5a dep icts two subm arines al rhc


    Audreyeva Gu ba. Russ ia sub m a rine base. Aircraft in storage

    !t lh.: Aerospace xtemtcnance and Rege ncra non Center at


    Davis-Monthnn Air Force Hase in tucson. AZ. arc sho.... n in
    Figure 13-4 5b.

    Communications and Utilities

    Urban/s uburban environments arc enormous consumers of


    e lec trical po wer. natural gas. tel ephone se n -icc. and potable
    wate r ( Haack et al. 1 ~"7 1 . In addit ion. they create g reat
    q uan tit ies (If refuse. wastewater. and sew age . The re mo va l
    of stor m.... atcr from urban im pervious surfaces is also a scrions problem I Sc h u lt/~ I"XX; Jen se n et al.. 2005a ). Automated ma pping.fucitiucs management (A\l!I-'M) an d
    geograp hic information sys te ms i IS) hav e been developed
    to man age e xtensive righr-o f-way corridors fur various utilitie s. es pecially pipelines (Jadkowski ct al., 19<)4 ). Th.. mo st
    fundam ental ta sk is to upd ate mar s ttl show a general ce nterline of the uti lily of interest such as a power line righ t-ofway. Th is is relatively straig htforwa rd if the ut ility is not
    buried and I - 30 m spa tial resolution remote scnsor da ta is
    availa ble . It is a lso etten necessary 10 ide nufy prototype util ity t e.g .. pi l~lillc) rou tes [Feldman et al., 1995). Suc h studies require mor e geographically exte nsive imagery. such as
    Lands at The matic Mappe r dura. The refore. the maj or ity o f

    CHAr .:Ie

    4 96

    a.

    Fcn~ c,j

    water tower with adjaccmmanu.... nal ll'c buildin g.

    Rgure 13-46

    b llmp le~

    13

    Remot e Sens ing t he Urba n Lan dscape

    11. WIS TV- IO television stauon i!'> in the huilding on the right. It h.t-; a
    11111"'11113 on th.. rout" lind a large circular satellite dl~h in the parkmg Id ~
    govc mmctu oll;l:c building i, \11\ the left.

    of utility u ensnu..... ion facihtie s (l e\ <:1 I-B).

    the actua l and proposed right-of-way may be obse rved .....ell


    on image ry with I JO m spat ial resoluti on obtain ed once
    e..'cry o ne 10 the years.

    When it is necessa ry to inventory the exact loc ation of rhc


    uti lily Ioot pads. tra nsm issio n IO \\ CTS. ut ility poles. man hole
    coveo.jhc trw centerline of the ut ility. the wid th of' thc utjlil) right-of-way, and the d imensions of build ings. pumphouse... and subsrauons, then it is necessary to have a spat ial
    resolut ion of fro m 0.15 - 0.6 m {Jadko w ski et al. 1(94). Fo r
    exa mple, Figure 13H, depi cts a water-s torage lower and the
    satellite transmission taciluics associated .... ith a televis ion
    station.

    aml]og (II" d igita l stereoscopic large-scale metric


    photogra phy .... ith a spat ial rc....ohuion of ~ 0.15 OJ m;
    U DAl{ data with masspo im post spacing of < I m and
    vertical acc uracy o f approximu tclv 15 em.
    Digital so ft-co py photogrammerry based on hig h spatial resolmion remote sensor data has revolutionized the CKJt!lll
    and avail ability of digital surface and digital terrain modctl
    (Jensen. 1'}95: Linde r. 20(l3) (Chapler (,). The extracnen rl
    high resofuuon b ald-earth UTf\- ls using U DAR is bce(lm~
    less expe nsive and may be the t.::eh nology of choice in I~
    fu ture (l laala and Brenner. Ill)t); Hodgson 1'1 nl., 2 ()O~1
    (Cbaprcr WI .

    Ur b a n Digital El e va t io n Model C reation

    ,\ d ig ita l mod e l of' rhc earth's eleva tion is referred to gencrica lly as a digita l eleva tion mudd (1)[1\1). l f thc OEM co nta ins buildi ng and veget ation elevation in fomnuion. then it
    is ca lled a ,Iigifa{\'/I/:!(/('(' "'mil-! (DSM l. lf all the building
    and vegetation in formation have been re moved. thcn it is
    called a bald earth .Iigital tvrrun mod.:1 (OT.\I ). Most G IS
    used for socioeconomic or environmenta l planning in the
    urhan environment include a OSM or OT"I {Jense n ct al..
    ~OO51. T.... c sensors thai can prll\ ide such in forma tion are

    Te rrain ele vation in urban enviro nme nts d.lt.'s not ehangt
    very rar 1d1y. Th e refo re. a DT\I of an urbani..ed area need
    on ly be acqu ired once every I to 5 years unless there is sig
    nificant development and the analyst desires IIIcomp areIII
    ditfc rc m d ate DSr--1s or IJT\h ttl determine chang e in telT3ll
    eleva tion, identify unpe rm itte d additions onto huildings. eM'
    identity change, in hui lding hl'ights. fi gure IJ- 47 depicts I)
    11 large-scale aeria l photograph uf downt(ll-\ II Co lumbia. Sf
    21 a dig ita l surface mudd of the sam .' area ex tracted fnIn
    the stereoscopic photography M ric ling the height {If e\~
    building. J lthe orthopnotograph draped 0\ cr the DSM. ereal ing a \ inual rea lity representation til' a majo r sirce-t. and~
    use ofthc 1l'\\1 for model ing fhc optimum locat ion for 1<.lC3f.

    ~n

    497

    Dig ital Eleva tion Model Creation

    a. Panchromatic vertical aerial phomgraph.

    c. Onh"pholO draped ove r DS M

    1>. DigH,,1Surface Model IDS\1j.

    0.1 ,

    Cellular phone transceiver location model

    Figure 13-47 al Vertical ae rial photography o f downtown t'olumbie. S{ ', I'l l [)l!,.'Hal ~lIr l':lI'<' model dcnv ed using S"n ' Cl>lly photogramtue try
    an d ster..-osc opic imagery, C) lJil!ilal crthophoto draped ove r the DS/l.1. oj l ll., ap plicruion ofn G IS int crvisibiliry mode l 10 idcntif) dead zo nes lhm wou ld he produced if a cellular phone transceiver II ere located un this particular building.

    mil a cellula r phone tran scei ve r (Jensen, 1995: Cow en and


    Jensen, 199 R), A rch uccts. p lanners. e ng mc'ers. and real
    estate pe rso nnel a rc begi nning 10 usc such informa tio n for a
    variety of purpo ses,
    A digital surface model of a portion of the Westing house
    Savannah River Company' nca r A iken, Sc. is show n in Figure 13-4 8. This three -di me nsiona l sce ne wa s deri ved from
    UDA R last rerum da ta obtained al a flthl ing dcnsuy of
    approximately 10 em. Xotc that this i:. nut a bald-earth digi-

    tal terrain model as the huilding: and vege tation elevation


    intormauon are sti ll present 10 the SI.:~m:.

    vcndcrhoc (:!on5) compa red nnd contr aste d elevation information derived usin g phntogrammcrric versus lidargrammetric methods for transp ort ation engineer ing design
    purposc-s as part o f the U,S. Department of Transportauo n's

    l'ational Consortium tin Remote Se nsing in Transportation


    resea rch program (NCRST, 10061, lie found that elc-varion
    in format ion de rived from lidarpramrnctry was J US! as etfec-

    CHAPTER

    498

    --13

    Remote Sensing the Urban Landseape

    syst ems that some time s gen erate dead ly tornadoes and hur
    rican es. Full hemispheric disk images may be ob tainedevery
    25 minutes . Intense thunderstorms in relati vely smaller
    regions ma y be imaged every 3.1 minutes. The spatial resolution is I x I km for the visibl e band and 4 - 8 km forth,
    thermal infra red bands. European nations use METEOSAT
    w ith visib le near-infrared bands obtained at 2.5 x 2.5 kmand
    thermal infrared dat a co llected at 5 x 5 km every 25 minutes.
    Early hurricane monitoring and modeling based on these
    data have saved tho usands of live s in rec ent history. For
    example, in 1989 Hurricane Hugo caused approximatelySI
    billi on in damage to resid ent ial, co mmercial. and industrial
    fac ilities, but no live s were lost because of remo te sensing
    assi sted ea rly warning and evacuation .

    Figur e 13-48 Analytically hill-shaded digital surface model


    ( DS M) ofa portion of the Westin ghouse Sava nnah
    River Co mpany near Ai ken, SC, deri ved from last
    return LIDAR data ob tained in Nove mber, 2004, at

    a posting density of approximately 10 em. The elevation of buildings, trees, transportation features
    and the terrain ca n be ex tracte d from the DSM .

    live as that derived photogramm etricall y for transportation


    applicatio ns .

    The publ ic also relies on ground-ba sed National Weather


    Servi ce Weather Surveillance Radar (WSR-88D) for precipitation mapping and timel y severe storm warning (Chapter
    12). Th e maximum ran ge of the NEXRAD radar is approximately 250 nautical miles. The N EX RA D net work provides
    significa nt improvements in severe weather and flash tlood
    warnings, air-tra ffic safety, flow control for air traffic,
    resource protection at mi litary ba ses, and management of
    water, agriculture, fore st, and snow removal (NO AA ROC,
    2006). The Doppler radar "c omposite reflecti vity " productis
    projected onto a Cartesian geographica l map w ith a I x I krn
    resolutio n out to 230 km or at a 4 x 4 km resolution out to
    460 km . The dat a are obtained eve ry 5 minutes in severe
    we ather mod e, every 6 minutes in precipitation mode, and
    every 10 minutes in clear air mod e.

    Meteorolo gi cal Data

    Daily weather in urban environments affects people.


    schools, businesses, telecommunication, and tran sportation
    systems. Great expense has gone into the development of
    near real-time monitoring of fronta l systems, temperature,
    precipitation, and especiall y severe sto rm-warning sys tems.
    Th ese imp ortant meteorological parameters are monitored
    almost excl usive ly by sophisticated a irborne and groundbased remote sens ing systems. For examp le, two Ge os tatio nary Operati onal Env ironmental Satellites (GO ES) are
    positioned at 35,790 km above the equator in geo-synchronou s o rbit s. GOES West obtains information about the western United States and is parked at 135 west lon gitude.
    GOES East obtains information about the Caribbean and
    eastern United States and is parked at 75 west longitude.
    Every day millions of people wat ch the pro gr ess of fronta l

    Hi gh spat ia l resolution (5 - 30 m) day- and nighttim e thermal infrared data may be used to obta in deta iled qua ntitative
    spatial information on the urban heat island effect (La et al,
    1997). Landsat 7 Enhanced Th em at ic Mapper Plu s, with its
    60 x 60 m spatia l resolution and A STE R w ith its 90 x 90 m
    spatial resolution are parti cu larl y useful. Th e sp atial informati on can then be used to de velop "g reening" campaignsto
    ame liorate the urban heat island effect,

    Urban Hydrology

    Civil and hydrologic eng inee rs and urban planners constantly require up to date information about urban hydrology. Two useful measur em ent s that can be rem otely sensed
    inc lude impervious surface area and floodpla in del ineation.

    an Hydrology

    499

    Ext ra ction of Imperviou s Surface In form ati on

    a. USGS NAPP digital orthopho to I x 1 m (red band) .

    h. Extraction of impervious surface material s.

    Fig ure 13-49 Impervious surface s were extra cted from U.S.G.S. 1 x I III Nation al Aerial Photography Program (NAP P) colorinfrared digital o rthophoto quarter quad (DOQO) imagery of an area in Nort h Ca rolina [courtesy Tom Tribble and
    Frank Obusek: North Carolina Center for Geog raphic Information and Ana lysis; Jensen and Hodgson (20 04 )].

    pervious Surface Mapping

    mpervious surfaces such as asphalt. concrete. and build ing


    eof materials keep precipitation from percola ting into the
    ground. The greater the amount of impervious surface mate"a\ in a watershed. the greater the runoff and the higher the
    ak flow of tributaries that collect the increased runoff, Sigificant work has been con ducted to deve lop methods to
    xtract impervious surface information from remote sensor
    ata. Impervious surfaces such as parking lots, highways,
    buildings. etc. ca n be readily iden tified on large scale remote
    ,sensor data using the fundamenta l eleme nts of image interf,retion. In addition, the spectra l charac teristics of selected
    .impervious surface materials can be co llected and used to
    train digi tal image processing prog rams to automatically
    identify impervious surface cove r and quantify its extent
    [Ridd, 1995). For exa mple. Figure 13-49 demonstra tes how
    U.S. Geol ogical Survey National Aerial Photography Program (NAPP) I x 1 m orthophotograph y was used to extract
    impervious surfaces associated with a large mall in North
    Carolina (Jens en and Hodgson. 2004).
    Impervious surfaces can be inventoried most accuratel y
    using mu ltispectral remote sensor data that has a spatial resolution of 0.25 - 10m (Ridd, 1995; Ji and Jensen. 1999;

    Jensen et al., 2005ab). Urbanization is taking place at a rapid


    pace in many countries (Jen sen et al., 2002). It is necessary
    to collect impervious surface information every one to fiv~
    years in such environments (Table 13-1).

    Floodp lain Delineation

    The geogra phic extent of floodplain s can be identified using


    multispectral remote sensor data in conjunction with digital
    terrain model (DTM) information derived from terrest rial
    surveyi ng. soft-copy photogramm ctry, L1 DA R or IFSA R.
    Vegetation cover and soil associations are often in transition
    at the floodplain boundary. Therefore, it is possible to utilize
    mu ltispectral data to identify changes in vegetation type or
    soi l association and use this information in conjunction wit h
    elevation and slope data to identify the boundary of the
    floodplain.
    Multispectral or hypersp ectra l remote sensor data with a
    spat ial resolution of 1 - 30 m is usually sufficient for floodplain delineat ion when used in conj unction with elevation
    data. In dynamic areas . floodplain delineat ion should be
    upda ted every one to live years (Table 13-1).

    CHAPTE R

    500

    Critical Environmental Area Assessment

    Urban/suburban environments often include very sensitive


    areas such as wetlands. endangered-species habitat, parks,
    land surro unding treatment plants, and the land in urban ized
    watersheds that provides the runoff for potable drinking
    water. Rel atively stable sensitive environments o nly need to
    be monitored every one to two years using a multispectral
    remote senso r co llec ting I - 10 m data. For extremel y critica l areas that cou ld change rapidly, multi spe ct ral remote
    sensors (incl uding a therma l infrared band) should obta in ::
    0.25 - 2 m spatial resolution data every one to six months
    (E hlers et a l., 200 3).

    Disaster Emergency Response

    The Federal Emergency Managem ent Age ncy (part of the


    U.S. Departme nt of Hom eland Sec urity) is ut ilizi ng rem ote
    sensing data as it co nducts the Multi- Hazard Flood Map

    .- 13

    Remote Sensing the Urban Landscape

    captured in digital frame imagery in Figure 13-50c.lftle


    terrain is shrouded in clouds. imaging radar often provids
    the mo st useful information . Post-disa ster images are registered to the predisaster image s, and manual and digital
    change detection takes place (Jense n, 200 5). If precise.
    quantitative information about damaged housing stock. disrupted transportation arteries. the flow of spilled materials.
    and damage to aboveground utilities are required, it is advis
    able to acquire post-di saster 0.25 - I m panchromatic and
    near-infrared data within one to two days. Such infonnatioo
    were indispens able in assess ing damages and allocating
    scarce cleanup resources .
    Mayors and governors o ften use pre- and post-disaser
    remote sensor data to obtain a rapid assessment of the devastation. For example. before and after tsunami images ofBandAceh and Gleebruk, Indonesia, revea l destro yed homes.
    washed-out road s and bridges. and deforestation (Figure Il
    5 1). When this information is correlated with the parcel
    property va lue stored in a G IS for the same square km. a
    quantitative do llar damage asse ssment can be made. which
    is indispe nsable w hen requesting disaste r assistance.

    Observations

    Modernizati on program. This includes mapping and analyzing data for all types of hazards. T he program require s geo detic co ntrol, aerial image ry. elevat ion, surface water extent
    and other thematic data wh ich are used to produce dig ital
    !lood map s and other hazard-related products. A ll data are
    serve d via the Geospatial One-Stop portal and The National
    Map ( Low e, 2003; FEMA, 2006).
    Floodi ng (e .g., Mississippi River in 1993; Rhine and
    Danube in 1993), hurricanes (e.g., Hugo in 1989 ; Andrew in
    1991; three in Florida in 2004; Katrina in 2005), tornadoes
    (every yea r). fires, tanker spills, earthquakes (e.g., Saugus,
    CA, in 197\; Nort hridge, CA , in 1994 ), and the 2004 Indian
    Ocea n tsunamis demon strated that a rectified, predisaster
    remote sensing image database is indispens able (Jensen and
    Hodgson , 2006). The predisaster data only needs to be
    updated every one to five years. However, it should be high
    spatial resolu tion (I - 5 m) mu ltispectral data if possible
    (Je nsen and Co we n, 1999) .

    \\'hen disaster strikes. high resolution (,:S 0.25 - 2 m) panchromatic and/o r near-infrared data should be acquired
    wit hin 12 hours to two days (Schweit zer and McLeod,
    199 7). For example, Figure 13-50a records the spi ll ass ociated with an overturned tanker truck immediately after an
    accident. Aeri al photography acqui red immediately after the
    letha l Sau gus, CA, February 1971 earthq uake is shown in
    Figure 13-50b. Torn ado damage nea r Mec han icsville, NY, is

    Table 13- 1 and Figure 13-2 reveal that there are a numberof
    remote sensing system s that currently provide some of the
    desired urban/socioeconomic information when the required
    spatial reso lut ion is poorer than 4 x 4 m and the temporal
    resolution is between I and 55 days. However, very high
    spatial resolution dat a I x J m) is required to satisfy many
    of the soci oeco nomic data requirement s. In fact. as shown in
    Figure 13-2, the only senso r that currently pro vides such
    dat a on demand is anal og or digital aerial photogra phy (0.2;
    - 0.5 m). GeoE ye 's IKO NOS , with its I x I m panch romatic
    dat a; GeoEye 's OrbView 3, with its I x I m panchromatic
    data ; and DigitalGlobe's Qu ickBird, with its 0.61 x 0.61 m
    panchromatic data, may still not satisfy all of the data
    requirements. No ne o f the sensors can provide the 5- to 60minute temporal resoluti on necessary for traffic and parking
    studies . The GOES satellite con stell ation ( East and West)
    and the European M ET EOSAT provide sufficient national
    and regiona l weather information at reasonable temporal (3
    - 25 minutes) and spatial resolution s (I - 8 km and 2.5 - ;
    km, respectively). Ground-based Nationa l Weather Service
    Weather Survei llance Radar provide s sufficient spatial resolution ( I x 1) and tempora l resolution (5 - 10 min) for pre
    cipitation and intense storm tracking in urban env ironments.

    References

    501

    a. O vertu rned tractor-t railer tanker in Alaska


    (Jensen and Coo.en. 1999 ).

    b. Aerial photograph y of collapsed spans o f a freeway near Saugus,


    CA. immediately after an eart hquake in 19 7 1. This spa n was suppo rted by pillars that could not withstand the quake.

    c. Tornado da ma ge nea r Mechan icsville . NY. Thi s is I x I ft spatial


    resolution imagery obtai ned on June I. 1998. using a d igital frame
    camera. Fire and medical rescue wo rkers arc on the scene (cou rtesy
    Litton Emerge. Inc.).

    Figure 13-50 Exam ples o f high spatia l resolut ion imagery acq uired imm edi ately afte r disasters
    using trad itional metri c aeria l photograph y (a.b) and a dig ital fra me came ra (c).

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    502

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    13

    Remote Sensing the Urban Landscape

    Ts unami Impacts at Band a Aceh and Gleebruk, Indo nes ia

    a. Qu ickB ird 60 x 60 em image of Banda Acch. Indonesia.


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    Remote Sensing of Soils, Minerals, and


    Geomorphology

    14

    riforrta-

    .nc-

    De[ape,

    a ils:

    rItify
    nvi-

    f erling

    'ing

    nly 26 percent of the Earth's surface is exposed land. The remaining 74 percent is covered by water (including inland seas. lakes, reservo irs, and rivers).
    Very few people actuall y live on boats or on structures located in water.
    Almost all of human ity lives on the terrestria l, solid Earth com prised of bedrock and the weathered bedrock we call so il. Humankind is able to obta in a
    relatively abundant harvest in certain parts of the world from this soi l. They
    arc also able to extract important minerals from the bedrock and deriva tive
    materials that we use in industrial/commercial proce sses, hopefu lly to
    improve the quality of life on Earth. It is importan t to have accurate info rmation about the location. qualit y, and abundance of soils, minerals, and rocks
    in order to conserve these often irreplaceable natural resource s.

    Bedrock is continually weathered and eroded by the combined effects of


    water. wind. and/or ice. The sands tone monolithic dome Ayers Rock in Australia is a good examp le of tilted sedimentary bedrock being weathered and
    eroded (Figure 14-1). The once buried sandstone slab was exposed to surface
    erosion approxi mately 70 million years ago. The eroded materials have been
    moved to other locations via mass transport. These unconsolidated sedimentary materials are called surfic ial deposits. Remote sensing can playa role in
    the identification, inventory. and mapping of soils that are on the surface of
    the Earth. especially when surficial soils are not covered with dense vegetation. This chapter reviews the fundamental issues associated with remote
    sensing the spectral characteris tics of soils. The impact of soil grain size,
    organic matter, and water content on soil spectral reflectance are identified.
    Remote sensing may also assist in the modeling of soil erosion. provid ing
    biophy sical information for the Universal Soil Loss Equation and other
    hydro logic models (e.g., King et al., 2005).
    Remote sensing can provide information about the chemical composition of
    rocks and minerals that are on the Earth's surface and not completely covered
    by dense vegetation. Emphasis is placed on understand ing unique absorption
    bands associated with specific types of rocks and minerals. as recorded using
    imaging spectroscopy (Dalton et al., 2004; Hook et al., 2005). In certain
    instances. remote sensing can be used to identify geobotanical relationships
    and to identify soil geochemistry or rock type (e.g.. Rowan et al., 2000) .
    The chapter concludes with an overview of how general geologic info rmation
    may be extracted from remotely se nsed data, including information on lithology. structure, drainage patterns, and geomorp hology (landforms) (Walsh et
    aI., 1998; Boceo et aI., 2005). Remote sensing data arc generally of limited
    value for detecti ng deep subsurface geologic features unless they have a surface surrogate expression that can be extrapolated to depth .

    507

    CHAPTE R

    508

    14

    Ayer s Rock (Uluru), Aust r alia

    Remote Sensing of Soils , Mine ral s , and Geomorphology

    Soi l is co mprised of so lid particles (mi nera ls and organic


    matter) of varying size an d composition that make up about
    50 percent of the so il's vo lume. So ils also contain liquidaed
    gases. A soil is characterized by one or both of the follcwing: horizons, or layers, that are disting uishable from the ieitial material as a result of add itions. losses. transfers. and
    transformations ofenergy and matter or the ability to suppon
    rooted plants in a natural environment (USDA. 2003). The
    weathered. unconsol idated organic and inorganic mineral
    material that lies on top of the bedrock shown in Figure 142 varies greatly in composition and thickness throughout the
    Earth. In the heartland of continents such as North Amen"
    it may be 25 - 300 m deep. On steep mountain slopes orin
    deserts it may be almost completely absent. Permafrost soils
    may exist in arctic climates.

    Soil Horizons

    QuickBird image obtained February 4, 2002.


    Figure 14- 1

    Ayers Rock (Ul uru in aborig ine) in Australia is a


    mono lithic slab of Arkose sandstone that rises more
    than 348 m (1,100 ft) above the desert. The once
    horizontal sedimentary slab was tilted (folded) so
    that it protrudes through the surface at an angle of
    approximately 85, It con ti nues be low the ground
    for 5 to 6 kill. Some layers of Arkose sandstone are
    less resistant than othe rs and erode more rapid ly.
    This prod uces the para llel ribs or ridges. Ayers Rock
    has an area of 3.33 sq. km with a circumference of
    9.4 krn and lies 1,395 km (538 mil south of Darwin
    (courtesy DigitalGlobe, Inc.).

    Soil C ha racterist ics a nd Taxo n o my

    Soil is unconsolidated material at the surface of the Earth


    that serves as a natural medium for growing plants. Plant
    roots reside within this material and extract water and nutrients. Soil is the weathered material between the atmosphere
    at the Earth's surface and the bedrock be low the surface to a
    maximum depth of approximately 200 em (USDA, 1998). A
    mature, fertile soil is the product of centuries of physica l and
    chemical wea thering of roc k. combined with the addit ion of
    decaying plants and other organic matter (Loynachan et al.,
    1999). Soi l is essential to the Eart h's life-support system o n
    the land . Agronom ists refer to th is as the solum,

    Biological, chem ica l, and physical processes crea te vertical


    zonat ion w ith in the upp er 200 em o r so of so ils in which
    there is co mparative ly free mov eme nt of gravity water and
    gro undwa ter ca pillary moistu re . T his res ults in the creation
    of relat ively ho rizontal layers, or soil horizons. There are
    several sta ndard hori zon s in a typi cal so il profile situated
    abov e the bed rock. incl uding (F igure 14-2) 0, A, E, B, C. R,
    and It: that may be disting uishab le from one another based
    o n their co lor (hue, val ue, chroma), tex ture, and chemical
    properties (USDA, 1998; 2003).
    The epipedon (G reek epi, over, upon and pedon. soil) is a
    horizo n that forms at or near the surface and in wh ich most
    of the roc k structure has been destroyed (USDA, 2003). The
    humus-ric h topsoil, or 0 horizon , in the epipedon contains
    more than 20 percent partially decayed organic matter, Thus,
    it is a complex mixture of inorganic soil particles and decaying organic matter. 0 horizon soils typically have a dark
    brown or even black surface layer ranging in thickness from
    a few centimeters to several meters in areas where dense
    plant cover exists. This horizon is created by the interaction
    of water, other chemicals. heat. organic material. and air
    among the soil particles. Plant root systems extract much of
    their water and nutrients from within this "zone of life"
    (Marsh an d Dozier. 198 1).
    The A horizon is a zone ofelnviation or leaching formed at
    the sur face or be lov..' an 0 horizon. where water moving up
    an d down in the so il co lum n leaches out m inera ls in solution
    (ions) and clay co lloids from within the soi l and relocates
    them to other hor izons be low. A hori zons exh ibit ob literation
    of a ll or much of the or igina l rock structu re. In a humid (wet)

    Soil Cha racte ris t ics and Taxonomy

    nie

    -'-- .:0 h'ori ~on -'-c

    w-

    nd
    o rt
    he
    ra l

    4-

    tion o r irrigation. Here the materials may be deposited in the

    Soil Pro file

    ut
    nd
    01 -

    509

    Zoneof {

    Eluviation
    c>

    Zone of {
    Iliuviation

    he

    A I
    :
    :':' ::A '
    :
    ,
    .
    .
    . ' - } ..
    ..
    ..
    :'f:
    -: B I '.;., co

    ~~

    '00-'0(--

    in

    Humus-rich
    Fine-text ured humus
    Light -colored
    I

    nineral particles

    .~

    -.

    o.

    Colloid accumulation;
    Transition to subsoil

    <:>

    'yIrk
    )m

    se
    on

    air
    f

    at
    up
    on

    :es
    on
    er)

    unweathered bedrock (R) below and the deve loping so il

    '..0 ; -:::...

    ~Q:.:,: -

    the so il. The water ma y be permanently frozen (W/l or not


    permanently frozen ( IV).

    Soil Grain Size and Texture

    ~I m

    \'"T

    Bedrock

    A standard soil profile as defined by the U.S. Departmentof Agriculture. The major soil horizonsare
    0, A, E. B. C. situated on top of bedrock, R. The 0
    horizon contains partially decayed organic matter.

    Subhorizonsare transitional to and between the horizons (U .S. Department of Agriculture. 1998).

    a
    st
    he
    Ins
    us,

    material is co mmonly subj ected to physical and chemica l

    minerals weathered
    ';::... . . : . ~ ~~ :'i-:.; ,~,,:. from bedrock

    :.. :.:
    :";-n':i.'~}r
    .-::"
    ~r !5--

    Figure 14-2

    The C horizon is simply weathered parent material. lying


    below the B horizon. Mo st are mineral layers. Th e parent

    above. Sometimes there is a water layer within or beneath

    c::J (/

    are
    t ed
    R,
    ed
    al

    interparti cle air spaces become clogged. cementing the par-

    Sub soil; usua lly a


    depo sit but may be

    IOn

    can collect such a mass of colloids and minerals that the

    weathering from frost action, roots, plant acids. and other


    agents. In some cases, the C horizon is transitional between

    ::'"T-:- ;:):7::' -'

    ils

    rich in clay an d is co lo red red or ye llow by iron o xide s


    (Loynachan et aI., 1999). Over tim e, the zo ne of illu viation

    ticles together. This can lead to the development of an


    impervious hardpan .

    ~= B}~6 hardpan likely


    -C:::::-<;:""".:-i...::::.:.-:,
    cr--,
    _= . ~ B3

    lea,

    B horizon, the zone of illuviation. This layer is commonly

    The average diameter of grains ofsoil in a soil horizon is one


    of the major variab les used to identify the taxon omy of a

    soil. There are three universally recognized soil grain size


    cla sses : sand, silt, and clay. Figure 14-3 identi fies three different scales used to classify soil particles based on their
    d iam eters. The U.S. Department of Ag riculture sca le is
    (Loynac han et al ., 1999):
    Sand: a} so il particle between 0.05 and 2,0 mm in

    diameter; b) soil composed ofa large fraction of sa nd-s ize


    climate, clay minerals, ironoxides, and dissolved calcite are
    usually moved downward. Th is leac hi ng may ca use the A
    horizon to be pale and sandy, but the uppermost part is ot\en
    darkened by humu s (decomposed plant material) that co llects at the top of the so il. The A hori zon so ils may be influ-

    enced by cultivation or animal pasturing in agricultural


    environments.

    particles.
    Si lt: a} soil part icle between 0.002 and 0.05 mm in
    dia meter; b} soil, composed of a large fraction of silt-s ize
    part icle s.
    Clay : a} soil particle < 0.002 mm in equ ivalent di am eter;
    b) so il that has propert ies dominated by cla y-size particl es.

    Sometimes an E horizon exists between the zone of eluviation (A horizon) and the zone of illuviation (B horizon). E

    Sand, silt, and cla y- si ze particles play different ro les in the

    horizons have min era l layers in which the main feature is the
    loss of silicate clay, iron, aluminum, or some combination of
    these materials, leaving a concentration of sand and silt par-

    soil formation process. Soil particles with sand-size diametersenhance soil dra inage because water can percolate freely
    in the large air spaces between the large soil particles. Conversely, silt and clay-size soil particles enhance the move-

    ticles. All or much of the original rock structure is usually

    obliterated in an E horizon.

    ment and rete ntion of so il capillary water. The very sma ll


    cla y-si ze soil particle s carry electrical charges that attract
    and hold minute particles of dis solved m ineral s (ions) such

    The downward movement of ions and colloids in the soil


    often terminates at a certain location in the soil column

    as potassium and calcium. Because the ions are attached to

    where the upward pressure of capillary groundwater offsets


    that of the perc olating g ra vity wa ter from surfac e precipita-

    the clay particles , they are not readily wa shed awa y. Thus.
    some clay in a soi l hori zon helps to mainta in soi l fertil ity by

    510

    CHAPTE R

    14"

    .Remote Sensing of Soils, Minerals, and Geomorphology

    a. So il Scien ce Society of Am erica a nd U.S. Department of Agr icul tu re Soil P a rticle Size Scale
    Sa nd

    Silt

    Clay
    0.002

    Grave l

    0.05 0.1 0.25 0.5

    .!.

    ..

    2 mm
    Particle size re lative
    to a gra in of sand
    0. 15 mm in diam et er

    S ilt

    Clay. -:

    76.2

    Sand
    b. MIT and British Standa rds In st itu te
    Silt

    C lay

    coarse

    fine

    0.002

    Sand

    0.006

    0.02

    0.06

    G rav e l

    coarse

    fin e

    0.2

    0.6

    Stones

    2 01m

    c. International Society of Soil Science


    Clay

    0.002
    Figu re 14 -3

    San d

    Silt

    fine

    0.02

    I
    0.2

    Grave l

    coarse

    2 mm

    Th ree soil particle size scales: a) Soi l Sc ience Socie ty of Ame rica. b) Massac husetts Institute of Technology and British Standards Institute. and c) International Society of Sa il Science scale (after Marsh and Dozier, 1981; Loynachan et al.. 1999).

    (tundra soils), Histosols (organic soils), Inceptisols (young


    soi ls). Mo llisols (pra irie soils). Oxisols (tropica l soils), Spodosols (forest soi ls). Ult iso ls (low- nutrient so ils), and Vertisols (swe lling-clay soils). Add itiona l dichotomous keys
    a llow the sc ient ist to classi fy the soil into Sub orders, Great
    Gro ups, Subg ro ups, Fami ly Level, and Soil Se ries.

    retaining nutrient -ric h potassium, calci um, and other disso lved m ineral s (Marsh and Dozier. 198 1).
    Soi l horizo ns conta in various pro portion s of sand, silt, and
    clay-size particles. Soil texture is the relative proportion of
    sand, silt, and c lay in a soi l. A typical soi l's texture is the percentage in 'weight of part icles in various size classes. The
    USDA soil-texture tria ngle sho wn in f igure 14-4 ident ifies
    the pe rcentages of sand, silt, and clay, co mprising standard
    so il types. For exa mple, a loam soi l found in the lower center
    of the diagram consists of 40 pe rcent sand. 40 percent silt.
    and 20 percent clay. If a so il has a greater co ncentration of
    sand - say, 60 percent - and 10 percent clay and 30 percent
    silt, it is ca lled a san dy loa m so il, etc.

    Soil Tax onomy

    We no longer identify a "soil type." Rather, soil sc ientists


    dete rm ine the soil taxonomy (Petersen , 1999). Keys to Soil
    Taxonomy have bee n used by the USDA Na tural Resour ces
    Co nservat ion Service (US DA, 2003) since 1975 to qual itative ly and qu antitat ive ly differentiate between soil taxa. T he
    hig hest category of the U.S. Soi l Taxono my is Soil Order.
    Eac h order refl ects the dominan t soil-form ing processes and
    the degree of soil forma tion. Th e 12 domin ant U.S. So il
    Orders are: Alfiso ls (hig h-nutrie nt so ils). An d isols (vo lcan ic
    soils), Aridisols (desert soils), Entiso ls (new soils). Gelisols

    ..,

    The So il Taxonom y is a re latively co mplex syste m based on


    the use of elimi nation dichoto mous keys that allow the soil
    sc ientist to eva luate various cha racte ristics in a soil profile,
    incl uding soil color (hu e, valu e. chroma), soil-texture class,
    moisture conten t, bulk density, poro sity. and ch em istry. For
    exa mple, the first entry into the Key to So il Ord ers is, Docs
    the so il have I) perma frost with in 100 cm of the soil surface,
    or 2) ge lic materi als wit hin 100 em of the so il surface and
    permafrost within 200 cm of the soil surface? If it does. it is
    a Gel isol. If it does not, the ana lyst then prog resses through
    the dichotom ous key until he or she find s that the soil meets
    a ll the co nditions identified.

    Remote Sensing of Soil Properties

    From the previo us discussion it is c lear tha t most of the


    inform ation used by so il sc ient ists to map a so il series in a

    511

    Rem ole S ensing of 5011 Propertie s

    where.

    100

    Lp : Thi s is the porti on of the recorded radiance resu lting


    from the downwe lling solar (E"m) and sky (E,,,,,) radiation
    that neve r actually reache s the so il sur face. This is
    un want ed atm ospheric path rad iance no ise and sho uld
    idea lly be remo ved from the imagery pr ior to trying to
    ex tract inform at io n about surficia l soils or minerals.

    30

    L. Som e of the do wnw e lling so lar an d sky radiation


    reaches the air-so il interface (boundary! layer) and
    f

    20Y-

    penetrates it approximatel y 1/2 wavelen gth ( A) deep into


    the so il. If the major wavelength of light being
    inves tiga ted is green light . the dep th of penetrati on into the
    so il co lumn wo uld be approxi ma te ly 0.275 urn (i.e., 1/2 of
    0.55 urn), The a mo unt of rad iant flux exi ting the soi l
    co lumn based on the reflectio n and scatteri ng taking place
    at th is depth is L.f The characteristics of the so il o rganic
    matter (decomposed veget ation o r animal materi al) and
    ino rganic (mineral) con stituents and the amo unt o f so il
    moisture present have a signilicant im pact on the amount
    of energy ab sorbed , sca tte red. and/o r reflected from this
    surfic ia l port ion of the soil/rock matrix. Figure 14-5a
    depi ct s a so il with well-develop ed 0 and A hori zon s. It is
    likely that most of the energy rell ected fro m th is soil w ill
    be rep resen tative of the constituents of the 0 hor izon . As
    the amount of humu s (o rga nic matter) dimin ish es. the
    sur face reflectance will be more representative of the
    characteristics of the A hori zon (Figur e 14-5b). If both the
    and A hori zon s are almost non existent, as shown in
    Figure 14-5c, the surface re flectance may be a functio n of
    the weath ered subso il (regolith) or even the bedrock ifi t is
    co mple te ly ex posed. as on a stee p mountain slope .

    -(
    sandy

    loam

    90

    ..

    Fig ure 14-4

    80

    70

    60

    10

    Sand (%)

    Percentages of clay 0.002 mm ), silt (0.002 - 0.05

    an-

    mm ), and sand (0.05 - 2.0 mm ) in the basic soil-tex tural ciasses (USDA, 1998).

    ng

    region is obtai ned by direct ob servation in the field. It is


    essential that subs ur face so il profiles be examined and ca reful bio logical, chemical, and ph ysica l me asur emenls be
    obtained with in each soi l hori zon. Thu s, it is not reali stic to
    expect rem ote se nsi ng to be a universal pana cea that can be
    used to perform soi l taxa mapping witho ut in situ data col lection. Rath er. we shou ld und erstand that under cert ain conditions it is po ssible for rem otel y sensed data to be of value
    10 the soi l sc ientist as he or she collects a ll the pertinent
    materia l necessary to per form acc urate so il classifi cati on . In
    fact, man y soil sc ientists tind that remote ly sense d ima ges of
    the terrain und er investigation are essen tia l to the so il mapping proce ss (Petersen , 1999). Fortunately, so me soil property characteristics may be measured remotel y under idea l
    conditions.

    0-

    ISS.

    'or
    es

    ce,
    nd
    is
    gh
    ets

    be

    For examp le, opti cal remote sensing instrum ents such as
    aerial photograph y, multisp ectral scanners, and hyp erspectral remo te senso rs ca n reco rd the spe ct ral refle ctance characteristics of the surface properties of soils if they are not
    totally obscured by de nse multiple-story shrubs or tree s with
    their coal esc ing ca no pies . Th eo ret ically, the tota l up well ing
    radiance from an ex posed soi l reco rded by the sensor
    onboard the aircraft or sate llite. Lt. is a function of the electromag net ic energy from the sources ident ified in Figure 145 and summa rized as

    a
    L =L+L +L
    1
    P
    s
    v

    (14 -1)

    L ~. :

    Some of the incident do wn welling so lar and sky


    radiation ma y be abl e to penetrate perhaps a few
    mi llimeters or even a centimeter o r two into the soil
    column. This may be re ferred to as volume scattering , L\~
    Unlike water (refer to Chapter 12), how eve r, there may be
    very litt le vo lumetri c visible, near- and mid dle- infrared
    rad iant Ilux exit ing the so il profi le fro m any appreciable
    depth . In fact, a lmost a ll the sp ec olar boundary layer
    rellec ta nce (L,) and volum etric scattering (L ,.) may take
    place in the firs t few millimeters of the soi l profile, The
    amou nt of vo lume tric rad iant flux scattered or reflected
    back into the atmosphere is a fun ct ion of the wavelength of
    incident energy (i.e., lo nger wa ve lengt h active microwave
    energy may penet rate fart her into the soil, as has been
    demon strated in the Sa hara), the rype and amount of
    o rga nic/ ino rga nic co nstitue nts. the shape and den sity of
    the minerals, the de gree of m inera l compac tion, and the
    amo unt of so il mo isture pr esent. Figures 14-5b ,c suggest

    C'H \ I" It.R

    512

    Downwel ling
    Sun a nd Sky
    lrradrance

    14

    ' ['o tal


    R ~ d j J1K'C

    I., .. I p ... I.s +

    A horizon

    1' 1>

    R florilon

    a Soi l with w ell-de-..eloped


    () anc.! A horilllih.

    b. Th in 0 oonlCln O\'eT less


    de vd llpo..'l.1 A an d B horizon s.

    thai as the 0

    horizon hcCOO1 t:S less \\ ct t-d ev e lo ped.


    perha ps more incident cnl"Il!Y interacts wi th the so il
    particl es in the A horizon ( Figure 14-5b) or even the
    subsoi l an d bed roc k (Fig ure 14-5e ).
    ,11e goal of mos t soil and mi neral re mote se nsin g is In
    ext ract the radiance of interest from all till: othe r ra di ance
    co mpo nents being recorded oy the sens or sys te m. For CX:1 mpie. the scicuusr interested in identify ing the orgamc a nd
    inorgan ic (mine ral] ccn-ritucnt- in th e very rep layers o f the
    soi l profile is most co nce rne d With measuring the int egrated
    spect ral response ofthe surface and subs urface radian ce. i.e.,
    L, and i;
    =

    "

    L, -I./, .

    ( 14-2 )

    T his inv olves carefu l radi om et ric correction o f the remote


    sensor data to rem ove urmosphcric uncnu ution (L r,). Ideally
    we could di senta ngl e the indi vidual contribu tion o f L, and L"
    to rhc re flected rad iant n ux. Un tortuna tcly. this is diffi cult.
    and usuall y we m ust be co nte nt ana lyzing an inte gration
    (summ ation) o f these two radiance consuruems. Nevenhcless. it is possible to make some gene-ral observations about
    ho w surficial soi ls appe ar in rem ot e se nsor data base d o n
    the ir spect ral re flectan ce properties .

    The spectral reflectance characteristics of soi ls arc a fun ction of

    c . Very thin 0 horizon OWl


    subsotl and weathered bedroc k,

    So ils and rocks receive irradia nce from Ilk' Sun j_' and atmosphere (E.. ,). Tbe [,lI.al radiance U p \\ c!ling from a soil'rod
    maIm. toward the I"C'fJU>!t' '<:l1sor is a funcuon of radiance (rolll unwanted all11<"'rM1C scauenng (L,. ). a substantial amounld
    rad iance (L.) relk ...'1,'d Of scattered from the upper surface ofthc !>Oil/rod .. matrix (arrmx;maldy 1/2 wavelengt h deep). a!i1ll3ll
    amount otsubsurtace \ olume rric radiance (L, and a \ ''''1') small amount (,fr6ltianc\' from ~Un...."qlk.'fll soi l fOCI. SUbStr1lle.

    Figu re 14 -5

    I., + L

    Remole Sensi ng of Solis, Mineral s, and Geom orph ology

    several nnp orram chara cteri stic s. includin g:

    soute vture tpercenrage (If san d. silt. and cl ay )


    soil moistu re content Ic.g., d ry. mo ist. satu ra ted !

    organic m atter comcm


    iron-o xide content
    soil salinuy
    surface roug hn ess.

    Gene rally, a Ilry soilrhar contains al most no orga nic malta


    exhibits a rela tiv ely si m ple. less co mplex s pe ctral reflecta nce curve tha n those asso ci at ed wit h terrestrial vcgeiaiioe
    \Ch apl er I I ) or algae-laden water bodi es (Chapte r 12). Fot
    e xample. Figure 14- 6 depi ct s la b spcctroradiomctcr reflertauce of dry s ilt an d tlry sand so ils. T his dem o nstrates one nl
    the mo st consi stent characteristics of dry so ils : inclt'Il.llng

    lI'ith I/lCl1'<I.I'IlIg wavelength, e,'p"dally ill the vis1M", near- "lid middh'-il!(ror"d port 10m of the .lpe rlMlm,
    "PC('/(// I<'t'

    How ev er. as a sol! ga ins mo is ture . and/or add itional organic


    co ntent or iron ox id e. its s pe ctral response may de part from
    the sim p le c urve. l'hcrefor e, it is useful to review how these
    parameters influence th e spccuul res punsc of' surflcial soils,
    A goal of remot e se ns ing is to d isentangle the spectral
    response record ed from a sur ficial soil and be able III identify the proporti ons and/or lnf'lucncc o f the charac teristics
    ""ithin the m stnntancouv field of view o f the sens or system.

    $oil Texrure and Moisture Content

    There is a re lations hip be tween the size of the so il panicles


    fo und in a m ass o t'soil Ie.g . m ~l an d the a moun t of moisture
    that the soil ca n store. Figure 1-I-7a depic ts several theoreu-

    513

    Remote Se n s ing of S oli Prope rlles

    '"

    10

    O'-!---+--+--+--+--+--io.s

    06 lJ.1

    0.11

    f)Q

    1,0

    I I

    dry

    l -+--+---+-

    1-1

    1-1

    soil

    15

    '" .,ek:'nl!tb llotml

    'roc k

    nt of

    mall

    alter
    fle eIlion
    For

    nee-

    1('

    of

    sill~

    \'is-

    FIgure 14 -6

    I" <1m "f'IJ1lI'3diomctl:f reflectance curves for dl)


    Mil and sand wlb. Reflectance ~~'llcrally increases
    Wi lh increas ing wan-length lhrol,l~houl the- \ isit>le.
    rk;ar- and r mddlc -mfrarcd portions of lh<.' spectrum.

    cal grains of sand. Incid ent rad ian t n ux may be re flec ted
    from the surface of the sa nd grai ns y ielding specular reneeranee. o r the incident energy lIlay penetrate so me d istanc e
    Into the sand particle , T he enL'rgy may then be absorbed by
    the panicle and turne d into heat e nergy or exn the pa rticle
    and he scanercd or a bsorbe d by other part icles. The void
    between the soil part icles is called rhc iml'nlilia! a ir Sp llc{.
    The tota l refle cta nce per wavel ength (e.g .. blue, gree n. red.
    rear-infrar ed light) for a givc u dr y soi l w ith no organ ic conlent and no iron ox ides is u func tion of the ave rage of both
    the soil specular I~P<'{'/('I/ I"WI~'V from the soil part icle su rraces and the .,,,il m /,/ lIIt' rctlectance laking place due to
    internal scnttcriug.

    anic

    hesc
    oil s.
    nral
    fensties

    c lcs
    Me

    reu-

    interst itial
    mr "pace

    TIle finer clay soils have pa rticles that arc pac ked very
    closely to on e another, TIll' interst itial air spaces between the
    soi l part icles are very smal l. tonv ersely, sand pa rticles arc
    very large and contain re lat ively large imcr stuia l air spaces.
    When p rec ipitation occurs o r ground werer rises into the soi l
    horizon. the indi vidunl panicles may become surrounded by
    a thin me mb rane of capillary water . w ater may also occupy
    the interstitial ai r spaces (Figure 14 -7h ), The densely packed
    clayey soil. "' ith each III' its small pa rtic les ho ld ing a mem brane o f water aro und it. ca n ho ld a m-mcudo us amount of
    ....ater, Conwrscly. "-lndy sorts with thei r significa ntly larger
    ~il pa rticle s an d large air spaces I ) d rain much mo re rapidl y
    than clayey so ils and 2 ) arc d ried out much more rap idly by
    evapora tion tha n the cl ayey so ils. So w h. ndoes th is hav e to
    do wit h the spec tral re flec tance ch aracte ristics of soils?
    Basically, the amount of moisture he ld in the surfici al soi l

    - - ~ specu lar refl ectance

    volume reflecta nce

    specular
    refl ect an ce

    ~,

    -,

    , -,

    h.
    Frgure 14-7

    '1//1/ ,

    10m

    a.

    a ) lncidem radian t ener gy may be reflec ted from


    the surfac e otthc dry soil, or it may penetrate inlo
    the ~"i1 particles. where nmay be absorbed or scatrcrcd. The 1,lt,rI reflectance leaving the soil is a

    function nft he specular reflectance and the internal


    volu me rclketanee. b)

    A~

    soil mois ture Incre ases.

    each part ide may he encapsulated with a thin membrane of capillary water, The intcrstuial spcccs may
    also lill with water. The greater the amount uf water
    in the soil. the greater the absorption of inci dent
    clectromagncnc energy and the lower the so il reIlcctancc.

    layer is a fun ction ofthe sou te xture . Th e finer the soil re xlure. tho: g reater the so il's abilit y 10 ma intain a high mo isture
    con ten t in the presenc e of prec ipitat ion . The greater the so il

    514

    14

    C1IAl'n:R

    "'

    Remote Sens ing 01Soils. Minerals . an d Geomo rpho logy

    urn and deepens the ahsllrption around the watcr-ahsorpriee


    bands. \,jot ice. hOl\l" l'T, that the wa ter-ahsorpt jon bands
    appea r to he much more acnvc. This is becau se clay ey soils
    with their line soil te xture manage to hold mo re moisture in
    the upper portionofthe soi l horizon, which allows the moisture to ab sorh so me of the incident radian t flux, creating sig"
    mncam dip s in and arou nd the wate r-absorption hands.

    Sand

    22-J~

    Exp..-ricnccd image analysts kno.... that remote sensor data of


    exposed sod surfaces ob tained attcr a major p recipil.uim
    0. 7

    0 .9

    II

    1.7

    L'J

    2. 1

    2.3

    2.5

    ~
    o

    50

    ~
    , .lll

    ~ \11

    e vent such as a thu nderstorm or prolonged fron tal al-1iut)


    w ill be noticeably '/<lrJ.er than if thc image:I)' was acquired
    attcr man y J 4 ) S .... uhout precipitation. This is because the
    water in thl' sur ficia l soil absorbs much of the incident radian t e nl'Tg). l-'p.."t:ia lly in the visib le and near-infrared port i oll~ of the spectrum . re,ulting in I~j radiance C',iting
    towa rd the sensor sys tem.

    211

    ~ lfI

    "t~+-+--+-+-':::+--+---.!\o:::::;:::::::;::::::F
    0 5 0.7 'PI
    I I U
    17 1.<J 2.1 1.3 2.5
    I.~

    1,\~, ,,kngl h'l! nl J

    Rgure 148

    Higher 1Il<11sl11 rt' content in sandy (a l and clayl."y soil


    (1. resu lts in dec rease d r.:n ccl.;tncl: throughou t th...
    ns ihlt:' and nca r-in frared region. c spoxia lly in Illc
    wawr-absorpu on OOIHJ!o al 1.4, 1.'J. and 2.7 um

    (I!c>fT.'r. I'm q,

    moisture. the more incident radian t energy absorbed and the


    less reflec ted c:ncrgy.

    T his is dcmonsr ratcd for sa ndy soils wim liule surfa ce vegetat ion in Figure 14-lo: a. T he dry slInd ) so il has a relat ively
    simple. incn:asing vpcci ral ft'spon sc lhrollgho ut the region
    from 0.5 ::U' um. However, us soil mo istu re incre ases. lhe
    water in the upper few ce nti mete rs o f the soil begins 10
    selec tively absorh , igni fl cnnt ;1I1111U I11, o f incident e nergy in
    the wa ter-abso rption hands at 1.4, 1.9. a nd 2.7 um . The soi l
    mois ture a lso lIh~(lrhs more incident radiant energy in the
    spec tral regio ns aJj.l<.:cnt to these abs o rption bands. The
    resu lt is:l muc h more complex spe ctral response', wi th charactensric dips in the reflect ance curve at the I.... 1.9 , and 2.7
    11 m atmospheric water-a bsorption bands . A lso lill ie that the
    amoun t of reflected green. red. nca r- a nd middle-i nfrared
    radia nt enC'rgy i~ dr amatically reduce d as the mois ture co ntent inc rea ses .
    Th is same rclatitln~h ill ho lds li,r c1a)ey "Oils as demon stra ted in Figu re 14gb. where increased moisture in the
    uppcr few centimetc r.- (If the so il dampens the em ire spec tral
    rcspt'nsc thw ughout the I\a\ekngth internl from 0.5 - 2.0

    If hig h spec tra l and radiome tric resohnion sensors are available. it may I'C possible to differentia te be tween soil s with
    different so il textures. Th ill is because almost all soils that
    have il modcr.ue to large proportion o f clay-s ize panicles
    nhihit strong h.n /m.\}-t uhsurpfioll funds at approximately
    1.4 and 2.2 urn. The spectral response of the sandy soil m
    Figu re l.f-Sa was not influ enced by the hyd roxyl abso rption
    band at 2.2 11m .... boreas the spectral res po nse of the clayey
    soilm f-igure 14-Xh exhibited sip mflcn m absorption at both
    1.-1 and 2.21J.1ll. or CI1Urse. it i ~ only possib le to d ifferentiate
    between the clayey und sill's:mdy soil te xture ch aracteristics
    i f the su ils arc almost dry and con tain very lill ie organic matrc r rh.n could mask the rel ationship. and the se nsor is sensitive to wry specific wavelength i ntervals (c .g. centered at
    1.4 and 2.2 11 m ). Ch abrillar et a1. (2002 ) mapped ex pansive
    da y soi ls {smectite, illite. and kaoli nite) a long. the Colorado
    fnuu ran ge using hypcrs pcc tral da ta and the inforrnauen
    found ill the: ab sorption hands in the 1(100 - 240n nm spectral
    reg ion. Okin anti Puinrcr (2004 ) used hyper-spectra l data III
    map the sp;lIia l di stribution o f sand gra in size ( from 1.010
    0.2 m ill ) in ...... indhlown abnudoncd ag ricultu ral fie lds in a
    de sert envi ron ment. Th ey found tha t the larger the gra in size,
    the tower the short-wave infrared reflectance, especia lly in
    the Tcg i()n~ centered on 1.7 a nd 2.2 u rn,
    It is als o poss ible h I .11 ffe rennatc between some soil textures
    using active microw ave (1-li\D:\ R) backscatter cba racrcrslies. Fur exam ple. the 19ltl ~ i\S A Sh uttle Imag ing Radar
    miss ion (S IR-AI missinn revealed buried river channels
    beneath the: sand of the Sa ha ra t J\. IcC au lcy c t a l.. 19X2)(Fig
    ur..: 9-2 1l. Riv..: r (' hann d !i appea red as dark. dendritic patte m ~ in L ha nd t2.f em ) image-s, and sand-covered bedrock
    returned a bright radar s ig nal. Th e r.ltlar signa ls .... ere able to
    penetrate up to 1- 2 III Il l" ,"CI)- dT) sand to ret urn a sigo.al

    515

    Remote Sensing 01Soil Pro perties

    R N ' d on these relano nvhips . Ch en cr a l. (2(105) developed a


    biological so il crust index ( HSC I ) usi ng. Land sat Enha nced
    T hematic :-'1apper Plus (El ~ ") ima gery :

    tion
    mds

    rib

    re in

    >

    torss tg -

    of

    mon
    i-, hy

    tired
    the
    a di-

    perting

    -'

    "

    ( 14-3 1

    '

    ;:~: :::;;:>..//..

    ./

    ..

    BSC!

    ..

    .,/
    /

    (a

    -' .-

    .....

    $11" ..

    Ur'1!.~ n i c

    5-11 . .... nd
    7$
    2$

    U r:o.nic
    S~ nd

    .........-...........
    ...............

    wh en: RI/.... " and R""tl TC rcn..-cm ncc in ET~ I? han ds 2 and J
    and L is an 3llJusime nl factor to amplily the abso lute diffe rcncc between Rvn." and R""" If the numer ator g.'ISa negative
    valu e. L i... rcst ri.."led to a range fro m 2: to 4. Th c' denomi nat or
    IS the mean reflectance of green. red and the near- in frared
    refl ectance in ETM ' bands 2. J. and 4 .

    Iron Oxid e
    0 ,4

    0<

    ne

    nt

    o. ~

    II ~

    1,0

    \\~,d"""h. I""

    'a il, uh
    t ha t

    FIQure 14-9

    The greater the amount of organ ic content In a ,;(>11.


    the grea ter tll... absorption " f incid.-nl mCr) and th.:
    loy,er the spec tra l reflecta nce .

    cres

    lely
    I in

    .ron
    ) vy
    o<h

    iale
    lies

    131-

    l siI at
    J\"e
    rdo
    io n
    Ta l
    to

    '0

    I ,

    EI:.

    ;0

    ,k

    o
    I

    from buried bedroc k and calc ium carbonate-ce men ted nodules. Willia ms and G reeley 1200 4 J found that rel ati vely short
    """-\ .:Iengt h C-hanu (5. 1\ em ) signals were t>csl for identifying the exte nd of dry sa nd while lon ger wa velength L-ha nd
    signals penetrated thin ml,isl sund best.

    In the so uthea-stern U.S .. So ulheas t As ia. and several o the r


    parts til' the \\ orld, iron oxides are pres en t in the soil. Th e
    ext-renee of iron o\ idc-, },':enera ll ~ causes an inc rease in
    re f lectance in the red port ion of the spectrum (600 - 700
    nm I. and hence its reddish co lor ( Ptgure 1 4 ~ I I) . Th ere is
    also a noucea ble de crea se 10 the blue- an d gr ee n re fle ctance
    in the iron-oxide soil. The iron-oxide so il also ex hibits an
    absorp tion band in the X:"O - <)00 nm region w hen compared
    y, uh a ' <lnd) loam soil II uh 11(' iron oxide.

    Soil Salinity
    Soil Organic Matter and Biological Soil Crusts

    Plants and auima h. decom pos e and become organic hu mus


    In the tippe r p...n ions o f the so il horizon, Thc amo unt of
    organic matter in the soi l ha s a signiti eant impact on the
    spectral reflectance ..: ha raet..: risll1.:s
    ex po se d soils. GC W..T+
    ally, the greater the nmoum of org nnic corucm in the uppe r
    portions of the soi l. th..' greeter the ahSOT1' lillll of inc ide nt
    energy and 11K' lowe r the spectral re flec tan ce. Figure 1-1--9
    summarizes the cur vilinear rckuions hip I'm soils with 0 to
    100percen t organic runne r.

    or

    Sometimes soils hav e crusts of biological maile r ( Wass enaar


    er al.. 2( 0 5). UioloXinl1 .1011 c r /l,I'II' art' comm unities of
    moS'>CS. lich... ns. Iiverw \lrts, algae, fung i. cya nobac teria and
    bacteria. T hey C' IO survi "e des iccalio n a nd e:>;treme h:'l11pcralllTl~ lUI' to 7C1 "C ). high 1"11, a nd high :<aliniIY. Biolog ica l
    wi l crust:> ha w been fo und in ueSl;' n s throughout the world
    Jnd play an im porta nt role in desen ,;',;'osyslems in soil form.ati(lI1. sta hi lity and tC ni lity an d pre:","nt so il .:rosio n (Bdnap. 200J ). The speclral re l1eetan..:c e harac ter islics lJf thrce
    types of hiologic:lI soil emst :lrt' shown in Figure 14+1ll.

    So il salin uy is u major en viro nmcma t hazard . The g hlhal


    extcmof pr imary salt -alf..".:lt'lI soils is abou t 955 \-1 ha. whi le
    secondary sulimzauon ;llTcch sli me 77 M ha. with 58 percent of th ese in irrigurcd areas . Nearly 20 pe rce nt o f all irriga ted I,LIl d b salt-aff ec ted. and this proport ion is mcrousing
    despite land rcc tum.rnon e ff orts. Salis tend In concentrate on
    the soi! sur face in ar id ilml irrigated areas.
    Men..-rnichr a nd Zinck (lOll] ) provide an ove rview of the
    considc r.mou-, that m ust he made when trying til ex tract
    sahn it), information from remote se nsing sys tems. Fig ure
    14 -12:1 depicts the spectra l charucrcns ucs o f saline versus
    non-sali ne crush for silly 1Il,1m soi ls in Bolivia, No te that
    sli me spectral confusion occ urs bc twcc"n SiJlty crusts and silt
    10al11 hrig hl .:rusts in Ihe blue and g ll'Cn po n ions ofthe sflCetru m (4 50 - 55 0 linn Rdle elance gene rall) in..: reas t"'S w ith
    increasing sUrf"Cl" soi l salt eon.:e ntrations . Salt-atfe cted
    soils shll w rcl;lIi\ cly highe r s pe-c tra l f'l>s pllnse in th.: \' isihlc
    an d nca r-infrar ed regions of the spectrum tha n no ns.aline
    soils lin " and slrungl) SiJlinc--sodic soils e, h ihil h igho:r spectra l re... pnnses lhan I11 I.dcrat d~ '\3llne-">Odie soi ls ( Rao et al..

    UIAI'TUt

    516

    14-

    Rem ote Sen sing of Soils , Mine rals , and Geomorphology

    Rcn cclam:e o r mu l u~ical So il C r u~ h. narc Suil.


    nil

    ETM 2

    \ ~J:llaliun

    UIIO Shad Ul\

    ETM4

    EH I3

    VcgclJ tnm

    511

    III

    500

    ""

    ROO

    11100

    '>00

    1100

    Wavelength (11m)

    Fig u re 14- 10 Spectral reflec tance of bIological sOli crusts compared "llh bare '>OIl, vegetation. an d vegetation ~had(l", rdlcctam:c (ChenC'l
    al., 2000; repri nted wuh p<...-m ission from Elsevier ).

    Loam

    1995). This grap h makes it clear why saline deJlOsits typ ically sho w up as bright w hite in colo r-infrared ae rial photography Of multispectral false-co lor com posites (due to
    relatively high proportions of green. red, and ncar-infrared
    reflectance). while vege l:llio n shows l ip as hright red t due to
    chlorop hyll absorpti on in the green and red portions of the
    spec trum and high reflec tance in the ncar-infrared}, Ind icators used to d isting uis h sa line/al ka line soils are spotty
    gro..... th of crop s. presence of dead trees. a blue-gree n tinge .
    and moisture stress condition. Spcctroradiomcter measurement s o f halite with variou s sa linity concentrations are
    sho wn in Fig ure 14412h ( Fur iftch cr al.. 200h).

    Surface Roug hnes s

    As we learned in Ch apte r q (Active M icro wav e Remo te


    So:nsing l, the smatter the local sur face roughness rela tive to
    the SilC (If the incident rad iati on, the greater the spec ular
    spect ral reflectance from the terrain . We may utilize this
    infcrrnarion to ma ke some ge nera l statements abou t the
    amount of spectral re flectance that .~h(lltldhe exiting certain
    soil textures. assumi ng they contain no moisture. orga nic
    content, or iron oxides. Dry. [inc-te xture clayey so il should

    ~lIil

    .. ilh nll

    iron

    OVi~>/'

    ..
    .....
    f '; .oam loil
    ....
    whh
    '
    irun o ~ide

    .".f

    1
    iron oxide
    al>sorplio n band

    '"
    1).4

    (1.5

    1),(,
    1J.7
    U.8
    W,ncknl1th. u m

    lJ.'1

    1.0

    Iron ox ide in a sandy loom soil causes an increase


    in retlect ance in the red por non of thespectrum (06
    _ 0 .7 ~m) an d a decrease in reflecta nce in the neatinfrar\-.J reg jon HUIS - O.'Kl ~m ).

    ....

    ReOec tance o r Sa line and

    ~ <) n- sa l ilU. ('ru~h lint! Vl.'I:.-lati" "

    -- ,.-....:;. .~j.;,:;.;~_

    - ' <." .

    ..,

    . ;;... - ..

    _..-. ....-.

    5"
    ~ 40

    :: 3U

    __

    .. .. ../

    HI

    ".
    "

    ", +---,.---,---~-~---,---,.--
    450

    ;00

    700

    550

    750

    '00

    Wavele ngth (n lll)

    ;" ~~~~-------:;::::='\-/';-:~I
    Ilallte I "I..CLJ

    '"

    ~ 30

    ...-..~-...... ..

    ....

    20

    '" ~r ....

    . ,i l

    I d,'

    517

    Remote Sens ing ot Soli pr operties

    h,

    (J

    y
    c:
    ......

    ~.-.-

    7.7 "' S .o...

    -....,._~\

    .~

    ...

    - ..

    "'H" 4 4mS"'''

    +=--,--r--,---,r--r-~--,--r--,---,-...,..-I

    3411

    707

    2 143

    1425

    I0 6R

    Wavele ngth ( nm )

    Figure 14- 12 a l Spectral rcllcctaucc of saline and nun-saline s" il crusts (Mcncrnicln und Zinck. 1003; rcprhucd with pcmlbs iun from
    Els"'l irr ) versus ihc spc crral resp onse O f\cg~l a li(ln . hI Spcctrorndromctcr reflectance measureme nts of halite (NaCl ) at varyin!:, salt conc entrations If-anftch cr al.. 2006; ~p rinled with permission Irom Elsevie r).

    prod uce a h igher spectral res ponse throughou t the visible


    and ncar- in frared po rtion s of the s pec tru m due 10 the nea rspecular reflccuou tha i sho uld take place fro m its surface
    versus silt or sand surfaces. [Infortunatclj', this is oft en not
    the case because a ~ moisture. orgamc content. o r iron oxide
    tS adde d It) the d aye y soil, it begm s dr amatically to ab sorb
    incide nt radi ant nux. a nd quire possi bly to appear like silt or
    perhaps even sand on remote sensor data. Th is ca n ca use
    tnrcrpreraricn proble m s.

    Con versely, lIt) sand with its well -dra ined large grains
    should lhl l uscl y scalie r the incide nt wavelengths of v is ible
    and ncar- infr ared energy more than clayey and sill soi ls .
    Th erefore. it is commo n for more coarse-grained san d areas
    to he amo ng the brigfue st terra in in the landsc ape wh ile
    clayey soils are a mong the darke st. King et al. (2005 ) an d
    Zrihi et a1. (20(J) descri be ho w surfac e roughness can be
    measur ed using acnve micro.... ave remote sen sing systems.

    518

    14
    Remote Sen sin g of Rocks and Mine rals

    R,I("h arc assernblagc ~ o f IIIII/eral. thai han' interloc kin g


    ~rJins OT arc bound toge ther by venou s rype-, Ill' cement
    (usu ally silica or calcium ca rbo nate ). Whe n there is min imal
    vegetauon and soi l pre-ern an d the rt'lC'k material is \ isilt1c
    directly by the rCIIlO!" M:nsint,: syswm. it rna) be possible 1\ 1
    differen tiat e between seve ral roc k 1) p..' S and obtain inforruat il," about the ir characteristics. ~lo,,1 roc k surfac es consis t of
    several type s of min er als . Clark 119l)l} j sugg.e sls that it is
    possible to mod ... 1the reflec tance front a n CXptl SL'<I roc k co nsisting o f , ...ver a l minerals \I T a sin gle minera l bused nn
    llu pkc 's ( I ()93) cquuuon :

    Rem ol e Sens ing o f Soils. Minera ls , a nd Geomo rphology

    I m31:i nl: Spec rrnmetcrv


    Imag ing spec tro me te rs m;IY bc, used in thelab. li eld.Of ina~
    airborne rcrncte sensing mission. RelleCI;\I1Ce and cmiltanc~
    spec troscopy o f natural sur face, arc sensi tive til xpecuk
    chemical bonds in nuncrinls. In the p,IS!, one o f the problem,
    a csociarcd with spt:et m'C(lPY was Ih;!1 it was 100 scnsiuve ~
    s ma ll changes in the chemistI')' andor the structure (If ~
    ma te r ial. This resuncd in the creat ion of \'Cf) complc:l. ~.
    ITal reflectanc e curves that we re o ttcn unimelhgible. Fortunatel y. significant strides have been mad... in I ) th e qualil) 0(
    the imaging spcctromct cr sensors, and ~ ) our abilit) to
    und e rstand and d isenl,mg it" the info rmatio n con tent (If thr
    spectrorudiomcter infor mat io n. Thus, '01 hat was once a Jrav.
    bac k ti.e. . wry complex spect ral reflectance curves ) isnOli
    an advantage as it a llows s..:ientists to extract IIlMe valuahle
    infon uutiou abou t the d w m i"lf) o f the natural c.nvironmem.

    ( 1"'.4 )
    E n cr~)- .\ latlc r I rll l' n ll' lio ns ~ Refl ect iou a nd
    Ahsoqll inn I' r ncl."sw "S

    where r~ is the re Ilectanc c at "aH' lenglh ..l.. 1-1.. is the (\ls in...
    of the ang le o f incide nt light on to the rock or mineral of
    mterest. Jl is the cosi ne oft he an gle of emIned light. g is the
    phase angk. ", ' is the uvc ruge smgtc scuncnng albedo Irom
    the rock or mineral of intere st, 1J~ is a backscatter function.
    PI{ is the ave rage single particle phase func tion. and If is a
    function fur isonupic scuucrcrs.
    Armed w ith this adva nced reflectance thc"f) and the kno wn
    optica l cons tants of the mine rals invo lved. it is possible hi
    com pute the theore tical rctl..reran..-e spectra fo r I ) pure m inerals that have a smg le grain size, ! l a pu re mi ner al w ith a
    \ariCI) o f grai n s i.ll~. and 3 ) minera l mixtures with \ a f) ing.
    grain si7cs (Clark, 1'11)<). Thi s is im]l<.lrta nt 1x-c3usc il mcans
    that wc may h<: ab k to J'l rcd i..:t whatthc rc lkc ta n..:c cu r. es o f
    spcei li,,; typc s ofmincm ls or rocks should look like at var i()1I~ wavelengths. Th is can ne im portant when we ;lllcmpt tn
    inkrprct thc in fo rmatio n cOll!ent o f i m a ~ i n g spectroscopy
    r..' motc sc nsor d,Ha " f miucra lized terra in.

    Imaging Spectros copy of Rocks and Minerals

    Im ag ing spcelToml.'try instrulllc nts arc u~fu l lor ol:>tJin ing


    q oa nt itat ive infonnati(ln a bou t roc k type and min..'ral cumpos lli(ln. Chapter 7 r<.'v iew l.'d the fundamenta l charac t<.'Tlsti..,s
    of imaglll,!; Spl.'ctroscopy S,,'llsor syste ms suc h as the Airhom c Visi nlc Infrarl'd Imag ing Spec tromete r (AV IRIS ).
    This sl'cti" n reviews thl.' fun damenlal ehamcteristk s lh,ll
    illlp actl,u r ilbi lity to det crm illl.' rock typl.' altd mi nera l eomp<lsili(ln remotely usin g ima ging spcrt w mclry.

    As p rcv io usly di sc ussed. photons or" light incid..nt on a min(If rock arc ' I reflected fro m gra in su rfaces omo otber
    grain surfaces. .:! I pavscd throug h the gra in onto ot her grairs,
    and'o r 3 ) absorbed w ithin a grain, The photons that arc
    re flected from the grain surfac es IIr refracted through a P<I['
    ticle arc' s,lid to be .l'l'(lf/en-d T he scaue red photons uf Iighl
    may encou nter anot her grain or be scaUcr l.'d awa y from 1~
    sur face . perhaps toward a remote scn sl ng sys tem where the
    amoun t and properties can be detected and measured. We Me
    primunly co nce rned he re wuh photon s of light that origl>
    naied at the Su n and th..-n uueracrcd wilh the mincralol
    inter.., s!. It IS im port an t til remember. howe ver. that pht)(iJll
    ma ) a lso be ('milt.," fWIll a mincra ll:>..'eausl.' (a s d isc us5t.'l! ia
    C hapler X) all (lbjccts ano ve abso lute ] em emi t radiation

    era!

    If e\'t.'f)' mineral a b~lH bed ,Jlld sc'llll.' red thl.' incidl.'ll t plW\lI n,
    nf light in lin i(k-m ic;\1 malll1l'r. then th..' fl' I-\'(lul d he no ha~i ;
    fill' mirll.'ra !tlg iral rl.'l11Ull.' sl.' lhi ng, Thl.' amount til' enel)l~
    Iea\ inl; l.'ach type o f m inl.'ral al l.'ae h spl.'cific wa\'l'll.'n~'th
    \lI ould h<: lue nt ical. f-'(lrtllmu e ly, certai n types of m iner:ll~
    absmb and or scatter the IIIcidl.'nt l.' ncTg) d ilTe rl.'ntl).
    Therc arl.' 8 number of proc e sse s that d(termine how a minerai will absorb or scaUn thl.' inc ident ..' nl.' rIlY. Abo . ths' process...s ah'i.(lrl:> and scatter light dilTcrcnt 1y d epend ing on the
    Wa\l.'k l\llth ( A) o f h~hl be ing investigated. The variel}' (If
    :lhsllI'Ptio ll proCl.'SSl.'S amI tht.'ir v.'avckllg th uepcndcnc~
    a llow 1I ~ tn deriv", info rma tion ann ul the ("1I" lIIi.I/I")' of a min
    era l r"TllIll its re n ...o.:tl.'d or ..' l11 iltl.'J elll.'rgy. The idea l sc.'nsor i,
    the imag ing sp..': u om......r beca use it can reco rd much of the
    ah....rptlllll info rmat ion. mu ch like usi ng a h;lIIdhc1d S~1'l)-

    519

    Remote Sensing o f Rock s and Mine rals

    i:'

    m an

    ancc
    :cilic

    .,

    ( , aIH.nl"t~

    Ahmue

    ' p,'d n
    1.,I:----~~-~'i.

    QuarlL Optica l C llns la nls

    70

    n, iOO<, '1. of refraction


    ~.

    .lcms

    'vc 10

    f th...
    spcc-

    ortu -

    ty o f
    ~ to
    f the
    ra w-

    "

    ,
    ~
    ,

    lank

    ntnuhc r
    sins.
    are

    "0 L,-",,"""-7c---!""-"!-;--;-;---7-O-~*--7~?": fi t> ox 1,0 U


    1.4 l ,t> I. X !.O 2.2 2 4
    W.l\ elcnglh. JIm

    FIgure 14-13 Com parison of a lal\or.llOf) spect ra of alunite (an


    aluminum , ulfale). a simulated Land....l Tbcmauc
    " appeT spectra [rcsampled from the lab spectrum ).
    aml spL'I;lr,1 obw inL-.i u,i n;! .lII airborne 63-dlalmd
    GeorhY'll1cal and Fn vrronmenral Resea rch Imaging
    Sp...'I;lroll1 c lcr IG r.RIS )al Cupritc.X 'v. Symbols and
    cha nnel num bers nn me l\1 and CrF.RIS spect ra
    identify band centers. ..lost charactcris tic absorption halld in formation is lost with lhe T\.1 spectrum
    Iwuh the eM:epiiuli uf 10.... re flec tance in T ..., band 7

    at 2.1 u rm while much " t'lhL" spectral information is


    pre....n ed in the lil::IUS spectrum. The; spectra arc
    ot1~1 vertically for clarity (after Kruse e t al.. I ~lj( l l_

    paright
    the
    the

    '"

    -igi-

    I of
    o ns
    ~in

    \ll1S

    isis

    ",y
    g th
    1Ils

    "-

    ro-

    th,

    radiometer. For exa mp le. co nsider thc spectral ref ectance


    curves for alunite shown in Figure 14- 13, The most de tailed
    spectral re flectance mfurruauon is obta ined using a handheld
    ecctroradlomctcr. Airborne spectral re flecta nce data
    obtained us ing the 63-o,: halll1.:1 Geophysical and Enviro nmental Researc h Imaging Spo,:ctWl1Ictt:T (GER IS\ retains
    much of the spectra l inform ation . Unto rnmntcly. much 01"
    the Spccualubsnrption iuformarion is los t when thc spec tral
    data arc obtai ned I"WIIl six ba nds 01" s uuulur ....d Lands at Thematic Mapper duta (Kruse cr al., I ll901.
    All ma terials ha ve a com plex tndex of refraction. For cxample, the vac uum of I'ul er spac e. the atmosphere, qua rtz, and
    water all ha ve diffe rent ind exes of re fraction , [I' we illuminate a plane surface w ith photons of lig ht from di rect ly m erhead, the light R, will be refl ec ted fro m rbe surface
    according 10 the Fre snel equati on :

    of
    Icc

    "-

    "

    "

    10

    no\\

    .em.

    extinction eucffident

    (lI - ll~+ K~
    (1/ +-1) 2 "K~

    ( 14-5 )

    IlohCTe 11 is Ih... intle.\( o f refroiclion. an d A.' is Ih... extineli,)n


    OO(ffio,:icnl. [kllh Ihl." index. o f refrao.:t ion and lhe extincli,)n

    0
    0

    (Ju an1

    ( po ~ de rffi)

    u
    ~

    til
    12
    Wa\elcnl,!lh. ~01

    "

    "

    Figure 14-14 a ) The inde x of re fraction and extinction coefficient


    of quartz for the .... av clcngt h interv al (> - I (> 11m. b)
    The ~pectru l re flectanc e charactceisucs uf powdered
    quartz obtained u~in g a epcct roradiometcr (after
    CIJrk, I'lY'J I,

    coefficient o f qllan, are sho wn in Figu re 14- 143 (Clark,


    I')l)l)), Fro m thi s illustration it is clear that the optical COIlstnnts of I I and K tor quart z vary strong ly with' wavelength.
    Note tha t the inde x o f refraction (II) reaches a minimum just
    be fore 1l.5 u m and 12.6 am. The rela tive reflectance o f powdcrcd quart zmeasured by a spe ctrome ter for the wavelen gth
    mrcrvalf rom 6 - 16 11m is show n in Figure 14-14b (Cla rk.
    1999 ). The reflectance spectra of quartz throughout the vis ihie and ncar-in frare d reg ion is c ffcc uv ely zero and is therefore not sho wn. IIowever. fro m K - 9.5 11 m and at 12.6 11rn
    there is a d ramat ic incrca sc in refl ect ance. If quartz is to be
    detected at all usi0 l:! imaging spectrometry . it may be necescary to sense in the region from Ii - 10 u rn as shown. But
    III ha t cause s Ill" re flectance spec tra of qu artz to appear as it
    does'.' Why arc ccnam p.1TB ofth c spe ctrum abso rbed mo re
    completely then Olhcf"'.' T he answ er ties at the heart o f using
    imaging spt'etw mctr)' for mi ne r31 ana lysis. II is beeause of

    520

    e-n \1' 1Fit

    14'

    uic specific types of ab sorp tion that take place wit hin the
    mine ra ls.

    As demonstrated in til t' previous illu..trarion. a typical specrrel reflectance curve ob ta ined by an imaging spec trom eter
    exhibits var ious max ima and minima . Th e m ini ma ere
    ca u....."\! b} suong ahsurpt illn bands. For example. labo rato ry
    and AVIRIS remote sens ing derived spec tra lo r three mineral s. kaolinue d ay. aluminum sulfa te (alu rute ). and budd ingto nn e (an ammonium fd th par) aTC shown in Figure 14- 15
    [Van d.... r "I..-CT. 1994 1_ Scientists have d(.....umcnrcd that specitic mmcrat s c.\ hihl1 relat ively unique absorpuon spectra.
    For exam ple. ke y absorption feat ures associated \\ ith kaol inite arc typicutly found ar :!.17. 2.21, 2.32. and ::?3lo! pm. If a
    spectra exhibus m inima at thes< locations. it may well be
    kao linite . It is important to point out here that only a hype rspectra l sensor wi th a s~(" t ral bandwidth resolution of
    approximately I() 11m could capture ..uch info nnauon . Spectrc radiometcrs with 10 nm bandwidths might miss the
    impo rtant minima or maxuna ent irely. This d iagram also
    sugge..ts that the differences in maxima. mi nima. and the
    slope between nraxima and min ima might allow these three
    mineral s 10 be di tfercmimcd nne from a nother usin g hype rsIX"(:tr31 remote sensor data. The abs o rption bands in these
    minerals an: ca used by electronic and \ ibrat io nal processes.

    Rem ot e Sens ing of Soi ls, Minera ls . and Geomo rphology

    ..........
    ".......
    Kaolinite
    .wuus

    Lab

    '. 1_32
    '.
    2.38
    :.
    -,
    . .
    .;

    "' .

    ".

    ..:

    Aluni te

    -,
    '

    ... ...

    2_17 2.21

    '

    "\"IRIS

    ..-..
    '

    .., .

    -,

    -,

    ..

    -,
    -,

    A\"I RIS

    ....

    2.10

    2.()(J

    Buddin gtomte

    2.:W

    2.:'0

    2..10

    Wa\ d e ngth. lJm

    Electrunic t' rocesws: 'lhc most common elec tron ic process


    revealed in the spectral reflectance curves of min erals is due
    to unfil led el ectron shells oftransnion elements such as 1'\ i.
    Cr. Co. Fe , etc , (Clark. 19( 9 ), This is culle d a crystalfield
    e ffect. Absorption band s can also he caused by d l <ll "g" rml/~'
    fer absorptions, conduction bands, a nd color ( T lllel.\', Plea se
    refe r 10 Clark (19 <)<)) or the 1I1Wlllal of Remote S"llsing Gt'/Jsri, '111','.1' (R cncz, I () l) t) ) for derailed in formati o n abou t
    these electronic absor ption proce sse s.
    Vih r ntl unal Procesves : T he bond s in a molecule or crysta l
    lattice arc like sp ring , w ith we ights atta c hed tha t cause the
    system to vibrate. Th e freq uency of vjh rauon depend s on the
    bonds in the mo lecule and thei r masses. For 1I molecule with
    N ato ms. there are 3N-6 norm almodes o f vibrations cal led
    fiIllIl01l/<'/110{,1 . Eac h vibration can also occur rou gh ly at rnultiples ofthe origi nal fundamenta l freq ue ncy. The add ition al
    vibr ations arc ca lled over tones o r comhinationx, Hun t
    ( 1977) de vised a spectra l s ignatu re d iagram that summarizes
    the impact nfboth t!t'c/rm lj( and vibrational absorption p roccsscs for se lected minerals (Clark. 199 tH. water. h)"d1O:\)'1.
    carbo natC'S. phosphatl's. bolr.ltes , arsena tes , and \ lInad:lIes
    ha~e diagnostic \' ibralional ahsorption bands.

    Figure 14 15 Spe.:lla \lft hre..: minerals dc rivcd from the ,\ irbom:


    Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer lAVIRISI
    using

    lab ' 1)<,,I:tr,l ladi.Hllch:r (aller \"an dct ~"'tf,

    1'l'i4), The vcrncnl lines identity key ahw rptioo


    tc.nurcs useful fur ido;mifyi ll3 kaolinite. The discrcpancy N lw .. en the lab and AVIRtS curves f(lf
    cadI miucral is d ue to I ) the lab spectra ale prednccd tr om pure samples wh ereas the AVIRIS dlta
    a rc ext racted Ihuu rcl.nivcly lal1:<: 1 0 x 20 III :1n:J \
    thilt contain a mixture of mater ials within the IFOV
    "f the wns or systelll. 2 ) the AVIRIS data arc recordcd through an atmosphere. and 31 the lab samples
    arc dry ,.hel"'''s th", real-w orld te rrain may exhibit

    slight differences in soil moisture. The spectra ere


    ,,1li.lt vertically for cl.mty.

    Th e U.S. (koltlgiea l Survey bas compiled a Digi tal Spectral


    Lib(31)' /lJS<iS Spcclab. 2W b ), The Cal ifo rnia lnsurute of
    Technolog y Jet Pro pulsio n Labor atory compiled a spectral
    libra ry that incl udes the Salisbury et al. ( 199 1) libra!), tile
    J PL AST ER Spl't.:tra l Library and the aforementioned USG ~
    Digital Spectral Libra!): OPt , 2:006)_ These are accurate

    52 1

    Geology

    crralhbrurics. One sho uld only usc spec tra llibraries thai
    -e been cre ated Ilsing rigorous imag mg spectroscopy callion stand ards .

    .... e obtain high spectral resolu tion remote sensing spectra

    br an unknown surficial rock material. remo v e the

    atrno-

    !plIeric e tfccts and \:OI1\en the brightness values to percent


    eilecranc.... (or exuancc]. then il may be possible 10 search a
    nral Iibrary and jdenufy the type of m inera l that has an
    tical or \ -c ry similar spectra. In this manner. imagi ng
    lpttIfOSCopy can he used to derive signitic:mt mineralogical
    formation .... ith link or no in si l /l field work . In certain
    lIstanees. mineralogical maps can be made.

    fcor example. consider the tw 0 mineral maps sho wn in Color


    nale 1-1 1 dcnv LoJ from low - and high-.dt itude " VIRIS data
    fkained over Cuprite, :,\V [Swayze ct al., 19QQ). USGS sci:/llists first remov cd atmospheric effects in the da ta and then
    lISCd a computer progrJ.m [ Tctracorder ] that compared the
    ahbrared spectra obtained fo r each pixel in the AVIRIS data
    o:ith th e spectra contained in a mineral spectral re flect anc e
    brary. Twenty-four min eral categories were found in the 2
    - 2.5 pm region using Tetracorder. Note the detai l present in
    !Ik' 2.3 x 7 III low-alritude ,W IRIS data whe n compared with
    ie results fro m the coarse IX x I!o: III hig h-al nrudc " V IRIS
    ala (S", ayze et al.. 1')<1<),

    om,
    RIS)

    f cer.

    .[Ion
    dis; for
    pro-

    data

    reas
    OV

    cdpk-s
    ~ bi t

    "

    ,1
    of

    ,,1

    S
    It ...

    Rowan ct al. (::!IHlO ) conduct cd a geohotan ical study using


    J"V IRIS da ta in Nort h and South Carolina to identi fy hydro1hcmlully altered rocks based on the spectral re flect ance
    charaet~'ristics nfforcsr vegetation growing on th em . Sparse
    monoculturcs l It chestnut oak resul ted in lower apparent
    canopy density at the altered sites, wh ich wa s ex pressed in
    111~' AVI RIS dala by lower ()I I absnrpuon inte nsity. Galvao
    etal. (2 005 ) used wel l-defined 2200 11m hydro xyl absorption ,
    features to idcuti Fy hydrothe rma lly altered minerals (kaoli nrte and muscovite ) using AST EK data . Tne y cam ion. how ever. that substantial veg eta tion eo\'er luwe rs Ih<: prob;lbility
    ofcorrecl iden tifi cation in trop ical env iro nlllents. Ellis ;md
    Scolt (2004) used Hy,\ -lap hyp...rspeet ra l da t:l and ah:iorp lion
    band Ic atures tu d iiTe rc ntiate het ween biot ite and topaL granne mineral units in the United Kingdom . Absorption bands
    asr,oc iated with rem,' te sensing sa lt-a lfe.. . t ~d s,)ils are ",ummariled in Fari fieh et ill. t2006l.
    -\STER R l' fl fi'llill n ' 1I 1ld AINl r pt ion C h a racte r i ' l ic ~ of
    ral ul' fur Ro ck a nd 'Iiner ;l) Dherim inal ioll
    "any ur the :-pcetrdl diagno..tie characteristics ,lfr'......k!> and
    minemls arc found in the thernlal illrrarcd po nil.ll1 of the

    spec trum. The mo st impo rta nt sa tellite senso r tha t provid es


    such in form ation is AS II::K - the Advanced Spcccbcmc
    The rma l Emission and Rc tlccncn Radi ometer launched
    onboard EOS Tar" . Six AS TER bands (4 - 9) cover the
    short- wavelength infra red (S\\ 'I R) range. Hand (, is cen tered
    on a clay- ubso rpuou featu re otlcn assc......iated w ith hydro therma l altera tion and mineral potential. Hand X is ce ntered on a
    carbonate-absorption feature. allowing glo hal d iscri mina tio n o f hmcston cs and dolom ites from ot her roc ks. Five
    A STER hands (10 - 14) cover the the rma l infrared (T IR)
    range. Ha lld ~ 10. II. and 12 arc designed 10 de tect sulfates
    and silica spectra l features. Evaluaung reflectance in S W IR
    band 6 With the thermal infrared ba nd 10 allows discrimination bet ween common minerals such as alunite (a su lfate
    mineral importan t 10 precious meta l deposits) and anhydrite
    (an evaporative sulfate common in arid regions), Rand 14 is
    ce nt.... red on a carbonat...-absorption spectral featu re complemen ting the SW IR hand K tSAS.-\ ASTER. 2()()(,).
    Geo log y

    The Ea rth i" nnt rock so lid. It ts con etanny cha ng ing, moving:. and being rearranged. Gt'Ulugy is the science of rocks. It
    reveals the im mense history of the Eart h and e xpla ins its
    geological formations. From a go:ologieal viewpoin t.
    humanity b a rel atively relen t arr ival. and il is one species
    am ong man)' m illions that sha re an Earthly he ritage.

    fossils. the rem ains of ancient


    organism s IhOll ha n' bee n turned to stone. Will iam Smi th's
    (1 769 - I !'> .N) work marked the hcg muiug o r geo logy. He
    stud ied Engl ish coal m ines and obs erve d that the same layers 1' 1' sedimentary rocks were reveale d in cuttings o ver large
    geog raphic are as. I lc iden1ilkd and correlated the strata by
    thei r fossil content. l ie discove red rh.u Ihe on kr ill whic h
    roc k unils were depos ited d id not vary across t heir ge og raphic e \le nl. lie eon elulled that n .ek un i t ~ (It the b<.'ll olll
    we re o lder than thnse ahove.

    ! 'al e(//IIOloXI' is the study of

    S,;ouish geolog ist James !l ulto n ( 1726 - 1797 ) bu ilt upo n


    Smith'!> find ings ;lllJ eOI1c1 lJd~'d tha t the history o f rocks
    o('cu rs in (I"C/",\' (Trdil anll Hal e ll. 1( 95 ). Rl...... ks are decom posed illto sedillwm by In 'llllnr ing . The sedi mclII is otlcn
    mo\ cd hy torces o f \'ro.,irm an d 1II<1.U Irmuport t() a" cum ulat... in no: w III,;ali,)n". The M.oJ ime nt is (,ft<:n e'lTISl.llida l....d
    into a lIe\\ type ofrod, tlwi eu uld be buril..'t! unde r more roc k.
    unt il. he:l\ed to Its melting poi nt. it may flow hac k unde r
    pre~ ..ure h) Ihe surtiJ.. . e as e \lru~ive la\a Llr to somo: interio r
    locat ion as intru~ i\c magma. The la\a or magma coo ls into

    14'

    522

    roc k. Weathe ring begins immediately on extruded lava.


    whereas it may lake mi llennia 10 e xpose the intrusive
    magma at the surface, ~ he re it may he weathered. In either
    case. the cycle begins aga in. Huuon raised the possibility
    that the Earth was milch o lde r than previously thoug ht. and
    was cont inually ch angi ng and recyc ling itself ISel by, 1 9~ 1J ).

    gemote Sens ing 01 Soils . Minera ls . and Geomorphology

    II1IfizomaJly bcddcd suara

    Anticline

    r ulds

    C harles Lyell ( 171)7- 1875 1, the foun der of modern ge lllngy,


    introdu ced IIl1i{imnif</rhmi\"m - the C('Il\;cpt tluu past eve nts
    occu rred at the same rare a s they do Imla y. For example. sed -

    imentary rock was formed hy the sa me processes of sedime nt depos itio n and cementation. and at the same rate as
    those that can be observed 1003Y. He v. as thc first to suggest
    that the Eart h .... as minions o f years o ld .

    Finally. A lfred Wegener (1880 - 1')30 1 proposed the theo ry


    o f connnental dnfr. Then, during the co ld .... ar o f the 19 50s .
    U,S. and Russian scientists set up sen sitive vibration o.k tcctors 10 mo nitor each other s atomic tes ts. Suc h instru ment s
    a lso a llowed the m 10 id... ntity the epic...me r u f thousands l l f
    earthquakes throug hout the wor ld. These epicenters usually
    occ urred along dist inct ive lines. It hccumc clear to geo logists that these I inc s we re edg es of enormous plates that covere d the Eart h 's surface and thur earthquakes were the res u lt
    of friction between the plates. Co ntinents nn the pla tes were
    slowly mov ing on the sur face of the Earth. The concept of
    pIalI.' tectonics is re lated but not idcmic a t to contine nta l drift.
    Tod ay. mos t geological phenomena can be explained hy
    these two concepts.
    Most of ou r geo logic in fonnation co mes from detailed ill
    in\ estigauon by geologists and palcull tlJlogisb. The}
    excav ate. bore hole s in the Earth to extract geo logic co re
    sa mples, and inte rpret fossi l rema ins . ln add ition . so me of
    these sc ientists us... airborne and satellite remote sensing
    technology to supple me nt the ir ill sitn invesngauons.
    Rem ote ly sensed image s a rc routinely iruc rprc ted I" ide n lil~'
    lithology. structur e. d rainage -pattern c1 mraelerist ies. and
    land forms. In adduion. remote se nsi ng is often used in minera l and petroleum exploration.

    J j tu

    Uthology

    GeologiSls usc remote sens ing in co nj unction w ith in .f llll


    observation to ide nti fy the IllhQloKY ofa reck t)PC. i.c . ill.
    or igin , Th e d ifferent rock types arc formed by one of three
    processes:
    igf/l'OlI,~

    ree ks are formed fro m molten material;

    c. ' - - -Figure 14 16

    ~)

    ----

    Iloriw l\lally bcdd..d strata. bj ltorizontally bed-

    dcd strata Ih;11 has be...." COillpr",sl'd. creating fold!


    10 the rud " includin g anticlines and synclines. cfAll
    l'x'lml'k of faulting \\. ht:r.:: a !lInd has bee
    dowmh mwn relauve 10 1\000 stable blocks of r'll:l
    Thi ~ i ~ referred 10 as rifling.

    wdimt'lIlary roc ks are forme d from 111\: panicles of pre-

    l.\ i!>ting roc ks and pla nt and animal rema ins: or

    metamorphic roc ks are form..d by ap plying heat and


    pressure to pre v ioudy cx isti ng roc k.
    Roc ks arc weathered fro m the parent material and Iran"
    parted !ly erosion and mass tran sport. T he- unconsolidated
    sedirncruary materia ls arc called .Iu,./i("io.ll deposits. Th... surficia l depos its may be transported an d eve ntually deposited
    hy water. in w hich case we call them all/lvial deposes.
    Examples include atluvia l fans . sandbars, sp its. and river tcrraees. If rhc unconsolidated mate rial is tran sported b} ice,
    we have g lacia l till , including es kers and dru mlins. WhctJ
    the un consolidated material is transported b} the wind, .. e
    en counter eolian land scapes. includ ing sand dunes and glacia ! loe ss dcpo-ats. Fina lly. the ma ss wasting of rocks by
    grin It)" ca n produc c talu s or sc ree deposits. Under certain
    favorable c ircumstances. a ll these materials may be visible
    on remote sensor data.

    523

    Geo logy

    S!rUcrure

    ..

    Tho: major mountain ranges of the "odd are o f \ olcanic or


    bided or igin . The mountains in the oc ean (i sland s) arc usu.lily volc anic. The \'3St majority (If mo untains found on thecon tinents were create d by folding . Bas ical ly. lI1lJS t o r the
    MJg('"f.'. i. (mountain bu ild ing) ta kes pla ce at the margins of
    d\( continents "here con tinenta l plates push against one
    lIIOIher and .... he re rock i:. compressed and forced to move
    IIp\\ ards. perhaps thousand s o f meters.

    .l.

    IllOnronl.llly b.:.J.kd

    Rod. type dete rmines ho .... mu ch stress (or compress ion ) it

    .:an withstand. when a roc k (Fi gure 14- 1(>31 is subjec ted to
    comprcvsion, it may experience I) d mtic de forma tion. in
    . hich case it may return to its o rig ina l shape and size after
    ibc stres s IS remov ed. 2 1r (mtir deformation o f rock ca lled
    plJIlfj!. .... hieh is irreversible
    the com pressional stress
    ISbeyond the clastic limi t) (Fi gure: 14-1f.h ), o r 3 )fru cturil1g.
    here the pla cnc limu is exectc-ded and the rock break s into
    piect's (the pieces ca n he e'ltremcly la~I:! ) (Figure 14- 16c).
    Basalt has an averag e compressive rup ture or fract ure
    srength (kg 'm l~ 1(If ap pmximately 2750, q uartzite (20 20 1.
    nanite ( 14 KU1, slate (14MO l, ma rble (1020). limesto ne (960),
    ;00 sands tone (740) . Thus. if more than 2 750 kg 1cm2 or
    rompre-ss i'l n is applied 10 a piece of basalt. it may fracture .
    Sandstone fractures under far k~s compressionalst ress.

    u.e..

    >l -

    ''''
    A"

    ecn
    ,k

    rllldi n ~

    re-

    nd

    v.

    ,n
    y

    ",

    Figure 14-17 31 Hurii'lllllally bedded l..train. b l A gen tly slopmg


    rnnn"cli rll:. l) " gl'ml) ,I,lping auuc hnc. dJ" syncline, .: . An ov.. rtum ..d Iilid.

    FII/d il/g takes place when horizontally bed ded materia ls are

    mmprcvccd. The comp ression re~\Ihs in wa velike undulauons imposed on till' strata . There arc fou r bas ic typ es of
    folds, A monociinr is a sing le told on horizontnlly bedded
    materia l. It is like a rounde d ramp ( f igure 14- 17b ), Monoclines arc uvuully asymmetr ical. Archlikc upfolds arc calle d
    Iinliclilw.I' t fig un- 14- 17c ), Anticlin es typ icall y have 3 con\~x upwa rd told with the u ldesl TOll s in the core or center.
    The beds of sedimen tary strata d ip in opposite directions
    alia)' from the central ax is " I" the anticli ne . Th e do wnward
    eou rncrpurt of all unuclinc is a svncline (a nuughlikc do wnfold) (Figu re 14- 17d I. Syn c lines h:1VC a co ncave dow nward
    fold Ihal typically has the yo ungest rocks in the center. A
    syncline is a fold in which the scdimcuuiry beds dip inward
    from both sides towa rd the :lxis. forming a sy ncli nal va lley.

    :u lIid incs and syncl ines ca n he sym llldrlcJ I or asym metr i.


    ral. They CJn also plung.: hc lnw Ihe surface. cr...ating a
    plunging an ticline " r sync line. SUlIldi m<.'s Ihe compressive
    foret'S arc so great thai Ihe sedime ntary b..-ds arc u\ ..rtu rmJ
    on top of ooc an otht'T U:igure 14- l7el . Anti c tin...s and syl1-

    c hucs arc con unuously weathered. g iving rise III a var iety o f
    land l(1J111S such as hog backs, CIC . Exam ple s of folde d strata
    in remotely St'l1sl'd images arc found in the sec tio n on
    "L an dforms D.. . vclopcd 011 Folded Strata."

    Rock frac tures may he div ided into II-H1 categor ies : joi nts
    ami tauns. .>\ joil/ I is a crack in rock along 1-\ hieh the re is no
    ap prcciublc d isplacement ( i.e.. sideways or vertical mo ver ucn t], A ) imlt i'\ n crack aloug wh ich d isp lace ment has
    occurred . b mlt ing invo lves the mo vement o f mass ive b loc ks
    o f rock and u,ually ge nerates earthquakes. It is only the fracturc s a long which rock bodie s actually move relat ive to one
    anot her that we call / '/IIIt.I . This d is placement ca n he local m
    nat ure or occur for hund reds of ki lometers, In ce l1Jin
    inSlanl'es . lht' d irt' clion and amount o fm o\"cmem (d isp lace me nt) all'"!? Iht'Se lillt'(//1/t'lJl.I can he measurl'd from pas"i\ e
    le.g., \\'on -In and Charusiri. 20t)J : Fernandes Oa Sil\a,
    2(05) ;md acli\ (" r('motl'l) s.:nscd data l i looper et al .. 2no} \.

    (, II A rn~ R

    524

    14

    Remote Sens ing of Soli s, Minerals, and Geomorphology

    FauJI ~

    J.

    !\ormal d ir-~li p faull

    h. SmkC'-~lI r fault

    Figu re 14 -18 a) A normal dip-slip fault, where the hanging " all is displaced (Will the !'lIutw, IIL Note Ihal th... ang le ofthe fault pla ne is called
    the dip and thatthe fault line trends aero's lite terrain in a certam azimuth direction ca lled the strike . The dbplaccmcm C3U>Oi
    a [ault scarp, b ) ,\ strike-slip fault. c) An obliq ue-slip fa ult.

    There are three major types o f displ ace ment in fauns. inc lud ing: dip-slip, strike-slip, and oblique-slip . as shown in Figure 14-18. Displ acement occ urring up or down the faultplane walls prod uces a dip-slip fau lt (Fig ure 14-1Ka ). lfthe
    displacement OCCIIN parallel with the faunline . a strike-shp
    fault is created ( Figure 14. l!ib). Displacement up and down
    a nd along the fau lt line creates a hybrid nl>liq/le-.~ lip fault
    {Figu re 14-1Xc ). The diagra m also highlights ~\ eral param-

    ctcrs that lIlay he idennflcd using a cornhination of field


    work and remote sensor data. Th... fi lllit scarp and the fa~11
    line may be identi fiable. They may trend in a certain direclion on the terrain , called a stri ke dircctinn. The angle lhat!be
    surface i ~ tilted Irom a horizontal plane is the dip ang/rl81
    11 i ~ me asured dow nwa rd from a horizon ta l plane and ranges
    between no and \,1(1" . The dip direction to" to 359"1 is rnasured orthogonal to thc ~I ri "c direction. There arc several

    :.tology

    525

    'ar:w 14-1.

    Draina ge morphometric parameters ladapl:cdhum Reddy C1 al., ~()()" ).

    I
    Morphometric parameter

    Algorithm

    Drainag e den sity (D)

    "

    L:C,

    JJd =

    Totallength ILl of /I stream channels in a dramag... basin


    divided by the surfucc area (A I of the basin.

    ,. ,
    ..J

    ' "

    ( .\'~ + I)

    B. - h",... - h ...,,,
    R~e:Une,;s

    Description

    l{<IIi" b... tween th,' numbe r of strearns of any given order


    to the number of streams in lh... m:. l h ighe r order.

    Maximum vertical distance between

    Inc lowest and

    highe!.l points of a sub-basin.


    Product o f the hasin relief and its drainage density.

    number ( R. )

    F = ~

    Texture ratio (n

    Rallo between the tota l number of sueams and ltu: area


    of the basin.
    Rat io between the total number of first-o rder streams
    ;md perimeter ofthe basin.

    Ratio between till: basin area and the square of Ille basin
    length.

    Ratio be tween th... diamete r of thl: circle ha ving the


    same area (as lhat of the ha~inl and the maximum length
    nfthe: basm.

    typeso f dip-slip faults. TII\:s.... are dis cu ssed in the sec tio n on
    "Fault-Controlled Landform s."

    Drainage Morphometry and Patterns

    led

    held
    <lull

    River and stream basin sur face d rainage pur.uucwrs may he


    measu red us ing remote sensor data . Sornc {I f the most
    IKni ly used morphometric: parameters arc summarize d in
    fable 14-1 (Red dy et a., 2004). \\'e wi ll foc us here prim arily
    on drainage densitv. which i~ de fined as the tote! length of /I
    srea m cha nnels in a dra inage basi n d iv ided by the surface
    area of the basin, and how it relates 10 te xture vis ible in
    remote se nsor data. We will then loo k a t the ch..rac tcnstic of
    various dra inage pan....m s.

    treephe
    ( M.

    Dra i n a~('

    ngcs
    nea-

    The permeability o f a soi l o r rock (i.c .. how easi ly wa ter


    passes through the material} has a grc.u U<': <l 1 III do with
    drainage density, Perm eability is inv ersely prop ort ional 10

    -cral

    Denclry a nd Tt>lture

    runoff Whcre pcrmcnhilitj- is low and runo ff is high. many


    guthes typic ally form . Conversel y. when permeability is
    high and runoffis low. m uch ofthe water infi ltrates into the
    gw uml and (I large r sur face area is req uired to pro vide suffi cic nt runoff for the creatio n and maintenance of a c han nel
    uributary ). Wea k. relatively impenncublc clays and shales
    produce the highest dr ninagc de nsi ty. Regions wit h
    extn,'ll1l,' ly hig h d ra i ll<J~L' density are ca lled badland s. e.g..
    the Badlands Nationa l Monument in So uth Dakota.
    Th e dra inag... patte rns' isibk in remotely sensed data d isCUSSL-U below are often adJee tioa ll) desc ribed as ha ving fine.
    medium. OJ co arse te xtures. Texmre is formall y de fined as
    th.: ratio bct w een the: total num ber or first o rder strea ms and
    the pe rime ter or the bas in [Table 14 - 1). A fine-textured
    dra inage pattern typ ically e xh ibiu.. rela tively sho rt dista nces
    between the first-o rder tribu taries. i.e. il has a h igh density
    o f closely spaced cha nnels per u nit area (or pe rimeter ). T his
    tex ture indic ates high runo ff from easily eroded form ations
    such as thos e co mpos ed o r shale and cla y-rich soils of low
    permeability. A medium-textured d rainage pattern typically

    nl.\ I'H~R

    526

    14'

    has m..derate tril'o lll:lr) sp, u:ing and de nsity. It is prod u,..:.:J by
    moderate runotf from relatively perm eable soils \ JT bedrock.

    Thin beds of sands tone can produce such a texture. A


    pattern hJS a IO\.~ dra inage de nsity
    ,\ uh \\ iddy spaced channels. It suggests the prese nce of
    hard. resistant rock types (e.g.. gra nite, gne iss) and/or \C'l)
    permeable SIJils. Sudllllaicr ials typic ally absorb a great de al
    of Will cr. and there is little runoff ,\ Iso. the bedrock may be
    fractun.. d.
    clltlrI't'-leXlItN:'d d rainage

    D r a i n a ~l'

    Pat tern

    The drainage pattern developed thro ugh tim e on a landscape


    provides clues about the bedrock lithology [c.g. igneous.

    sedimentary, metamorphic]. lope'graph) (slope. aspecn. the


    texture of the soil and \IT bedrock ma terials, the permeability
    of the soil (h(1\O..... ell water pe rco lates through ill , and the
    type of land form prescru (c.g. . alluvial. eolian. glacial).
    \\'hi le ill vitu obsl'I"\3tions arc essential, physical scientists
    often esc the syn.\plic bird's-cye view provided by remote
    "t'nsing to appreciate a regi'llla l drainage- pattern. The-refore.
    it is important to be able to recognize the maj or d rainage palterns present in remote se nsor data.
    Somcumcs there may he a variety of drainage patterns
    w ith in a watershed or -egion. in whic h case it is called a
    mnt'd pa ltern. whene ver poss ible. it is better to slmtif) the
    m ixed patlern into multiple areas wi th unique dra inage pa tterns. II lso . it is importantto remember Ihat the drai nage palter n may be com posed u f wet and dry chan nels. especially in
    arid e nv iwn ments.
    Il endrilie : The mosl comlilon I)p<: o f drainage pattern is
    dend r;t i(' ( Figure 14 I')aj. It is characler i7t'd hy a treel ike or
    ft"mh ke palll.'m with orand ll.'s lhat interst:d pr ima rily at
    acu te ang les (i.e .. < Q(F ), Th ere ;Ire Ie'" abrupl bends in the
    , Irea m c!wnnL'!s. lk ndritil: dra inag.: pattt"m s ar.: tkw!f'l'cd
    by nm dotll h':'ld\!.a rd eH" ion of ins<:qu.:nl slr.:>lms on roc ks
    o f un iflmll rcsistanc.: wilh liu l... or no stru':lUra l COlllwl
    ca uscd hy fo lding or tilult ing. It i~ o ti.:n found o n l a n d t"'nn ~
    composed of rcllltiv ...ly' hl'llltJ~ ...ncous. hor i:wll tally bcJd.:d
    SCJilll"'11I,Hy w d . (e.g" "hale). gl,ll' ial till (e.g., lo.:ss). vokanil' tull on sandy .:n:hla l pl ains, nn tidal marshes (Fi gure 1-414a ). 'r on g laciall::J out wash plai ns.
    l'inn:lIl': A pinmlle dr-linage palt.:nl is a \ ariat in n oft h.: (I.:n<.Iritic pat t...m where the slr.:ams or gullies hav.: a kalherli k.:
    branc hing paU"m th"t typ ica lly imersecls at acute :mgks.
    Th is pau"m indlciltes that the kind form has a high silt co nI.:nt usually consisting of lo.:ss. si lty a llu\i um. or \':f)' soli
    erodible s.:dimemaf) materia ls.

    Remote Sen sing of Soi ls , Minerals , and Geomorphology

    Trdlis : Th... trellis drainage pattern is a modified uendritic


    pattern that resembles a \ inc on a garden trellis. It o!Ull
    " , hillits straig ht. pa ralle l pri mary tribu taries and shoncr secondaf) tribut aries that joi n the large r branc hes at rigfu
    ang les. This drainage puncrn oneo indica tes that the t>.,'\ln:(\
    structure is tihcd. folded, l,r fault c<.I. [I is often found OIl
    inlcrbcddcd sedimentary rocks. Trellis dra inage is espiaIl:common in areas o f folded sl'(limentaf) beds of diffenfIE
    resistance such a.. the I(idg.... and Valley topography oftM
    Appalachian M ountains from S.:w York to Alabama, t"l
    as"lll.:iate-d wuh the hc>gt'lad :s of the Uinta Mountains oi
    L tah (Figure 14-19bl. The prima ry parallel channels folm
    the I.'S., resistant be ds . The shorter tributaries flow down tllc
    sides of the more resistan t uptu rned beds.
    1{ N:"l a n ~u l a r : II rectangular dra inage palt.:m also exhibits!
    treelik e p,ttlt'm: \l<"..C\"'T. the ma in channels have ll'IOI't
    abrupt bends. Stre ams often join at approximately riglt
    angles, [I dc vclop... in areas " here joints or faults haw' deleloped in the bedrock. R l'~ta n !(ul ar drainage is PI\.'S<.'nt wbere
    the bedrock is fractured. jointed.tr foliated and i... Ii\;e1~ 10
    occur on met amorphic ..tare. ,,('hi..t. or gnt'iss. It can al<o
    form in hard. re..i..taut san dston... in ar id climates (Figure l ~
    19c). Th ... st ronger an d 111(\re rec tangula r the pattern. generally the thinner the ...oi l covering the bed rock (Rasher and
    w ea ver. I')<l0l. Alt hou gh both trellis a nd rectangular draiaage patterns have right-angle tributary junc tio ns. indi\'idUl!
    streams in rectang ular p:llk'rn s gt' nL"ra lly have n ghr-angk
    bends in the ir cha nnels.

    Par:llit'l: A p:mt llc l d ra in:l!:!e patte rn co nsisls \,f tributaries


    th<ll n ow nearl y par allel to 01'" anoth.:r. A ll th.: tributa ri~!
    joirllh... mai n ,hannd:l l app Olx i111:11d y the same angle. Par
    a llel dra in:tg.: suggests thaI th... ar...il hilS a gcntl.:. unif0f111
    s "-,p .... Th ... tr iblltar i.:s fullo w lwds in th.: k ss res islant rock,
    I':lritlk l an d mr!;;d draina ge on :I vo lca no in Maui. HI. art
    shnwn ill Fignre 14 -2()a.
    Ib d i:11 (('l'nt r ll"ul!lIl) lllld Cen t r ip d a l: A radi al J minage
    plltl.:rn forms \, h.:n waln !lows down ward o r o utward from
    a hill or dOI11.... T it.: rad ial drai nag.: paU.:rn of channd s produced can tx' liken.:d tn a \!.hl"t:l consis ting \l f a circ ular net
    wo rk Ill' pmll llci d tan nds Ii ..:.. the spuk.es) llo.> wing a\~ a~
    fro m a l:cntra l h igh po int or\II'l1Ie ( i.e .. Ihe huh), [n Ihis c:J>e.
    hn\\ e\Cr, the huh o f tot: \\ hl'<.' 1 is ekvated ahove the spt)ko.
    I(adllli JrOli nag ... is o l\.:n fo und on th... sltJpt.'S of volcanic
    ':Ol1l'S suc h as Diamon d . ka d C r.lIer on O ahu. HI. or on
    steep m,)unl"i nllus terra in ( Fig.ure 14-2 00 I. It is also referred
    to as u'llIrifilgul raJi Oll draini.ll::e.
    .-\ radml dra inat:.: pllu...rn can also J ... n~lop on ci rcu lar areas
    tha r d rain ill/u 01 ':OIlUllon. endo,.:d C.:lUrOlI basin or dcprl:~'

    527

    GeOl09Y

    -friti c
    pllen

    I ......

    se\"-

    structurally
    controlled

    r igh t

    lrock
    d 0"

    :iall y
    eriog
    ,f the
    3. or

    ns of

    I
    ndgc

    ) 110 ....

    '0

    the

    bits a
    more

    ngtu

    leve lvhere
    ely to
    a lso

    'e I ~-

    cncr-

    rand
    IminiJua l

    a.

    angle

    tancs
    tones
    Par -

    iform

    roc" .
    1 arc

    lnage

    .ion This is referred 10 as cen tripetal radial draina ge , In this


    ease. the huh of the 1\ hee l is loVo er than the qm kcs. A cinde r
    tone volcano may have l'clllrifugal rad ia l drainage \111 the
    exterior sides of the volcano and centripetal mdinl drai nage
    1n the interior wa lls lll"thl' crater I Figure 14-2Vn l.

    W l11

    prof netaway
    f

    case.
    okes.
    arne

    \n n ul:1r: An annular dra inage pattern is similar 10 the rad ial


    paucru e xcept thur ring.l ikl' tributari es inte rcept radia l
    streams .11 right an gles ( Rasher and v.,..ea vc r, 19( 0 ). These
    delelop when stream cours es a<IJ us l 10 111)w around resista nt
    4omc:;, (I runirc or sedime ntary domes o ftcu de velop this patern, as \10 so me meteorite craters ( r igure l 4-2Oc),

    )r o n

    IT<d

    llichu tumiv: r\ d ic hot omic drain age patte rn may be foun d


    alluvial fans or on alluvial dehas at the mo uth o f strcams
    nverx ( Figure 142 1a ). The water and suspe nded sediment
    esually enter the alluvia l fan or deltaic area through a s ing.le
    dlannd _The 1111\\ is then red istribut ed througho ut the fa ll or

    illI

    area s

    pres-

    b.

    Rgure 14-19 a) Top- Hypothcucal dendritic dramagc pattern. Bouom: Vc nil;t1 aerial photograph of a ocm1ritic drainage pattern found Oil
    r i",uli r.; urth Bay ufthe IludSllJl River National Estuarin... Rcw,u",h Reserve in ," c" York. t-) lrelhs dnu nagc pattern found 011
    lhl' hogbac k mlgl"s on the edge (If the Uinta Moumams in Utah (I ands,n I\ISS dua I c I Srructumlly controlled rectangular
    draina ge pattern of the Colorado Rivcr in the Grand Canyou (Thcma nc \ l .q'!x:r huml 4 data, courtesy Spa ce Imaging, lnc.).

    dcha via a number (lfdi.l'lrihular!c _\', O n an alluvial fan, the


    coars e malcrillls (cobhlc s, gra ve l. etc.I arc deposited al the
    ape x 01" the fall while tbc smaller and lighter minera ls arc
    dcposucd toward the terminus o f th e tan In certain
    instances. the dichotomic drainage patte rn may co mpletely
    disappear ucur the te rm inus of'thc fan. i.c., the material is so
    porous rhmallofrbc wate r percola tes underground. Simi lar
    dichouunic d istributaries Ill'-l)" form un rive r deltas ( c.g.. the
    \-1ississi ppi aml N ile) . The dichotom ic d rainage patte r ns can
    only for m on ddw s when the sus pe nded sediment is very
    fine-gra ine d ,Il1U CJn be transported great dis tances.
    Knlid l'o : A braide d stream patte rn may de velop on t100dpla in" whe re strea m \ch>ei t) is not s uffi cient 10 move the
    suspended scdrmc mlood dm, nctre am. The re su lt is the dcposruon of ~u spc:ndeJ mate rial in inte rtwin ed channel.. that
    appear much like braid ed hair. For example . consider the
    braided stream p,IlII'm found at the mouth of the Betsiboka

    528

    (" II A1'1 t:I~

    14

    Remote Sens ing of Soils, Minerals, and Geomorphology

    ~J~
    ---. "-:.
    +--...-::::.:-.

    'lJ\'

    Rad ia l and Cen tripet al

    <.
    Figu re 14 20 81 SIR.{:" radar image of paraljcl an d rad ial drainage pauerns found on I~ volcanjc cone in \\ estern MallL HI (('OUT1ts) \.-,,,-,
    lei Propulsion Lahor~IOf) I. bl Lo .....ot>li'lU<: ae rial phol ugrap b c f Diam ond Head Crater on Oah u.. Ill. revealing boIh
    n'furiJll.1.a1 interior dra inage panerns. c) Space Shut1k ph{ltograph o f l~ a nnular d ram age pattern on the M anicoua gan Crm
    on the Canadian Shield in Quebec Province.Ca nada lcourtes~ I'\AS,\ Johnson Space C..-mer: STSI J(l'J..48..] 13'1).

    radial_

    River in Madaguscur ( Figure 14..2 1b ). The sands a nd grave ls


    that arc sys tem atic all y sorte d and deposi ted in a braid ed
    stream drainage netwo rk n11lY event ually have s igniflcmu
    ec onomic importance.
    ()t'ran~ l'd : A de ranged drai nage pancrn exhibits streams
    that wand er in d isorder in swamps and among water bod ies
    [n ot show n). It is mainly fo und on very young landsca pes
    that have al most le veltopog raphy and a h igh water tab le. It
    can occ ur in young glaci al ti ll p lains. moraines. low co as tal
    plains. and floodplains. Us uall y swa mps. ma rshes . bogs. a nd
    ta kes or pond s are prese nt.

    A nas lo mn lic : An anasto motic d rainage pauem ma y be


    found 011 mature floodpla ins where there is ample hornogcncous sed iment a nd red uced stream fln w or vclocuy, Basical ly, the hydro logic sys te m docs not have su ffic ien t energy
    10 rem ove the sedime nt from the area. Th e major stream

    c hann el adjusts 10 the decrease in ene rgy by deposi ting Its


    sediment 1n;\I! and incr ea sing the length ofrhe stream channet. Typi ca l d iagn' lslic features include mcund cnng streams
    and re mnan t meander scars and/or oxbow lakes such a~
    those fo und on the Missi ssippi Ri\ er ( Figure 1-l-2I c).
    S ink ho le (d nli ne) : A sinkho le dra inage pan crn consise cf
    isolated lakes o r po nd s lhat d,) nOI appear to he connected ~
    any sys tem atic surface dra inag e. If sh..m stream Sl.1Jrnenu
    are present, Ihey ofte n end ab ruptly or disappear into karst
    topog raph y sinkholes or d~pTt:ssions. Tb rs dra inage p;tll:m
    dev elo ps o n sedi mentary li mestone (('aCO) where the sinkho les and dep ressions hav e formed by c hemical dissoluliOll
    (Tre fil and 1Ill/e n. I'N5 ). Somenmcs the subterranea n drainage network that is nu t visible in the imagery emerges to
    torm sprin gs lind lakes. An example ofsinkhole t('lp<)g:raph~
    in Flor ida is shown in the section on karst to pography.

    529

    Geomo rp ho lo gy

    meand...ring

    'j-t-

    nver
    saml bare

    b.

    roller

    tits

    F'9ure 1421 a) .-\ST ER image ofan d ichotomic drainage pcuern onan a lh.<inl ran betwee n the- Kunlun and -\ !tun ml>unlam ranges on the
    sou thern bonk! o f the Takhmakan I><.-,..:n in C hina's XinJi.iug Pw' mce . The images "as acquired on Ma f 2. ::!OO.:! rcocncsy
    Cl (:"lASA'GSFC \tfTI T RSI) /\ CIJAROS and U.S.JaI"l" ASTER Scienc e Team). b) Sp;I<"" Shun lc ph "hl~f3 ph o fthe braid ed
    -trcam paue m on l-k"lsih"la River mouth in Madagascar (,," unes)' Kamlesh Lulla: "'lAS,\ Johnson Space Cenler). c) SIR..('I
    XSAR L-band radar imago: of \t iss ;'Isippi Rive r ananomonc d rain :_!?c pauc m (courtesy )\ASA Jd Propulsion UOOT:l:IOI)').

    Geomorphology

    haneams
    h

    :IS

    Is o f
    d by
    crus
    ~arsl

    .te rn
    ink -

    lion

    am-

    ".
    phy

    c.

    A kmdtiJrlI/ is a thrce- dimensi onu l fea ture on the Earth's surface formed by natural processes. Typicallandfo rms include
    volcanoes. plateaus. folded mountain ranges. stream cha nneb, etc . (jl'(J/IWlp"oloK~' is the science tha t studies the
    enure and history of la ndforms and the processes of weathering. erosio n. and depovitinn that crea ted them I H.)CI,.'t. ..."1
    !!.. ::!OO51. At one lime il was know n a.. the science of phvsi()gruphy. T he study of geo morp hology involves an appreciation fo r Ih t' majo r pn.x:e.\.\t',~ at work thai constantly erode or
    d..'P'''it materials on the Earth's crus t. incl uding running
    water (fluvial). glacial ice (glacial I. wind teohanj. groun dwater. and wind-driven wate r waves. Geoillgists. phys ical
    geographers. lind other scie ntists routinely usc the synoptic

    view associate d with remotely Sl'IISl'U data 10 identify and


    imem rct geo morp hic feat ures on the Furth's surtace. fn fact.
    idcruifyiug, understanding . and upprccluting the nature of
    landforms present on remotely sensed imllgl'fy is one of the
    great benefits 01' remote sl'nsing science. One should lake
    time to appr eciarc the treme ndous beauty and var iety (If
    landfor ms o n the Earth and h" w ecosystems associated with
    rhc \ anou, landfo rms interact .... ith one a nother.
    A wo rd o f caulion is in order. In th c lat... nineteenth and early
    twcmic th century . principks ofland form evolution were put
    forth such that any current landform could be interpreted as
    I'>t:ing in <I ...tage of evo hnion ( e.g., that stream \a lleys
    rru~re", from youth. maturi ty. to old agel . Land forms do
    cvolv c. but the complexity of clima tic change and its influencc s. the enects oftectonisrn. and man's impac t as a geomorphological agent may be so ove rriding tha t fe w
    geclml''l'holtlgi"ts now bcliev e that there is a simpl e and

    530

    C II ,\ I""H R

    14

    direct sequence of landforms tha t ca n be recognized as


    deve loping acco rding \0 a pa rticula r in variahle pattern
    (Wals h et a l. 1998 ; Jam es. 200f
    Fonuna re ly, ma ny landforms do exhi bit observable. r...peatable aunbu tcs such as size, shape , height . three-d ime ns iona l
    topogra phy. composition . slope. aspect. 1.'11.'. These attributes
    may he used to c1a~si fy landforms into the fo llowin g class...s:

    ignc\\us land fo rms


    Iand forrns developed on hor izontal strata
    land fo rms dev elo ped o n folded strata
    fauh-cor urolle d land forms
    Iluviulland forms

    Rem ole sensing of Soils, Minerals, a nd Geo morphology

    sion . ,\ Isu , imagery obtained at a relatively low Sun angle


    o ften enhance s the an alyst's ability to id enti fy landtorrre.
    Finall y. one has 10 he VCl')' careful whe n interpreti ng images
    in the No rthe rn Ilcmispherc because shadows in images fall
    towar d the north. a\\ 3Y fro m the \ ie.... er, Therefore. e\peri
    enccd ima ge analysts often rotate the Nort hern Hemisphere
    images so that so uth is towa rd tho: to p 10 pre vent pseudoscopic illu sion fro m taking place (i.c ., co n fusing mounne
    rid ges with valleys). Some of the illustratio ns in this ehaplCl"
    are oriented in thi s ma nner to facilitate interp retat ion,

    It is beyond the scope of this ch apter to pro vide examples of


    all the possible geomorphic landscape s prese nt on the SUIface of the Earth. Therefo re. Hilly representative examples of
    so me o f the mo st impo rtant land fo rms are presented. Pkast
    refer to boo ks on geomo rphic ana lysis from aerial platforms
    such as Shelton ( 19(10). Short and Blair (19'-)9), Rasher and
    Weaver ( 1990), Strain a nd Engle ( 1993 ). uno Way and Everell (1997),

    kars t lan dforms

    Ign eous Landforms


    shor el ine land forms
    glac ial land forms
    eolian land forms.

    The Soi l Conservauon Sc.'TVlcC produced a n excellent manual that summarized the major land forms and ho .... they
    ap pe:n on ae rial photograph y (Rashe r and Wea ver. ItNil ).
    Several o f thei r examples are used in this chapter. Short and
    Blair ( 1999) provided a tho roug h re view o f ho.... to pe rform
    geomorphological analys is from space especially for obtaining informuuon abou t large. regional landfo rms . T hey pro\ ide examples from arou nd the wo rld .
    One m ight ask. What is the idealtype of remote sensor data
    and'or image pr esen tatio n format to study. ap prec iate. and
    class ify the Earth's landforms? First. no sing le sensor is
    idea l for the stu dy of al l lnndt orms. Ae rial photograp hy may
    be ide al for studyi ng land forms in the re latively clo ud-frce
    arid wes tern United States, .... hi le radar data may be ide al lor
    studying landforms in cloud-shrouded enviro nments (e.g..
    Lu et al.. ::!nU4 j. Many a nalysts ca n e xtract la ndform info rmat ion by \ ie\\ ing a single ae rial photog rap h or imag e.
    Howe ver, many scientists prefer to study lanJ fo nns while
    viewing the te rra in in a three-di me nsional presentation us ing
    I ) stereoscopic pho tograph y or imager} (e.g.. Baldi et al.,
    ~OO5 ). 2) drap ing a monosco pic s ingle image o ver a digi ta l
    e levation model and then man ipu lating the o bse rve r 's \ ic.... ~
    ing posi tio n to enhance topograp hy. and/or 3) ob taining
    obliq ue imagery that generally en hances the thi rd dimcn -

    The Earth's upper mant le is pa rtly molten. with many minerals in it tha t were force d dee p by tectonic forces and eventual ly melted . tgncoes rocks arc produced from this molten
    fluid magm a. If the magma is e xtruded o nto the Earth's surface . extrusive igneous (vo lca nic ) rock is created. If the
    mag ma is ex truded into some subs urface portion of the
    Earth's crust, intrusive igneous roc k is formcd.Hthc molten
    lava Flo ws or is expl oded OUI of a central vent and produces
    a mound o r cone-shaped fea ture. we have a v olcano.

    Cinder ('fl/lC' vo lcanoes arc built ent irely of pyrocl astic mate-rials that are ejected into the air and fall to Earth nearby,

    Their accumulation ev entually bu ilds rhc cone. For example.


    conside r o ne ofrhc Menan Bulle volcanic craters ( Figure 1-1
    12). It .... a s created .... hen a dike of magma int ruded into a
    sha llow aquifer. Th e water in the aq uife r turned to steam and
    explosively fra gmented the basalt ic ma gm a into volcanic
    g las!>like pani cles called IUfr , The volcano was built up layCl
    by layer, hy ae rial deposi ts o f tuff and larger pyroclasrk
    (bom b ) mate rial. Th e two Menan Run e volcanoes also
    extruded lava onto the surface covering a larg e portion of
    eas tern Idaho. Diamond Head C rater on Oahu, I II. is also a
    turf co ne volcano.

    un..,

    do mC' (.~hidd) ,v/nJIIU('j arc crea ted when the Ian


    po urs ou t on to the: land scape. Generally this results in more
    gently slopin g volcanoes depend ing upon Lhe: viscosity of
    the lava
    the mor e high ly fluid the lavarhe mo re gentle
    the slope ; the more viscous the lava . lhe stee pe r the slope

    u.e..

    Go<

    09'

    lin (Ingle
    rdforms.
    ~ images.
    ages lall
    . experi-

    53 1

    Seomorpho logV

    Menan Butte Ctndcr Cnnc vulca nn in Id ah o

    nisphcre
    pseudo-

    rounrain
    I chapte r
    n

    n ples of
    the surn plcs of
    . Please

    arforms
    he r and

    rd Eve r-

    minerevcmu-nohcn.
    'r's surIf the
    of the
    molten
    e duce s

    : mateeearby
    ample.

    rrcl -t111 0 3

    re 1422 Panchromatic ~t<;:T'l.-opair o f the wuth~'11l Menan Butte cinder COlle volca no in It1.Ihu obtamcd on J une ::-1. 1'>60. It is une o f the
    \\(lf ld's largest tu fTcone volca noes . wilh a volume ofOJl7 mil (U.~O c ubrc " m ') . The lu rf l~ made of volcanjc glass Ihal has
    teen altered b) 11M: adJ ition o f \\ 01l<:r. The cone is laic Pleistocene i n age. The ~lcnan il l/lie vo lcano al,;o c.\trudcd lav a on the
    surface 10 the west tbon om nf lhe photographs ) for many kilometers. There ISsllnghm (In Henr) 's f ork in the leli photograph
    as it 11\,,,, s into the Snake River Note the radial and parallel drainage on the l1.mks ofil le crater and the eL"'lltri[k1al drainage in
    the inter ior of the CIlIK'f.

    uccd). Common extrusive rock s arc basalt, andesite,


    dacite, and rhyolne. Havalt is the most widely d istributed
    .olcanic roc k. It is also the mo st common rock on the Earth 's
    erfacc . It flows out from volcanic vents over other rock in
    pearlobes or thin sh eets ( L. t1 et al.. 2(l t~ J . II ca n trav el hundreds ufnnlc s. It is fine-grained. black, rich in silica uud thc
    erromag ncsian minerals . Basah normally ap pear's dark o n
    pmchrornaric li lm because it contains feldspar. hornblende .
    lnd miens. Dac ite and rhyolite appear in light tones on panchromatic images.

    m a nd

    Jeanie
    1 layer

    stasuc
    I a lso
    ion of

    also a

    lava
    more

    ity of
    lemlc

    slope

    The Shutt le SIR-Cl X$A R rada r image in Color Plate 1~ -2a


    reveal seve ra l componc ms o f the Kilauea shield vo lr nno
    located ou Hawa ii. T he massive volcano conti nues ro he erened by the ext rusion O( I WO types of lava : a'u is extremely
    rough and sp iny and w ill quick ly lear shot' s when walking
    OIl it, and ! /(, 'j",*,!wt' is a I\I[)C Y lava rhur look s like burned
    pancake bailer. The vo lcano is enlarged by the extrus ion of
    lava onto the surface. Numerous individualflows are easily
    seen in the three-dimensiona l radur-pcrspec nvc vie w in
    Colo r PI:lIe 1 ~ 2 b . Noll' especia lly rhc dark mate rials from
    the Kupaiauah a cra rer Kilauea ha s been crupnng almo...l
    constan tly since 19R3,

    Figure 14-23 A threc-drmcnsional per-pecnve view of Isla lsabcla


    o r the {i;llapagvs !>Iauds. TIlis is a Space Shul!lc
    SIIot _1'/ XSAI{ im;lge draped over a digital elevation
    mod e l. [{"ugh au la vu !lows produce a bright radarreturn on me srde..fthe dome volcano. Ash deposits
    an,1 relatively .' 11I<.0Ih11</'/""'''''(' 101\ a appear as dark
    nrcns nn rnc eidc "I' rhe volcano (cnurtcs y NAS \
    JPL ).

    I,-Ia lsa bela j, une of the G alapagos Istands loc ated off the
    coast o f Ecuador. South Am erica, It is a lso an ac tive
    lava dome (s hie ld) volcano. rigure 1 ~ - 2 3 depicts a Spa ce

    " I,.'S t

    CII AI"IER

    532

    14

    Remote Sensing of Soils. Mineral s. and Geomorphology

    ~ Io u nl

    St. Helens

    u. High oblique pho tog raph.

    b. Stcrcopair.

    Figu re 14-24 a ) High-oblique pl1\lhlgraph o r MUUIl! 51, Itcicns crupung nil May 1S. I <) ~O ( C" lUt c ~ > "f U .S. (ico]"gic;.tl Surv<;y). h) USGS
    lligh A lti tude' I' holography' (HA l') stcreopatr of Mount '-;1 I k I L'n ~ in Washinghln (>11 August fl . t cx I (I I,S. Geological SUf\e)'
    photos I (l'J ~-l . 1l 5) _ The acti ve 1a\:1 dome in the center ofthc C'Hn..: i~ visible. Steam is rising fruTn wi thin the crater. A ,diml'lll
    cho ked radial dminage paucm has developed. North IS tothe lett. Please re fer In ('OIOT Pl.ne 14-...

    Shunle S IR-C/ X-SA R image o r Isla lsabcla dra ped ove r a


    d igital elevation model. The brigh t are as arc very rou gh ]:1 ' a
    fl ows.

    Lava flows on the wcstdchl Volcuno, Alas ka, wcrc, map ped
    using radar and Landsat Thematic Mapper imagery [ Lu er
    al.. 200"). Baldi ct al. {200S ) used a...rial photography and
    phorogra mmctry to map geo morphic changes on the Stromboli volcano in Italy, Thermal infrared AVHRR data were
    usc-d to map hot spots on .'viI. Etna and Strombo li volcanoes
    ( Pergola et at , 200-1).

    Composite cone or s tru to volcanoes are created from both


    pyrocl astic mal...'r ials and extrud ed lava . The world 's most

    impressivl.' volcanoes Me C11ll1fK'sitc cones. For example,


    :\1(IUl1t St. l ic k-us in w ashin gton (R,311O ft: 2,548 m) is J
    composite cone volcano ( Figure 14-24 and Co lor Plate 14
    31. lr erupted on May IX. [IJXO, at X:32 u.m. Pacific time. .l.
    se ries of moderate-to- severe ea rthquakes preceded the eruprion, sending th... north side ofrhe mountain cascading downwurd toward Spirit Lake. This avalanc he. the largest eHI
    observed in the wes tern Hemisphere. weakened the magma
    chambers .... uhm the volcano. causing a northwa rd lateral
    and vertica l explosion that destroyed over 270 m i ~ (7.000
    km ~) of forest in live seconds and sent a billowing cloud of
    ash and smoke 7U.ono n (.21.0CIO m I into the atmosphere. A
    pumice plain \\a_~ produced. cons isting of'v olcanic mud. ash.
    and debris that buried the original Toutle River Valley to a

    ~I o gy

    533

    ~m o rp ho logy

    ,\ I n u n l Taranaki.

    ;\~\\

    Z t'a la nd

    '.
    ~J:",()lI(

    'ialional Pari.

    Mgure 14-25 ASlfR image of ' lounl Taranaki tin :'>It" Zealand's North Island ooraincd on May 27. 2001. TIns cOI11 JlO'>l te cone volcano is
    madl' of amk,i lc lava and a mixture ofsolid pyroclastic rocks (tcphn ),and ash.Tbc unique shape ofthe Egmont National Park
    resuu, frum Il' pnuccuon in l ~~l. whic h specified thai a tllfeCo,l reserve would extend in a 'H ' km radius from the summit of
    ~ h'ul1l Taranaki. ,\ series of montane habnats oc cur in procession from the pasture farmlands up the Flanks of the votcanc-cfrom ram forest, ttl sbr ubs, to atpme. and fi nally snow cover (eourt."~y of NASA etSFClMETIE RSDAO JAROS and U,S}
    h J'dll ASTER Science Team},
    depth (If 1.000 Ii (WIl m) . The stereoscopic phot ograph y
    obtained on All~ust 6, I\)XI , OIlie r the eruption re vealed
    another lava dome {Ie \'dopi ng in the ce nter (If the cra ter.

    'Set s
    trvcy
    111111

    pte.
    h a
    4A
    up-

    s n.
    kr

    ."
    tal
    00
    f

    xtouru Turanaki in l-gmont National Park on New Zeala nd's


    North Island is a composite cone volcano made o f andesi te
    lava (F igure 1425 ), The fOcb arc a mixture of so lid p}rnclastic rocks lt e:phra l, a sh c.~ . and lava Flows. which lack
    cohe sion and arc easil y carved by eros io n. 1vloun t Ta ranaki
    stands at 251 X m. The volca no ~ga n fnm li ng 711,OOO yea rs
    ago. a nd las t e rupte d in 1755.
    Intrusive igneous rock i ~ for med when the molten magm a
    cools and c!") stJl1 ilt: s .... ithin tho: Earth's crust. The material
    lying abov e this pluto nic roc k may eventually he eroded.
    Large igneous intrusive ruc k hlluil's. or nll/hl//ith." oft en
    fonn the foundauon fo r entire mo unta in systems such as the:
    Sierra Nev ada in the weste rn L'nilcd Slates or the Andes In
    South America . Sma ller u{lme-sh'lped intrusive flick bod ies
    arc c a iled l<t<"fJlirh., or .l / tK h .

    ous rock . rich in q uartz and fe ldspa r hut poo r in the fe rroma gnesia n ( iron and magnes ium I minerals. G ran ite usuall y
    ap pears in light tones o n panch rom atic image!")', whereas
    diaba se an d gabbro are dark. Granite cools for an exceptiona lly long time unde rgroun d : therefo re . it has large crystals
    that a rc visible 10 the naked eye. Whe:n granite is exposed at
    the sur face, ex fofiancn may ta ke place where co ncent r ic
    shells o f rock material break o JT du e 10 chcmicu l or thermal
    wealhering and from the release o f interna l stress w hen
    ovcrburdcn is removed. For exa mple, Figure 14-26a depicts
    Stone Muuntu in in Ge orgia, which is a rel atively sma ll intrusive stn c-k. It is approximately 360 m h igh and I I km in c ircumfcrcncc. An imagc
    the top of the do me revea ls linea r
    slr i at jon~ uuu radiate a..... ;L)' from the apex ( Figure 14-:::6b).
    Anot her excelle nt example is the Bra ndbcrg Massif in
    Namibia ( Figu re 1 ~- 2 7 ). Th is massiv e granite intrus ion is
    exposed at the surface and CU \eTS approximately 650 sq. km
    (25U sq. nu) an d rises 2573 r u(I ,h m il above the des ert .

    or

    Somcurncs the tess rcsisram ma terial su rro undi ng the intru -

    sive volcanic neck ((IT plug) of a volcano erodes, exposing


    The mos t common intrusive (plu tonic ] rocks incl ude granite.
    diorite, diabase. and gabbro. Granite: is a lighr -colorcd igne-

    the more res istan t vo lcanic neck materials. For exam ple ,

    Dcvil's To.... e r in Wy(lming is an intrusive volca nic nec k


    534

    14'

    Remote Sensi ng of Soils, Mine rals , and Geomorp hology

    Stone Mountain, C;,\

    b.
    Figure 14 26 al Pan<'hmmalic aerial pltoloparh of Slone Mountain. 00\. II 1$ a gran ite exfol iation dum e (re3100 oy intrusive magma!iOiidif) ing .Ill.m:.al depth. It is lxli.:\<-..1 that more than 10.000 ft. ofk-,;s n.." i5l.;m l material "iUO cr ..>lk...J to expose the inl1U'il\'crocl
    l>' Large-scale photograph of the 1111' o f Stone \ loll nl3;n . I'\l'le the gllndnla. facI lity. linear striations in tbe rock, and thc:-p.nIld
    and annular dr. nnagc pattern pr.."c nt.

    (f-'igure 1-1-21\) . Occasiona lly the mag ma is ex truded away


    [Will the main body via cracks and fissu res in the Earth 's
    crust 10 fo rm d ikes and s ills, Later the mate ria l a bove these
    dikes and l>ills may be eroded. e xpo sing wall-like res!..tan t
    Jikl-".

    Brandbcrg :\Iassif. Xamibla, Africa

    If the g ranite at the surf ace is largely unfr acrur..-d. a dendri t ic


    drainage pa tte rn will res ult on the domelike h ills. Co nvers ely, ifthe gra nite has been exte nsively fractured , this can
    result in a rec tangular nr I rd1i ~ dra inage pattern.

    Landforms Developed on Horizontal Strata

    Many landforms haw de veloped o n tlar, hor i70ntally layered strata. A layer is co ns idered to be horizonta l when the
    dip (inc linat ion from i1 hor izonta l plane) ofthe strata has not
    sign ili cam ly ,, 11~(1~1I the developmen t of the topograph y.
    The type o f roc". its crud ubility, amount of prec ipitat ion
    ava ilable to the regio n. and loca l stream grad ient control
    landform dc\ elopmcru.
    Hori zontally bedded sedime ntary rocks arc formed by
    ce men ting the loose pan icles produ ced by weat hering . T he
    most co mmon ce menti ng agen ts an: quartz. calcite, and iron
    oxide. ;<, lost sed ime nts scutc in wa ter in re lati vely horizontal
    layers called .' /n ll,l. Sedime nts can collect in slo .... -moving
    streams. in swamps. lakes. a nd shallow seas. Se dime nts als o
    collect in oc eans. where they are deposited on contmenta l
    shelves o r Ilood down submarine cany uns and nrc depo site d.

    Figu re 14-27 The Ilr;uult-.: rg \ lassir in Namibia is a dome-shaped


    grllllltc intrusion cove ring 650 sq. km (150 sq. mit
    It n ...:s 151.' III ( 1,(, mi) above the desert. Thisimage
    was recorded hy the Landsat 7 ET\ l+ on Sq,temb.:r
    In, 2lN1l lcuuncsy uf t"AS .\ l.

    The 11" w s ti"'t dcros i t t.mu~ sand. then finer clays a nd slits.
    dcpcndmg upon grain SiIC. The most common rock outcrop
    formations on the coruincms arc co m posed o f mudstone.

    537

    Geomo rp ho lo gy

    .thcrstone
    T he

    Sh~lc .
    ~l\at,'

    end)
    '1 the

    o.

    --

    Limestone - Kaibab
    - TOl'(l\\e:lp
    Sand- tone - CIlro nino
    Lime~lone

    G ~(l l n ~ic

    C ross-section
    or the G ra nd Ca nyo n
    in Arizona

    V~

    Shi,...ru"'I'

    M,,,,,,k,'r' ik"7: --

    nd a
    I the

    j hy
    ired

    m a-

    '4-

    Li 1Tll'~l<lnc

    oJ"
    lent
    'c ry

    - vtua v

    S ha le - Hn ghl Ange l
    Sandstone - Tapc ais,

    eof

    <p-

    he r
    , of

    .......

    t he
    j cs

    ......01 11

    e.

    'm

    epe

    ;he
    jO(

    So uth

    Rim

    ""
    ill
    ru

    ,.

    n
    , oJ

    ic

    b. Stcrropair o f the Gram ! (" ,In)OI\.


    Figure 1429 a ) Geulogie eruss-),,;eliun uf the Gra nd Ca nyon in Arizona . h I Panch ro matic slcreupai r of the 0 1',111<1 Canyon . Viewi ng and
    cam ping fac ilities an.' located 1I1l 1he sandston e cap rock ti l' the <. 'ue uninu Plateau on the Sou th RIm.! he Imag es were rotated
    so (hilt :;,'uth is to the Icn to avoid pscudoscopic illusion TIle r"s i.slant sandstone ,mJ Iimcstone f"on M.C p cliffs. The klo.~
    I'l."'ii~t;mt shale is easily eroded, causing more gradual slopes I II form . 1he Iiright A"go:! buue is locat.:J at "rr",

    Landforms Developed on Folded Strata

    ~u i kling) can ev entua lly lilt or fold


    the honzomal scduncm ary or me tamorphic roc k la ye rs. The
    fold ed te rra in ma y pr od uce: monocline domes suc h as Aye rs

    lJiaYlrophl_,m I mo untain

    535

    Geo mo rp ho logy

    511Ull It.

    d-

    ( ;"n l,,!!if
    ( 'n,ss-scctiU II

    lel

    Talus

    45un

    '000

    b.

    Tdills

    I
    lsI

    hh
    Jp

    "h
    Tas

    FlQure 14-28 a) Panchromatic stcrecpair of the Devil's Towe r. WY, volcanic l1I:d. obtained on September 15, 1953. with SC'IUth al the top.
    Venleal j<lints dlvide the rod " mass into polygonal cnlumM that extend fmmjuSl abo ve the baJ,e 10 the top of'thc Tower. De...-il's
    Tower is R05 !'t. talt. with an elevation of 5.1 17 It The Tower is more resista nt to erosion than the surroundmg sedimentary
    rock, It was formed by the intrusion of magma intc sedimentary roc k. Weath..red rock ( t ;l l us~ li..s m the b ase. b) Geologic CT<lSSsec tion: Tp '" volca nic neck consisting of crystalline int rusive black igneous roc k - phonolite po rp hyry' ..... ith crystals of v.hue
    feld,par; l as = n.-d sillslOOf and sandsroec with interbedded red shale: Jgs - gypsum wn h interbedded red mudstone: h b gra y-gre.:n shale with sandstone: Jsh - yel l o~ sandstone; Jsr - gray-grcsen shale ~ ith san..l sto nc and Iirnes ton e.

    sandstone. sha le, and limestone. Greater water force is


    required to mow larger pebble-size particles that are d cpo....
    ired as conglomerate.
    Mu.bIU/It' has no vis ible gr ains, being composed of
    extremely tine sediments deposited on ~ u iet flood plains, in

    lakes. o r deep oce ans . Thi ck depo sits of mud stone are
    present in most deltas, where rive rs en ter still water. Layer.
    ing occurs in thick m ud deposits becau se the clay panicles.
    being flat. align themselves horizonta lly, They are usu ally
    gray to shades of red in co lo r. Th e Miss i<;sippi delt a coma ins
    mudstone.

    ihs,

    "p
    one.

    Sandstone has vi sib le grai ns like coarse sugar" up til a lmost


    1/12 in. (2 mm ) in diameter. Mo st sandstone is co mposed <I f
    rounded particles o r quartz . b ut it can con tain feldspa r and
    fragment s of unweathered roc k. To move particles of th is
    size. the water or w ind mu st ha ve force . In arid envi ronments. sandsto ne is a weather-resist a nt, hard roc k. Outcrops

    often appear in light tone s lIli black-and-white phorogruph y


    unle ss cove red by dl"SC11 varni sh, in wh ich case they may
    have dark tones. Sand -tone in ari d a nd semiarid en v iron me nts often produces phJ/ l'<llI .I'. 11I....\ <1.1', and b uttes, Cliffs
    may occu r where sand ston e caps (o verlays ) less resis raru
    sed ime ntary rock such as shale. Sandstone is no t a s plas tic
    [pljahle] as shale and ot he r sedimentary rock s . Therefore. it
    is bro ken easily" hell stress ed. T he fractures become visible
    and may produ ce angu lar. de ndrit ic, tre llis. or rectangular
    d rainage pattern s.
    ! .illh '.\'IOI/t ' is formed from ca lcium carbon ate. Lime prcc ipitares (.tl!n sha llow sea floors in warm tropica l water s where
    a lmo st IlU oth er scdirnc ms clo ud the wate r. Limestone rock s
    fo rmed 10 thc bro ad centc rs o f 1l0000ed ancient co ntine nts
    and along the edge o f continental shelv es whe re reefs "ere
    bui ll. ,\s a rcsuh, man y limestones are co mposed ofthe skelet on s of ree f-formin g ani ma ls. Limestone (an d re lated dolomill...1 are susc cprible to solutio n. mcan ing thai the y can he

    536

    ( 'II AI ' I EK

    14'

    d issolv ed. In humid environ me nts. "hen: there is plenty o f


    .... atcr; we may lind karst topograph y, named after the Karst
    region 1)1' the former Yugo slavia. created by lime stone d isso lution . Th e undulating 10 hu mm ock y terrain o ften contai ns
    lin ,-isihk' su rface dra inage pattern but instead may e xhibit
    oval sink hole.. called dolincs. Limestone in and environ mcms behaves quite diffe rently. Bec au se there is litt le water
    for divsofuuon. limeston e may Ill' \ cry resista nt to weathe ring. III fact.l iL.e sandstone. it may fon n cap rock s with venical faces when underlain hy less resi stant sedimentary roc k
    such as sha le.

    Shale sed imentary rock is prod uced by the depos ition an d


    compaction uf !oill and cia) particles. It is relatively impervious to w ate r moving throug h it; ther efore, mor e wa ter is
    available for surface erosion. In ari d en viron ments the soft
    imperv ious shale is ~asi l)' eroded. It gen erally doe s not produce as steep r.lopes as sandstone or lim...'Slone. When no
    ca prock is prese nt, il ...' an y ield a n lgg ed had lands topo graph) consist ing ofa fine-text ured p innate dend ritic dra inag e:
    pa tte rn \lo irh sharp ridgclince and steepe r slopes. Generally,
    shale is mo re pliable: Ihan sandstone a nd.therefore. is no t as
    a ff...-ctc d by gc-clcgic stress. T his results in a greate r numbe r
    of fine - 10 med ium-te xtured den dritic dra inage patterns .
    Shale ge n~rally Ol pp..-ars in ligh t tones o n panchromat ic
    Imagery.
    The G rand Ca nyo n in An /OIlOl is a good example o f vario us
    land forms developed I ll! hllri/ o nla lly bc-ddcd sedi me nta ry
    rock. A di ag ram ofthe tx'dd ing srrucnrrc is found in Figure
    14-1 9a. This reg ion comams a nCOl rJy ...-ontinu ous sedimentary r..."Cord ofthe Ea l1h's histlll)', w ith approx imately 5,000
    n, ( 1,500 m) of h...dded hnn lonta l laye rs. all stac ked in
    S~4 Lle n.:e v. ith th.: (llde sl at th.: boltolll. Oll~ o f thc tl' P laycrs.
    the Ka ihah linK'stolle. lilrn1l'11 from the re ma ins l,f corals.
    ~ p()n gcs, and (lth...r Illnrin l" anim als and is nne o f the youngeM in the seq u~ne~ - ahoul 241l milliun yea rs old. AI tli.:
    hottom Of lhc canyon Ik s lhe Vishnu Sc hist wh ich is abou t
    1.7 h illion yea r~ old . so mt' o f the p land 's ollkst me k. Thl'
    in' P<::lwee n layers o f roc k reveal a turbulent hislOry o f mOlln~
    tain uph eaval , l(1va de posits, erosi on hy w ind and wat"",r. and
    pa st en vironmental e h i\nl!e~ as , k sens we re repl!!c.:d hy rivers, t h~n I;lkc s and ",hall"," inla nd se' lS. finall y. lh~ land was
    uphllld. forming the Colorado Platl"au , Five 10 six m illion
    years ago . Ihe you n~ Co lor.ldo River began to cut into the
    by'l:T5 I,f ro.:k. ;snd Ih.: G rand Canyon was o.'T ealed.
    A pallc hronw lic st.:rco pa ir " I' Ihe ar~a n~ar the So uth Rim of
    the G rand Ca nyon and Brigh t A ngel sha k hutt e is fou nd in
    Figurt" 14-24h. The Sou th Rim is com posed o f sandsto ne

    Remote Sensing 01 Sal ls , Mine rals, and Geomorp hology

    caproc k ",r the Coc onino Platea u and is res istant to lI'cather
    mg, forming a tlat dissected plateau (m esa ). Roth sandsrore
    and limestone form stee p el i 11-.. in ari d envi ronments. Tbe
    less resis tant sha le is e;bily eroded. c rcOlling more ~('Iltly
    sloping erod ed surfaces ( Figure 14-2 %). AI"'., present in tilt
    stc reopair is the crurcnc hcd Colorado River with its deep. \.
    shaped inne r gorge and rapids.
    Anothe r example of borizomally bedded strata is found a
    few hundred mi les do wnstream. Figu re I4- JOa depicts the
    Colorado as il di sSl."CIS the Sh ivwits Pla teau as recorded tr,
    the Landsat Thematic Mapper. Th is band 4 ncar-infrared
    image pro\ ides sig nitkan t det ai l hut not near ly the inllJrtnl.
    lion co ntent of the color composites found in Color Plate I'"
    -rab. wh ere the more resi sta nt sandstone caprock and L~
    more gc ntly sloping "hale sedimentary rocks are e\'idenl
    from their vib rant colors. Image ana lysts ort en lind it \et)
    uscfu! III have information abo ut the elevatio n and slope of
    an area when intcrprcnng landlonns. Fig ure 14-J Ob is a represcmarnm of USGS d illital elc vauon da ta. Note the higbeJ
    c' k valiu n of the Shiv w ils Plateau and th... lower elevation of
    th c Colorado Ri\ cr. An analyt ical shaded relief image of the
    d igita l ele vation data is shown in Figure 1....3Oc. It provides
    add itional informat ion of value to the image analyst about
    the three-di mens io na l na ture of the rerram. Fina lly. the slope
    ma p (F igu re 1 -l-J Odl ma k l-~ il clear that th c tcrrain with the
    gre atest slop..: occurs :Idj an'nl to the Co lorado a nd ill; msjor
    tributa ries . Pla teau s and me sas arc nat . hav ing litt le slope:
    there fore, they appear dark in the s tope image.
    Another e xccllcm ex ampk of a pla teau ..ir mes a is found in
    thc rh ,l n~ I loei Range of no rth cClllni l T hailand aoo ul40 km
    nonhe:lst o f the ...' ily o f I.om Sak ( Figure 14-3 1). The resis
    tOlllt pliltcau ris.:s maj.:stic'llly ahovc the sUTro unding countrysid... in this Shunk Imag ing Radar C-band BV pnla rizcd
    Image ,

    Somd inK's we enco unter horizolllally bedde d metamorphic


    T(>"k~ th,ll w\'re rreatt'd hy e~ ptls ll re to he,lt Hlld pressure,
    Th is 1//<'1<111101])/11.\'/11 ea us~s sandst une to become qUJrtlile.
    whil:h is wry rcsislalll tll wl"athering a nd can fonn sharp.
    e rcst~d ridges in ,lll c limates. Simi larly. metamorphosed
    shale h..:...Ol11CS \ e l) ' resistant slate. Orthogneiss is mel:lmor
    rhoscd gr.mit" :md has a simi lar aplll'ar:mcc. A variety of
    pJ rag lleiss ro~k s may h<: d~\ e1 ofl'C d from meta morphmed
    sall,\sIOIle:. shOl k and Illhc r s.:di lll~n ls. Sch isls arc medium
    grai ned cryst:d tinl" rnc ks d...' ri\'ed from sed imen tary rocks.
    I he) a re easi ly v.eath...rcd III humid c1 imaks hut resistant in
    ar id Cl1VirOlimen b.

    538

    ( ll '\ I' I 'U~

    14

    Rem ot e sensin g o f Solis, Minerals, and Geomorphology

    Grand C a nyon in ,\ r izo n a


    ..

    3. landsal Thematic Ma pper band 4.

    e. Shaded re lief map uf DEM.

    Sluvwrts Plateau

    b. Digital elevation model.

    d . Slope map derived from DEM ,

    Figure 14-30 :II Another secnon of the (Irnnd Canyo n on the Colorado River in Arizona. as recorded by the Landsat Tb..-rnatic Mappcr fhand
    4; 30 x JO on. North is ro the kn to improve intcrpretahilu y. Color Plate 14. 4 provides additional information. h) Digital eleva rion model derived tr om 30 x 30 rn US(iS data (d isp l a~Td as 3 'Ire second, <,lJ )( 93 m cells) Note the higher elevation
    Shivwits Platlall. c) Shaded relief map. d} Slope map where the brighter 1111: pixel. the steeper the slope tan e r Moja ve Desert
    Ecosystem Program. l '19 ~; Landsa t imagery courtesy of Space lmaginj!. tnc.).

    Rock in Figu re 1-11. anticlines. ami synclines. as previously


    illustrated in Figure 1-1 17. T he fo lded strata are eroded diffcrentially, depend ing upon the typr: of sedimentary rod.
    present. For interbedded sandsto n" and shale in arid en vironmcms. the more resistent sa ndstone forms nnnctinot ridg es,
    whereas the shales arc eroded to sym'!inal vattevs, This ca n
    form nearly parallel systems o f resist ant ridges separated by
    eroded valleys. T he res istance of carbonate rocks such as
    limes tone and dolomite depends on the climatic cond iuon s.
    In arid reg io ns with lillie water. limestone is resistant to
    weathering and tends to create ridges. Conversely. in humi d

    reg ions limestone may be dissol ved and therefo re is more


    easi ly erode d. forming valleys or lowlands.
    Depending upon the stee pness of the d ipping terrain, the
    ridgcs may he asymmcmcal or symmetrical. A hoghack is a
    sha rp-creste d ridge for med by d iff crcnual erosion of a resistar nbed of steeply dippi ng rock. For exa mple. a folded land,
    scapc ncar Ma veric k Spring, WY. is shown in Fig ure 14-32a.
    It is a dissected asymmetrical dome with a se ries of res istant
    hogback ridges surrounding the structure . Figure 1-'-32b
    depic ts an App alach ian Mountain range syncli nal valley
    bounded by the Brush ~ I\'unta i n ridgdi ne to the wes t and the

    539

    Geomo rp ho logy

    sin (".ha n d

    J{,\ U.\ I~ I m :ll:t' o f Ih (' I'h an l: Hnei f{an gt> in I h a ila nd

    Figu re 14-31 Shunk ImJl,! lng ltJd.l r C l:>md imago: of the


    Ph<lng Hod Range ur north central Thailand on Oc lOhcr J. l"'~ The res istant plateau i!> JXll1 of Inc Phil Kr.tdllng ~Jt ional
    Pm (coI.Jne,)' NI\ S..\ Jet Prop ulsion La b).

    Canoe MountJ in ridgeline to the cast ncar Tyrone , PA. In


    this environm ent. the sandstone is more recistam to erosion
    than the solub le limestone. f igure 14-3 ) dep icts the San
    Rafael swe ll in southern Utah . This is a flat-topped
    upwa rped mo noc line that slopes to the east-sou theast. The
    more resisuuu sandstone ridg es fonn hogba cks on the so uthern and eastern fl ank s o f the monocline .
    Sometimes rh c fold ing is so sc vcrc th at th c lay ers are nearl y
    vertical. For examp le, Figure 14 )4 depicts th... Ugab River
    in Nami h ia in ..a frica w hich Ilnw s throu gh nearly vertical
    folded laye rs of thinly bedded limestone. sandstone , and silt
    stone (Color Plate 14- 5).

    wd
    el-

    :iO Il

    ""
    )fL'

    The a ng le of dip ofu resis tantbed such as a hogbac k may he


    calculated usin g phlllogrmnnll'tric me asurem ent tech niques
    and the formula:

    ""

    tllnO '" -

    ( 14 -0)

    where e is the dip angle, 11 is the vertical distance. and d is


    the horizurual distance. as sho wn in figure 14 35,

    FaultControlled Landforms
    :11...

    sa
    is -

    od-

    ".
    om
    2b
    oy
    b<

    Therc arc th ree ma jor Iype s o f d isplac eme nt in fau lts. including: dip-slip, strike-s lip, and obl ique-slip. as pre\ iouslv
    shown in Figure 14- IM. The dip-slip faults rna)' he further
    subdivided uno normal, revcrsc.mrust. graben. and ho rsr. as
    shown in Figure 14-36a -c l. In a lIorm,,1fonh, the hanging
    wall is moved (displaced) do wnwa rd from the footwall.
    e\ pos ing aj"lJII scarp on the foot wal l l Figurc 14-3(01), The

    Wasatch fau lt a long the Wasat ch vt ountains 10 Lt ah is a


    good exa mple I Figure 14-37 ). 111c wasatch Mounta in Ra nge
    of the Rock)' Mountains is the uprhrown block , an d the
    dowm hrown bloc k is the valley floor. Faun scarps at the
    base o f the Wa sat ch Range gene rally face west.
    A n'w rsC' fau lt is cre ated when the displacement take s pla ce
    in the oppos ite direction (Figure 14-36b ). If the reverse
    faulting. causes the slab o f strata to m ove hor izontally on top
    of the la ndscape as shown in Figure 14-36c. we hav e a thrus t
    or Ol I.'I"-/ I,,IIM fau lt . " fau lt ca ll also inv olve Iwl.' fault
    p lanes. .-\ grah,11 is produced w hen a b loc k of material ge ls
    displaced dow nward between IW(l norma l faults (F igure 14J 6dl. Thcs... often produce rift valleys, such as thc grcar East
    African rin syste m. "lIor,, ' is created w hen a block of rnateria l is thrus t upward between parallel fault p lane s (F igure
    14 -36e).
    When the d isplaced roc k marcria l occurs paralle l with the
    faultline . a .\ Ir ih-.\'Ii" fault is crcmcd (Figure 14-IKh). For
    example, the San Andreas Faull in CalifllOlin is a classic
    ~t ri ke-slip fault. It passes through southern California cast of
    Los i\ngdl.'s.lhrough tho: southern portion of tho: great Ccn tra l valley. runs through S:ln Francisco. and then o ut to sea .
    A portion orthe faultline in so uthern Ca lifo rn ia is show n in
    Figu re 14 -3ft The we st s ide o f rhc San Andreas Fau lt is
    mov mg nonhwcsr. \\ hill.' the CllU side ofthe la u lt is movin g
    so utheas t. hence the 0 11 4 uuted observation tha t Los A ngeles
    and pans of San Fra ncisco. because they arc on the we ste rn
    side of the fault. are moving Ollt III sea a lbeit eve r so slow ly.
    Figure 1 4-J ~ also ide ntifies the Garlock normal fau lt. The
    imcrscc uo n ofth e Ga rlock and San Andrea.. fau lts is a \ cry
    mtc resung place to live with minor trem ors occurrin g almost
    e\cry daj , ~ulic e that the San Andreas Fault has created a

    540

    ( 'IIt\ I'l'n~

    14'

    Remote Sens ing of Soils, Minerals, and Geomorphology

    ..
    S~" ncl i nal

    , 'a ile)' in t he .\ p p lll.:tc hia n

    _' I " u ll i ll i n ~

    nea r T) ru nc. P..\

    b.

    Fig ure 14-32 a) USGS High Altitude PhoMgmph y ( HA PI oran eroded folded la ndsca p e ncar Ma veri ck Spring, WY, It is a dissected esrmmetric dom e . " luc h is an crustona l remnant cfu plUlllolil1j; unuchuc . 1"\11<.. the fine- te xtured hJpl'l;rilphy. the strike ofth .. ridges
    and valleys. a nd th e radial an d trellis drai nage controlled h~ the anuclina l stnlcm rc (lHlrth is In the righl). Also note the pWIIl'

    incm hogback ridges. b) 1I:\l' of a synclinal valley in llie Apl'a lachi:!11 MOUlllains ncar Tyrone. I'A. uluained on May-l.

    I ~S L

    The ridge lines of Hrus h MOUlltain on the west and Canoe ~ 1""n l ;l in l'l1 till.' ca st arc ~llll1 pu,~d " I' more resista nt sandstone.
    .... hile thc Ics, resistant. soluble lime stone sedimentary rock has been eroded. I'lw lI11e rhcdd ing " rl hc s;llldslune and limestone

    results in hogbacks at the periphe ry of the syncline with a lr<.'1Ii , l!raill.1gl' ratt <.'nl reouncsy U.s, Gculog ic,1I Survey ].

    sma ll rill ...'alley thut is relatively llal whe n com pared with
    th e te rra in on ei ther si de ofthe fa ult line Th is is most e vide nt w hen v iew ing th e s ha ded relief version of the dig ital
    elevatio n model (F ig ure 14 3Sd j. Nat ural la kes ofte n oc cur
    in these rill valleys w here lhe dra inage pattern has bee n d isrup ted .

    Ffuvial processes create eros iu nal alld depositional landlimn s in virtually every region o f the globe. Consequently.
    there tire a tremendous \ar iel) o f IlU\ lullandforms.

    Fluvial Landforms

    It is im po rta nt " hen mtcrp rc ung tl uv ia l land forms In an


    10 understand the cha rac te ristics o f the rock types
    with in the drainage ba si n. the drainage pancm. its density,
    and the gradie nt (s lo rl' ) ofthe w a tershed. St ream s o r rivers

    Fluvia l la nd fo rm s are c reated by the weathe ring . erosion,


    transporta tion , and deposition materials by flowing wate r.

    ity (e nergy) a nd hence g reate r bedload and su spended sedimen! ca rrym g capacity, They can even entrain pebbles,
    cobbles, and bou lde rs in the 110 w. Conversely. when !he

    Image

    I1l1\\ing over te rra in with steep gradicrns have grea ter veloc-

    or

    541

    Geomorphology

    San H. a facl S.... ...II in Sout hern Ut a h

    Figure 1433 Lllldsal Th cmanc M.lppc r band .. image of the San


    Rafael S", ...11 In southern Utah. II is a large tlat-toppcd
    monoclmal UplOo arp bou nded b)' hogback ridges on the
    !Mlulhern and eas r...m flanks. Tbe more res ista nt hogback ridges are composed o f sands tone. '" h ile the less
    rer-istanl shalt beds ha, el:>eefl eroded (f;('IU r1..-sy Doug
    Ram~. Utah Sta te L'n i" a nd Space: Imaging. 11K.),

    l!~ ll h Ri ve r; :'i amih ia

    tym-

    dges

    "Om\t~ J.

    one.
    tone

    md-

    nl y,

    Figu re 14.34 ASTI-R image of N ami hi'I~ Ugah River obtained on December 25. 200(1 (h'lIld .'). This river only flows aboveground for a
    few d:IYS each yea r. [,hl' river pnssl'Sthrough nearly vcrnca l folded layers ofiluuly hcddeu limes tone, sandstone, and s iltsto ne.
    Sec Color I' lale 1-1 5 for a ellIOT vcrilln ofthis image (w urtt'sy (It"NASA'( iSFC/ \1 ETI+ RSf)An J ARI lS and U.S .lJapan AS-

    rD{ Science Ieaml.

    an

    "'''
    sity,
    vers
    10<.:edi-

    rles.
    'he

    Figu re 14-35 The angle of dip. 8. of a monochnal ridge \u t;h as a hogback may
    he calculated from stereoscopic imagery uSing Equa tion 1"6.

    O IA i' I EI{

    542

    :I .

    14'

    Rem ote Sens ing 01 Salls, Min erals, and Geom orph ology

    Norma l fault

    c. 1I,.rsl

    Figure 14 36 111<' majo r types uf dip-slip fuuhs: al Normal Iauh. b] Reve rse fault. c) Thru st fault. J I Gruben associa ted wnh a di," nlhmy, n
    block between two normal lauh s. e j Horsr associated with an \Il'lhw\\ n raul! hind,.

    stream gr.ulicru dec rease s. sln:;II11S or rivers may no longer


    h~' able 10 hold uw sediment In suspension and then depos it
    Ihe material in the c hannel bouom ur ll~ bars. spits. de ltas . ur
    alluvial tans. In eff...ct. the vel oc ity o f the stream determ ines
    what kind of m.ncrials (sand. si ll. clay. gravel. cobble s} can
    be mo ved a lon g by th.: strea m. Even in dese rts. where storms
    arc infreq uent. shee t-was h CUll induce massive erosion
    beca use of its inte nse velo city and transport the eroded
    mate rials gre al d istances. It is important to also po int out thdl
    the greate r the velocity, the grc.ucr the amoun t o f in-s tream
    or rive r ab rasion, co rrosion . and quarrying that will lake
    place. Th us. strcams an d ri\ crs arc active agen ts of geomor ph ic cha nge that produce both erOSi{lIMI and depos itiona l
    landforms. So me: o f the rnore impU!1ilnt landforms inc lude
    stream-c ut valleys. Iloodplaius. terraces. deltas, allu vial
    fans . pc dimcn tc, and p layas .

    Str eam

    \'ll lll'~S.

    Fluud p illin'i. an d I(die Terra ces

    Uplift ed terrain ruuy he ero de d b)' sheet erosion. creating


    gu llies . O ver lime and gi ve n conuu ucd precipitation. these
    g ullies 111;1;.' tum into smalltributary ch annel s or streams that
    have grea ter crosinnal powe r. espe c ially if the tCIT'J in has
    suhvtanrinl gradient (, I(lpe ). If the so urce of wate r continues
    unabated. the stream or river mOJY inc ise am i erode both the
    base and wa lls
    the ruck material creat ing dee p. steeps ided V-s hared valleys w ith minimal fl oodplains and fairly
    slntight wate r courses.

    "r

    lf thl' gradi ent is sufficicm. fhe strea m o r river may contin ue


    to deepen and wide n the rive r channel. However. at some
    poi nt the river may e rode the river bo tto m to the point thaI
    the river gra die nt is substanually redu ced . If this occurs. the
    river IO~l'S veloc iry an d bl'gllls to depos it so me: o f its suspcndcd se diment load. Th is ca n be the beginning of a river

    543

    Geomorphology

    Wa~iHc h

    Moumains

    Hobb le
    Cm:k

    Maple
    Sr~ nish

    Creek

    fork

    "
    Figure 14 3 7 landsat Thematic Mapper hand ", image o f the Wa.-.alch fault a long Ihe Wasatch ~oumains to the ca...t ofS pringvmc and Spanish Fork, UT. This is a cluwic norma l fault. with the dowmbrown hloek being the valley 110m and the upthrown block ~ ing

    g
    c

    cc

    ",
    ,r

    the Wasatch Mountain Range. There are numerous fault escarpments all along the fault line (courtesy Space Imaging, tnc.).

    valley with flood plains. .....ide mea nders, and occasiona l


    0:0;00'" lakes. There arc a number of factors that can cause
    the river or strea m 10 hal e a red uced gradie nt including land
    subsidence.
    Sometimes a stream or river loses a subs tantial amoun t o f its
    source .... atc r or its gradient is d iminis hed greatl y. when this
    occ urs. even more sediment may be deposited . This can

    result in extremely broad a nd shallow valley s that have


    meanders. meander scars. cur-off meande rs. point bars ,
    numerous o xbow lak es , and naturallevees. II is important 10
    point 0111. however, that this proces s does not alwa ys happen .
    Unusual climatic eve nts and man-ind uced impacts can inter-

    vcne and dramatically alter" hat "as once thoug ht of 3.<; the
    vouth- maumry-otd-age srrea rn-valley e rosion cycle (Selby.
    19IN).
    w ay and Ev erett ( I Q97) sugges t that there an: thr ee type .. o f
    river floodplains: mean der, covered. lind com posite. Mean der jhlfldp/aill s arc caused by a low stream or river g radient
    and the deposition of some of the suspended sediment load.
    Thus. il is a low-ene rgy hydrologic system. Moreo ver. most
    of the sediment load in a meander floodplain stays w ithin the
    co nfines of the riverbanks . even during flood stage. The
    greatest erosio n in the floodplain takes place at the outer
    edges of the meand ers , The greatest depos ition take.. place

    14

    544

    Re m ote Sensing of Soli s, Mineral s , and Geo morphology

    Sa n Andn.'ns :w d (;nrlock Fa ults in Cali fornia


    ~

    -.

    ...
    (-

    -.:.;

    ,
    J

    a . Landsa t Thematic Map per [land 4.

    b. Shaded-rel ief display of a digi tal el eva tion model .

    c. Entargcmem.

    d . Enlargeme nt.

    Figure 14-38 aj Jnterscc non ,If lhe San A ndrca~ a nd Garlock hlUlls 111 southern Calitllffiiarecorded on a mosaic of Landsat Fhcmnic Mapp:!'
    hand 4 im...g<:s. The San Andreas h uh is a nonhwcsr-sout beast 11\.'!ldll1g :;trile-slip fault. hi Shaded-rcbe f displ a~ (lfa Ll'GS
    digital elev ation mod el (3 arc second. 93.3 m cell). Cl Enlargement of the Larn1<;a1 data hl ghli ghling a portion o f Ihe San Andreas 0 1\ vonc In the lower right portion 01'('1 l. d ] The rclathdy narrow rift ,-"nc us poruuycd by the shaded-rclref moMl (atlCI
    the Moja\'C Ol'scrt Ewsys lcllI Program. 1')'):-:: w unt"sy SI'Mc<'lm<1J;lI1g. lne.l .

    alo ng inside edges of'thc rucuudcrs . Th is proc e ss call lead 11'


    the creation o f sand and gravel pobu burs in the river. Crll't,rt',I j1UU</f, lu im arc created when addiuonal energy is pmvided during Ot'lIl\1ing: and the fl ood waters rouuncly
    0\ crtjow the rive rbanks. T his may create naturalle vee s consi>ling: o r coarse sediments (usual ly sand] which arc formed
    adjacent 10 th e o riginal strea m channel. 0\ er time, the nat ural levee, arc built up by cemin ued acc ret ion. ,\ ny wa ter
    flowi ng over tho: naturallevees IUI\ Ic~s velocit y and can usually on ly eruram tine part ide silts and cl ays that arc the n
    tran sported to d istant sla ckwater loc ations beyond the natu ral rive r lcH'CS. Hopefully. these scdim..nts imprtJ\e the fertility of the soil . A co mp o" i l., jlo"dplaill cont ai ns features
    commonto both meander and covered llood plain". Composite floodpla ins arc the most common t) pc o f tloodplain .

    A small secti on o ft he M issi., sip pi Riv e r show n in Figu re l4


    39 p rovides exam ples of several com posite floodplain fcaturcs. Both n;JIlIrJ,] and man -made levees are present. 11k'
    la ndsat T\l near- and middle-infr ared bands arc ideal for
    iJ enti!Ying. tho: \lxho w lakes and till' more geo logically
    recent flood ed meander scars..... luch arc barely d iscernible
    in the green and red band image!'>. The sand and po int bars
    arc \ isi blc 1)1\ all ima ges The middle-infra red hand 5 provilll'" mo re detailed soi l mo isture infor mat ion than any nf
    the ' II he r hands. As ex pec ted. vegetated are as are dark in the
    green and red bands end much bri ghter in hoth the near- and
    mrddlc-in fmred hands. A colo r-com posite ofTM bands i . 3,
    an d 2 (Rrin ) i~ found in ('(1 I,)r Plate I ~ - 6 .

    Floodplains sometimes ha ve relic terr aces associated .... ilh


    them. A terrace is a gt'n lly inclined. elev 11100 bcnchlikc rem-

    545

    Geomorphology

    -r
    is

    .er

    14 -

    rl l hematic \tlpper B"n,151mid- inrra'"o1 )

    b -

    h,
    for
    J J}

    Figu re 14 3 9 f'l" ...dplain lam lfonns on thc Mi1>si';"'; lppi River recorded b) the L lIlJoa l Thematic Map per o n January 13.
    1q~3 (SI.'(' Color Plate 1~-6 1 (images courtesy of ~ A SA ( Jbserv atortum and :-pac'l.' Imaging:. lnc.]

    DIe
    .~

    ro-

    uf

    h,
    ,d

    th

    n-

    nant flood plain tha i lies at a higher e lev arion than the pre sent
    Jay flood plain. TCrT,ICeS may parallel the ex isting l100dp lain
    on bo th sid.:-.. although [hi1> is nu t always th..: case. A terrace
    typica lly has an escarpment on the side f3l'ing the prc-scntday floodplain. Terraces may be prod uced by glac-ia l activ ity
    or b} dramatic cha nges in clim ate whe re more water a nd
    energy is mad c availa ble [0 cut through the e xisting floodpla in. Se vera l layers o f terrace" prese nt in a region indicate
    that d ramat ic cros ronul-d cposuicnal changes have occurred
    throug h time.

    When a st rea m or n ver with a substantial sediment load


    cntc....a stand ing body of wa ter suc h as a lake, resen..oir. sea,
    or ocea n. its ' d t,,;ity b slo.... ed drama tical ly, Th is causes the
    stream or rive r to deposi t ils base and sus pended sed iment
    load. with the more coarse materials depos ited at the upex
    a nd the s ilt lind clilY particles moving farther out into the
    water body, TI1l' continued dep osition of'rhcsc ma terials o ver
    lime may c re ate ,I delta. T hese tend [0 have triangular s hapes

    546

    C IIAP'TUI.

    14'

    plan imetric view somewhat sim ilar 10 the G reek letter


    Delta (a I, but many other shapes also occur. Th...re are five
    co mmo n delta form s.
    In

    I::JOIIX"fed or "i~ilafe deltas an: created when the system is


    dominated hy the cont inuo us input of a large volume of
    water and sedimen t tha t is "01 impacted severely by waves
    Th is ca n produce ....hat is called a birds-foot del ta. such as
    the Mississippi River delta as it enters the Gulf of ~k,ico
    near :-.Jey, Orleans. LA ( Figure 1-4-40a). Continued input of
    sedi me nt causes the deltaic stream channels to migrate ba ck

    and forth across the delta . Sometimes, however, the scdime nt dcposued on the bank s of the inp ut channel create natural levees sim ilar to that Oil the C\l\ Cn.:J Floodplain
    previou sly discussed Intense tlond ing may cause the input
    stream to break free from its confi nement .... ithin the na tura l
    levee and migr ate to a n curby location. This process can lead
    to the creation of an ent irely new lobe of sediment depo sition in the: della . Th ere may be se v...ral main input distrihutary cha nnels prese nt in a bird's-foot delta .

    On a lohule dcha the river builds into the sea, but relativ ely
    intense wa ve action redis tributes much of the sedimen t
    along coastal barriers. cau sing it to have a convex edge o r
    fan shape facing the water body. It is a wave-dominated systern. T he Nige r River em ptying into the Gu lf of Gui nea in
    Africa has crcured a class ic lobate delta (Figu re 14-40b). The
    Nile River emp tying imo the Mcducrraucan Scu is also a
    lobat e delta (figure 14-4Oc).
    A cremdate de lta form s .... here tida l currents help creat e

    numerous sa ndy islands se parated by tidal channels along


    the della from. It is a tide-dominated system. The Irrawadd y
    Ri ve r delta in Burmah is a good example (Figure 14-4Od).
    Note the extens ive man groves visible as bri ght areas on the
    Irrawaddy delta .
    l fth c wave s or along-shore CUITl'I1f.~ are extremely strong ,
    thc y may move the sediment away from the mouth of the
    river. and only cuspate sand rid ges will be formed that parollel the beac h. Thi ~ creates a cuspate della .

    Strea ms enteri ng coasta l estuaries also experience a redu ced


    gradient. nu!>ing Ihem to dl'posit much of the ir suspended
    sl-dimem load. An t'slll<1r;ne ddta .....ill fonn if thcs.... deposits
    a re nOI remo ved hy curre nts in the estuary or by diurn al tidal
    flushing.

    Remote Sensing 01 Soils. Mine rals. and Geomorpho logy

    dcpo su malcrial in order to ma intain an adequate gradient.


    An oll" I'j"l.lim is a low. conic al-shaped depos it with the
    apex uf thc co ne ut thc mouth ufrhe valle y from which ihe
    fan-building srrcum issue s. The mo re coarse materials such
    as gravel. cobbles. and even boulders are depo sited ncar the
    apex while the sand , s ilt. and d ay part icles arc transported10
    more distant parts of the fan. These mat erials arc collectively
    called alluviu m. he nce the term alluv ial fan ,
    The conical mound of material is deposi ted as distributary
    streams swing bac k and forth across the fan , l bi~ can crcae
    d ic hotcmic or braided draina ge pattern s. Multiple alluvial
    fans that coa lesce at the base of a moun tain range create a
    haiada.
    A Landsat Thematic Map per band 4 image ofan alluvial fan
    adjacent III the: Salton Sea in California is shown in Figure

    14-4 1a. Note the input stream channel in the upper right.md
    the conical-shaped alluvial fa n that has resu lted due 10 millions of years of suspended sediment tkposi tion frum \~'
    sporadic rain fall events. It is clear that the bright- lone materials depcsued o n this fan had thei r origi n in a d rff erem localion when compared .... ith the darker ma te rials fou nd at the
    base oft he nearby moun tain range. A lso note the dicho romie
    drainage pattern . Another largl' alluvial fan in the While
    Mountains is shown in Figure 14-4 1b.
    An ASTER image of the Taklimakan alluvialfan in the 13klirnaka n Desert in C hina's XinJiang Province is shown in
    Figure 1.$--12. This fan is tocutc d in the Iandsca pe bcr.... een
    the Kunlun and Ahun mountain ranges.
    Peclimenl '"
    A P{'IIiIll..nr is .. gentl y inclined erosion..l s urface carv ed in
    bedrock, thinly veneered with grav el. and developed al the
    base of mountains. Pediments arc most prevalent in very arid
    environments, i\ pcdim cnl may look like an alluvial fan on
    an image . hut it is dram aticall y different . A pcdimern is an
    erosional surface, while an alluv ial fan is a depositional surface. In fac r. many of the conical featu res in the G rear Basin
    of North Ame rica. in southern Africa . and in Austra ha art
    actually pediments and not alluvial fans. Examples of pedimenrs at the base of the White ~l ounla ins in Ca lifornia arc
    shm~ n in fi gure 14--1 1b. The head.... ard erosi on {If the bedrock st rews sortl'd material d uwnslup c. The mountain may
    eventually <trow" in i1s own r ro<k d debris,

    Allu\ ial F:lns :lncl Ih j :l cI:l s


    Streams l'merg ing from a mou ntain valley inw a lowla nd
    area often enco unter reducl'<! slopes and are forced to

    Pla)as arc shullo.... lake basins funnl"d in arid desert regi,,1lS


    Ihal arc intcnniuellt ly filled .... ilh water that e\ aporn les rela-

    547

    Geomorp ho logy

    ient.
    the

    Mississ ippi River Delta. United Slates

    --

    Ih<
    uch
    the

    Niger River Delta. Africa;..._ _

    ro
    '\ c ly

    Ia')

    all'

    vial
    Il' a

    lim

    ~ure
    and
    m ilIfcry

    ,.

    sate-

    cca-

    Nile River Della, Egypt

    h.

    Irrawaddy Ri\ cr Delta, Bumlah

    . the

    tnic
    ite

    ra km
    en

    in
    :thc
    arid
    on

    an

    W T-

    Ism

    'ce
    ~i -

    '"
    ed-

    "l

    c.

    d_

    FIQure 14 -4 0 a) Space Shutt! c photpgraphy o f tho: \ol issis..sippi River " lml~.'1<'llhl rd 's-fOOl delta. C'oosisting ofseveral otllklS and W iTa....
    socillh:'l1 nat ural k\ccs ( ~"Im...~y K. Lulla, :"ASA John son Space Ccnlctl. b) Spa(.: Shunlc photOgrolph of the :\igl"'f River lo1>." .. ...... lta cmpl)in b into the Gulf ofGu ino:a in Afri ca I l\ AS . \ Joh nst>nS['3Ct" ( 'cmer; STSt>IC- 1::-0 0721.ct MI)l) IS ima ge o f
    lhe Nile R,ver lobate dell .. in t~ypl ( c.lUnl~y '\lASA Goodard S p.,~C' Flighl Ccmerl. d I Iffil\\ aJ.J) Ri\ cr . fl,,,,/nl, delta in
    Burmah. recorded on il Thcm mc ' Iar pc'l" rood " nea r-infrared imag e \counc-sy '-;pat:e Imaging. lnc.j.

    548

    ('"IIA F I ER

    14

    Utile Sa n Bernadino :\llIunta ins. CA

    Remote Sens ing of Solis, Mine rals, and Geomorphology

    White 'tountains near Death \'all l'y. C A

    California
    Aqueduct

    b.
    Figure 14- 4 1 a) Alluvial fan i~~u lJlg from between the Little San fkmaJIRO \1 ou nLilfn) 01110.1 Cbocolare \1ounLain n<Jf1h<:,as.l o f lh.: S.allOll Sa.
    CA. I'hc Ca lifonna Aq ued uct is also vis ible in this Land ....1Themat ic Mappe r tMnl1 4 imagC'. Its rowed shape ~1\<'S;;om( Indication o f ho", the '~1Jl has increased in \ olume ove r ti me. bl A large al11.1 \'131 fall. several pediments. and a playa associat..I
    with a n urea in the While Mountain Range northw e st o f Dc,ttn Valle)'. ('1\. There are severallocations in these images wbere
    a lluvial fans arc coalescing, creati ng a bajada (cou rtesy Muja ' e lx '>t!r1 Ecosys tem Progr am and Space lm apin g, lnc.).
    Taklima k .. n lllu\bd hill i n X i nJ ill nf;: Prev i nu'. Ch in ll

    Ftgure 14-42 Tbe Taklirnakan alluvial fan ex tends across the


    ok-so lal': landscape between the Kunlun and Ahun
    mountam ran j!:C!i thaI roen the socrhcm bonkr or
    the Taklima k.m Desert in Chin a's Xinl iang Province. Note the intricate dichntomic drainage pattern. 111 is AS TE R (magt: was ubramed on May 2,
    ~uo2 . Nonh IS at the bonorn of the illustration 10
    aid \is"a1 intcrprctauon (l'OUnL"S) o(NASA GSrf
    ~t ETll f: R Sl)AC JAROS and U.S J J.tpan "~ sTE R
    SCiL....cc Team).

    tiv ely quic k ly. leaving a resi due of fine-textu red sur face
    materials . .Man y pla yas arc sa line a nd ex hib it bright tones in
    imagery. MO"t playas are barren with hn le vegetation. A

    p laya is present at the base o f the a lluvial fa n in th e While


    Mo unt a in s of Cehfomia [ Figure 1 4~ Ihi.

    549

    Geomorp hology

    Kars t Landforms

    Landforms crea ted in lim eston e a re gene rally re ferred to as


    l(lr.~t topography. To be a true limestone at lea st half o f the
    rock co nsis ts of car bonate m iner als o f whi ch calcite
    (CaeO J ) is the must common (Selby. 1989\. Dolomite
    (CaMg )CO_I anot he r ca rbona te roc k. is also suscepti ble to
    dissolution but is nut <I S read ily affected l:ty slightly aci dic
    precipitation as limestone. Th is lowe rs solu bility and
    increases resista nce to weathering and eros ion. The refo re.
    dolomite rock does not pro..tucc the sam... karst topo graphy
    as limestone rock in humid clunatcs.

    'ea.
    in-

    Surface water derived from precipitation is ac tually someII.hat acid ic. Wh en acidic surface water percolates dow n.....ard through limestone. rhe chemical proce ss o f
    carbonari..m takes place ailing joints a nd bedding pla nes,
    graduall y enlarging the openings by dissol ution . un til subsurface cave rns. C;l\CS. a nd subterranean chann els are created. Collap se o f thc roof o f a subsurface cavern o r
    do ~~ nwnrd d isso lut ion o f limestone from the surfac e pro duces dep ressi ons at tilt' sur face commonly re ferred to as
    dolincs (th e English term is .linkJwl<'). Dolincs <lrc formall y
    defined as closed hollows o r depressions th at arc co ne or
    OOVl l-shaped. w ith rocky or veget ated sides. circ ular or el liptical in shape. :! - 100 m in depth. and 10 - 1000 m in d iameter. The major karst topogrn phy is found in the form er
    Yugovlavia along the Adriatic Coast. sou thern France.
    Greece. Cuba. Jamaica. the Yucatan Peninsula in Mex ico.
    Tennessee. Kentucky. so uthern Ind ia na. no rthern Florida.
    and Puerto Rico .

    Figure 14-43 L'ahbrared Airborne Multi-pcx-tral Scanner (CAMS)


    ncar-infrared J)( J III data of ~arsl dclin c [sink hole)
    topography north of Orlando. FL. The depre~siCl IlS
    arc l:leateu hy d issolution o f limes tone roc k. Ther e
    is no surface drainage patte rn in this area bcca u..... al l
    drainage is subterranean. TIle darkest arcus arc dcep
    water Th... llrighl are a IS sand. Many of these dolmes
    arc bcavily vege tated.

    ka rst topogra phy. Conversely. dolomiuc limestone such as


    lnal found in pans o f Kent ucky is less susce ptible to erosion
    Consequently. il develops a hi ll and va lley topography along
    with a surfac e drai nage pattern.

    th'
    tun

    of

    ,.

    ,.

    er-

    '0

    "C!

    ;"

    Limes to ne with > 4U percent calcium carbonate is w ry suscepubte 10 weathe ring in humid climates and may result in
    the ..lcvclo prncn t o f an cxrcnslve network o f dol inc features .
    For examp le. cons ider the blac k-and- white infrared photograph o f karst topograp hy fou nd nca r Orlando. FL sho wn in
    Figure 1-l.4 3 These dolincs (si nkho les) were produ ced by
    dissol ution occurring ur fav ora ble sues suc h as the ime rsection o f major joints in the limest one. The lim esto ne is disSOI\L'Cl and the solution an d residue mow downward,
    con ..tamly w idening rbe fissures unnl a surface depress ion is
    created. Tbis permits the collccuon of more o f the surface
    wate r runoff and therefore the prog ress ive enlargement o f
    the do bne. Sometimes. the dolines collapse. leaving large
    surface de pressions. In th is ex ample, there arc few su rface
    drain age channels. only subterranea n one s.
    In are as o f high loca l relie f and abundant trop ical prccipira tion such as in Puert o Rico . Inc we atherin g is g reatly acce lcrated. causing the sin kholes III coalesce. c reating haystack

    Limestone is especially d ifii cult to idc nt ify in ex tremely arid


    desert s or co ld Arctic environ ments because the small
    amo unt o f pre c ipitation doe s not prod uce the weathering
    features disc ussed ab ove . Instead. limestone IS likel y the
    resistant caprock on escarpments or pl atea us.

    Shoreline Landforms

    More than two-thirds o f the wo rld's po pulation lives w ithi n


    100 m iles o f the coast. Scientists arc interested in understanding: coasta l processes associat ed VI uh the: dy namic
    coastal plain. beac hes. spits. ba rs. terraces. est ua ries, etc.
    Th ree major agents arc re sponsible tor the crea tion of specifi c types o f lan..t form s in the coastalzone: 1) energy from
    the Sun. wh ich produc es wave s and ocean curre nts. 2) thc
    gravi tatillna l pu ll of the moon and the Sun co mbine to c reate
    tide s. and J } man is a very active geomorphic agent.

    550

    C I!AI'T ER

    14

    Remote Sensing 01Solis, Minerals, and Geomo rpho logy

    KU l'l ait ( 'if)'. t\ lHUh

    Figure 14-44 SI't n panchromatic 10 x 10 m image of Ku\\ ail City. Several man-ma de gloms lIcn icsl influence the deposition (Or ercsce
    ,,( sed iment carried hy the kmgs hore C"lllTt"nl . \\ hreh g..nerally flows tro m sou lhc3S1 t(l nort hwest. A 13rg.. Splt or hook il
    pre -em ... the no rthe rnmost pari o fthe <:11)'. T his is a good .:x..nnplc of hl' " lIwnlo.. ind IS .ln ac tive agcr uo f geomorphic chan~c
    in t h~' coastal W ill." t c SI'<H Image. tnc.)

    Rad iant energy from the Sun d ifferent ially heals the Earth's
    surface. creating variations in air p ressure, w hich produce
    wea ther dis tu rbances. Wind-generated surfac e waves are the
    main source o f energy along a coast and arc respons ible fo r
    man y o f the erosiona l landfo rms a long the co ast. Converscly. ..... a ves also ge nerate coast al cu rrents that arc respo nsible fo r the l (l ng ~ lltl re move me nt o f sed imc nt a long bcac hcs
    (Sel by, 19X'J). A wave of he ight (II) is produced by a sustai ned wind blo wing me r a wa tcrbody for a cert ainktdl distance I F) where It =- O.J6JF , wave height may also be
    estimated if only the sus taine d w ind vclu... ity (f) is known
    using the rel atio nship Ii 0,002 4
    Sus tained prev ailing winds hlow ing o ver grea t ex panses ofwat...-r may create
    oc ean currents that arc a lso influenced by varia tions in water
    tempe ratu re and sa lin ity. TII..:s... oceanic currents suc h as the
    Gulf Stre am ca n impac t shoreline landform development
    becau se they influe nce the Ic mperat ure and am ount o f suspc nd cd sediment in the WOl ter, which in tu m C;l1I impact the
    de velo pme nt of co ra l ree f a nd ma ngrove ecosystems.

    r.

    Th e gravuarional pull o f both the moon and thc Sun o n the


    Eart h c rea tes tides defi ned as tho: periodic rise and tal l ofsea
    leve l that occ urs in mu~t seOlS twice da ily. Tides arc impo r-

    ram

    I- ":":::I U''':

    Ihe) inc re as e rhc vertica l heigh t over which

    wave act ion ":.1 11 ntfcct thc coas t. Cu rrents produced by tidal
    ebb and How cun en ...k as \\ ell as trans port sed iment. The
    tides also l1ush much of the nutrie nt-laden dct ritis from

    with in es tuar ies and lagoo ns into the o pen ocea n, The dcrritis is very important in the aquatic food chain.
    Fina lly. mankiml is an active geo morph ic ugem constantly
    cllj.:incering and rccugin...... rillj.: the coas tal zunc . He rouunely
    d iverts majo r streams. rivers, and long shore currents from
    th... ir norm a 1 cour ses. significantly impact ing their rradrlil'n:i1 suspended scdimcm loads. 11c dredges r ivers ;lnd
    streams. chang ing th... ir gradie nt: fills werlands: builds jetties . re\ ctmcms. and se awalls that red irec t W3V1." energy; and
    builds rn.m-madc struct ures un top o f fragi le coastal landloons such as dunce. Figure 14.44 d epi,ts groins (jellies)
    rcv cunc nrs. -cawatls. and ma rinas present on the Kuwan
    C it) sho reline tlMt impa...t the dcposuion and erosion ofsusponded .....x trmcnt carricd by the lo ngsho re CUlTC nt .
    Th...

    CO<l.'(

    i~

    f'lmla l1) dcfincd as the g...-ographical upland

    n: g1l111 adja ccn t to a sea. The . horeline (o r com tli",' ) separares the coa..1 from th c sea. and is the geograph ical area

    55 1

    Geomo rp hology

    "'ar('l\l'Il Spit. So u t h h la nd. ;\ ('1 \ Zl' alan d

    Rgure 14 -45 F~d l Spit at the northwestern point ofSouth Island. ~ew Zealand. stretches, for .'0 km east from Cape Farewell. This AST ER image "'as obtained on February 13. 200 1. Tho: north sid... rof!hl: ~pi l is composed of sand dunl"S, while thl. south sid e
    facmg Golden Hay is wet soil. Submerged uda l mud flats are \'i~i t- It' sout h ofthe SPit (courtesy of ~ .\SA/(iSfC MI:': T IIERS-

    DACfJ:\RUS and U.S. J a.pal\ ASTER Science Team).

    ""is

    .'

    affected hy wave ac non, The


    vided into (Selby, 19R9j:

    .\ hflrt'

    may be fun her subdi-

    the ldf.'I/O/'<' area below the low -tide wave-breaking line;

    'h
    ~a l

    Ite

    the nearshore b...twee n the low-tide breaker line and the


    hig h-l idc shoreline:

    om

    n-

    the fareshnre between high - and lew -ride shorelines;

    Jv
    I,

    the h<lekslwl"<' between the highest high-tide line wit h


    storm effec ts. 10 the base "I' th e p...rma neru land. wh ich
    coul d be a eli ITor sand dune .

    litd

    ,.
    d

    Depos it iona l an d erosion;11 coas tal landforms arc discussed


    below,
    Hea ch ev, SlIlh. HOll ks. Ilan. narrtcr Isl a nd s. La gonns
    and t:\ tuarit'~
    A beuch is co mposed prim ari ly of inorg anic sediment
    deposited b)' long sho re curre nts in the shore zon c. Conunuous wave action causes beache s EO he composed of wellsorted sand-sited particles. a lthough th is can \ ary. For
    example, some bea che s adjacent 10 major rive rs are com posed o f gravel ma terial s or even co bbles transpo rted a lo ng
    shore from the bedload of rhc r iver. Th e source of'bcach \CJ-

    iment rna) he from upland weat hered materials adj acen t 10


    the beach such as a chtfwall, fro m the offshore zo ne where
    wa ve act ion moves sedimen t sho rewa rd. fro m fragments o f
    decompostng shell and/or coral. and from suspendcd sedimen t or bedload material from rivers and streams.
    The conunucd buildup o f sediment 011 ge ntly sloping shorelines may cause the beach 10 enla rge in size, move in land ,
    move up or down the shoreline. or move seaw ard . A major
    sturm can cause :.IIlY o f th...sc e ffec ts in a vcry sh ort lime . In
    any cas c. hcuch ,.idg.'s may Ill' fo r med . [I' the beech ridge
    e nds in open water. it is called a .I'JIII, The Fa rewell Spit in
    Nc\\ Zealand is shown ill Figure 14-4 5, The bcach ridge o r
    spit in Iron r o f Morro Hay, CA (F ig ure 14-46 ; Color Plate
    14- 7). creates an excellent bar hor if it is dred ged rout inely.
    S pi t~ 1... nd to develop in thc predomina nt direction o f the
    longsho re sed ime nt tra nsport unde r wave ac tion, If the spit
    curves hack towa rd the lan d. it is ca lled a houk.. Th e hook
    along the shore (If Kuwait Cit)' is a good examp le (Figu re
    14-44 ). A sp il con necting two head lands is called a bar.
    Behind the sand spi l or sand bar a shallow /"X()<)tI or "'-I) ' may
    ronn. Some bars nrc so ext ensive that they are ca lled harrier
    ;<1,,11<1.-. On th... eastern coa st ofthc Un ited States they exte nd
    for a.. much as 100 kill and may be scv ...ra l ki lometers wide.
    For e xample. Sullivan s Island is a coastal barrier island near
    Ch arlestnn, SC ( Fig ure 14- n and C olor Plate 14-8.1). Barrie r isla nds take the brunt o f hurricane storm surf and storm

    14

    552

    Remote Sensing of Soils, Mineral s. and Geomo rphology

    :\Iorro

    Ib ~ .

    CA

    a. i'"dn " f Morro Bay.


    CA, digital "rt h(' l'hn[o
    <.J U4r1cr 'l"" drJuglc
    (DOt)()1 M ay

    2~.

    1'N4.

    c. Landsat Themanc Mal' f'CT Hand 7.

    Fig u re 14-46 a) Panc hromatic USG S DOQ() of Morro Bay. C:\ . The thl} or 1,lg(lo1\ i~ ~r,\rJ I~t1 from the ocean by an e xtensiv e beach ridgt
    (courtesy U.S. G~'(ll og ical Su rvey ). b l The beach bar a ls" has numer ou s dunn. "" IlJ~'!l f 1'0hieh are vegetated. w ave aClI\lty In
    the shore Tunc is visible in LandS31 r \l hand -l cl Ran<l 7 11Il.lcan be Ilw d ill c l.:arl~ i.k m ify the be ac h ridge shoreline. wa vecut terraces arc a l....) presen t in this are a koun.",,}' "' ,-\ SA O!lscrn[" rium and Space Im.lging. lnc.). T.." , ..,,,I(1fcomr";>sitc. of
    this area a re sho'" n in Color 1'1:1[<: 14-7.

    Geomorpho logy

    553

    Figure 1447 Panchromatic version of the USGS digital orthophoto quarter quadrangle of Sullivan's Island, Sc. Numerous wastal landforms arc
    present. including a harrier island created by
    accrctiun of multiple beach ridges. sandba rs.
    tidal ink ts, and tidal marsh (Sparr;,,,! altorniI/ol"a) , A cotor-mtrared composite nlthc area
    is found in ('" lor r lat... 14 lIa,

    surge . Sullivan's lsland experienced a 15 n storm surge du ring Hurricane Hugo in I lJX9. A tomb oio is formed when a
    bar or spit joins an onshore isla nd 10 the mainland. ,\ 11 estn(II :\" is a buy at the mou th uf' u r iver where the tide infl ue nces
    the river current.

    Tid:ll Flats, Tida l .' l a rslll.'s, li nd ;\ I ud Fl a ts

    A cur ious thin g abo ut the nearshore 10111;' is that the conun uous wav e act io n ca uses clay and vilt-sivc part ic les to flocculate (meaning that the particle s crick IOgo-ther) into loose,
    relatively la rge agg regates in seawater. Often this material is
    moved from the shore l one into lagno ns o r estuaries hy
    wave or tid al ac tion . When the wave or tidal actio n ceases or
    becomes slad.. the floccula ted material is de pos ited un the
    lagoon or estuary bottom. Th us, one mightthink o f the shore
    zone as a place that scrubs the water column , (k positing the
    more coarse sand and gravel-size material on the beach and
    preparing the chi); and sil t-size part icles tor deposition elsewhere. This Ilocculuuon and movement of materials
    expla ins why there is such a differenc e between beach :l11J
    estuarine environments .

    lidu! fl ats arc coasta l areas that <Ire protected from d irect
    wave act ion by spits, hooks, bars, a nd beach bnrric r ridges or
    islands . Tida l Ilars have very little slope and may be complctcly exposed allow tide and a rc totall y submerged at high
    tide . Tidal Hats may con ta in a significant amount o f'v egetatiOil such as smooth cordgrass (S/J,II"/il/{/ alh'rnif/ol"a), mangro ve forest (Rhi::op!wra mal/gall'), o r other species of
    vegetatio n in which case they are ca lled tidal marshes
    (Davis and Jensen. 1998). If no veg eta tion is prese nt. the
    arc u is s imply culled n mudflat. Tidal marshes and m ud flats
    usually have :1 we ll-d evelop ed den dritic drainage pattern
    because the clay-silt mud is homogeneo us sueh as that
    shown sou th Ill' Farewell Spit in New Zealand ( Figure 1445), The t idal ma rsh behind the har rier is la nd Isle o f Pa lms ,
    Sc. is show n in Figure 14 -48. II consists o f tida l ch an ne ls
    containing snline nnd b rack ish water, unvcgctated tidal mud
    tl ats. and tidal mars h vegetation (s mooth cordgrass). Co lor
    Plate I..l-Sb provides mo re dram atic information abou t the
    cha racteristics ofthe tidal I1Ms and tida l marsh behi nd Isle of
    Pa lms, SL'.

    554

    CH \P'J EN

    14

    Remote Sen s ing 01 Solis, Minerals. and Geomorphology

    .\ l il n h Iw hi ll d hll' "r 1>:.I IIll~. sc

    e. l"AS!\ ATI.AS Rand (, 1 1l<.-;u;n ~m:I)_


    Figu re 14-48 a J NASA ATLAS band 10 thermal infrared 3 x 3 m imag v o f the maNh behi nd Is le of Palms, SC . nhtninc d in August. 1m
    hj EIl[;,rgcd ATLAS Hand t> l1<'ar-infran."d imag", of a poruon of till,' area. The images wen.' obtained at mid-tide. Some urIbe
    tidal mudllatli [which have no \eget.uivn) arc \'XPO"l'tl , while others an' inundated by the incoming tide .lowing through tlte
    tidal cha nnels . The moll,' den se patches of smoot h co rdgrass (S,.urWIU ult.,.,.if/ />r /I ) show up <IS bright areas a long the Ilolln
    jevecs in the ucar-mfrarcd image. The dcndriuc drainage pancrn 3......" ...-iuted '" uh homogeneou s soil materials is t"\ idC'nt.ltlS
    much easter to discriminate be'tWl.Tf1 the tidal flats. liJiIl WilleT'. and '>Il1OOIh corogras.s ",h<m ~ I ~"""' in g lhc coloe-Infrared cob"
    compo-ne ofthe same area in Color Plate l-t-xb.

    "brin e Ter-races
    when a coastli ne is uplifted through tectonic activity. the
    original wave -cut platform is raised 10 a higher a ltitude and
    wave action begins to create a new wave-cu t platform. The
    result is the prese ncc o f a relic mari ne terrace and assoc iated
    slee p bluff s or cliffs . During the Pleistocene many tectonic
    uplift s occu rred . T he dramatic marine terraces along the

    southern L'alifo rnia coast ncar Pa los verdes were produced


    in this manner.

    Cora l reefs are created b)' living coral polyps and ca jcarecus
    a lgae ( Figure 14 4'1). Cora l reefs develop bes t in seawater
    betwee n 77 0 and S6F with norma l le vels of salinity Thus,
    coral is g c nerally restricted I I) the tropic al reg ions of lhe

    Geomo rpho logy

    555

    I'a lall c n Reef. Cezumel, :\Ini co

    ..

    Frenc h :\lururull ,\ 10 11 in the SIlm ll

    b.

    Figure 14 4 9 ,1 1 HI\: (i real Burrier f{,;cfof i\\l~lralia exten ds for appm"ill1aldy 1.211lJ miles (1.0()(I km Ialon g the Ou ..... nxlarnl coast. T he reefs
    C;lp lurcd on this Sh un k photograph (STS H.. o_()77_0~ I ) arc located a l<lug the eas tern coast " f C,1X' Yl'rl.. Peninsula (courtesy
    Kamlcsh Lulla. t\ '\SA J\lhn, u" Sp a...: Cente r}, b ) Sl'{ ) I IjRV XS band I (!!fee n) ima gl' or a p ortion of'th.. Palancar tri ng ing
    reef on the bl and otCosurncl. ... te xico I C' SI'(H Image. Inc l, c l L m.ku T M bcnd Z (grcl'nJ image (lf lhc Muru roa cor..1atoll
    in the P.lClli, ( )cc"n [cou rt...s) Space Im,lgi n!t- 1m:. I.

    world between 30
    and 25 - S latn ude. Co ral requires
    water lha l is < 100 m dL'CP and generally free o f sedi me nt so
    that photosymhesis can ta ke place. Coral reefs etten ~'TOw
    b.:st on Ih.: wind ward s ide of islands .... here .... J,\e energ y provjdes food and o xygen fo r the co ralpolyps. Howe ver, signifcam reef development can also lake place on the leeward
    Side of islands if a stro ng ocean curre nt is prevent. For e xampte. the Palan car reef system on the leeward side of th...
    0

    :-.;

    er
    s.
    e

    Isla nd of Cozumet. Me xico. IS hathcd by a stro ng, clear


    up" cIlin g oc ean current. Fresh ....arcr and significant
    amoun rs of sedi men t can prevent co ral ree f growth. Coral
    cannot ~f\ m' (lui of sea.... all.or; therefore . mean lo w-tide determine s the uppe r hmit of coral grcw th, Sea levels may rise
    due to g10""'11 \l. armi ng Consequen tly; we ma y expect it comm...nsur:lle growt h in cora l reef building during th... co ming
    century if pt.,lIuliun docs nnt destroy th... co ra l first .

    556

    ("tUY I Ufo

    14

    The coral polyps litera lly create a built-u p Iimcsrouc surface


    anchored to hnrdhottom materi aIs. There are three primary
    types of reefs. A barrier reef lies offshore ami is separated
    from the land by a lagoon. The Great Barrier Reef is an

    "Remote sensing of Solis, Minerals, and Geomorphology

    Ant arctic lee Sheet ncar

    Ge

    ~Iollnt Vinson

    excelle nt e xa m p le ( f igure 14--49a) , It extends I{lTmore than

    1.200 miles along the north coast of Australia. If a reef is


    A

    attached to the land and extends out into the sea. il is called
    a fri nf:ing reef A portion of the Palancar fringing reef on
    Cozume l is she w n in Figure 14-4% . There muy be gaps in

    "g l
    to

    fring ing reefs due to the input of fresh water or suspended


    sediment. Fina lly, we may encou nter an 11(/111, whic h is a
    ringlike reef encl osing a lagoon with a central island Iwhich
    ma yor 013 ) ' no l be present e ith er du e to subsidence or sealeve l riscj. The M umma atoll in the Pacific Ocean does not
    ha w a central islan d I Fig ure 14-1ge).

    SI

    rc
    b

    f'
    M

    n
    I,
    L

    C ua..ta l Er ucien a l La ndfnr m c


    Coasta l erosionallandforms ar c crea ted when the combined
    transportin g capacity of wa ve an d longshore current energy
    exceeds the supply o f sed iment. Most coastal erosion takes
    place during storm ev ents due to the desrrucuvc fOR~ o f
    wav e ene rgy. Dependi ng upo n ho w 3 coastline is oriented,
    wa ve refract io n may ca use either a spread ing out o r a co nve rgence of wav e energy. Headland s or points experience a
    conv ergence of W3V'C energy a nd arc therefore more susce ptible 10 erosion . Conversely. adjacent bays generally cxpcriencc a divergence o f wave energy and less erosion ,
    The eros ive power of wate r may prod uce beach cliffs with
    vary ing grad ie nts. Rock fragmen ts in the sur f and the treme nd ou s air pressu re produced when surf breaks may combine to erode beac h dins , crea ting ca l"t'".~. arches, and e ven

    blowholes,

    Glacial Landforms

    A gl acier is de li ned as a body of ice. fim (c om pacted gran ular sno.... ). an d snow. originating on land and showing evidence o f past o r present 110w. Glacial landform s are created
    by the movin g ice , nivano n ( 3 combination of freezing and
    tha wi ng precesses ). and g lac ial mel twater. There art: tw o
    general categories o r gla ciat ion : cont inental and atp inc:
    D uring the Pleistoce ne Epoc h (so met imes referred 10 as the
    Great lee Agel. lay e r upon layer o f snow accumulated from
    year 10 yea r. creati ng va st g laciers that covered much of the
    Northern Hemisphere. There were approximately rour major
    advances and retreats or the co nt inental glaciers. with the
    most recent continenta l glacier retreating (diQpp.:aring )
    approx imately 10.000 years ago from the northern Un ited
    States. Only portions o r Antarct ica a nd Greenland cu rrent ly

    Figure 1450 A small portion of the Antarctic icc sheet ncar


    \ l"url1 Vins"n recorded by ASTER 1-'11 November
    15. ~OO~ . ~ole the compression ridges formed 011
    the c... t ~C I' f the glol.:ial tee ,b it ~'s bl.1I1< l--.:tl I""
    mountai n ridges. Antarctica contains <10"/. of tile
    world's icc. The Antarctic icc sh1has an amazing
    a\erage thickness on, ] eo m (7.090 tH tcounesy ct
    ;'>lASA!( iSFO \I ETI' I,I{SUAClJ:\ROS and U.S)
    Japan ."ST ER Scien ce Team),

    have continental glaciation . For example. fi gun..- 14--50 is an


    AST ER image of a small portion of the Anta rctic ice shoo
    nca r Mou nt Vinson. Note the com pression ridges alon g the
    edges or the ice as it 110\\ s through the valley be twee n two
    mountain ridges.
    Alpine glaciat ion is still present in many of the g reer mounta in ranges ofthe .... orhl, such as the A lps. Himalayas, Rocky
    Mounta ins, Sierra Nevada. Andes. etc. Both a lp ine and continental g laciatio n prod uce un ique land form s based on erosion and deposition .
    We focus (lUI" euemion first on the major land form s that C3!l
    be identified thro ug h an alys is o r remote ly sensed data . II
    sho uld be stressed that the optimum method o f study ing glac ia l land forms is often to evaluate them in th ree -dimensions.
    i.c., stereoscopically or in pseudo three-di mensions. For
    exam ple. Color Pla te 14.1} contai ns b oih vertical and threed imens io nal vic ws o f a small pa n of the \1a laspina Glacier
    in Al aska, Th e three-dimensional h igh obliq ue view was ereated hy dra p ing a Land sat Themati c Map pe r image o n top of
    a S pace S huule RADAR Topography Mi ssion (S RTM)
    derived d igita l eleva tion model. T he three-drme nsi onal vrcw

    ,
    I

    r
    r

    Geomo rpho logy

    provides unique in formation aboutrhc relativ e heigh t, depth,


    and slope of the glaci:ll featu res.

    hallgillg vulleys, lI :ulg ing valle y streams often e nter the


    main Ya lky as wnte rfalls.

    Er o, io nal r.lada l l. 11n tlror m~ : C ir q ues , Tarns, A n 'li's ,


    Ho r ns, l J.Sha pl't1 Va lll')" , I bn ~i ll lt \ 'all e)"

    UI'lllIsitinn :11 G lacial La nd for ms: \lo rai ll l"~. '\Iorain a l


    Lakes, Till Plai n.., t-:,kl'n, K l"tt k~, and Ilrumlins

    A cirq/lf' is a se micirc ular srccp-w ailed a mphithea ter-shaped


    valley ill the uppe-r reaches of an a lpine glacier. An a lpine

    Impressive glac iallandforms arc a lso created by the depos ition of glacially eroded materia l, Rock material that acc umulates on the side or ed~e of a glacier is ca tted a la teral
    moraine, [ftwo glaciers mee t. a ""',Ii,,1 (or midd k ) moraine
    may he created at their confluence. This often ap pears 3.<; a
    dad, ribbo n on aerial photo graphy or other irnagc ry, For
    e xample, Figu re 1-I-55a de picts the Barnard Glac ier in
    Alaska .... uh several tributary glaci ers . Nume rous lateral
    moraines are prese nt. Several m~-J ia l morai nes are created
    h} the confluence (If the lateral mo rain es.

    glacier erodes hcadwar d. downward, and alo ng the sides of


    the original v-shaped stream valley using the immense pressun: of the o\~rl) ing ice, niv ano n. and g lacial quarry ing of
    rock. Interestingl y. after the al pine glac ier ret reats, there may
    be re lat ively little material in t he bon o m of the c irque. In
    fact, the base of the c irque rna) have been eroded more
    severely in certa in areas creating a de pressi on. After glac ia l
    retrea t. the depression may fill with runoff: creating a glacial
    lake or tum, Numerous cirques in the Uinla Moun tains of
    Ltah arc shown in Figure 14-5 1abo,\ co lor image o f a Landsal MSS image of the area dra ped over a digi tal elevation
    model is found in Color Plate 14- IOa.

    .,

    he

    of
    ~ .1

    an
    ct

    "

    An /lff t" is formed .... hen c irques o n opposite sides uf a


    di\ ide erode hcad w ard c reating a narrow. serrated mountain
    ridge , If the I\VO c irques conti nue to e rode hcadward. they
    may even tually produce a ("01 .... hich is a sa g in the serrated
    ridge. Numerous arercs and cots arc visible in the obliq ue
    image of the Uinta Mo untams show n in Figure 14-5 Ib. A
    born is formed when more than two cirq ues erod e head ward,
    leaving only a sp ire-shaped pinnacle. The most famous is the
    Matter horn in Switzerland ( Figure 14-51 ). Horns o ften
    appear triangular-shape d w hen vie.... ed from abo ve in vertical remote sensor data.

    '0

    During g laciation in mountai nous terrain. the glaciers do not

    ~
    II-

    o
    [,

    ,
    ,
    ,,
    ,

    557

    normally prod uce new \ allcys, Rather, the accumulation and


    mov ement of g l;u:illl icc in exisun g \ a lleys erode..beadward.
    erodes the sides o f" the valley, and sco urs ami deepens the
    valley floor. Th is process creates a U-sllafl<'cfglacialtrough

    or valle y that is \'0.'1)" impressive once the g lacier retreats.


    Wallsburg Canyon in tho.' W,lsatch Mountains of Utah is a
    good example of a glaciated Ll-shapc d valley (Figure 14-53 ;
    (',11m Plate 14I Oh ). Some glac i~ rs ,c our c\ trcmely dee p
    . . alkys thaI become la"es a ller the glacier retreats. Fo r
    exam ple, La ke Tahoe sho.... n in Figu re 14-54 and Colo r Plate
    I-l-IOe was created in this manner. Lake Tahoe is 23 miles
    long (37 km ) and 12 miles wide ( IQ k m). It lies 6,12 8 IL't:1
    (1,l\I,ll( m) ahlwc sea k'\,el a nd is I.MO feet (500 m ) deep . It
    is one of lhe dee peM lako:s in lhe l"o ntim:ntal Unih:d St.l tes.
    If the major g lacia l U-sh:1JX'd valley erodes down.... ard more
    c:\tcllsi\ cly than the tribu lary glal"i",r 110.... s. it may c rcate

    If a glacier reaches eq uilibrium betwee n accumula tion and


    ablation (melli ng). it prod uces a terminal moraine at the end
    of the glaci er (Figure 14-55b). If the equ ilibrium lasis for a
    co nsiderable time . the g lacier co ntinues to move rock and
    debris dow nslope. ca using the terminal moraine to increase
    in volume. If abla tion exceeds acc umul ation. the glacier
    retreats. leaving the terminal mora ine as a remnant landform. I f t he g lacier reach es eq uili br ium once again. a reces5;UII<l1 moraine may be produ ced. It is possible for a number
    of recessi onal moraines 10 be present. So metimes water is
    impounded behind the terminal mora ine. form ing a
    mcrainui f"h'.
    Sometimes continental or ('.. . en a lpine glaciation de posits a
    mix ture loll' clay, sund . gravel. and e ven large boulders ove r
    the entire cou ntryside. Arter retreat, the mater ial is referred
    to collectively as gll/cial /ill and th... landfo rm as a gfaci<lllill
    ptatn. The re nrc typica lly no major land forms with an y significanr elevation in thcull plain. only ge ntly rolling te rrain.
    Much ofthe midwestern United Sl'tlt:s.t he bread basket of
    the world , is covered with glaci al till de posits of vary ing
    thickness. Suc h till ottcn has a mo ttled texture. with the
    lighter areas bei ng composed o rw ell-dra ined sandy soil a nd
    the da rker area being composed uf poor ly drained clay-rich
    >.oi I.
    Scveral glaci a l landfo nn s nrc produced d irectly within
    upu n. and n en ulJ(lt:r the g lacilll ice. For ~'xam plc. a suhglacial ~t rca rn nmn ing. v. ithin stagnall\ (non- movi ng ) g lacial ice
    may deposit we ll ~oned sand and gravel within the strea m
    l u n ne l ~ . Afte r ~!I ac ia l !"Clreat. Ih.: dC:Jl<lsiled materia l appea rs
    as a s inuou~,1i nea r ridge l ' f o:~li. l'r on tht: terrai n. ollen reac hing he ig hts fro m 5 30 m high and 50 - t>O m wide. Eskers
    may run for many kilometeN, Fore xamp lt:, Figure- 14-56a is
    a low-obliqu.: aeria l pho tograph o f a sinuous. gJ"a\cl csker

    558

    nL\pn:1{

    14

    Remote Sensing 01 Solis, Minerals , and Geom orp hology

    Uinta
    .' fo u nta ins
    in Uta h

    a . Land sat Th ematic Mappe r band 3 ( n..-..f l ima ge.

    cirques and Ushupcd

    va llcy ~

    b. Landxnt T M band 3 illl.lg<.' draped ove r a USGS 311 '-

    :;0 m d il1i u l c1~"\;I1I"n m" dd .

    Figure 14 5 1 al Lenosu Thcmauc \-tapper band 3 lk'dl image "I' a portion "I the Linta Muuntain Range o f the Rl1Ck~' " Iountains in LulL
    b ) UUd>.J.1 T\ l ba nd 3 image draped O\ LT 3 30 x 30 m l: SGS digital elevation model ( vcr1lcd l exagge ration is 4 \ 1a.nd \i~ed
    ,," liquef y. t\ color YCr"'l t lfl IS ''''u:al in Co lor Pla te 1+ l ua Icou rtccy Spa<:e Imaging. I",: I.

    559

    Geo mo rp h o logy

    Fig u re 14-52 f1i gh-ohliql,le aerial photograph of the Matterhorn in


    Switzerland formed hy ure headwanl eros ion or more
    than two cirques. The cirque on this side of the Malter hom still co ntains a glacier and to the lefl is a hangi ng
    glacier clinging \{J the side of the peak . Glacial crevasses
    are Tl.'adi l~ apparo:TlI [courtesy Amerkan GL"Ographical
    Society Collection archived at the !\'ational Snow and
    tee Data Center. Umversuy of Colorado. Boulder. CO).

    \\'a..a lc h R an ::,t' of th e Hocky \Iuunt a in s i n Uta h

    Mouru Timparmg ns

    cirque arete cirque

    Fig ure 14-53 La ndsat Thematic :\-la pper hand 4 mcar-mrrared r image ora portion ofthe Wasne ch Mounla in Ra nge oft he Rocky Mountains
    in Utah draped ove r a 30 x 30 m USUS tligital elevation model tvcruca l cJl:J/L/Lc raliull is SJI: I highlighting the Mu um Timpann!:l0S glaci a l cirques ,1ml uretes and U-sha p<:d Wallsburg Can yon . Seve ral eols arc present on the serrated Moum Timpanogos
    nd gcbnc. A color version is found in Color Plate 14- l llh (co urtesy Space Imaging, Inc. ).

    trend ing across the terrai n in Northern Manitoba. Ca nada.


    Th is es ker also dcposued S<111J y alluvium imo the g lacial
    lake as the i!lacie r ret reated .
    h.

    '"

    Somcnmes a large bloc k o f glaci a l ICC that co ntai ns an


    assortment of glacial debris becomes detac hed fro m the

    main glacie r. The bloc k of ice and materia ls may he s u bsequemly co vered b)' nth cr deb ris. A It er glacial retreat, the ice
    in the block mel ts, leaving a depres sion in the lands ca pe.
    These depressions or kettles ti ll with wa ter, creating lakes
    and swa mps. A relat ively large kettle is s how n in Figure l~
    56a.

    14'

    560

    Sle r r a

    ;'\ 1,"\

    Remote Sens ing of Sa lls, Minerals, and Geomorphology

    ada 'fountain Ra nge in Califo rnia

    F'9ure 1454 Land:;,.,.1 \ISS ha nd 3 (ncar-mfraredj irnag... of La ke Tahoe in In... SI\.'fr.I ~ evada o f Lahfomia draped 0\ cr DcfL'TlSC ~la rPing
    Agency Levet-t Digital Terrain EI.:\ arion 0 ,,13 l\ cn ical exagg"r~lion is S:\} . In addiuon to Lake Tahoe. there arc also ....... enl
    stair-stepped glaciated valleys in the southern ponion oCth.. image Ih:1I contam lakes [courtesy USGS ~AlC d.a lab'!sc). A
    color \'ersinn is f011l1(\ ill ( '" lllr Plate 14- I Oc.

    A drumlin is a smooth. oval- shaped (e llipticel) h ill o f glacia l


    till material w ith its long axi s parallel to the d irec tion o ftlow
    of the fo r mer glac ier. It is generally more blum and sleep on
    the g lac ier-facing end and mor e elon gated down -g lacier
    .... ith a thinning tail. Drumlins ofte n occur in clusters.
    re ferred 10 as drumlin swa rms. Drumlins consist of unsorted
    gra vel and sand mixed wit h some clay. There is much cantrovcrsy as to the processes thai produce drumlins. It is genera lly believed Ih<l t a dru mlin de:\ clops beneath ac tive icc
    and is formed b)' hig.h water pre ssure that mo lds the saturated ti ll into a strea m lined form . Drumlins may be 111 - 50
    m hig h, ron- _,00 m w ide and 2 - J kill long , A sma ll dru mlin field in an d around Grafton Lake in the Kejimkujik
    National Park of Canada is shown in Figure 14-5bb.

    II)IN)..\1 osl sa nd gra ins moved d uring saltat ion on ly rise I


    2 em above the g rou nd wh ile a few bounce I - 3 m. The
    repeated coll isio n o f partic les causes them 10 become
    increasingl y roun ded and smooth (and slight ly smaJlcr~
    \\'hich mak ..-s. II c \ en easi er f,IT the pa rticles 10 become
    entrained in the wind field . AI'>I:I. some of the, encrg} of saltaring grains o f sa nd is trans ferred directl y III part icles on the
    ground upon impact. This causes tbcsc grai ns to 111('I\'C ferwurd sl ightly or creep. Extremely fine-grained silt smaller
    tha n ZOO urn may be captured in the first I - ::! km of a turbuleru atmosphere and moved great dis tan ces as dust. For
    e xample, npproxirn.ucly 10 em nfs lll has been dq)l~ ilt\l in
    southern Fran', from sources in A frica in the last 300 years.
    Thu s. part icles of san d arc tran sported in the w ind I"oy Sl) ;'pe nsion and sal tation. and o n the groun d by c reep.

    Eolian Landforms

    When wind erodes, tra nsports. and -or depo sus mat erial. il is
    ca lled eolian (aeolian ) acuvuy. WinJ l)pically- creates both
    eros ional and depos iuonallundtorms in coa stl area s and in
    deserts. Eo lian land limns ma y develop wbcn there is an
    ample supply of sa nd and enough w ind velocity to mow
    indi vid ua l soil panicles . Good SO U T\.'CS of sand include:
    coastal and lacustrine bea ches . a lluvial river de posits. and
    material Irom g lac ial lill pla ins . Given a srrong w ind and
    amplc supp ly uf sand. the individ ua l gra ins of sand b ounce
    along the terrain through the p rocess of ""IIII /if", (Sel b) .

    Sometimes thc b lowing, sahmin g sa nd encounters vegcunon or other phenomena tha t impede its forwa rd progress, III
    w ind " doci ty decrease s. ca using the sa nd panic les to be
    depo sited . Whe n su fficient sand is accum ulated . we have a
    sand dune which is defined as a mound. ridge. or hill of
    windblown sand-size panicles. This mound o f sand affects
    the n ow Ill' the air over the mound. (ienerully, the wind
    speed is greatest on till' w indward (up w ind) side of the
    mound and decrea ses un the lee ward (s lipfaccl, wmdshadow side .F igur c 14-57a I. The zone o f red uced air velccil) cnuxcs the sand to he depos it!.'J just beyond the lop ofihc
    mou nd onto the leeward back -slope (s lipfa ce) . Every size of

    Geomorpho logy

    561

    lateral
    moramc

    __________\ t~~---

    sping

    vcrn l

    medial moraines

    et. .\
    3.

    lateral morame

    Lat era l and med ia l moramc s o n Ba rna rd Glacier, :\ !\:.

    ,,The
    ome
    ler},

    <Illle

    531 -

    t rhc
    for-

    suer
    tu r-

    Fo r
    din
    ta rs.

    terminal
    moraine

    sush. Lateral and ter minal glacial moraines

    I of

    "'''
    i nd
    the
    nd0< -

    t he, of

    011

    Hyle r lvlnnd. Balli n ls1;ltld. NW Ter ritorie s Canada.

    Figure 14-5 5 ujlhgh -cbliquc aC IUl I plnuograph uf the Barnard (i 1,u: ;eT. AK. Ladt olthe tributary !;!lucicrs ha.s latc ralmuraincs. The connue'n ee o f the rrihuta ry g laciers .:rem.." med ial mo ra ines. The tributary glacier on the irnmcdimc right receives mate ria l fro m at
    1c",IIIilC other tributary glOlcicr. us <, \ ;d<:11<:<.1.1 by the two med ial mor.uu..", wufun Ill.., cclllcr lO r it, 11m" lel' unes)' American
    (iL't>graphil"ul Soc iL'I) Couccuon 31 the Narional Snow a nd tee Data Ccmcr. I :ni\ of C olorado, Houldcr j. b) l.ow -ohlique pholu~raph url,ll.:ra l and tcrminalgtacialmoraincs 011 ll yllll ls l;lllJ . lta tlln leland. ill Ih,: CUIl;IJ I;ln 'II,,"hll C~l Te rritories.

    sand gra in has a different a ngle-of- repose, i.e.the maximum


    slo pe a t whic h loose soi l ma te ria l re ma ins stable. Whe n this
    angle is reac hed for a pa rticul ar sand t e.g.. .30 - ~Oo l . the
    sa nd pa rt icl es slide dow n the leew ard s li pface caus in g the

    mo und to grad ually mov e

    fO N

    ard in the di rection o f the pre-

    vail ing Il ind .

    Sand deru~i l S mit)' to.: shaped m to a variety of bedforms


    including ripples (bctwc.....n 5 em and 3 m apart a nd 0 . 1 - 5

    ...
    ( 'Il , -\pn;~

    562

    14'

    Remote Sensing 01Soils. Minerals , and Geo morphology

    drumlins

    a..\ n esker and keute in Xort hem Man itoba. Ca nada.

    b. Drum lins in Kcjunkujik National Park. Ca nada.

    Figu re 14 -56 a t Lu w -obliqec photograph o f 3 si nuous, gravel esker an d oV;ll. slupo:d h'uk in the ho.lC\.'al fi>rs'$( o f Northern \{ ;m iloN. The
    Iigh l-loos-d a rea hi the left and righ t o f the es ker in tbc foreground life !'and de lta.. deposued b> ttl<: ~l~ into the glaciallalt
    that was formed as the glacier retreated. b ) Low-obliq ue aeri al phol Ob'faph of severa l drum lins in th e Kcji mkujl\ " :uiooll
    I'ar\( 01 Canada ICtlUT1("o.)' Ten-ol in Sciences I>lvi ~ion. (;,-olojl.ical SUf"'e) of ( "lInadal.

    e m high). dunes ( .~ - t,OO m apa rt and 0. 1 - 20 m high ). and


    m",l{udum:.\ (3tlO In J km apart . 200 - 400 m high. and

    many kilometers long). Of course. small ripples may exist


    on ind i\ idua l s and dunes a nd rnegad une s. Th is discussion
    focuses on dunes and meg uduncs.

    All d une types may occ ur in three forms : simple. co mpound.


    and com plex . SimpIL- dun es arc ba sic Cornu. wuh a minimum
    numbe r of SIiP!:lCCS that de fine the gco m ...tri e type. Com{101m" dun es are large du nes nn which smalle r du nes of sirnilar t) pe and sli pface or ient alIo n arc supe rimpose d. Compler
    d unes arc co m binations of IWO o r mor e du ne type s (Walker.

    UlllUli tilln al [ lilia n 1.1I ndfo r m\

    Il)lJlo! ).

    Mo st dunes arc co mpose d o f medium gra in-size quartz sand;


    howeve r. they ma y 1I 1 ~ o he composed o f volc an ic ash. ca lc ite. and even gyp sum panicles. The re arc a var iety o f dcp c sition nl sand dune type s tha t have characteristic
    dC\iClopmenta l eyries an d di agnost ic shapes that can he recoguizcd in aerial photo gra phy or other imagery. Scientists
    have co mpiled inventories of the major type s ofd unes found
    througlunu th e world an d how th e d une s appear in remo tely
    se nsed data . For example. sec work hy Rinke r ct al . ( 199 1),
    Dokka ct al ( 19\)7 ), and Wa lker t 19X(,; I"Nx),

    Crevccnt rjc: Th e crcsc crunc dune is the mo st common


    dune on Earth (and Mars) . They arc gene ra lly mure wide
    tha n they arc loug. Hascd on the work o f Baguold ( 1941),
    these dunes arc o fu-n re ferred to as barcha n. ba rchaaoid, (If
    transverse dunes. Barchan crcsccntric dunes such as those
    shown in Figure 1457b,c may be produced when I ) the prevailing w ind l"ll111CS frnm a urn form . consistent direct ion. 2)
    the re is little vegetation present 10 ancho r any port ion uf'thc
    d une , and J) there is a relatively spa rse su pp ly of sand. The
    two horns o f the c rescent point downwind. The gent le windwurd slope is usua lly < IS. T hc leew ard, slipface side of the
    barcha n dune is sh:l.' pes t with an angle-of -repose ofapproximald ) 34 - 4()" for dry sand. lndi vidual barchans or
    cx rrc mcly la rge lIlegaha rdmn ~ commonly occ ur in elongate
    c hains or train s that ma y merge with coale sced dunes in
    tid ds or ergs. Small ba rchan " move se veral me ters per year,
    but mc gabarchans me v1.' more s lowl y (Walk cr. 19981.

    T he earli est sig nifi cant work o n the phy sic s, orig in, and evolut ion o f eo lian sa nd dunes was performed hy Ralph Bagnoll! ( 194 1l. who work ed in Egyp t prior to wortd Wa r II. Il l.'
    rectlgni / ed two basic d une type s: the crcscc ruric dune.
    which he c alle d "b arc han." and the linea r dune. wh ich he
    ca lled longitudinal. or "scif" (Arab ic fo r "sword"). Unfortunately, his tcrmmology wa ~ then app lied 10 many ot her types
    o f d unes, rc.... ulting in a be wild ering te rmin ology, Th is secnon utili;..:s the follllwillg d une classificat ion sys tc m
    ada pled from sc \ cral sou rel.'S (Wal ker, IQ~f> : I<J'JX; I(inker el
    al. 19<J I) : crescentri.:, linea r, du me . ~tar. an d pa rabolic .

    !.i ncar; Linear (or lun ~ i t llu ina l ) d unes may be straight or
    irregularl)' sinuous. t\ 10" -ohliquc photograph o f a linear
    dunc in thc south c-nd o f S..lt1a La ke is shown in Figure I+.
    5Sa. ThC'M: dunes mil)' b< llIany kilom ...tcrs lo ng and hundred~ Ilf m...lcrs high. They arc gl.'ncrally co mposed (If loose,

    563

    Geomorphology

    a. Sand movement nn a dune

    .'

    A
    .. , . .

    ... . -

    ' ",,:(

    '"
    ce

    ..
    \, r

    '
    \ .

    .,

    d.

    " ~

    .....;......''...
    "

    ~:

    '~

    ,J

    ,~

    'x

    b. Oblique view of crcscemnc dunes


    catted barchan Of tranev "r~" dunes)

    c. \ 'kw of a single crescentric du ne

    (al~l

    e
    I.

    Figu re 14-57 a) ( Ieneral charactcrtsncs <,1' 1101'1 sand is moved through sahanon and creep nn a sand du ne. This illustration is keyed 10 the
    wind direction and feature s in \ 0 ). b) Several crcsccr uric (OOl"l: h,1I11 dunes on the coas t of Peru migrat ing from right t(1 left,
    par alle l wuh the wind duecnon (courte sy U.S. Geologica l Survey: Walke r, 1'/<1101; ami Jnhn ~kCauky ). e) View " I' a single
    crc ' c cntric. barchanoid dune (cou rte sy Desert Processes Working Group: Rinker et al.. I"N l ; Dokka ct al.. 19') 7).

    well-sorted very fine \(J med ium grain sand. Extreme ly


    straight. linear dunes are o ften referred 10 as ,\,( /1111 ridges.
    whi le the linear, sinuous var ieties arc o ften ca lled .wi6. T he
    leng th o fa linea r dune is much gre.ucr than its width . While
    the crescemric dun e is the most com monly occ urring d une.
    linear du nes cov er more desert area. esp eci ally in central
    Aus tralia . .s outhern Africa. the Arabian Peninsula. and parts
    of't he Sahara. The la rges t <l11l1 1illlesl d unes in the world are
    found in the Namib Desert , Namibia. ..'vfrica , Some dune s
    are greate r than JOO m high ( Figure 14-59 ), Color Plate 14.
    II de picts a ponum t.f the v;lsl Namibian san d d une la ndscapc using Landsat 7 ET~l and ASTER data dr aped ove r a
    dig ital elev ation model .

    ulso play a role in the ir deve lopment. It may be tha t the


    length of the d une is enlarged when the wind nlow s in the
    predo m inant direction. The width o f till.' dune is enl arged
    when the wi nd blows strollgly at right ang les to till' prev a iling w ind direction for relatively brie f period s of time. A n
    ex tens ive SCi! of linear dunes is shown in the Space Shunk
    photo graph otthc J\lar/ uq Desert ofl.ibyc in Fig ure 14-58b.
    Dome Dunn: Oval or circular mounds of sand that gencrally tack a slip face arc called dome dunes. They are rcla tively rare . Figurc I 4-5Xe dc picrs a ste reopair (11' do me dunes
    in the w estern Shicld o f Saudi Ar ab ia. The domes arc partly
    separated by interd une hollows tha t are en c losed by subsidiary dunes of hard-pa rked sand .

    The origin of linear dunes is co ntro versia l. Some suggest


    that the linear d une s are pro duced I:oy un idirectional winds
    and that the alignment o f the linear d unes is par-did ..... uh the

    Star nunes: St:lr d unes may develop where there is an


    ample amount of sand and the ..... ind blo.....s in many dircc-

    w ind direction. Others suggest Ih31 mult idirectional winds

    nons. They arc a lso called pyramid or radial dunes. Three or

    01,\ 1'1EK

    564

    a , Obliquo:

    \~

    or a lin.::u

    l Jon~nudin;>11

    14'

    dune on Soda

    Lak~ .

    Remote Sens Ing 01So il s. Minera ls . and Geomorpholog y

    b. Shunk pOOl<.>gfllph 1)( linear dUlk~ in the Manuq Do:.:-s<..-n. Libp..

    Figu re 14-58 a) Exam ple of a linear (longitudinal) dune. Nore the phy, ical uhstrucuon cunsiug ihc majority of 'li nd to deviate from it.>
    course w hile some spi lls OWl' the lOp (court esy o f De sert Pnl<:CSSl'S Working G ru up; Dok ku c t 'II.. 1')<)7). b ] Black-and- white
    vcrsi ,," nf Sp an : Sh ull lc ph<l l<>graph ST S 054- 15 2- 1HI( obtained in January 1'N3. depicting an e xte nsive sea of line ar dunes.

    111" <la rk urcas arc part " r Ihe Hammadat MarLII'l (rocky UCM:rt ) cOlh h ting o f bedroc k outcrops ((ourtcS) SASA Johnson
    Space ('en"" r), c) Panchromatic stereopair of dome dunes in rhc western Shi d d of Saudi Amh ;'1 I photogr a phy obtained ~.

    the AnTI) M ~ p Ser\ icc: courtesy or Desert Preces ses W0rldnl! Group; Rinker cl .11. I'N I: n ul la el .II. 19"7).

    mo re arm s of sand typica lly radiale from a high ce ntral


    mou nd. Th e arms can vary in leng th. width. num ber. and
    shape. but eac h has a slipface. Star dunes acc umula te in
    areas w ith m ultid irec tion a l w ind re gimes . Sta r d unes tend to
    inc rease in he ight rather than migr at ing ho rizontall y across
    the landsc ape. ca using them to tJC one of the tall est d unes

    found. They may reac h 211Cl - ]llfl m In the great deserts of


    the world. Star d une s a bo occ ur as sec ondary de men ts on or
    in co mbmauon with oth er du nes. A single sta r du ne in the
    Namib Desert IS sho..... n in Figure 14-60a. and a Spa ce SbuttIc pho tog raph ofstar dun es superimposed o n linea r dunes in
    ,\ Igeria is show n in Figu re 1~ " M)b.

    565

    Geomorphology

    Nam ib Desert. :\am itJia. Arricll

    Ftgure 1459 Looguudmal JUIl~"S in the: l'\amib Desert in Xanub-Na ukluft :"ali"n..1Par\.. r~""1....dcd by the Landsat 7 EP.,1+ on Augu~1 12,
    2000 These arc: the lalle~1 dunes in the world. some > JllO m (almll~l <,ll'i0 IH (.:tlune') l 'SGS and ~ASA). Refer 10 Color Plate
    101-11 a fur a \ i..:.... of a portion uf the lkUrIC urea rec orded by Ihc ASTER sensor.

    m its
    " hill'
    uncs.
    JlS< H1

    !d by

    -ts of
    m or
    "he

    ib utes. m

    Parabolic Uum'\: A parabolic dum: ha-, a crescent. U


    sha pe like a ba rc han d une l:J.("{'p l lh3t its horns point in the
    oppo site d irection into the wind. They are also called U
    shaped. blowout, or hairpin du nes. Parabo lic dunes are ereatcd 1-1 hell wind is sufflclcmly intense 10 literally blowout
    the cen ter of a du ne- but a rehnivcly small amo unt of \ egetation Oil either side ca uses the edges o f the dune to be sta biIizcd. Someti mes the horns of the parabolic dune remain
    attached to the vegetation for some lime as the main bod y Il l"
    the dune migr ates do wnwind. w hen this occurs. the parabolic dune resem bles a hairpin lying on its side instead o r a
    neatly shap.:d barcha n crescent. Parabnlic dune s arc alway s
    associated with vcgctarion - grasses. sh rubs, and uccasionnltrccs tlun anchor the trail ing anus . They usually form
    in areas with stro ng umdirecnnna l winds.
    I.o r's : As a continental glacie r retreats, it may deposit gla-

    cialnll in all ou twas h plai n. Stro ng winds blowing fo r millcnnia ove r the ou twash plaiumay ex tract the small. si n-size
    particles. These wind bornc, sin- size pa rticles may he deposited du wnwind fW ill the till plai n as II laye r of IOt'." I' soil. For
    exam ple, the thickest know n depos it o floess is 335 m on the
    Loess Plateau otCtnna.Loc accumulations in Europe and
    in the: Ame ricas resulting from the: Wiscuns in glaciation are
    generally 20 - 30 m deep . Loess is a very highly erodablc
    soil thai is usually j ust 3 fe w feet thicl.. Drainage cha nnels in
    loess so il often have very steep banks. Dunes arc not gcucr-

    a ll) limned on loess de pos its. beca use of increased co hesion


    between the Itles S soil panicles .
    Enl\iullil l t';olia n 1.II11dfurms

    Blowing sa nd can a lso produce impressive erosiona l features. T he kinet ic energy ofwind acts UPOll the ground surface. So me ofrhc ene rgy is transferred 10 the grou nd as heat
    while some ofit detac hes soil part ic les from lite' ground and
    moves them along through salta tion. When material is
    remov ed from a S Url~ICC via wind, we have de flation. The
    cont inuous remo val ofboth sand and sill from areas with an
    allu vial depu sit lea ves onl y a comb ination of coa rse sand
    nnd pebbles and some d ay mater ial. This can resu lt in the
    creation of ;l desertp,nt' llwlIl landsc ape wh ich is a sheetlike
    surface of rod. frag ment s that rema in after wind and water
    have remov ed the fill ': particles, Almost half of the Ea rth's
    desert sur faces arc stony de flation zones. Desert pavement
    reg ion>. are culled I"l:K~' in Algeria. ser ir in Libya, andgibbcr.\
    in A u-aralia. These deflated regio ns may be ve ry extensive
    in large dese rts. A de flated basi n is ca tted a blowout. Sometimes a dar k, shin) dese rt varnish is found on the desert
    pavem ent surfaces produced from manganese, iron oxides.
    hydrox ides. and clay minerals.
    Ihe surfaces of rock bodie s may also be erode d by ab rasion
    and sandblasting by wmdbomc particles. In extreme cases
    the wind may he so strong that it cuts channels in the less

    C HA P IER

    566

    14

    a. Star dunes i n the Namib Desert.

    Remote Sens ing of Sa lls. Minerals, and Geomorpho logy

    b. Space Shuttle photo graph of the complex linear


    F rfcrnm c Dunes in the Ta s~i l i ~ 'Ali<:r of southeastern
    Algeria supe rim pose d with sta r dunes.

    Figure 14-60 a ) Large-scale aer ial photog raph ofa sta r dune in the Namib de sert . Each star d\lnc consists o f mu ltiple arm s ..ac h with the ir
    own slipt:,,..., radiating from a central area. Star dimes are produced by winds W illing from multiple dirccuons (n lurt<.',y
    USG S; Walk er. I')98). b) Blnck-nud-whitc version of Sp;llc Slnl1lk photognlph ST so70-70:". O'14 o f the 'l'ifermnc Dunes of
    Alpcri;1 in July, I'N;. Extremely I,m!!. Itn"lIr d unes arc pre sent. The linea r d unes ha ve star du nes S UI)<; r i lllllU~J un pu rti,ms of
    t hem. Resistant. weathe red sandstonelies 10 lhe so uth and ca st ~md appe ars in dark ton es. Se ve ral while" pla yas arc present in
    the image (cou rte sy NAS..\ Jo hnson Space Ce nter].

    res tsta m roc k. leavi ng residual streamlined ..pines ca lled

    uoc co. Ii . Vda7quC1.. A . and C Siebe. 200 S. " Usin g t teomor-

    .m n./ung l. wh ich may be tens of mcrcrs high and kilomet ers


    long,

    phulog ic \ la pping 10 Sne ngjhen l\alurat RCWUTCC ~hll3gc


    meru in Develo ping Cou ntries," Cat ..ne. (,0:23<,1 - 253.

    Ch al:lrillal. S. GoeIT. /I.. F. II.. Krosley. I.. and II. W.

    References

    Oh~,

    :!OO2. " Use o f Hypcrspec ua t Image s in the ldenuflca tion and


    Ma pping u f Expansive Ct ay Soils a nd the Ru le o f Sp atial Resulu l inn.- Rt''''o/,' SI'IHl IIJ.: "JEnl'irullm "/II , 1'12:4 31-44 5.
    AS 'I f-. R. . 2U1l6. A d l'llII<,<," .1," </""/" 1/"1' <' rll" ,.m<,1 1:'II/I.,-,"i'l1I </11'/ N,' ,
    P'TU"I/ N"diomd,'' Waslung tun : ~A S A , hnp:/la slcrwc b.jp l.
    nasa.g ov/.

    ("]ar ~ ,

    Ba ld i. P.. Fa bri s. M.. .Marsella, M. and R .."' " nlied li, :!OO.'i.
    - Mo nllo rmg the ~ l orp h o l o!! IC 3 1 (-vo lutio n of the Sci ara del
    Fuoco dur ing lhc 2002-2003 Stromboli Eruption using Mulutempora l Phorog ramns et ry," /SPRS Jo"rtI~1 til Pllologramm,In,' ~ R" m(ll" S.. nun~. ;<,1: I W -211 .

    Che n. J . Zha n g.

    Ragnol d, R_ A .. 1<1 4 1. The 1'11.1'. 1;0 oJ RlolI" -",md uml On " N


    /)l/l1e

    Lo ndon:

    ~ Cl h u e n ,

    2f1.'i p.

    fk l nilp. J., 2003. "T he Wo rld at your Feet : Desert Bio logica l
    S...il Cr ll sl , ," 1-"1'""1 /.,,-,, ;11 f.'r otoR\' un" III<' Environme nt,
    l( S ) : I Il I - I ~ <) .

    R. N.. I')')'), "Sp ectros copy u f Rucks and Minerals. and


    Princip les of Sp cct rnscn py:' in oHm"',,! ol N"IIIfJ //' S('IlI;ng <;.0\('...11(-, . A, R. ~ nCT. ( Ed .) , ~Y: Joh n Wiley.

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    K. and K. S . ( jajhh l)c. 2U0-4. - Dramagc


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    ton. http:! daac.gefc.nasa.gov I/OA,\('_ DOCS/uaae _cd.h tml.

    \\'-a ~ .

    Strain . 1'. and F. Ingle. l 'IlIJ . ,-""kllIX


    Publishmg, 304 p-

    Zribi. M .. Baghdad i. :-.r . ll " lol h. :-.r , Fnfin, O. and C. Guerin.


    : nll ~. - j- vafua no n (If A R (lu ~ h Soil Surface Dc scnp uo n with
    AS ,- \R+NV1S,\T Radar Da ta: '
    Sen sing "I

    <1/

    I'"r/h. .-\ II<II\la: Iu tttcr

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    Geolog y," \{""/lal '!( Plw l"g ro!,h ;c Im ,-rpn'I<II;o", 2nd Ed.,
    Helh.:sua \:-<i'& RS . 117- ltIS .

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    titude Cump;m",m ( h er ( Uplif.... ~ e\ a,b : Denver: LS(j ...
    hll p:" speclab.cr.usgs.gov I.

    "h//I.').'i:(,i 71.

    E,..",...

    In Situ Reflectance Measurement

    15

    n s itu spectral renec tance measureme nts obtained on the grou nd using a
    han dheld spcct rorud iomc tc r call be used to :
    gai n ins ight intu [he spectral reflectanc e characteristics of selected
    mater iels:
    ca l i brate rem ote sen sor data : and
    provi de unique spectral data for impro ved mform .nion extractio n usi ng
    mu ltispec tral and hy pcrspcctrul remot e se nsor data .

    ln "'"11I spectral rene-cnaucc data are ottcn col lected by scientists simply to gain
    insight into the spectral characteristics of Earth-surface materials (e.g .. Bahiag raw). Add itional knowledge about the material can be ob tained by subjec t-

    ing it eo \ arious treatments tc.g.. application of different amounts of Nitrogen


    to Bahiagrass ) and determining if the trea tments r esul t in different spec tral
    reflectance patterns. The various tre atments and the ir spectral re fl ectance
    characteristics ca n be: monitored th rough lime 10 obt ain additio na l insight.
    Scientists often create spectral reflectance libraries o f the materials found in
    thei r stud y area. Se vera l publi c age ncies share the ir spec trallibraries via the
    I n t ~'01 ":!, e.g.. U.S . Geologic al Survey Spectral Library 115 (C lark er a I., 20()])
    and thc ASTER Spectral Libra ry (ASTER. ~OO(i ) .
    Rcmot... sensing systems collec t spectral reflectance data o f the terrain in the
    visible and ncar -in frared tVSIR) and short-wavelengt h in frared lSWIR) pornon of the electromagnetic spectrum l O.35 - ~.5 p m ). Atmosphe ric sca ttering.
    ab sorpt ion , and reflccuon often impact the energy reflected from the terra in
    and recorded by the remote se nsi ng sys tem (re fer to Cha pter 2 ). Fortuna tely,
    remote se nsi ng-derived sp ectral reflectan ce data ca n hi: corr ela ted w ith i n
    .Ii/II percent re fl ectanc e dura uf the same phe nomena ((I CIlTT~'C t for aun ospheric effec ts {Tcillct et al.. 20(2 ). For example. a 3 x J III plot of'Bahiagmss
    on the ground ca n he measured using a ) a high spatial rcsot uuon airborne
    multispe ctra l scanne r. and b ] a ha ndhel d spec troradiometer. The remote sens ing data may be co llect ed tho usand s o f meters AG L. The in situ specrroradiomcter measuremen t is typic ally collected ep prcximatcly 1 III abov e the
    canopy. Numerous paired airborne and g round-based spec tral reflecta nce
    mensurem cms (c.g.. 20 to 301 ca n be used to calibrate (adjust) the remo te
    sens ing-derived spectral reflec tance measurement s. to min imize the etfccts
    of uuuuspheric scauer ing, absorption. and reflection (jOel/, ~nn~ ) . T he
    result is a calib rated remo te sensi ng data set that often y iel ds more accurate
    la nd cover or b ioph ysica l information (e.g.. biomass . lea f-are a-inde x] than an
    uncnlibrared dataset.

    569

    570

    ( ' H A I' n :R

    15

    In Situ Refl ectance Measur ement

    Spect ra l Reflect ance ;\l e3suremenf Using a Handh eld Spect rnrudlomet er

    Referenee

    Targcl

    (Sp l'crrfl hm Plate)

    (4:'.g. B(/hill~r"_H )

    Refl ecta nce = Target I Reference

    --

    ,.

    '.

    eO<

    ,..

    .,.

    . ,.,

    _.....

    ' >0

    .,.

    .,.

    ."

    ".

    II'<'

    ...

    I"

    w.......

    ,.
    Figu re 15' A spectral reflectance curve of Hahia grass obta ined
    spect ra tc.g .. a " hile Sp..'Clrnlo n referen ce plat e).

    c.

    b.
    b~

    //1 sltn spect ral reflectance data from almost pure Earth surface materials (e.g.. hea hhy full- canop y Bahiagrass. fresh
    asphalt. Jeep-clear .... <Iler ) can he used to locate cndrncmbcrs
    (i.e . pure c las ses ) for lIS\' d uring mu ltispect ral or hyperspectral da ta analysi s. The cmhnemhcrs He used 10 perform
    spectral unmixmg whi ch can he used 10 produce ma ps that
    revealt he prop ort io n of materials wit hin each pi xel in the
    dataset (c.g.. cue pixel might con tai n 40% Bahiagrass, 30%
    asphalt, and 30% water]. Jen sen (:!.OOS) pro vides. n d iscus s ion o f linear spectral unmixiug.
    Th is chapter de scribes se vera l paramete rs that shou ld he
    considered when ob taining In J il/l spectral reflectance measurcmc nts o f land 'over materials using a ha ndheld spectrerad iomet er.

    Spec tral Reflectance of a Material

    The proc e ss of ob taimn g handheld spec tra l reflec...ance measu reme nts is intriguing . To obta in the re tlecrance s pect rum

    d i\id mg the target spectra (I lilhiagr;lss

    In

    this C\ 3111I'h.) t>~ the reference

    nf a target ma terial, PI' it is neces sary to onta in 11,','0 spectral


    mea surements:

    I. the amount

    "I' radiance reflected

    wavelength interv al trom


    Spcctrnlon plate):

    11 rt:(I'I"t' I/{ 'P

    in ;1 specific
    sample. f. , (e.g.. a

    2. the amount or radiance reflected from the target of


    inte rest, 1. 1' in the same wavelength interv al (c.g.,
    Ilahiag rass).

    The renccuncc spec trum. p " . is computed by dividing the


    spe ctral res pnnsc o f Illc target of inte rest hy t he spectral
    response o f the re ference sample:

    PT =

    L,
    -x L
    I.,

    (151)

    T he correcuon la ctor (kl is the rano Ill' so lar irradia nce to ref-

    crcncc plate exuancc and ideally should be nca r I ( McCoy.


    :!.OO)). An e xamp lc o f re fe rence __pcctra (Spccrralon 1, targel

    Referen ce Mate rial

    571

    Ill umination Considerati ons

    O.\lH

    " ow,
    E
    0
    o. ~
    0.\12

    ,,

    0.'"
    O ~~

    250

    500

    7'0

    I~K)

    1 2 mt 5 00

    1 7 5 n2Iro

    22 5 0

    2 ~K )

    Whe n com puting the reflectance spec tru m o f a material in


    the ficld or in thc laboratory, it is impo rtantthat the illum inatio n charac teristics o f the referenc e mate rial (e.g.. Spec tra!\)l1 ) and the target o f intere st (c.g.. !3ahiagrass ) rema in the
    same .

    Wa' ''.....C'b. nm

    Agure 15-2 Spcctr.d rdk'clanc... cheracrcnsucs of a Spcctralon


    pIal' over the.' spectral range 2~1l - 2~()() nm mensurcd in the 1;d:...,ral\l[) under comrulled artificial illumination. The reflectance ru n e d......s nUl exh,t-it
    the atmosphe ric absorption bands that arc present
    when measurcmcms are obtained in direct sola r illumiuanonas shown in Figure IS- Ia.

    spectra (Bahin gm ss }, and percent reflectance o f Bahiagms s


    is demons trated in Figure 15-1.

    Refe ren ce Material

    "
    Ic
    a
    1

    Spearakm is th... most wide ly used reference mate r ial " hen
    ob taining insitu spect ral re flectance measu rements. II is a
    thermoplastic white (o r gray ) resin that has dcmcnstrared the
    high ...st diffuse re flectance of any knllwn materia l or coating
    for terrestrial remote sensing a pplicati ons for bo th fiel d and
    laboratory ap plic ations. Space-grade Spcc tralon combines
    h igh refle ct ance w ith a n extrcm e ly Iambc rtian re flecta nce
    pro file , exhi!>iling reflectance values o f >99% over rhe
    wav e length rang ... from 411() 10 1500 nm and >95% from 250
    In 2500 nm {Labsphere. 200 tl). Spectra l re flec tanc e characrc risucs of a Spcc trnlo n p late measu red in the la boratory arc
    shown in Figure 15-2. Spectralon plates range in size from:!
    x 2 x 0.56 in. up 10 24 x 24 x 0.56 in. Most scien tists use 10
    x 10 or 12 x 12 in. p lates mounted in a dura ble 3110Jil ed a lumi num fram e . It is possihle.' to purc hase larger plates ba t they
    become d ifficult 10 handle in tho: licld. They are also wry
    expensive . The surface of the Spcctralon plate sho uld be
    ke pi clean from dust and de bris. After heav y usc it may he
    necessary to use w utcr and very-line sandpa per to restor ... the
    surface .
    Each Spcc rralon plate is calib rate d by thc manufaelUr...r. Ca libralion data from 250 10 25()() nm. e\Cry 50 nm i:s suppl ied
    with a Spt.'Ctralon plale . Cal ihralion da ta ar ... tracea hle to
    nat ional labo rntory standards.

    A ny \ ananon in the illum ination characteristics bet" cen the


    lime the reference spec tra arc collected :1110 the time the target of interest spect ra arc co llected resu lts in error in the
    derived re flectance spectru m. Tha t said. it is usefulto rcv ic....
    various scene illumination co nvide ranons.

    In Situ Spectral Reflectance Measurement Using Sofar


    Illumina tion

    Th e so lar energy reachin g the Ea rth's surface and the domi nant factors a ffectin g th e illum ination .... cr ... di-eus,...'1:1 in
    Ch apt ...r 2. They are revis ited in Figu re 15-3 for this hand held radiometry disc uss ion. wate r vapor impa cts the iocoming radiant flux the most (Gao a nd Goetz. 1(90 ), So lar
    ent"rg) reaching thc Earth 's surface is es sen tially zero in thc
    regions aroun d 1400 nm and \900 nm bec ause atmospheric
    wate r vapo r absorbs light in these region s ove r the lung path
    length of th c atmos phere. The great er the d istan ce that thc
    energy has 10 pass through the auuosph e re (i.e. tho: path
    length l. the greater the a mount ofabsorption thaI ta kes place
    by the var ious atrnus pheric constituents , The amount of
    .... mer vapor in the atmosphere changes diurna lly and seasonall) and can vary in space o ver shtlft distances dependin g
    upon the characteristic, o f regional a ir masses.
    KeIlcct anc c spectra obtained in the field usi ng a handheld
    spcc trorudro mctcr arc infl ue need b) fi ve types o f sola r illumin ation . T he mo st dominant irrudiancc is dir...cr solar illumi natio n (E,,: path I) as show n in Figure 15-3. It may
    contribute as muc h as 90'% IIf the total energy illuminating
    th... ta rget under clear sk) conditions. Scasonal so lar eleva lion ang le HJl and atmospheric co ndnio ns (e.g.. high watervapu r co ntent ) will uffcc t the amount o f radiant tlux and its
    spectral cha racteristic s illumi nating the target. Figu re 15-4
    documents the sola r irradia nce that actu ally mak es it to the
    Earth 's surface after pasving through the atrnosph ...r....
    Sca tte ring in the at tllo:sph" r... res ults in d il1"us... sky ligh l illumin ation . Thl" ditlusc sky light usuall y accounts Ii)r 10-20"/.
    of th... tota l ...nergy illum inati ng the terra in. T he spl'ctral
    chara..:teris lics or J itTuse skylig ht illuminat ion ,Ire a ti lllct io n

    In Sil u Reflect ance Measurement

    572

    III .filii Spec tral Refl ecta nce


    \Ica \UTelllCnl U s i ll ~ Su lar Hlumin ation
    Sun

    Cl (>uJ~
    l) 'r I:CI "",' l3r
    illu mllut io n. Eo

    S pec lru r.ltl ",m"h"

    [S]

    Pa th

    r.u liar;::..(
    () ,tlu.;e ",ky
    lrr.....ianco:

    \~'

    \"

    ~
    In"lallla nc"u'"
    lidtl...I'-H<.'w t H'O\ "'
    o ( lhc .....n""l"~~"l"m

    II
    H z ] m
    Ah lhKle " 00""

    b'TOund lc-..d
    lAG L I

    ,f,ldili"",,1fac/on
    Iv <'<ImiJ..,: d oud

    "hadow. OI:'arhy
    ot>Jcc l ",hadO".

    w ind

    1_ 0 _1
    d iafll<.'\ '''' ohM
    gmund-r roj,"'l....t lf OV
    " n th e IalS'" .1'''01

    Figure 15-3 Spectroradiometcr setup for obta ining in sim "lX'<"tra l rerl ec ta nce measurements u, ing solar Illumi na tion.

    of the type and amount of atmosphe ric scattering and


    abso rption taking place. Some of this d iffuse sky illumination never reache s the target bUI is scatte red into the remote
    sensing instru me nt field o f view ( Ed: path 2). So me of t he
    diffuse sky irradiancc reach es the ta rget and is subseq uently
    refl ect ed into the rem ote se nsing instrument flcld of vic....,

    Solar Illuminat ion l-l:ea chin2the

    t:a rth ' ~

    Su rface

    Solar radiation at the


    to p of the atmosphe re

    nearby terrain is retlecre d


    into thc rem ote se ns ing inst rument 's field of view (.t).
    Fina lly. the targe t of interest (e .g . Bahiugrass} may be illum inated hy light scatt ered from nearby agriculture, grass .
    fo re st. or urban structure s (5). C urtiss and Usuu ( I98H)
    found that as milch as 20% of the illuminat ion ( In cleared
    forest areas ca me from adjacent forest cove r,

    (Ed: path 3). So me irradian cc on

    Th e irradiance that never reac hes the g round (2) and the
    reflecta nce fro m nearb y feature s on the gro und (4) are co nsidered to be noise and arc called p al}, radiance (L pl. T hus.
    the total rad ian ce reac hing the sensor (Ls ) is a fu nct ion oft he
    atmo sph er ic path rad ian ce ( Lr l a nd radiance re flected from
    tile target o f interes t (1.,-). Sever al atmospheric c harac ter istics also affect illu m inatio n, incl uding the presence o f d oud s
    an d wind .
    CI(J ud,\ are visual e viden ce Il l' wat er vapor in the atm osphere. C louds can modify the spec tral characterist ics o f the
    irradia nce reac hi ng the terra in. Th ere fore. on e might th ink
    that it is necessary to han ' an absolutely clear sky dev oid of

    () 0,2 0,4 1) I'

    U. ~

    r.u

    1.2 1.4 1.1,

    I .~

    W.1"c len~,h .

    2.0

    2.4

    z.e 2 . ~ 3.0 3.2

    j.lm

    Figure 15-4 Solar illuminati" " read, ing the Earth's surface.

    clo uds in order to o btain reflectance sJlCctra, T his is not the


    case. As long as the re fere nce spect rum (e .g.. derived from a
    Spcctralon prate ) a nd the t.lrgel spec trum (c.g., derived from
    Bah iilgra ss ) arc obtained under a lmo st identical clo ud-cover
    cha ract ensuc s (i.e.. taken in very rapid success ion j. ihen the
    subseq ue nt rauoi ng will reduce the error introd uced by
    atmospheric cl oud and wa ter vapor varia bilit y (clouds).

    1,

    573

    In S itu Spectral Reflectance


    .\ h'a\ UH'mcnt U..in ~Art ifici allllllmin al inn

    Tung.'\lt'l'i-Quart7lIotlogcn bmp

    /I
    Alt itude above

    tnstamuncousfield-o f-view

    ground level

    Tungstcn-QuartzIlalog~-n Lamp

    fi rm') of tho:

    (AGL)

    M:nWf system

    /1 - I m

    I _D _ I
    Diareetcr of the
    ground-rrojeeled tFOV
    on tile laI~ area

    Figu re 15 5

    SIX'l.lroradu'm~"lcr setup for

    obtaining i" ~j,,, spectral reflectance m.'aSUT1."ITICTlIS using amflcial illumination in a lab.

    If the ill situ re flectance spectra arc going 10 be used 10 calibrate satcttuc or aircraft remote sensing-derived spec-Ira.
    then the ill ,f i lii reflecta nce spectra should he collected at
    ap proximately the sa me lime and under the same atmospheric conditions as the remote sens ing miss ion.

    Hilld can play havoc when obtaining in .filll reflectance


    spectra . Vegetation ca nopics are particula rly suscc pnblc
    because reflectance spectra for a target typicall y arc not
    obtai ned in a ~ ing lc me asure ment. Rather. a Spcctralon reference measurement is made. and then perhaps III or more
    wrgl.: t measu rements arc m.nlc. T he 10 targe t spectral re n eeranee rncas urcrncnrs arc then averaged to yield a singk target re flecta nce measurement that is d ivided hy the reference
    spec tra to yield a calibrated reflectanc e spectrum for the canopy under investigation . Idea lly, the ca nopy rema ins completely st ill d uring the co llection of the 10 target
    measurements. Ideally, the leaves are in the same pos ition.
    and so arc the shado ws and the a mount of hare soil seen by
    the spectrorudiomctcr de tectors through the o ptica l instanta neous field of view (l FO\') Wind moves the leaves in the
    canopy. mod ifying the amoun t (If vegetation. shadow. and
    bare soilmeucured within the co nstant 1I:0 V of the spectrerad iometer, Wind can even cause d ifferent structural pans of
    the canopy te .g. stems , the unders ide o f leaves) to he
    viewed dur ing dufcrcm scans. This introduces noi)e into the
    reflec tance mca surcmcms.

    In Situ Spectral Reflectance Measurement Using


    Artificial Illumination in the Laboratory

    Somet imes u is useful to obtain the spec tral renectance charactc nsucs (If grass , lcaves. or other land cove r subjec ted to
    various treatmen ts in a cont rolled laboratory environment.
    In a lahoratury envir onment. the analys t has con trol of:
    illuminatio n geometry based on the
    positioned and calihrared lamps:

    IIS C

    of carefully

    spcr tromdiomctcr viewing geometry (usua lly poin ting at


    nad ir):
    environmenta l effects (e.g.. there is no wind . and it does
    nol rain in the laboratory ]:
    nrmospheric effects te .g., it ts possi ble to control the
    tempera ture and water vapor in the la b).
    A good configurat ion for indoor artificial illuminat ion is
    shown in Figure 15-5. It consists of two 100 - 500 \\ . Tungstcn Quartz Halogen filament lamps (each approxim ately
    .l 4 nO K color temperature ] placed in aluminum reflector
    housings. orien ted 30 0 Irom horizontal, and placed I m
    above the phenomena of interest (ASD. 2005). The power
    sup ply should he stahk-. The specrroradiometer optics are
    posuioned to \' ic.... the vegetation ca nopy at nad ir. Idea lly.

    ("IIArn:H.

    574

    15

    In Si tu Refle ct ance Mea surement

    Tung~ ltn -Q ua rtl.


    lI a lo~l"n

    J~

    400

    .J~O

    .0;00

    5~ (.t)(J

    1150 700 750 ROO 1150 QOO

    W,,' .:k ngth 111m)

    Figure 156 Ibe spectrum of a rluorcsccmhgju.

    the "CnO;OT fiel d of \ iew is compl ete ly tilled by the rarge


    mater ials of interes t (e.g. Bahia grass ]. Can: must be exercised ...hen using artificial illum ination 10 collect targ et
    reflectance spectra. how ev cr. because exte nvive expos ure 10
    the Tungst en-Q ua rtz-H alo gen lam ps can actually "c oo k" the
    vegctauon. Thi s can d egrad e the chloro phyll in the pali sade
    parench ym a and cause plant \\ atcr to hi: evaporated fm m
    plan t spo ngy nicsophyll. These conditions result in spurious
    vegetation reflectance spec tra.
    Why TUIIJ.:.\l(,, - Qllu rt;-lIuhlJ.:(" ""Imillalit", ? Many
    sources o f light can toe USL"<l when obt a in ing in situ spectra
    using a handheld spccrroradiomctcr. For example. we co uld
    usc co mmerc ial fluore scent lights powered by 60 cycl e AC.
    Unfortunately, fluorescent lig hts produce several sha rp
    energy peaks throughoutthe visible poruon ofthe spectrum
    l Figure 15.(, ). TIley also prov ide litt le energy long er than
    750 nm. Converselythe l.'lll.'rgy spectrum otalx: powered
    Tung sten- Q uan z-flulogcn la mp prod uces energy that peaks
    at npprcximutcly 9 0 (\ nm and yiel ds energy we ll beyo nd
    2500 nm (Figure 15 7) (ASt.>. 20(5 ). The tungsten filament
    resides insi de a quartz g lass bulb con ta ining halogen gas .
    This cornbinntion of marcnals emits a smooth energy curve.
    Because this energy is measu red "closeup" in the lab, there
    arc no atmospheric ubsorpuon features present in the refer ence or target spectra obtained in the lab . Also. there are no
    solar absorption featu res (F raunho fer lint's) discussed in
    Chapte r 2.

    Charact eri sti cs at th e Spectr oradio meter


    Used to Obtain th e In Si tu Refle ct an ce
    Spectru m
    Th e reflectan ce Spo.-c lr:l 10 be measured are spec ifi ed in the
    project experime nta l design . For example. perhaps \\ e want
    to collect Uahiagra ss reflectance spectra. There arc seve ral

    500

    eoc

    IlXI(I

    \\"a ", kn~l h

    La mp

    2l'IOO
    lo ml

    Figure 15-7 The ' f'<."\: trum o( a run~ll'1l-Quart.l-lIalo~:t'n Ia.-np.

    oth er important c harac terisncs that must be "pec ified to


    ob tain thc de s ired spec tra. inc ludin g: general spectral region
    o f interest. spectral rc....olu rion. spectra l ~ m p l i ng interval,
    spec trome ter desi gn, da ta colfe-ction speed. view ing georretry. and field of view.

    Spectral Region of Interest

    If rbc goa l if> til obtain reflectance spectra for a particular


    m.ncrial t c.g., Bah iagrass) and neighboring lan d co vcrtypes
    te. g .. bare soil . forest. aspha lt). we may nee d 10 mea sure the
    spec tral re fl ec tanc e of the materials thmughout the wavelen gth reg ion 350 to 2500 nm . The most impo rtant absotpnon features associa ted with vegetation are summarized in
    Table 15- 1 for the wavelength interval -UO nm 102350 nrn.
    Figure 151! depicts tho: spec tral reflec tance characteristics of
    IWlllthy gr een vegetation from 400 nm 10 2400 nrn .
    Strong chlorop hyll nhsorption bands occu r at 4.)() nm and
    6h(l nm lur chlorophyll {/ and 4(l(1 nm and 64 0 nm for chlo-

    rophy ll b. Wh en vegetation is stressed there is also noticeable moveme nt in the tmnsuion region trorn ncar-infraredto
    red reflectance known as the I'ed f'dKf' position. The greater
    the amount of "tress, the greater the movemen t of the rededg e to shorter wavelengt hs (Ca rter et al.. 1(96). The shon
    wax elcng th infraretl (S\VIR ) from 1050 to 2500 nm provides
    valuabl e information on the amount o f wa ter in a plant [i.e.,
    its relat ive turg idity ) I Figure 15-X I.

    Nume rous vegetation indices di scussed in Chapter II


    requ ire mformanon in the chlorophyll absorption bands. Tbe
    theoretica l basis lo r "empirically-bused" vegetation indices
    is deriv ed from examination (If typical spectra l refle ctance
    spec tra ofleaves IF ig.ure 15~ ). Th e re flec ted em:rgy in t/l(
    visi b le band s is 10\\ a.. a res ult o f hig h ab sorpuon by photo-

    C ha racte rist ics 01 the S peclrorad io meter Us ed to O b tai n t he In S itu

    Tab le 15-1.

    aenectence Spectru m

    Folia r ~~I absnrJllinn feat ures tadaptcd from Curran, II.JIN; ,\ 'il >. 2U05 i.

    Mechan ism

    Wavelength

    Chem ic a l(S)

    t~OO

    Electron tran sit ion

    (,h l0l'Oflh~' 1l

    (J.l ~J

    Electron U"an~ ition

    ll~O

    Elect ron tran sition


    Electron trans ition
    C _ll stretch. 3rd ovenon...
    C-Il stre tch, Jrd overtonc
    0 -11 stretch. 111d overtonc
    O-H stretch. 2n" overtone

    ChlOfUph),1l b
    Chlorophyll II
    Ch lorophyll a
    Protcin
    Oil
    water. sta rch

    UM O
    0'110

    U'IJll
    OQ10
    11'1'10
    1020
    1lI4CJ
    1120
    121111
    I,mo
    142U
    1450
    14QU

    Protein

    19Ktl
    21Hltl
    20611
    20HtI
    21011
    2UII
    2111n
    21411

    C-Il stretch

    15J U
    154ll
    1:,1I1I
    16'111
    17Kll

    111211
    I 'HMI

    19J1l
    I Q~II

    1960

    o-n

    2l~ n

    D-Il stretch. O H deformation

    2l7fl
    2lHil

    C-II SlrelciliO- H stretch. C I I:! beml/ Cll:! stretch

    z.tnu
    2.\ I u
    2,UO
    2.1411
    2.1 ~1l

    C' ll strelch/r l12 deformation


    N-II stsctcb. CoO stretch. C 11 bend, :!nd overt on e
    (" H bend, 2nd 0\'CI10 1lc

    ("-II ~treleh.ICIl2 dcformanon


    (" H slreldl/O H dcforrnanou r 1l deformation'O- H stretch
    Cl I2 bend, 2nd OV<:f1One. (". 1-1 deformation, :!nd overtone

    synthet ically active pigm ents wuh ma x imum scnsiuvuy in


    th e blue (470 nrn j a nd red (670 nm) w3H' !cnglhs. \1os1 of
    the ncar-i nfrared ra diati on is sca ttered tret lecied and transmitted) with \cl) link- absorpuon, in a manner de pendent
    upon tile struct ural p ropert ies o f till' ca nopy ( L \ I, leaf angle
    distnbuuon, k af murp hology) , As a re sult. the nmtru\(
    between red and ncar-infrared re sponses is a s e ns it ive me a -

    Starch

    !,<-11 stretch
    C-I I stretc h. C-H defo rmation
    C-1I stretch, :!nd 01ienOIW
    0 -11 bend, r overtone
    0 -11 bend. 1st o vertone
    ('-II stretch, CB deformation
    0 -11 stretch , l st overtone. (' - II stre tch. C_II deformation
    (lH stretch. 1st {w ertone
    1'0 -11 stretch, 1st overtone
    o-H stretch. 1st overtone
    0 -11 stre tch, 1st overtone
    O-H stret ch. l st overtone
    C 1i stretch, 1st overtone
    C-H stretc h. Is, overtone O- H stretch.1I-0 -H deformation
    0-11 sectcn'c-o sl.l\.'1ch. 1Ild ovenone
    stretc h. C -0 stretch
    A bsorbed water
    O-H stretch. 0-11 d.:lonnalion
    O-H stn: teh/O- Il bend
    NH asym metry
    O-H deformation, CoO dcforrnanon
    N-t! bend , 2nd overtcnezv-H b.:nw'l"- H stretch
    (l U >tTeldlfO-1l deformation
    O H bend/CoO stretehiC-UC stretch, Jrd overtone
    1"-11 stretch
    "'-If bend. 2nd ovcnonc/ c-u slrelch/CO stretch:C- ~ ..u crch

    mo

    575

    ou
    Lign in
    Water, cellulose, sta rch, liguiu
    Will"r
    Ligum
    Stare'h, sugar. lign in, wate r
    Cellu lose. sugar
    Protein. nitrogen
    ~Ian; h

    Starch, cellulose
    Starch, sUgilr
    Lij,'11 il1, starc h, protein . nilmg" n
    Cellulose, sugar. starch
    Co: llu1t~

    Starch
    WJk'T
    W~I<:'T, hgrun, protein. nitrogen. starch. cellulose
    Sugar, starch
    rr"tei n
    Starch
    Protem, nitrogen
    Sugar. starch

    Starch. cellulose
    Protem

    Proeein
    Protein
    Starch
    Cellu lose. sugar. starch
    Starch . cellulose
    Protei n. nitrogen
    (l il
    Starch
    Cellu lose
    Cellu lose . protein . nitroge n

    s ure of vcgcta uon amount. with maximum red HTSUS ?\ IR


    differences occumng OH1' a full ca nopy. a nd m inimal contrast over la rg ets wuh little o r no vegetation. For 10\\ and
    medium amount s of vegetation, the con trast is a result of
    roth red and ~IR changes. wh ile at higher amounts of vegetat io n. on ly the f\IR contributes to inc rea sing co ntrast as the
    red band be comes satu ra te d due to c h lorop hy ll a bs o rp tio n.

    15

    ClI-\ I' IEH

    576

    I'h ~ , i ll l ll l!j c a l

    "

    In Situ Reflect ance Measurement

    Ua,i.. fur Ik \d lll' i ll~ \ 'l'J,:ct a t iu ll In ll in ''''

    .>

    Carotenoid and
    chlorop hyll
    absorption

    liquid \'o Jk r
    .rbsorpuon

    Fuli.1[
    rctlec rance

    --:::::==:7\.- _. - --I
    /

    J~

    "

    "",1

    t ."

    .'

    __
    .
    .
    L
    ,
    1

    .
    ,

    / . \

    rV

    r> I

    v\ /\

    \'C&"13I'(lQ

    R gu ra 15 -8 I' h}s io log ic:II I>Jlils for dn cloping \cgctat i,m ind il'C'S in the n'g in" fro m :!:'iO - ::! )() nm .

    The red versus :-.11 K corurasr can he quan ti lied thro ugh the
    UM~ of ratios (f'\ 1R I lh -dl. diffe rences (:-.1 1R - RedI. \\ cighted

    diffe rences rNIR - ( k Rcd t]. linear hand combin.uicns


    [(:-.<I R - Red I / (l\ IR + Rcd j]. or hybrid approaches of the
    aNIVe. Yl.'gc lali,'n indexes an: measu res ofthis cont ra- a and
    th us (ITt.' integrative functions of canopy struct ural [c.g ., pe rce nt cove r. LAl l and physiological (e.g .. pigments. photosy nthesis f paramet ers (Huctc et ,II..

    2 00~).

    Numerous

    vegetation indices were summarized in Chapt er I I .

    Spectral Resolution

    ohnion of about III nm (refer


    about A\' IKlS I.

    10

    Chapte r 7 fo r information

    Sp ectral Sampling Interval

    ....i1"clral .,(/ml'lill,~ interval is the sp;H: ing betwee n sample


    poirus in the re flectanc e spectrum. It is w ise to use a handheld spcctrorudiumcrcr LIMl has a spectral sampl ing interval
    (If I A nm (il J:'i( l - ]LUIO 11111, and 2 nm (if I l IO(l - 2500 nm
    {ASD, 2tllJ5J.

    Spec trometer Design and Data Collection Speed


    resolution is defined as the full- wid th-half-m aximu m ( FWII" !) o f the spcc rrorodiomctcr response to a
    monochromatic tig ht source ( AS!>. 20115 L T he FW HM conce pt was introduced in Fig ure 16 . Spec tral resolution may
    a lso be de fined :IS the na rrowest 5.pectral feature that can be
    resolved by II spect rome ter. I\I00ny scicnnsu, are imerested in
    obtaining re flectanc e spectra for selected land cove r types
    S,/IXlrlll

    subjected II) various tre atments in order ttl understand thc


    spectral respllnsc to these trea tments. If po.;sib lc. it is idealto
    use a han dheld spcct roradiomctcr that has a spectral rcsotulion of 2 to 3 nm for the region J f>() to 1000 nm. and III nm
    (or tho: reg ion woO nm to 2400 nm. Hypcrspcctral a irborne
    remote sensing sYSh~Il1S such ali A\'IRIS have a spectral res -

    Some spcctroradunuctcrs used for in .\'il/l data collec tion


    record thc spectral infurmarion mo re rap id ly and accurately
    than others. The mor e rapid ly the spcc tro radio rnctc r collects
    all individua l scan in th.... field. the hig h<:Ttho: probability that
    additional spectra '" ill be obta ined before envirenrncrnal
    conditions t e .g.. cloud cove r, win d) and ~e nSOT system condruons IC.g.., vrewmg geometry) change. Reme mber. the
    gOJI is to ho ld as ma ny env ironmc rual a nd sensor paramet e~
    a s constant as po~s l h le while the target a nd re fere nce scans
    arc coltccwd.

    .-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .
    ,

    Characteristic s of the Spec troeadicmeter Used to Obtain the In Situ Reflectance Spectrum

    Si licon de tectors prov ide the b..'S1 perfo rmance for remote
    sensi ng invest igations in the- \ isihk a nd near-infrared
    (VN IR ) portion ofthe spec trum from 350 to 1000 nm . In the
    sho rt-wavelength infrared (SW IRl region from 1000 - 2500
    om , the amo unt o f so lar e nergy availab le for me asure men t
    decrease s. There fore . mo re sens itive de tectors a rc required
    III mea sure energy in the S W iI{ region ( AS D, Z005 1. Typical
    detectors include 1w 0 separate InliaAs ( Ind ium ga llium arsenide ) photodiodcs.

    577

    Fil'lds of Vtcw
    ,.\....nc iated with

    Var ious Fere-optlcs

    All spcctroradiomcters produce: .... nn e noise. Dar k-cu rren t


    {i.c., electronic o r detector no ise) can be measured by view -

    ing a blac k reflect ance target or hy lak ing me asurements


    w ith the optics cove red , The dar k-cu rrent sig nal can the n be
    subtracted from subseq uent spe ctral measure me nts. Most
    spcctro radiom ercrs include softwa re lo r recordi ng and subtracung dar k-c urrent.

    2~ ~ 159,9 em diam"l"n

    1M" (42.Mem olamd er)

    Viewing Geometty and Reid of View

    g" t l ll.l'i ",m Ol"" Ktcn

    Ideally, in ,H t /l a nd remote senving-dcrived refl ectance spectra are ob tai ned by a spcctrorad iomctcr vie wing the terr ain at
    nadir. Most spec tral invest igation s have problems dea ling
    w ith the bidirect iona l refle ctance dis trib ution funct ion
    (BRDF ) effe cts introduced by the di urnal chan ge in sun I:Ievntion and azimuth. Schil l ct nl. ( 2 ()O ~ ) doc um ented how the
    spect ra l reflec ta nce o f Smooth Cor dgrass (S,,'lrtil1,j ulternijlUrtlJ cha nged throughout the day du e 10 changes in Sun
    a hit udc and ze nith angles . The HRDf problems become
    even more acute whe n the ~nsor ob tains data o ff-nadir.
    Th ere fore. when ever po ss ible . ill situ refl ectance da ta shou ld
    be obt ained at nadir.
    T he actualte rrain ... icwcd by the spcctrore dio mctc r at nad ir
    is a function of several facto rs. The diam ete r (/) of the
    ground-p rojected ins tantaneou s field of view o bse rved by
    the spcc trorud iosnctcr optics is a function ofthe ang u la r fi eld
    o f view (IJ ) multiplied by the d istance of the rad io meter
    abo ve tho: phe nomena o f inte rest (If):
    1J ""~xlI.

    ( 15-2)

    Th o: d iameter (0) of the ground -projected IFO V sho uld be


    decided earl} in the project. In ex ploratory studies, [) mi ght
    be set at re latively sm all d imens io n 10 obtain spect ra at the
    leaf. bra nch, and cano py s patial se al... [e.g .. D va lues ranging
    fr om j ust a fe w centime ters to 0 .25 III (appro ximately-' I tt.j].
    Thi s wo uld provide detailed in formation Ull vegetation .
    sha duw, and soi l characteristic s typ ically encountered in a
    remo te se ns ing inve stig anon Refl ectance me asurements
    from individualleaves and branche s arc bes t obta ined in a
    controlled laboratory en vironment fo r reason s pre viou sly

    1 (2"' em di a m~fi) -:1::~::::~~


    JO( 7 em ,harnet"rl

    5" ( l l .ll em diameterl

    Figure 15-9 Fi,' I,lsofview using 1 .1.5, 1(, l x. and 25 degree foreopncs fur a handheld spcc troradiomcrcr positioned
    I ~ ~ ern above th.:- terrain uf interest.

    di scussed re.g.. illum ination varia tio ns ca used by clouds.


    w indj . Valuahlc information about the effects o f me va riou s
    treatments might be discove red in th is ma nner. Howe ver, it
    sho uld he not ed that reflect ance spectr a derived trom indi viduallea ves and branches ar c usually (If limited valu e " he n
    tryin g to per form matched-filtering M othcr ty pes <If image
    classifica tion bas ed on 11/ si l/l re flectance s pc ctra ( Resea rch
    Sys tems. Inc . 20041.
    Con versely, i f we arc interested in using the re flectance
    spectrum for ca librating a specific type o f remote sensor
    data (e .g., 224 hand s o f AVIR IS dat a at 3 x 3 m ) or performing matched-filtering cl assi fication (Ising: these data. then it
    wou ld be logi..:al tu adjust the diameter ( D ) of the grou nd ,
    projected IFO V o f the handh eld spcc tro radio mc tcr to be 3
    m. We mig ht need ttl collect the i/l situ spectra wh ile stand ing on a ladder in orde r to obtuin such a Held o f view.
    Fig ure 15,1) dep icts field s o f view ava ilable us ing 1- . 3-, 5H-. 18 -. and 25 -degrcc forc-cprics fe r a spcc tro radio rnerer
    hdd 135 em aNn e the target of inte res t. Th e 25-degr field

    -15

    578

    l'Iunt.1{

    of view fore-opt ics may allow the spectroradiornetcr 10


    ob ta in data that ls more represe ntative o f airborne hype rspec tral remote se nsing systems.

    In Sit u Refl ectance Measurement

    Cu rran . P. J.. IQloN . "R cmote Sens ing of Foli ar Chemistry," R~I1!<'lf

    Sell.'mg of f :m 'i n mm,'nI ..'11:271- 271( ,


    ( 'urt iss. l. and S , l. Ustm , l'IXI( "S pectral Changes in Pond.-rosa

    Candida te specrroradiometers
    Reffectance Data Collection

    fOf

    In Situ Spectral

    Pine associated wuh Natural <>lnne Ex posu re." Fore,.' Se" '1lY
    Fun :!>1 R.~pulI." l'nJg ru,,, Am lll<J{ .\ f.....ti ng. Corpus Christi. Fet>-

    mary. 1'1' 23- 26,


    There arc a variety o f handh cld spcct roradiomc rcrs that may
    be used 10 collect the required in situ spectra l reflectance
    information. Tw o of the mos t widely used spcc tro radiomclen; arc prod uced by
    Geophysical Environm ental Res earch (G ER).

    cr..

    {",u~<'
    : mji.'ulivn L$Ulg"
    Ralch r"'wending Fuz::y Lellrning v.'C'"r QII<m/i::o lion Artificial
    ."<,uru l S/;',..,"'.. '~<,futi,m M<JPl'ing IIf the loon f: fo.:en.,ro..
    Spu..,.. C"nI.,.. M.asIL'TS ItM:s is. Colum bia : U mv. o f S.C. 276 P.

    Filippi. A.. IQ<)<). IIll,,-,..,{,,-'c!,.,JI

    G l: R, ;:1100. f"idd

    """',lfH...

    SI'r<'fmruJ",merel"'1>. M illhl'OO.l k, 1\Y:


    GnMlI' for Environmen tal Research , www.gcrt.com .

    Analytical SpectralDe vices.


    Spcctroradio merers produced by thL'SC vendo rs are capable
    of obta ining the required spectral reflectance data over the
    spectral region from 400 - 2500 om at approximately 10 om
    reso jution. Each is easy to usc, stores info rmation in a d igital
    format. and can be customize d 10 fulfill speci fic user
    req uirem ents in the field {c.g .. field of view, interfaces,
    bac kpacks) . Specrroradiomcrcr instrum ent speci fica ti ons
    change rap idly. so it is ncceeoary 10 con tact tile vendors to
    obtain cu rrent information .

    Goetz, S. J.. 20ll:!. " RL-.:o:nt Advance, in R<:nwlc S<."llsing o f Bil>.


    physical Variahles.: ,\ n Dvervjew o f tI'M: Special Issue," R,_t
    ,'\en\inR n/ En 1'ln mm ..nI . 7~ : 145- 1 .u. ,
    Jt'I1 'lC1l.

    mor,'

    J. R.. 2005. Intr....JI/,H)Dig ilu{ Imug"

    PrtH.,,_uing ' .~ R..-

    ,o;.-n'IIIR P""(J<'< 'f" '<'. 3 rd Ed . U J'f'('T Sadd le I{IW T: Pren-

    uce-usu. S:!5 p.
    fiac, B. C and A. F. H. (;,)("tl-. I INO. "Column Atmospheric Water
    Vapo r Ret rievals fro m Airborno: Imag ing Spectrometer Data,"
    Jnurnal "1 C""l'h,n iml Rl, ,,,lt"h Alm"'l'l...r.:~. Q5:354Q-3564

    References
    Hu ct c. A , R.. Did an , K.. Miura. T.. Rod riguez. E. P. G ao, X. andG
    Ferreir a , 2002 , "Uvervicw of t he Rad iometric and Hiophysical

    Perform ance o flhe 1-.101)1 S \ ....1i-c( HlitHi lndiccs." 1Ie-"Wl

    ASO, 200~ . T"cllIIi('ill Gui,I,, -tth Ed.,l1 oulder: Analytica l Spectral

    es..",mg

    'if 11\'1"""''''/11 113 :195 -2 13,

    De vices. hllp :l/w ww.a.<tl i.com.

    l.ahsphcrc. 2lKJ(,. ,\i " ,,'lruf"l!. North StUt"l l. N f l. http ://ww w.labAS]), 20llo, F I('Id.\;><'( Pm . Boulde r: Analytica l Spectra l Devices ,

    sphere.com.

    hltp ://www.asdj .cl.rnlproduc ts-sp...c troradiometers.asp


    ~k Coy,

    AS TER , 20{16, AS7't.'1I S{wC'tml Library: Pasadena: A STE R Com-

    rmnc c,

    R. M.. 2004, Fidd Jkllwd ,' III 11..",<11,' S<'lI.<ing, NY: Liuil-

    r"nl. 159 p.

    hl1p ://, pccJib.j pLo a"q~<l v I.

    Caner. <i ,\ .. Cihuln . W. (i and It L Miller. I'No, "Narrow-band


    Reflectance Imagery C tJlllparcd wi th Th ermal Imagery fo r Early

    Schill. S.. Jensen, J. R. arul (i Raber. 20U-I, "Bi-direct ion al Reflc ctnncc Distribution Function o f Sm ooth Cordgrass (SI''''''I II'I ,~ /_
    I,'mlt/"r a l: ' (I/Sn,'"' ''' ,to R"m"'" Sen \'i" l(. 4 1(2):I J(,- 135.

    Dl'll'Cl i" o of Pla nt Stress." Jlltlm,,1 vi l'lll'll Php iulub:v ,

    1411:515- 522.
    Clark, R, N.. Swayze, (i A" Wise, R" Live, K, E,. Uoc f<.' n, T, \1..
    Kokaly, It 1'. and S J. Sutley_ 2UOl USG S Digifal Spect,." f L ,brary : Splih()jll. USGS O pcn Fi le Re port 03-3Q5, Was hi ngton:
    USGS, hnp:/l sp..'Clah.er.usgs.ll OV!sp,:clral. lih. hlml .

    Tcilict. I'. "-I.. G aeth ier. R, P" Cbic hagov, A . and Ci Fe-doscjc vs.
    20(}2, " lima/d, In tegra ted Earth Se nsing: Adva nced Tcchnclogic s for In Snu Sens ing in the Ccnrext of Earth O bserv ation." Co-

    n,,,fia,,1011""./ nj Rem"', Sl'In i" f.:. 2K(0) :7 [ 3-7 1K,

    Appendix Sources of Remote Sensing


    Information
    On -line Tutorials

    Funda mentals ofRemote Sensmg. by Ca nada Center for Remote Sen si ng.
    W \Ii W .ccrs .nrc an .gc.cazreso urcc I UI Of' fundamJindc.\_e.php

    NASA Observatorium. http ://o bse,,,e.arc.nasa .govrne sa 'core.sht rnl.h trnl


    NASA Global Change

    Ma.~'l'r

    Din-crary. htl p:lIl;cmd .gs fc.na sa.go..-1

    mdex.hunl

    Remote Sensing Core Curriculum, hy l eRSt: . A SPRS. and l'\CGIA . http:/


    Iv. ww.r-s-c-c.org /
    Remm e Sensing Tutori al, by Ni chola s \1 . Short. NASA God dard S pace
    flig ht Ce nte r. hn p:flrs Lgsfc. nasa.go \'/
    Remo te Sensi ng Tutorial, by the Virtua l Hawaii. hup :/lsatlip.sClcsl.haw ai i.
    edu .space/ha wai i/ vIts/oahu /rem_scns_cxzrsex.spc rrar.t.tumt
    Virtu al Library: Remot e Se1l-<; II1:. http ~ ll\' i rtua l. vu.fl/space/rsvlib'!

    IAEGS Model Curriculum, by t he Univ. of Miss iss ipp i Inst itute fo r Advenced Educ ation in Geospatial Sciences. hup :llgeo\\ork force. o km iss.
    cd c /overview.p bp
    Societies
    Alliance fo r Marin e Remote Sensing -, www.wrncrohscrvcr.crg
    Ame rican Geop hys ical Union - www.agu.org /
    American Soc. for Phot ng ra mmctry & Re mo tc Sensi ng - www.asprs .org

    Canadian Remote Sensing Soc . - www.cavi.ca/ind-ex. phpvpg ...crss


    Euro pea n Assoc . Remo te Sensing Labs - www ,earsd.orglwelcome. btml
    FeJ ...ration of Ame rican Scientists; Image imcfligcnce - www.fus.org/

    IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society - ww w.grss-ieee.org/

    579

    Appe n tU l< S o urces 0' Remote S e ns Ing tntcrmanen

    Inll. Comm issinn on R ~' rn' lI'" Sensing - hltp:/i hydmlah .


    arsusda.gov 1- j ritchie/

    ( '01111'' '''''''''''

    Int i. Soc. lor Phorogrammetry & Remote Sensing - www.


    isprs.org

    Eart h Observation flfaga=i"f' - www.eomo nline.com'

    ( i("<,sc i ,,,,,",'.,

    w\-"w...,b;cliicr,eo miloealcl

    compgeosci/

    National Stereoscopic Assoc. - www.stereoview, erg/

    Gcocano International - "" w w .gcoca rto.com/gcocarto,


    himI

    Remote Sensing and Phorogrammetry Soc. (L:K) - "" \\ w.

    Gcohsfonnattcs

    ww w.j-gcoinfo. nct/

    rspsoc .o rgr

    Geosp.nial Solutions - www.geospanat-onlinc.com '


    Remote Sensing. Spec ially G roup. Assoc. Am er. Geog raphers - w"" w.aagrssg.()rg!
    SPIE tn u. Soc . For Optical Engineering - www.sp ie.org/
    Nat ional Space Ag en c ie s
    Canada Center Remote Sensing - ww w.ccrs .nrcan. gc.ca/

    G IScie llce & Remote

    Sell~ ill~

    - www.bellp ub.cnm msrs

    IEEE Transactions Oil G.'O.<('iI'II c e & Remote Sensing hup:I/il'ev.p lore.ic.o'll/xpI /Rcccnthsuc.jsp?
    punumber= 36
    Inll Journal "f Rem ote Se n,illl<: - www.ran-df.co.uk/
    journa ls/onlincl O143- J 161.a sp

    Centre Nat iona l d'Er ude s S pariales - www .cnes.fr/


    CS IRO -Scientific and Industria l Research for Au srralic -.
    www.csiro.au/

    IS I'RS Jou rna l o/ I'lw lox rulI/l/ft'lry Ulld Rt'moTt' Sensmg -.


    www .ehc\"icr.cum 'l<)c:lte'isprsj pn;

    t'anern R.'coXflilitm - http ://se ienc<,: .dir<:ct.eom


    European Space Agency - "" .... w.eva.iru /
    R"II/tl/,'

    Na tional Ae ronau tic s 8; S pace Adm inistration


    nasa.gov /

    Sn l"i" x 01 Environment - www.elsevier.com

    ~ WI-'.'W .

    National Re mo te Sensing Agency Ind ia - www. nrsa.


    gov .in!

    Photogrummctric Eng ineering .{ Rl'/I/()/" Sl'IIIillg asp rs.o rg/pubIicatio ns Iindex .hI m I

    www.

    Sl cn'O u'orld -: National Stereos cop ic Association - www .


    src rcov i CW . I lrg/slereowo rld .hrIn ]

    National Re mote Sensi ng Agl'ney Ja pan - www.nusda .


    go.j p/index _c .hrm l

    Aeria l Ph otography Sou rc es


    K ite a..'r ia l phorogrnph y - htl p:!!arcl1.l: cd .hcrkc lcy.cd ul
    kap/k aptoc .htm l

    Journals

    Ad vances ill Space R"I,t,tIId, - www.clsc vicr.co m'wps/


    product/cws_h01l1e/644f
    Aunosphertc R"~I:<l/t:h - ww w.elsevie r.eom/wpsiprodm:t!
    cws_homei5 0JJ23

    NII A I' lind NII AP

    USGS , Na tionalHigh Al titude Photogra phy ( I\ HA P) & Natiuna l Aeria l Pho tography Progra m ( ;<'; .'\ 1'1' ). hltp:/lcdc,llsgS.gov lgui dcs nap p.luml

    US DA Photog ra phy - www.apfo.nsda. govl


    Bl1t"k.n-'II II,: r -

    marine remo te sensi ng: www.watcr

    observer.erg/
    Cartugra phy.( Geographic lnformatian Science - www.
    acs m.nevca g is/cagisjr. ht mI
    Cunadian J ournal 0/ Remote Sens ing - www.casi.ca,
    indexphp

    Multispectral Remote Sensi ng Data Resource s


    ADEOS-J1 NAS DA Ad va nced Ea rth O bse rving Satd
    lite-It , hu p :lls ha ra ku.c orc.j axa.j p/ AD EOS2/i ndcx .html

    581

    Multispectra l Remo te Sensing Dat a Resour ce s

    A\1SR - i'\,lI"SA Terra Advanced vti crowavc Scanning


    Radi ometer [onboard ADEOS-III, hnp:/lsharaku .eor c.
    ja xa.jp/ A:\ IS Rzindex _e . htm
    ASTE R - NASA Terra Advanced Spucebom c Therma l
    Emiss ion a nd Re flectio n Radiometer, h tt p : //ll ~ t l' rw e h .
    j pl. nasa . gov /

    LA:\DSAT TM - Themat ic x tappcr, http://l' dt.: .us gs.gov /


    products/ sa te 11 ite/t m .htm 1
    LA:'oi DSAT 7 (En..I-t- ) - l. a ndsa l 7 Enhanced Themat ic
    Ma pper Plus. hllp :ll landsa t7 .usgs.go v!
    Mer cury, Gemi ni. A pollo. Sky lab - .... ww-pao.k sc.nn sa.
    gOYIh isrory/rucrcury/mcrcury.htm

    r\V II RR ~ ~O AA Advanced ve ry High Revolution Radicmctc r, hHp:J/edc.usgs ,go v/prod uc ts/satel Ii te la \I hrr,
    html

    M[ T EOSAT - hll p:!lo iswww.cu mcts31,org l l[)[)S -cgi l


    lis t!mages .plv mebnw

    AVIIRR Pathfind er - hllp :l/podaacjpl .na sa .go v/cgi -b in


    dcatalog Tam _su mma ry.plvss t- pfsc t

    :\IIS R !\"ASA Terra :-.t ult i-a ng lc Imag ing Spcc troradiomet er. \\ ww-m isr.jpl.nasa.go v/

    AVIRIS - :-.IAS:\ Ad van ced Visible/infrared Imag ing


    S pec tro meter. hnp:/la \ insjpl.nasa.g c v/

    1\IODIS - l\:AS/\ Tel"r a \Ioderate Resolut ion Ima ging


    Spect rometer. htlp :/Imod is.g '"fc.nasc. ~O\"

    CAS I - Compact Ai rborne Spectrog raphic Image r, ITRES


    Rese arch Lim ited of Canad a, www.n res.com /

    1\ IOP ITT - \:ASA TI'I""o Measurem en t o f Po lt uuon in the


    T ropos here. hn p:1f e (l~ " cb .Iare .na...a. ~() vi I' R0 OOC S:'
    mopi ltlla bIe_lIIopi tt,html

    C ERES - NASA U '/"I '<I (lou us and the Earth's Rad ian t
    Energy System, hl1p : lla,d-www.larc.n <tsa.gov/cen~s/
    AS lkercs.html

    1\ lOS- II ~IU S - 1 b - 1\ I urine O hsc rvation Satcll itc, Im p:!1


    www.cocja.\a.jjlfsall. llitclsaldata/mos_e.ht III 1

    (' O R O ~ A.

    O('TS - Ocean Color and Temperature Scanne r. www.


    eoc.jaxa.jp satc lli tc'sc nd ata /oc ts_e.html

    D\ISP - Defense Meteorolog ical Sarelhte Program.


    " W", ngdc. noaa.gov /dmsp lndcx.hnn l

    O rbvicw-j - GcaE)1.'. Ind .. www.Gcoliyc.c om

    ARGO"l . LAf\YAR f) dec lass ified ima ges.


    htt p://edc.usgs.g:o\!produets satel liledeclassL hunl

    EO- I - NASA ~o:w Millennium Pro gram . Earth Observing- L Advanced La nd Imager. htl p:lleo l. gs fc.nas a.
    go v!

    GO ES - l\:O AAfN ASA Gcoste rionary Operat ional Environ -mental Sa tell itc, hllp :!lg oes.gsfc .nllsa.g nYI

    Qu ickH ird - lJigilalOloho:. Inc.. ww w.digital-globe.com


    abou t quic khird.hnnl
    RESU RS-OI - R IJ ~ s i an satellite, hUp:!lsputnil.,infllspace.
    ru -rcsu rs.cng l.rcs LIT s , lu In
    ScaWi FS ( O rhVll'w-2 ) - Geo t.yc. Ind.. www.GcoEye.c orn

    Goog!c Earth - Gcoglc. Inc.. h tt p://ea rlh.g{ll)g le.com /


    I ~ [I nformation. ln te gr unon. Image, lnc.j. www.iLccm /
    IKO~OS

    - Geohye. Inc. " 1-\ w.Geoli ye.cum

    IRS - I A. B. C, D - Ind ia n Remote Sen sing Syst em . Linear


    Imagi ng Sel f-scann ing Sensor ( L1SS). hltp:/i .... 1-\" .
    spac.:-i mag ing.co m: prod ul'ts: irs /index. htlll
    LA NDSAT \.1 SS - Multispectra l Sca nner. hllp :/!ede .usgs.
    g O Yzpnxl ucts/sa tc lInc/mss.hun!

    SO IIO - Sc..lar and l te ho sphc ric O bse rvatory. http://


    soh owww.n ascom.nasa.go..-t
    Space Shuule Photo g ra phy - www.nas m.s i.cd u..c epsirpi l1
    ssp r.cfm
    S PI:".!1 TK-35 0 and KVR IOOO - U.S . co verage served
    on Micro soft's Te rra Server (www.rcrraserver.com '
    pTOvido:rs/SP I ~~ .a sP I
    S POT 1- 5 - www.spot.com

    582

    AppendilC - Sou rces 01 Remote Sensing Information

    SS M,.' I - NOAA/ NA SA Spe cia l Sen sor M icro wav e/ Ima ger. hll p:/lpouilac.j pl.nasa.gov :203 1/sc nsof_docs/ssrni .
    htm l

    SLAR - NASA Si de - Loo ki ng Airborne Radar, htt p://


    p uhs ,usg s.gov'/ofl20( 1)'o llfO-OO6/ ht m/s lar. ht rn

    TO Yl S - Tota l Ozon e Map ping S pectromete r. http;/!


    j wocky.gsfc .nasa.go v/

    S RT M Shunk Rad ar Top ogra ph y M ission. w wwj.jpl.


    nasa .gov .sn m'

    TOPEX/POSEI DO:-J - hn p:/II(\pC':\-www.j pl ,nasa.gov!

    STA R-3 i Sea Icc and Terra in Assessme nt Rad ar. Tnrerma p Technologies, wwwin termap.c o rn/ jma ges papers/
    Imcrma p _STA R.3 i. upg rade.' _ ~crecn _ v'2.pdf

    TR M M NASN}J AS DA Tro pica l Ra infa ll Meas uri ng


    Miss io n. hnp:htrmm.gstc .nasa ,gnvl

    Virtual Earth - Mi c rosilli Inc .. ..... ww.local.li ...e.cum

    UARS - !'ASA Uppe r Atmos phe re Resea rch Satellite.


    htlp :l/um pgal .gs lc .nasa .gov/Rad ar Sensor Systems

    On -line Remote Sensing Resources at the


    University of South Carol ina

    AIRSA R - NASA JPl SA R. htt p://airsa r.jpl.nasa.gov!

    Or. Jensen provides I'o w crPu int 1M lecture materials containing non-copyrighted illust ralio ns round in this book free of
    charge for educationa l pu rpu~s . The proct.'SS can be initiated
    by , 'is lt ing the Unive rsity of Sout h Carolina Ce nte r for GIS
    & Rem ot e Se nsing 31

    ENVISATI - Europe an Space Agency. hnp J /c nvisal.


    csa .int '
    ERS- 1. 2 - European Space Agency. hlt p:!lcanh.csa.int'
    crs/

    JERS- l - Japanese Ea rth Resource Satcflit .... www. nasd a.


    go.j p/proj ects/sat /jcrs I ii ndex_e.htmI
    Li ghlS AR - NASA Spaccbome Radar (propos l:dl, hn p:/I
    sourhport.j pi ,nasa, go vI Iightsarl

    Dr. Jensen a lso provide s free acce ss to remote sensing cxcrcis~ an d selected re mote se nsing daiascts that he- uses in the
    Univcrs uy o f South Carolina "Remote Sensing of Environmcm" course . Please acce ss the infc rrnanon at:

    1\ 1\ \~ .cas.S(".eJ

    u/l,:cul,:' Rsbook/indcx.html.

    RADARSAT - C anadia n, www.rsi.c u/


    SE AS AT - hUp://SOUl hport.jpl .nasa.g.ov!seicm.:..:apps/
    scas at.h un !

    SI R-A. B. C/X-SAR - A'ASA Spun: Shunte l /l/ugillK Ra.tor:


    Sl R-A -

    htlp:llsIlUlhport.jpl J1ilsa .gov/sc icncca pps/si ru,

    htrnl
    S IR- H html

    http : //sllu lh pl lrt .j p l . lla~ a. gll v /scie nceapps/s irh.

    S IR-C/ X-SAR - http ://southpo rt.jpl.nasa.gov/si r-c!

    You are welcome tn usc the lecture mate rials a nd exercises


    and adapt them to your req uireme nts. Several of the exercises require access to the ER D/\S Imagine digi tal ima g~
    p roc essing sy stem ( Of cl[uiva t.: m ) 10 perform fundamental
    op crution s such us vicwiug a culm-co mposite image and
    m~ "-ing rneasuremcnr s . In most instances. uhe imagery used
    in the e xercis es is in thc public dom ain unless otherwise
    noted. If yuu usc the remote sen sing e xerc ise materials.
    please send the autho r information about inno vative uses.
    Il1ctliOlhllllgica l re finements rhat co uld be made. and
    improved d;LlaselS rhat might be usc,i,


    Index

    A
    Absolute zero. N . 249

    All....>rptiOll bands.
    atmospheric. 51-52. 5+-.55. 25 3 ~254
    extinction coemctem . 51. 411---4 12

    rocks and mineral s.


    a lunite. 5 19
    holi nite. 520

    518-5~O

    quartz, 519
    vegetation
    ca~cne. J59-3 ~. J ~X

    chlorophyll a and b, 205, 35Q- J60. 4 11\-41 9. 422

    phycoery th rin, 351)....360


    ph)'l;ocyani n.359-360
    ...1111.,.,

    4 1 ~ lq .

    423 . 425-----4 26

    Across- track scanners.. .....' Scann ing


    A("th c microwave. S<T Radar
    AOAR 5500 s.:nsot sY$ll....r. 15
    Advanced Spac...b ome Thermal Emission and Re tlecnon Radiometer ( ASTER ).
    13.2 -1.23 1- 233
    Advancc-d V\'f)' High Resolution Radiometer (AW IRR l. 2 15--2 111
    Aeria l perspecuve. 'll, 127- 118
    Aerial phlll01!T3phy ccameras
    focal (film ) plane, 92. <)5
    foc al len gth. 95-'1/:1. 911

    .p stup. <)(......97. 109. 118


    imllgemotion compensation. 'i'l_1 00
    mtcrvalomcter, 9<)
    jens angle of view. IN
    shutte r. 95-96. 9~
    shutter speed. 'In.-'n, 117
    tYPI:S of
    digital, 9 7, l OI- 105
    mulripte-Icns. multi-band, 97,10 1-102

    panoramic. 95
    sill~l.:lcns

    mapping. 'n-l 00

    Aerinl phulograph ) films, HW- 124

    blac k-and -white

    infrared. I II -Ill
    panchromati c, 1[ 1-[1 2
    orthoch rornanc , I [1- 112
    color
    color t non nal). 111. 1[3, 122- ID
    color-infrared. II I. IB , 1:23-1 24
    history of, 62-M
    negarivc'poshive process . 62---6.5. 113---11.5

    583

    584

    winduw s. 25 3 -254
    rada r pe nerrauon or; 32H- 32 I
    M:all~Ti n!:\ in. sec Scatteri ng

    silver halide crystals. 110-112


    spccd.Lln

    Aerial photography filtration, 104- 109


    band-pass fihcring. !07- 10S
    haze filt er, 115
    Kodak wranen, 107- 1Oi!. 122
    minus-blue. IN
    polarizing lih ...rs, Iii, 107- 110
    Aerial photography platforms

    aircral\, 72-74
    \lo n ght brothers. 72-73
    WW I and WWII . 74 -76
    balloons, 60-70
    (i\,'1lctri\ . 77
    c ivil wer. t>~9
    cold ...ar. 7r..-lll
    Corona -a retlue. It 1- 10

    SR71 aim afl.. 1I0


    U-2 aircraft. 77-1l0
    glidl.'B. 7 1. 7J
    klle:<. 70- 7 \
    ormthoptcrs, Of>
    pigelln s. 71- 72
    rock ets, 6 3, 69

    unmanned aerial vehicles. K5- lIl!


    Aer osols. remlll.: sensing o f, 4 31..... 02
    Agri culture Nonl'llinl Source ( AG f'\PS f po lh.l\ion model. 43 7
    Agric ulture . remote sen sing o f, 371 - 373 . ~ 77 <HC2 , 40()-4 fl2
    Ai r ba se . /lll_lll"l
    Airborne Terre strial Applications Senso r (ATLAS ), 220-222
    Airborne Visible/l ntrared Imaging Spt.'Cullmcle r lAVI RIS).

    13.240-241
    Aircraft . Sloe A...ria l phn\ography platforms
    Alluvial depos its
    fans . !i4f>. !i411
    bajadas. 546. 5411
    pediments. 546--54~
    Altitude above-ground level (AGL), 92 . 150
    American Plan ning Associntion. ~ ~ 1-452

    Analog-to-digital conversion. I. 1Ill - I l l.


    Ancillary informntirm, 1 ~4
    Angle of view
    oblique

    101<. 92 - (,l4
    high. 92 . '14-'15

    vertical. 1)1 - 92, 14'J


    Anastomotic drainag.. pattern, !i2K-529
    Annular dra inage paueru. 527- 5211
    Ante nna . sec Radar system com ponents
    Anticlinal ridges. 522- 523. 53~. 54U
    An-a arrays. !In. Illn. 101-11'"
    Area measurement s, 189 - 1"'2
    dot ",'Tid. 19H... 19 1
    on-sc ree n

    dlgitiz;Jtiull. 191- 192

    Arete. 557- 5511


    Atmosphere

    absorpti(lfl and transmission in. 51-5 2

    B
    Beck scartc r. '<t Kad ar. terra in
    Badland topograp hy, Sl;C Drainag... p"1I...rns . pinnate
    galleon phulllgral'h~ . f>(>- 7 tl
    Bands u f the electro magnetic spectrum
    infrared
    r... Il... cuve. 12-15. 42 -U . 4 7. 4 14
    midd le. 12- 15. 42 -45. 41
    th<:rmal. 12-1 5.42-45.41
    rmcm wa ve. see Radlr system . ",a vclenglh (0.- freq uency)
    ultraviolet, 42 -45. 4 7. 4 14
    visible. 12-1 5.42-45. 41. 4 14

    '1M

    parallax. 173- 114


    shor... hll..:.45 1-452
    Harriet' island. 55 1-5 53
    Basc.lilm.llO- 112
    Batho lilhs . 5.':1- 534
    Bcach . 551- 553
    cliffs. !i54. 5 sn
    Ikdflld,. 5()ll-501~
    Bid irec tion a l reflectance dismbuuon funct ion . 2ll-- 21
    Ui"d i, ~1> 1 1). .N 3- 3~ 1
    Biophys ical variables. 10--12
    Hlack-and-w hue pho tog raphy, 111- 122
    Blackbody. W. 254
    Hh...:l o f ae ria l ph" logra ph)'. 150- 152
    Braided drainage panc m . 527 _52"j
    Brightne ss lelllpc:ralu r..:. 'ec Passi, ~ rnicrow av...
    fluildin... infonuanon, 11~ . I K ~ _ IIQ. 4 ~ ~ -404

    C
    Cadastral mforruauon. 17 ~. 4<W--445. -I5 ~ --464

    Cam c nl ~. ' ce Ac rial photography cameras


    t'a mu\l 1 1ag~ d..rec uon Iibn , s"~ Aeria l photography films
    Ca nopy
    closure pe rcen t. 1- 2. 344 ---.'45

    leafurea index. 1-2


    penetration rradan. 317- 32 1
    Cardinal effect , !>I.''': Rad ar. lcrrain
    L'cntrifugnl drainage I'<lll .. rn , 521>
    CClllripclal drainage pattern. 526
    Change ddl'<'tioll . ." J1-UI2. 51KI, 5112.
    Characteristic c lll'\e . 1 1 6 - 11 1~
    (,hl"mp hyll. SC'l" Vegetatiun and Water
    Chloroplasts, 358 - 359
    Cinder co n... volcanocs , 53U...5.11
    Cirque. 551 -55 lS
    {AS II ~(lll. 241-242
    Class ili,,:ulioll
    land usc andland cover, 44 ~ . 4 50...--4;6
    schemes, 4 51-4 56
    Cltluds and Earth's Radlan l En('rgy S~ ~tem lCE RES ). 24

    I"W r.X

    Cloud". remote sensin g of


    heig ht, -1 32 -4 35
    III therma l infrared imagcr)', 02-13.'
    in \isiblc imagery. -I32 --l33
    type. B -I
    C03"lal Zone (' 1,lor Scanner (e ZCS I. 2sn
    Collateralmtormation. 1-14
    Col, a glJdallandform. 5SS
    Coll>l'
    additive theory, I0-1- 105
    balance shift in culot-Infrared film, 124
    complitncurary. I~
    false. ee Aeria l photography films, color-infrared
    history of. 65-66. I O,t 122
    photography, see Aer tal pholography 1iI 11l~
    primary CQII'~ 104
    subtractive theory, IM - ln7
    (oll>l' photography, M.'C Aerial photography films
    I'omrnerciallnnd IISC. imerp rcrauon o f. 42 ('- 4 3~
    aulomot ivclbl....I.405---loo
    central business dicmct (C RD), 41\5
    finance and construction. 4M---4611
    food and drug, 4toX-4 6'l
    funeral and \'",m clery. 41>11-170
    bouse and garden, 471
    Iwusinl,! ~ temporary I. 40 ')...47 1
    other co mmercia l, 472
    recreation. 4 7 1- 4 12
    ward'K''UsinS shipping. 4 71--476
    Fommunicatious and uuhues. intcrpre tauon 01:
    Compact Airborne Spectrograp hic Imager. 13. 2-lI - 24 2
    Conduclion.37-3X
    Cone, volc ano
    cllKkr.S3O--531
    c(>mposilc.532-533
    Ccrqugate pnncipal point. 153. 101>-1 hX
    I'onnnental drift, 522
    (01'1\':1100.37-31'
    Convergence of evidence, 132 - 133. 145
    Coral ree f 554---551,
    ;11011, ~5S -55 6
    bmicr.555---556
    fringing, 555 556
    Corona satellite. XI- IIJ
    Critical environmenta l a reas. interpretation uf, SUO---SOI
    Crop (alcndars. ~ \ 'cgctatiol1 rh\'1'\(llngical cycles

    o
    Data Analysis
    analog {visual image proc\",si n~),!). 24 :'!6
    digilallmage proc essm g.. "I. 24---211

    Data t'cllection
    1-2 . ('I laplcr 15
    remote sensing, 2 -1'

    III $;111,

    D.:fcn-e M C1\'UI"01~ical S..telli l'" Program 1 (>\1 S PI..


    Ikforma1ion of rocks, 512-523
    l>clla,

    585

    l.'f<'ll ula1c. 5-10- 54 7


    cus p:llc.SU, -S47

    elongated or diguat e. ~S47


    lobate. S~(s 547
    Dendritic drainage panc m. 520--527
    Ik ns ltomell.'r , l l l' -l l!)
    Dens ity. 11ft- II II
    f)q>ress ion angle. S<'C Ra dar system components
    Depth perception. 163
    Detectors. 1 )5_ 197. 224 -226
    '
    Did lOh't11ic drain age panern, 527---52'1
    I>tclec tric consram, complex, J I b - 3 17
    Drffcrcnua l fMra lla\, see Paralla x. stereoscopic
    lli gi lal(, lot'l:,233- 235
    I) lg iWI ele vation mod e l. 335
    D igila l

    frame cameras
    l.e jca Emc rge Il igital Senso r System (U SS). 2-14-245

    Vcxccl Ultn,C"am, 24S


    / i 1 Digua l M"du lar Camera , 24 5
    Dsgrtal surface mud d lO SM I. 335, 3)7. 3-10-34 (
    Dignaltcrram modcl (I> r~f). 3J5. J -II -343
    Digiti7ing
    liucuroran-aarray. 11 '1- 122
    rnicrod cnshomctcr, us 119
    \,idc< 11"1
    Dig it:11 im age proce ssing. 9
    change detection. c, 21>
    C'lJXn syste ms and neu ral nd\l.urb . 'J
    gc<>melric coerecnoe. 26
    hypcrspecua ! data ana lysi s. 'J, 27
    m<>dchtlg. 'J. 27
    tlOlll'.lramdrie infor rnatlcn ex tra ction, 'J, 20
    para metric feature c 'l1ract ion. 9. 26

    radiumcuic corrccuon, 26
    Sllti-c(lPY photogrammctry, '), :'!5- 2(,
    terminology. 104 - I 05
    I>isast<:r emergency response, 131. 500 502
    Dolinc ts mkhole], 528. S4'J
    !>llmc
    lav a. 530-5 .1 I
    sand d une. <;03-5M
    Dooplcr frequency in raJat,3011-3 12
    1>01 grids. 1'10- 1'11
    !>r<l irhtgc puttc m s . 525~52 'J
    anastomotic , 52R-529
    annu lar. 527
    braided. 527, 529
    J l.'n dnt ;c. 5~b- 527

    de ranged. 521'
    dichotomic, 527. 52'1
    parallel. 520, 52R
    pinn ate. 5:'1'
    radial tccrun fugal} and centripetal. 526, 528
    rcctaug ular, 526--527
    ~in kholc (dolinel. 5~R. 5-N
    trellrs. 526--527
    Drumlin. <; 67, <; 6fI. 562

    II\ IH:\

    586

    I lull ~S .

    l.mulvion. ",-"e A.'rial I, ht>wgr" phy lilms


    f nJ iap. ~1crcosc"r ie, 151l -151
    l:nc'1! y. 37
    Fnc'1!} . matter i nlc r'lcli "n~
    h..r msphcncal ahs"'l'laIKe. 54 -50
    hemispherical rc tlcc umce. S4 -56

    sc e Sand dunes

    E
    ('.anh Observer (lO -11 NASA
    Advanced Land Imager (AU I. 2 11-212
    Hyperi o nhyperspcctral senso r, 2 11- 212

    LE IS,\ atmospheric correc tor. 2 11-2 12


    Earth O~",,'in~ System ([ OSI - ~ASA
    Landsat 7 Enhanced Them atic ~1" l"PCr"' . 11- 13. 20:,-2llQ
    science plan. 22- 23
    T erra O;'1lMlr syste ms
    ASTl::R. 11- 13. 2-4, 2.;1-233.
    CE RES. N .
    "' ISR . 11-1 J. 2-1, 232-233.
    \tOOlS. 11 ~1 3. 2-1.242- 244
    ""O rI' ETT.2-1
    Earth o>Os<....... ation economics. 2~ -30
    Earth RC'l'oun:e Technolog y S<tldht.. 'ERTS ). ....-c Landsat

    hem isp he rical lr<u h rnlllanl"t'. 54-56


    rnlian ti.'a lurcs. 5f,(l 56f ,
    Esker, 557, 5h2
    l.v foliaricn. dome, 533 534

    Eastman, (j~'OI'f'c. 66

    ~all l1 s. l!col ~ ic, 522-524. 5.ln. 5 4~


    tiduo: ial nwb , 152 -153
    Field llf view. see InstanlanC'(lUs field o f, iew
    r lightlinc, 150--15-1

    Elasnc dcfllnnal itln. 52.'


    E1ocuu magnt:tic radiation. 37- (>0. Chapter :2

    al>sufpl ion. 51- 52


    b) atmospheric gases, sec A lmOs phl;'11,'
    hy s urface leature ~.
    budget eq ua tion, 54
    creanon
    -1 3-4 7
    fiu\ density. H -:'i f>
    e xua ncc. :'i4. :'i f>
    irrudiancc, 54. :'i e,

    ","'C En.~y-rnallc:r

    naerccuon -,

    cr.

    ~ X-47

    p"nide.3R. -I3-4 7

    waw. .'I'(-t ~
    radiance, 54, 5t,-5 7
    radiant tlux . 53-5 4. 252
    re flectance, 51, 53 - 56
    rcfra,'lioll. 4K-t ~
    speed orliglH, 3R
    units o f meas urement. 4 1-44
    waveleng th, J() 40
    Elem...ms nfimag.. interpretation. 25. \ 27- 1../1\, Chap ter .5
    association. 25. 132 133. 143
    hcighlAI"('ll h. 25. ' 32~ IB . 142
    pattern. 25. 132 -133, 1)') - 140
    shadow. 25. U2 - U3, 1511- lfI ()
    ~ hOlPC, 25. 1.'2- 133. 137- 13ll,
    Sil",25,132- 1.\3, 143
    siluall\>l1.25. 132- 133. IB
    s i J~, 25. 132--1.'3, D'\-.- 137
    slcpc'espc ct. 25, 132- J33,
    texture.

    25.

    Ll ~ -J33 ,

    I3s- IN

    lon.:-, o lor, 25, 132- J33, 133 - 135

    film . 11 5-1111
    stations, 150

    l.y c base. 163

    F
    Fa l ~ 001...... see Aeria l phOf(lgra ph) films. co lor- infra red
    Fan. a lluli OlI. 546. 54 !/'

    Film.....'(" A.'lial r hOlOl,!raph) film~


    r dlers. sec .' erial phv1<l~raph} Iih r auon
    FlJR Iforward look ing infl".lll."d sysle ms l. 25 1,27 1-273
    f' 1.."Jplain~
    com...uc. 5-1J

    covered. 5-l4

    Irequency. .'It>-4U
    interactions . sec Energy- mailer
    models.

    t- \ ro- UR"

    localion. 25, 132- 133. 132

    Ele vation data. sec I>igila l elcv anon mode l


    F.I ~;n o. sea-surface tempe rature. 427-t2!/'
    Emissivity, 2S 5~256

    meand er. 54 .\. q ~


    11m ial lJ nJ rllnns. 5~ 1 :"'4!/'
    Focullcngrh . sec Aenal photograph y ca meras
    l-oc al p lane, ,.:e ,\ eria l photography eall1o:r....'
    Folding. 5~3. 5.\11. 537 541
    h're,ht>rll'lIiulI in radar i lllJ~CS. J 05-J()(,

    r "n,l ry. SCI.- Vcgcrauon


    l r",:luring "f rock . 521-5 24
    f~l "p . sec ,\ ,,ri'l1I'how graphy com..'ras, 9(,

    G
    (iilp

    analysis, Nil -.1'J7

    (ic\lEy..,/SI':\" lma lling, 2.15 2.1h

    (je"lng). 52 1 521\
    dr.unagc
    ,k nSlly. 525
    pancrn. sec Drainage p.mcrns

    Icxlllll.", 525- 520


    5:22

    1i [h~,I .. g),

    mc twe. 523
    faulling.5:23 -5 25
    normal. 524.
    oblique slip. 524

    reH' r'lc. 52-.1 .


    sl:arp.524
    strike ~li p. 5N
    thru'l. 524.

    !"!dmg. ';2 _1 --5\7


    alitictmc. 53!:!, 540----5-.1 I

    587

    I:'lUEX

    hoglxld. 538. 54 1
    mm1l1(11nt'. 52.'
    overt urn....J. 5~ 3
    s)rw:line. 53 ~
    Geometry of a vert ical aerial photograph. 153- 155
    (ico morphll lllgy. 52'1- 51'>1'>
    Geostationa!)' Dperauonal Environmental Satel lite l G O ES ). 2 11
    <iO ES Ima ger. 2 13-214
    GO ES Sounde r. 2 15
    Glacial tilt. 5.'i7
    Glaciation
    alpine. 556
    eOlllin..'fllal. 556
    Graben , ;42
    Gra) ,o..xl y. 255 -257
    G rou nd-rangt'. 2'N -301
    Ground reference information , 1-1. Cha pter 15

    H
    u w e. see At mosphere
    lleat Ca pacuy \t.pping 1-hsMtln (11( \ 1\,1). 2 ~1
    Heatloss. the rmal infrared imag"s u f
    buildings . 2 5 1. 1 X2 -~ !(7
    buri ed heatin g lines. ~ 67
    lIei!thl me asure ment W>lllg
    air p ho to relief displacement. 1 ('() 1 6~
    ,hado " le ngth, I (,~
    stereosc opic p arallax. 162 - 17-1
    so n-<opy photog ram met ry 174--I X3
    Ih gh" ays . !lC.'C Transportanon infr as tru<:!ure
    ltopback. 5311. 5-11
    H,)<"k , 551
    Horst. 542
    Hous ing. M:C Residential
    Hybrid \ una hles, m-12
    Hypcrspcctral re mote sens ing. 1-1. 237 - 245. 5 18- 52 1
    Hypc rstcrcoscopy. 1M

    manua ls. 47 11
    ext raction indu stries . 4 711 --482
    fab rication ind ustries, -IJol1 --4lU(
    heavy. -I1l 7--4JolIl
    light. 4X7---1 R9
    proces sing industri es. 4Jol l---lX4

    chemical. 4S3 - U~ 5
    hea t. -I1<4 -41l7
    mec hanical. 4R ~---I83
    Infrared

    reflcctive. 12-15, 42--45 , 4 7. -1 14


    mid dle. 1.2-1 5, U --45. 4 7
    Iht'T11l al, I2 15. 42 - 45. -17
    Infrared ill1"gcs.
    ph,'l ograp hy, sec Aerial photogra phy film s, infrar ed
    th..e-mal. sec Thermal in fra red remore snlsmg
    In _,11" da ta cotl ..- cnon. I 2. 8
    til ' S.
    lea f urea index, 1-2
    spect ral re flectance. 1- 2. 5t>lJ---.5711. Ch apt er 15
    f"lfJ'O"< of. 5M
    referen ce materia l tspectralon). 570---57 1
    targct m.ucrial. 570 -57 1
    ilhamnanon
    .ular.571 -5i3
    la bontl'l!)'. 573-574
    spcctrora dio mcter ch.nac rcns ucs. 574--571\
    lns tantaneous tidd of \ jew. 3
    jnrcrv ctomer cr. IN

    Inverse-square law. 2l'>-1

    K
    Karsttupl.>graph). 523. 54 '1
    Kenle. 5511. 51'>2
    K inelk temperature, 253
    Kirchotf's rad iat ion law, 257-.260
    Kod a k acriul films. see Aer ial ph" tography films
    Kodak wranen liilers. M:C Aerial pooh>graph) filtration

    I
    l K O ~OS.

    11- 1J. 235 -13 (>

    Image

    enhancement. 'I. 26
    uuerpreteuon

    analog or \ isua l, 'I. 25-26


    digital. ....'\.. DigItal image processin g
    Imag ing spect roscopy
    Imagi ng spt'CIT'OIlll"I("I"$
    sec AV IRIS. CASI- 15txJ. fl,10UI S
    reflec tion and absorprirm processe s. 5 1R 52 1
    elec tronic proce ss es, 520
    vihrational processes. 5~0. 575
    spectral re flcctan..-.: lib ran..... 5211-521
    lncident a ng le. see Radar system components
    lndex of rc fracnon. 4:S--4 ')
    Ind ian Remote Se nsing l IRS ) Satellite progrJ.m . 1~ 'I 231
    Industri:tl lanJ usc. mterprcteuon of. 41lJ--4~'I
    classification logic. 47'1

    L
    Lam bcrtia n surface. 53
    Land eo"'er......-e Lan d usc/land cov er
    Land form s, m tc rpreranon o r.
    de\' e l"po.'ll nil horizontal strata. 53n. 53-1
    developed on Ii-.ld ed strata. 5}O, 537
    eolian. 530, 56()
    fault-contr olled. 5_1tl. 5,lll
    110\ ial, 530, 540
    glacial, 530 . 5 17-52 2
    ig neous. 530, 5}O
    ~ an.1.. B tl, 5-111.
    sborcliue, 530. 5-1'1
    Lands,ape ecology, .'IIJ---W7
    indica tors . 3<)4-3')(,
    patch mct rics, N 4----3%
    l.and use land COH'f, -150---45 1
    clasvrfl canon sc hemes. 4 .~ I ---I.S(,

    I:'"I) EX

    590

    advantages limuauons. 7-&


    art or "l:kn,;c." 5
    h,ophysi';31\lanah lt"S Co be sensed, 10-12
    data colll-Clion,:! R. 12 - 2 ~ and Chapler 7

    definuions " I~ '"


    ASP RS. '"
    maximal and minima l. '"
    di stance , how r,lI is remote.
    history of: 2-4. I>
    instrum ents . 7
    logic. ~
    milestones in. I) (Table 1- I)
    process. 11 -<,1
    reso lution
    radiometric, 14. rs. 20
    sp.uial . 14-17
    spectral. 14- 1f>
    temporal. 17-111
    statement of the pr" hlcm. lI

    Ik prl_m.u i\ c traction. 155-160


    Residen tialland use. mllTjl rCI<llinn o f. 4 St>--4M
    Cnt:T~Y ..Icmand ami conscrv unon, 4tH
    single- an d muhi-tam ily, 45f>--4 SX
    Rock s and min,-rals, remote sensi ng of. 5 111 -52\
    imag ing spectroscopy, 51 X- 52 I

    imaging spectrometers.
    see AVI R1 S, CAS I- 15IKI. M ( )l)I S
    ref'lcction and absorption processes.
    e tecuomc proc esses , 52U-521
    evnnc uon coc fficrcm. 5 I'"
    index ot refrecnon, 5 1'>1
    .ibf".llwn.1l processes. 5~O 5~ 1
    spectral reflectance hbraries. 5~U

    Saltanon. seo. :10.1


    Sand dunes. 562 -Sf>(,
    types
    crcsccmnc. :162-563
    dom e. % 3- 5(,"
    linear, 5(,2 -564

    para1:'(llic.51,5
    s tar. 5(.) -564. 56f>
    radar pe netra non u f. 310-317
    Sandstone. 535--536
    Sea lc (If a verucal aeria l photograph, 155-160
    terrain
    1e\.:'I.1:l5-151\
    \anable, ISll -IM
    rep rcscntanve rr-Jctioo. I55- 100
    verba! sca le. ISS
    Sca nning
    across- uack. I'Jf,_197. 261 -261'
    Scattering
    at1l1mpheric. 4R- 5 1
    mic.4'l -50
    non -selec tive. 50 51

    ra) leigh , ..9-50


    surface
    in u tlar imagery. 30~. J 1~ -3 15. 3 17-32 1
    in vcgetanon, 35'1--J03
    mlooils.5lo-512
    in water column. 4 10--4 12. 415
    Sea -vie wing Witle FidJ v r View Sensor (Sc a WiFS I, 13. 21lt-21Q
    S,'din1<"Olary roc ks, 522, .'U5
    Se lec tiv ely r~tl i at i llj,\ hlldies .155 - 257

    Services land usc. mtcrpretarion 01


    pu blic buildings and fa c ilitie s, 472- -17<1
    Sh'ldow. D2. 1-11 142
    Sha le, 535
    Shape. II1.137- 13~
    Shun k Imaglll g Radir (S IR). 293, 323 324
    Sidclap. sltTOO"COrllc,
    Sidelooling alrborllc radar, SI.."'C Radar
    Sig moid or s-shape dl"101110o. 20'1
    Silver halide.SI.."'C A ..1'ial phot ugraphy !ih n lo
    SilC. 132. 135 1.17
    Slant-range, scc Radir
    SOli-copy photog rammctry, 174--- 1 ~"
    aero-triangulation. 178- 1so
    collincuruy condinon. )80- 1:< I
    co ntrol. 175- 17h
    definition. I H
    c:>. lrd cl il ~l of
    cOnitlurs.1I11-11I3
    dlgilal d"" i1tion moods. 170, 18 1- 1!l.J
    elcva tions.I7l>.Il'l I - llG
    l>rthoimal!-L"', 176. 183 - 1811
    rhcmanc tearures. l i6. IKIl-- I II.,.
    ....."'fltallOn

    -xtcrior. 171l. 178-180


    mtericr, 17(>-1,.,
    Space Imaging, lne . IKO 'I OS. 11-1 J. 235 -231l
    Spa.'e Shunk phol,,~r,lphy, 245 -2"7
    Specia l Sen,or Mic ruw avc/fm agcr (SS M/I l. .U n-3 _~ 2
    S 1'111 I l1l a !! ~ Corporuuon. 223- 22')
    hi~ l<lr)', 223 229
    seor 1.2,3 Resolution Visi ble 0 II{V ) sensors. 224-21(,
    SPOT" II nd:l, 22(, 229
    Sn<l w. r': IIIUl C , cn, ing (If
    microwave region. 436-437
    middlc-hrfrared TCgion. 436
    \;~il>k spec trum. 4 .~"
    Socioecononnc lIlfnnn8l iol1. -161----4M

    s..,il
    ddil1llion "I' ..... tum, 50>;
    grain sile (sand. silt ;lod clay I, 50!l ~511
    ho n 71111S. 50l\--51)1l
    bedroc k. SOli
    ")flO:

    o f eluviauon . 50S

    mn c o f illuvialion. 5011

    reflec tance dom inant fa cto rs . 51 ll- 5 17


    air -soil interfac e scauc ring.rctlccemcc. 510-5 12
    iron ox.de, 515-51 6

    59 1

    ,"ohturc colllcnl , 5 1~-S IS

    Ih...rmal infrared remote

    ..rgas uc m atter. 5 15-517

    salinuy, 5 I5 517
    stlil c m"N. 515-S 16
    subsu rface volu me scattcrinJ,:"rdl~'l:lancc. 5 Iq
    surface toIJ-II~,. 21(>...217
    texture. Si ll SlJ
    h)dr""yl al"""l'fIlilm bands. 52]
    intcrsunal air ~pac~"" S13

    melhods of 'lewmg.I M- IM
    principles. 162 - 16-1
    St('T("Omcll"f. ~c Parall ax ba r
    Stereoscopic

    model. 150
    pa rallax . 162. 1M [74
    \ ie \\ ing
    a l i ~l1Incnl tl f r hmo gr<lphs in. [t>tt-- 16lS
    anllglyphic or polari zmg gla sses. 164
    cruocd-cycs. 1(,5
    parallel-ey es, 165
    us ing a SIC IC<l s.;Opl:. 165- 167
    Stereosco pes
    lells. 1M -1 6K
    mirro r.1o';-lM(
    Sunglinr. .; I0-4 11
    Surfa ce roughn ess. .1 13 - .' I ~
    Symhc tic- apc nure radar, see Rudur

    T
    Tangent ial scale distoruon, 2MI-2fl')
    Tempe rature
    cn 'ss~l\Ier periods in. 27~ 277
    diurnal. 274-170
    imagl.'l' l, l~ sec thermal in frared remote sensing
    km cnc [ t rue ], 252-253
    radia nt, ~ 5 2 -253
    'I empcral resolunon . 14, I 7-l li
    r"rr<J. S.l' Ea rth O bs crv ing Sysh:m IEO S )

    tenu re
    drai nage. s...... Dra inage patterns
    photographic . see Elemen ts of image mtcrpretano n
    in radar ima g...e. sec Radar, terna in. surface roughness
    Tbemauc Map rct (T M I. see La ndear

    N tJ- 2<)(). Chapter K

    sources. 2n<l
    spJiI-winJo\\. 271
    dcrecrors. l n2-1M
    e rnissh rty .255-256. 25 X-25~
    forw ard look ing infrared t FU R I. 272 - 273
    ground
    rr:-<ol urion ce ll see. 21'> 1. 2";-2M
    s\\ ath width, 26+-265
    imcrw+"'luare taw. 2M
    inSl.lntarl<.VU5 field uf \ ie...... 261
    radeometrtc w;(llulion. 26')-271
    relief d ssplaccrncm, 266-26!l
    o;c annml!!
    acn oss-trad... 264 -265
    tangenua l scale Jl ~rmtion. 26K-26~
    thermal n:sptlnloC number tTR ~). 2lil<

    l.;]\ oo <lmy . 5fl!<i } I O

    SO:\!\R. 4 :!~ CS
    Spectral hands. SC'e Band ~ ctme ~leClromagneiic spect rum
    Spectral
    reuectaoce. 14 -1S. "~5.
    Spcctroradiometers
    airborne. see AV I IUS. { 'ASI-I ;(10. MO()lS
    handheld. 2. 5/)'1, e ha!cr IS
    Spectrum
    c1cclroma!PlCllC. lle -+;
    SR-7' aircra ft. Sfl....X \
    Stefan-Boltz mann law. 254
    Ssere....SCOfty. 11'> 3
    h)po:n.tcrc<>cwpy. 1M

    .cllSIl l jJ,

    calibration
    raJ lumetric. 2M 27 1

    Therm a l rrof"l'Tt ic~


    capecuy, 2(>4)
    con ducnv it),. 2W

    inertia and apparent inertia, 2bO


    Thermogra phy. 24q
    Toumachou. Gasl'afJ Felix t J\AIHR). 67

    Trcnsmutancc.c-t
    Tran cporta uon intra vtructure. intcrpretauon of. 4lN....-N 5
    airports. -In
    boats a nd ship:.. -I~
    rt>;Ids and hig hways. -IQO
    rarlroads, '; YI
    Trc Uis dn, i na~ e patte rn. 52(,--527
    I'ropic al Ra infall ~kasu rill g Mis si"n (l'R MMI. 33 1-33 2. 4311--13 I

    U
    U- 2 airc ra ft. 77 1I0

    Ultraviolet mdiutmn. SIT Hands o r the elec tromag netic spectrum


    United Sla ll'S(,,:" klgk Survey ( USGS)
    land lise land cover elassifinrl10n system, 4; I
    Unmanned acriu! vehicles. S5- S ~
    Urban. 44 ,' - 50/" L'h aptcr 13

    developmental cycle. ~-I'; -4~1\


    ht'at islan d , 2Xf, -2 X7
    laud us c/Lmd cover, sec Land usc/land co ver
    meteorologica l data . 49~
    Urbanizat ion. ~-I3

    V
    Vcg<'l mion. 35.'i -Inx. Chapter I I
    agriculture. remote sc nsi n~ o f. 355
    hiodheNiry and gap analysis of, 3'16-31)7
    billmll-'IS leaf area mdcx ( LAI) o f. 2. I N>
    canopy model ing or. 371-372
    chang .. detection of 3\l7--WO
    nn aging sf"l'Ctrumctry 0 1: 372 -373
    inu lC<..'s. JlS2-3 ~3
    landsc ape em l.'ll) mc tncs of, JQl -3%

    592

    I"' OEX

    phenological

    (yd~"I.

    373

    rnanaged.J75-J16
    natura l 377-3S2
    phceosymhetically active radianon ( PARI. JMl
    rcflc..'13n<;:C dom inant (acton.. 356
    chlorophyll a and t> piglnt"llls in,
    10\\l1' cpidcrmrs. 355-360
    pah~ IIle!\.Of'h~ 1I cells. 355-360
    sJlt,ngy mC!otlph> IIcells .' (i1- 365

    upper eprdermrs. 355--300


    ot her pig me nts
    anthocyanin. 3Ml
    canncncs. 359
    xanthophyll. 3.:'i')
    phycoe ry thrin. 35" 3M)
    ph~ c,x)' ll n m . 359- .(,0
    lcafndditivc re fl ec tance, 362 -3(,)
    lea f water con te nt. .114 _) oti
    bidirectional re flectance dembuticn funct ion. 367- 37 1
    u no!')' closur e.
    c hlorotic. )(,1
    phcrosynthesi s, -'55-3 51>
    Vo k ancx"S. 530-534

    reflectance domina nt facl"r~


    bottom radiance. 410
    chlorophyll. -II ~~J
    in eoo~13 1 and inland water. 421-422
    in ocean .... all". 42lJ..--422
    dissolved organic material. -1 15
    G..:Ibl.tulTc. 4 ~ J
    free-surface layer radiance , -I1lJ..--41 I
    subsur face \ Ullllllc:lric rat!lall\:c, -1 1(1.--1 11, -1 15
    suspended mi nera ls, 4 1~-III<
    wavele ngth. -1 11-1 1-1
    sno w. 435-1 37
    surfac e ex te nt mar r inl.l. 41 3--114
    t ...mpcratu r.... -12(, -421<
    vapor. -133. -135
    \>"':l\l' lo:nglh
    J O Ill inant. 3'1--1 1. -I J
    un its o f m c asurc mcnr. -II 4-1
    \....ien's Displaccment law, W--11
    Whisk broo m scanning, 1')"
    \....indu .... s. a tmo spheric . 51 -52. 253-254

    X
    x-purJll;u.. S<.'\: Parallax ,

    >t...rcoscc pic

    W
    Waler. 4~2 . Chapter 12
    bathymetric mapping. 423--42"
    U DAR. 425-4~ "
    optical. 423
    SO'l r\R. 424 ...t! S
    c1oudsA32 -435
    optical properties. 4 \ 0---4 14
    penetration. 4 11-1 1J. 4 23-4 20
    precipitation. 4 2K-43 1
    q uafuy modelin g. 437-43'1

    Z
    /.(lOm stereoscopes . t" 7
    Zoom-transf...r-scupc, It> 7

    S ila lia l :IOd Temporal Resolution for Selected Applicntiuns


    WtI

    .11,1-

    "'x"-

    10

    I a

    be

    Utility,
    Transportation
    Infrastruc ture

    ...........L~I~~I~~~~ .1.6. ~~ !~~i.:'~1

    0.1
    Precision
    Ag ricu lture

    ~ ~~~~I!l~~~. ~ .d.ay. ~o:.\!~i~ _


    J satellites : -l Jay rc... isit

    (WI

    ~ O,O(] I
    ( iOES

    ')
    ~

    :>

    e,

    e
    i

    (l,tlOOI

    )/ =
    0, I m

    S:

    g
    t;

    ~':::

    ,~ ,

    2-

    ~ /:t,

    r~

    /.

    "
    1m

    .s
    r

    1- 9:::
    .
    ~

    c:: ~ ~

    ~- -

    "
    ;:;t-

    '';:: :::':

    b
    c,

    10 III

    :l .....

    ~:t

    f.

    l' ...fJ

    , ~

    ..:..:<
    100 m

    "

    I km

    10 km

    100 km

    No minal Sp;lIial Resolution

    e
    r

    Color Plate 1,1 l he nonuual pauul and 1l,'IlIi"lntl r<'s"lnl l\l1l charact cri-uc s 101' ,d<'<'lnl :l1' P!i,',ui " ns are pr"'''llI <",L w hen couducung
    <t rt'1ll0 1<' S<'llsing project. the re is u"ully a trade- o ff be tw een spat i;lt ,mu l.:m l,<II;1I r.:s"luliull req uirem ents. G.:n.:r all y.
    as tem pora l r"s"llllion r.:qlll r<"m ..nls inc rease II is usuall y nec essary I" 1,, \\ <"I' 1he spat ial res olutron rcqusrcmcnts S,l lhal
    lhe amount "I' rCllIut.: sell.....'r W la u lll.:cteu docs nul become unrnallagcah l.:, r " rtull,lld y. m any applicutious Ihat re 11Ulf.: w ry .1<,I;likll spat ial inrormanon (e .g .. land-us c m aprlll g ) numl ;d ly tlo uor require h igh rcmpora t re-olut wm data
    ( I,': . ua la cu llce leu once ':\<'r) Ii V<' 10 te n years lila) 1:>0." sufficicntj. 1 her e 'IT<' exccpuons IU these gcn eral rule " f ur
    c camp l.... prt..... ision ngricunure. cwp yield invcsnganons . n atf... ~h llti~'S . and ... rn~'f!:e nc> rcsponce ;lpplic; u ions so m...
    11m..., requ ire very hl;:h ' 1};Ilial and tempora l r.:,.o lul i"ll ICllW!C sensor dat a. Tho: volume u f o.IOIla C\,lIc':I.:II cancreate
    s.:n" us dal ., m.m,'J;e m':lll and alla l~sj s proble ms. The-e ure al-aitrad co ll" " Ilh the olh...r resolutions te.g . spt'Clral. ra dn-mc tnc. i",larit;tllun . Iha l ma y ne ed 10 be 1:"",.1<.1.:100.

    Sola r a nd Hcllosph eri c Observ atory (SO Il O) Imag e


    or the Sun Obtained 011 Septe mber 1~. 1999

    C o lo r Plate 2 1 An image nf the Sun obtained Ily the So lar 311d Hcbospheric Observatory {SO HO I ElT ins trum ent on September 14. 19V1
    (cou rtesy Solur u au Analysis Cente r, NASA God<Jml Space Flight Ccnrcn. The bright fea tures urc ca lled active regioo;.
    The Sun has a diameter o f 1,._'/ 0,0011 krn. The temperature o f the Sun 's core i ~ 15.n()O.()()O K. Th e tem perat ure of the Sun'!
    ,urfa cc nbc photusphcrc ) is 58 00 - 6110 0 K. Just ahu 'c the' Sun's Surf,Kc is the chromosphere. The re gion above the elw
    rnosphc rc is ca lled the coron a and e xtends m illion , o f kilometers into SP;l('C' hw is \'lsih lc only duri ng eclipses. Temperat\lR\
    in the corona a rc m e r I .lMlO.{)l)U K. A huge e rupting prominence is seen escaping the Sun in the' upper right. r rominenct!
    an: relatively " cool " 60.(l{)() K plasma emh<:(lded in the m uch hotter surrou nd ing corona. I f an eruption like thrs IS direct((
    tu \\ urd the t an h \1ca n cause' ~igni lio:an t gcoma gncnc acnvuy m the' Earth's environment. The Sun is the lafl1e~1 objecta
    thc s(llar sys tem and contai ns more than 'N percen t of its total ma ss (Jupiter ('on tai n, mo , t of thl' remainder ]. The Sun i~:j
    percem hydrogen and 25 perce nt helium by mass. The Sun-, energy ou tp ut is J ill. hil liul\ billion IlIq!J\\ J U S per secon d p!O'
    duc cd by nucka r fu s ion reactions. The Greeks ca lled the Su n I Iclios and the Roma ns re ferred til it as So l. II is the soorn
    "I' m uch 0 1the c1eoo;tl"llll;J~nl'tk t'n.:r~y recorded hy remote "cll'Ullol sys tem, .

    ' -"Ullt., Pon ton nf th e Elccrromegncu c Sp('('l r uni from .snu to 7UII nm

    5 >ll1

    500

    Xanu mcte rs

    '~. /

    1'; '
    ~ ~

    ./ 3

    Gamma

    sc

    X-ray

    Ultraviolet

    I O!

    I O~

    ./

    ..

    7;.

    10'" (~,.m ) 't.m:Al'ht - -

    Radio

    ".s
    t

    .,
    0-

    es

    "

    Color Pla te 2-2 The portion " r llle electromagnetic spec tru m \ is ihlc by hur uan beings is ge nera l!) cOlls i.k rcd to be from -lOll

    ttl 700 nm
    c,msisting o f hl llc(..\OIl .. j (M I nm). grt"t"1l l5UO- f>OO nm ]. and red ("Oll .. 71M) JlJll l light, Th o: image o f the solar spec trum was
    obse rved with the Fourier Tra nsform Spo..'Ctrmllch:r at the .\ h; \-l.llh Pkrct: So lar l' acilil) at Kin Peak l"at ilma l O hSl.'TVat0I)'.
    near Tuc s on. AI. Eac h orshe 50 s lic('~ covers Nl angs tro ms lind wavelength increase, Ir orn lop to bouom along eac h slice.
    Nut.: tha t it con ta ins rclauvcly narrow. ,furl Fra unhofcr lines n.1lI1cJ for the Germa n phys idsl Jos eph von Fraunh...r... r ( 1787ll'l~o) who " mappe d" thc location of over ;70 of the m In thc solar spectrum. Later sciennsts dis cove r ed that the: da r\. lilll:'"'
    an: ca used b~ cheuuca l clcm...m absor puon in the uppe r l.l} ef ~ uf the Sun and some .Ibsorpllu n b) o .l ) ge ll mu k,<:u l.."S in the
    fanh 's alrTl(Krhcrc 11e-c'<1 with 1"'1'llI ; \o.~ iOl1 o f :\ . A. Sharp. M )A( )11\";( I Km I'e:&k ~TSJ,\ U R AI'\ S ~ I.

    H urr lcan c Katrfna Damage


    :11 G ulfp o r t. :\ IS

    a Low .. >hli<l,......... ria l rh"IO~""rh or a i"'>r11011


    Il l' .he: Grand Ca~Ir><ll1lUwtl b~' M,,"JI SUJ~" ..Jlh)

    l lit:hway 'It),

    "",,..
    r-

    b. Vertical aerial rhol~r.!rh ofthe Grant! C asi lKland ~u rTOUnd ; nf area o Naiocd
    at a - paual re~oltll i,,,, or 37 a .\ 1 e m ( 1.2 .. 1.2 fll,
    Co lo r P la te 4- 1 a ) 1 " w....., h li411" ae rial ph" lugra ph "r w intl " lid ~l"rm surgv J am ag..: L'a tlsctl b) I Iurricnuc Kamna at Gu lfJ'l,n . \1 S. obremed
    "11 August ~ (). 20H5 (c' " 1l1e ~y "f I IS{ iS ( 'O;"I .d and \laTl n.: (i ...olog) I' I"tl~ Ta l n ) . t>J Vertica l ae rial plHll0!lfllph (co unc, y of

    ."\( l -\A l{e lTInl<, Sen_in],! 1)1\isinll l.

    Dispe rslun o f W hil e L igh t Th rou gh

    :I

    P rism

    .-\ddil i\ e Col ur T heory

    Sub rructive Colur T heory

    b.

    c.

    Color Plate 4 2 31 Sir lsaac

    ~ <'WII1f1 discov er ed th at ",hite l i ~hl could be dispersed nuo u-, spectral components by p;lssin g "hill.' light
    throu gh 01 pri sm ( " rl a\id Parker, 1"Wlo Resea rche rs, In.' ,I, h I .IJdil;n ..,,/"', Ilu,<>rI' - <'GU<t1 pn'l'"ni"ns I.f blu e. green.
    and red light sul .... rim l'" scd o n top (, f one another crcat....; w hir.., h [:hl . i.c.. " hi te l i~ht is composed of'bfuc. gn.,..-n. and red
    light. m e com plcllll."l1 I;U) coiN" ~(' llo"' , mag enta. and C)'Jll arc cr eat ed h} sd<"\'l i\\'Iy addlll j,; hl gelher red and ~r..sen. Hue
    and r..-d. an,i blue and ~T<.cn light. rc spccnv cly. c ) S"hlmCIll' l" ",,'or Ih",,,, - eq ual proport ions of b fuc . g reen . and red
    p lgtllellts yield a hb d : surl:I..'", A y\'l lo" filter ... n...o.'li\ dy " IN ,rl,s all hill': lighl. J m. lgc ma fil ler a bsorbs a ll green light.
    and a eva n ti ller ar s<lri>-< a ll rro light ,

    .\."".n.

    ~:\pn'"r(".I }(Hlnl'nlt n l .

    lind (" nl n. Furm ,Uin" nn ("ul n r Film

    r.n...... "".

    ...
    ( ;'C<'n ,he

    HI",, It,..
    romphrnenl~f)'

    ,i

    0 .1 of yd l,...-

    .,.,~

    [ 'l. l-'u ~ u r{'.

    RC'd ttl<'

    'OtOph""""~,y .'""ph""",'~1)'
    "" k... "fma~.,n'. ""I." ,,{ ~~n

    Developmen t, a mi C n lor f o r mal in " un r ll l, \' C"lur I nfr ;lr c d ..-jlm

    \."'<tn.

    '"
    '"

    :::r-

    r. n""tan

    ::I"

    K. Hln,

    \ oil " .. \ \ n tl ,'n 12li ll n 1" lu.-bl" ....,i n~ 1


    ,ft., [::~:;!~~~~;:;~[!!~:i:l~;;::E~E!!~~::J

    'I,n,,,'.

    A.l ;\'B,.d
    L _ ,_ _...1__, __-'-""''''''''-J

    luTiun-J """" ,... lay. ' L

    I~ " '"I
    ;m "x~

    h.

    . , "liTo

    c. r:ill " . f l n
    .-"1,,, ",,,r1
    I'roc.'"i n~

    ,
    ,
    "I "I " "I I " "I ",. " "I I "I
    ,
    ,
    I

    ..

    . ( jl n

    Yd l" "

    m",, ,b<
    """I'l ;-~ ~"')'

    ", ..... " f yd l,""

    \ d l" ..

    Ydl" ..

    ,r:

    "4' \"Il l .

    "

    """11 -I""

    R.J -,...,

    "'''''rllI'''''''.'' .""'f'l,,'........ary

    """"..r n~"...

    ,~

    ..." uC .",,,,,

    Color Plat e 4-3 Process or ""P'-""inl!. ..k \duping. and fonuing ctllor VII atuormalcolor film.md bj falec-color infrared film (<:olll1c..,y Uslman Koda k I.

    Tivoli :"Oo r- th Bay un th e Hudson Ri ve r , :"O Y

    a. Norma l colo r aeria l photograph.

    h. Col or-infrared aeria l pho\(l~rJ p h .

    Color Plate 4 -4 ar A normal tnatural} color plwlll gniph ....f Til o!i N" 11h l3"y ailing the Hudson River in )'.;CWYork. CUlM ..eria l rh (llogr;lrh~
    rec ords blue. grc-.:n and f C-..J light reflected from th.: scene. A bazc tillerl llF3 1 ilo usual ly placed in frotu ofthe lens to pre\'("fI1 scattered ultravioletlight from reachlllg the film plane, \ 'cgel.tlillfl sho...s up in green hues beca use the rlanl~ ah'Wfh
    more blue illid red incidcnt bghtthan gn.-.:n Iit:h!. h I A c(llof i n lTaf~ aeria l phot ogra ph rec ords green, red. and nea r-infrar",t! hg hl ll'l1c'Cle d from Ihl' scene, A yellow IWr"Uen 11 ) filter h usuallj placed in fronl of the lens 10 prcvenll>lue light
    from reaching the film plane. The land-water interface is es prcinlly well-delineated because water a bsorb s most u f lhc inc ident nca r-infrared Iighl causing uro apr<"rdarl . VcgetlHion "Ilr<a rs 1Il mag cnta huc'1o because healthy \egc l;lli" n reflects
    substantial .lIllOun ls of ncar-infrared tlghl'" hile ah"" rtoing mtll'h nflhi.' green and red incidembghttatlcr Bcrgfuud . IY'N ).

    Un ive ... sil~ of :'\t'h raska. Lin wln . :"'1\

    ~~;:::::;;;::-"1

    a. Norm a l color aerial photograph.

    --

    b. Col or-infrared ucrial photograp h.

    Color Pla te 4 5 al "Il" nn al (natural, c"l or terre- anal phowgmph of a huih,hnl! at the Un i\ cr~ll) of :"kbra~ka. b) C(,l" r infr.<rcd
    photog raph aC<juircoJ u, ing " wraucn I ~ minus -blue filter (a ficr Rundquist ami Sam pson . 1 'Il< ~q.

    Remote

    Sl'Il ~i ,, ).:

    Ca II I' ro \ lde Knnw Icdgl' h~ ,\ h'a, ur i ll J,: r il l-flo:} C ha rac h' ri ..l k s
    in Sp l'r tra l Hl'g ion.. Uc}ond Our Human \'isu a ll'crcl'IHinn

    r-

    .... -

    .... -

    3_ Gl'C<.'1I r... l1 CCld llCt: of llJl

    a~ricu llu ral

    area in Siludi Arabia

    c. :'\car-infm rcd reflectance.

    d. Co lor composite 1RCm

    ncat.infrarcJ, red. green).

    Color P lale 5 1 :-'l lllli, p..":lr;tl imag ery of center- pivot ag ric uhurc in Saud i Aranla a.l1 ) " cg.'t ali,," ;lll'l(lrt'o .. m ost o fth ... gr.....n and red irn: idenl
    l'lwrg y ca us lUg \ .:gcl;llcu tields 10 ;lppcar <lou!.. in grc.; n ,.IIId red Uluh b pI:<:tril l i ll1 agc~. d ("IIl\ l' rsdy. \ <:gcl:J.titln rd lel.'1u
    suhstan tinl a moum of'th... incident ncar-inf rared l'TlCry)" c31lsmg 11 tn appeor Ilrigh l. In this exa mple, severalfields ar pcar dJrI.
    in III<;' grr vn and red images lfll ~ i bly d ueto recent irrig ation. - tubblc from a pre iuus n"I', or 1'1"", ingl sU!.l,\!cs!ing that I I't
    eranon is preecn1. C ar,'flll ,' \a nl inaliOll o f the same ticld~ in the ncnr-iufrarcd image re veals IhM
    little l eg clal ion il
    pn:":lIl, T ho: near-infrared image also pro vid es c.Id.a ik tl information about th.... sll'll i,,1d ,slr it>ulIIlO M the bi"n1a~, pr",,--'fI1 In
    enc h field. d ) A .... olor-in fm red c olor co mposuc ma kes it de;lr '" h,,-h ncld s are ' eg...tared (I RS I e L1SS III imagl'" c ,ItJI1~
    ,,( InJi"n S pace .-\ ~''TlC y ).

    '-'-I)'

    .J

    Planimetric In fnnn atiun Ext r action:


    Acro-t rta Il l!ulal t'd Stt'n'upair Ui<;pla) ('11,\ ll a ~ l ) phi (' all)

    Color Plate 6-1 Anaglyph su-n.. opair of Colum bia. SC, created lI~ i ng <otl . ....(>l'y photc gra rnmemc rcchmques. l)lra ~(" ucc anaglyph !/Il-'I
    10 vic \\ 1h.... Ih ~-d l mc n SI"I\a l mood. The kIt a':T1 al rh"I,,~ph ,~ \ iC'o\L..J through tbc ted lens ...bile the righ t phol,'~
    is viewed through Ih.. hi"..' kn , .

    E'h'ri u r Orit' u tatinn : \\ l\ , j n ~ h n ll \l' Sa\ IUIlIa h Riv er Si u '


    S ll"rco \cupic Colk1."li un of IllIll!:l' Coo r d inlltC\ of (; r" und Co nl rul P" in"

    ""'l --r_....
    ~ru::l"~r-

    . 1Y~) -: r-

    ,.
    ,.

    ~~

    Plate 6 2 a) b . ter " " oric...I;llill" "fa "Ilh ....,... ir of the W~'!il inghol1'>C Savannah KIH"I" Site ncar Aiken, S{ ' t> J The <! lgil al lCrmin rnod...l
    t I) 1 \ 11ex tra cted u' lng >otl-.;opy phOl~r.a mm~"lric t~-.; hl l i<l u",,, I" <! rall<-.... \\ Ith '>II.' o f the natura l-color aerial photogra phs
    from rh... secrcopair and displ;lycd from an "t>lique .-anI3g.' pomr The four le,1 f'il"~ are used 10 anal~/t' th... et f.....1 h ...IlC...,
    of \'arinlls materials 11,<,<1 til ca p haza rdou v waste s ites. An) su bsidence d ue 10 prut-k lll" Js...xiatc,l wuh the cap can be
    documented hy cmnpar illg I)T\h deriv ed I'rum 111L1 11il'l.' <la lC~ "I' remote sen sor dma

    Planhueu-ic Info r ma tion Ex trac rion:


    Sh' rrnw u pie .\ n a l ~ ~ i ~ 'If An ,\ n a :.:l ~ p h ....It'r t'u pa ir l r ~in J.: th... . I u a , i n ~ \ Ia r"

    a. :\Cf\.. lfia,,~ub'~'ll anagl)ph ~l"f."'>pa" analyt.-.J m Ihree.,J,n"",. ,..,..


    '0 t'\1~("1 r 1anim.:loc OOa\1. Please vi..... ' h,s ~r,"",>pa\r llM n~ lIIl<IlIll) rh IIlla~,

    I> lluolu ",1.l r"" rl'rmb. l'<moJ I"',imeler. and . rree! ,ellle, lill~ " ele e' I'Jc1eu rn~n lllc

    "M gl)l'h ~1"n'<"J'll' 1

    .h"".. abov e

    PI"" "" ",,,,, th" .r ~rt't'l"i'" ",mill ~

    """"""'."1"<'.

    Color Plaia 63 al This a n.l~d )ph stcrcopair ~ JS ;tnalYl cd in t hree -di mensions u,mg lhe l1'l;Ililig mark III identify three building f('l(l(prinl.
    till- perimeter o fa rc tlecnn g pond , and >I street centerline l>l l'he l~alU r~'S e \ lrdekd are J r"pla yed ill 111<: ae n l-lri:mgulatt
    stcr~...>pa ir

    and can he \ i~ ...ed ...ilh a stereoscope.

    USGS (,'J"b,,1 J 1.Hllllb ,rioll Ilewer

    ll. St.-an:h f,'II" 1n1d~'<:1' . 'f l"h.Ulc1.l00 . SC. usin~ the cntena: Pa th Iii and It..... 37 .
    Land-a l 45 TM. \ b y 2005. 10l"'~ mH;m um dou<! c,we r; n's,a ml' k d (" 1.000 m plxd .

    .
    '_

    0" _ '.

    1>. Sc,,,ch. fo r Chari" " ..".

    ~.

    using

    ri ~d,

    '"""mpled to 240 m .

    COO" Plate 7- 1 US<' n f l lll' l 'S(i S ( ;/,,"'11 I ;' II,,1I=<lII.m I i",,-,''' 1I>I' ....-are !..m ll""'l I hemanc \1.. pJl<r Image,; of ( "h.arl""'I'lfI, St ' ,

    La ndsat 7 En ha nced T hema t ic Mapper Plu o; Illl a ~l' r~' of San nie~ll. CA

    Color-infrared color eompocitc tRGR " h;mds .J, J. :!) ,


    Color Plate 7-2 C" lor ctlln posi h: of l andsa t 1 Enhanced Thcmauc Map per Plus ima ~ el') of San Dr.-go. CA, obtaineJ on April 2t
    :!III)O t cou rt...sy "f 'I A~ ,\ )

    - 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --

    ~():\A - 16

    Ad va nced

    \'('f)'

    l ligh Resolution Ra diom ete r (A\, II IU{ ) 1111 :1 :':('1")"

    - -

    Sea-surfac e tempe rature (SST) map derive d from )\;(JAA I(, AV!l RJ{
    band 4 (10.3 . I I.J Illll) imagery obtained on October 16. 20D] .
    Color Plate 7-3 Scu-surtace 1"'I1\I'l,'r alUn:/ SST j map derived from ;\JO:\:\I h A\ 'IIKi{ thermal infrared imagery [co urt esy of
    ~ (lAA nud the (k cJI1 Remotc Sen,i ng Program al J"hns Ilurkins University: <iasp;mllk. ~()03 ).

    Ad va n('l.'d veey II igh Resotu ttcn Radiome te r [,\ VII HR ) .\ I II \ :I ir of the 1'l\ih't1 Slat e..

    ,.
    :\vcrage ' \ UI:II\ I ,\ \ "11 RK Nor ma lized Diffe ren ce \ '{'g l'tatinn I nd cv (:\ U\"I ) t t,lH I - 20110

    Color P late 7-4 ..I ,\ VIIRR mosaic of th.: conter minousUnited States deri' cd from

    Si .. tCL'1\ 1 x I km '\I() \A Kand '\10.-\:\ -<':\ n l RR inap!


    c bmrned ITlIm \-ta) 24, ] l,l1l4 . 10 May 14. 1'Ixt>. u~ing c hann.' j, I ..nil 2 t IlIUl \tC c' IUI1 ,"' y " f I\.O A ,-\ and U.S. ( ico lo~ical ~
    \ cy. b) Awrage A ugu, t '\Ionn.lli l cd D ,lTcrL'11CC \'cgcWlion Ind.':I. t \:[) V l l lI l\ ;lgc o f :-,I,'nh :\mcn<;a derived from AVHD.
    im<l gl'T)' I t,lX l \0 :?OlIO l im:1ge courtesy o f "AS -\ Cillddard " p;lce H lgh l t enrcr 'cere..mflc \ 'lSualil<.l i,ln SlI.ld i" ,

    --4If~-----------------------------

    Ai n ...aU ' 1II IIi~ p Cl'lr a l SC;lII IIt'r Da ta of Four .' Iib- e r n ... Delta in Suu lh C a rolina

    <L

    Dacdalu-, ba nd 10 (O.')::!

    1.10 1"111 ) on .\I an;h 31. 1':l81.

    c. 1)J.cJ Jl us band ltJ (0 ,'12 - 1. IO lJm ) ....1 ,\ pd l 23.

    OOnl~i lC

    b. Color-infra red

    ( RGIl - bands 10.6.41

    (;"l1l po.,~j l<:

    (RGIl - hands 10, (', ..h

    Color P la le 7 -5 D"cdahlS US- l 1(,0 uircratl muluspccual scanner inlilg..:s ofthe FOOf M ,1o: Cm: ~ delta on the Wc sl in ghtlu~
    ';tV annah River S ill.". ~C.
    Band 10 near-infrared rmape obtamcd " 11 !\h.r ch J J.. I'ilol l . bl Color-infra red
    wrn pusilc .':l (lind 10 image obtained UI1 April :!J. 1'I<):!. d l Color-infrared composite. No te th...diffe ren ces
    in the werland vegctauon drstribution in th... sloughs ~1 "H'Cn 1"11 1 and I'N,! Iimag,s C\ltJnCSY of Wcslinghouw s...... unah River C U!ll pan~ and the Department of Energy ).

    ;J .

    ,.

    ]')<)1 .

    b. Color- infra red

    SI'OT:, Jm:l::t'r y or 1.11.. Anuetev, CA

    Color Plate 7-6 '>!><) r 5 imagery of Los Angeles. CAl me~ i ng 2.5 x 2.5 m pJ.llehrom.1tl.:
    wit h 10 x 10 m muhispec tra l dam. The
    cry wa.'>lb apo:d over a 30 x 30 m CSGS
    terrain model ( SPOT Image lnc.],

    Purtton or th e Firsl G loba l Ten - Day S ~ nth eviv


    Im age Produ ced U~ i ll :: t he SPO T \ 'c~l' l a t i oll Scn sur

    Color Plate 7-7 Punion <>1' ... Global Ten-Day Synthesis


    geiler-lied u,i ng the SI' OT of Vcgctalioo!iCr.Slt
    111<' daily product pro vid...~ \ .:getalioll indo.
    iuformution ill ~l spatial resolution of 1 x II,;.
    ove r the whole l-a rth. The Global Tcn!II!'

    Synlhesis is derived from analysis of W


    S yn lh e s i ~

    :-'I...~, 11-10. 1')98

    dalll ( ") S I'l l ll lllagc, lnc.j.

    Terra

    AST E I ~

    Op tica l lm agcr y of Oahu. Hawa ii

    a, ASTER 15, 15 rn colo r WllIlX"ilC obtained "" June 3, ~nIK) ( RGB - "'l mh 3. 2. I I,

    "
    m

    '.

    "

    b. Enlar gement centered on Pearlllamor.

    Color Plate 7-8 Terra ASTER irn;l~ery of Oa hu , Hawau (courtesy uf "' AS:\. (iSF l/~ 'lTl/E RS :\DCd AROS. U.S ~ J;lroan ASTF R Science
    Te-am, and the Cahtortua lnstnutc l,f Teehnologyl.

    I ~O\rjOS

    c. b ud

    \ 1111Ii~ I)t'c l ra l

    (0 ,70 - o .<)(l !-lm l 4

    and l' unc h rum a ric IlIIa:.:cr y uf C ultllu hia. SC

    4 m.

    d. Panch romaticba nd 10 .45 n ,'lC) !-lm) 1 , I 111.

    e. et,lur cnm p<" ilc c RGU - bands 4. 3_ 21.


    Color P la te 7-9 IKO\;OS imagery " fa I>u~i ucss park in Colu mbia, SC'. a J ) In,lividll.II-l )( 41l1 I11uh isp<.'\:lral bands and the I x l mperr
    chromatic band are displayed. <' I Standard color composuc " I' IKO....( IS hand." -I. 3. and 2. l) ( "O!Of comp<Kil c o f mcrgal
    mulns pccnal H x -I ml anJ panch eomau.. (I x I OIl data li magcs c" un,",,} "f (j,,oE}c. Inc.l

    AV I RIS Im a uc of I\loffl'lt Fit'I{!. CA

    '''p

    Image on
    o rrhe dsta cubc
    is a colo' e" I11 I'<"'lIC of
    II1Q~ "f mc 224 band s

    c\-af'l>T:lI,on
    ,./ I"md~

    214
    hands al
    lOom

    lJon

    11m

    nUl11 illal
    band... iUlh

    l.uNI ern

    I<JOO nm

    l'IlK) nm
    25(Nl l1m"

    Color P lat e 7 -10 An Airborne Vb iNe Infr.m:tl lmJging SrcClnlmel"r \AV IRISI tlatascl l'f \ 1" nc u Field. CA . adj ac ent 1(1 San
    I runciscoHay . The data ...-erc acqurrcd Oil AU!,;ust 20, I '1Il2, toy ,hi.' NA:-'A 1'.H:-2 mrcrattta m"Jilk tlL"- 2) .n
    an a l1 it ll(lc of 2H.OOI)m I(,SJl/lO tl.) r''''u h inJ; in 21)x 2U m ""fIlmal ,p;tt ia l resolution. ..\ " IR IS acquires images
    in 224 ba nds ea ch III nm wide. in the 400 10 2 5ll/11l1ll reg ion. Three " f llle 124 ~I'<'clr;ll band s (If JOlla were
    used to produce Ilw l " I!Of Cl)!\ll" ...ire on 1" 1' " r the "h~ perspccnal dat ac ubc - 10 ac,'elllu;lle the ssructure in ' he
    ...atcr and in Ihe e\ a pornl ion J"'m js " n the right. The ~i "es of the cube de pict j ust the ed ge pixels 1;'>( all 224
    o f tile AV IKIS -pcc ua! cha nnels. The top n ftllc' sides arc 111 the visi"k p;.tn ofthe sl-ccuu r n(ollK I nm ) a nd the
    I"..IIt"m is in the middle-infrared ( 2~1l/1 mil). Th e bluck a",,,, in the duacubc rqll\.~nl almospllerk ab:Kl!"pt iun
    hands, especially at I-lOO and 19/11) nm . The ~idc's arc' d l ~pI3y ....d in a pse udo-color rangin g fro m il iad and
    blue t vcry lu I' fc" J't'IISC ) to red Ihl!!11 fCsfl" ns<' I. ( If pan;eul ar ;1l1er<....' 11I 111 e dat acube is lhe smal l region t,f
    hig h rc...J'tm"t' in Ihe LI pper r ig hl corn ...r of th... datac ubc j u-a 1'...: 1.1\\ the c vapo rariou ""nd,. This res po nse is in
    lhe red pan u f the v isiblc spectru m t nf-out MiU 11 m I and is J ue to th c presenc e of I e m In.; in. I lo ng red brine
    shrim p in th.... cv ,1 J't'rali'~l J't'nus I court c,) of R. ( I. Gree n, 1\" 'i:\ Jet Pn 'pur, ion l ab I

    . C" lor'lnfnu'e'd pMiograp h.

    Color P la ia 711 I-me T!!" ()i~ild l s<''11.;c \f S~Slc," t Ih S Idata. a ] ( 'I>I"r- in lr"r~-d irnag.. ( f{( iii = near-m tra red, re-t. and gTe.:-n1otI xm kirk. ~"' .
    al I )( 1 III Ilblailled on Decem ber I~. ION.'!. Tlk: l cnn i ~ court am! tr.ld .. arc covered with astrotur f b l Natural color imagr
    t l{( i II - red. green. and Nue Iofan area :l<lj3,"<:01 1<> ,I " Y, P""'cr \ mhomy luke. TIl<,' 1 )( I Ii data were acquired un (lcloOcr
    U . ]'J<J7. Tho: Jt'l: idu"u ~ hardwood trees we re captured lo<:l1":'ClIl,>: In tlns bcaunful i lll.l~c rim..~c, court."y o f Don Ug.hl ~

    Ther mal Infra red and C ulnr \ ' i d c o~ r a p h~

    or S Cl.:lIl l' ll h or t he Um pq ua Rlver Hll, jn in () rt'~n ll

    a~;u!u

    as 31.0

    n. F olor de nsity sliced the rmal infrared image and natural co lor vidcog raphy of the con fluence of the
    Sou th Umpq ua River (27.5 "t' I ar1<ll he North Um pl.l lla Ril c r (:'.5,7 "C! at river 11" 1.' 10' 1.).

    h, Contlucncc o f Wn lfC rcck 119 ,7 "C ) 'InJ l.iuic !{ in'r (22.S ~C l ;< 1 river mile 11.

    CWf Plate 8-1

    I' ''rward-l"okin~

    infrared (I"LIIU imagery of two segm,,'nl ' (, f th..- I 'mJlo.lu;l Ri\C'r l ~a-,m d , ~pl a ~('d a lo n}! '" uh narun..l-color
    at the sa me time . Th<- thermal-in frar..-.J data were c ClhN.aI~-.J I" surtacc temperature and color-ced ed
    Idc nsuy sh ceo.l ). rile remote >-Cllsi ng .de rin-d '" aler s urface tcmpcrmurc mc-as urcmen te are generally '" ith in 1. n.5 -c of' thc
    u"': kinetic temperature {imago:'s court ..,sy " I ()rcg" n Departmcm (,f Environmcuta! (J u;d ,ty. ~ O()3 ).
    ~' idCl~'T.lph, ohta;o<-'d

    Thl'r1uallnfra r o:d Deteetion uf Thermal w a ter " " Il11 li" n in Iht, Sa\ lInl1llh Rn er

    3.

    Ikn~lly ~Iict-.J

    I'rOOa"'TI therma l

    in rrarcd l ~ - 1 4 I! m l J.lla .

    h a ll",c lllll i~ '''l:ra rn

    T nll "" '1 LUI(i<"

    >20" C

    "'0
    En<.l in ~
    rl~ <:1

    in

    rran-cct

    2. <

    E~

    .Il" lw river
    amllk-Ill

    wh ile

    1'''lIl I'C r:ltU!C

    10.2 l It ' ('

    red
    140

    Bcgillllilig ph d
    In u auscct

    ::c

    J 20

    '~

    J()(I

    5,2 IIl"C

    -r-c

    '"

    12" C
    riv er

    '"
    '" "

    ambient

    '"

    211

    ,. 1)

    411

    Pixel in I ran....-..:l

    <n

    "'

    c.
    C o lo r Pla te 8-2 3) Dc usuy ..heed d l"p I3)' .. r prcdaw 11111<'rm ;]1 in frar<:d dal .l " f til ,' Fo ur ~ l i k ("rwJ,. therm al plu me in the Savannah Rl\(I' llI
    \ ta n; h 2S. r<,lx I 12.1'1 x 2.1\ m spatia l resolunom, Ihe data are color-coded aCl'Ord ms tn rhe eta es intervals su mmanzed I
    Table S_lI. 1 , Three iransccts are passedthrough the plu me atlc r roc<l ling it H,~ , ,"I W hy it is imp<1/1;.Int 10 l'OI3lC tl!<: i~
    <I) I hc It'l11 pc falurc m fomuuion in I ransect H displayed in a his eogram format.

    SP lIC{' S hlltl lt, I'huln l:,rallh and S I H.-ClX-SA R 11II;ll:,t' of tilt' i"i1c River; S ud a n

    ;I.

    Spa~c

    Shuttle photogra ph.

    b. SIR..('iX ,SA R image.

    Color Pla te g _, a ) Space Shun k photo gra ph o f the Nile Ri\ cr. Suda n. l:>l SIR-C/X-SA R color-composite ima~c of C-l:>;lnd v. nh II V polarizauon, L. b.> nd with II V IX,lariL.lliwl, ;lI\d L-rond with 111 1 pola rization Th e dnta wcr c acqu ired hy the Space Shu nl ... EII-

    d"",,,r in Apri1. 1' 1'1-1 (councs y "'AS A lei Prcputxion l.ab j.

    S I R-C/X -SA R 1 11I ;I ~l' r~ o f Ron do nia , Hrll/il

    Color Plate 9-2 SI H-C1X SA R image or c pon itlll of


    l~ undol1ia, Brazil. obtained on April
    Ill, I<)<)-1 . It is a color composite o f Xband VV pular i711tion, C -band I IV 1'0 lanzation. and Lcband !-IV polurizalI ea\ y precipitation appea rs as a
    hla.'k cloud in the X-hand image, mo re
    faintly in the C-oond image, and is relatively in_isihle in the Lcba nd imag e.
    Til., hright pink is rainfon: st lcoune sy
    Nt\'\A J..t I' ropuls ion Lah },

    uou.

    X-hand\'\'

    -band U\

    L_haoo IIV

    SII{-C l.- Uand a nd Ccu a nd Int crfcroa r am s nf Fort Irwin, C A

    C OIOf P la te 93 SI K-C"X-SAK intcrfcmgrams of Fort In, in, C:\, in Ih~ Mojav e Desert The colored b auds provide Ikl nikd. l.j uamilil!llt

    ekvati un informat ion that can be USl..'"tlIO con - rr uct a d;gila llcfr'tin model

    ( c (\u rt e~ y

    l" l\SA Jet l'ropulsiou La b}.

    Color P late 94 Three-dimensiona l (l<.'T'!<!",~li\e \ h~"" oI" O "",en" Va ll... y, nea r B..IIlIf'. C ,\, c reated b~ comhining 1....0 spccc bomc SIR-eX" ,\1{ itl1 a ~cs " hlaim'tl ill October. I'N-I. using inter ferometric tec hniq ues. Th o.' Whit<' \ lI' unlllins arc in th e cent..r of tile
    unage und riseto ., ,00 11 TIl ( I(Ull ~) ft). Ihl' (lwe n, I{ lwr omd II, tributaries ar.. ' ccn (courtesy t\/\SA Jcr propulsion L a~ ).

    -,p-- - - - - - Ui:.:i131 rle,-ali,," \1 t1dd of the Wa ~a l (" h rronl in t:la h llerh ed


    fro m S huttle Radar TopogTaph~ \ Ih\i nn (S R " .) Ual a
    Ur:apl'd "ilh Landvat Th ematic 'lappt'r Ima l.:l r~

    W;""lch
    \ 1'HII11:lin
    Range

    ~ Pla te

    9 -5 al SIH\1-<kri \l.-..Ilh l'llal d ':\ ;lI,,1II m"dd u:;IJ'l:d wil h l .md....~ 11 \' rmap e Il{ liH '" t>and~":. 3. I I. IlK' C -bdll<! S RT \ t l1a1.a
    "ere o btained Fct>rual) 12. ! CMMl ". An anagl yph prc ...:nlal ltlll .,f the s ill' " ( "-band dat a ' 1'1.:3 u.... anaglYr h 1!.la~~s l_ c l
    A stereopair .,r 111<: llln,hal f \ l dalJ drar...:d "HT the SRl 'I,\ ...J.:riH'd 1l1- \I l imal!c~ cHurt e,) :" A"' ''\ k l I' rupuls iull La b j.

    C om pa ri son ofGH) I'()JO n E:'\1 and S R r :\l-d(' r i\('d I) E:\I


    of :\loUl1 1 Kila ma njarn in Ta nzania a nd "':('11) 3

    3.

    GTOro30 I x l krn digital eleva tion mod el.

    c. GTOP0 30 I 'I I km lli ilal cle vauo n model


    observed from an ubljquc vanta ge point loo king \\"-1\\....

    b. SRTM-J erived 30 .\ 30 111 digilOiI elevatio n model,

    d. S RT ~ I llerivcI130

    'I

    j n m digitill ele vation mod el.

    Color Plale 9-6 a) GIOI' OJI) digital elevation mudd al I x 1 m. T his is pun of the global GI OI'OJO DEM database maintained b~ lht
    USfi S. I'!) SRl\.l -dl'rh l>d l>EM at J() x 30 rn. e) (iTOPt no IWM \ iewed from the w.r-.;w d l SIU Mderived OEM \~
    frum the WNW. NUle the detail associated with the small cinder co nes l'fI lhe Ibnl.. " r lhe Ill.'untain (images courtesy 'i .-\SA
    Jet

    rnlrLl I~ i "n

    l.a h ).

    Adv a nced ,\ Ik rtm a' l' Sca n n illi,: Rudjurnct cr (A \ISR- J:)

    3 C" ml""'ite of A\f SR-E derived S<"a

    1c

    ~urfa.-c

    temperature (SSTl f,>r June. 2002_

    Color P1ale 9- 7 a) Co mposite imag e o f Advanc ed Mic row ave Scanning Raduunc tcr (A /l.1SR-E) d<'rivcd W;l sur face tem perature (SST) in
    the birthplace of hurricanes, the 1I1ICNll.lpicall'On\crg",ncC' zone. h ) A j-day iI\Crag'" of SST for the Caribbean Sea andthe
    Atlant ic Ocean from August 25-27. 10115. de riH:d Irom the .-\ :MSR-E. Warm oecan ....atc r fuels hurri ca ne s. and there was
    plent) of .... arm water for Hurricane Katrina to huild up stren gth once she: crossed 0 \'<:1" Flori da and mo ved into the G ulf o f
    Mex ico. All }ellnw. orange o r red water IS ::: 1 7 ,~ C 1 ~1 Fl . r\ hurricane r~q ui rcs SSTs .n about this leve l o r warme r to
    streng then. CJ<J ud cov er da ta w en- e xtrac ted Irom ~(lA ,\ (j t ll' S imagery. Lan d d<llll were obtained Inuu MO DIS imagery
    ( images cou rte sy of~ ASA and the ~at i ..nal Sfl3.cc Development A!!cl1cy cf J " p.:lJl ).

    Swectuum
    (Liquidumbar .\ /y ruci flua L. )
    '~ ~

    . \ .~

    ., .

    ~.

    "

    ,
    ,.-

    ,"r

    '"

    70

    ."

    0"
    t
    c"
    "
    ~

    red
    lea f

    60

    50
    yellow
    lea f

    40

    ~ -'0
    e

    "

    brown
    leaf

    20
    to

    e.

    green
    tellf

    NJ H.

    0
    .J(M")

    SilO

    (,1)0

    70f l

    ' OIl

    -n ll )

    10110

    Wavelength. 11m
    C o lor P la te 11-1 1l1 1 'h\'llls> lIlhc"I.f In~ green Swerctgum lea f (L1 ,/wd<l",I ,</r _'f\ r",-',f/ ll u L I ob tamcd from .i tr...-c on ;.i,,,,,mkr 11. 1998.k\
    Scn...~ll 'g yd to.... and r...--d S"' <'CII,'Um leaves o btain ed from lhc IT('C. d >St"Tl{,,'i.C...-d Swec lgum leaf thai "a~ on the gTO\ll1d.
    Speceruradrometer pe rce nt re flec tance mCd"un:rncl1l" ove r ttll: wavelength inl<:r\ ;l14 00 - 1050 urn.

    O r u und Reference lnfurmarion Ov crtatd nn


    II S inJ;:ll' Channel of ,.\ VIIUS IlIIa:':t"r~

    Sa il Luis

    \ all l~ .

    , "c l-:d :H ill" (' I""ili,,":.! Iion '141.)1


    Sl' pl t' mhl'r J . 199J

    CO

    b.
    _

    alfalfa

    II

    o at

    II barley

    h;J)'

    \' l'~(' l at ill ll

    canola .

    ~ spinac h

    pasture

    spi nach

    II

    nothing mapped

    II] potato

    _....

    SCfl("' ('t' n n'/S l n '\\ .\ Ia p

    healthy green
    vege tation
    dry vcgct.uicn'
    bare gro und

    stressed
    vege tatio n

    Color Plate 11-2 a) ( imund reference mtorm anon overlaid nil a ' ingl... channel of :;n x 2n m .o\VI!-t [S d;lla C't>l amed on ~epl ember J. 1'1'13.
    b) \ 'e ~ CI>l l i lln - pccic, c1Ol--.,; ilk aIlUll map derived frum JIldlpi!> o f A\"IRIS d..la l'l Ve ~<;tauun sen..esccncc stre ss ma p JOI ne r
    ('lark <,I ;11., IINS).

    3. CA ~IS data (RO B = hands J, 2. J).

    b. c,\ ~ I S data (RCm = hands o. 4. 21.

    Biom a ss in a Pnrtfun of :\lurn'lIs Inl et, SC,


    Deri ved fro m.3 '( .3 m C a lib ra ted Airborne
    ;\l ult islll'l'lni l Sca n ne r (C A MS) Data
    O b ta ined o ll l \ u gm t 2, 1997
    T o tal Bitllll <l SS (gra ms/ fil2 )

    500 749

    I
    I

    1000 -1 49'.)

    750 999

    ISOO 1999
    2000 - 2499

    c. Map o f biomass.

    2500 - 2t)1)\}

    Color Plate 11-3 a ) Nalural color composite of'n sma ll rtMti nn of Murrells Inle t. Sf". r~'C,>r<t.:tl by Ihe ~AS A Ca hhral,' d Airt..o rne Mulli>p
    tral Scan ne r ICA\lS ) on t\ ug ust 2. 1'N7. h ) Color-infrared ( Ol ' l l composuc. cJ Bil''' ''''''' t~ 1I1 ~ 1 information extracted frog
    the CA \t 5 dala (Jensen et al., I')<) X).

    Phc n ulogtca l C ycle u f C ro ps in Ca lifo r n ia 's Sa n J oaqui n a nd Im pe ria l Va lleys and


    La ndsat ,\ I ull islll'ct r a l Sca nner Im a ges of On e Field I)UI"i Il/.: a G ro wing Season

    Su/.:arhl'l'ts

    M, y

    Ripe

    J une

    HarvCSI

    July

    Au g

    Fie ld prcparauen

    S~'P

    Oct

    Ihll'i n~

    Emergence

    Plant ing

    Thi nn ing

    C otl o n

    ,,,

    f <b

    Mar

    FielJ prepara tion

    Apr

    Planting Emergence Squa res

    Bloo ming

    seumg

    Bolls

    Roll,

    s<.'t ti n ~

    opcmng-

    Harvest

    Discin g
    Plow ing

    defoliation

    "

    ,-,

    "

    Floweri ng

    {,

    1Sl cun ing

    2nd CUlli ng

    3rd CUlling

    '

    tee,

    -trh CUlling

    Sth cuuing

    6th (lilting

    Color Plate 11-4 Phenological cycle s Il f a ) sugarbccts. h j conon. and c t 311:111":1 grown in the San Joaquin and lmpc rial Valleys "I southern
    Calilom i ~ , Land sat !'.ISS images .... ere I>b tuin..-d ov er a 12-month period ill Ihe S.lII Joaquin Valley. 'Ill.. colo r composite imagC5 (RG B - hands 4, 2, I) of three lield ~ arc ~"'fraCIC'<1 and placed hdl,.... the cro p calen dar inform atio n.

    C hl\ !'l ifica li un ,\ I ap uf Imperlat Valle)". C A. nil December Ill. )lJH2

    Deriv ed fro m Landsat Thematic

    ~ laIlP('r

    Bands 1-5 a ud 7

    a. HI ba nds 3. 2. I IRGB).

    b. n t bands 4. 3. ;; (RG lll.

    c. T\1 bands 5. 3.;; (R G B).

    d T/-o. l bands 7. J. ;; lRGTl).

    II
    D

    SlIgarh ...ets

    /\ lfa1!;\

    I I l 'O\\Illl

    t'; 11 1,lW

    c ( ' Iassific,lli' ln map .

    Color Plate 115 a j Land....1l thema tic \l ilp""t natu ral enl(... ,,,m po"I1~' ,ma!!e nfa "..,n i' " l ofl he l mpo:ria l Valle}. CA . ,ll:>wm,'1J 'In [)"cemb
    IO. I 'III:!. h ,II Set e ral t>lher ralsc--<,,,l,,. com po "il,~_ e) C1"...,iJi,'a llnl1 mal" ,krl\CJ h~ ,hgital im"ge r rllcr.'Ss;ng _

    r\~ricullUr aJ

    Landccver .\ Inn;.: th e .\ l l1 lalh u, e River in Suuth .-U r ica

    a . Part of Water :'\lanaI:emcm Area fOb; L'sut u and ~l hl Jthule RI..::r cac hmc nts
    recorded 0 11 S PO T 5 imaS~7) collected on J a llU.l ~" Q. ~ l ll).l ( Re iB = hand, _I. :!. I ).

    Sugarc.", c
    Citru~

    Foresl
    Bu.sh \ dd
    I<oad
    Wate r
    narc ' ul!
    Win.th re;lk
    Banana

    11_Clas-aficanon map ,"'ri ved fro m :!11l)J

    sri IT mul1i'pccl ral and p'lnchrum ali" .1.11<1 _

    Color Plat e 11-6 a ] SI'OT II KVIK c"lur composite image of a n area " lung Ihc Mhlathuzc Rive r ill Ihe' Republic " I'Stllllh Africa. hI Remote
    sc-nsinl:!....lcri vcd classifica tion map o f the st udy area . Tf us . }~ of mfonnation is used II) the' Rcpublrc o f So uth Al r k a De..
    partrncnt of Watl'r .-\ m Ufl> &. F....-e""l1- 10 inh-ntUf} the ill;Ji<:nll ura llan d cover (, ... int' UI t..l the W Oller ' ulh on,... i" n and k e.
    soerce \ l.lIIagc lIIcllI System I WARVIS) "I" llial dec ision sur!" '" cysu-m lcnun.:,y Jen ....n o:t al.. ~(I( lf, )_

    r
    St'a -vit'\ \ in:: Wide' ""it>ld-ur-Vit'\\ (S t'a WWS)

    Im a g{'r~

    a. Global chlorophy ll u (g m J ) derived [rum S":JWifS imagery obtained from September 3. 199 7.
    through December 3 1, I'N7. The warme r tilt: co lor. the greeter the chlorop hyll co nce ntra tio n,

    illlal!": of Inc EiL'tcrn Seaboard


    o f the U. S . 'W>13ined o n S<.l'lcmo.:r .lO. 1'N7.

    b. True-color

    ~WifS

    ----,.pI'-_..:

    c. Ch l.>roph)1I u .llstribu li"r1 on Scplembt.'"f 30. 1997


    derived fmm ScaW iFS d ata

    Color Plate 12- 1 Exa mples ",fs.:.a ~ lc'" ing Widc ridd-of-\k'" (S.'a WirS j rcmorc ....."'.. 11" data [coun csy NAS.'\ Goddard Space FliPtt CCllo
    tcr and Ort>it:ll lmagmg Corpo ration (ORHIM:\( il- t; used wIl h poamissi.....J.

    .\ l OUlS C h l o ro p h~ 1I a Product

    Color Plate 12 2

    Chlllfoph~lI " ,Ji, tn "u titm on ~ O\ ('Tll ""..r 2J. 21NlJ, al''"11 the '''It.llh'''<!'krn United
    L'hjor _1I _2 algori thm tcourtesy ~ r\SA ).

    ~l.l les

    derived using the \<tO l}(S

    Lake Ta hoe, Ca tifum ta- xcvad a

    a ll~th~ "I<:I1') dcnv... ,J fWIll [ ID AR lor depth' from 0 h'

    b lIackscaner mf"m1<'I,un <le n \'ed fn,m

    I ~ m amI f r" m muhirk ho:a m SO"' i\ R f.'r ,kr lh. > 15 m

    mu llir 1c-h.:arn SO K I\R

    C o lo r Pla Ia 12 -3 ill Hathymctry or La ke Ta hoe d...nv ...d us ing th...SH O A LS L1J).\1{ sy sh:m fur Ikrlhs < I ~ m and a KUlIgst-erg: m ulnplc bece
    '" It\ AI{ li ,r dcpth s > 15 Ill. 1 Brig ht.:r ' '''' es in rh..- acousnc had".c llh:r ,h ta ind icale harde r Mlrfa".:. such as rod. [}drkcr
    tone' md icarc ...,ncr su rfac ..,. such as ....x hm... nt . T ho: surr""nd il1l! lau d I" a sh,..kd-rdlO.'fimage g...nerated from USGS IllIII U E\h. 0:) Tbcccnrratpart of the \\ CSI<TI1 margi n coliapse,1wndmg larj;o:l>l,.ds .l<:n"iS the no" r ofthelake. Larg e blocll
    '" Ithlll the dchr i, ." nguo: are lip I,) 211 m hi gh. Th is large failure h called a debns avalanche and IS \'C~' SIm ilar in silt III
    ",1 1.:If"': features found al .. n~ ocean marg ins in ' c"ClOn k .J1 I} active .lfca~ ant.! ,on \ " kan".~ (n>tlncs}' U.S. Geological Sur
    \cy.1 1l(1/>1_

    ;\,OAA A\' IIR R-derind Sea-S u rface Te mperature

    xo
    Arramie
    On'(JII

    .20 "c
    a. Compos ite sea-su rface tern pc ra uuc
    , SST) m;.p ofthe so utheastern

    oO"f

    bigfu der ived from A\' II RR data.


    10

    v-.-', '#.
    \

    .-

    '"

    'or;
    1
    ,
    ~,
    ',
    ,,,,.' ~

    ...........
    ,

    < ,

    b. WurlJ \\ ide sea-surface temperature (SST) map dcrivcd from

    ~ O:\A - 14

    :\ \ 'I IRR data,

    Color Pla te 12-4 a) Sea-su rface temperature I';;ST I mar derived fnun a three-day romposuc nf I\( lAA AVlIRR therma l in frared l!;tla centen-d on Marcn 4. ]lJ'-N, Each pi\d " ,I, ,lll"caled ' hc hllthe,t -unucc tcmpc r.nurc that occu rred durin!; the three daysr ecurlcs) uf SOAA Coasla \ Se rvices Ccntc n. h) (JI" h,lI ocean 51f x 50 km SS Tre i dcnvcd fnun Marc h 'I , I '1'Jl) through March
    1'" I '1')'1 \ 'l~ h" Llfs 1 M l,.\\ _14 AVIIKI{ data (co url,'s> ,.f:-J( lAAi \' LSI)IS 1.

    'I flnthl ~

    Sea-S ur face Temperatu re ("C )

    32
    28
    24

    20
    16
    12

    8
    4

    o
    a. La Nina in Dece mber. 199 M.

    32
    28
    24

    20
    16
    12

    8
    4

    o
    b. Normal in Decembe r, l QQ(J.

    32
    28
    24

    20
    16

    12

    8
    4

    o
    c. EI Nino in Decembe r. l IN?
    Color Plate 12 -5 RC)Ill.llds numt hly sea-surface temperature (SS T ) mJ[)S ..Icrived from in ~ i1rl buoy (\ala and remo tely sensed data lcllllltO!
    '- ( JI\I\ JTAt ) f\,111t' '' ;11 CC'l1ICr lOr f n\ ironmenta l Prediction I.

    Trnplcal Rainfall :\Ica sure mt' nl :\Ii",..io n (T IO D I)

    a. T RM M Microwav e Ima ger ITMI) data ob la incd on Ma rch

    Il

    Q,

    1Q<1l1.

    h. I" R \1 \1 Pr.. cipimnon Radar ( " I{ I data


    obtamcd " 1\ March 'J, I'N I'\ .

    III

    ' 1il1 ~..

    n d BL.)

    Hlt l

    :!(JO
    ()i~t;:'"~'l: l l;ml

    c . A ltlllg-track

    <' n'ls~_""I:li,)n

    " f TR MM Pr<'l;,p;ta', on Radar d;I' '1"bla in..'d on M;orc h

    Q.

    I'NX ,

    Color P la te 1 2- 6 ~ ) Worldwide TRl\1111 Microwave Im ager data collec ted Oil Murc h '!, 1'1')1'\. til Precipita tion Radar dal~ of suu lhcrn Florida
    cl Cross -section o f Prccipita uon Rad ar dala (courte sy NAS A Goddard T RM M 0 1licC' and Ja pa n ~ al ion a l S pace Dcvel(lJllllcnt A~\'nCY ).

    ------ - - - - - - - - - - - - -r
    Selec ted Databases rrom
    South Cer ull na's S pa tial Da ta In fr astru cture
    [).~il.,1

    Or1hor':~l iti,,"
    Im'I!~1)'

    01,l'l;l1 lemun

    Tr:ln'l"""annn

    Colo r P la te 13 1 Sd<'CI,'<J databacc.... in the S" luh Carolina

    IhrktI ( ~ .

    ~raljal

    1),,1;1 Infra~lnI<lllre _

    Level Il'rh:m/.....un -urbau La nd cnve r fur


    Dorch est er. a nd C ba rtecto n Counnes i n South C a rullna

    a. Feb ruary 14 , 1975.

    b. March 26. I lJNI .

    d . Jarmon)" -I, I QIN .

    c. \ h rrh 17. 19<12.

    "If

    c, February 10.

    1 l)~ 5 .

    Color P la te 13-2 Level 1urt>.m/nullurhan landco vcr


    Berkeley. Dorc heste r. and C h;u ksh lll ,uunlks cente red Oil Charlceron. SC J<.";I,x
    from La ruh .m MSS 7" " 7" m data Th ... landcover intorm ano n IS d raped over a ncar.mfr:Jrrd Im.1g<: (:viS" h,.nd-l).

    Co

    _.w.___..-,--

    '". . . .
    .........

    --..".__.
    _.0.
    _ _. .
    .. . ..

    _
    _.
    _.. ,-I
    ....

    .
    ~

    ,""... ...=:~ :!:


    - .'.__.

    ,-_.'__.-_.

    ::,-...;.._.
    .
    ~.

    ~--

    =0,'_
    , ~. I .

    ::dar Ptaie 14- 1 .\tilll;ra] llldl" ofCu pruc. r--:V. derived fWl11 I,,,, -ahitud.. O 'llmU iL) and hig h-a huude (20 km AGU AVIRIS dala .."t"i n..-d on ( lc t" ber 11. IlN s. "n,1Jllll<' IX, I'WI<. r<:!op,,:.:t l, d~ 1.:' .... n .."1>)" S"a)lc,,'1"1.. 199'J j.

    _......,

    Shuttle S IR-C/X-SAH. Images of Kilauea volcu nu in Hawaii

    b.
    Color P la te 14 -2 aj { 'ullIp<" irc Shunle SIR-CiX -SA I{ irn,,!;c of'Kilauca \"1c:Ill,,. III. (hand. C. X. I.) nh laincd on April 12. ]<J<l4 . t Th..
    imugc overlaid on a digita l ,'le, anon ml,dd. The ll\" r1a r1l11h, w uf la l it <I n this slucld volc ano is \ cr) evident (court.:,)'
    ,'I,AS\ k l l' r"I'"I,; ul1 Lal:l)

    S tcrco pat r of Mount Sl. Helens, Wa\hingron

    Color P late 143

    u.s. Geological Sllm:~ Hlp


    tude Phot ography IIlAP)
    infra red seereo pair of MlJlII
    Helens, WA, on A Ugtlr.r 6, 1
    Thc ac tive lava dome in l~ i:CIo
    tor o f the cone is visible. Ai&

    men-c hoked

    radial drall-r:

    paucrn has developed. I'or6.1


    to the

    left (count'$)' U.S,G

    ical Survcyl.

    c
    T he G ra nd C a nyon

    a. Landsat

    T~ I

    colo r composi te (RGB .. ha nds 7.4.2).

    h ('o[o rcnmp"site ( IUi H .. bands 4 , J. 2).

    Co lor P late 14 4 Lands,tl Thematic Mapper color composite s of a portion ur lhe Gt.uul Cally"n (courtesy NASA)

    Plate 14 5 ASTF.R image uf Namibia's Ugab River obtained on Dec ember 15,1000 (KGB hands 7, 3. I) . Thc river passes through
    nearly vertical folded la>'ef1'l oflhinly bedded limestone. sandston e. and silt,tunc [cou rtesy o f N ASAl( j S ~ O~l ETIIERS
    IH CJJAROS and U.SJJ apan ASTER Scienc e Team ).

    :\1is ~i~s iPJli

    River

    c.:ior Plate 14 -6 l and:s.l l Thematic \la procr co lor com posi te ( RG B = bands -l, 3_ 2 ) o f lhe' \ Iis.sil's ippi River (court esy Space Imaging. Inc.).

    r
    ,\ Io r ro Bay, C A

    a Landsat T\t ("O InTcom pocitc ( RG H '" h,lnd~ 7. 4 . 2 )

    b. Colnr c.. m posuc (IH, U '" I>" n..h ..I. J, 2) .

    Col

    Co lo r Piate 14-7 Landsa t Thc manc \ lapper color compovues of \ l orm Hay. CA Icouncw ~p"n' Ima~IIl~. Inc. I.

    S ulliv a n's Island. SC


    ......"

    3.

    :\AI'I' color-infrared unhuphorograph.

    b. ATLAS mulnxpc caral U.l'.l of the lidal flat behind r- tc uf Palms , SC.

    Co lo r Plate 148 a I Portion " I' a IJS(iS ""\I'P color-in frared on hophoto quarter quad r.ml1!c of ...ul!i\;m, leland . "'C (c<llln <'l;YU.S r..:ole!ical SLJnc~) . I>l A IL\S muhiepccua! scanner da ta 1~.5 )(~.5 nil of till.' lllidl l!..", behind hI..:",fPalm" . SC'. CRGB = ~
    f> ..I. 21 lclluncsy f'o,AS \ Sh.'nni, Space ( 'en": r j.

    ,'(;::""
    i,
    I:I<' i..,

    " " " llrt!


    f ;hlc i..,

    L\ lala,pina Glackr. :\ L

    a, Land-at 7 1- nh.a.I1I;<"<! Tbemauc Mapro.'T Plus


    imagcl'} " r lhe Mala~r "u Glacier o btained on
    AUl!u>ol 3 1. 20(10 I K( i ll = NnoJ~ ~. J . 31.

    b. HiglH.'>bhqu.: \ I....... ,.fthe ~lac i cr c reated b) oJrJ.plll~ II LandsatTbcmanc


    "" ~ppcr imag e obt ai ned in Fc hruary. 1000 . (R CoB .. I>J noJ~ 3. 1. I I. OH'r II
    oJ ,glla l ete... anon mo Jd extracted In au S pace Shull ic KaoJar Topography
    , Iission (,-!>anJ mtert cl'llmelri<: S!\R d.u a ':OIlCC1.-d in Fe brua ry 2000 ,

    Pla le 14 9 a ' Vcr nca l nca r-infra red iln'" b ) high-obliq ue natural-color \ i.' " "fth. Mala spina Gkmcr in A l a~la , Th is is ,",Iaska 'slargcst
    glacier and cove..... 150U '\Q mi (3. 1\ ~() ;,q kmj. II is a com pou nd ~I ae, cr formed hy the m': Il!'" g or valle')' g laciers, the
    lI1U,1 prouuucut o f \\ h' ch arc the A!!.I:>si, Gla cie r and the Scward Glac ier (Cllun.,S) ~ A S:\ antJ Jet Prv puls ion Lab),

    Remot e Sensi ng Glaciated Landscapes

    a , L'inla Mountain Range in Utah.

    b. wasatch Range in the Rocky Mountains ofUtah.

    c. Lake

    lahoe inthe SIO:rm Ncvudaon


    ofCulrfornia and t",'C\'IJa.

    the border

    lIs

    Color Plate 14 -10 Lan do,;u ,-,,1,,1' co rnposues of glacia ted landsc apcs in ""n,on. o f a l 1h.. Uinta vtoumams in Uta h. 1> 1 the Wa.salCh Rang.. In
    Utah. md cl lhe Lake l ahue regron III the S ierra :-';CI J oJa. CA. l' ka>.<.' refer l<l the blac k-and-w hue illus trurions in Chapter
    I J fur nrmotauon t i mag~ cou n.>s.y U.S. Geological Sun C) ' an,t " 11.1" ,," tmagm g, Inc.j.

    Act ivo

    ---

    Namib Ikscrt, ....ami hia . .Urica

    lh
    eir

    ,h.

    o!
    sp

    ;"
    fe

    Eqc

    "';

    ""me

    3. Landsat 7 Fnh allCC'J Them atic Ma!'pcr Plus (ET M +I ima~<:r>' orthe " am ib Oc...:rt
    obIai"",d 011 August 11.10l111 (RG II :c band.. 5. 4. 3)

    n
    a

    H
    u

    1
    r

    b. l uw-ob li'lU<: \ lew uf a portio n o r de same area in AST f.R inl.L~cry ,ltJlaincd on Oct.>l>cr 14. 100 1.
    The rmage wJ~ d raped OWl J d'gllal ek\"3!ion m.'<lel ntrll(lc,1 jrllm .'cr,-"""" !,i,, AS 1T R dila

    Color Pla te 14 11 a ) Vertical and b i low -obl iq ue views of the Namib Desert in !'oi.llllib-:-.Iaul lu fl NatioualPark, T hew arc thc 1a11cs1 _
    in (he world. some > 300 m (a lmost llSO ft). The area receives an J\ cr.I~C o f (ln ly to .; m m ra Infa ll per year. The CII'Z@\'
    cotordeveloos o ve r time as iron in the sa nd is oxidized . The " Ide r (he d un.:, ll~ hnglnc r lhe o ra nge color (eOllrt,"!>y tJ~
    and l' AS A'GSFCM ETliE RS IlA DJA ROS and LT.S JJ.lpa n :\STF R Sc jcnc.... T,~.11111.

    ing

    337

    Princi ples

    per

    b':l>

    \ pulse
    m s I)

    ncnt of

    .. target

    ulse III

    L1DAR nUll) C o llec tio n

    " S lc xY

    ~
    hnsnm:JG

    .v--"

    " 1lI

    (10-1)

    m:Clh' r

    sensor

    Ka nn ina;
    lIlirror i

    h.:lght AGL."

    rrang-

    I ".,.
    ~

    "
    I "

    p ower fincs
    '

    ..

    I.. sc:r
    beam
    ,J,,...~ ...nc...
    0

    Ilisiantauc ous
    la -.er
    footprtm

    ion of
    o int , I

    1<:.

    r<~

    a.~

    ooims

    h. U DA R elev ation r nas spoint s fo r a small area.

    a. U DI\R data collccnou.

    .'. and

    the > thc scan a ngle. 6 ;


    > the a mount o f ca nopy 10 be

    '(lund

    Ih c

    roun-

    p c nctrat ...d 10 H'-iICIl lh<: h a r<: Earth :

    rco us

    cor n-

    o-

    sca u
    ang le

    u
    u
    F

    aen-

    ver;I!..

    Iy{ing

    01"1
    Jh),

    e. Impac t ofinc reaced sca n a ng le.


    ~re 10-1

    n
    II r

    .....

    a) L1 DA I{ m-annn...I1l,s tra nvmit pulses orta-cr hg llll" .... ardth... gWOlHJ o~lng a ,COlnnUI!! rnirru r. Sum ... ofthis ene rgy is scan...red
    boll;k towardthe aircraft anoJ rc....o rdcd III the rec e iver electronics Un board G PS and l' ll l doc nmcnt th... csnct tocauo n ot rhc
    aircntlt and th... roll, pitch, and ya .... at the insramthe lase r pulse IS s...nt lind rc-ccivcd. h) L111\I{-,kri\eJ l,I', and z ele vation
    m;lsspuint, fur an area n,'a r Aik en, SC. Some massf"Jinls arc loc ated on the L IMh'" surfa",- while oth ers are loc ated in the tree
    ean "py and ...ve n on the Ill'.... cr trarwmi....~ion line and IX'..... cl As~u min~ that Ihe tree canuJl)! ha-, a uniform height an d canop y
    density. th,-n the l;r<:;lIer the scan ang le from nadir Ute greater lite amount "r can<,py th;l! .... iIl haw to be penetrated to reach the
    grou nd l<I acquire th... information n"" ;l."'<ar) tu cr...ate a ba r..-Ea r1h ,J1~ll a l ....r ram m<lIie l. ,J) U DAI{-d<.'rih"d digual surface
    model for an area ne ar Aiken. SC I fr" m CO.... <'11 el al.. ~OOO).

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