Sharia PDF

6/19/2016
ShariaWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Sharia
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Sharia,IslamicshariaorIslamiclaw(Arabic:(IPA:[aria])forlaw)isthereligiouslegalsystem
governingthemembersoftheIslamicfaith.[1]ItisderivedfromthereligiouspreceptsofIslam,particularlythe
QuranandtheHadith.ThetermshariacomesfromtheArabiclanguagetermsharah,whichmeansabodyof
moralandreligiouslawderivedfromreligiousprophecy,asopposedtohumanlegislation.[2][3][4]
Shariadealswithmanytopics,includingcrime,politics,marriagecontracts,traderegulations,religious
prescriptions,andeconomics,aswellaspersonalmatterssuchassexualintercourse,hygiene,diet,prayer,
everydayetiquetteandfasting.Adherencetoshariahasservedasoneofthedistinguishingcharacteristicsofthe
Muslimfaithhistorically.[5]Initsstrictestdefinition,shariaisconsideredinIslamastheinfalliblelawofGod.[6]
Therearetwoprimarysourcesofsharia:theQuranandtheHadiths(opinionsandlifeexampleofMuhammad).[7]
Fortopicsandissuesnotdirectlyaddressedintheseprimarysources,shariaisderived.Thederivationdiffers
betweenthevarioussectsofIslam(SunniandShiaarethemajority),andvariousjurisprudenceschoolssuchas
Hanafi,Maliki,Shafi'i,HanbaliandJafari.[8][9]Theshariaintheseschoolsisderivedhierarchicallyusingoneor
moreofthefollowingguidelines:Ijma(usuallytheconsensusofMuhammad'scompanions),Qiyas(analogy
derivedfromtheprimarysources),Istihsan(rulingthatservestheinterestofIslaminthediscretionofIslamic
jurists)andUrf(customs).[8]
ShariaisasignificantsourceoflegislationinmanyMuslimcountrieswheresomecountriesapplyamajorityor
someoftheshariacode,andtheseincludeSaudiArabia,Sudan,Iran,Iraq,Afghanistan,Pakistan,Brunei,United
ArabEmirates,Qatar,YemenandMauritania.Inthesecountries,shariaprescribedpunishmentssuchasbeheading,
floggingandstoningcontinuetobepracticedjudiciallyorextrajudicially.[10][11]Therehasbeencontroversyover
whatsomeperceiveasamovementbyvariousIslamistgroupstointroduceandimplementshariathroughoutthe
world,includinginWesterncountries,butattemptstoimposeshariahavebeenaccompaniedbycontroversy,[12]
violence,[13]andevenwarfare.[14]Mostcountriesdonotrecognizeshariahowever,somecountriesinAsia(such
asIsrael[15]),AfricaandEuroperecognizepartsofshariaandacceptitasthelawondivorce,inheritanceandother
personalaffairsoftheirIslamicpopulation.[16]InBritain,theMuslimArbitrationTribunalmakesuseofsharia
familylawtosettledisputes,andthislimitedadoptionofshariaiscontroversial.[17]
Theconceptofcrime,judicialprocess,justiceandpunishmentembodiedinshariaisdifferentfromthatofsecular
law.[18]Thedifferencesbetweenshariaandsecularlawhaveledtoanongoingcontroversyastowhethershariais
compatiblewithsecularformsofgovernment,humanrights,freedomofthought,andwomen'srights.[19][20][21]
Contents
1 Etymologyandorigins
2 History
3 Definitionsanddisagreements
3.1 Sourcesofsharialaw
3.1.1 QuranversusHadith
3.1.2 DisagreementsonQuran
3.2 Islamicjurisprudence(Fiqh)
3.3 AreasofIslamiclaw
3.4 ObjectivesofIslamiclaw
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharia
1/31
6/19/2016
3.4 ObjectivesofIslamiclaw
4 Application
4.1 Applicationbycountry
4.2 Enforcement
4.3 Legalandcourtproceedings
5 Supportandopposition
5.1 Support
5.1.1 Extremism
5.2 Opposition
6 Criticism
6.1 Compatibilitywithdemocracy
6.2 Humanrights
6.3 Freedomofspeech
6.4 Freedomofthought,conscienceandreligion
6.5 LGBTrights
6.6 Women
6.6.1 Domesticviolence
6.6.2 Personalstatuslawsandchildmarriage
6.6.3 Women'srighttopropertyandconsent
7 ParallelswithWesternlegalsystems
8 Seealso
9 References
10 Sources
11 Furtherreading
12 Externallinks
Etymologyandorigins
Scholarsdescribethewordsharia(/ri/,alsoshari'a,arah)asanarchaicArabicworddenoting"pathwayto
befollowed"(analogoustotheHebrewtermHalakhah["TheWaytoGo"]),[22]or"pathtothewaterhole".[23][24]
Thelatterdefinitioncomesfromthefactthatthepathtowateristhewholewayoflifeinanariddesert
environment.[25]
Theetymologyofshariaasa"path"or"way"comesfromtheQuranicverse45:18:[26]"Thenweputtheeonthe
(right)Wayofreligionsofollowthouthat(Way),andfollownotthedesiresofthosewhoknownot."[22]Malik
GhulamFaridinhisDictionaryoftheHolyQuran,believesthe"Way"in45:18(quotedabove)derivesfrom
shara'a(asprf.3rd.p.m.sing.),meaning"Heordained".Otherformsalsoappear:shara'uas(prf.3rd.p.m.plu.),
"theydecreed(alaw)"andshir'atun(n.)meaning"spirituallaw".[27][28][29][30]
TheArabicwordsharahasoriginsintheconceptofreligiouslawthewordiscommonlyusedbyArabic
speakingpeoplesoftheMiddleEastanddesignatesapropheticreligioninitstotality.Thus,sharatMsmeans
religiouslawofMoses(Judaism),sharatalMasmeansreligiouslawofChristianity,sharatalMadjsmeans
religiouslawofZoroastrianism.[3]
TheArabicexpression(GodsLaw)isacommontranslationfor(GodsLawinHebrew)and
(GodsLawinGreekintheNewTestament[Rom.7:22]).[31]IncontemporaryIslamicliterature,
shariareferstodivinelawofIslamasrevealedbyprophetMuhammad,aswellasinhisfunctionasmodeland
exemplarofthelaw.[3]
ShariaintheIslamicworldisalsoknownasQnneIslm().
2/31
6/19/2016
History
InIslam,theoriginofshariaistheQu'ran,andtraditionsgatheredfromthelifeoftheIslamicProphetMuhammad
(bornca.570CEinMecca).[32]TheformativeperiodoffiqhstretchesbacktothetimeoftheearlyMuslim
communities.Inthisperiod,juristsweremoreconcernedwithpragmaticissuesofauthorityandteachingthanwith
theory.[33]
Shariaunderwentfundamentaldevelopment,beginningwiththereignsofcaliphsAbuBakr(63234)andUmar
(63444)forSunniMuslims,andImamAliforShiaMuslims,duringwhichtimemanyquestionswerebroughtto
theattentionofMuhammad'sclosestcomradesforconsultation.[34]DuringthereignofMuawiyab.AbuSufyan
ibnHarb,ca.662CE,Islamundertookanurbantransformation,raisingquestionsnotoriginallycoveredbyIslamic
law.[34]TheUmayyadsinitiatedtheofficeofappointingqadis,orIslamicjudges.Thejurisdictionoftheqadi
extendedonlytoMuslims,whilenonMuslimpopulationsretainedtheirownlegalinstitutions.[35]Underthe
UmayyadsIslamicscholarswere"sidelined"fromadministrationofjusticeandattemptstosystematicallyuphold
anddevelopIslamiclawwouldwaitforAbbasidrule.AlMansur(thefirstAbbasidcaliph)felta"pressing
obligationtomakegoodonthepromisetogovernaccordingtothesharia"andin771found"arespected
memberoftheulama"toserveastheheadoftheEgyptianjudiciary,andtoswear"toupholdtheshari'aalone".
TheqadiswereusuallypiousspecialistsinIslam.Asthesegrewinnumber,theybegantotheorizeandsystemize
Islamicjurisprudence.[36]TheAbbasidmadetheinstitutionofqadiindependentfromthegovernment,butthis
separationwasn'talwaysrespected.[37]
Sincethen,changesinIslamicsocietyhaveplayedanongoingroleindevelopingsharia,whichbranchesoutinto
fiqhandQanunrespectively.Progressintheorywasstartedby8thand9thcenturyIslamicscholarsAbuHanifa,
MalikbinAnas,AlShafi'i,AhmadibnHanbalandothers.[8][38]AlShafiiiscreditedwithderivingthetheoryof
validnormsforsharia(ulalfiqh),arguingforatraditionalist,literalinterpretationofQuran,Hadithsand
methodologyforlawasrevealedtherein,toformulatesharia.[39][40]
AnumberoflegalconceptsandinstitutionsweredevelopedbyIslamicjuristsduringtheclassicalperiodofIslam,
knownastheIslamicGoldenAge,datedfromthe7thto13thcenturies.Theseshapeddifferentversionsofsharia
indifferentschoolsofIslamicjurisprudence,calledfiqhs.[41][42][43]
BoththeUmayyadcaliphUmarIIandtheAbbasidshadagreedthatthecaliphcouldnotlegislatecontrarytothe
Quranorthesunnah.ImamShafi'ideclared:"atraditionfromtheProphetmustbeacceptedassoonasitbecome
known...Iftherehasbeenanactiononthepartofacaliph,andatraditionfromtheProphettothecontrarybecomes
knownlater,thatactionmustbediscardedinfavorofthetraditionfromtheProphet."Thus,undertheAbbasidsthe
mainfeaturesofshariaweredefinitivelyestablishedandshariawasrecognizedasthelawofbehaviorfor
Muslims.[44]
Inmoderntimes,theMuslimcommunityhasdividedpointsofview:secularistsbelievethatthelawofthestate
shouldbebasedonsecularprinciples,notonIslamiclegaldoctrinestraditionalistsbelievethatthelawofthestate
shouldbebasedonthetraditionallegalschools[45]reformersbelievethatnewIslamiclegaltheoriescanproduce
modernizedIslamiclaw[46]andleadtoacceptableopinionsinareassuchaswomen'srights.[47]Thisdivision
persistsuntilthepresentday(Brown1996,Hallaq2001,Ramadan2005,Aslan2006,Safi2003,Nenezich2006).
TherehasbeenagrowingreligiousrevivalinIslam,beginningintheeighteenthcenturyandcontinuingtoday.This
movementhasexpresseditselfinvariousformsrangingfromwarstoeffortstowardsimprovingeducation.[48][49]
Definitionsanddisagreements
3/31
6/19/2016
Sharia,initsstrictestdefinition,isadivinelaw,asexpressedintheQuranandMuhammad'sexample(oftencalled
thesunnah).Assuch,itisrelatedtobutdifferentfromfiqh,whichisemphasizedasthehumaninterpretationofthe
law.[50][51]Manyscholarshavepointedoutthattheshariaisnotformallyacode,[52]norawelldefinedsetof
rules.[53]TheshariaischaracterizedasadiscussiononthedutiesofMuslims[52]basedonboththeopinionofthe
Muslimcommunityandextensiveliterature.[54]HuntJaninandAndreKahlmeyerthusconcludethattheshariais
"long,diverse,andcomplicated."[53]
Fromthe9thcenturyonward,thepowertointerpretlawintraditionalIslamicsocietieswasinthehandsofthe
scholars(ulema).Thisseparationofpowersservedtolimittherangeofactionsavailabletotheruler,whocould
noteasilydecreeorreinterpretlawindependentlyandexpectthecontinuedsupportofthecommunity.[55]Through
succeedingcenturiesandempires,thebalancebetweentheulemaandtherulersshiftedandreformed,butthe
balanceofpowerwasneverdecisivelychanged.[56]Overthecourseofmanycenturies,imperial,politicaland
technologicalchange,includingtheIndustrialRevolutionandtheFrenchRevolution,usheredinaneraof
Europeanworldhegemonythatgraduallyincludedthedominationofmanyofthelandswhichhadpreviouslybeen
ruledbyIslamicempires.[57][58]AttheendoftheSecondWorldWar,theEuropeanpowersfoundthemselvestoo
weakenedtomaintaintheirempiresasbefore.[59]Thewidevarietyofformsofgovernment,systemsoflaw,
attitudestowardmodernityandinterpretationsofshariaarearesultoftheensuingdrivesforindependenceand
modernityintheMuslimworld.[60][61]
AccordingtoJanMichielOtto,ProfessorofLawandGovernanceinDevelopingCountriesatLeidenUniversity,"
[a]nthropologicalresearchshowsthatpeopleinlocalcommunitiesoftendonotdistinguishclearlywhetherandto
whatextenttheirnormsandpracticesarebasedonlocaltradition,tribalcustom,orreligion.Thosewhoadheretoa
confrontationalviewofshariatendtoascribemanyundesirablepracticestoshariaandreligionoverlookingcustom
andculture,evenifhighrankingreligiousauthoritieshavestatedtheopposite."Otto'sanalysisappearsinapaper
commissionedbytheNetherlandsMinistryofForeignAffairs.[62]
Sourcesofsharialaw
Accordingtohumannotionsofsharia,therearetwosourcesofsharia(understoodasthedivinelaw):theQuran
andtheSunnah.TheQuranisviewedastheunalterablewordofGod.ItisconsideredinIslamtobeaninfallible
partofsharia.TheQurancoversahostoftopicsincludingGod,personallawsforMuslimmenandMuslim
women,lawsoncommunitylife,lawsonexpectedinteractionofMuslimswithnonMuslims,apostatesandex
Muslims,lawsonfinance,morals,eschatology,andothers.[63][64]TheSunnahisthelifeandexampleofthe
IslamicprophetMuhammad.TheSunnah'simportanceasasourceofsharia,isconfirmedbyseveralversesofthe
Quran(e.g.[Quran33:21(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/033qmt.php#033.021)]).[65]TheSunnahis
primarilycontainedinthehadithorreportsofMuhammad'ssayings,hisactions,histacitapprovalofactionsand
hisdemeanor.WhilethereisonlyoneQuran,therearemanycompilationsofhadith,withthemostauthenticones
formingduringthesahihperiod(850to915CE).ThesixacclaimedSunnicollectionswerecompiledby(inorder
ofdecreasingimportance)MuhammadalBukhari,MuslimibnalHajjaj,AbuDawood,Tirmidhi,AlNasa'i,Ibn
Majah.ThecollectionsbyalBukhariandMuslim,regardedthemostauthentic,containabout7,000and12,000
hadithsrespectively(althoughthemajorityofentriesarerepetitions).Thehadithshavebeenevaluatedon
authenticity,usuallybydeterminingthereliabilityofthenarratorsthattransmittedthem.[66]ForShias,theSunnah
includelifeandsayingsofTheTwelveImams.[67]
QuranversusHadith
4/31
6/19/2016
MuslimswhorejecttheHadithasasourceoflaw,sometimesreferredtoasQuranists,[68][69]suggestthatonlylaws
derivedexclusivelyfromtheQuranarevalid.[70]Theystatethatthehadithsinmodernusearenotexplicitly
mentionedintheQuranasasourceofIslamictheologyandpractice,theywerenotrecordedinwrittenformuntil
morethantwocenturiesafterthedeathoftheprophetMuhammed.[68]Theyalsostatethattheauthenticityofthe
hadithsremainsaquestion.[71][72]
ThevastmajorityofMuslims,however,considerhadiths,whichdescribethewords,conductandexamplesetby
Muhammadduringhislife,asasourceoflawandreligiousauthoritysecondonlytotheQur'an.[73]Similarly,most
IslamicscholarsbelievebothQuranandsahihhadithstobeavalidsourceofsharia,withQuranicverse33.21,
amongothers,[74][75]asjustificationforthisbelief.[69]
YehaveindeedintheMessengerofAllahabeautifulpattern(ofconduct)foranyonewhosehopeis
inAllahandtheFinalDay,andwhoengagesmuchinthePraiseofAllah.
ItisnotfittingforaBeliever,manorwoman,whenamatterhasbeendecidedbyAllahandHis
Messengertohaveanyoptionabouttheirdecision:ifanyonedisobeysAllahandHisMessenger,heis
indeedonaclearlywrongPath.
Qur'an,[Quran33:2136]
ForvastmajorityofMuslims,shariahashistoricallybeen,andcontinuestobederivedfromboththeQuranandthe
Hadiths.[69][73][75]TheSahihHadithsofSunniMuslimscontainisnad,orachainofguarantorsreachingbacktoa
companionofMuhammadwhodirectlyobservedthewords,conductandexamplehesetthusprovidingthe
theologicalgroundtoconsiderthehadithtobeasoundbasisforsharia.[69][75]ForSunniMuslims,themusannafin
SahihBukhariandSahihMuslimismosttrustedandrelieduponassourceforSunniSharia.[76]ShiaMuslims,
however,donotconsiderthechainoftransmittersofSunnihadithsasreliable,giventhesetransmittersbelongedto
SunnisideinSunniShiacivilwarsthatfollowedafterMuhammad'sdeath.[77]Shiarelyontheirownchainof
reliableguarantors,trustingcompilationssuchasKitabalKafiandTahdhibalAhkaminstead,andlaterhadiths
(usuallycalledakhbrbyShi'i).[78][79]TheShiaversionofhadithscontainthewords,conductandexamplesetby
MuhammadandImams,whichtheyconsiderassinless,infallibleandanessentialsourceofshariaforShi'ite
Muslims.[77][80]However,insubstance,theShi'itehadithsresembletheSunnihadiths,withonedifferencethe
ShiahadithsadditionallyincludewordsandactionsofitsImams(alhadithalwalawi),thebiologicaldescendants
ofMuhammad,andthesetooareconsideredanimportantsourceforshariabyShi'ites.[78][81]
DisagreementsonQuran
AuthenticityandwritingofQuran
SomescholarssuchasJohnWansbroughhavechallengedtheauthenticityoftheQuranandwhetheritwaswritten
inthetimeofMuhammad.[82]Incontrast,EstelleWhelanhasrefutedWansbroughpresentingevidencesuchasthe
inscriptionsontheDomeoftheRock.[83][84]JohnBurtonstatesthatmedievaleraIslamictextsclaimingtheQuran
wascompiledafterthedeathoftheProphetwereforgedtopreservethestatusquo.[85]Thefinalversionofthe
Quran,statesBurton,wascompiledwhiletheProphetwasstillalive.[86]MostscholarsacceptthattheQuranasis
usedforSharia,wascompiledintothefinalcurrentformduringthecaliphateofUthman.[87][88]
Abrogationandtextualinconsistencies
5/31
6/19/2016
FromthefoundingofIslam,theMuslimcommunityhasalsodebatedtheauthenticityofcompiledversesandthe
consistencywithintheQuran.[89][90]TheinconsistenciesinderivingshariafromtheQuran,wererecognizedand
formallycomplicatedbyverses2.106and16.101oftheQuran,whichareknownasthe"versesofabrogation
(Naskh)".[91]
TheprincipleofabrogationhasbeenhistoricallyacceptedandappliedbyIslamicjuristsonboththeQuranandthe
Sunnah.[89][91]Shariaisthusdeterminedthroughachronologicalstudyoftheprimarysources,whereolder
revelationsareconsideredoverruledbylaterrevelations.[91][92]Whileanoverwhelmingmajorityofhistoricaland
modernIslamicscholarshaveacceptedtheprincipleofabrogationfortheQuranandtheSunnah,somemodern
scholarsdisagreethattheprincipleofabrogationnecessarilyappliestotheQuran.[93]
Islamicjurisprudence(Fiqh)
Fiqh(schoolofIslamicjurisprudence)representstheprocessofdeducingandapplyingshariaprinciples,aswellas
thecollectivebodyofspecificlawsdeducedfromshariausingthefiqhmethodology.[8]WhileQuranandHadith
sourcesareregardedasinfallible,thefiqhstandardsmaychangeindifferentcontexts.Fiqhcoversallaspectsof
law,includingreligious,civil,political,constitutionalandprocedurallaw.[94]Fiqhdeploysthefollowingtocreate
Islamiclaws:[8]
1.Injunctions,revealedprinciplesandinterpretationsoftheQuran(UsedbyallschoolsandsectsofIslam)
2.InterpretationoftheSunnah(Muhammad'spractices,opinionsandtraditions)andprinciplestherein,after
establishingthedegreeofreliabilityofhadith'schainofreporters(UsedbyallschoolsandsectsofIslam)
Iftheabovetwosourcesdonotprovideguidanceforanissue,thendifferentfiqhsdeploythefollowingina
hierarchicalway:[8]
1.Ijma,collectivereasoningandconsensusamongstauthoritativeMuslimsofaparticulargeneration,andits
interpretationbyIslamicscholars.ThisfiqhprincipleforshariaisderivedfromQuranicverse4:59.[95]
Typically,therecordedconsensusofSahabah(Muhammad'scompanions)isconsideredauthoritativeand
mosttrusted.Ifthisisunavailable,thentherecordedindividualreasoning(Ijtihad)ofMuhammad
companionsissought.InIslam'shistory,someMuslimscholarshavearguedthatIjtihadallowsindividual
reasoningofboththeearliestgenerationsofMuslimsandlatergenerationMuslims,whileothershave
arguedthatIjtihadallowsindividualreasoningofonlytheearliestgenerationsofMuslims.(Usedbyall
schoolsofIslam,JafarifiqhacceptsonlyIjtihadofShiaImams)[8][96]
2.Qiyas,analogyisdeployedifIjmaorhistoriccollectivereasoningontheissueisnotavailable.Qiyas
representsanalogicaldeduction,thesupportforusingitinfiqhisbasedonQuranicverse2:59,andthis
methodologywasstartedbyAbuHanifa.[97]ThisprincipleisconsideredweakbyHanbalifiqh,andit
usuallyavoidsQiyasforsharia.(UsedbyallSunnischoolsofIslam,butrejectedbyShiaJafari)[8][98]
3.Istihsan,whichistheprincipleofservingtheinterestofIslamandpublicasdeterminedbyIslamicjurists.
ThismethodisdeployedifIjtihadandQiyasfailtoprovideguidance.ItwasstartedbyHanafifiqhasaform
ofIjtihad(individualreasoning).MalikifiqhcalleditMasalihAlMursalah,ordeparturefromstrict
adherencetotheTextsforpublicwelfare.TheHanbalifiqhcalleditIstislahandrejectedit,asdidShafi'i
fiqh.(UsedbyHanafi,Maliki,butrejectedbyShafii,HanbaliandShiaJafarifiqhs)[8][39][98]
4.IstihabandUrfwhichmeancontinuityofpreIslamiccustomsandcustomarylaw.Thisisconsideredasthe
weakestprinciple,acceptedbyjusttwofiqhs,andeveninthemrecognizedonlywhenthecustomdoesnot
violateorcontradictanyQuran,Hadithsorotherfiqhsource.(UsedbyHanafi,Maliki,butrejectedby
Shafii,HanbaliandShiaJafarifiqhs)[8][98]
Schoolsoflaw
6/31
6/19/2016
AMadhhabisaMuslimschooloflawthatfollowsafiqh
(schoolofreligiousjurisprudence).Inthefirst150yearsof
Islam,thereweremanymadhhab.SeveraloftheSahbah,or
contemporary"companions"ofMuhammad,arecreditedwith
foundingtheirown.IntheSunnisectofIslam,theIslamic
jurisprudenceschoolsofMedina(AlHijaz,nowinSaudi
Arabia)createdtheMalikimadhhab,whilethoseinKufa(now
inIraq)createdtheHanafimadhhab.[99]alShafi'i,whostarted
asastudentofMalikischoolofIslamiclaw,andlaterwas
MapoftheMuslimworldwiththemainschoolsof
influencedbyHanafischoolofIslamiclaw,disagreedwith
Islamiclaw(madhhab)
someofthediscretiontheseschoolsgavetojurists,and
foundedthemoreconservativeShafi'imadhhab,whichspread
fromjurisprudenceschoolsinBaghdad(Iraq)andCairo(Egypt).[100]AhmadibnHanbal,astudentofalShafi'i,
wentfurtherinhiscriticismofMalikiandHanafifiqhs,criticizingtheabuseandcorruptionofshariafromjurist
discretionandconsensusoflatergenerationMuslims,andhefoundedthemorestrict,traditionalistHanbalischool
ofIslamiclaw.[101]OtherschoolssuchastheJaririwereestablishedlater,whicheventuallydiedout.[102]
SunnisectofIslamhasfourmajorsurvivingschoolsofsharia:Hanafi,Maliki,Shafi'i,Hanbalioneminorschool
isnamedhir.ShiisectofIslamhasthree:Ja'fari(major),ZaydiandIsmaili.[103][104][105]Thereareother
minorityfiqhsaswell,suchastheIbadischoolofKhawarijsect,andthoseofSufiandAhmadisects.[94][106]All
SunniandShiaschoolsofshariarelyfirstontheQuranandthesayings/practicesofMuhammadintheSunnah.
TheirdifferenceslieintheprocedureeachusestocreateIslamcompliantlawswhenthosetwosourcesdonot
provideguidanceonatopic.[107]TheSalafimovementcreatesshariabasedontheQuran,Sunnahandtheactions
andsayingsofthefirstthreegenerationsofMuslims.[108]
TheHanafischoolspreadwiththepatronageandmilitaryexpansionsledbyTurkicSultansandOttomanEmpire
inWestAsia,SoutheastEurope,CentralAsiaandSouthAsia.[109][110]ItiscurrentlythelargestmadhhabofSunni
Muslims.[111]TheMalikischoolispredominantlyfoundinWestAfrica,NorthAfricaandpartsofArabia.[111]The
ShafiischoolspreadwithpatronageandmilitaryexpansionsledbymaritimeSultans,andismostlyfoundin
coastalregionsofEastAfrica,Arabia,SouthAsia,SoutheastAsiaandislandsintheIndianocean.[112]TheHanbali
schoolprevailsinthesmallestSunnimadhhab,predominantlyfoundintheArabianpeninsula.[111]TheShiite
JafarischoolismostlyfoundinPersianregionandpartsofWestAsiaandSouthAsia.
Categoriesoflaw
Alongwithinterpretation,eachfiqhclassifiesitsinterpretationofshariaintooneofthefollowingfivecategories:
fard(obligatory),mustahabb(recommended),mubah(neutral),makruh(discouraged),andharaam(forbidden).A
Muslimisexpectedtoadheretothattenetofshariaaccordingly.[113]
ActionsinthefardcategoryarethosemandatoryonallMuslims.Theyincludethefivedailyprayers,
fasting,articlesoffaith,obligatorygivingofzakat(charity,tax)tozakatcollectors,[114][115]andthehajj
pilgrimagetoMecca.[113]
Themustahabbcategoryincludesproperbehaviourinmatterssuchasmarriage,funeralritesandfamilylife.
Assuch,itcoversmanyofthesameareasascivillawintheWest.Shariacourtsattempttoreconcileparties
todisputesinthisareausingtherecommendedbehaviourastheirguide.Apersonwhosebehaviourisnot
mustahabbcanberuledagainstbythejudge.[116]
Mubahcategoryofbehaviourisneitherdiscouragednorrecommended,neitherforbiddennorrequireditis
permissible.[113]
Makruhbehaviour,whileitisnotsinfulofitself,isconsideredundesirableamongMuslims.Itmayalso
7/31
6/19/2016
makeaMuslimliabletocriminalpenaltiesundercertaincircumstances.[116]
Haraambehaviourisexplicitlyforbidden.Itisbothsinfulandcriminal.Itincludesallactionsexpressly
forbiddenintheQuran.CertainMuslimdietaryandclothingrestrictionsalsofallintothiscategory.[113]
Therecommended,neutralanddiscouragedcategoriesaredrawnlargelyfromaccountsofthelifeofMuhammad.
TosayabehaviourissunnahistosayitisrecommendedasanexampleofthelifeandsayingsofMuhammad.
Thesecategoriesformthebasisforproperbehaviourinmatterssuchascourtesyandmanners,interpersonal
relations,generosity,personalhabitsandhygiene.[113]
AreasofIslamiclaw
TheareasofIslamiclawinclude:
Hygieneandpurificationlaws,includingthemannerofcleansing,eitherwudhuorghusl.
Economiclaws,includingZakt,theannualalmsgivingWaqf,thereligiousendowmenttheprohibitionon
interestorRibaaswellasinheritancelaws.
DietarylawsincludingDhabihah,orritualslaughter.
Theologicalobligations,includingtheHajjorpilgrimage,withitsritualssuchasTawaf,Sa'yeeandthe
StoningoftheDevilsalat,formalworshipSalatalJanazah,thefuneralprayerandcelebratingEidal
Adha.
Maritaljurisprudence,includingNikah,themarriagecontractanddivorce,knownasKhulaifinitiatedby
awoman.
Criminaljurisprudence,includingHudud,fixedpunishmentsTazir,discretionarypunishmentQisasor
retaliationDiyyaorbloodmoneyandapostasy.
Militaryjurisprudence,includingjusinbelloandcasusbelliHudnaortruceandrulesregardingprisoners
ofwar.
Dresscode,includinghijab.
Othertopicsincludecustomsandbehaviour,slaveryandthestatusofnonMuslims.
Otherclassifications
Shari'ahlawhasbeengroupedindifferentways,suchas:[117][118]Familyrelations,Crimeandpunishment,
Inheritanceanddisposalofproperty,Theeconomicsystem,Externalandotherrelations.
"RelianceoftheTraveller",anEnglishtranslationofafourteenthcenturyCEreferenceontheShafi'ischoolof
fiqhwrittenbyAhmadibnNaqibalMisri,organizessharialawintothefollowingtopics:Purification,prayer,
funeralprayer,taxes,fasting,pilgrimage,trade,inheritance,marriage,divorceandjustice.
Insomeareas,therearesubstantialdifferencesinthelawbetweendifferentschoolsoffiqh,countries,culturesand
schoolsofthought.
ObjectivesofIslamiclaw
Anumberofscholarshaveadvanced"objectives"(maqaidalShariahalso"goals"or"purposes")they
believetheShariaisintendedtoachieve.AbuHamidAlGhazaliarguedthattheywerethepreservationofIslamic
religion,andinthetemporalworldtheprotectionoflife,progeny,intellectandwealthofMuslims.[119][120]Yazid
etalstatethatobjectiveofshariainIslamicfinanceistoproviderulesandregulationsfromtheQuranand
Sunnah.[121]
Application
8/31
6/19/2016
Applicationbycountry
MostMuslimmajoritycountriesincorporateshariaatsome
levelintheirlegalframework,withmanycallingitthehighest
laworthesourceoflawofthelandintheir
constitution.[122][123]Mostuseshariaforpersonallaw
(marriage,divorce,domesticviolence,childsupport,family
law,inheritanceandsuchmatters).[124][125]Elementsofsharia
arepresent,tovaryingextents,inthecriminaljusticesystemof
manyMuslimmajoritycountries.[11]SaudiArabia,Yemen,
Brunei,Qatar,Pakistan,UnitedArabEmirates,Iraq,Iran,
Afghanistan,SudanandMauritaniaapplythecode
predominantlyorentirelywhileitappliesinsomepartsof
Indonesia.[11][126]
UseofShariabycountry:
Shariaplaysnoroleinthejudicialsystem.
ShariaappliestoMuslim'spersonallaw.
Shariaappliesinfull,includingcriminallaw.
MostMuslimmajoritycountrieswithshariaprescribedhudud
Regionalvariationsintheapplicationofsharia.
punishmentsintheirlegalcode,donotprescribeitroutinely
anduseotherpunishmentsinstead.[122][127]Theharshestsharia
penaltiessuchasstoning,beheadingandthedeathpenaltyareenforcedwithvaryinglevelsofconsistency.[128]
Sincethe1970s,mostMuslimmajoritycountrieshavefacedvociferousdemandsfromtheirreligiousgroupsand
politicalpartiesforimmediateadoptionofshariaasthesole,oratleastprimarylegalframework.[129]Some
moderatesandliberalscholarswithintheseMuslimcountrieshavearguedforlimitedexpansionofsharia.[130]
WiththegrowingMuslimimmigrantcommunitiesinEurope,therehavebeenreportsinsomemediaof"nogo
zones"beingestablishedwheresharialawreignssupreme.[131][132]However,thereisnoevidenceoftheexistence
of"nogozones",andtheseallegationsaresourcedfromantiimmigrantgroupsfalselyequatinglowincome
neighborhoodspredominantlyinhabitedbyimmigrantsas"nogozones."[133][134]
Enforcement
ShariaisenforcedinIslamicnationsinanumberofways,includingmutaweenandhisbah.
Themutaween(Arabic:muawwin,muawwiiyyah)[135]arethegovernmentauthorizedor
governmentrecognizedreligiouspolice(orclericalpolice)ofSaudiArabia.Elsewhere,enforcementofIslamic
valuesinaccordancewithshariaistheresponsibilityofPolisiPerdaSyariahIslaminAcehprovinceof
Indonesia,[136]CommitteeforthePropagationofVirtueandthePreventionofVice(GazaStrip)inpartsof
Palestine,andBasijiForceinIran.[137]
Hisbah(Arabic:isb(ah),orhisba)isahistoricIslamicdoctrinewhichmeans"accountability".[140]Hisbah
doctrineholdsthatitisareligiousobligationofeveryMuslimthatheorshereporttotheruler(Sultan,government
authorities)anywrongbehaviorofaneighbororrelativethatviolatesshariaorinsultsIslam.Thedoctrinestates
thatitisthedivinelysanctioneddutyoftherulertointervenewhensuchchargesaremade,andcoercively
"commandrightandforbidwrong"inordertokeepeverythinginorderaccordingtosharia.[141][142][143]Some
SalafistsuggestthatenforcementofshariaundertheHisbahdoctrineisthesacreddutyofallMuslims,notjust
rulers.[141]ThedoctrineofHisbahinIslamhastraditionallyallowedanyMuslimtoaccuseanotherMuslim,ex
MuslimornonMuslimforbeliefsorbehaviorthatmayharmIslamicsociety.Thisprinciplehasbeenusedin
countriessuchasEgypt,Pakistanandotherstobringblasphemychargesagainstapostates.[144]Forexample,in
9/31
6/19/2016
Egypt,shariawasenforcedontheMuslimscholarNasrAbuZayd,through
thedoctrineofHasbah,whenhecommittedapostasy.[145][146]Similarly,in
Nigeria,aftertwelvenorthernMuslimmajoritystatessuchasKano
adoptedshariabasedpenalcodebetween1999and2000,hisbahbecame
theallowedmethodofshariaenforcement,whereallMuslimcitizenscould
policecomplianceofmoralorderbasedonsharia.[147]InAcehprovinceof
Indonesia,IslamicvigilanteactivistshaveinvokedHasbahdoctrineto
enforceshariaonfellowMuslimsaswellasdemandingnonMuslimsto
respectsharia.[148]HisbahhasbeenusedinmanyMuslimmajority
countries,fromMoroccotoEgyptandinWestAsiatoenforcesharia
restrictionsonblasphemyandcriticismofIslamoverinternetandsocial
media.[149][150]
OfficialfromtheTalibanbeatinga
womaninAfghanistanforviolating
localinterpretationofsharia. [138][139]
Legalandcourtproceedings
Shariajudicialproceedingshavesignificantdifferencesfromotherlegal
traditions,includingthoseinbothcommonlawandcivillaw.Shariacourts
traditionallydonotrelyonlawyersplaintiffsanddefendantsrepresent
themselves.Trialsareconductedsolelybythejudge,andthereisnojury
system.Thereisnopretrialdiscoveryprocess,andnocrossexamination
ofwitnesses.Unlikecommonlaw,judges'verdictsdonotsetbinding
precedents[151][152]undertheprincipleofstaredecisis,[153]andunlikecivil
law,shariaislefttotheinterpretationineachcaseandhasnoformally
codifieduniversalstatutes.[154]
SyariahCourtinMalacca,Malaysia.
Therulesofevidenceinshariacourtsalsomaintainadistinctivecustomof
prioritizingoraltestimony.[155]Witnesses,inashariacourtsystem,mustbe
faithful,thatisMuslim.[156]MaleMuslimwitnessesaredeemedmorereliablethanfemaleMuslimwitnesses,and
nonMuslimwitnessesconsideredunreliableandreceivenopriorityinashariacourt.[157][158]Incivilcasesin
somecountries,aMuslimwomanwitnessisconsideredhalftheworthandreliabilitythanaMuslimman
witness.[159][160]Incriminalcases,womenwitnessesareunacceptableinstricter,traditionalinterpretationsof
sharia,suchasthosefoundinHanbalimadhhab.[156]
Criminalcases
Aconfession,anoath,ortheoraltestimonyofMuslimwitnessesarethemainevidenceadmissible,insharia
courts,forhududcrimes,thatisthereligiouscrimesofadultery,fornication,rape,accusingsomeoneofillicitsex
butfailingtoproveit,apostasy,drinkingintoxicantsandtheft.[161][162][163]Testimonymustbefromatleasttwo
freeMuslimmalewitnesses,oroneMuslimmaleandtwoMuslimfemales,whoarenotrelatedpartiesandwhoare
ofsoundmindandreliablecharacter.Testimonytoestablishthecrimeofadultery,fornicationorrapemustbefrom
fourMuslimmalewitnesses,withsomefiqhsallowingsubstitutionofuptothreemalewithsixfemalewitnesses
however,atleastonemustbeaMuslimmale.[164]Forensicevidence(i.e.,fingerprints,ballistics,bloodsamples,
DNAetc.)andothercircumstantialevidenceislikewiserejectedinhududcasesinfavorofeyewitnesses,a
practicewhichcancauseseveredifficultiesforwomenplaintiffsinrapecases.[165][166]
Muslimjuristshavedebatedwhetherandwhencoercedconfessionandcoercedwitnessesareacceptable.Inthe
OttomanCriminalCode,theexecutiveofficialswereallowedtousetortureonlyiftheaccusedhadabad
reputationandtherewerealreadyindicationsofhisguilt,suchaswhenstolengoodswerefoundinhishouse,ifhe
10/31
6/19/2016
wasaccusedofgrievousbodilyharmbythevictimorifacriminalduringinvestigationmentionedhimasan
accomplice.[167]Confessionsobtainedundertorturecouldnotbeusedasagroundforawardingpunishmentunless
theywerecorroboratedbycircumstantialevidence.[167]
Civilcases
Quranrecommendswrittencontractsinthecaseofdebtrelatedtransactions,andoralcontractsforcommercialand
othercivilcontracts.[160][168]Marriageissolemnizedasawrittenfinancialcontract,inthepresenceoftwoMuslim
malewitnesses,anditincludesabrideprice(Mahr)payablefromaMuslimmantoaMuslimwoman.The
bridepriceisconsideredbyashariacourtasaformofdebt.Writtencontractsareparamount,inshariacourts,in
themattersofdisputethataredebtrelated,whichincludesmarriagecontracts.[169]Writtencontractsindebtrelated
cases,whennotarizedbyajudge,isdeemedmorereliable.[170]
Incommercialandcivilcontracts,suchasthoserelatingtoexchangeofmerchandise,agreementtosupplyor
purchasegoodsorproperty,andothers,oralcontractsandthetestimonyofMuslimwitnessestriumphoverwritten
contracts.Shariasystemhasheldthatwrittencommercialcontractsmaybeforged.[170][171]TimurKuranstatesthat
thetreatmentofwrittenevidenceinreligiouscourtsinIslamicregionscreatedanincentiveforopaquetransactions,
andtheavoidanceofwrittencontractsineconomicrelations.Thisledtoacontinuationofa"largelyoral
contractingculture"inMuslimnationsandcommunities.[171][172]
Inlieuofwrittenevidence,oathsareaccordedmuchgreaterweightratherthanbeingusedsimplytoguaranteethe
truthofensuingtestimony,theyarethemselvesusedasevidence.Plaintiffslackingotherevidencetosupporttheir
claimsmaydemandthatdefendantstakeanoathswearingtheirinnocence,refusalthereofcanresultinaverdict
fortheplaintiff.[173]TakinganoathforMuslimscanbeagraveactonestudyofcourtsinMoroccofoundthat
lyinglitigantswouldoften"maintaintheirtestimony'rightuptothemomentofoathtakingandthentostop,refuse
theoath,andsurrenderthecase."[174]Accordingly,defendantsarenotroutinelyrequiredtoswearbeforetestifying,
whichwouldriskcasuallyprofaningtheQuranshouldthedefendantcommitperjury[174]insteadoathsarea
solemnprocedureperformedasafinalpartoftheevidenceprocess.
Sentencing
Shariacourtstreatwomenandmenasunequal,withMuslimwoman'slifeandbloodmoneycompensation
sentence(Diyya)ashalfasthatofaMuslimman'slife.[175][176]ShariaalsotreatsMuslimsandnonMuslimsas
unequalinthesentencingprocess.[177]HumanRightsWatchandUnitedStates'ReligiousFreedomReportstates
thatinshariacourtsofSaudiArabia,"Thecalculationofaccidentaldeathorinjurycompensationisdiscriminatory.
IntheeventacourtrendersajudgmentinfavorofaplaintiffwhoisaJewishorChristianmale,theplaintiffisonly
entitledtoreceive50percentofthecompensationaMuslimmalewouldreceiveallothernonMuslims
[Buddhists,Hindus,Jains,Atheists]areonlyentitledtoreceiveonesixteenthoftheamountamaleMuslimwould
receive".[178][179][180]
SaudiArabiafollowstheHanbalimadhab,whosehistoricjurisprudencetextsconsideredaChristianorJewlifeas
halftheworthofaMuslim.JuristsofotherschoolsoflawinIslamhaveruleddifferently.Forexample,Shafi'i
shariaconsidersaChristianorJewlifeasathirdtheworthofaMuslim,andMaliki'sshariaconsidersitworth
half.[177]ThelegalschoolsofHanafi,MalikiandShafi'iSunniIslamaswellasthoseoftwelverShiaIslamhave
consideredthelifeofpolytheistsandatheistsasonefifteenththevalueofaMuslimduringsentencing.[177]
Supportandopposition
11/31
6/19/2016
Support
A2013surveybasedoninterviewsof38,000Muslims,randomlyselected
fromurbanandruralpartsin39countriesusingareaprobabilitydesigns,by
thePewForumonReligionandPublicLifefoundthatsupportformaking
shariatheofficiallawofthelandisveryhighinmanycountrieswithahigh
proportionofMuslims:Afghanistan(99%),Iraq(91%),Niger(86%),
Malaysia(86%),Pakistan(84%),Morocco(83%),Bangladesh(82%),
Egypt(74%),Indonesia(72%),Jordan(71%),Uganda(66%),Ethiopia
(65%),Mali(63%),Ghana(58%),andTunisia(56%).[181]InMuslim
regionsofSouthernEasternEuropeandCentralAsia,thesupportisless
than50%:Russia(42%),Kyrgyzstan(35%),Tajikistan(27%),Kosovo
(20%),Albania(12%),Turkey(12%),Azerbaijan(8%).However,fewer
supportedharshpunishments,interpretationsofsomeaspectsdiffered
widely,andmostlyfoundShariaonlyshouldbeappliedtotheMuslim
populations.[181]
InMuslimmajoritycountriesandamongMuslimswhosayshariashouldbe
thelawoftheland,apercentagebetween74%(Egypt)and19%
(Kazakhstan)wantsharialawtoapplytononMuslimsaswell.[182]
Antidemocracy,proShariapublic
demonstrationin2014inMaldives.
A2008YouGovpollintheUnitedKingdomfound40%ofMuslimstudentsinterviewedwantedshariainBritish
law.[183]
PollsdemonstratethatforEgyptians,the'Shariah'isassociatedwithnotionsofpolitical,socialandgender
justice.[184]
Sincethe1970s,theIslamistmovementshavebecomeprominenttheirgoalsaretheestablishmentofIslamic
statesandsharianotjustwithintheirownborderstheirmeansarepoliticalinnature.TheIslamistpowerbaseis
themillionsofpoor,particularlyurbanpoormovingintothecitiesfromthecountryside.Theyarenotinternational
innature(oneexceptionbeingtheMuslimBrotherhood).Theirrhetoricopposeswesterncultureandwestern
power.[185]PoliticalgroupswishingtoreturntomoretraditionalIslamicvaluesarethesourceofthreattoTurkey's
seculargovernment.[185]ThesemovementscanbeconsideredneoSharism.[186]
Extremism
Fundamentalists,wishingtoreturntobasicIslamicreligiousvaluesandlaw,haveinsomeinstancesimposedharsh
shariapunishmentsforcrimes,curtailedcivilrightsandviolatedhumanrights.ExtremistshaveusedtheQuranand
theirownparticularversionofshariatojustifyactsofwarandterroragainstMuslimaswellasnonMuslim
individualsandgovernments,usingalternate,conflictinginterpretationsofshariaandtheirnotionsof
jihad.[187][188]
Theshariabasisofargumentsofthoseadvocatingterrorism,however,remaincontroversial.Somescholarsstate
thatIslamiclawprohibitsthekillingofciviliannoncombatantsincontrast,othersinterpretIslamiclaw
differently,concludingthatallmeansarelegitimatetoreachtheiraims,includingtargetingMuslimnon
combatantsandthemasskillingofnonMuslimcivilians,inordertouniversalizeIslam.[187]Islam,inthese
interpretations,"doesnotmaketargetdifferencesbetweenmilitariesandciviliansbutbetweenMuslimsand
unbelievers.Thereforeitislegitimated(sic)tospillciviliansblood".[187]OtherscholarsofIslam,interpretsharia
12/31
6/19/2016
differently,stating,accordingtoEngelandNourai,"attackinginnocentpeopleisnotcourageousitisstupidand
willbepunishedontheDayofJudgment[...].Itsnotcourageoustoattackinnocentchildren,womenandcivilians.
Itiscourageoustoprotectfreedomitiscourageoustodefendoneandnottoattack".[187][189]
Opposition
Inthepost9/11nonMuslimWesternworld,shariahasbeencalledasourceof"hysteria",[190]"morecontroversial
thanever",theoneaspectofIslamthatinspires"particulardread".[191]OntheInternet,"dozensofselfstyled
`counterjihadis`"emergedtocampaignagainstSharialaw,describingitinstrictinterpretationsresemblingthose
ofSalafiMuslims.[191]Severalyearsafter9/11,fearofsharialawandof"theideologyofextremism"among
MuslimsreportedlyspreadtomainstreamconservativeRepublicansintheUnitedStates.[192]Asof2014,seven
statesintheUShave"bannedSharialaw",orpassedsomekindofballotmeasurethat"prohibitsthestatescourts
fromconsideringforeign,internationalorreligiouslaw."[193][194]FormerHouseSpeakerNewtGingrichwon
ovationscallingforafederalbanonsharialaw.[192]In2015,thegovernorofLouisiana(BobbyJindal)warnedof
thedangerofpurported"nogozones"inEuropeancitiesallegedlyoperatingundersharialawandwherelocal
lawsarenotapplicable.[195]Theissueof"libertyversusSharia"wascalleda"momentouscivilizationaldebate"in
atleastoneconservativeeditorialpage.[196]In2008inBritain,thefuturePrimeMinister(DavidCameron)
declaredhisoppositionto"anyexpansionofSharialawintheUK."[197]InGermany,in2014,theInteriorMinister
(ThomasdeMaizire)toldanewspaper(Bild),"SharialawisnottoleratedonGermansoil."[198]
Criticism
Compatibilitywithdemocracy
AliKhanstatesthat"constitutionalordersfoundedontheprinciplesof
shariaarefullycompatiblewithdemocracy,providedthatreligious
minoritiesareprotectedandtheincumbentIslamicleadershipremains
committedtotherighttorecall".[199][200]Otherscholarssayshariaisnot
compatiblewithdemocracy,particularlywherethecountry'sconstitution
demandsseparationofreligionandthedemocraticstate.[201][202]
CourtsinnonMuslimmajoritynationshavegenerallyruledagainstthe
implementationofsharia,bothinjurisprudenceandwithinacommunity
AprotesteropposingthePark51
context,basedonsharia'sreligiousbackground.InMuslimnations,sharia
project,carriesanantishariasign.
haswidesupportwithsomeexceptions.[203]Forexample,in1998the
ConstitutionalCourtofTurkeybannedanddissolvedTurkey'sRefahParty
onthegroundsthat"DemocracyistheantithesisofSharia",thelatterofwhichRefahsoughttointroduce.[204][205]
OnappealbyRefahtheEuropeanCourtofHumanRightsdeterminedthat"shariaisincompatiblewiththe
fundamentalprinciplesofdemocracy".[206][207][208]Refah'sshariabasednotionofa"pluralityoflegalsystems,
groundedonreligion"wasruledtocontravenetheEuropeanConventionfortheProtectionofHumanRightsand
FundamentalFreedoms.Itwasdeterminedthatitwould"doawaywiththeState'sroleastheguarantorof
individualrightsandfreedoms"and"infringetheprincipleofnondiscriminationbetweenindividualsasregards
theirenjoymentofpublicfreedoms,whichisoneofthefundamentalprinciplesofdemocracy".[209]
Humanrights
13/31
6/19/2016
Severalmajor,predominantlyMuslimcountrieshavecriticizedtheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights
(UDHR)foritsperceivedfailuretotakeintoaccounttheculturalandreligiouscontextofnonWesterncountries.
IrandeclaredintheUNassemblythatUDHRwas"asecularunderstandingoftheJudeoChristiantradition",
whichcouldnotbeimplementedbyMuslimswithouttrespassingtheIslamiclaw.[210]IslamicscholarsandIslamist
politicalpartiesconsider'universalhumanrights'argumentsasimpositionofanonMuslimcultureonMuslim
people,adisrespectofcustomaryculturalpracticesandofIslam.[211][212]In1990,theOrganisationofIslamic
Cooperation,agrouprepresentingallMuslimmajoritynations,metinCairotorespondtotheUDHR,then
adoptedtheCairoDeclarationonHumanRightsinIslam.[213][214]
AnnElizabethMayerpointstonotableabsencesfromtheCairoDeclaration:provisionsfordemocraticprinciples,
protectionforreligiousfreedom,freedomofassociationandfreedomofthepress,aswellasequalityinrightsand
equalprotectionunderthelaw.Article24oftheCairodeclarationstatesthat"alltherightsandfreedomsstipulated
inthisDeclarationaresubjecttotheIslamicshari'a".[215]
In2009,thejournalFreeInquirysummarizedthecriticismoftheCairoDeclarationinaneditorial:"Wearedeeply
concernedwiththechangestotheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsbyacoalitionofIslamicstateswithin
theUnitedNationsthatwishestoprohibitanycriticismofreligionandwouldthusprotectIslam'slimitedviewof
humanrights.InviewoftheconditionsinsidetheIslamicRepublicofIran,Egypt,Pakistan,SaudiArabia,the
Sudan,Syria,Bangdalesh,Iraq,andAfghanistan,weshouldexpectthatatthetopoftheirhumanrightsagenda
wouldbetorectifythelegalinequalityofwomen,thesuppressionofpoliticaldissent,thecurtailmentoffree
expression,thepersecutionofethnicminoritiesandreligiousdissentersinshort,protectingtheircitizensfrom
egregioushumanrightsviolations.Instead,theyareworryingaboutprotectingIslam."[216]
H.PatrickGlennstatesthatshariaisstructuredaroundtheconceptofmutualobligationsofacollective,andit
considersindividualhumanrightsaspotentiallydisruptiveandunnecessarytoitsrevealedcodeofmutual
obligations.Ingivingprioritytothisreligiouscollectiveratherthanindividualliberty,theIslamiclawjustifiesthe
formalinequalityofindividuals(women,nonIslamicpeople).[217]BassamTibistatesthatshariaframeworkand
humanrightsareincompatible.[218]AbdelalHakeemCarney,incontrast,statesthatshariaismisunderstoodfrom
afailuretodistinguishshariafromsiyasah(politics).[219]
Freedomofspeech
BlasphemyinIslamisanyformofcursing,questioningorannoyingGod,Muhammadoranythingconsidered
sacredinIslam.[220][221][222]TheshariaofvariousIslamicschoolsofjurisprudencespecifydifferentpunishment
forblasphemyagainstIslam,byMuslimsandnonMuslims,rangingfromimprisonment,fines,flogging,
amputation,hanging,orbeheading.[220][223][224]Insomecases,shariaallowsnonMuslimstoescapedeathby
convertingandbecomingadevoutfollowerofIslam.[225]
Blasphemy,asinterpretedundersharia,iscontroversial.[226]MuslimnationshavepetitionedtheUnitedNationsto
limit"freedomofspeech"because"unrestrictedanddisrespectfulopinionagainstIslamcreateshatred".[227]Other
nations,incontrast,considerblasphemylawsasviolationof"freedomofspeech",[228]statingthatfreedomof
expressionisessentialtoempoweringbothMuslimsandnonMuslims,andpointtotheabuseofblasphemylaws,
wherehundreds,oftenmembersofreligiousminorities,arebeinglynched,killedandincarceratedinMuslim
nations,onflimsyaccusationsofinsultingIslam.[229][230]
Freedomofthought,conscienceandreligion
14/31
6/19/2016
AccordingtotheUnitedNations'UniversalDeclarationofHumanRights,[231]everyhumanhastherightto
freedomofthought,conscienceandreligionthisrightincludesfreedomtochangetheirreligionorbelief.Sharia
hasbeencriticizedfornotrecognizingthishumanright.Accordingtoscholars[19][232][233]ofIslamiclaw,the
applicablerulesforreligiousconversionundershariaareasfollows:
IfapersonconvertstoIslam,orisbornandraisedasaMuslim,thenheorshewillhavefullrightsof
citizenshipinanIslamicstate.[234]
LeavingIslamisasinandareligiouscrime.OnceanymanorwomanisofficiallyclassifiedasMuslim,
becauseofbirthorreligiousconversion,heorshewillbesubjecttothedeathpenaltyifheorshebecomes
anapostate,thatis,abandonshisorherfaithinIslaminordertobecomeanatheist,agnosticortoconvertto
anotherreligion.Beforeexecutingthedeathpenalty,shariademandsthattheindividualbeofferedone
chancetoreturntoIslam.[234]
IfapersonhasneverbeenaMuslim,andisnotakafir(infidel,unbeliever),heorshecanliveinanIslamic
statebyacceptingtobeadhimmi,orunderaspecialpermissioncalledaman.Asadhimmiorunderaman,
heorshewillsuffercertainlimitationsofrightsasasubjectofanIslamicstate,andwillnotenjoycomplete
legalequalitywithMuslims.[234]
IfapersonhasneverbeenaMuslim,andisakafir(infidel,unbeliever),shariademandsthatheorsheshould
beofferedthechoicetoconverttoIslamandbecomeaMuslimifheorsherejectstheoffer,heorshemay
becomeadhimmi.Failuretopaythetaxmayleadthenonmuslimtoeitherbeenslaved,killedorransomed
ifcaptured.[234]
Accordingtoshariatheory,conversionofdisbelieversandnonMuslimstoIslamisencouragedasareligiousduty
forallMuslims,andleavingIslam(apostasy),expressingcontemptforIslam(blasphemy),andreligious
conversionofMuslimsisprohibited.[235][236]NotallIslamicscholarsagreewiththisinterpretationofsharia
theory.Inpractice,asof2011,20IslamicnationshadlawsdeclaringapostasyfromIslamasillegalandacriminal
offense.SuchlawsareincompatiblewiththeUDHR'srequirementoffreedomofthought,conscienceand
religion.[237][238][239][240]Inanother2013reportbasedoninternationalsurveyofreligiousattitudes,morethan50%
ofMuslimpopulationin6outof49IslamiccountriessupporteddeathpenaltyforanyMuslimwholeavesIslam
(apostasy).[241][242]HoweveritisalsoshownthatthemajorityofMuslimsinthe43nationssurveyeddidnotagree
withthisinterpretationofsharia.
SomescholarsclaimshariaallowsreligiousfreedombecauseaShari'averseteaches,"thereisnocompulsionin
religion."[243]Otherscholarsclaimshariarecognizesonlyoneproperreligion,considersapostasyassinpunishable
withdeath,andmembersofotherreligionsaskafir(infidel)[244]orholdthatShari'ademandsthatallapostatesand
kafirmustbeputtodeath,enslavedorberansomed.[245][246][247][248]YetotherscholarssuggestthatShari'ahas
becomeaproductofhumaninterpretationandinevitablyleadstodisagreementsabouttheprecisecontentsofthe
Shari'a."Intheend,then,whatisbeingappliedisnotsharia,butwhataparticulargroupofclericsandgovernment
decideissharia.ItisthesedifferinginterpretationsofShari'athatexplainwhymanyIslamiccountrieshavelaws
thatrestrictandcriminalizeapostasy,proselytismandtheircitizens'freedomofconscienceandreligion.[249][250]
LGBTrights
Homosexualintercourseisillegalundersharialaw,thoughtheprescribedpenaltiesdifferfromoneschoolof
jurisprudencetoanother.Forexample,someMuslimmajoritycountriesimposethedeathpenaltyforacts
perceivedassodomyandhomosexualactivities:Iran,[251]SaudiArabia,[252]andInotherMuslimmajority
countriessuchasEgypt,Iraq,andtheIndonesianprovinceofAceh,[253]samesexsexualactsareillegal,[254]and
LGBTpeopleregularlyfaceviolenceanddiscrimination.[255]
Women
15/31
6/19/2016
Domesticviolence
ManyclaimShari'alawencouragesdomesticviolenceagainstwomen,whenahusbandsuspectsnushuz
(disobedience,disloyalty,rebellion,illconduct)inhiswife.[256]Otherscholarsclaimwifebeating,fornashizah,is
notconsistentwithmodernperspectivesoftheQuran.[257]
OneoftheversesoftheQuranrelatingtopermissibilityofdomesticviolenceisSurah4:34.[258][259]Shari'ahas
beencriticizedforignoringwomen'srightsindomesticabusecases.[260][261][262][263]Musawah,CEDAW,KAFA
andotherorganizationshaveproposedwaystomodifyShari'ainspiredlawstoimprovewomen'srightsinIslamic
nations,includingwomen'srightsindomesticabusecases.[264][265][266][267]
Personalstatuslawsandchildmarriage
Shari'aisthebasisforpersonalstatuslawsinmostIslamicmajoritynations.Thesepersonalstatuslawsdetermine
rightsofwomeninmattersofmarriage,divorceandchildcustody.A2011UNICEFreportconcludesthatShari'a
lawprovisionsarediscriminatoryagainstwomenfromahumanrightsperspective.Inlegalproceedingsunder
Shari'alaw,awomanstestimonyisworthhalfofamansbeforeacourt.[159]
ExceptforIran,LebanonandBahrainwhichallowchildmarriages,thecivilcodeinIslamicmajoritycountriesdo
notallowchildmarriageofgirls.However,withShari'apersonalstatuslaws,Shari'acourtsinallthesenations
havethepowertooverridethecivilcode.Thereligiouscourtspermitgirlslessthan18yearsoldtomarry.Asof
2011,childmarriagesarecommoninafewMiddleEasterncountries,accountingfor1in6allmarriagesinEgypt
and1in3marriagesinYemen.UNICEFandotherstudiesstatethatthetopfivenationsintheworldwithhighest
observedchildmarriageratesNiger(75%),Chad(72%),Mali(71%),Bangladesh(64%),Guinea(63%)are
IslamicmajoritycountrieswherethepersonallawsforMuslimsareshariabased.[268][269]
Rapeisconsideredacrimeinallcountries,butShari'acourtsinBahrain,Iraq,Jordan,Libya,Morocco,Syriaand
Tunisiainsomecasesallowarapisttoescapepunishmentbymarryinghisvictim,whileinothercasesthevictim
whocomplainsisoftenprosecutedwiththecrimeofZina(adultery).[159][270][271]
Women'srighttopropertyandconsent
Shariagrantswomentherighttoinheritpropertyfromotherfamilymembers,andtheserightsaredetailedinthe
Quran.[272]Awoman'sinheritanceisunequalandlessthanaman's,anddependentonmanyfactors.[Quran4:12(htt
p://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/004qmt.php#004.012)][273]Forinstance,adaughter'sinheritanceisusually
halfthatofherbrother's.[Quran4:11(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/004qmt.php#004.011)][273]
Untilthe20thcentury,IslamiclawgrantedMuslimwomencertainlegalrights,suchastherighttoownproperty
receivedasMahr(brideprice)athermarriage.[274][275]However,IslamiclawdoesnotgrantnonMuslimwomen
thesamelegalrightsasthefewitdidgrantMuslimwomen.Shariarecognizesthebasicinequalitybetweenmaster
andwomenslave,betweenfreewomenandslavewomen,betweenBelieversandnonBelievers,aswellastheir
unequalrights.[276][277]Shariaauthorizedtheinstitutionofslavery,usingthewordsabd(slave)andthephrasema
malakataymanukum("thatwhichyourrighthandowns")torefertowomenslaves,seizedascaptivesof
war.[276][278]UnderIslamiclaw,Muslimmencouldhavesexualrelationswithfemalecaptivesandslaves.[279][280]
Slavewomenundershariadidnothavearighttoownpropertyortomovefreely.[281][282]Sharia,inIslam'shistory,
providedareligiousfoundationforenslavingnonMuslimwomen(andmen),butneverthelessencouragedthe
manumissionofslaves.However,manumissionrequiredthatthenonMuslimslavefirstconverttoIslam.[283][284]
16/31
6/19/2016
AnonMuslimslavewomanwhoborechildrentoherMuslimmasterbecamelegallyfreeuponhermaster'sdeath,
andherchildrenwerepresumedtobeMuslimsliketheirfather,inAfrica[283]andelsewhere.[285]
Startingwiththe20thcentury,Westernlegalsystemsevolvedtoexpandwomen'srights,butwomen'srightsunder
IslamiclawhaveremainedtiedtotheQuran,hadithsandtheirfundamentalistinterpretationasshariabyIslamic
jurists.[280][286]
ParallelswithWesternlegalsystems
ElementsofIslamiclawhaveinfluencedwesternlegalsystems.Asexample,theinfluenceofIslamonthe
developmentofaninternationallawoftheseacanbediscernedalongsidethatoftheRomaninfluence.[287]
MakdisistatesIslamiclawalsoinfluencedthelegalscholasticsystemoftheWest.[288]Thestudyoflegaltextand
degreeshaveparallelsbetweenIslamicstudiesofshariaandtheWesternsystemoflegalstudiesforexample,the
statusoffaqih(meaning"masteroflaw"),mufti(meaning"professoroflegalopinions")andmudarris(meaning
"teacher")werelatertranslatedintoLatinasmagister,professoranddoctor,respectively.[288]
TherearedifferencesbetweenIslamicandWesternlegalsystems.Forexample,shariaclassicallyrecognizesonly
naturalpersons,andneverdevelopedtheconceptofalegalperson,orcorporation,i.e.,alegalentitythatlimitsthe
liabilitiesofitsmanagers,shareholders,andemployeesexistsbeyondthelifetimesofitsfoundersandthatcan
ownassets,signcontracts,andappearincourtthroughrepresentatives.[289]Interestprohibitionsimposed
secondarycostsbydiscouragingrecordkeepinganddelayingtheintroductionofmodernaccounting.[290]Such
factors,accordingtoTimurKuran,haveplayedasignificantroleinretardingeconomicdevelopmentintheMiddle
East.[291]
Seealso
Arabization
Topicsinsharialaw
Banonsharialaw
Dn
GlossaryofIslam
GuardianshipoftheIslamic
Jurists
ImamNawawi'sFortyHadith,a
briefcollectionoffortyhadithby
thefounderoftheShfischool,
eachusedtoillustratea
fundamentalofshariah.
Islamandthearts
Islamicrepublic
IslamicShariaCouncil,acourt
intheUnitedKingdomwithno
legalauthority.
Islamictheology
Ma'ruf
Moredanicoalawsystemthatis
appliedaccordingtogrouprather
thanterritoriality.
OctawareTechnologiesIndia's
firstShariacompliantcompany
approvedtobelistedonBSE
RayaniAiraMalaysianairline
that'sfollowingsharia.
Religiouslaw
Theonomy
Hudud
Halakha
References
17/31
6/19/2016
1."British&WorldEnglish:sharia".Oxford:Oxford
UniversityPress.Retrieved4December2015.
2.Ritter,RobertM.Brown,Lesley(22September2005).
NewOxfordDictionaryforWritersandEditors:The
EssentialAZGuidetotheWrittenWord.Oxford:
OxfordUniversityPress.p.349.ISBN978019
8610403.
3.Calder,NormanHooker,MichaelBarry(2007).
"Shara".InP.Bearman,Th.Bianquis,C.E.
Bosworth,E.vanDonzel,W.P.Heinrichs.
EncyclopaediaofIslam(Seconded.).Brill.
ISBN9789004161214.
4.Rehman,J.(2007),TheSharia,IslamicFamilyLaws
andInternationalHumanRightsLaw:Examiningthe
TheoryandPracticeofPolygamyandTalaq,
InternationalJournalofLaw,PolicyandtheFamily(ht
tp://lawfam.oxfordjournals.org/content/21/1/108.abstrac
t),21(1),pp108127.(subscriptionrequired)
5.DeLongBas,NatanaJ.(2004).WahhabiIslam:From
RevivalandReformtoGlobalJihad(Firsted.).Oxford
UniversityPress,USA.p.93.ISBN0195169913.
6.Coulson,N.J.(2011),AhistoryofIslamiclaw,Aldine,
ISBN9781412818551
7.JohnL.Esposito,NatanaJ.DeLongBas(2001),
WomeninMuslimfamilylaw(https://books.google.co
m/books?id=MOmaDq8HKCgC&pg=PA2#v=onepage
&q&f=false),p.2.SyracuseUniversityPress,ISBN
9780815629085.Quote:"[...],bytheninthcentury,the
classicaltheoryoflawfixedthesourcesofIslamiclaw
atfour:theQuran,theSunnahoftheProphet,qiyas
(analogicalreasoning),andijma(consensus)."
8.HishamM.Ramadan(2006),UnderstandingIslamic
Law:FromClassicaltoContemporary(https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=5ZS7EaHTQX8C&pg=PA6),
RowmanAltamira,ISBN9780759109919,pp.621
9.Esposito,John(1999).TheOxfordhistoryofIslam.
NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN978019
5107999.
10.Otto,Jan(2010).Shariaincorporatedacomparative
overviewofthelegalsystemsoftwelveMuslim
countriesinpastandpresent.Leiden:Leiden
UniversityPress.ISBN9789087280574.
11.NisrineAbiad(2008),Sharia,MuslimStatesand
InternationalHumanRightsTreatyObligations,British
InstituteofInternationalandComparativeLaw,ISBN
9781905221417
12.Hamann,Katie(December29,2009)."Aceh'sSharia
LawStillControversialinIndonesia"(http://www1.voa
news.com/english/news/religion/AcehsShariaLawStill
ControversialinIndonesia80257482.html).Voiceof
America.RetrievedSeptember19,2011.
Iijima,Masako(January13,2010)."Islamic
PoliceTightenGriponIndonesia'sAceh"(http://
www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE60D07420100
114).Reuters.RetrievedSeptember18,2011.
"AcehShariaPoliceLovedandHated"(http://w
ww.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/02/08/acehsh
ariapolicelovedandhated.html).TheJakarta
Post.
18/31
6/19/2016
13.Staff(January3,2003)."Analysis:Nigeria'sSharia
Split"(http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2632939.stm).
BBCNews.RetrievedSeptember19,2011."Thousands
ofpeoplehavebeenkilledinfightingbetween
ChristiansandMuslimsfollowingtheintroductionof
shariapunishmentsinnorthernNigerianstatesoverthe
pastthreeyears".
Harnischfeger,Johannes(2008).
p.16."WhentheGovernorofKaduna
announcedtheintroductionofSharia,although
nonMuslimsformalmosthalfofthepopulation,
violenceerupted,leavingmorethan1,000people
dead."
p.189."Whenaviolentconfrontationloomed
inFebruary200,becausethestrongChristian
minorityinKadunawasunwillingtoacceptthe
proposedsharialaw,thesultanandhis
delegationof18emirswenttoseethegovernor
andinsistedonthepassageofthebill."
Mshelizza,Ibrahim(July28,2009)."Fightfor
ShariaLeavesDozensDeadinNigeriaIslamic
MilitantsResistingWesternEducationExtend
TheirCampaignofViolence"(http://www.indepe
ndent.co.uk/news/world/africa/fightforshariale
avesdozensdeadinnigeria1763253.html).The
Independent.RetrievedSeptember19,2011.
"NigeriainTransition:RecentReligious
TensionsandViolence"(http://www.pbs.org/new
shour/bb/africa/nigeria/religous_violence.html).
PBS.
Staff(December28,2010)."Timeline:Tensions
inNigeriaALookattheCountry'sBoutsof
InterReligiousandEthnicClashesandTerror
Attacks"(http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/
2010/01/201012314018187505.html).AlJazeera
English.RetrievedSeptember19,2011.
"Thousandsofpeoplearekilledinnorthern
NigeriaasnonMuslimsopposedtothe
introductionofsharia,orIslamiclaw,fight
Muslimswhodemanditsimplementationinthe
northernstateofKaduna.".
Ibrahimova,Roza(July27,2009)."Dozens
KilledinViolenceinNorthernNigeria"(http://en
glish.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2009/07/20097271
82749635965.html)(video(requiresAdobe
Flash00:01:49)).AlJazeeraEnglish.Retrieved
September19,2011."ThegroupBokoHaram,
whichwantstoimposesharia(Islamiclaw)
acrossthecountry,hasattackedpolicestations
andchurches."
14.[1](http://countrystudies.us/sudan/63.htm).Libraryof
CongressCountryStudies:Sudan:."Thefactorsthat
provokedthemilitarycoup,primarilytheclosely
intertwinedissuesofIslamiclawandofthecivilwarin
thesouth,remainedunresolvedin1991.TheSeptember
1983implementationoftheshariathroughoutthe
countryhadbeencontroversialandprovoked
widespreadresistanceinthepredominantlynonMuslim
south...Oppositiontothesharia,especiallytothe
applicationofhudud(sing.,hadd),orIslamicpenalties,
suchasthepublicamputationofhandsfortheft,was
notconfinedtothesouthandhadbeenaprincipalfactor
leadingtothepopularuprisingofApril1985that
overthrewthegovernmentofJaafaranNimeiri".
Marchal,R.(2013),Islamicpoliticaldynamics
intheSomalicivilwar.IslaminAfricaSouthof
theSahara:EssaysinGenderRelationsand
PoliticalReform,pp331352
"PBSFrontline:"Civilwarwassparkedin1983
whenthemilitaryregimetriedtoimposesharia
lawaspartofitsoverallpolicyto"Islamicize"
allofSudan." ".Pbs.org.Retrieved20120404.
Tibi,Bassam(2008).PoliticalIslam,World
PoliticsandEurope.Routledge.p.33."The
shari'awasimposedonnonMuslimSudanese
peoplesinSeptember1983,andsincethattime
Muslimsinthenorthhavebeenfightingajihad
againstthenonMuslimsinthesouth."
15."FeaturesAGuidetotheIsraeliLegalSystem".
LLRX.com.20010115.Retrieved20160322.
16.Otto,JanMichiel.ShariaandNationalLawinMuslim
Countries(PDF).AmsterdamUniversityPress.
ISBN9789087280482.
Stahnke,TadandRobertC.Blitt(2005),"The
ReligionStateRelationshipandtheRightto
FreedomofReligionorBelief:AComparative
TextualAnalysisoftheConstitutionsof
PredominantlyMuslimCountries."Georgetown
JournalofInternationalLaw,volume36,issue4
alsoseeShariaLawprofilebyCountry(http://w
ww.law.emory.edu/ifl/index2.html),Emory
University(2011)
17.Taher,Abul(September14,2008).Revealed:UKsfirst
officialshariacourts.TheSundayTimes
InsideBritain'sShariacourts(http://www.telegra
ph.co.uk/news/uknews/lawandorder/9975937/In
sideBritainsShariacourts.html)JaneCorbin,
TheTelegraph(April7,2013)
Bowen,J.R.(2009).HowcouldEnglishcourts
recognizeShariah?(http://ir.stthomas.edu/cgi/vie
wcontent.cgi?article=1231&context=ustlj),U.St.
ThomasLawJournal,7,411
19/31
6/19/2016
18.EncyclopdiaBritannica,seearticleonShari'ah
(Islamiclaw)(http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/to
pic/538793/Shariah),2006
Otto,J.M.(2008).ShariaandNationalLawin
MuslimCountries(https://openaccess.leidenuni
v.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/20694/Sharia%20an
d%20national%20Law%20in%20Muslim%20co
untries.pdf?sequence=1)(Vol.3),Amsterdam
UniversityPress
19.AbdullahiAhmedAnNaim,IslamicFoundationsof
ReligiousHumanRights,inRELIGIOUSHUMAN
RIGHTSINGLOBALPERSPECTIVE:RELIGIOUS
PERSPECTIVES,pp351356(JohnWitteJr.&Johan
D.vanderVyvereds.,1996).
20.Hajjar,Lisa."Religion,statepower,anddomestic
violenceinMuslimsocieties:Aframeworkfor
comparativeanalysis."Law&SocialInquiry29.1
(2004)seepages138
21.AlSuwaidi,J.(1995).Arabandwesternconceptionsof
democracyinDemocracy,war,andpeaceinthe
MiddleEast(Editors:DavidGarnham,MarkA.
Tessler),IndianaUniversityPress,seeChapters5and
6ISBN9780253209399
22.AbdalHaqq,Irshad(2006).UnderstandingIslamic
LawFromClassicaltoContemporary(editedby
AminahBeverlyMcCloud).Chapter1IslamicLaw
AnOverviewofitsOriginandElements.AltaMira
Press.p.4.
23.HashimKamali,Mohammad(2008).Shari'ahLaw:An
Introduction.OneworldPublications.p.2.ISBN978
1851685653.
24.HashimKamali,Mohammad(2008).Shari'ahLaw:An
Introduction.OneworldPublications.p.14.ISBN978
1851685653.
25.Weiss,BernardG.(1998).TheSpiritofIslamicLaw.
Athens,Georgia:UniversityofGeorgiaPress.p.17.
ISBN9780820319773.
26.[Quran45:18(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/vers
es/045qmt.php#045.018)]
es/045qmt.php#045.013)]
es/042qmt.php#042.021)]
29.[Quran5:48(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verse
s/005qmt.php#005.048)]
30."DictionaryoftheHolyQuranbyMalikGhulamFarid
(2006)".InternetArchive.
31.Ullmann,M.(2002),Wrterbuchdergriechisch
arabischenbersetzungendesneuntenJahrhunderts,
Wiesbaden,p.437.Rom.7:22:
istranslatedas
32.Hodgson,Marshall(1958).TheVentureofIslam
ConscienceandHistoryinaWorldCivilizationVol1.
UniversityofChicago.pp.155156.
33.Weiss(2002),pp.3,161.
34.Dien,MawilIzzi.IslamicLaw:FromHistorical
FoundationsToContemporaryPractice.NotreDame:
UniversityofNotreDamePress,2004.
35.KhadduriandLiebesny(1955),p.37
38.Weiss(2002).p.162.
39.BaberJohansen(1998),ContingencyinaSacredLaw:
LegalandEthicalNormsintheMuslimFiqh,Brill
Academic,ISBN9789004106031,pp.2332
40.WaelB.Hallaq(1993),WasalShafiitheMaster
ArchitectofIslamicJurisprudence?(http://www.jstor.or
g/stable/164536),InternationalJournalofMiddleEast
Studies,Vol.25,No.4,pp.587605
41.Badr,GamalMoursiMayer,AnnElizabeth(Winter
1984),"IslamicCriminalJustice",AmericanJournalof
ComparativeLaw(AmericanJournalofComparative
Law,Vol.32,No.1)32(1):167169
42.(ElGamal2006,p.16)
43.Makdisi1999,Makdisi2005
45.https://web.archive.org/web/20060522000137/http://ww
w.averroesfoundation.org/articles/sex_slavery.html.
ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMay22,2006.Retrieved
February14,2006.Missingorempty|title=(help)
w.averroes
foundation.org:80/articles/islamic_law_evolving.html.
ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJuly8,2006.Retrieved
w.averroes
foundation.org:80/articles/free_and_equal.html.
ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJuly8,2006.Retrieved
48.Lapidus,Ira(editedbyFrancisRobinson)(1996).The
CambridgeIllustratedHistoryoftheIslamicWorld.
CambridgeUniversityPress.p.292.seeBibliography
forConclusion.
49.Hamoud,HassanR."IlliteracyintheArabWorld"(htt
p://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001462/146282e.p
df).BackgroundpaperpreparedfortheEducationfor
AllGlobalMonitoringReport2006,LiteracyforLife
UNESCO.
50.Esposito(2004),"Shariah",pg.288
51.Calder,N."Shara."EncyclopaediaofIslam."Within
Muslimdiscourse,shariadesignatestherulesand
regulationsgoverningthelivesofMuslims,derivedin
principlefromtheKuranandhadith.Inthissense,the
wordiscloselyassociatedwithfih[q.v.],which
signifiesacademicdiscussionofdivinelaw."
52.Gibb,HamiltonAlexanderRosskeen(1970).
MohammedanismAnHistoricalSurvey.Oxford
UniversityPress.p.68.ISBN0195002458.
20/31
6/19/2016
53.HuntJaninandAndreKahlmeyerinIslamicLaw:the
ShariafromMuhammad'sTimetothePresentbyHunt
JaninandAndreKahlmeyer,McFarlandandCo.
Publishers,2007,p.3.ISBN0786429216
54.TheShariaandTheNationState:WhoCanCodifythe
DivineLaw?(http://www.hf.uib.no/smi/pao/vikor.html)
p.2.Accessed20September2005.
55.BasimMusallam,TheCambridgeIllustratedHistoryof
theIslamicWorldeditedbyFrancisRobinson.
CambridgeUniversityPress,1996,p.176.
56.MarshallHodgson,TheVentureofIslamConscience
andHistoryinaWorldCivilizationVol3.Universityof
Chicago,1958,pp.105108.
Chicago,1958,pp.176177.
58.SarahAnsari,TheCambridgeIllustratedHistoryofthe
IslamicWorldeditedbyFrancisRobinson.Cambridge
UniversityPress,1996,p.90.
Chicago,1958,pp.366367.
60.Ansari,Sarah.TheCambridgeIllustratedHistoryofthe
UniversityPress,1996,pp.103111.
61.Hodgson,Marshall.TheVentureofIslamConscience
Chicago,1958,pp.384386.
62.Otto,JanMichiel(2008).p.30.
63.FazlurRahman(2009),ThemajorthemesofQuran,
2ndEdition,UniversityofChicagoPress,ISBN978
0226702865
64.ShabbirAkhtar(2008),TheQuranandtheSecular
Mind:APhilosophyofIslam,Routledge,ISBN978
0415437837
65.Ramadan(2006),p.4
66.Ramadan(2006),p.1213
67.Glenn,H.Patrick(2014).p.199.
68.AishaY.Musa,TheQuranists(http://www.academia.e
du/1035742/The_Quranists),FloridaInternational
University,accessedMay22,2013.
69.NealRobinson(2013),Islam:AConciseIntroduction,
Routledge,ISBN9780878402243,Chapter7,pp.85
89
70.EdipYuksel,LaythSalehalShaiban,MarthaSchulte
Nafeh,Quran:AReformistTranslation,Brainbow
Press,2007
71.AlShibli,SiratalNuman,Lahore,n.d.Trans.
MuhammadTayyabBakhshBadauniasMethodof
SiftingPropheticTradition,Karachi,1966.179
72.Iqbal,Muhammad,TheReconstructionofReligious
ThoughtinIslam,editedbyM.SaeedSheikh,Adam
PublishersandDistributors,Delhi,1997(also
publishedearlier(in1934)bytheOxfordUniversity
Press),p.137
73.AishaY.Musa,TheQuranists(http://www.academia.e
du/1035742/The_Quranists),FloridaInternational
University,accessedMay22,2013Quote"Stories
relatingthewordsanddeedsoftheProphet
Muhammad,knownasHadithinArabic,havelongbeen
esteemedbythevastmajorityofMuslimsasasource
oflawandguidancesecondonlytotheQuranin
authority."
74.Quran3:32(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustext
s/quran/verses/003qmt.php#003.032),Quran3:132(htt
p://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/0
03qmt.php#003.132),Quran4:59(http://www.usc.edu/
org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/004qmt.php#004.
059),Quran8:20(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religiou
stexts/quran/verses/008qmt.php#008.020),
Quran33:66(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustex
ts/quran/verses/033qmt.php#033.066)
75.MuhammadQasimZaman(2012),ModernIslamic
ThoughtinaRadicalAge,CambridgeUniversityPress,
ISBN9781107096455,pp.3031
76.JonathanA.C.Brown(2009),Hadith:Muhammad's
LegacyintheMedievalandModernWorld,Oneworld
Publications,ISBN9781851686636,Chapter2
77.MoojanMomen(1987),AnIntroductiontoShiiIslam:
TheHistoryandDoctrinesofTwelverShiism,Yale
UniversityPress,ISBN9780300035315,pp.173175
78.WilliamC.Chittick(1981),AShi'iteAnthology,
SUNYPress,ISBN9780873955102,pp.512
79.JosephLowry(2010),inTheCambridgeCompanionto
Muhammad(Editor:JonathanE.Brockopp),
CambridgeUniversityPress,ISBN9780521713726,
pp.9294
80.FarrukhB.Hakeemetal(2012),PolicingMuslim
Communities:ComparativeInternationalContext,
Springer,ISBN9781493901753,pp.55
81.JonathanA.C.Brown(2009),Hadith:Muhammad's
LegacyintheMedievalandModernWorld,Oneworld
Publications,ISBN9781851686636,Chapter4
82.CambridgeCompaniontotheQuran.p.60.
83."ForgottenWitness:EvidenceForTheEarly
CodificationOfTheQur'an,JournalOfTheAmerican
OrientalSociety,1998,Volume118,pp.114.".
84.Hagarism:TheMakingoftheIslamicWorld.
pp.18,167.
86.CambridgeCompaniontotheQuran.pp.6263.
88."BritishuniversityrevealsQuranparchmentamong
oldest".DAWN.DawnNews.22July2015.Retrieved
22July2015.
89.HaraldMotzki(2006),inTheCambridgeCompanionto
theQur'n,Editor:JaneDammenMcAuliffe,
CambridgeUniversityPress,ISBN9780521539340,
pp.5967
21/31
6/19/2016
90.ARippin(1984),AlZuhrNaskhalQur'nandthe
problemofearlyTafsrtexts,BulletinoftheSchoolof
OrientalandAfricanStudies,Volume47,Issue01,pp.
2243
91.WaelB.Hallaq(2009),Shar'a:Theory,Practice,
Transformations,CambridgeUniversityPress,ISBN
9780521861472,pp.9697
92.YvonneYazbeckHaddadandJohnL.Esposito(1997),
Islam,Gender,&SocialChange,OxfordUniversity
Press,ISBN9780195113570,p.41
93.LouayFatoohi(2012),AbrogationintheQuranand
IslamicLaw,Routledge,ISBN9780415631983,pp.3
6,Ch.3and4
94.Ramadan(2006),p.57
s/quran/verses/004qmt.php#004.059)
HishamM.Ramadan(2006),Understanding
IslamicLaw:FromClassicaltoContemporary
(https://books.google.com/books?id=5ZS7EaHT
QX8C&pg=PA17),RowmanAltamira,ISBN
9780759109919,p.17
96.JavaidRehmanetal(Editors),Religion,HumanRights
andInternationalLaw,BrillAcademic,ISBN978
9004158269,p.82(notes26)
s/quran/verses/002qmt.php#002.059)
HishamM.Ramadan(2006),Understanding
IslamicLaw:FromClassicaltoContemporary
(https://books.google.com/books?id=5ZS7EaHT
QX8C&pg=PA18),RowmanAltamira,ISBN
9780759109919,p.18
98.MuammadK
lidMasudetal,DispensingJusticein
Islam:QadisAndTheirJudgements,BrillAcademic,
ISBN9789004140677,p.221
99.IanNetton(2007),EncyclopaediaofIslam,ISBN978
0700715886,pp.230,358359
101.ChiraghAli(2002),ModernistIslam18401940:A
Sourcebook,EditedbyCharlesKurzman,Oxford
102.A.C.Brown,Jonathan(2014).MisquotingMuhammad:
TheChallengeandChoicesofInterpretingthe
Prophet'sLegacy.OneworldPublications.p.193.
ISBN9781780744209."Althoughiteventuallybecame
extinct,Tabari'smadhhabflourishedamongSunni
ulamafortwocenturiesafterhisdeath."
103.JohnEsposito,TheHistoryofIslam,Oxford
UniversityPress,ISBN9780195107999
104.Hallaq1997,Brown1996,Aslan2006.
105.MohamedKeshavjee,Islam,ShariaandAlternative
DisputeResolution,Taurus,ISBN9781848857322
106.AbdulazizAbdulhusseinSachedina,TheJustRulerin
Shi'iteIslam,OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN978
0195119152
108.Esposito,JohnL.(2010).TheFutureofIslam.Oxford
UniversityPress.p.7477.
109.Esposito1999,pp.112114.
110.NazeerAhmed(2001),IslaminGlobalHistory,
(Xlibris)ISBN9780738859620.
111.JurisprudenceandLawIslam(http://veil.unc.edu/relig
ions/islam/law/)ReorientingtheVeil,Universityof
NorthCarolina(2009)
112.MNPearson(2000),TheIndianOceanandtheRed
Sea,inTheHistoryofIslaminAfrica(Ed:Nehemia
Levtzion,RandallPouwels),OhioUniversityPress,
ISBN9780821412978,Chapter2
113.Horrie,ChrisChippindale,Peter(1991).p.46.
114.Heck,PaulL.(2006),"Taxation",InEncyclopaediaof
theQur'an,vol.5,(McAuliffe,JaneDammeneditor),
Leiden:BrillPublishers.ISBN9004147438
115.MedaniAhmedandSebastianGianci,Zakat,
EncyclopediaofTaxationandTaxPolicy(Cordesetal.
editors),ISBN9780877666820,p.479481
116.Horrie,ChrisChippindale,Peter(1991).pp.4647.
117.DoiARI.Shariah:TheIslamicLaw,ASNoordeen
Publishers,KualaLumpur,ISBN9679963330
118."OnlineBook".Abdurrahmandoi.net.Retrieved
20121126.
119.Shah,NiazA.IslamicLawandtheLawofArmed
Conflict:TheConflictinPakistan.Taylor&Francis.
p.16.Retrieved20August2015.
120.Chapra,MuhammadUmer(2000),TheFutureof
Economics:AnIslamicPerspective,Leicester:The
IslamicFoundation,p.118,ISBN9780860372752
121.MOHAMADYAZID,IASMADI,M.NMOHDLIKI,
H(March2015)."ThePracticesofIslamicFinancein
UpholdingtheIslamic"(PDF).InternationalReviewof
ManagementandBusinessResearch4(1):286287.
Retrieved27August2015.
122.Islam:GoverningunderSharia(http://www.cfr.org/relig
ion/islamgoverningundersharia/p8034)ToniJohnson
andMohammedAlySergie,CouncilonForeign
Relations(2013)
123.Amanat&Griffel(2007),SHARIA:ISLAMICLAW
INTHECONTEMPORARYCONTEXT,Stanford
UniversityPress,ISBN9780804756396
124.JSchenker(2000),Womensreproductivehealth:
monotheisticreligiousperspectives.International
journalofgynecology&obstetrics,70(1):7786
125.Khadduri,Majid&HerbertJ.Leibesny(2010),LAW
INTHEMIDDLEEAST,TheLawbookExchange,
Clark,NJ,ISBN9781616191177
126.Otto,JanMichiel(2009).ShariaIncorporated:A
ComparativeOverviewoftheLegalSystemsofTwelve
MuslimCountriesinPastandPresent.Leiden:Leiden
22/31
6/19/2016
127."Ihavearightto".BBCWorldService.Retrieved
24February2013.
128."TheEmergenceofShariaLaw".OnlineNewsHour.
ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch8,2013.Retrieved
20February2013.
129.AbdullahiAhmedAnNa'im,HumanRightsinthe
MuslimWorld:SocioPoliticalConditionsand
ScripturalImperatives,HarvardHumanRightsJournal,
Vol.3,pp.1329
130.Otto,JanMichiel(2009).ShariaIncorporated:A
ComparativeOverviewoftheLegalSystemsofTwelve
MuslimCountriesinPastandPresent.Leiden:Leiden
UniversityPress.pp.2933.ISBN9789087280574.
131."SwedishPoliceLoseControlOf55NoGoZonesTo
MuslimGangsTheDailyCaller".TheDailyCaller.
Retrieved22March2015.
132.AlexandraJaffe,CNN(19January2015)."Bobby
Jindalslams'nogozones,'pushes'assimilation' ".
CNN.Retrieved22March2015.
133.BrianStelter(18January2015)."FoxNewsapologizes
4timesforinaccuratecommentsaboutMuslimsin
Europe".CNNMoney.Retrieved22March2015.
134."Jindalcondemnsimaginary'nogozones' ".MSNBC.
Retrieved22March2015.
135.muawiinvariantEnglishspellings:mutawwain,
muttawa,mutawallees,mutawaah,mutawi,mutawwa'
mostliterallymeans"volunteers"intheArabic
language,DictionaryofModernWrittenArabicby
HansWehr,editedbyJ.M.Cowan,4thedition(1994,
ISBN0879500034),p.670.
136.Fealy&White(2008),REGIONALSHARIA
REGULATIONSININDONESIA:ANOMALYOR
SYMPTOM?,Chapter:ExpressingIslam:Religious
lifeandpoliticsinIndonesia,ISBN9789812308511
137."Iran'sBasijForceTheMainstayOfDomestic
Security.January15,2009".
RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty.
138.SKMoore(2012),MilitaryChaplainsasAgentsof
Peace,Rowman&Littlefield,ISBN9780739149102,
p.169,Quote"TheDepartmentofthePromotionof
VirtueandPreventionofViceenforcedtheirversionof
ShariaLaw.Awomancouldnotappearinpublic
withoutbeingaccompaniedbyamalerelative.The
burkharemainsasymbolofoppressioninAfghan
society...womenresistingthesearcanerestrictionswere
beatenpubliclybytheTalibanclothespolicewhose
mandateitwastopatrolcitystreetsinsearchof
malcontents,enforcingtheirversionofSharialaw."
139.*TalibanfromdepartmentofAmrobilmahroof
(PromotionofVirtueandPreventionofVice,Taliban
religiouspolice)(http://rawa.org/beating.htm)RAWA,
Afghanistan(2001),Quote"ItshowstwoTaliban
fromdepartmentofAmrobilmahroof(Promotionof
VirtueandPreventionofVice,Talibanreligiouspolice)
beatingawomaninpublicbecauseshehasdaredto
removeherburqainpublic"Talibanmistreatwomen(h
ttp://www.rawa.org/women4.htm),AssociatedPress,
Quote"awomandescribedhowher8yearoldsister
hadbeencaughtoutsidewithoutaburqaandbeatenby
religiouspolice."
140.SamiZubaida(2005),LawandPowerintheIslamic
World,ISBN9781850439349,pages5860
141.LorenzoVidino(2013),HisbainEurope?(http://www.c
ss.ethz.ch/publications/pdfs/Hisba_in_Europe.pdf),
EuropeanFoundationforDemocracy,Switzerland
142.MichaelCook:Commandingrightandforbidding
wronginIslamicthought.CambridgeUniversityPress.
Cambridge2000.ISBN0521661749
143.Quran3:104(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustex
ts/quran/verses/003qmt.php#003.104),Quran3:110(ht
tp://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/
003qmt.php#003.110),Quran9:71(http://www.usc.ed
u/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/009qmt.php#00
9.071)
144.NancyGallagher(2005),Apostasy,Encyclopediaof
WomenandIslamicCultures:Family,LawandPolitics,
Editors:SuadJosephandAfsnaNambd,ISBN
9789004128187,pages79
145.Berger,Maurits(2003)."ApostasyandPublicPolicyin
ContemporaryEgypt:AnEvaluationofRecentCases
fromEgypt'sHighestCourts".HumanRightsQuarterly
25(3):72040.doi:10.1353/hrq.2003.0026.
JSTOR20069684.
146.Olsson,Susanne(2008)."ApostasyinEgypt:
ContemporaryCasesofisbah".TheMuslimWorld98
(1):95115.doi:10.1111/j.14781913.2008.00212.x.
147.Olaniyi,RasheedOyewole(2011)."HisbahandSharia
LawEnforcementinMetropolitanKano".AfricaToday
57(4):7196.doi:10.2979/africatoday.57.4.71.
148.Uddin,Asma(2010)."ReligiousFreedomImplications
ofShariaImplementationinAceh,Indonesia".
UniversityofSt.ThomasLawJournal7(3):60348.
SSRN1885776.
149.HelmiNoman(2013),InthenameofGodFaithbased
internetcensorshipinmajorityMuslimcountries,in
RoutledgeHandbookofMediaLaw(Editors:Monroe
E.Priceetal.),Routledge,ISBN9780415683166,
Chapter14
150.SKMoore(2012),MilitaryChaplainsasAgentsof
Peace,Rowman&Littlefield,ISBN9780739149102,
p.169
151.IslamicLawLegalLiteratureAndInstitutions,
Jurisprudence:The"Sources"oftheLaw,TheModern
Period(http://science.jrank.org/pages/7816/LawIslami
c.html).
23/31
6/19/2016
152."Qatar:TheDualityoftheLegalSystem".
153.SaudiArabiaBasicIndustriesCorp.v.MobilYanbu
PetrochemicalCo.,SupremeCourtofDelaware,
January14,2005p.52(http://caselaw.findlaw.com/data
2/delawarestatecases/4932003.pdf)."TheSaudilaw
systemdiffersincriticallyimportantrespectsfromthe
systemoflegalthoughtemployedbythecommonlaw
countries,includingtheUnitedStates.Perhapsmost
significantisthatIslamiclawdoesnotembracethe
commonlawsystemofbindingprecedentandstare
decisis.InSaudiArabia,judicialdecisionsarenotin
themselvesasourceoflaw,andwithminorexceptions,
courtdecisionsinSaudiArabiaarenotpublishedor
evenopentopublicinspection."
154.Tetley(1999),MixedJurisdictions:CommonLawv.
CivilLaw(CodifiedandUncodified),La.LawReview,
60,677
155.Fortna,BenjaminC.(March2011)."Educationand
AutobiographyattheEndoftheOttomanEmpire".Die
WeltdesIslams.NewSeries,Vol.41,Issue1.pp.1
31."theliteracyrateintheOttomanEmpirein1900
wasbetweenfiveandtenpercent".
156.AntoinetteVlieger(2012),DomesticWorkersinSaudi
ArabiaandtheEmirates,ISBN9781610271288,
Chapter4
157.TahirWasti(2009),TheApplicationofIslamic
CriminalLawinPakistan,BrillAcademic,ISBN978
9004172258,pp.126127
158.EtannibiE.O.Alemika(2005),HumanRightsand
ShariahPenalCodeinNorthernNigeria,UNHuman
RightsMonitor,pp.110127
159."MENAGenderEqualityProfileStatusofGirlsand
WomenintheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica,UNICEF
(October2011)"(PDF).Retrieved20160322.
160.MFadel(1997),Twowomen,oneman:knowledge,
power,andgenderinmedievalSunnilegalthought,
InternationalJournalofMiddleEastStudies,29(02),
pp.185204
161.MohamedS.ElAwa(1993),PunishmentInIslamic
Law,AmericanTrustPublications,ISBN978
0892591428,pp.168
162.Otto,JanMichiel.ShariaandNationalLawinMuslim
Countries.AmsterdamUniversityPress.pp.663,31.
ISBN9789087280482.
163.PhilipReichelandJayAlbanese(2013),Handbookof
TransnationalCrimeandJustice,SAGEpublications,
ISBN9781452240350,pp.3637
164.Ajijola,AlhajiA.D.(1989).IntroductiontoIslamic
Law.Karachi:InternationalIslamicPublishers.p.133.
165.Kamali,MohammadHashim(1998)."Punishmentin
IslamicLawACritiqueoftheHududBillof
Kelantan,Malaysia".ArabLawQuarterly13(3):203
234.doi:10.1163/026805598125826102.
166.A.binMohdNoor,&A.B.binIbrahim(2012),The
RightsofaRapeVictiminIslamicLaw,IIUMLaw
Journal,16(1),pp.6583
167.RudolphPeters(2006).CrimeandPunishmentin
IslamicLaw.CambridgeUniversityPress.pp.812.
ISBN9780521796705.
168.Quran2:282(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustex
ts/quran/verses/002qmt.php#002.282)
169.PaulPowers(2005).IntentinIslamicLaw:Motiveand
MeaninginMedievalSunnFiqh.BrillAcademic.
pp.97110,125141.ISBN9789004145924.
170.ReemMeshal(2014),ShariaandtheMakingofthe
ModernEgyptian,OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN978
9774166174,pp.96101andChapter4
171.TimurKuran(2012),TheLongDivergence:How
IslamicLawHeldBacktheMiddleEast,Princeton
andChapter12
172."ExplainingtheEconomicTrajectoriesof
CivilizationsMusingsontheSystemicApproach"(htt
p://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/private/ierc/confer
ence_registration/papers/Kuran.pdf).pp.7,10.
173.Lippman,MatthewRossMcConville,Sen
Yerushalmi,Mordechai(1988).IslamicCriminalLaw
andProcedureAnIntroduction.NewYorkCity:
PraegerPublishers.p.71.ISBN9780275930097.
174.Frank,MichaelJ.(April2006)."TryingTimesThe
ProsecutionofTerroristsintheCentralCriminalCourt
ofIraq".FloridaJournalofInternationalLaw.
175.ArsaniWilliam,AnUnjustDoctrineofCivil
Arbitration:ShariaCourtsinCanadaandEngland,
StanfordJournalofInternationalRelations,Spring
2010,11(2),pp.4047
176.MKar(2005),EncyclopediaofWomenandIslamic
Cultures:Family,LawandPolitics(Ed:SuadJoseph,
AfsnaNambd),Brill,ISBN9789004128187,pp.
406407
177.AnverM.Emon(2012),ReligiousPluralismand
IslamicLaw:DhimmisandOthersintheEmpireof
Law,OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN9780199661633,
pp.234235
178.StateDepartmentoftheU.S.Government(2012),
SAUDIARABIA2012INTERNATIONAL
RELIGIOUSFREEDOMREPORT(http://www.state.g
ov/documents/organization/208622.pdf),p.4
179.HumanRightsWatch(2004),MigrantCommunitiesin
SaudiArabia(http://www.hrw.org/reports/2004/saudi07
04/4.htm#_ftn54)
180.SaudiArabia(http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2011/ne
a/192905.htm)BUREAUOFDEMOCRACY,
HUMANRIGHTS,ANDLABOR,USState
Department,2011ReportonInternationalReligious
FreedomReport(2011)
181.Stence,Sandra,ed.(2013).TheWorldsMuslims:
Religion,PoliticsandSociety(PDF).Research:Alan
Cooperman,NehaSahgal,JessicaHamarMartinez,et
al.ThePewForumonReligion&PublicLife.pp.15
19,46,147148.Retrieved31August2015.
182.Stence2013,p.48.
24/31
6/19/2016
183.Killingforreligionisjustified,saythirdofMuslim
students(http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/religion/246
1830/KillingforreligionisjustifiedsaythirdofMusli
mstudents.html)TheTelegraph(July26,2008)
184.JonathanA.C.Brown,MisquotingMuhammad,p.131.
185.Lapidus,Ira(1996).TheCambridgeIllustratedHistory
oftheIslamicWorldeditedbyFrancisRobinson.
CambridgeUniversityPressp.296.seeBibliography
forConclusion.
186.Hodgson,Marshall(1958).TheVentureofIslam
ConscienceandHistoryinaWorldCivilizationVol3.
UniversityofChicago.p.386392.
187.AnissehEngelandNourai,THECHALLENGEOF
FRAGMENTATIONOFINTERNATIONAL
HUMANITARIANLAWREGARDINGTHE
PROTECTIONOFCIVILIANSANISLAMIC
PERSPECTIVE(https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bits
tream/handle/10036/3417/VanEngeland_THE%20CHAL
LENGE%20OF%20FRAGMENTATION%20OF%20IN
TERNATIONAL%20HUMANITARIAN%20LAW.pdf?
sequence=6)SchoolofLaw,Universityof
Bedfordshire,pp.1825
188.Horrie,ChrisChippindale,Peter(1991).p.4,100.
189.IraLapidus,TheCambridgeIllustratedHistoryofthe
UniversityPress,1996,pp.297298seeBibliography
forConclusion.
190.Awad,Abed(14June2012)."TheNation".
191.Kadri,Sadakat(2012).HeavenonEarth:AJourney
ThroughShari'aLawfromtheDesertsofAncient
Arabia...Macmillan.pp.2678.
ISBN9780099523277.
192.SLAJDA,RACHEL(September23,2010)."TheWar
OnShariaStartedLongBeforeYouEverHeard
'GroundZeroMosque' ".TalkingPointsMemo.TPM
Muckraker.Retrieved10December2015.
193.Farmer,Liz(4November2014)."AlabamaJoinsWave
ofStatesBanningForeignLaws".governing.com.
Retrieved27August2015.
194.Googletrends(https://www.google.com/trends/explore#
q=sharia&geo=US&cmpt=q&tz=Etc%2FGMT%2B6)
Sharia|20052015(graph)
195.GRAHAM,DAVIDA.(20January2015)."Whythe
Muslim'NoGoZone'MythWon'tDie".TheAtlantic.
Retrieved5September2015.
196.West,Diana(23February2008)."Don'tIgnoreSharia's
Advance".TimesNews[Burlington,N.C].
197."CameronstepsintoSharialawrow".BBC.26
February2008.Retrieved10December2015.
198."Germanywon'ttolerate'Shariapolice' ".DW.6
September2014.Retrieved8September2015.
199.Khan,Ali."WillTheEuropeanCourtofHumanRights
PushTurkeyTowardIslamicRevolution?"(http://jurist.
law.pitt.edu/forum/forumnew59.php).
200.Khan,L.Ali.ATheoryofUniversalDemocracy:
BeyondtheEndofHistory,TheHague,KluwerLaw
International,2003,ISBN9041120033.
201.Grant&Tessler(2002),Palestinianattitudestoward
democracyanditscompatibilitywithIslam:Evidence
frompublicopinionresearchintheWestBankand
Gaza,ArabStudiesQuarterly,Vol.24,No.4(Fall
2002),pp.120
202.DJung(2004),Globalization,StateFormationand
ReligionintheMiddleEast:"IsIslamIncompatible
withDemocracy?",ScandinavianJournalofSocial
Theory,Vol.5,No.1,pp.6178
203.Mogahed,D.(2006),Islamanddemocracy(http://arsiv.
setav.org/ups/dosya/48531.pdf),Washington:The
GallupCenterforMuslimStudies
204.Toprak(2005),IslamanddemocracyinTurkey,Turkish
Studies,6(2),167186
205.M.HakanYavuz(1997),PoliticalIslamandtheWelfare
(Refah)PartyinTurkey,ComparativePolitics,Vol.30,
No.1,pp.6382
206."RefahPartisi(TheWelfareParty)andOthersv.
Turkey".TheInternationalJournalofNotforProfit
Law.February13,2003.Retrieved20November2014.
207.HearingoftheEuropeanCourtofHumanRights(htt
p://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/29AC6DBDC3F8
411C9B97B42BE466EE7A/0/2004__Wildhaber_Canc
ado_Trindade_BIL__opening_legal_year.pdf),January
22,2004(PDF)
208."ECHRpressreleaseRefahPartisi(2001)".
Echr.coe.int.Retrieved20120404.
209.ChristianMoe(2012),RefahRevisited:Strasbourg's
ConstructionofIslam,inIslam,Europeandemerging
legalissues(editors:W.ColeDurhamJr.etal.),ISBN
9781409434443,pp.235271
210.DavidP.Forsythe(2009),EncyclopediaofHuman
Rights:Vol.1,OxfordUniversityPress,pp239245
211.A.SAJOO(1999),IslamandHumanRights:
CongruenceorDichotomy,TempleInternationaland
ComparativeLawJournal,vol.4,pp.2334
212.K.ALI(2003),ProgressiveMuslimsandIslamic
Jurisprudence,In:SAFI,O.(Ed.).Progressive
Muslims:OnJustice,Gender,andPluralism,Oxford,
pp.164187
213.HeinerBielefeldt(2000),"Western"versus"Islamic"
HumanRightsConceptions?:ACritiqueofCultural
EssentialismintheDiscussiononHumanRights(htt
p://www.jstor.org/stable/192285),PoliticalTheory,90
121
214.AnverM.Emon,MarkEllis,BenjaminGlahn(2012),
IslamicLawandInternationalHumanRightsLaw,
OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN9780199641444
215.AnnElizabethMayer,IslamicLawandHumanRights:
ConundrumsandEquivocations,chapter14inCarrie
Gustafson,PeterH.Juviler(eds.),Religionandhuman
rights:competingclaims?,ColumbiaUniversity
seminarseries,M.E.Sharpe,1999,ISBN076560261
X.
216.PaulKurtz,AustinDacey,andTomFlynn."Defaming
HumanRights".FreeInquiry.February/March2009,
Vol.29,No.2.
25/31
6/19/2016
217.Glenn,H.Patrick(2014),pp.199205
218.BassamTibi(2008),Thereturnofthesacredtopolitics
asconstitutionallaw:thecaseoftheShari'atizationof
politicsinIslamiccivilization,Theoria,Vol.55,pp.92
119
219.AbdelalHakeemCarney(2003),Thedesacralizationof
powerinIslam,ReligionStateandSociety,Vol.31,pp.
203219
220.
SirajKhan,BlasphemyagainsttheProphet,in
MuhammadinHistory,Thought,andCulture
(Editors:CoeliFitzpatrickandAdamHani
Walker),ISBN9781610691772,pp.5967
RIbrahim(2013),CrucifiedAgain,ISBN978
1621570257,pp.100101
221.Wiederhold,Lutz."BlasphemyagainsttheProphet
Muhammadandhiscompanions(sabbalrasul,sabbal
sahabah):Theintroductionofthetopicintoshafi'ilegal
literatureanditsrelevanceforlegalpracticeunder
Mamlukrule."Journalofsemiticstudies42.1(1997):
3970.
222.Saeed,AbdullahHassanSaeed(2004).Freedomof
Religion,ApostasyandIslam.BurlingtonVT:Ashgate
PublishingCompany.pp.3839.ISBN97807546
30838.
223."Blasphemy:IslamicConcept".Encyclopediaof
Religion2.FarmingtonHills,MI:ThomsonGale.
2005.pp.974976.
224.
IbnTaymiyyah(aSalafi,relatedtoHanbali
school),alSrimalMasllalaShtimal
Rasl(or,Areadyswordagainstthosewho
insulttheMessenger),Publishedin1297ADin
Arabic,Reprintedin1975and2003byDaribn
Hazm(Beirut),thebookison
blasphemy/insultingMuhammadandthe
punishmentpersharia
JerushaLamptey(2014),NeverWhollyOther:A
MuslimaTheologyofReligiousPluralism,
OxfordUniversityPress,Chapter1with
footnotes28,29pp.258
225.CarlErnst(2005),"Blasphemy:IslamicConcept",
EncyclopediaofReligion(Editor:LindsayJones),Vol
2,MacmillanReference,ISBN0028657357
226.HarunOmer,"TheInventedIslam"Punishmentfor
Blasphemy"(http://thesharia.com/theinventedislampu
nishmentforblasphemy/),TheSharia.com,2015
227.AnAntiBlasphemyMeasureLaidtoRest(http://www.
nationalreview.com/articles/263450/antiblasphemymea
surelaidrestninashea)NinaShea,NationalReview
(MARCH31,2011)
228.BrianWinston(2014),TheRushdieFatwaandAfter:A
LessontotheCircumspect,PalgraveMacmillan,ISBN
9781137388599,pp.74,Quote"(Inthecaseof
blasphemyandSalmanRushdie)thedeathsentenceit
pronouncedwasgroundedinajurisprudentialglosson
theSurahalAhzab(33:57)"
229.Badmouthing:Pakistansblasphemylawslegitimise
intolerance(http://www.economist.com/news/asia/21635
070pakistansblasphemylawslegitimiseintoleranceba
dmouthing)TheEconomist(November29,2014)
230.Blasphemy:Dangerouswords(http://www.economist.c
om/blogs/prospero/2015/01/johnsonblasphemy)The
Economist(January7,2015)
231."UniversalDeclarationofHumanRights,seeArticle
18".
232."Religiousconversionandsharialaw,LionelBeehner
(2007),CouncilonForeignRelations(Washington
DC)".CouncilonForeignRelations.
233.NoahFeldman(2008),TheFallandRiseoftheIslamic
State,PrincetonUniversityPress,ISBN
9780691120454
234.AbdullahiAhmedAnNaim(1996):pp.352353
235.Stahnke,Tad,ProselytismandtheFreedomtoChange
ReligioninInternationalHumanRightsLaw,Brigham
YoungUniversityLawReview,Issue:1,(January
1999),pages251350
236.ABDULLAHIAHMEDANNAIM,ISLAMAND
THESECULARSTATE:NEGOTIATINGTHE
FUTUREOFSHARIA14(2008)
237."LawsPenalizingBlasphemy,ApostasyandDefamation
ofReligionareWidespread".PewResearchCenter's
Religion&PublicLifeProject.21November2012.
238.FreedomofReligion,ApostasyandIslambyAbdullah
SaeedandHassanSaeed(Mar30,2004),ISBN978
0754630838
239."HumanRightsWatch(February2012),Writerfaces
apostasytrialinSaudiArabia".
240.https://web.archive.org/web/20130817005717/http://iheu
.org/content/fateinfidelsandapostatesunderislam0.
ArchivedfromtheoriginalonAugust17,2013.
RetrievedJuly28,2013.Missingorempty|title=
(help)
241."64percentofMuslimsinEgyptandPakistansupport
thedeathpenaltyforleavingIslam,WashingtonPost,
May1,2013".WashingtonPost.
242."TheWorldsMuslims:Religion,PoliticsandSociety,
April302013"(PDF).Retrieved20160322.
243.Arzi,DonnaE."RoleofCompulsioninIslamic
Conversion:Jihad,DhimmaandRidda,The."Buff.
Hum.Rts.L.Rev.8(2002):15
244.Shafi'i:Rawdaaltalibin,10.7,Hanafi:Ibn'Abidin:
Raddalmuhtar3.287,Maliki:alDardir:alSharhal
saghir,4.435,andHanbali:alBahuti:Kashshafalqina',
6.170(seeTheStruggletoConstituteandSustain
ProductiveOrders:VincentOstrom'sQuestto
UnderstandHumanAffairs),MarkSprouleJonesetal
(2008),LexingtonBooks,ISBN9780739126288)
245.SIDDIQI,MUHAMMADIQBAL(1979),ThePenal
LawofIslam.Tahore:KaziPublications,pages4059
246.RAHIM,ABDUR.ThePrinciplesofMuhammadan
JurisprudenceAccordingtotheHanafi,Maliki,Shafi'i,
andHanbaliSchools(1911),WestportCT,Hyperion
Press,see1981Reprint
26/31
6/19/2016
247.Khadduri,Majid(1955),WarandPeaceintheLawof
Islam,TheJohnsHopkinsPress,Baltimore,USA
248.alZuhayli,WahbahAlFiqh,alIslamiwaAdillatuhu,8
vols.,3rdedition,DaralFikr,Damascus(1989)
249.AsmaUddin(2010),ReligiousFreedomImplicationsof
ShariaImplementationinAceh,Indonesia,Volume7,
Issue3,Article8,UniversityofStThomasLaw
Journalseepages640647
250.Saeed,Abdullah,andHassanSaeed,eds.Freedomof
religion,apostasyandIslam.AshgatePublishing,2004.
251."Laws:andIran,GayLawNet".Gaylawnet.com.
Retrieved20120404.
252."Laws:SaudiArabia,GayLawNet".Gaylawnet.com.
20101108.Retrieved20120404.
253."AcehPassesStoningLaw".TheStraitsTimes.
September14,2009.RetrievedDecember22,2009.
254.RoughGuidetoSouthEastAsia:ThirdEdition.Rough
Guides.August2005.p.74.ISBN1843534371.
255.DiskaPutriY,Pamungkas&DessyAswim."Indonesia
StillFarFromaRainbowNation".Retrieved29May
2014.
256.JohnC.Raines&DanielC.Maguire(Ed),Farid
Esack,WhatMenOwetoWomen:Men'sVoicesfrom
WorldReligions,StateUniversityofNewYork(2001),
seepages201203
257.Jackson,NickyAli,ed.Encyclopediaofdomestic
violence.CRCPress,2007.(seechapteronQuranic
perspectivesonwifeabuse)
258."Surah4:34(AnNisaa),AlimTranslatedby
MohammadAsad,Gibraltar(1980)".
259.SalhiandGrami(2011),GenderandViolenceinthe
MiddleEastandNorthAfrica,Florence(Italy),
EuropeanUniversityInstitute(http://www.eui.eu/Depart
mentsAndCentres/RobertSchumanCentre/Research/Inter
nationalTransnationalRelations/MediterraneanProgramm
e/MRM/MRM2011/ws04.aspx)Archived(https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20130927154118/http://www.eui.eu/Dep
artmentsAndCentres/RobertSchumanCentre/Research/In
ternationalTransnationalRelations/MediterraneanProgra
mme/MRM/MRM2011/ws04.aspx)September27,
2013,attheWaybackMachine.
260.Rohe,Mathias."ShariainaEuropeancontext"Legal
practiceandculturaldiversity,Farnham:Ashgate
(2009)seepages93114.
261.Funder,Anna."DeMinimisNonCuratLex:The
Clitoris,CultureandtheLaw."Transnat'lL.&
Contemp.Probs.3(1993):417.
262.Anwar,Zainah."LawmakinginthenameofIslam:
implicationsfordemocraticgovernance."Islamin
SoutheastAsia:Political,SocialandStrategic
Challengesforthe21(2005)seepages121134
263.NatashaBakht,Law,FamilyArbitrationUsingSharia.
MuslimWorldJournalofHumanRight,Issue1(2004).
264.CEDAWandMuslimFamilyLaws,SistersinIslam,
Malaysia(2011)(http://www.musawah.org/sites/default/
files/CEDAW%20%26%20Muslim%20Family%20Law
s.pdf)Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20130903
132548/http://www.musawah.org/sites/default/files/CE
DAW%20%26%20Muslim%20Family%20Laws.pdf)
September3,2013,attheWaybackMachine.
265.Brandt,Michele,andJeffreyA.Kaplan."TheTension
betweenWomen'sRightsandReligiousRights:
ReservationstoCedawbyEgypt,Bangladeshand
Tunisia."JournalofLawandReligion12.1(1995):
105142.
266."LebanonIRIN,UnitedNationsOfficeof
HumanitarianAffairs(2009)".IRINnews.
267."UAE:SpousalAbuseneveraRight,HumanRights
Watch(2010)".
268."ChildMarriageisaDeathSentenceforManyYoung
Girls"(PDF).UNICEF.2012.
269.Nour,NawalM.(2006)."HealthConsequencesof
ChildMarriageinAfrica".EmergingInfectious
Diseases12(11):16441649.
doi:10.3201/eid1211.060510.PMC3372345.
PMID17283612.
270."KendraHeidemanandMonaYoussef,Challengesto
WomensSecurityintheMENARegion,Wilson
Center(March,2013)"(PDF).Retrieved20160322.
271."SanjaKelly(2010)NewSurveyAssessesWomen's
FreedomintheMiddleEast,FreedomHouse(funded
byUSDepartmentofState'sMiddleEastPartnership
Initiative)".
272.Horrie,ChrisChippindale,Peter(1991).p.49.
273.DavidPowers(1993),IslamicInheritanceSystem:A
SocioHistoricalApproach,TheArabLawQuarterly,8,
p13
274.Dr.Badawi,JamalA.(September1971)."TheStatusof
WomeninIslam".AlIttihadJournalofIslamicStudies
8(2).
275.Feldman,Noah(March16,2008)."WhyShariah?".The
NewYorkTimes.RetrievedSeptember17,2011.
276.
BernardLewis(2002),WhatWentWrong?,
ISBN0195144201,pp.8283
Brunschvig.'AbdEncyclopediaofIslam,Brill,
2ndEdition,Vol1,pp.1340.
[Quran16:71(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/ve
277.(
rses/016qmt.php#016.071)], [Quran24:33(http://www.usc.edu/org/
cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/024qmt.php#024.033)],
[Quran30:28(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/vers
es/030qmt.php#030.028)])
278.SlaveryinIslam(http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religion
s/islam/history/slavery_1.shtml)BBCReligions
Archives
279.Mazrui,A.A.(1997).IslamicandWesternvalues.
ForeignAffairs,pp118132.
280.Ali,K.(2010).MarriageandslaveryinearlyIslam.
HarvardUniversityPress.
27/31
6/19/2016
281.Sikainga,AhmadA.(1996).SlavesIntoWorkers:
EmancipationandLaborinColonialSudan.University
ofTexasPress.ISBN0292776942.
282.Tucker,JudithE.Nashat,Guity(1999).Womeninthe
MiddleEastandNorthAfrica.IndianaUniversity
Press.ISBN0253212642.
283.Lovejoy,Paul(2000).TransformationsinSlavery:A
HistoryofSlaveryinAfrica.CambridgeUniversity
Press.pp.1617.ISBN9780521784306."Quote:The
religiousrequirementthatnewslavesbepagansand
needforcontinuedimportstomaintainslavepopulation
madeAfricaanimportantsourceofslavesforthe
Islamicworld.(...)InIslamictradition,slaverywas
perceivedasameansofconvertingnonMuslims.One
taskofthemasterwasreligiousinstructionand
theoreticallyMuslimscouldnotbeenslaved.
Conversion(ofanonMuslimtoIslam)didnot
automaticallyleadtoemancipation,butassimilationinto
Muslimsocietywasdeemedaprerequisitefor
emancipation."
284.JeanPierreAngenotetal.(2008).Uncoveringthe
HistoryofAfricansinAsia.BrillAcademic.p.60.
ISBN9789004162914."Quote:Islamimposedupon
theMuslimmasteranobligationtoconvertnonMuslim
slavesandbecomemembersofthegreaterMuslim
society.Indeed,thedailyobservationofwelldefined
Islamicreligiousritualswastheoutwardmanifestation
ofconversionwithoutwhichemancipationwas
impossible."
285.KeciaAli(Editor:BernadetteJ.Brooten).Slaveryand
SexualEthicsinIslam,inBeyondSlavery:Overcoming
ItsReligiousandSexualLegacies.PalgraveMacmillan.
pp.107119.ISBN9780230100169."Quote:Theslave
whoborehermaster'schildbecameknowninArabicas
an"ummwalad"shecouldnotbesold,andshewas
automaticallyfreeduponhermaster'sdeath.(page113)"
286.Hafez,Mohammed(September2006)."WhyMuslims
Rebel".AlIttihadJournalofIslamicStudies1(2).
287.Tai,EmilySohmer(2007)."BookReview:HassanS.
Khalilieh,AdmiraltyandMaritimeLawsinthe
MediterraneanSea(ca.8001050):The"KitbAkriyat
alSufun"visvisthe"NomosRhodionNautikos"".
MedievalEncounters13:602612.
288.Makdisi,George(AprilJune1989)."Scholasticismand
HumanisminClassicalIslamandtheChristianWest".
JournaloftheAmericanOrientalSociety(Journalof
theAmericanOrientalSociety,Vol.109,No.2)109(2):
175182[17577].doi:10.2307/604423.
JSTOR604423.
289.Kuran,Timur.TheAbsenceoftheCorporationin
IslamicLawOriginsandPersistence(http://www.hel
sinki.fi/iehc2006/papers3/Kuran.pdf).
290.Kuran,Timur(2005)."TheLogicofFinancial
WesternizationintheMiddleEast".Journalof
EconomicBehaviorandOrganization56:600.
291."WhytheMiddleEastIsEconomically
UnderdevelopedHistoricalMechanismsof
InstitutionalStagnation"(http://www.international.ucla.
edu/cms/files/kuran.0130.pdf).
Sources
alMisri,AhmadibnNaqib(editedand
translatedfromArabic(withcommentary)by
NuhHaMimKeller).Relianceofthe
TravellerAClassicManualofIslamicSacred
Law(1994revisededition).Amana
PublicationsISBN9780915957729.
AnNa'im,AbdullahiAhmed."Islamic
FoundationsofReligiousHumanRights(http://
www.law.emory.edu/aannaim/pdfiles/dwnld15.
pdf)"inReligiousHumanRightsinGlobal
Perspective:ReligiousPerspectives.JohnWitte
Jr.&JohanD.vanderVyvereds.(1996).
SpringerPublishingISBN9789041101778.
ashShafi'i,MuhammadibnIdris(1993).
Risala:TreatiseontheFoundationsofIslamic
Ghamidi,Javed(2001).Mizan.DaralIshraq.
OCLC52901690.
Glenn,H.Patrick(2014).LegalTraditionsofthe
WorldSustainableDiversityinLaw(5thedition),
OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN9780199669837.
Harnischfeger,Johannes(2008).Democratization
andIslamicLawTheShariaConflictinNigeria.
FrankfurtNewYorkCity:CampusVerlagand
Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress(distributor).
ISBN9783593382562.
Hudson,A.(2003).EquityandTrusts(3rded.).
London:CavendishPublishing.ISBN185941
7299.
Horrie,ChrisChippindale,Peter(1991).WhatIs
Islam?AComprehensiveIntroduction.Virgin
28/31
6/19/2016
Jurisprudence.IslamicTextsSociety.ISBN0
946621152.
Badr,GamalMoursi(Spring1978)."Islamic
Law:ItsRelationtoOtherLegalSystems".
AmericanJournalofComparativeLaw
(AmericanJournalofComparativeLaw,Vol.
26,No.2)26(2[Proceedingsofan
InternationalConferenceonComparativeLaw,
SaltLakeCity,Utah,February2425,1977]):
187198.doi:10.2307/839667.JSTOR839667.
Badr,GamalMoursiMayer,AnnElizabeth
(Winter1984)."IslamicCriminalJustice".
AmericanJournalofComparativeLaw
(AmericanJournalofComparativeLaw,Vol.
32,No.1)32(1):167169.
doi:10.2307/840274.JSTOR840274.
Bakhtiar,LalehReinhart,Kevin(1996).
EncyclopediaofIslamicLaw:ACompendium
oftheMajorSchools.KaziPublications,ISBN
1567444989.
Berg,Herbert(2005)."IslamicLaw."Berkshire
EncyclopediaofWorldHistory3.p.1,030.In
HistoryReferenceCenter[databaseonline].
AvailablefromSnowdenLibrary(accessed
February11,2008).
Brown,DanielW.(1996).Rethinking
TraditionsinModernIslamicThought.
Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN
0521653940.
Coulson,NoelJames(1964).AHistoryof
IslamicLaw(IslamicSurveys).Oxford:Oxford
UniversityPress.
Darwish,Nonie(2008).CruelandUsual
Punishment:TheTerrifyingGlobal
ImplicationsofIslamicLaw.ThomasNelson.
ISBN9781595551610.
Dien,MawilIzzi(2004).IslamicLaw:From
HistoricalFoundationstoContemporary
Practice.NotreDame,Illinois:Universityof
NotreDamePress.
Doi,AbdarRahmanI.Clarke,Abdassamad
(2008).Shari'ah:IslamicLaw.TaHa
PublishersLtd.ISBN1842000853
(paperback)ISBN9781842000878
(hardback).
ElFadl,KhaledAbou(2003).Reasoningwith
God:RationalityandThoughtinIslam.
Oneworld.ISBN1851683062.
ElGamal,MahmoudA.(2006).Islamic
Finance:Law,Economics,andPractice.
CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN0521
864143.
Esposito,John(2004).TheOxforddictionaryof
Islam.OxfordUniversityPress.
Books.ISBN0753508273.
Jackson,ShermanA.(2005).Islamandthe
BlackamericanLookingTowardtheThird
Resurrection.NewYorkCityOxford:Oxford
Kafadar,Cemal(1996).BetweenTwoWorlds:The
ConstructionoftheOttomanState.Universityof
CaliforniaPress.ISBN0520206002.
Khadduri,MajidandLiebesny,HerbertJ.
(Editors).LawintheMiddleEast:VolumeI:
OriginandDevelopmentofIslamicLaw.
WashingtonD.C.:TheMiddleEastInstitute,1955.
Lewis,Bernard(1984).TheJewsofIslam.
PrincetonUniversityPress.ISBN9780691
008073.
Liebesny,Majid&,andHerbertJ.(editors)(1955).
Khadduri.LawintheMiddleEast:VolumeI:
OriginandDevelopmentofIslamicLaw.
WashingtonD.C.:MiddleEastInstitute.
Makdisi,JohnA.(June1999)."TheIslamic
OriginsoftheCommonLaw".NorthCarolina
LawReview77(5):1,6351,739.
Makdisi,John(2005).IslamicPropertyLaw:
CasesandMaterialsforComparativeAnalysis
withtheCommonLaw.CarolinaAcademicPress.
ISBN1594601100.
Mumisa,Michael(2002).IslamicLaw:Theory&
Interpretation.AmanaPublications.ISBN1
590080106.
Musa,A.Y.(2008).HadithasScripture:
DiscussionsonTheAuthorityOfProphetic
TraditionsinIslam,NewYork:Palgrave.
Otto,JanMichiel(2008).ShariaandNational
LawinMuslimCountriesTensionsand
OpportunitiesforDutchandEUForeignPolicy
Law,Governance,andDevelopment,Amsterdam
UniversityPress,ISBN9789087280482.
Safi,Omid(2003).ProgressiveMuslims:On
Justice,Gender,andPluralism.Oneworld
Publications.ISBN185168316X.
Shahin,Omar(2007).TheMuslimFamilyin
WesternSociety:AStudyinIslamicLaw.
CloverdaleCorporation.ISBN978192956930
4.
Standke,Corinna(2008).ShariaTheIslamic
Law,GRINVerlag
Weeramantry,Christopher(1997).JusticeWithout
Frontiers:FurtheringHumanRights.Brill
Publishers(viaGoogleBooks).ISBN90411
02418.
Weiss,BernardG.(2002).StudiesinIslamicLegal
Theory.LeidenBoston:BrillPublishers.
ISBN9789004120662.
29/31
6/19/2016
Gaudiosi,MonicaM.(April1988)."The
InfluenceoftheIslamicLawofWaqfonthe
DevelopmentoftheTrustinEngland:TheCase
ofMertonCollege".UniversityofPennsylvania
LawReview(UniversityofPennsylvaniaLaw
Review,Vol.136,No.4)136(4):1,2311,261.
doi:10.2307/3312162.JSTOR3312162.
General
EncyclopaediaofIslam.Ed.P.Bearmanetal.,Leiden:Brill,19602005.
Furtherreading
Ali,AbdullahYusuf(2000).TheHolyQur'an(TranslatedbyAbdullahYusufAli).Ware,Hertfordshire,
England:WordsworthEditions.ISBN9781853267826.ApopulartranslationoftheQuran.
Coulson,NoelJ.(1964).AHistoryofIslamicLaw.Edinburgh:EdinburghU.P.
Elliesie,Hatem(2014):BinnenpluralittdesIslamischenRechts:DiversittreligiserNormativitt
rechtsdogmatischundmethodischbetrachtet(http://www.sfbgovernance.de/publikationen/working_papers/
wp54/SFBGovernanceWorkingPaper54.pdf),SFBGovernanceWorkingPaperSeries,Collaborative
ResearchCenter700GovernanceinAreasofLimitedStatehood",No.54,ISSN18636896.
Hallaq,WaelB.(2009).AnIntroductiontoIslamicLaw.Cambridge:CambridgeU.P.ISBN978052167
8735
Hussain,Jamila(2011).Islam:ItsLawandSociety(3rdedition).Annandale,N.S.W.,Australia:The
FederationPress.ISBN1862874999.OCLC742018517(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/742018517).A
moderndiscourseonSharialaw.
Khan,MuhammadMuhsin(1996).TheEnglishTranslationofaAlBukhrwiththeArabicText.
Alexandria,Va.:AlSaadawiPublications.ISBN9781881963592.OCLC35673415(https://www.worldc
at.org/oclc/35673415).Thecompletetranslation(inninevolumes)ofapopularSunnicollectionofhadith.
Mahmassani,Maher(2014).IslaminRetrospect:RecoveringtheMessage.OliveBranchPr.
ISBN1566569222.
Mahmassani,Sobhi(1961).ThePhilosophyofJurisprudenceinIslam,translatedbyFarhatJ.Ziadeh.
Leiden:Brill.
Mahmassani,Sobhi(1966).ThePrinciplesofInternationalLawintheLightofIslamicDoctrine,
publicationsofTheHagueAcademyofInternationalLaw,Leiden.
Potz,Richard(2011).IslamicLawandtheTransferofEuropeanLaw(http://nbnresolving.de/urn:nbn:de:01
592011112127).Mainz:EuropeanHistoryOnline,InstituteofEuropeanHistory.Retrieved:November28,
2011.
NuhHaMimKeller(ed.,trans.),RelianceoftheTraveller:ClassicManualofIslamicSacredLaw,Amana
Publications,revisededition1997,ISBN9780915957729
Schacht,Joseph(1964).AnIntroductiontoIslamicLaw.Oxford:Clarendon
Schacht,Joseph(1950).TheOriginsofMuhammadanJurisprudence.Oxford:Clarendon
Externallinks
UNAAsiteonshariainMuslimCountries(http://www.unaa.org.au/b
runeiimplementssharialaw.html)UnitedNations
ShariaLawintheInternationalLegalSphere(http://yulr.org/shariala
wintheinternationallegalsphere/)YaleUniversity
'Sharia'fromOxfordIslamicStudiesOnline(http://bridgingcultures.n
eh.gov/muslimjourneys/items/show/226)BridgingCultures,
NationalEndowmentfortheHumanities&GeorgeMasonUniversity
WikimediaCommonshas
mediarelatedtoSharia.
Lookupshariain
Wiktionary,thefree
dictionary.
30/31
6/19/2016
PrivateArrangements:'RecognizingSharia'inBritain(http://bostonr
Wikiquotehasquotations
eview.net/johnbowenprivatearrangementsshariaEngland)
relatedto:Sharia
anthropologistJohnR.BowenexplainstheworkingofBritain's
shariacourtsinaBostonReviewarticle
DivisionofInheritanceAccordingtoQur'an(http://www.quraanicstudies.com/noerrorinqurandivisionof
inheritanceaccordingtoquran/)
"Explanationof"TheRewardoftheOmnipotent"(http://www.wdl.org/en/item/6895)isamanuscript,in
Arabic,fromthelate19thorearly20thcenturyaboutSharia
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sharia&oldid=725766671"
Categories: Arabicwordsandphrases Islam Islamicjurisprudence Islamicterminology Legalcodes
Sharia
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon17June2016,at18:38.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmayapply.
Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.Wikipediaisaregisteredtrademark
oftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.
31/31

Sharia PDF

Transféré par

Informations du document

Description originale:

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Sharia PDF

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

6/19/2016

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi