Calculations in Chemistry

Calculations In Chemistry
* * * * *
Module 13 Ionic Equations and Precipitates
Module 14 Acid-Base Neutralization
* * * * *
Module 13 Ionic Equations and Precipitates ......................................................... 326
Lesson 13A:
Lesson 13B:
Lesson 13C:
Lesson 13D:
Predicting Solubility for Ionic Compounds ...................................................326

Total and Net Ionic Equations..........................................................................330
Predicting Precipitation.....................................................................................334
Precipitate and Gravimetric Calculations.......................................................341
Module 14 Acid-Base Neutralization.......................................................................349

Lesson 14A:
Lesson 14B:
Lesson 14C:
Lesson 14D:
Lesson 14E:
Lesson 14F:
Ions in Acid-Base Neutralization .....................................................................349

Balancing Hydroxide Neutralization ..............................................................353
Neutralization and Titration Calculations......................................................361
Neutralization Calculations for Ratio Units ...................................................365
Neutralization Calculations in Parts ...............................................................369
Carbonate Neutralization .................................................................................377
For additional modules, visit www.ChemReview.Net
2011 ChemReview.net v. k6
Page ii

Pretests: On Module 13 lessons, if you think you know the topic, try the last problem in the
lesson. If you can do that problem, you may skip the lesson.
Lesson 13A: Predicting Solubility for Ionic Compounds

Prerequisites: If you have any problems translating between the names, solid formulas,
and separated formulas for ionic compounds during Module 13, review your ion name and
formula flashcards from Lessons 7B and 7C.
* * * * *
Solubility Terminology
All ionic compounds dissolve to some extent in water. Some dissolve only slightly, some
dissolve to a substantial extent, and some ionic compounds have borderline solubility at
room temperature. In addition, the solubility of ionic compounds is temperature
dependent: some dissolve to a greater extent in warmer solvents and some dissolve less.
Those messy realities aside, most ion combinations can generally be classified as soluble or
insoluble in water. A commonly accepted definition is
if 0.10 moles or more of a solid dissolve per liter of solution at room temperature,
the solid is termed soluble;
if the solid dissolves less than 0.10 moles per liter, it is considered either slightly
soluble or insoluble.
Most introductory chemistry courses ask that you memorize a set of solubility rules that
will allow you to predict the solubility of many ion combinations. Although there are some
patterns to solubility based on the Periodic Table, there are limited simple rules. The
solubility scheme on the following page will cover most ions customarily assigned.
However,
if your course requires that you memorize a particular chart, memorize it instead of
this one.
If you are allowed to consult a particular solubility chart on quizzes and tests, use it
in place of this one.
If the following chart conflicts in its predictions from a chart you are assigned in
your class, use the one that you are assigned.
A Solubility Scheme
The scheme below is hierarchical: higher rules take precedence over those beneath them. To
predict the solubility of ion combinations, apply the rules in order from the top.
If only one ion of the two in a compound is in this table, you may presume that the
compound will follow the rule for the ion that is shown. (This will not always be accurate,
but is a best guess. With solubility, there are exceptions.)
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Commit to long-term memory:
Positive Ions
Negative Ions
1. (alkali metals)+ , NH4+ NO3 , CH3COO , ClO3 ; ClO4

Soluble
(nitrate, acetate, chlorate, perchlorate)
2. Pb2+ , Hg22+ , Ag+
CO32 , PO43 , S2 , CrO42
Insoluble
3.
Cl , Br , I (except Cu+)
Soluble
4. Ba2+ (except OH)
OH (except Ba2+ , Sr2+, Ca2+)
Insoluble
5.
SO42(except Sr2+, Ca2+)
Soluble
Exceptions include: Column 2 sulfides and aluminum sulfide decompose in water.

CH3COOAg, Ag2SO4 and Hg2SO4 are moderately soluble.
Memorization Tips
1. Focus especially on the rules near the top. In this scheme, the higher the rule, the more
often it will be used.
2. Notice the patterns in the last column and in the empty boxes.
3. Most people best recall what they hear repeatedly (especially if it rhymes). You may
want to recite the ion names in a series, as well as write them.
Using the Scheme to Make Predictions

When using any solubility scheme, if you are unsure of which ions are in a compound, you
should write out the separated formula that shows the ion charges. Atoms that have two
possible ion charges, such as Cu+ and Cu2+, can have differing solubilities.
Lets try a few predictions.
Q.
For the questions below, use the solubility scheme of your choice. Write your
answer and your reason.
1. Is Ba(NO3)2 soluble?
2. Is PbCl2 soluble or insoluble?
3. Is Hg(NO3)2 soluble or insoluble?
* * * * * (See How To Use These Lessons, Point 1, on page 1).

Answers
1. Yes. Ba(NO3)2 Ba2+ + 2 NO3 , Ba2+ ion is insoluble by Rule 4, but all nitrates are
soluble by Rule 1, and the higher rule has precedence.
2. PbCl2 Pb2+ + 2 Cl. Pb2+ ion by Rule 2 is insoluble. Chloride ion in Rule 3 is
soluble, but rule 2 takes precedence. PbCl2 is insoluble.
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3. Hg(NO3)2 Hg2+ + 2 NO3 . The above solubility scheme makes no specific

predictions for Hg2+, the mercuric [mercury (II)] ion, but based on Rule 1 that all
nitrates are soluble, predict soluble. If only one ion in a pair is in the table, base your
prediction on the rule for that ion.
Practice
1. If you are required to memorize solubility rules in your course, do so before you do the
problems below, then write your solubility scheme from memory in your notebook.
2. Label each ion combination as soluble or insoluble, and state a reason for your
prediction. Check your answers after each one or two parts.
a. K+ + Br
b. Sr2+ + Cl
c. Ca2+ + CO32
d. Ag+ + CrO42
3. Write the separated ions for these combinations, then label the ion combination as
soluble or insoluble, and state a reason for your prediction. (If you are using a different
scheme, your reason may differ, but your answer will probably be the same.)
Do every other part, and check your answers frequently. Do more if you need more
practice. If you have trouble writing the separated ions, redo Lessons 7B and 7C.
a. Lead (II) Bromide Pb2+ + 2 Br ; Insoluble -- Rule 2 for Pb2+ (example)
b. Barium Carbonate
c. Sodium Hydroxide
d. SrBr2
e. Silver nitrate
f. Ammonium hydroxide
g. Fe3(PO4)2
h. Pb(CH3COO)2
i. NiCl2
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j. BaSO4
k. RbBr
l. Fe2S3
4. Which ions in combination with Pb2+ are soluble compounds?
5. Are all nitrates soluble?
Are all phosphates insoluble?
ANSWERS
These answers are based on the solubility scheme above. You will have different rules if you use a different
scheme, but you should have the same answer in most cases, and a similar reason.
2. a. K+ + Br Soluble. Rule 1, first column metal ions are always soluble
b. Sr2+ + Cl Soluble. Rule 3, chloride
c. Ca2+ + CO32 Insoluble. Rule 2, carbonates (if only one ion is in table, use it)
d. Ag+ + CrO 2 Insoluble. Rule 2, chromate ion and/or silver ion.
4
3. b. Barium Carbonate Ba2+ + CO32

c.
Sodium Hydroxide Na+ + OH
Insoluble by Rule 2 for carbonates
Soluble by Rule 1 for alkali-metal ions
d. SrBr2 Sr2+ + 2 Br Soluble by Rule 3 for bromides

e. Silver nitrate Ag+ + NO Soluble by Rule 1 for nitrates
3
f.
Ammonium hydroxide NH4+ + OH
g. Fe3(PO4)2 3 Fe2+ + 2 PO43
Insoluble by Rule 2 for phosphate ions
h. Pb(CH3COO)2 Pb2+ + 2 CH3COO

i.
NiCl2 Ni2+ + 2 Cl
Soluble by Rule 1 for ammonium ion

Soluble by Rule 1 for acetates
Soluble by Rule 3 for chlorides
BaSO4 Ba2+ + SO42 Insoluble by Rule 4 for barium ions

k. RbBr Rb+ + Br
Soluble by Rule 1 for alkali-metal ions
j.
l.
Fe2S3 2 Fe3+ + 3 S2
Insoluble by Rule 2 for sulfide ions
4. Which ions in combination with Pb2+ would make soluble compounds? Nitrate, acetate, chlorate, and
perchlorate.
5. Are all nitrates soluble? YES. That rule is used frequently.
Are all phosphates insoluble? NO. Alkali-metal and ammonium-ion phosphates are soluble. Rule 1 has
precedence.
*
* * *
Page 329
Lesson 13B: Total and Net Ionic Equations

Prerequisites: Lessons 7C, 10B, and 13A.
* * * * *
Mixing Ions
When solutions of different ions are mixed, chemical reactions can occur.
One type of reaction is precipitation. When solutions of different soluble ionic compounds
are mixed, the ions can trade partners: new combinations of positive and negative ions
are possible. If a new combination is possible that is insoluble in water, it will precipitate:
it will form a cloud of solid particles in the solution.
For example, when a 0.1 M solution of sodium chloride (table salt) is mixed with a 0.1
M solution of silver nitrate, a bright white cloud immediately forms. Solid particles
from the cloud slowly settle to the bottom of the solution. Over time, in light, the
surface of the solid slowly turns grey.
The precipitate formed is silver chloride (AgCl), a solid that reacts with light.
The total ionic equation for this reaction is
Na+(aq) + Cl(aq) + Ag+(aq) + NO3(aq) AgCl(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3(aq)
The (aq) means that the state of a particle is aqueous, which means dissolved in water. In
solution reactions in these lessons, if no state is shown after an ion or particle formula, you
should assume the state is (aq). The (s) abbreviates the solid state, which is the state of any
precipitate.
Note that the sodium and nitrate ions did not change in the reaction. Ions that are present
during a reaction but do not change are termed spectator ions. In total ionic equations, the
spectator ions are included on each side, and they will be the same on each side. Including
the spectators helps us to see all of the reactant and product compounds.
However, as in math equations, terms that are the same on each side of an equation can be
cancelled. Canceling the spectators gives the net ionic equation, which shows only the
particles that change their state in the reaction.
For the reaction above, cancel the spectators and write the net ionic equation.
* * * * *
Ag+(aq) + Cl(aq)
AgCl(s)
Practice A:
Put a by and do Part a on each of these. Do the part bs during your next
practice session.
1. For these total ionic equations, circle the precipitate, cross out the spectators, and write
the net ionic equation.
a. Pb2+(aq) + 2 NO3 (aq) + Cu2+(aq) + 2 Cl(aq) Cu2+(aq) + 2 NO3(aq) + PbCl2(s)
Page 330
b. 6 Na+(aq) + 2 PO43(aq) + 3 Mg2+(aq) + 3 SO42(aq) Mg3(PO4)2(s) + 6 Na+(aq) + 3 SO42(aq)

2. Balance these equations for precipitation reactions. (For rules, see Lesson 10B).
a.
Fe(NO3)3(aq) +
NaOH(aq)
b.
Ca(NO3)2(aq) +
K3PO4(aq) KNO3(aq) +
Fe(OH)3(s) +
NaNO3(aq)
Ca3(PO4)2(s)
3. Molecular formulas with an aqueous state, such as in Problem 2 above, are often
written to represent ionic solids dissolved in a solution. In reality, however, if an ionic
solid dissolves in water, its ions will separate in the solution. Total and net ionic
equations show separated-ion formulas -- unless the ions react and precipitate.
Re-write the balanced equations for problems 2a and 2b using separated-ion formulas.
This will be the total ionic equation for each reaction.
4. Write the net ionic equations for the reactions in 2a and 2b.
Balancing Total Ionic Equations

For precipitation reactions, you will often be asked to balance a total ionic equation. To
balance properly, you must first balance each of the reactant and product formulas for
charge, then balance again to account for ratios of reaction.
In the following equation, the brackets show the original ion combinations on the left of the
arrow and the new possible combinations on the right.
[
Ca2+ +
NO3 ] + [
K+ +
PO43] Ca3(PO4)2(s) + [
K+ +
NO3 ]
To balance, first add coefficients inside the brackets so that the charges are balanced for each
substance formula, and then check your answer below. (For reactions conducted in
aqueous solutions, if no state is shown, assume (aq).)
* * * * *
[ 1 Ca2+ + 2 NO3 ] + [ 3 K+ + 1 PO43] Ca3(PO4)2(s) + [ 1 K+ + 1 NO3 ]
Now add coefficients in front of the brackets so that all of the atoms balance.
* * * * *
To form the precipitate, 3 calcium atoms and 2 phosphate ions are needed, so:
3 [1 Ca2+ + 2 NO3] + 2 [3 K+ + 1 PO43] 1 Ca3(PO4)2(s) + 6 [1 K+ + 1 NO3]
Write the total ionic equation by removing the brackets. Check that the total ionic equation is
balanced for atoms. In total ionic equations, check also that the charges on each side total
to zero as well.
* * * * *
3 Ca2+ + 6 NO3 + 6 K+ + 2 PO43 1 Ca3(PO4)2(s) + 6 K+ + 6 NO3
Check: 3 Ca, 6 N, 6K, 2 P, 26 O on each side. Zero net charge on each side. Balanced.
Page 331
Practice B:
Put a by and do Problem 1. Do Problem 2 during your next practice

session. Re-write these equations as balanced total ionic equations.
SO42 ] +
1.
K+ +
2.
Fe2+ +
Br ] + [
Sr2+ + NO3 ]
Na+ + PO43 ] [
SrSO4(s) +
Na+ +
[ K+ +
Br ] +
NO3 ]
Fe3(PO4)2(s)
Balancing Equations That Omit Some Spectator Ions

Until this point, most of the equations we have encountered have contained either
formulas for neutral compounds, or
separated ions, with a total charge of zero on each side of the equation.
In reactions that involve ions, equations may be written that omit all of the spectator ions, as
in net ionic equations, or omit some of the spectator ions.
For example, the reaction of silver nitrate and magnesium chloride solutions can be
represented with ionic solid and molecular formulas as
2 AgNO3(aq) + MgCl2(aq)
2 AgCl(s) + Mg(NO3)2(aq)
(1)
Separated-ion formulas better represent soluble substances dissolved in water. The

total ionic equation for the above reaction is
2 Ag+ + 2 NO3 + Mg2+ + 2 Cl 2 AgCl(s) + Mg2+ + 2 NO3
(2)
However, it is also common to write a mixture of the above two forms and leave out
some of the spectators. The above reaction may be written as
2 AgNO3 +
2 Cl
2 AgCl(s) + 2 NO3
(3)
In this equation, the spectator magnesium ions have been left out. The reaction can be
written in this format to emphasize that silver nitrate solution will form a precipitate
when mixed with any solution that contains chloride ions.
Note that this partial ionic equation (3), unlike the total ionic equation (2), does not have a
zero charge on each side. However, it does have a balanced charge: the total charge on each
side is negative two. Thats an important rule:
Equations are considered balanced if they have the same number and kind of atoms and
the same net charge on each side.
In balancing equations, the equation can be considered balanced even if some of the ions
that must be present to balance charge have been left out. In the partial ionic equations that
are frequently written, the atom counts and total charge must simply be the same on each
side.
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Leaving Out the Spectators

Leaving out the spectators, when writing net or partial ionic equations, results in an
equation that is quicker to write than the total ionic equation. Without the spectator ions,
an equation focuses on the most important particles: those that change in the reaction.
In a similar fashion, in a laboratory a container may be labeled Ag+ or OH . However,
in all stable matter containing charged particles, the charges must balanced. When the label
on a container shows a single ion, spectator ions must also be present in the container so that
the net charge of the container substances is zero. Leaving out the spectators on
container labels and in equations is a simplification: a shortcut that is employed to focus
attention on the ions that may react in type of reaction being studied.
Practice C:
Balance these partial ionic equations. Check answers as you go. Do every
other letter, and the rest in your next practice session.
1.
Co(NO3)2
2.
AgNO3 +
3.
CO32 +
4.
HCO3 +
5.
Al3+ +
OH
CrO42
HCl
OH
NO +
NO3
Co(OH)2(s) +
NO3
Ag2CrO4(s) +
H2CO3 +
H2O +
H2O
Al +
Cl
CO32
NO3
H+
ANSWERS
Practice A: Assume (aq) if no state is shown.
1a. Pb2+(aq) + 2 NO3 (aq) + Cu2+(aq) + 2 Cl(aq) Cu2+(aq) + 2 NO3(aq) + PbCl2(s)
Net ionic equation: Pb2+(aq) + 2 Cl(aq) PbCl2(s)
1b.. 6 Na+ + 2 PO43+ 3 Mg2+ + 3 SO42
Net ionic equation:
Mg3(PO4)2(s)
+ 6 Na+ + 3 SO42
3 Mg2+(aq) + 2 PO43(aq) Mg3(PO4)2(s)
2a.
1 Fe(NO3)3(aq) + 3 NaOH(aq) 1 Fe(OH)3(s) + 3 NaNO3(aq)
2b.
3b.
3 Ca(NO3)2 + 2 K3PO4 6 KNO3 + 1 Ca3(PO4)2(s)

1 Fe3+ + 3 NO3 + 3 Na+ + 3 OH 1 Fe(OH)3(s) + 3 Na+ + 3 NO3
3 Ca2+ + 6 NO + 6 K+ + 2 PO 3 6 K+ + 6 NO + 1 Ca (PO )
4a.
Net ionic equation: 1 Fe3+(aq) + 3 OH(aq) 1 Fe(OH)3(s)
4b.
Net ionic equation: 3 Ca2+(aq) + 2 PO43(aq) 1 Ca3(PO4)2(s)
3a.
4 2(s)
Page 333
Practice B: For reactions run in aqueous solution, assume (aq) if no state is shown.
1. 2 K+ + 1 SO42 + 1 Sr2+ + 2 NO3 1 SrSO4(s) + 2 K+ + 2 NO3
2. 3 Fe2+ + 6 Br + 6 Na+ + 2 PO43 6 Na+ + 6 Br + Fe3(PO4)2(s)
Practice C: (coefficients of 1 may be omitted).

1.
1 Co(NO3)2 +
2.
2 AgNO3 +
3.
4.
5.
2 OH
1 Co(OH)2(s) +
2 NO3
1 CrO42
1 Ag2CrO4(s) + 2 NO3
1 CO32 + 2 HCl 1 H2CO3 + 2 Cl
1 H2O + 1 CO32
1 HCO3 + 1 OH
1 Al3+ + 1 NO + 2 H2O 1 Al + 1 NO3 + 4 H+
* * * * *
Lesson 13C: Predicting Precipitation

Prerequisites: Lessons 7C, 10B, 13A, and 13B.
Timing: Do this lesson when you are asked to predict whether a precipitate will form, or to
write a formula for a precipitate which forms, when ions are mixed.
* * * * *
Steps in Predicting Precipitation

This key rule for predicting precipitation must be memorized.
When two solutions of soluble ions are mixed,
if a new combination is possible that is insoluble, it will precipitate.
If a new possible combination is soluble, its ions will remain separated and
dissolved in the solution.
To predict whether the mixing of soluble ions will produce a precipitate, you must analyze
the solubility of the new ionic combinations that can form. To walk through this prediction
process, answer the questions below in your problem notebook.
Q. Two separate aqueous solutions are prepared, one by dissolving Ca(NO3)2 and the
other by dissolving Na2CO3.
a. Write two balanced equations, one above the other, showing the ions formed when
each of these two ionic solids dissolves in water.
* * * * *
a. Ca(NO3)2(s) Ca2+(aq) + 2 NO3(aq)
Na2CO3(s) 2 Na+(aq) + CO32(aq)
* * * * *
Page 334
b. When the two solutions above are mixed, two new combinations of positive and
negative ions are possible. Each positive ion can attract either its original negative
partner or the new negative ion with which it has been mixed. Fill in the blanks
below to show the new possible ion combinations, then add coefficients to balance
each new combination for charge.
1
Ca2+ + ____ _______
___ _____ + ____
NO3
In solution reactions, if no state is shown, assume (aq).
* * * * *
b.
1 Ca2+ + 1 CO32
1 Na+ + 1 NO3
* * * * *
c. After the arrows, write solid formulas for these new combinations.
d. Based on ion solubility rules, label each of the solids as soluble or insoluble.
e. Apply the rule: When two solutions of soluble ions are mixed,
if a new combination is possible that is insoluble, it will precipitate.
If the new combination is soluble, its ions remain separated.
Will there be a precipitate in this case? If so, what is its solid formula?
Write answers for the above three steps, and then check your answers below.
* * * * *
c. 1 Ca2+ + 1 CO32 CaCO3
Insoluble by Rule 2. Will precipitate.
1 Na+ + 1 NO3 NaNO3
Soluble by Rule 1. Ions stay separated.
e. The precipitate is solid CaCO3 .

* * * * *
f. To write the total ionic equation, write the 4 original reactant ions. Then, for
products, write the formula for the solid precipitate, plus the separated ions for the
new combination that did not precipitate.
Fill in the blanks to give the total ionic equation for the reaction above.
1 Ca2+ +___ ________ +___ ______ + 1 CO32 ___ _______(s) + ___ ______ + ___ ______
* * * * *
Ca2+ + 2 NO3 + 2 Na+ + CO32 CaCO3(s) + 2 Na+ + 2 NO3
g. In your total ionic equation, cross out the spectator ions that are the same on each
side: these ions did not react. Rewrite the equation without the spectators. This is
the net ionic equation.
f.
* * * * *
Page 335
g. Net ionic equation:
Ca2+(aq) + CO32(aq) CaCO3(s)
To write net ionic equations, omit spectator ions. Write a balanced equation showing
only the particles that changed their state in the reaction.
* * * * *
Predicting Precipitation The Chart Method

The chart method below can help in predicting whether a precipitate will form. Copy the
following chart into your notebook.
Solid
Formulas
Dissolved Ions
before mixing
Mixed Possible
new ion combinations
Possible
Precipitates
1.
2.
Lets use an example to see how the chart is used.
Q2. When solutions of Pb(NO3)2 and KI are mixed, a yellow precipitate forms. Using
the steps on the previous page, fill in the chart above and write the formula for the
precipitate.
If you need a hint, read a part of the answer below and then again.
* * * * *
Answer
Ionic compounds in solution are often represented using solid formulas, but when ionic
solids dissolve, the ions separate. In these two solutions are these ions:
Solid
Formulas
Dissolved Ions
before mixing
1. Pb(NO3)2
2.
KI
Pb2+ + 2 NO3
K+ + I
After they are mixed, the ions can trade partners. Two new combinations of positive and
negative ions are possible.
Solid
Formulas
Dissolved Ions
before mixing
Pb(NO3)2 Pb2+ + 2 NO3

KI
K+ + I
Mixed Possible
Pb2+ + I
K+ + NO3
These new combinations may or may not form solid precipitates. Add the possible solid
formulas.
* * * * *
Page 336
Solid
Formulas
Dissolved Ions
before mixing
Mixed Possible
Pb(NO3)2 Pb2+ + 2 NO3

KI
Pb2+ + 2 I
K+ + NO3
K+ + I
Possible
Precipitates
PbI2
KNO3
Note that the ion coefficients are not the same before mixing and after. You must adjust the
coefficients so that each new ion combination is balanced for atoms and charge.
Will a precipitate form? If a new combination is possible that is insoluble, it will precipitate.
Label each of the possible precipitates in the chart as soluble or insoluble.
* * * * *
PbCl2 is insoluble by rule 2 (Pb2+); KNO3 is soluble by rule 1. The result is
Solid
Formulas
Dissolved Ions
before mixing
Pb(NO3)2 Pb2+ + 2 NO3

KI
Mixed Possible
new combinations
Pb2+ + 2 I
K+ + I
K+ + NO3
Possible
Precipitates
PbI2 (Insoluble, forms ppt.)
KNO3 (Soluble, ions stay dissolved)
* * * * *
Q3. For the above reaction, write the total and then the net ionic equation.
* * * * *
Answer
The chart shows the ions before mixing (column 2) and the products after mixing (column 3
or 4). To write the total ionic equation, copy all of the column two ions on a line on your
paper, followed by a reaction arrow. To the right of the arrow, write the new products that
form, shown in column 3 or column 4. Adjust the coefficients so that both each ion
combination and the overall equation are balanced for atoms and charge.
* * * * *
To make the precipitate, we need 2 I. That means we must have 2 K+ to start).
Pb2+ + 2 NO3 + 2K+ + 2 I PbI2(s) + 2 K+ + 2 NO3
That is the balanced total ionic equation. Now write the net ionic equation.
* * * * *
Pb2+(aq) + 2 I(aq) PbI2(s)
Practice A:
Net ionic equations show the ions that change.
Do one now and one next time.
1. When AgNO3 solution is mixed with Na2CrO4 solution, a blood red precipitate
appears. Fill in a chart like the one above for this reaction, and then write the total and
net ionic equations.
Page 337
2. When potassium hydroxide and cobalt nitrate solutions are mixed, an intense blue
precipitate forms. Complete the chart, then write the total and net ionic equations.
The 3-Line Method

The chart method can be used for as long as needed to gain confidence that you are
arriving at correct answers. At that point, you can try a quicker 3 line method (draft,
total ionic, and net ionic equations) that handles more of the steps in your head. Lets learn
the method with the following example.
Q4. Write the total and net ionic equation identifying the white precipitate that forms
when solutions of barium chloride and potassium sulfate are mixed.
Write then check your answers to the steps below.
1. On one line, write the separated-ion formulas for the ions being mixed.
* * * * *
{ Ba2+ + 2 Cl } + { 2 K+ + SO42 }
2. After the arrow, write the new possible ion combinations.
* * * * *
{ Ba2+ + 2 Cl } + { 2 K+ + SO42 } { Ba2+ + SO42 } + { K+ + Cl }

3. Use solubility rules to label each new combination as soluble or insoluble.
4. If a new combination of ions is possible that is insoluble, it will precipitate. Write the
solid formula for any precipitate that would form.
* * * * *
{ Ba2+ + 2 Cl } + { 2 K+ + SO42 } { Ba2+ + SO42 } + { K+ + Cl }
INsoluble
Soluble
BaSO4(s)
5. Thats the rough draft. Copy the draft result without the brackets, adjusting the
coefficients as needed, to write the total ionic equation.
* * * * *
Ba2+ + 2 Cl + 2 K+ + SO42 BaSO4(s) + 2 K+ + 2 Cl
6. Write the net ionic equation.
* * * * *
Ba2+(aq) + SO42(aq) BaSO4(s)
* * * * *
Page 338
Flashcards: Add these to your collection. Run each until perfect for 3 days.
But remember, you must also memorize a) a detailed solubility scheme and b) a method to
predict whether mixed ions will precipitate, and what the precipitate formula will be.
One-way cards (with notch)
Back Side -- Answers
Chemical equations must be balanced for
Atoms and charge
Net ionic equations leave out
Spectator ions
When will mixing two soluble ionic compounds

produce a precipitate?
If a new possible combination is insoluble
When will mixing two soluble ionic compounds

not result in a precipitate?
If both new possible combinations are soluble
Two-way cards (without notch):

Ion combinations with these positive ions will
always be soluble
(alkali metals)+ , NH4+
Ion combinations with these negative ions will

always be soluble
nitrate, acetate, chlorate, perchlorate
Practice B
1. For these, write total and net ionic equations. Try using the 3-line method.
a. Ferric nitrate and rubidium hydroxide
b. MgSO4(aq) and BaCl2(aq)
2. Combining solutions of magnesium chloride and sodium sulfate,
a. what will be the names of the two new combinations that are possible?
b. Which of the new combinations are soluble in aqueous solutions?
c. Which of the new combinations will precipitate?
3. When these solutions are mixed:
NiBr2(aq) + K3PO4(aq)
a. What are the solid formulas for the two new combinations that are possible?
b. Will a precipitate form in the mixture? If so, what is its name and formula?
c. Write the total and the net ionic equations for the reaction.
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ANSWERS
( Assume the state is (aq) if not shown.)
Practice A
Problem 1
Solid
Formula
1. AgNO3
Dissolved Ions
before mixing
Ag+ + NO3
2. Na2CrO4 2 Na+ + CrO42
Mixed Possible
new combinations
Possible
Precipitates
2 Ag+ + CrO42 Ag2CrO4 (Insoluble, ppt.)

Na+ + NO3
NaNO3 (Soluble, does not ppt.)
Total ionic equation:

2 Ag+ + 2 NO3 + 2Na+ + CrO42 Ag2CrO4(s) + 2 Na+ + 2 NO3
Net ionic equation:
2 Ag+(aq) + CrO42(aq) Ag2CrO4(s)
Problem 2
Solid
Formula
Dissolved Ions
before mixing
Potassium Hydroxide K+ + OH
Cobalt Nitrate
Co2+ + 2 NO3
Mixed Possible
new combinations
Possible
Precipitates
K+ + NO3 KNO3 (Soluble, does not ppt.)

Co2+ + 2 OH Co(OH)2 (Insoluble, ppt.)
Total ionic equation:
2 K+ + 2 OH + Co2+ + 2 NO3 Co(OH)2(s) + 2 K+ + 2 NO3
Net ionic equation:
Co2+(aq) + 2 OH(aq) Co(OH)2(s)
Practice B
1a.
{ Fe3+ + 3 NO3}
{ Rb+ + OH } { Fe3+ + 3 OH } + { Rb+ + NO3 }

Insoluble
Soluble
Fe(OH)3(s)
(Thats the rough draft. To write total and net ionic equations, remove brackets and adjust coefficients so
that all atoms and charges balance.)
Total ionic: Fe3+ + 3 NO3 + 3 Rb+ + 3 OH Fe(OH)3(s) + 3 Rb+ + 3 NO3
Net ionic equation: Fe3+(aq) + 3 OH(aq) Fe(OH)3(s)
1b.
{ Mg2+ + SO42 } + { Ba2+ + 2 Cl} { Mg2+ + 2 Cl } + { Ba2+ + SO42 }
Soluble
Insoluble
BaSO4(s)
Total ionic: Mg2+ + SO42 + Ba2+ + 2 Cl Mg2+ + 2 Cl + BaSO4(s)

NET ionic equation:
Ba2+(aq) + SO4(aq) BaSO4(s)
Page 340
2. a. Magnesium sulfate and sodium chloride.

3.
b. Both
c. Neither
{ Ni2+ + 2 Br } + { 3 K+ + PO43} { 3 Ni+2 + 2 PO43} + { K+ + Br }

Insoluble
Soluble
Ni3(PO4)2(s)
a. KBr and Ni3(PO4)2
b. Yes. Ni3(PO4)2 (nickel phosphate)
c. Total: 3 Ni2+ + 6 Br + 6 K+ + 2 PO43 1 Ni3(PO4)2(s) + 6 K+ + 6 Br

Net ionic equation: 3 Ni2+(aq) + 2 PO43 (aq)
Ni3(PO4)2(s)
(Note how the coefficients are balanced above. When writing each combination at each stage, adjust
coefficients to balance the combination for atoms and charge. Then, for the total ionic equation, adjust the
coefficients again to balance each ion combination plus all of the atoms and charges on each side.
If the coefficients do not balance easily, it may indicate an error and you should double-check your work.)
* * * * *
Lesson 13D: Precipitation and Gravimetric Calculations

Timing: If there is a gap between the time that you are asked to predict which ion
combinations precipitate and when you are assigned calculations involving precipitates,
delay this lesson until precipitation calculations are assigned.
* * * * *
Gravimetric Calculations
Stoichiometry answers how much of the reactants are used up and products are formed in
chemical reactions. Once a count (usually in moles) of any one reaction component is
determined, a count of other components can be solved using simple-whole-number ratios:
the coefficients of the balanced equation.
In some precipitation calculations, volume and concentration are used to solve for moles.
In others, precipitates are dried and weighed to determine moles; a process termed
gravimetric because the moles of precipitate are determined by its weight, which is the
attraction of its mass by gravity.
Precipitation/Gravimetric Stoichiometry
In most respects, precipitation/gravimetric calculations follow the same rules for solution
stoichiometry that you used in Lessons 12C and 12D, but in several ways they often differ.
1. In most previous equations to balance, you were supplied with the formulas of the
reactants and products.
In precipitation calculations, you will often be asked to both predict all of the product
formulas and identify which products precipitate.
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2. Precipitation calculations can involve measurements for both a solid formula and the
ions formed when the solid dissolves in water.
3. For most reaction calculations, you can count the particles of one or two substances
directly from the supplied DATA. In many gravimetric calculations, you must first
identify the formula of a precipitate before you can count any particles.
To handle these differences for precipitation reactions, we will add these special steps to
our stoichiometry process.
In precipitation calculations, do WDBB steps 3 and 4 as follows.
3. Balance the equation.
a. Write and balance a precipitation equation in three parts:
Reactants in solid formulas Reactants as separated ions Products
b. As you write the product formulas, decide whether a new combination will be
soluble and separated, or insoluble and precipitate. Use one of the methods
for predicting product formulas and precipitates in Lesson 13C.
In the products, write solid formulas for insoluble precipitates and separatedions for combinations that are soluble.
c. Once the precipitate formula is identified, in the WANTED and/or DATA,
replace ppt. with the formula for the precipitate. If this results in grams of a
formula in WANTED or DATA, add the molar mass of the ppt. to the DATA.
4: Write the mol-mol bridge.
In the mol-mol bridge, include all chemical formulas that are written after units in
the WANTED and DATA. This may result in three or more terms with
coefficients, moles, and chemical formulas that are equal, instead of two.
Cover the answer below, then apply the steps to the following problem. If you get stuck,
read part of the answer below, then try again.
Q. If 14.0 mL of Pb(NO3)2 solution is reacted with excess MgCl2 solution, and the
resulting precipitate when dried weighs 0.314 grams, what was the original [Pb2+]?
* * * * *
Since there are two reactants, and one is in excess, the other must be limiting. If you know
the limiting reactant, solve by conversion stoichiometry.
1. WANT:
=
? mol Pb2+
2
+
L Pb soln.
(a ratio unit is WANTED)
Concentration is a ratio that is constant in a well-mixed solution. The ratio for any
sample will be the same as the ratio for the whole solution. We can easily measure the
liters in a sample, but we cannot count the moles of ions directly.
However, if we precipitate the ions, weigh the precipitate, and identify the precipitate
formula, we can find the moles of Pb2+ ions in the original sample. We can then divide
Page 342
to find the mol/L ratio for that sample, and that is the WANTED unit. Since weighing
the dried precipitate is one step in this process, this is a gravimetric calculation.
2. DATA:
14.0 mL Pb(NO3)2 soln. = 0.314 g ppt.
(Equivalent: 2SUA-R)
In the calculation of a WANTED ratio based on a reaction, two DATA amounts will be
equivalent in the reaction (Lesson 12C).
The MgCl2 is in excess. Amounts of reactants in excess can be ignored in the DATA,
since they do not determine the amounts of reactants used up or products formed
(Lesson 10F).
3. Balance. Since this is a precipitation reaction, apply the special steps above.
a. Write the balanced equation for precipitation in 3 parts: Reactants as solid
formulas, reactants in separated-ions, and products as either precipitates or as
separated, soluble spectator ions, depending on their state in the products.
Solid Reactants:
1 Pb(NO3)2 + 1 MgCl2
Separated Reactants:
1 Pb2+ + 2 NO3 + 1 Mg2+ + 2 Cl
Products:
1 PbCl2(s) + 1 Mg2+ + 2 NO3
Adjust coefficients so that all three parts balance for atoms and charge.
* * * * *
b. Decide the precipitate formula.
Upon mixing the two solutions, two new ion combinations can form.
One new combination is lead ion with chloride ion. By the solubility rules in
Lesson 13A, the combination of Pb2+ and Cl is insoluble. A possible new
combination that is insoluble will precipitate, so PbCl2 will precipitate.
The other new possible combination is Mg2+and NO ions. All
3
combinations that include nitrate ion are soluble. Write these ions as
separated on the products side.
The only precipitate is therefore PbCl2.
c. In the DATA, replace ppt. with its solid formula:

DATA:
14.0 mL Pb(NO3)2 soln. = 0.314 g ppt. PbCl2(s)
(Equivalent)
Now that the DATA includes grams of a formula, what should be added to the
DATA that will likely be needed to solve?
* * * * *
278.1 g PbCl2 = 1 mol PbCl2
(grams prompt)
4. Bridge conversion. In precipitation reactions, write mole ratios between all of the
chemical formulas which are written after units in the WANTED or DATA.
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In this problem, the WANTED and DATA involve measurements of three chemical
formulas: Pb2+, Pb(NO ) , and PbCl . Write the bridge ratios for those three formulas
32
using the coefficients in the balanced equations above.

* * * * *
Bridge: 1 mol Pb2+(aq) = 1 mol Pb(NO3)2(aq) = 1 mol PbCl2(s)
Any two of those three terms can be used if needed as a bridge conversion.
5. SOLVE. For reaction calculations in which the answer unit is a ratio, our strategy is to
find a value for the top and bottom WANTED units separately, then divide (see Lesson
12D). The steps are
a. Label the DATA equality that has two amounts that are equivalent .
b. Solve for the WANTED unit that is not moles first, using as a given the side of
the equivalency that measures the WANTED formula or sample.
c. Solve for moles WANTED using the other half of the equivalency as the given.
c. Divide the two WANTED amounts.
* * * * *
The WANTED unit that is not moles is L Pb2+. We pick one of the terms in the
equivalency to convert to L Pb2+. Which one?
In stoichiometry, we pick as a given the side of the equivalency that includes the
WANTED substance formula, but neither of the two equivalent amounts has the
formula Pb2+. However, the labels Pb(NO3)2 and Pb2+ are equivalent. One label
includes the spectator ions, and the other does not, but the Pb(NO3)2 solution and Pb2+
solution are the same solution. The mL volume of Pb(NO3)2 is one side of the
equivalency, so use that term as your given.
? L Pb2+ soln. = 14.0 mL Pb(NO3)2 soln. = 14.0 x 103 L Pb(NO3)2
= 14.0 x 103 L Pb2+ soln.
A good general rule is:
If you get stuck, add more complete labels to the WANTED and DATA.
In this case, by labeling all of the volume units as soln., it is a indication that they are
related. Now solve for the other WANTED unit and then check below.
* * * * *
Starting from the other half of the equivalency as given,
? mol Pb2+ = 0.314 g PbCl2 1 mol PbCl2 1 mol Pb2+ = 1.129 x 103 mol Pb2+
278.1 g PbCl2 1 mol PbCl2
Finish the problem, and then check below.
* * * * *
Page 344
The sample of Pb2+ solution was found to have 1.129 x 103 mol Pb2+ in
14.0 x 103 L Pb2+ soln. Knowing those amounts, find the WANTED ratio.
* * * * *
3
2+
? mol Pb2+
= 1.129 x 10 mol Pb
=
2
+
3
2
+
L Pb soln. 14.0 x 10 L Pb soln.
0.0806 mol Pb2+

L Pb2+ soln.
* * * * *
Flashcards: Add these to your collection. Run each until perfect for 3 days, then move
them to stack 2 (see Lesson 6E).
In gravimetric or precipitation calculations,

what special rule applies to the balance step?
Write solid reactants separated reactants

products
In gravimetric or precipitation calculations,

when you identify the ppt. formula
If grams ppt is in WANTED or DATA,

add the molar mass to the DATA
Practice: Memorize the special rules for precipitate stoichiometry, then apply them to
these problems. If you get stuck, read a part of the answer and try again.
1. A 25.0 mL sample of a K2SO4 solution is reacted with an excess amount of BaCl2
solution. Assuming that all of the sulfate ions precipitate, if the mass of the dried
precipitate is 1.167 grams, what was the original [K2SO4]?
2. 50.0 mL of a solution containing Pb2+ requires 12.0 mL of a 0.200 M NaCl solution to
precipitate all of the lead ions. What was the original [Pb2+]?
ANSWERS
1. If there are two reactants and one is in excess, the other is limiting and controls how much product can be
formed. Solve using conversion stoichiometry, starting with WDBB.
1. WANTED:
2. DATA:
? mol K2SO4
L K2SO4 soln.
25.0 mL K2SO4 soln. = 1.167 g ppt.
(Equivalent 2SUA-R)
(The problem is about a chemical reaction. The WANTED and DATA involve 2 substances, with the
ppt. being one. Thats the stoichiometry prompt. All stoichiometry begins with the same 4 steps.)
3. Balance.
a. (In precipitation, balance in 3 parts)
Solid Reactants:
Separated Reactants:
Products:
1 K2SO4(aq) + 1 BaCl2(aq)
2 K+(aq) + 1 SO42(aq) + 1 Ba2+(aq) + 2 Cl(aq)
1 BaSO4(s) + 2 K+(aq) + 2 Cl (aq)
Page 345
b. (Identify the precipitate. Since KCl is soluble, the ppt. must be BaSO4.
c. Adjust the DATA.)
25.0 mL K2SO4 soln. = 1.167 g ppt. BaSO4(s)
DATA:
(equivalent 2SUA-R)
(When a ratio unit is WANTED, all of the DATA will be equalities. Here, the mL K2SO4 soln. is what
determined the grams of ppt. that formed. What additional key information can now be added to the DATA?
* * * * *
233.4 g BaSO4 = 1 mol BaSO4
4. Bridge.
(grams of a formula = g prompt)
1 mole K2SO4 = 1 mole BaSO4
(K2SO4 and BaSO4 are the only formulas that are written after units in the WANTED or DATA.
* * * * *
5. SOLVE. (Since the answer unit is a ratio, find amounts for the two WANTED units separately.
a. Label the equivalency in the DATA.
b. First find the WANTED unit that is not moles, choosing as a given the side of the equivalency that
measures the formula WANTED.)
? L K2SO4 = 25.0 mL K2SO4 = 25.0 x 103 L K2SO4
(Substitute what prefix means)
c. (Find moles WANTED using the other half of the equivalency as a given.)
* * * * *
? mol K2SO4 = 1.167 g BaSO4
1 mol BaSO4 1 mol K2SO4 = 5.000 x 103 mol K SO

2 4
233.4 g BaSO4 1 mol BaSO4
d. (Find the final WANTED unit.)

* * * * *
3
? mol K2SO4 = 5.000 x 10 mol K2SO4
L K2SO4
25.0 x 103 L K2SO4 soln
0.200 mol K2SO4

L K2SO4
2. Since you can count the moles for only one substance (NaCl), that substance will be your given when you
solve for moles Pb2+. Knowing the given, solve using conversion stoichiometry, starting with WDBB.
1. WANT:
? mol Pb2+ =
L Pb2+ soln.
2. DATA:
50.0 mL Pb2+ soln = 12.0 mL NaCl soln.

0.200 mol NaCl = 1 L NaCl soln.
(equivalent 2SUA-R)
(M prompt a ratio)
(If a ratio unit is WANTED, all of the DATA will be equalities. The mL Pb2+. is what determined the mL
NaCl that reacted. They are proportional and equivalent.)
Page 346
3. Balance.
a. (Write the balanced equation for precipitate formation in three parts: solid, separated, products.)
1 Pb2+ + 2 NaCl 1 Pb2+ + 2 Na+ + 2 Cl 1 PbCl2(s) + 2 Na+
(The anion that was initially combined with lead ion is not known, but it is not needed as long as
the above equations are balanced for atoms and charge.
b. Identify: The precipitate must be PbCl2.
c. Adjust: Since the ppt. amount is not measured in the DATA, there is no DATA to adjust.)
4. Bridge. (The WANTED and DATA include measurements (units and formulas) for only 2 substance
formulas: Pb2+ and NaCl.)
Bridge: 1 mol Pb2+ = 2 mol NaCl
(If needed, adjust your work and solve from here.)
* * * * *
5. SOLVE. (Since the answer unit is a ratio, find amounts for the two WANTED units separately.
a. Label the equivalency in the DATA.
b. First find the WANTED unit not moles, choosing as a given the side of the equivalency that
measures the formula WANTED.)
? L Pb2+ soln. = 50.0 mL Pb2+ = 50.0 x 103 L Pb2+
(Substitute what prefix means)
c. (Using other half of equivalency as given, find moles WANTED using stoichiometry steps.)
? mol Pb2+ = 12.0 mL NaCl 103 L 0.200 mol NaCl 1 mol Pb2+ = 1.200 x 103
1 mL
1 L NaCl
2 mol NaCl
mol Pb2+
d. (Find the final WANTED unit.
Above, in the sample of the WANTED solution, you found mol Pb2+ and L Pb2+ soln.)
? mol Pb2+
L Pb2+
1.200 x 103 mole Pb2+

5.000 x 102 L Pb2+
= 0.0240 M Pb2+
* * * * *
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Summary: Solubility and Precipitation

1. Most ionic solids can be characterized as soluble or insoluble in water. The rules for
solubility must be memorized, and exceptions occur. Some frequently used rules are
a. compounds containing alkali-metal atoms, and NH4+, NO3 , CH3COO, ClO3 ,
and ClO ions are nearly always soluble in water;
4
b. except in the above cases, compounds containing Pb2+ , Hg22+, Ag+, CO32,
PO 3 , S2, or CrO 2 ions will generally be insoluble in water.
4
2. When two solutions of soluble ions are mixed,
if a new combination is possible that is insoluble, it will precipitate;
if a new combination is soluble, its ions will remain separated.
3. Total ionic equations show all of the ions and precipitates present when two soluble
solutions are mixed. Net ionic equations include the ions and solids that change in a
reaction, and omit spectator ions that do not change.
4. In precipitation calculations:
a. Write a balanced equation for precipitate formation in 3 parts.
Reactants as solid formulas Reactants as separated ions Products
b. Use solubility rules to determine which ions precipitate.
c. Use stoichiometry steps to solve.
5. In general, to understand the reactions of ionic compounds,
Re-write the reactants in their separated-ions format;
Look for reactions among the new possible ion combinations.
# # # #
Page 348

Timing: This module covers acid-base neutralization. Other acid-base topics, including
pH, weak acids and bases and buffers are covered in Modules 29 - 32.
There are two types of neutralization calculations that may be assigned in your course.
If all of the neutralization calculations that you are assigned supply chemical
formulas for the products in the reactions, you do not need to complete Module 14.
This type of calculation was covered in Lesson 12C and 12D.
If your course assigns in which you must predict the product formulas for acid-base
neutralization, complete Module 14.
* * * * *
Lesson 14A: Ions In Acid-Base Neutralization

Prerequisites: Lessons 7B, 7C, and the acid naming lesson (7D).
Pretest: If you can do each of the 3 following problems, you may skip Lessons 14A and
14B. Check answers at the end of this lesson.
Assuming complete neutralization of all protons and basic ions, write product formulas
and balance these.
a.
KHC2O4 +
b.
H3Unk +
Mg(OH)2
c.
HCO3 +
OH
KOH
* * * * *
Terminology
Many substances can be classified as acids or bases (and some can act as both). A variety of
definitions exist for acids and bases, with each definition helpful in certain types of
reactions and calculations.
Because acids and bases can react with many substances, they are often termed corrosive:
they may damage a surface, metal, or fabric. When an acid or base is neutralized, at least
some of its reactive ions are used up, and its corrosive power is reduced.
In an acid-base neutralization reaction, an acid and a base are reactants. When mixed
together, they react, and both are used up to some extent. In the process, both the acid and
the base are said to be neutralized.
For the limited purpose of studying neutralization, we will define
an acid as a substance that creates H+ ions when dissolved in water, and
a base as a substance that can react with (use up) H+ ions.
Page 349
Understanding Neutralization
As substances, acids and bases may be ionic or covalent compounds. However, when
dissolved in water, acids and bases react with the water to form ions. A key to
understanding neutralization in solutions is to write the acid and base reactants as separated
ions in water.
Acids
When they are dissolved in water, acids form H+ ions plus other ions. The ions formed are
always present in ratios that guarantee electrical neutrality.
A strong acid is one that separates essentially 100% into ions when it dissolves in water.
Example Nitric acid: 1 HNO3
H2O
Other frequently encountered strong acids include
1 H+ + 1 NO3
(goes ~100%)
HCl , hydrochloric acid, which ionizes to form an H+ ion and a chloride ion (Cl).
H2SO4 , sulfuric acid, which is used in most car batteries. It is termed a diprotic acid
because each neutral H2SO4 molecule can ionize to form two H+ ions.
Strong acids can neutralize both strong and weak bases.

Weak acids ionize only slightly in water. An example is CH3COOH (acetic acid), the active
ingredient in vinegar. Acetic acid ionizes slightly in water to form one H+ ion and one
acetate anion (CH3COO). Weak acids are neutralized by strong bases, but not necessarily
by weak bases.
The four italicized acid names above are encountered frequently. Their names and formulas
should be memorized.
Bases
Strong bases can neutralize both strong and weak acids. Strong bases often contain
hydroxide ions. Examples include NaOH (sodium hydroxide) and KOH (potassium
hydroxide).
Compounds that contain carbonate ions (CO 2) are also bases. Carbonates are weaker
3
bases than hydroxides, but carbonate ions are strong enough as bases to neutralize both
strong and moderately weak acids. Examples of carbonates include Na2CO3 (sodium
carbonate) and CaCO3 (calcium carbonate).
Hydrogen carbonate ion (HCO3, also called bicarbonate ion) can also react as a base, but
HCO3 is a weaker base than carbonate and hydroxide ions, and it reacts only with acids
that are relatively strong.
Many other molecules and ions can act as bases, but those containing OH, CO32, or
HCO3 ions are the bases most frequently encountered in acid-base neutralization.
Page 350
Electrolytes
Because acids and bases form ions when they dissolve in water, they are termed
electrolytes: their solutions can conduct electricity. Strong acids and strong bases are
termed strong electrolytes because they ionize ~100%.
The Structure of H+: A Proton

Neutral hydrogen atoms contain one proton and one electron. (About 0.01% of naturally
occurring H atoms also contain one or two neutrons, but the neutrons have no impact on
the types of chemical reactions in which hydrogen atoms participate.)
An H+ ion is a hydrogen atom without an electron, so most H+ ions in terms of structure
are single protons. The terms H+ ion and proton are often used interchangeably to describe
the active particle in an acid.
Memorize: the ion formed by acids = H+ = proton
In aqueous solutions, the proton released by an acid is nearly always is found attached to a
water molecule, forming a hydronium ion (H3O+). This reaction can be represented as
1 H+ + 1 H2O 1 H3O+
(goes ~ 100%)
The symbols H+ and H3O+ in most cases are considered to be equivalent. For now, to
simplify work, we will use H+ as the symbol for the ion contributed to solutions by acids.
Identifying Acids and Bases

From a chemical formula, how can you tell whether a substance is an acid or a base? It is
not always easy to tell. A general rule is:
If Identify A Compound Is As An Acid or A Base
Write the balanced equation for the substance formula separating into familiar ions.
y Compounds that ionize to form H+ ions are acids.
y Compounds that contain OH or CO32 ions can act as bases.
y Compounds that contain HCO ions can act as both.
3
Practice A:
For the reaction in which the compounds below ionize in water, write
balanced equations showing the ions formed, then label each initial reactant as either an
acid or a base. Answers are at the end of the lesson. For help, review Lesson 7C and 7D.
a. LiOH
H2O
b. Na2CO3
c. Perbromic acid
d. Ca(OH)2
Page 351
e. HCN
g. Nitrous acid
f. KHCO3
h. Chromic acid
Identifying Acidic Hydrogens

Hydrogen atoms in compounds can be divided into two types.
Acidic hydrogens are generally defined as those that react with hydroxide ions, and
non-acidic hydrogens are those that do not.
Compounds often contain both acidic and non-acidic hydrogens.

For example, in CH3COOH (acetic acid), the H atom at the end of the formula reacts
with NaOH, but the other three H atoms do not. The H at the end is the acidic
hydrogen. The other H atoms are not acidic hydrogens.
In an acid formula, how can you predict which hydrogens will be acidic and which will
not? In most cases, the rules are:
If one or more H atoms is written at the front of a formula, while other H atoms are
not, the H atoms at the front are acidic, and the others are not.
Example: Acetic acid is often written as HC2H3O2. Only the H in front is
acidic.
The H at the end of a COOH (also written CO2H) group is acidic.

Examples:
In C6H5COOH, only the H at the end is acidic.

In C3H7CO2H, only the H at the end is acidic.
If H is the second atom in the formula, written after a metal atom and before other
atoms, it is acidic.
Examples:
In KHC8H4O4, the first H (and only the first) is acidic.

In NaH2PO4, the two Hs after the metal atom are acidic.
If a substance with only one H reacts with hydroxide ion, the H is acidic.
Practice B
1. Draw an arrow toward and count the acidic hydrogens in these compounds.
a. NaH2PO4
d. H3AsO4
b. C12H25COOH
e. KHC8H4O4
c. H2C4H4O6
f. NaHSO4
Page 352
2. Fill in the blanks to show the number of protons formed when these compounds ionize
in water.
a. C3H7CO2H ___ H+
b. HC2H3O2 ___ H+
c. NaH2(C3H5O(COO)3) ___ H+
ANSWERS
Pretest: Coefficients of 1 may be omitted as understood.
a. 1 KHC2O4 + 1 KOH 1 H2O + 1 K2C2O4
b. 2 H3Unk + 3 Mg(OH)2 6 H2O + 1 Mg3(Unk)2
c. HCO3 + OH H2O + CO32
Practice A
b. Na2CO3 2 Na+ + CO32 Base
d. Ca(OH)2 Ca2+ + 2 OH Base
a. LiOH Li + + OH Base
c. HBrO4 H+ + BrO4 Acid
e. HCN H+ + CN Acid
f. KHCO3 K+ + HCO3 Acid or Base
g. HNO2 H+ + NO2 Acid
h. H2CrO4 2 H+ + CrO42 Acid
Practice B
1. a. NaH2PO4 Two
d. H3AsO4
2
Three
b. C12H25COOH One
e. KHC8H4O4
a. C3H7CO2H 1 H+
c. H2C4H4O6 Two
One
f. NaHSO4
One
b. HC2H3O2 1 H+
c. NaH2(C3H5O(COO)3) 2 H+
* *
* *
Page 353
Lesson 14B: Balancing Hydroxide Neutralization

Prerequisites: Lesson 14A.
* * * * *
Hydroxide Neutralization
In an aqueous solution, for the reaction of an acid and a hydroxide, the neutralization
reaction forms liquid water. Water can be written as HOH or HOH or H2O.
H+ + OH
H-OH(l)
(1)
The reaction of an acid and a hydroxide is driven to completion by the formation of water: a
low potential energy molecule. Whenever a physical or chemical system can go to lower
potential energy, there is a strong tendency to do so.
The reaction of acids with compounds containing hydroxide ions can be represented by the
general equation
An acid + a base containing OH
H2O + a salt
(2)
Historically in chemistry, the term salt in reaction (2) was a general term for any product,
in addition to water, formed when an acid and base react. In modern usage, salt is often
used as a synonym for ionic compound.
A typical acid-hydroxide neutralization is the reaction of hydrochloric acid with sodium
hydroxide to form sodium chloride (also known as table salt).
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)
H-OH(l) + NaCl(aq)
(3)
The state (aq) means aqueous (dissolved in water). Most (but not all) acid-base reactions are
carried out in water. In the acid-base solution reactions in these lessons, you may assume
that the water is liquid and the formulas for other compounds and ions are aqueous (aq)
unless otherwise noted. Writing water in the form HOH form helps to emphasize the
reaction that occurs between acids and hydroxide ions.
Equation (3) above is one way that this reaction is represented. However, both HCl and
NaOH, when dissolved in water, separate completely into ions. The table salt in the
solution after the reaction also exists as separate ions of Na+ and Cl. Re-writing the
equation to show the separated ions that actually exist in the solution, the reaction is
H+ + Cl + Na+ + OH
HOH(l) + Na+ + Cl
(4)
Note in reaction (4) that the sodium and chloride ions are spectators: they do not change
during the reaction.
Predicting All Products of Hydroxide Neutralization

If formulas are supplied for all the reactants and products, neutralization equations can be
balanced by trial and error using the methods in Lesson 10B. However, in acid-base
neutralization problems, often the product formulas are not supplied. In these cases, you
can often predict the products and balance the reaction equation by
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Re-writing the acid and base as separated ions, and
Predicting one of the neutralization products.
In hydroxide neutralization, a key rule is

If an acid reacts with OH, one of the products is HOH.
Knowing that water is one product, you can usually determine the other product
formula(s). Complete the steps below in your notebook.
Q. Write a balanced equation for the complete neutralization of H3PO4 (phosphoric
acid) by Ca(OH)2 (calcium hydroxide).
Steps
1. Write the acid and base reactants in their solid (molecular) formulas.
2. On the line below, re-write each reactant inside parentheses ( ) in its separated-ion
format.
3. After the reactants, add HOH + ______ + ______.
* * * * *
Solid:
H3PO4 +
Separated:
( 3 H+ + PO43 ) +
Ca(OH)2
( Ca2+ + 2 OH )
H-OH + _____ + _____

4. Add lowest-whole-number coefficients in front of the parentheses ( ) to balance the H+,
OH, and H-OH.
* * * * *
Separated: 2 ( 3 H+ + PO43 ) + 3 ( Ca2+ + 2 OH ) 6 H-OH + ____ + ____
^
^
^
[ ( 6 H+ )
( 6 OH ) ( 6 H-OH ) ]
The total H+ ions must equal the total OH ions must equal the total H O.
2
5. Add in the products side blanks the formulas and coefficient totals for the ions on the
left that are not H+and OH.
6. Move the left side coefficients that are in front of the ( ), plus the coefficient of the water,
up to the top line.
7. Finish adding coefficients to the top equation. To write a molecular formula for the
remaining product, use the rules for writing ionic solid formulas in Lesson 7C.
*
* * * *
Solid:
2 H3PO4 + 3 Ca(OH)2
6 H2O
+ 1 Ca3(PO4)2(s)
Separated: 2 ( 3 H+ + PO43 ) + 3 ( Ca2+ + 2 OH ) 6 H2O + 2 PO43 + 3 Ca2+

In most neutralization reactions, the ions that are not H+ and OH will simply remain
as aqueous spectator ions, dissolved in the final solution. In this problem, however,
calcium and phosphate ions are an insoluble combination. If a combination can form
that is insoluble, it will precipitate. In this reaction, we have both a neutralization and a
precipitation.
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8. Check that the final equation is balanced.
Practice A.
Balance by inspection or the methods above. Assume that the acids and
bases are completely neutralized. Do every other part, and more if you need more practice.
1. Write the product formulas in the solid (molecular) format and balance the equation.
a.
HNO3 +
KOH
b.
KOH +
H2SO4
c.
H2SO4 +
Al(OH)3
2. Write reactant and product formulas, then balance the equation. Write final formulas in
the ionic-solid (molecular) format.
a. Barium hydroxide plus sulfuric acid
b. Hydrochloric acid plus magnesium hydroxide
Balancing Neutralization with Spectators Omitted

In all stable substances and mixtures, the total of all of the positive and negative charges
must add up to zero. However, as a shortcut, spectator ions are often omitted when
representing substances or writing reaction equations. In such cases, the written charges
may not add up to zero.
For example, in the lab, solutions of acids and bases may be labeled as simply H+ or
OH to emphasize the reactive particles. In those solutions, however, there must
also be other ions that balance the overall charge.
Similarly, in writing equations for neutralization reactions, partial ionic equations may be
written that leave out spectators. In these equations, the total charge may not be zero on
each side, but as long as it is the same on both sizes, the equation is considered to be
balanced.
For a written reaction equation to be considered balanced, what is required is that the
total charge is the same on each side (but not necessarily zero) and that the number and
kind of atoms is the same on each side.
To balance a neutralization equation in which some spectators have been left out, use the
same steps as above: separate the formulas into familiar ions, one reactant including H+
and the other including a basic ion, then balance the atoms and charge on each side.
Try this example.
Q. Write the products and balance:
HSO4 +
OH
* * * * *
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Inside parentheses, break the reactants into familiar ions. When the base is a
hydroxide, form water on the right.
Add coefficients that balance the particles that form water.
Balance the particles that dont react.
Make sure that the atoms balance and the total charge is the same in all three parts.
1 HSO4 + 1 OH
1 ( 1 H+ + 1 SO42 ) + 1 OH
1 H-OH + 1 SO42
Atoms balance, and in all three parts, the total charge is 2. Balanced.
Practice B.
Check answers as you go. Do every other letter, and more for more practice.
1. Write product formulas and balance the equation. Assume all acids and bases are
totally neutralized. Products may be molecules or ions.
a.
H+ +
b.
HSO4 +
KOH
c.
KHSO4 +
OH
d.
CH3COOH +
Al(OH)3
OH
Balancing Only the Reactants

To solve most neutralization stoichiometry, we will need only the coefficients for the
reactants: the acid and the base. This partial balancing can be completed if know the
formula for one product, and in the case of acid-hydroxide neutralization, we do. One
product is always H-OH.
For this problem, write H-OH as a product, balance the left side, and then check below.
Q. What is the ratio of reaction for
H2SO4 +
Al(OH)3
* * * * *
Either balance by inspection (total H+ = total OH) or by using these steps.
1. Below the two reactants, write the number of acidic and basic ions in the reactants.
2. On the right, add one product of the reaction.
H2SO4
( 2 H+ ) +
Al(OH)3
HOH +
(3 OH )
HOH +
3. Add the coefficients to balance the atoms and charge.

H2SO4
3 ( 2 H+ ) +
Al(OH)3
2 (3 OH )
HOH +
6 HOH
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4. Transfer the coefficients to the original reaction equation.

3 H2SO4
+ 2 Al(OH)3
3 ( 2 H+ ) +
2 (3 OH )
6 HOH
6 HOH
+
+
The reactant ratios will be all that is needed to solve most neutralization stoichiometry.
Practice C. Assume all reactants are completely neutralized. Balance by inspection or

using the steps above. Do every other problem, and the rest in your next practice session.
1. Balance the coefficients of the two reactants.
a.
CsOH +
H2SO4
b.
Ca(OH)2 +
nitric acid
c.
HSO4 +
OH
2. Add ratios of reaction for these reactants.

a.
Acetic acid
NaOH
b.
Calcium hydroxide +
c.
NaHC2O4 +
d.
Potassium hydroxide +
HC2H3O2
Al(OH)3
KHC8H4O4
Balancing with an Unknown Formula

In some neutralization calculations, the formula for an acid or the base is not supplied, but
the number of protons in the acid, or basic ions in the base, is provided. In these cases, the
acid formula can be represented as
H3R , where the R stands for an unknown,group, often containing carbon, or
H3Unk , where the Unk stands for unknown,
and H3 represents three acidic hydrogens. Using these formulas, you can usually balance
the acid-base reactant ratio, and that is all that you need in solving most neutralization
stoichiometry. Try this example.
Q. A solid acid has an unknown formula but is known to contain three acidic hydrogens.
What will be the ratio for the reaction of this acid with NaOH?
* * * * *
Answer
The two reactants can be written as:
H3Unk +
NaOH
Complete the reactant balancing.

* * * * *
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H3Unk + NaOH 1 ( 3 H+ ) + 3 ( OH ) 3 HOH + .

The acid-base ratio must be
1 H3Unk + 3 NaOH
A formula could be written for the other products, but it would be speculation. The acid
anion could remain intact, or it could decay in some fashion. However, for most
neutralization stoichiometry, formulas for the other products are not required: the acidbase ratio on the left side of the equation will be all that is needed to solve.
Summary for neutralization rules so far.

1. Acid-base neutralization is an ionic reaction. To understand ionic reactions, write
the separated-ion formulas.
2. Ions: Acids contain H+. The reacting particle in acids = H+ = a proton.
Bases include compounds with hydroxide (OH), carbonate (CO 2), and
3
hydrogen carbonate (HCO3) ions.

3. Products: For acids + OH, one product is water: H-OH.
H+ + OH H-OH
4. Balancing: To predict the products and balance the equations,
Write the separated-ion formulas in ( ).
Write one product.
Finish by balancing atoms and charge.
5. To balance when a formula is unknown,
If a substance has 2 acidic hydrogens, write its formula as H2Unk or H2R.
If a base has 3 hydroxides, write Unk(OH)3.
Practice D:
Learn the rules above, then do these problems. Assume that all reactants
are completely neutralized.
1. Supply the ratios of reaction for the two reactants.
a.
H2Unk +
Sr(OH)2
b.
H2SO4 +
Unk(OH)3
c.
HCl +
d.
H2Unk +
UnkOH
Unk(OH)3
2. Add coefficients to balance the two reactants.

a. An unknown acid with two acidic hydrogens is totally neutralized by potassium
hydroxide.
b. An unknown base with three hydroxide ions is totally neutralized by nitric acid.
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ANSWERS
Practice A: Coefficients of one may be omitted. Any coefficient ratios which are the same as these are not
incorrect, but lowest whole-number ratios are preferred.
a.
1 HNO3 + 1 KOH 1 H2O + 1 KNO3
b.
2 KOH + 1 H2SO4
c.
3 H2SO4 + 2 Al(OH)3
2. a.
b.
2 H2O + 1 K2SO4
1 Al2(SO4)3 + 6 H2O
1 Ba(OH)2 + 1 H2SO4 2 H2O + 1 BaSO4

2 HCl + Mg(OH)2 2 H2O + 1 MgCl2
Practice B
1. a. 3 H+ + 1 Al(OH)3 3 H-OH + Al3+
b. 1 HSO4 + 1 KOH 1 H-OH + 1 K+ + 1 SO42
c. 1 KHSO4 + 1 OH 1 H-OH + 1 K+ + 1 SO42
d. 1 CH3COOH + 1 OH 1 H-OH + 1 CH3COO
Practice C: To balance the reactants, write one product of the reaction.

1. a. 2 CsOH + 1 H2SO4 2 H-OH +
b. 1 Ca(OH)2 + 2 HNO3 2 H-OH +
c. 1 HSO4 + 1 OH 1 H-OH +
2. a. 1 CH3COOH + 1 NaOH
1 H2O +
b. 1 Ca(OH)2 + 2 HC2H3O2
2 H2O +
c. 3 NaHC2O4 + 1 Al(OH)3 3 H2O +

d. 1 KOH + 1 KHC8H4O4 1 H2O +
Practice D
1. a. 1 H2Unk + 1 Sr(OH)2 2 H-OH +
b. 3 H2SO4 + 2 Unk(OH)3 6 H2O +
c. 1 HCl + 1 UnkOH H-OH +
d. 3 H2Unk + 2 Unk(OH)3
2. a. 1 H2Unk + 2 KOH 2 H2O +

b. 3 HNO3 + 1 Unk(OH)3 3 H2O +
* * * * *
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Lesson 14C: Neutralization and Titration Calculations

Solution Stoichiometry and Acid-Base Reactions
In any reaction, at the point where the moles of the reactants have been mixed in the exact
ratio that matches the coefficients of the balanced equation, the reactants are
stoichiometrically equivalent. Calculations involving these amounts can be solved using the
stoichiometry steps in Lessons 9E and 12C.
For a reaction in which an acid and base have been mixed in stoichiometrically equivalent
amounts, both the acid and base are said to be exactly neutralized.
Neutralization calculations can be divided into two types: those that supply
all of the reactant and product formulas, or
only the reactant formulas.
If the formulas for all of the reactants and products are supplied, any equation can be
balanced by trial and error, and calculations involving reaction amounts can then be solved
by stoichiometry. In problems that supplied both the reactant and product formulas, you
solved several neutralization calculations in Lessons 12C and 12D.
We are now prepared to solve calculations in which the acid-hydroxide formulas are
supplied but the product formulas are not. Using the balancing strategies in Lesson 14B,
the coefficients of the acid and base can be determined even when the formula of the nonwater product may not be certain. In most neutralization calculations, the ratio of reaction
of the reactants is all that is needed to solve by conversion stoichiometry.
Apply the acid-hydroxide balancing and stoichiometry steps to this example.
Q.
How many milliliters of a 0.200 M sodium hydroxide solution are needed to

neutralize all of the acidic protons in 2.34 grams of arsenic acid (H3AsO4) ?
If you get stuck, read a portion of the answer until you are unstuck, then try again.
* * * * *
Reaction calculations for two substances that are at an equivalence point (as when an acid
and base are both exactly neutralized) are solved by conversion stoichiometry. Start with
WDBB.
* * * * *
Answer: Your paper should look like this, minus the (comments).
WANT:
? mL NaOH soln.
DATA:
0.200 mol NaOH soln. = 1 L NaOH soln.

2.34 g H3AsO4
141.9 g H3AsO4 = 1 mol H3AsO4
(single unit given)

(g prompt)
(Include formulas after all units to distinguish the two substances being measured.)
* * * * *
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Balance:
1 H3AsO4 + 3 NaOH 3 HOH + Na3AsO4
(In hydroxide neutralization calculations, the exact non-water product formula is not
needed. The bridge ratio is based on balancing to form H2O. The product formula
Na3AsO4 is a best guess for an unfamiliar ion; additional reactions might occur.)
Bridge:
1 mol H3AsO4 = 3 mol NaOH
SOLVE: (Want a single unit?).

* * * * *
1 L NaOH
? mL NaOH = 2.34 g H3AsO4 1 mol H3AsO4 3 mol NaOH
1 mL =
141.9 g H3AsO4 1 mol H3AsO4 0.200 mol NaOH 103 L
= 247 mL NaOH soln.
Lets review the logic of why we do these steps. We want to know the mL of base that will
neutralize a given amount of an acid.
From the grams of the acid and its g/mol, we can find the moles of acid in the
sample.
From the balanced equation, we can find the moles of base that neutralize the acid.
From the moles of base needed and its mol/L, we can find the liters and mL of
base that are needed to exactly neutralize the acid.
The goal of learning is to be able to solve problems. The steps of stoichiometry allow us to
precisely solve problems that are frequently encountered in medicine, engineering, and
science.
Practice A
1. If all of the acidic hydrogens in a 2.00 M H3PO4 solution are neutralized by 1.50 liters of
0.500 M KOH, how many mL of H3PO4 solution were neutralized?
Titration Terminology
Titration is an experimental technique that can supply the data needed for stoichiometry
calculations. In titration, calibrated burets are used to precisely measure the amounts of
solution added as a chemical reaction takes place.
Indicators are dyes used in titration that change color at the instant the moles of two
reacting particles are equal or have reacted in a simple-whole-number ratio. When this
equivalence point is reached, a change in indicator color signals the endpoint of the
titration.
An acid-base titration is simply a neutralization in which the amounts of acid and base are
carefully measured. In neutralization, if one or both of the reactants is a strong acid or base,
Page 362
the reaction goes to completion: it will proceed until the limiting reactant is completely
used up.
When titrating a weak acid or base, the opposite solution must be strong, and a careful
selection of the indicator dye will be required to show a sharp endpoint. However, for all
acids and bases, if one or both is strong, stoichiometry calculations can be done using the
same steps.
Acid-Hydroxide Titration Calculations

In the titration of an acid and a hydroxide, because OH is a strong base, the reaction goes
to completion. The acid and base ions react as soon as they are mixed, and as additional
solution is added, the reaction continues to occur until the equivalence point is reached. At
that point, the indicator changes color.
For an acid with one acidic hydrogen, at the endpoint the moles of H+ supplied by the acid
solution equal the moles of OH supplied by the base solution.
At an acid-hydroxide endpoint, moles H+ from acid = moles OH from base
For acids that contain more than one acidic proton, neutralization produces a series of
equivalence points. For many of these polyprotic acids, by carefully selecting an
appropriate indicator, it may be possible to titrate to an equivalence points for different
numbers of acidic hydrogens in the acid.
At the endpoint of the titration, you should assume that the moles of acid and base have
been mixed in the exact ratio shown by the coefficients of the balanced equation for the
neutralization, and both are exactly used up (at the uncertainty indicated by the significant
figures in the data). At this point, the acid and base are stoichiometrically equivalent: both
reactants are limiting. Calculations using titrated amounts can then be solved by
conversion stoichiometry.
For calculations involving a reaction to an equivalence point or titration to an endpoint, use
conversion stoichiometry. Start with WDBB.
Practice B
1. A 25.0 mL sample of 0.145 M HCl is titrated by a 0.200 M OH solution. How many
milliliters of the base must be added to reach the point where the indicator changes
color?
2. Oxalic acid (H2C2O4, 90.03 gmol1) is a solid at room temperature. Each oxalic acid
particle contains two acidic hydrogens. A sample of oxalic acid is titrated by sodium
hydroxide, and an indicator is chosen that changes color at the point when both of the
acidic hydrogens are neutralized. How many moles of NaOH are needed to titrate
0.100 g of oxalic acid crystals?
* * * * *
Page 363
ANSWERS
Practice A
1.
WANT: ? mL H3PO4
DATA: 2.00 mol H3PO4 = 1 L H3PO4
1.50 L KOH soln.
0.500 mol KOH = 1 L KOH
(you want a single unit)

(M prompt)
(the single unit given)
(M prompt)
Since all volumes in this problem are for aqueous solutions, you may label one volume as soln. but
omit the other solution labels after volumes as understood.)
Balance:
Bridge:
1 H3PO4 + 3 KOH 3 H2O + 1 K3PO4

1 mol H3PO4 = 3 mol KOH
SOLVE:
* * * * *
? mL H3PO4 = 1.50 L KOH 0.500 mol KOH 1 mol H3PO4 1 L H3PO4
1 mL =
1 L KOH
3 mol KOH
2.00 mol H3PO4 103 L
= 125 mL H3PO4
Practice B
1.
WANT :
? mL OH solution
DATA:
25.0 mL HCl
0.145 mol HCl = 1 L HCl
0.200 mol OH = 1 L OH
Balance:
Bridge:
(Single-unit given)
(M prompt)
(M prompt)
1 HCl + 1 OH 1 H2O + 1 Cl
1 mol HCl = 1 mol OH
SOLVE:
* * * * *
1 L OH
1 mL
? mL OH = 25.0 mL HCl 103 L 0.145 mol HCl 1 mol OH
1 mL
1 L HCl
1 mol HCl
0.200 mol OH
103 L
= 18.1 mL OH solution
2.
WANT:
? mol NaOH
DATA:
0.0500 mol NaOH = 1 L NaOH

0.100 g H2C2O4
(Single-unit given)
90.03 g H2C2O4 = 1 mol H2 H2C2O4

Balance:
1 H2C2O4 + 2 NaOH 2 H2O + Na2C2O4
Bridge:
1 mol H2C2O4 = 2 mol NaOH
(2 acidic hydrogens)
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SOLVE:
? mol NaOH = 0.100 g H2C2O4 1 mol H2C2O4 2 mol NaOH = 2.22 x 103 mol NaOH
90.03 g H2C2O4 1 mol H2C2O4
* * * * *
Lesson 14D: Solving Neutralization For Ratio Units

In Lesson 14C, we used neutralization and titration data to solve for a WANTED single
unit. The data gathered in neutralization can also be used to solve for ratio units. Our goal
is to answer questions such as
Given a solution of an acid or base, how can we determine its concentration?
Given a sample of an unknown acid or base, how can we get close to proving its
identity by calculating its molar mass?
We can answer these questions by performing neutralization titration in the laboratory,

then applying the steps of conversion stoichiometry to our laboratory data.
For a reaction that goes to completion, if a ratio unit is WANTED, lets review the rules
from Lesson 12D.
Solving Reaction Calculations For A Ratio

The Process
When a characteristic ratio for a solution or substance is WANTED, a sample is
reacted, amounts of each substance are measured at an equivalence point, and the
WANTED ratio is calculated. The ratio for this sample will be true for any sample of
the solution or substance.
The Calculation Steps:
If a ratio-unit is WANTED, all of the DATA will be in equalities, and one of the
equalities will be an equivalency. Write WDBB (steps 1-4) and then
Step 5.
Label the equivalency in the DATA.
Step 6.
Solve separately for the top and bottom WANTED amounts.
a. Solve for the WANTED unit that is not moles first. Use as a given the side
of the equivalency that is an amount of the WANTED formula.
b. Solve for moles WANTED using single-unit stoichiometry with the other
half of the equivalency as your given.
Step 7.
Divide the two WANTED amounts to find the WANTED ratio.
In the following calculations, the product formulas are not supplied, but by applyng the
rules for acid-hydroxide balancing, you will be able to write the key bridge conversion that
allows us to solve stoichiometry. Using the steps above, try this example.
Page 365
Q.
An unknown acid has three acidic hydrogens (call it H3R). For titration an
indicator is chosen that changes color at the point where all three acidic
hydrogens are neutralized. If 19.29 mL of 0.120 M KOH is needed to titrate 0.1484
grams of the acid to an endpoint, what is the molar mass of the acid?
If you get stuck, read a portion of the answer until you are unstuck, then try again.
* * * * *
Answer
1. WANT:
? g H3R
mol H3R
(write the unit WANTED)
The unit of molar mass is g/mol. For data about two substances, label each unit with
the substance it is measuring. You WANT grams of acid per mole of acid.
2. DATA:
0.1484 g H3R = 19.29 mL KOH
(2A-R: equivalent at endpt.)
0.120 mol KOH = 1 L KOH

3. Balance.
1 H3R + 3 KOH 3 H2O + K3R
4. Bridge.
1 mol H3R = 3 mol KOH
If needed, adjust your work and finish from here.

* * * * *
5. Label the equivalence (see above.)
6. a. In this WANTED ratio, the amount not moles is g acid. The grams of acid in the
sample are supplied in the equivalency. That was easy.
(not moles:)
* * * * *
6. b. Start:
? g H3R in sample = 0.1484 g H3R
? mol H3R = 19.29 mL KOH (other half of equivalency)
To find the moles of acid in the sample, we use single-unit stoichiometry. First find
the moles of base that reacted with the acid. Then use the balanced equation to find
the moles of acid that reacted with the base.
? mol WANTED = unit base >>
mol base
>> mol WANTED (stop)
? mol H3R = 19.29 mL KOH 103 L 0.120 mol KOH 1 mol H3R =
1 mL
1 L KOH
3 mol KOH
= 7.716 x 104 mol H R = the moles of acid in the sample, based on the
3
moles of KOH that reacted with the acid.

* * * * *
7. You want the ratio of the grams of acid and moles of acid in the sample that reacted.
Apply the fundamental rule: let the units tell you what to do.
Page 366
? g H3R
mol H3R
g H3R in sample
mol H3R in sample
0.1484 g H3R
=
4
7.716 x 10 mol H3R
192 g H3R
mol H3R
The molar mass of a substance is constant: a ratio that is characteristic. The concentration
of a well-mixed solution is another ratio that is constant. In cases where a ratio WANTED
is constant, if amounts of the two WANTED units in a sample can be found, that ratio will
be true for all samples.
Stoichiometry and CSI

Consider what we were able to determine in the above calculation.
Many molecules that are important in chemical and biological systems, including legal and
illegal drugs, are acids or bases. In the above problem, we did not know the chemical
formula for the acid. However, by finding the ratio of the grams of acid per mole of the acid
(its molar mass), we can get close to identifying the acid.
The acid can be weighed to find the grams in a sample, but nearly always we do not have a
way to count the number of particles (the moles) in a sample directly. However, for acids
and bases, we can determine the moles in a sample by titrating with an acid or base
solution of a known concentration and applying stoichiometry.
In titration, when the indicator changes color, the moles of two reacting particles are either
equal or in a whole-number ratio.
Knowing the grams and moles in a sample, we can find the grams to moles ratio: the molar
mass. From the molar mass of a substance and its melting point or other physical
constants, tables in chemistry reference media will identify many unknown substances
with near certainty.
The ability to identify an unknown acid or base is a skill that is marketable in forensic
criminology, medicine, and other rewarding careers.
Practice.
Do Problems 1 and 2 today. Save Problem 3 for your next study session.
1. If 21.82 mL of 0.110 M HCl is required to titrate a 25.00 mL sample of KOH solution to

an endpoint, what is the [base]?
2. In a titration of an organic acid that has two acidic hydrogens (call it H2R), an
indicator is selected that changes color after one of the two acidic hydrogens is
neutralized. An endpoint is reached at 31.22 mL of 0.160 M NaOH. If the mass of the
acid sample was 1.380 grams, what is the molar mass of the acid?
3. Review Lessons 14A-D and prepare flashcards that cover fundamentals.
Page 367
ANSWERS
1. 1. WANT:
? mol KOH
L KOH
25.00 mL of KOH = 21.82 mL HCl
2. DATA:
(KOH is the base)

(Equivalent at endpoint)
0.110 mol HCl = 1 L HCl soln.
(M prompt)
1 HCl + 1 KOH 1 H2O + 1 KCl

1 mol HCl = 1 mol KOH
3. Balance:
4. Bridge:
In stoichiometry, if a ratio unit is WANTED, solve for the top and bottom WANTED units separately using
the following steps.
5. Label the equivalency in the DATA equalities.
6. Solve separately for the two WANTED units.
6a. Solve for the WANTED unit that is not moles, using as a given the side of the equivalency with the
WANTED formula.
* * * * *
(not moles:)
? L KOH = 25.00 mL KOH = 25.00 x 103 L KOH
6b. Solve for moles of base in the sample based on the moles of acid that reacted: start with the other half
of the equivalency as your given.
* * * * *
? mol KOH = 21.82 mL HCl 103 L 0.110 mol HCl 1 mol KOH = 2.40 x 103 mol KOH
1 mL
1 L HCl soln.
1 mol HCl
7. Find the WANTED ratio. Let the WANTED units tell you how to arrange the amounts found in Step 6.
* * * * *
2.400 x 103 mol KOH
? mol KOH =
L KOH
25.00 x 103 L KOH
? g H2R
2. 1. WANT:
mol H2R
* * * * *
1.380 g H2R = 31.22 mL NaOH
2. DATA:
0.0960 mol KOH

L KOH
(a ratio unit)
(2A+R: equivalent when reaction stops)
0.160 mol NaOH = 1 L NaOH

Strategy:
(M prompt)
Titration to an endpoint means stoichiometrically equivalent amounts. To solve, use

conversion stoichiometry.
3. Balance:
1 H2R + 1 NaOH 1 H2O + 1 NaHR
4. Bridge:
1 mol H2R = 1 mol NaOH
(Only the first H is neutralized)
(Use the mole to mole coefficients of the reaction )
If needed, adjust your work and finish.

* * * * *
Page 368
In stoichiometry, if a ratio unit is WANTED, find the top and bottom WANTED units separately .
5. Label the one equivalency in the DATA equalities.
6a. Solve for the WANTED unit that is not moles, using as a given the side of the equivalency with the
WANTED formula.
* * * * *
(WANTED non-moles:)
? g H2R = 1.380 g H2R
(the grams of acid in the sample)
6b. (Solve for moles WANTED. Start with the other half of the equivalency as your given.)
* * * * *
? mol H2R = 31.22 mL NaOH 103 L 0.160 mol NaOH 1 mol H2R = 4.995 x 103 mol H2R
1 mL
1 L NaOH
1 mol NaOH
7. Find the WANTED ratio. Let the WANTED units tell you how to arrange the amounts found in Step 6.
* * * * *
? g H2R
mol H2R
1.380 g H2R
4.995 x 103 mol H2R
3. Your flashcards might include the following.

276 g H2R
mol H2R
Names and formulas for 3 strong acids
Hydrochloric: HCl, sulfuric: H2SO4,

nitric: HNO3
Ion symbol for a proton
H+
At the endpoint of acid-hydroxide neutralization
moles H+ reacted = moles OH reacted
Formula for an unknown base with 3 hydroxides
Unk(OH)3
Formula for an unknown with 2 acidic protons
H2Unk
Solve calculations to an endpoint with
Conversion stoichiometry

An acid
A substance that produces H+ in water
A base
A substance that neutralizes H+
3 moderate to strong basic ions often used to

neutralize acids
OH, CO32, HCO3
* * * * *
Page 369
Lesson 14E: Neutralization Calculations In Parts

Timing: Do this lesson if you are assigned neutralization calculations that include either
measurements of three particles or questions with multiple parts.
* * * * *
Calculations Involving Both Ionized and Un-Ionized Acids or Base Formulas

For neutralization calculations that include data for both un-ionized acid or base formulas
and their reacting ions, you will need to write a relationship between the ionized and unionized particles. Use this special rule.
1. In stoichiometry, when the WANTED and DATA include units that measure both
a solid (molecular) formula and its ions,
a. write the balanced reaction equation in three parts:
Reactants in molecular formulas Reactants as separated ions Products
b. In the bridge conversion, write all formulas in the WANTED and DATA that
have units attached. (This may result in three or more terms that are equal in
the bridge conversion, instead of two.)
There are other ways to track the relationship between particles and their ions, but the
above rules have the advantage of being consistent with both the rule for precipitation
reactions and a fundamental rule for reactions that involve ions:
To understand the reactions of ionic compounds, re-write the reactants as separated
ions, then look for reactions in the new combinations that become possible when the
ions are mixed.
Use Rule 1 to solve the following.
Q. A sample of 45.0 mL of Ba(OH)2 solution is neutralized by 24.18 mL of
0.100 M HCl. What was the [OH] in the original base solution?
Write only the first four stoichiometry steps, then check your answer below.
* * * * *
Analysis: From the DATA, without using the balanced equation, you can find the moles of
HCl, but you cannot find the moles of Ba(OH)2 . If a count for only one substance is
supplied, the given for conversion stoichiometry is known. Your paper should look like this.
1. WANT:
? mol OH
L OH
2. DATA:
45.0 mL Ba(OH)2 = 24.18 mL HCl
0.100 mol HCl
(Equivalent at endpt. -- 2SUA-R)
1 L HCl
Page 370
3. Balance.
Reactants molecular: 1 Ba(OH)2 + 2 HCl
Reactants as ions:
Products:
4. Bridge:
1 Ba2+ + 2 OH + 2 H+ + 2 Cl
2 H2O + .
1 mol Ba(OH)2 = 2 mol HCl = 2 mol OH
Rules that apply above include
For calculations to an endpoint, use conversion stoichiometry. Start with WDBB.
In stoichiometry for a ratio unit, two amounts will be equivalent at the endpoint.
In acid-base stoichiometry, the WANTED and DATA are nearly always

measurements of the two reactants. You will only need to know one product
formula to find the coefficients for the reactants.
In the WANTED and DATA there are three chemical formulas with units in front:
OH, Ba(OH)2, and HCl. This is a prompt to balance the equation in 3 parts.
An additional prompt is that the OH ion must come from the Ba(OH) . When the
2
WANTED and DATA include both an un-ionized formula and one or more of its
ions, write the balanced equation in 3 parts: solid formulas, separated ions,
products (in neutralization, one product).
In step 4, include in the bridge conversion the moles of all the chemical formulas in
the WANTED and DATA that were listed after units of measure. This problem has
three such formulas.
Now solve for the WANTED unit.

* * * * *
To solve a reaction calculation for a ratio, solve for top and bottom WANTED units
separately, then divide.
a. Label the DATA equality that has two amounts equivalent at the endpoint as
Equivalentor 2SUA-R.
b. Solve first for the easier unit (the one not moles), using as a given the side of the
equivalency that measures the WANTED chemical formula.
In this problem, the WANTED unit not moles is L OH. In the DATA equivalency
is mL of Ba(OH)2 solution. Since the solution labeled Ba(OH)2 is the solution that
contains the OH ions, the Ba(OH)2 and OH solutions are the same solution. The
moles of Ba(OH)2 and OH differ, but the solution volume in which those particle
formulas are found are the same, and may be labeled with either formula.
? L OH soln. = 45.0 mL Ba(OH)2 soln. = 45.0 x 103 L Ba(OH)2
= 45.0 x 103 L OH soln.
If needed, adjust your work and finish.
* * * * *
Page 371
c. Solve for the other WANTED unit using single-unit stoichiometry. Use the other
half of the equivalency as your given. Use the bridge to go from given to WANTED.
? mol OH = 24.18 mL HCl 103 L HCl 0.100 mol HCl 1 mol OH
1 mL
1 L HCl
2 mol HCl
= 1.209 x 103 mol OH
(carry an extra sf until the final step)
d. Solve for the final WANTED unit.

* * * * *
? mol OH = 1.209 x 103 mol OH = 0.0269 mol OH or 2.69 x 102 M OH
L OH
45.0 x 103 L OH
L OH
* * * * *
Neutralization Calculations in Parts

When problems contain more than one question about a common set of DATA, the general
rules (from Lesson 11F) included
First list the common DATA, then write the WANTED unit for each part. As parts
are completed, consider those answers to be additional DATA.
Similarly, for reaction calculations that have multiple questions, use special rule 2.
2. When stoichiometry contains more than one question about a common set of data,
First do stoichiometry steps 2, 3, and 4 (DATA, balance, bridge),
then do step 1 (WANTED) for each part.
Stoichiometry that has multiple questions will also rely on these prior rules.
To solve for single units when all of the data is in equalities, label the DATA as
SUA, R, or 2SUA-R (Lesson 11F). Use single-unit amounts (SUA or 2SUA-R), not
ratios, as a given to solve for single units.
To solve for a single unit, try to select a given from the SUA DATA that solves in the
fewest steps. Include as DATA answers from previous steps.
A Shortcut: Moles H+ = Moles OH

When a stoichiometry problem asks questions in multiple parts, each part can be treated as
a new problem in which you start over to solve. However, the parts of a problem can
often be solved more quickly by using answers to previous parts plus fundamental
relationships.
An equality that can be used in acid-hydroxide reactions is special rule 3.
3. In hydroxide neutralization, at the equivalence point, the moles of H+ in the original
acid sample equal the moles of OH in the original base sample.
At the endpoint of acid-OH titration, mol H+ reacted = mol OH reacted
Page 372
Rule 3 will allow us to solve some steps of acid-base titration by inspection.

Use special rules 1, 2, and 3 to solve the following problem.
Q. KH(IO3)2 (potassium hydrogen iodate 389.9 g/mol) is a primary standard solid
acid: it can be used to determine the concentration of base solutions. In such a
titration, the indicator changes color when 19.29 mL of a KOH solution has been
added to 0.338 grams of KH(IO3)2.
A. How many moles of H+ ions were in the acid sample?
B.
C.
* * * * *
2. DATA:
How many moles of hydroxide ions were in the added base sample?
Find the [KOH].
389.9 g KH(IO3)2 = 1 mol KH(IO3)2

19.29 mL KOH = 0.338 g KH(IO3)2
(R)
(2SUA-R - equivalent at endpt.)
3. Balance:
Solid formulas:
1 KH(IO3)2 + 1 KOH
Separated formulas:
1 K+ + 1 H+ + 2 IO3 + 1 K+ + 1 OH
Products:
4. Bridge:
1 H2O + .
1 mol KH(IO3)2 = 1 mol KOH = 1 mol H+ = 1 mol OH
The above uses these rules:

Reactants-only balancing with one product will find the neutralization bridge conversions.
Rule 3: For stoichiometry problems with more than one part, do steps DBB, then W.
Rule 1: This problem and its parts includes measurements for four particles: KH(IO3)2 ,
KOH, H+, and OH. When the WANTED and DATA includes both solid/molecular
formulas and ions, write the balanced equation in three parts: reactants in molecular
(solid) formulas, reactants as separated-ions, then products using formulas for the
substances and ions actually present in the products.
When solving a problem with parts, you may not catch that both ions and molecular
formulas are both included until reaching a later part of a problem. If that happens,
add the 3-part balancing step to the DATA at that time.
In the bridge conversion, include all of the particle formulas that label units in the
DATA and WANTED terms, including WANTED units found in later parts of the
problem.
Solve Part A.
* * * * *
Page 373
Part A:
WANT:
? mol H+
Strategy: WANT a single unit? Start with a single unit. Since all of the DATA is in
equalities, pick one of the single-unit amounts, from the two that are equivalent,
as your given. Pick the amount that can most easily be converted to the
WANTED mol H+.
* * * * *
Since the H+ ions are formed from KH(IO ) in this reaction:
32
1 mol KH(IO3)2 1 mol H+ + ..

try solving for the WANTED amount using stoichiometry steps, with the known
amount of KH(IO3)2 as given.
* * * * *
amount
known bridge relationship
? mol H+= 0.338 g KH(IO3)2 1 mol KH(IO3)2
1 mol H+ =
389.9 g KH(IO3)2 1 mol KH(IO3)2
8.669 x 104 mol H+
Carry an extra sf until the last part. Add this answer to the DATA.
Using the Part A answer, try solving Part B by inspection.
* * * * *
Part B: WANT: ? mol OH
In problems with parts, watch for easy conversions from answers to earlier parts. At the
endpoint of an acid-hydroxide titration, when the indicator changes color:
moles H+ reacted = moles OH reacted.
Using the Part A answer: ? mol OH = 8.669 x 104 mol H+ = 8.669 x 104 mol OH
Once you know the moles of either H+ or OH, the moles of the other in the other reacting
sample are the same.
Part C:
WANT:
? mol KOH
L KOH soln.
We solve stoichiometry for a ratio in three steps: find the top amount, then bottom amount,
then divide. Try solving for the first two of those three steps by inspection.
* * * * *
You could start at the beginning and do complete ratio-unit stoichiometry, but using
answers found so far will save steps.
For the top WANTED unit: 1 mole KOH 1 mole OH , so from Part B,
8.669 x 104 moles OH =
8.669 x 104 mol KOH
in the sample.
* * * * *
Page 374
For the bottom unit (L KOH in the sample), the mL KOH in the sample is known. By
inspection, substituting what the prefix means.
Bottom unit = ? L KOH = 19.29 mL KOH = 19.29 x 103 L KOH
Find the final WANTED ratio.
* * * * *
If you want a ratio, you must convert from a ratio. The answer unit divides the moles
KOH in the sample by the L KOH in the sample. Both of those amounts are solved above.
WANT:
? mol KOH =
L KOH
8.669 x 104 mol KOH =

19.29 x 103 L KOH
0.0449 mol KOH

L KOH
In the original DATA, 0.338 g has 3 sf. This limits the final answer to 3 sf.
Practice.
Do Problem 1 today. Save Problem 2 for your next study session.
1. A 10.00 mL sample of NaOH solution exactly neutralizes 55.1 mg H2SO4.

a. How many moles of H2SO4 were neutralized?
b. What was the original concentration of the base solution?
2. If 21.82 mL of 0.110 M HCl is required to neutralize 25.00 mL of Ca(OH)2 solution,
a. how many moles of hydroxide ions were in the original base solution ?
b. What was the original [base]?
ANSWERS
1. (For equivalence/endpoint calculations with parts, do conversion stoichiometry steps 2, 3, 4, then 1)
2. DATA: 10.00 mL NaOH = 55.1 mg H2SO4
98.1 g H2SO4 = 1 mol H2SO4
(equivalent at endpoint)
( mg = g prompt)
3. Balance: 2 NaOH + 1 H2SO4 2 H2O + (reactants-only balancing provides the bridge)

4. Bridge. 2 mol NaOH = 1 mol H2SO4
Part A: WANT: ? mol H2SO4
* * * * *
(Using the rules in Lesson 11F: if you want a single unit and all of the DATA is in equalities,
Label the equality that has two amounts that are equivalent;
Choose one side of the equivalency as the given;
As the given, pick the side that most easily converts to the WANTED unit. In stoichiometry,
that will usually be the side of the equivalency that has the WANTED formula.)
? mol H2SO4 = 55.1 mg H2SO4 103 g
1 mg
* * * * *
1 mol H2SO4 = 5.617 x 104 mol H2SO4

98.1 g H2SO4
Page 375
Part B:
WANT: ? mol NaOH

L NaOH soln
(non-moles):
(solve for non-moles, then moles)
? L NaOH soln. = 10.00 mL NaOH = 10.00 x 103 L NaOH
(Solve for moles NaOH:

You can use stoichiometry steps, or use the Part A answer to solve more quickly. The moles of acid from
Part A are known. Mol/mol ratios for reactions are always simple. Here, the moles of base that reacts is
2x the moles of acid that reacts.)
? mol NaOH = 5.617 x 104 mol H2SO4
2 = 11.23 x 104 mol NaOH in sample
* * * * *
? mol NaOH = 11.23 x 104 mol NaOH in sample =
L NaOH
10.00 x 103 L NaOH in sample
0.112 mol NaOH

L NaOH
(Original DATA has 3 sf or higher; round the final answer to 3 sf)
2.
(For endpoint calculations with parts, do conversion stoichiometry steps 2, 3, 4, then 1)

2. DATA:
25.00 mL of Ca(OH)2 = 21.82 mL HCl

3. Balance: (Since the problem includes quantities of both Ca(OH)2 and OH , balance in 3 parts.)
2 HCl + 1 Ca(OH)2 2 H+ + 2 Cl + Ca2+ + 2 OH 2 H2O + 1 CaCl2
4. Bridge:
2 mol HCl = 1 mol Ca(OH)2 = 2 mol OH
Part A. WANT: ? moles OH
(There are several ways to solve, but whenever moles of H+ or OH are involved in a
problem, consider using the rule that 1 mol H+ neutralizes 1 mol OH.
Take a look at the DATA. Can you find moles of OH or base directly? No.
But you know a lot about the HCl. If you can find moles of HCl that reacted, that equals the
moles of H+ that reacted (1 HCl 1 H+), which equals the moles of OH that reacts.)
* * * * *
? mol HCl = 21.82 mL HCl 103 L 0.110 mol HCl = 2.40 x 103 mol HCl = mol H+ = mol OH
1 mL
1 L HCl soln.
Part B: WANT: ? mol Ca(OH)2
L Ca(OH)2
(non-moles)
(solve stoichiometry ratios for non-moles, then moles)
? L Ca(OH)2 soln. = 25.00 mL Ca(OH)2 = 25.00 x 103 L Ca(OH)2
(Find moles Ca(OH)2: You can use stoichiometry or you can solve by inspection.
Since 1 Ca(OH)2 2 OH , the mol Ca(OH)2 is 1/2 the mol OH from Part A.)
? mol Ca(OH)2 = 1/2 times
2.40 x 103 mol OH
= 1.200 x 103 mol Ca(OH)2
(Finish from here.)

* * * * *
Page 376
? mol Ca(OH)2
L Ca(OH)2
1.200 x 103 mol Ca(OH)2 =

25.00 x 103 L Ca(OH) soln.
0.0480 mol Ca(OH)2

L Ca(OH)2
* * * * *
Lesson 14F: Carbonate Neutralization

Timing: Do this lesson if you are assigned problems involving the acid-base neutralization
of carbonates and/or hydrogen carbonates.
Prerequisites: Lessons 7C, 12C, and 14A.
Pretest: If you can do all steps of the following problem, you may skip this lesson. Check
answers at the end of this lesson.
Q. Assuming complete neutralization of all protons and basic ions in an open system,
write the final product formulas and balance these.
a.
CaCO3 + HCl
b.
H2SO4 + Al2(CO3)3
c.
HCO3 +
OH
d.
HCO3 +
H+
* * * * *
Carbonic Acid
At room temperature and pressure, CO2 gas dissolves to a slight extent in water. If
pressure and mixing is applied to the mixture of CO2 gas and water, more gas dissolves.
This pressurized mixing can be used to make carbonated beverages.
When dissolved in water, some CO2 molecules react with water form carbonic acid:
H2CO3(aq). Carbonic acid is a weak acid. In water, it ionizes to form H+ plus HCO3, but
it does so only slightly; less than 1% of the carbonic acid molecules ionize at room
temperature. The dissolved CO2 gas gives carbonated water its effervescence, and the H+
ions, though low in concentration, give carbonated water a tart (acidic) taste. Together,
these reactions can be represented as
H2O(l) + CO2(g)
H2CO3(aq)
H+(aq)
+ HCO3(aq)
The two-way arrows indicate that these reactions are reversible: the steps can go forward
and backward. Kept under pressure at constant temperature, a carbonated solution is a
stable mixture of all of the particles above. However, if the solution is left open at room
pressure, the CO2 gas will slowly leak out. This drives the reaction to the left, using up
the H+, HCO3, and H2CO3. As the CO2 gas leaves, the solution loses its fizz and acidic
tartness.
Page 377
Hydrogen Carbonate Ion

A second way to make a carbonic acid solution is to react a relatively strong acid with
hydrogen carbonate ion (HCO3, also known as bicarbonate ion). The result is the same
two-way reaction written above, but it is usually written in the reverse direction to
emphasize the addition of acid to the HCO3.
H+ + HCO [ H CO ] H O + CO
3
When CO2 is mixed with water, carbonic acid forms slowly and a low concentration, but
when typical lab concentrations of acid and HCO3 are mixed, the carbonic acid forms
quickly and at relatively high concentration compared to its formation by mixing carbon
dioxide and water. At room pressure, most of the carbonic acid formed will quickly break
down into water and carbon dioxide gas. The mixing of acid and hydrogen carbonate ion
thus causes the solution to form bubbles of CO2 gas.
In the reaction above, the brackets [ ] are a way to indicate a substance is formed
temporarily. When acid and hydrogen carbonate are mixed, most of the carbonic acid
formed is an intermediate particle that quickly breaks apart. If the container is open, the
up-arrow after the CO2 is one way to indicate that a gas formed is allowed to escape.
In the reaction above, HCO reacts with an acid as a base. However, HCO is
3
amphoteric, meaning that it can react with both acids and bases. How it behaves will
depend on whether it is mixed with an acid or a base.
H+ + HCO3
Mixed with a strong acid:
Mixed with a hydroxide base:
[ H2CO3 ]
H2O + CO2
OH + HCO3 HOH + CO32
When HCO3 is mixed with acids, it forms H2CO3 and then bubbles of CO2 gas. When
HCO3 is mixed with a strong base such as OH, it loses a proton to form carbonate ion
(CO32), and gas does not form.
Practice A
Check answers as you go.
1. Predict intermediate (if any) and final products of these reactions in open containers,
then balance the equations. Ion combinations in final products may be written in solid
or separated formulas.
a.
HCl + NaHCO3
b.
HCO3 +
c.
Sodium hydroxide plus sodium hydrogen carbonate
d.
LiHCO3 +
H2SO4
OH
Page 378
Carbonate Neutralization
A third way to make a carbonic acid solution is to react excess acid with carbonate ion
(CO32), a base. In the complete neutralization of CO32, one product is always H2CO3.
Carbonate ion reacts with strong acids and many weak acids. As in the reaction of acid and
hydrogen carbonate, if carbonate ion is reacted with excess reasonably strong acid in an
open container, the carbonic acid formed it will quickly break down to form water and
bubbles of carbon dioxide.
2 H+
+ CO32
[ H2CO3 ] H2O + CO2

If acid is slowly mixed with CO32 ions, HCO3 ions form initially. Once equivalent
moles of carbonate and protons are mixed, all of the carbonate ion is converted to hydrogen
carbonate ion, and further addition of acid forms H2CO3, most of which breaks down
quickly into water and CO2 gas.
Complete Balancing of Acid-Carbonate Neutralization

To predict the complete products for the reaction of strong acids with CO32 or HCO3,
use these rules.
If an acid reacts with HCO or completely neutralizes CO 2, one product is
H2CO3.
H2CO3 breaks apart to form H2O liquid and CO2 gas.
When representing all of the products in carbonate neutralization in equations, it is helpful

to balance the equation in five steps.
For example: Calcium carbonate is found in minerals including limestone, calcite,
chalk, and marble. When excess hydrochloric acid solution is added to calcium
carbonate, the solution bubbles. Why?
Step 1. Write molecular formulas:
2 HCl + CaCO3
Step 2. Separate reactants into ions:
2 H+ + 2 Cl + Ca2+ + CO32
Step 3. Write the initial products:
[ H2CO3 ] + Ca2+ + 2 Cl
When excess acid mixes with carbonate ion, one of the products is H2CO3.
Step 4. Write final products:
H2O + CO2 + CaCl2(aq)
Step 5. Check that the atoms and total charge are balanced in all parts.
The fundamental rule: to predict the reactions of ionic compounds, re-write the solid and
molecular formulas for the reactants as separated ions, then look for ways that the new
possible combinations of ions will react.
In the final step, the spectator ions in the products can be represented by either an ionic
solid formula labeled aqueous or as the separated ions actually present.
Ca2+ + 2 Cl
CaCl2(aq)
* * * * *
Page 379
Practice B:
Assume that these acids and bases ionize and react completely. Write
balanced equations for the steps of the reaction using the 5 step method above. Ions in final
products may be written in solid or separated formulas. Check answers as you go.
1. Write formulas for reactants (if needed) and products, then balance the equation.
a.
HCl +
K2CO3
b.
CO32 +
c.
Sulfuric acid plus sodium hydrogen carbonate
H3PO4
Reactants-Only Balancing of Carbonate Neutralization

To solve most neutralization stoichiometry, we need coefficients for only the acid and the
base. This partial balancing can be completed if know the formula for one product. In the
complete neutralization of HCO3 or CO32 by acid, one product is always H2CO3.
For this problem, write H2CO3 as one product, balance the left side, and then check below.
H2SO4 +
Al2(CO3)3
* * * * *
1. Below the two reactants, write the number of protons and basic ions in the reactants.
2. On the right, add one product of the reaction.
H2SO4
Al2(CO3)3
H2CO3 +
( 2 H+ )
(3 CO32 )
H2CO3 +
3. Add coefficients to balance the atoms and charge.

H2SO4
Al2(CO3)3
3 ( 2 H+ ) +
1 (3 CO32 )
H2CO3 +
3 H2CO3 +
4. Transfer the coefficients in front of the ( ) to the reactants.

3 H2SO4
1 Al2(CO3)3
3 H2CO3 +
3 ( 2 H+ ) +
1 (3 CO32 )
3 H2CO3 +
The top reactant ratio will be all that is needed in most neutralization stoichiometry.
Knowing one product, and with practice at separating molecular formulas into ions, you
can often balance the reactants by inspection. Try that on this one.
HNO3 +
BaCO3
* * * * *
One product for acid-carbonate neutralization is H2CO3. Add the coefficients by inspection.
2 HNO3 +
1 BaCO3
1 H2CO3 +
* * * * *
Page 380
Practice C
First review the rules in the summary at the end of this module. Then try these problems.
Assume that the following acids and bases react completely. Balance the acid and base
reactants using the reactants-only balancing methods above. Try every other part, and more if
you need more practice. Check answers as you go.
1. Write formulas for reactants (if needed) and products, then balance the equation.
a.
HNO3 + Al2(CO3)3
b.
Calcium carbonate plus nitric acid
c.
Potassium hydroxide plus potassium hydrogen carbonate
2. Supply the coefficients for the two reactants.

a.
H2Unk +
NaHCO3
b.
H2SO4 +
Unk(CO3)3
c.
HCl +
Unk(CO3)2
Carbonate and Hydrogen Carbonate Neutralization Calculations

In carbonate and hydrogen carbonate neutralization, the ratio of reaction for the acid and
the base can be determined by partial balancing using the steps above. Neutralization
calculations can then be solved using the same solution stoichiometry steps that were
practiced in Lesson 12C and 14D. If needed, refer to those steps when solving the problems
below.
Practice D:
If you get stuck, read the answer until unstuck, then try again.
1. If 38.58 mL of 0.150 M HCl is needed to react completely with a sample of solid CaCO3,
how many grams of calcium carbonate were in the sample?
2. If 872 mg of a dry solid acid is exactly neutralized by 24.0 mL of 0.150 M NaHCO3,
assuming that each solid acid particle contains two acidic hydrogens, what is the
molar mass of the acid?
3. Review Lessons 14D-E and write additional flashcards that cover the fundamentals.
Page 381
ANSWERS
Pretest: Coefficients of 1 may be omitted as understood.
a. 1 CaCO3 + 2 HCl 1 H2O + 1 CO2 + 1 CaCl2
b. 3 H2SO4 + 1 Al2(CO3)3 3 H2O + 3 CO2 + 1 Al2(SO4)3
c. HCO3 + OH
H2O + CO32
d. HCO3 + H+ 1 H2O + 1 CO2

Practice A: Balance atoms and charge in all parts of each equation. Coefficients of 1 may be omitted.
1. a.
b.
1 HCl + 1 NaHCO3 1 [ H2CO3 ] + 1 NaCl H2O + CO2 + NaCl

2 HCO3 + 1 H2SO4 2 [ H2CO3 ] + SO42 2 H2O + 2 CO2 + SO42
c.
1 NaOH + 1 NaHCO3 1 HOH + 1 Na2CO3
d.
1 LiHCO3 + 1 OH 1 HOH + 1 Li+ + 1 CO32
Practice B: Balance atoms and charge in all 4 parts of each equation.

1. a. 2 HCl + 1 K2CO3
2 H+ + 2 Cl + 2 K+ + CO32
1 [ H2CO3 ] + 2 KCl H2O + CO2 + 2 KCl
b. 3 CO32 + 2 H3PO4 3 CO32 + 6 H+ + 2 PO43

3 [ H2CO3 ] + 2 PO43 3 H2O + 3 CO2 + 2 PO43
c. 1 H2SO4 + 2 NaHCO3 2 H+ + 1 SO42 + 2 Na+ + 2 H+ + 2 CO32
2 [ H2CO3 ] + 1 Na2SO4 2 H2O + 2 CO2 + 1 Na2SO4
Practice C
1. a. 6 HNO3 + 1 Al2(CO3)3 3 [ H2CO3 ] +
b. 1 CaCO3 + 2 HNO3 1 [ H2CO3 ] +
c. 1 KOH + 1 KHCO3 HOH + CO32 (mixed with OH, HCO3 acts as an acid)
2. a. 1 H2Unk + 2 NaHCO3 2 [ H2CO3 ] +
b. 3 H2SO4 + 1 Unk(CO3)3
3 [ H2CO3 ] +
c. 4 HCl + 1 Unk(CO3)2 2 [ H2CO3 ] +
Practice D
1. For titration to an equivalence point, use conversion stoichiometry. Start with WDBB.
1. WANT: ? g CaCO3
2. DATA: 100.1 g CaCO3 = 1 mol CaCO3
38.58 mL HCl
( g prompt)
(the single unit given)
(M prompt)
Page 382
3. Balance. (For acid-base neutralization, try partial balancing reactants only.)

1 CaCO3 + 2 HCl 1 [H2CO3] + ..
4. Bridge. 1 mol CaCO3 2 mol HCl
* * * * *
(Since a single unit is WANTED, use single-unit stoichiometry steps 5-7, chaining the conversions.)
? g CaCO3 = 38.58 mL HCl 103 L 0.150 mol HCl 1 mol CaCO3 100.1 g CaCO3 = 0.290 g CaCO3
1 L HCl
2 mol HCl
1 mol CaCO3
1 mL
2. For titration to an equivalence point, use conversion stoichiometry. Start with WDBB.
1. WANTED:
g acid
mol acid
2. DATA:
872 mg acid = 24.0 mL NaHCO3 soln.
(Write the unit WANTED)

0.150 mol NaHCO3 = 1 L NaHCO3
(M prompt)
3. Balance. Let acid with two acidic hydrogens = H2Unk

1 H2Unk + 2 NaHCO3 2 [H2CO3] + .
1 mol H2Unk (or 1 mol acid) = 2 mol NaHCO3
4. Bridge.
5. SOLVE.
(Not moles): ? g acid = 872 mg acid
103 g
1 mg
0.872 g acid in sample
(Moles): ? mol acid = 24.0 mL NaHCO3 103 L 0.150 mol NaHCO3 1 mol acid =
1 mL
L
2 mol NaHCO3
= 1.800 x 103 mol acid in sample.
WANTED:
? g acid
mol acid
0.872 g acid
1.800 x 103 mol acid
484 g acid
mol acid
3. Your flashcards might include the following.

Product of complete carbonate neutralization
H2CO3
[ H2CO3 ]
Breaks down to form H2O and CO2

If stoichiometry WANTED and DATA includes
both solid formulas and ions
Write solid formulas separated-ions

products
Define amphoteric
A particle that can act as an acid or a base
* * * * *
Page 383
SUMMARY: Acid-Base Neutralization

1. Acid-base neutralization is an ionic reaction. To understand ionic reactions, write the
separated-ion formulas, then look for new ion combinations that react.
2. Ions: Acids contain H+. The reacting particle in acids = H+ = a proton
Bases include compounds with hydroxide OH, carbonate CO32, and hydrogen
carbonate HCO ions.
3
3. Products: For acids + OH, one product is water: H-OH.

For excess acid plus CO32, one product is H2CO3.
H+ + OH H-OH
2 H+ + CO32 H2CO3
4. Balancing: To predict the products and balance the equations,
Write the separated-ion formulas in ( ).
Write one product.
Finish by balancing atoms, familiar ions, and charge.
5. To balance if a formula is unknown,
If an acid has 2 acid hydrogens, use H2Unk.
If a base has 3 hydroxides, write Unk(OH)3.
If a base has 1 carbonate ion, use UnkCO3. If three, use Unk(CO3)3.
6. Do reactants-only balancing if needed. Add one product; balance the left side, and use
the left side numbers to write the key bridge conversion.
7. To solve titration to an endpoint, use conversion stoichiometry plus these 3 rules.
1. When the WANTED and DATA terms include units and particle formulas that
include both an un-ionized particle and its ions,
a. balance the reaction equation in three parts:
Reactants in molecular formulas Reactants in separated ions Products
b. In the bridge conversion, write all formulas in the WANTED and DATA that
have units attached.
2. In the case of stoichiometry problems that contain more than one question about a
common set of data,
first do stoichiometry steps 2, 3, and 4,
then do step 1 (list the WANTED unit) for each part.
3. Hydroxide neutralization steps can often be solved by inspection using this rule:
At the endpoint of acid-OH titration, mol H+ added = mol OH added
# # # #
Page 384
Module 16: Half-Reaction Balancing
* * * * *
NOTE on the Table of Elements.

The atomic masses in this Table of Elements use fewer significant figures than most similar
tables in college textbooks. By keeping the numbers simple, it is hoped that you will use
mental arithmetic to do easy numeric cancellations and simplifications before you use a
calculator for arithmetic.
Many calculations in these lessons have been set up so that you should not need a
calculator to solve, if you look for easy cancellations first.
After any use of a calculator, use mental arithmetic and simple cancellations to estimate the
answer, in order to catch errors in calculator use.
# # # # #
Page 427
The ELEMENTS
The third column shows the atomic number: The protons in the nucleus of the atom.
The fourth column is the molar mass, in grams/mole. For radioactive atoms, ( ) is the molar mass of most
stable isotope.
Actinium
Aluminum
Americium
Antimony
Argon
Arsenic
Astatine
Barium
Berkelium
Beryllium
Bismuth
Boron
Bromine
Cadmium
Calcium
Californium
Carbon
Cerium
Cesium
Chlorine
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Curium
Dysprosium
Erbium
Europium
Fermium
Fluorine
Francium
Gadolinium
Gallium
Germanium
Gold
Hafnium
Helium
Holmium
Hydrogen
Indium
Iodine
Iridium
Iron
Krypton
Lanthanum
Lawrencium
Lead
Lithium
Lutetium
Magnesium
Manganese
Mendelevium
Mercury
Ac
Al
Am
Sb
Ar
As
At
Ba
Bk
Be
Bi
B
Br
Cd
Ca
Cf
C
Ce
Cs
Cl
Cr
Co
Cu
Cm
Dy
Er
Eu
Fm
F
Fr
Gd
Ga
Ge
Au
Hf
He
Ho
H
In
I
Ir
Fe
Kr
La
Lr
Pb
Li
Lu
Mg
Mn
Md
Hg
89
13
95
51
18
33
84
56
97
4
83
5
35
48
20
98
6
58
55
17
24
27
29
96
66
68
63
100
9
87
64
31
32
79
72
2
67
1
49
53
77
26
36
57
103
82
3
71
12
25
101
80
(227)
27.0
(243)
121.8
40.0
74.9
(210)
137.3
(247)
9.01
209.0
10.8
79.9
112.4
40.1
(249)
12.0
140.1
132.9
35.5
52.0
58.9
63.5
(247)
162.5
167.3
152.0
(253)
19.0
(223)
157.3
69.7
72.6
197.0
178.5
4.00
164.9
1.008
114.8
126.9
192.2
55.8
83.8
138.9
(257)
207.2
6.94
175.0
24.3
54.9
(256)
200.6
Molybdenum
Neodymium
Neon
Neptunium
Nickel
Niobium
Nitrogen
Nobelium
Osmium
Oxygen
Palladium
Phosphorus
Platinum
Plutonium
Polonium
Potassium
Praseodymium
Promethium
Protactinium
Radium
Radon
Rhenium
Rhodium
Rubidium
Ruthenium
Samarium
Scandium
Selenium
Silicon
Silver
Sodium
Strontium
Sulfur
Tantalum
Technetium
Tellurium
Terbium
Thallium
Thorium
Thulium
Tin
Titanium
Tungsten
Uranium
Vanadium
Xenon
Ytterbium
Yttrium
Zinc
Zirconium
Mo
Nd
Ne
Np
Ni
Nb
N
No
Os
O
Pd
P
Pt
Pu
Po
K
Pr
Pm
Pa
Ra
Rn
Re
Rh
Rb
Ru
Sm
Sc
Se
Si
Ag
Na
Sr
S
Ta
Tc
Te
Tb
Tl
Th
Tm
Sn
Ti
W
U
V
Xe
Yb
Y
Zn
Zr
42
60
10
93
28
41
7
102
76
8
46
15
78
94
84
19
59
61
91
88
86
75
45
37
44
62
21
34
14
47
11
38
16
73
43
52
65
81
90
69
50
22
74
92
23
54
70
39
30
40
95.9
144.2
20.2
(237)
58.7
92.9
14.0
(253)
190.2
16.0
106.4
31.0
195.1
(242)
(209)
39.1
140.9
(145)
(231)
(226)
(222)
186.2
102.9
85.5
101.1
150.4
45.0
79.0
28.1
107.9
23.0
87.6
32.1
180.9
(98)
127.6
158.9
204.4
232.0
168.9
118.7
47.9
183.8
238.0
50.9
131.3
173.0
88.9
65.4
91.2
2004 www.ChemReview. NET.
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Calculations in Chemistry - CH. 13-14

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Calculations in Chemistry - CH. 13-14

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Predicting Solubility for Ionic Compounds ...................................................326

Module 14 Acid-Base Neutralization.......................................................................349

Ions in Acid-Base Neutralization .....................................................................349

For additional modules, visit www.ChemReview.Net

Module 13 Ionic Equations and Precipitates

Module 13 Ionic Equations and Precipitates

Lesson 13A: Predicting Solubility for Ionic Compounds

Module 13 Ionic Equations and Precipitates

Commit to long-term memory:

1. (alkali metals)+ , NH4+ NO3 , CH3COO , ClO3 ; ClO4

CO32 , PO43 , S2 , CrO42

4. Ba2+ (except OH)

OH (except Ba2+ , Sr2+, Ca2+)

SO42(except Sr2+, Ca2+)

Exceptions include: Column 2 sulfides and aluminum sulfide decompose in water.

Using the Scheme to Make Predictions

* * * * * (See How To Use These Lessons, Point 1, on page 1).

Module 13 Ionic Equations and Precipitates

3. Hg(NO3)2 Hg2+ + 2 NO3 . The above solubility scheme makes no specific

Module 13 Ionic Equations and Precipitates

Are all phosphates insoluble?

3. b. Barium Carbonate Ba2+ + CO32

Sodium Hydroxide Na+ + OH

Insoluble by Rule 2 for carbonates

Soluble by Rule 1 for alkali-metal ions

d. SrBr2 Sr2+ + 2 Br Soluble by Rule 3 for bromides

Ammonium hydroxide NH4+ + OH

g. Fe3(PO4)2 3 Fe2+ + 2 PO43

Insoluble by Rule 2 for phosphate ions

h. Pb(CH3COO)2 Pb2+ + 2 CH3COO

Soluble by Rule 1 for ammonium ion

Soluble by Rule 3 for chlorides

BaSO4 Ba2+ + SO42 Insoluble by Rule 4 for barium ions

Insoluble by Rule 2 for sulfide ions

Module 13 Ionic Equations and Precipitates

Lesson 13B: Total and Net Ionic Equations

Module 13 Ionic Equations and Precipitates

b. 6 Na+(aq) + 2 PO43(aq) + 3 Mg2+(aq) + 3 SO42(aq) Mg3(PO4)2(s) + 6 Na+(aq) + 3 SO42(aq)

Balancing Total Ionic Equations

Module 13 Ionic Equations and Precipitates

Put a by and do Problem 1. Do Problem 2 during your next practice

Balancing Equations That Omit Some Spectator Ions

formulas for neutral compounds, or

Separated-ion formulas better represent soluble substances dissolved in water. The

Module 13 Ionic Equations and Precipitates

Leaving Out the Spectators

3 Mg2+(aq) + 2 PO43(aq) Mg3(PO4)2(s)

1 Fe(NO3)3(aq) + 3 NaOH(aq) 1 Fe(OH)3(s) + 3 NaNO3(aq)

3 Ca(NO3)2 + 2 K3PO4 6 KNO3 + 1 Ca3(PO4)2(s)

Net ionic equation: 1 Fe3+(aq) + 3 OH(aq) 1 Fe(OH)3(s)

Net ionic equation: 3 Ca2+(aq) + 2 PO43(aq) 1 Ca3(PO4)2(s)

Module 13 Ionic Equations and Precipitates

Practice C: (coefficients of 1 may be omitted).

1 Al3+ + 1 NO + 2 H2O 1 Al + 1 NO3 + 4 H+

Lesson 13C: Predicting Precipitation

Steps in Predicting Precipitation

if a new combination is possible that is insoluble, it will precipitate.

Module 13 Ionic Equations and Precipitates

Ca2+ + ____ _______

___ _____ + ____

In solution reactions, if no state is shown, assume (aq).

if a new combination is possible that is insoluble, it will precipitate.

If the new combination is soluble, its ions remain separated.

Ca2+ + ___

_ _ + __