AUXILIARIES

= They give us more information on how the event denoted by the verb is viewed.
Categories

MODAL (aka modal verbs, can, could, may, might, shall, should, ought to etc.),
ASPECTUAL (to be when it forms the continuous tenses and to have when it forms the
perfect tenses),
PASSIVE (to be, to get, to have I was attacked BY, I got my hair cut BY, I had my car
washed BY etc.) and
DUMMY DO (used to form the interrogative/the negative form of lexical verbs);
Ex.: He likes to read. Does he like to read? He does not like to read

All auxiliaries have NICE properties.

Negation (they combine with not directly; I will not go, I am not reading, I have not eaten etc.)
Inversion (they change place with the subject to form questions; Shall I got there?
Coding (Ex. Have you eaten anything yet? Yes, I have (eaten e subinteles)
Emphasis (I did ask you to come, several times, but you havent.)

Finite auxiliaries => carries tense markers;

Non-finite auxiliaries => does not carry tense markers.
In a sequence of more auxiliaries, first comes the one who carries tense markers.
When there are more auxiliaries in a sentence, the order is:
Modal > perfective Have > progressive Be

ARGUMENTS VS. ADJUNCTS

Arguments = constituents that are obligatory to render the meaning of the verb complete.
Adjuncts = constituents that are supplementary/optional.

Arguments:

Subject (any verb needs [at least a grammatical] subject),

DO (direct object is obligatory for transitive verbs [when the DO is not explicit, it is
understood, inferred John is reading [a book])
IO (indirect object for some intransitive verbs).
PO (prepositional objects)

Basic tests for adjuncts:

you ask HOW, WHEN, WHERE, (adverbials = circumstantialele de mod, timp, loc)
WHY.
They can be stacked (more than one can appear in the same sentence)
They are flexible (adjuncts can change their place in the sentence)
Adjuncts for:

NP: AP, NP, PP

Warm summer
Woman busdriver
Tiles on the floor

VP: AdvP, PP
She walked stealthily.
We came here in the
summer.

AP: PP, AdvP

Abusive to the
extreme
inconsolably
disappointed

PP: AdvP
She was totally over
the moon.

! In tree-diagrams for VP, ADJUNCTS connect to the V node, ARGUMENTS to the V node.
Not only V, but N, A and P have arguments.
Prepositions: express a relation between a Figure and a Ground, i.e. the Figure is the object
to be located somewhere and the Ground represents the location itself in space or time.
The OBJECT of an A and a N is always a PP. The OBJECT of a V is never a PP.

Lexical categories (N, V, P, A, Adv) and functional categories (D, I, C) can be represented by means
of a binary structure that has a universal template the X-bar schema.

Thematic ROLES:

AGENT: the person or entity that initiates the event denoted by the predicate.

PATIENT: the person or entity that is affected by the event.

THEME: the person or entity that is moved by the event.

EXPERIENCER: the person that experiences a certain psychological state of mind denoted
by the verb.

BENEFICIARY: the person or entity that benefits from the event denoted by the predicate.

GOAL: the entity towards which an activity is directed.

SOURCE: the entity from which an entity is moved.

LOCATION: the place in which the event denoted by the predicate takes place.

INSTRUMENT: the means by which the event denoted by the verb is carried out.

Let us take stock on thematic roles.

Thematic roles are assigned to the arguments of the verb. Each argument of the verb, in its
turn, realizes a grammatical function (subject, direct object, etc.)

Thematic roles do not go to the adjuncts of the verb. Adjuncts realize grammatical
functions, though.

Sentences can be described at the functional level (subject, direct object, etc.), the form level
(NP, VP, etc.) and the thematic level (Agent, Patient, etc.)

Tests for ARGUMENTS:

1. Optionality (arguments are obligatory, adjuncts are optional)
2. Prepositional content (Lexical prepositions introduce adjuncts, with the exception of existential
predicates + PP = argument)
3. Iterativity (adjuncts can be iterated, arguments not)
4. Relative ordering (arguments combine first with the head that selects them; adjuncts come into
the structure afterwards)
5. Word order dependent meaning (The different positions an adjunct may occupy
change the truth of the sentence; reordering of arguments does not affect the
truth condition of the sentence).
6. Pseudoclefts arguments can occor after do in a VB focused position in pseudoclefts.
7. VP Preposing: Arguments moved with pre-posed verbs; adjuncts may stay
behind.
8. Coordination: Arguments can be coordinated, so can adjuncts; it is not
possible to coordinate arguments and adjuncts.
9. Adjunct preposing: PP adjuncts and to clauses can be pre-posed; PP arguments and to-clauses are
not that easy to pre-pose

UNERGATIVE VS. UNACCUSATIVES

Unergatives and unaccusatives are two types of verbs in the larger class of intransitive verbs.
Unergatives they have an AGENT-SUBJECT (the grammatical subject has the thematic role
of agent, it actually DOES the action denoted by the verb, it has CONTROL over what the verb
denotes)

Semantically speaking, unergative verbs are:

VOLITIONAL acts
(arata vointa agentului)
Work, play, skate, fight,
disagree, laugh etc.
Shitload of verbs

MANNER OF
SPEAKING
Whisper, shout,
mumble, grumble,
growl, bellow et.

SOUNDS THAT
ANIMALS MAKE
Bark, neigh, quack,
roar, chirp, oink etc.

INVOLUNTARY
BODY PROCESSES
Cough (a tusi), sneeze,
belch (a ragai ca un
porc), burp (a ragai cum
fac copiii mici), vomit,
sleep, cry, weep etc.

Unaccusatives they have a PATIENT-SUBJECT (the grammatical subject is either a patient,

an experiences, it etc.)
Semantically speaking, unaccusative verbs are:
INCHOATIVES
Melt, freez, evaporate,
redden, yellow, rot,
decompose, blush etc.

VERBS OF
EXISTENCE:
Existence, occur,
happen, take place,
result

ASPECTUAL
PREDICATES:
Begin, commence, start,
cease, continue, resume,
halt, proceed, end

NON-VOLUNTARY
EMISSION OF
STIMULI THAT
IMPINGE ON
SENSE = aka bullshit;
Shine, sparkle, glitter,
glow, jingle, clink,
clang, crackle, smell,
stink

Within the unaccusative class, there is also an important distinction between TELIC
UNACCUSATIVES and ATELIC UNACCUSATIVES.
TELIC TELOS PURPOSE (the verb has an endpoint; how do you test if a verb is telic or
atelic?
TELIC IN X TIME (sweet reminder achievements and accomplishments are telic)
ATELIC FOR X TIME (states, activities and semel-factives are atelic)

Apart from this distinction there are 5 TESTS to differentiate between the two.

Existential there-sentences
Noun modification
Resultative phrases
The locative inversion
The causative alternation

TEST

UNACCUSATIVES

UNERGATIVES

Existential there sentences

Yes, ATELIC
UNACCUSATIVES
There appeared a strange man
in the room.
Yes. TELIC
UNACCUSATIVES
Fallen leaves, burst water
pipes, collapsed tent
Yes.
The door swung open.

No.

Noun modification

ResP (resultative phrases)

Locative inversion

Yes, ATELIC
UNACCUSATIVES.
Out of the house came the kid.

Causative alternation

Yes. TELIC
ACCUSATIVES

No.

No, unless we add a FAKE

object.
You cry yourself to sleep.
No.

Yes. MANNER OF
MOTION
The horse jumped over the
fence.
The rider jumped the horse
over the fence.