3.

Limitations of past technologies and increased research into the structure of

the atom resulted in the invention of transistors.
1. Identify that some electrons in solids are shared between atoms and move freely.

Metal atoms consist of positive ions with a sea of electrons, allowing them to conduct electricity
relatively well. If an electron is given energy, it can move to a higher orbital. It often moves back
down rapidly, thus losing energy by colliding with particles/emitting EMR.
Atoms of semiconductors all have four valence electrons. They bond to other atoms by covalent
bonds, completing the octet needed for chemical stability and forming a covalent network crystal
structure. This means that, under normal conditions, there are no free electrons for electrical
conductivity.
However, some materials are photoconductors and thermionic emitters of electrons. Their valence
electrons also break away from their bonding positions and move when a potential difference is
applied. This accounts for their semi conductivity.
2. Describe the difference between conductors, insulators and semiconductors in
terms of band structures and relative electrical resistance.
4. Compare qualitatively the relative number of free electrons that can drift from
atom to atom in conductors, semiconductors and insulators.

Band theory is a model to explain to differences in conductivity of conductors, semiconductors

and insulators. It communicates the energies causing substances to conduct in terms of energy
gap diagrams. In metals, valence electrons are free. They are not attached to any particular
atom. They travel through the metal when a potential difference is applied. They are classified as
already in the conduction band. In the model, the valence band is said to overlap the conduction
band.
In intrinsic semiconductors the valence band is full but there is only a small energy gap between it
and the conduction band less than 2eV. Doping a semiconductor lowers this gap.
In insulators the valence band is also full but the energy gap is larger around 10eV.
The relative electrical resistance of a material depends on the ease with which charge can be
mobilised and the number of charges that are available to move. In a conductor, the valence band
and conduction band basically overlap, with many charges requiring little energy to become
available to be mobilised as a current. This means that a conductor offers only a small resistance
to the flow of current.
In a semiconductor, the electrons are involved in the lattice and here is a small energy gap
between the valence band and the conduction band. This means that, for the semiconductor to
carry a current, the electrons must receive enough energy for them to be promoted from the
balance band to the conduction band, to then flow as a current. This consideration, where
electrons must each receive energy to move into the conduction band to flow as a current, means
that fewer will readily move than in a conductor. This explains why the resistance of
semiconductors is significantly higher than that of a conductor.
In an insulator, the electrons in the valence band are bound into chemical bonds that create the
material composing the insulator. There is a significant energy gap between the valence band and
the conduction band. This means that the electrons are very difficult to mobilise and require a
large input of energy before they can be released from the valence band to become available to
the conduction band to travel as a current. This is the reason why insulators have much higher
resistances than conductors and semiconductors, and, because of the very high resistance of an
insulator, they can be used to actually prevent flow of electrical current.

The Valence band contains the electrons and is partly or completely filled.
The Conduction band is the upper energy band and corresponds to the higher energy levels in
the isolated atom. It is empty.
The forbidden energy gap lies between the valence and the conduction bands. It corresponds to
the gap between the energy levels in the isolated atom.
Conductors have no gap between the valence and conduction band (valence band = conduction
band)

Insulators large energy gap, conduction band empty, and the valence band full of bound
electrons

Semiconductors small energy gap

o The energy gap is equivalent to approx 1eV, so if this much energy can be applied to
the material, the electrons in the valence band can jump to the conduction band
In a normal metal, and increase in heat creates an increase in resistance because of more
vibration in the lattice, it is harder for the electrons to travel throughout.
In a semiconductor, an increase in heat creates greater conductivity because there is energy
allowing electrons in the valence band to jump to the conduction band.

Carbon is an exception to this, with heat creating conduction.

3. Identify absences of electrons in a nearly full band as holes, and recognise that
both electrons and holes help to carry current.

The impact of photons above the threshold frequency on the surface of a semiconductor has two
consequences: Free electrons are emitted from the surface, forming electric current, and positive
holes are left in the valence shell. These holes effectively act as positive charges.
Neighbouring electrons jump into the positive holes, and leave their positions as positive holes.
Electrons move through the semiconductor towards the positive potential, and positive holes
move in the opposite direction towards the negative potential.

The concept of electrons and holes in semiconductors refers to the primary mechanism by which
charge/current is transferred through the semiconductor. By doping pure silicon with the
appropriate quantity of impurity from group 3 or 5 elements, the different methods of conduction
can be achieved.
If a group 5 element is used as the dopant, the fifth electron is unable to bind into the silicon
crystal lattice and is easily mobilised to become a current. Thus silicon is doped in this way, e.g.
with arsenic, forms an n-type semiconductor and uses these easily mobilised electrons as the
primary charge carriers to transfer current through the semiconductor. If a group 3 element, e.g.
gallium is used to dope pure silicon; the dopant has one less electron than required to bind into
the silicon lattice and thus leaves a region of positive charge in the lattice, i.e. a hole. An electron
can fall into this hole and the hole will drift through the lattice as positive current. The holes acting
as acceptors to electrons are the primary charge carriers in the p-type semiconductors produced
using a group 3 element as a dopant.
Thus the concept of holes and electrons relates to the way current flows in the n- and p-type
semiconductors and is the result of the number of electrons involved from the atoms forming th
crystal structures when pure silicon is doped with particular impurities.
PRAC 1: Perform an investigation to model the behaviour of semiconductors,
including the creation of a hole or positive charge on the atom that has lost the
electron and the movement of electrons and holes in opposite directions when an
electric field is applied across the semiconductor.

A number of desks are lined up, with four students around each desk. The students represent the
valence band electrons of the silicon atoms, with the first desk containing only three students, and
the empty seat a positive hole. This first atom represents an impurity atom such as aluminium or
Gallium, which is used to create a p-type semiconductor. The dopant has one less electron than
required to bind into the silicon lattice and thus leaves a region of positive charge in the lattice,
called a hole. When an electric field is applied to the right, the neighbouring section (student)
moves to the left to fill the hole, thus leaving another hole (empty seat) behind. This process is
repeated, and from this is can be observed that the students move to the left, while the empty
seat moves to the right; it drifts through the lattice as positive current. Therefore it can be seen
that when an electric field is applied across the semiconductor, electrons and holes more in
opposite directions.
5. Identify that the use of germanium in early transistors is related to lack of ability
to produce other materials of suitable purity.

Germanium is a semimetal that has a 1eV gap between its valence and conduction band. It forms
a full valence band by joining with 4 other of the same atom when in a solid. Germanium was
originally used because it was simpler to purify than silicon, with purification methods being
developed in the 1940s. Silicon is harder to purify because it naturally exists as oxides or
compounds, but could be adequately purified by 1960s.
We use silicon in circuits today because Germanium conducts a greater current in reverse bias
when hot, which can lead to melted circuits. Silicon maintains its conductivity and semiconductor
properties at high temperatures because it forms an electrically insulating oxide layer when
heated in oxygen. Also, the molecular structure of a crystal of silicon is uniform, ensuring the
consistency of properties. Silicon is very abundant (the second most abundant element on earth),
and so is more readily available, and much cheaper than germanium. Silicon is also more
durable.

PRAC 2: Gather, process and present secondary information to discuss how

shortcomings in available communication technology lead to an increased knowledge
of the properties of materials with particular reference to the invention of the
transistor.

Thermionic valves consisted of two elements inside a glass vacuum tube (anode and cathode.) A high
voltage was applied so that once the heating filament was hot enough, thermionic emission allows
electrons to accelerate in one direction from the cathode to the anode.
Thermionic devices, or valves, were originally used in electrical equipment such as radios and
computers. However they were too large, inefficient, required constant maintenance and produced a
lot of heat. It was the result of this deficiency in available technology that research was produced to
replace it.
In 1948 Germanium was used to develop the first transistor, as the technology had become available
to grow perfectly pure crystals for Germanium only.
Transistors use 2 types of silicon semiconductors n- and p-type that are fused together with a low
voltage applied. This ensures current flows in one direction when the n-type is connected to the
cathode and the p-type to the anode.
The advantages of the transistor were that they are rugged not easily broken or needing regular
replacement and reliable. They were small, instantaneous and energy efficient. They were also very
cheap.
The invention of the transistor has allowed small, cheap, robust, portable computers which has had
great impact on our society. From the above developments, it is possible to see that shortcomings in
available technology and knowledge lead to the research and development of far superior deices.
This was only made possible due to an increased knowledge of properties of materials at an atomic
level.
PRAC 3: Identify data sources, gather, process, analyse information and use available
evidence to assess the impact of the invention of transistors on society with particular
reference to their use in microchips and microprocessors.

The uses of transistors in computer chips, radios, and other communication devices has had a large
impact on society in terms of the dependence of technology and the associated social changes since
its invention. Increasing communication demands since 1950 required a material which was cheap,
reliable and robust. The invention of the transistor in 1948 fulfilled this requirement where older
thermionic valves failed. The increased number of pnp and npn component transistors that can fit on
integrated circuits have reduced the size of computer chips/processors and made them powerful and
capable of more complex functions. Computers changed from a room full of components requiring air
conditioning to hand held devices with cheaper costs, greater reliability and being much faster,
resulting in a rapid expansion and use of computers as a leading communication tool in society.
Transistors have increased the portability of other communication devices such as radios and mobile
phones. Society has become dependant on the use of communication devices in obtaining
information and knowledge, which has lead to a greater demand for the use of transistors.
The size of a microchip/processor is, however, reaching a limit. To keep up with increasing demands
on communication, a different processing technology may be needed, possibly making transistors
obsolete in the near future. The rapid change in technology produces greater waste, which is difficult
to recycle. The dependency of technology can have negative consequences if the technology fails,
particularly if it is centralised such as the global communications network. Other rapid changes may
also cause a rise in unemployment from jobs made redundant due to technological changes.
Overall, the use of transistors has made a significant impact worldwide. Society has become more
dependant on technology based on transistors. Although there are negative aspects to their use,
ultimately, transistors have increased the ability of society to communicate and expand its knowledge.

8. Describe differences between solid state and thermionic devices and discuss why
solid state devices replaced thermionic devices.

Both solid state and thermionic devices were used to rectify the direction of current from A.C. to
D.C, so that it travelled in one direction only. However,

Thermionic devices require high voltages to correctly bias the triodes to amplify
signals. Solid state devices allow passages of information with very low power. No power is
required to release electrons so that it can be used immediately, saving time and resulting in
less electrical energy used and less heat energy produced. With lower power dissipation, only
low voltage power supplies are needed, allowing the equipment to become more compact and
portable.

Thermionic devices developed a large amount of heat in the valves. Solid state
devices allow an increase in speed of transmission with a much lower energy use because of
fewer connections

Thermionic devices and appliances were bulky. Solid state devices can be built much
smaller, allowing more components to fit in a confined space

Thermionic devices (valves) are fragile, like a light globe, with delicate and precise
components, and had a relatively short lifetime because they burn out frequently. Solid state
devices last much longer because they are flexible, able to withstand excessive vibration and
shock, and, thus, are strong enough to be used in many situations. This contributes to the
dependability and maximum life of the appliances and electronic equipment.

Thermionic devices cost considerably more than solid state devices.

6. Describe how doping a semiconductor can change its electrical properties.

7. Identify differences in p and n-type semiconductors in terms of the relative
number of negative charge carriers and positive holes.

Intrinsic a semiconductor that is pure.

Extrinsic a semiconductor that has been doped.
A small amount of atoms from another element either from group 3 or 5 - is added to the atoms
of the semiconductor lattice, which are from group IV of the periodic table and are joined together
by covalent bonds. This alters its electrical properties in terms of the number of electrons in the
valence band. Hence, the charge carriers are added from an outside dopant to the material.
N-type: Dopant is from group V so that there are excess electrons ready to move into the
conduction band, requiring a smaller amount of energy, and increasing the conductivity of the
material. However, if they do not acquire sufficient energy, they form another energy band just
below the conduction band called the donor level. Under the influence of and electric field the
electrons move in the opposite direction i.e. towards the source of field (positive.)
P-type: Dopant is from group III so that there is a lack of electrons, which creates holes. By
attracting electrons from adjacent atoms through a small amount of energy, these holes can move
under the effect of an electric field, i.e. the hole has moved in the same direction as the field.
However, due to their natural tendency to form covalent bonds with the valence electrons, they
form another energy level just above the valence band called the acceptor level.

PRAC 4: Identify data sources, gather, process and present information to

summarise the effect of light on semiconductors in solar cells.

Solar cells also use the photoelectric effect to convert the energy from sunlight into electrical
energy. However, rather than relying on the sensitive and breakable vacuum tubes in earlier
photocells, solar cells use semi-conductor technology. Free electrons in the n-type drift across to
the p-type material (due to charges.) this creates a potential difference an electric field
between the semi-conductors, preventing more electrons flowing into the p-type semiconductor.
When (U.V.) sunlight falls on a junction between n-type and p-type semiconductor material,
electrons in the n-type material are ejected around the circuit from atoms due to the photoelectric
effect. Electrons in the junction move up to fill the holes in the n-type material, and electrons from
the p-type then move up to fill these holes, and the process repeats to form a direct electric
current.
Solar cells are often assembled into modules designed to produce a certain current at the design
voltage. The current produced depends directly on the amount of light striking the module.
Typically, simple solar cells convert around ten to fifteen percent of the incoming solar energy into
useful electrical energy. This efficiency can be increased by using two or more materials sensitive
to light of different frequencies in tandem, in order to utilize more of the Sun's spectrum, or by
using focusing devices to concentrate the sunlight and converting >37% into energy.
The photocurrent in both depends on the intensity of light (of appropriate frequency) hitting the
solar cell. As the source of light is the Sun, the effectiveness of the cell is limited, being affected
by weather and season.

4. Investigations into the electrical properties of particular metals at different

temperatures led to the identification of superconductivity and the exploration
of possible applications.
1. Outline the methods used by the Braggs to determine crystal structure.

Sir William Henry Bragg and Sir William Lawrence Bragg (son) developed an X-ray spectrometer
to systematically study the diffraction of X-rays from crystal surfaces. They proposed that as Xrays had short wavelengths in the order of 1*10-10 m could penetrate the surface of matter and
reflect from the atomic lattice planes within the crystals. X rays were bounced off metal surfaces
and the diffraction patterns formed by the reflected rays were caught on photographic film. The
pattern of dots indicated the positions of the atoms in the metal crystals.
An X-ray tube operating at 40 000V accelerated electrons hitting copper or chromium producing
X rays which are then collimated using parallel plates of metal covered in Molybdenum.
This causes the X rays to become parallel and the parallel beams to strike the sample
The angle of the scattered beam is detected with photographic film. The experiment utilised Xrays reflected from adjacent atomic planes within the crystal. The reflected X-rays interfered
constructively and destructively producing a
familiar pattern
The Braggs observed that certain patterns
occurred in specific directions, and concluded
that X-rays were reflected from the regularly
spaced parallel planes of the crystals.
Crystals were found to be made of atoms
arranged in a regular three dimensional
pattern the diffraction pattern made it
possible to determine the position of the
atoms in the crystals.
2. Identify that metals possess a crystal lattice structure.

Metal crystals:
Have a 3 dimensional lattice structure the lattice is a repeating structure where each atom
occupies a well-defined equilibrium distance from its neighbours.
Are held together by attraction between the positive ions and the delocalised electron cloud.
By looking at the diffraction pattern of X-rays from metal crystals it was shown that atoms in metal
are so close together that their valence electrons overlap, meaning that the valence electrons lose
their atomic identity and no longer belong to a specific atom delocalised electrons. The
electrons form an electron cloud moving randomly through the lattice.
When an electric field is applied electrons will drift towards the positive potential and a current will
flow. When an electron moves through a conductor it collides with atoms in the lattice. It is these
collisions between electrons and impurities and the vibrating lattice that are responsible for
electrical energy being transformed into heat energy i.e. the resistance of the circuit.
If the temperature of the metal is increased there will be more lattice vibrations and hence
electrons will have more collisions with the lattice and higher resistance.

3. Describe conduction in metals as a free movement of electrons unimpeded by the

lattice.

The studies of Bragg showed atoms in metals were so close that their outer valence electron
orbitals overlapped. Thus, the electrons in the crystal belong to all the atoms, thus they can roam
free. This is demonstrated in the model with an array of fixed positive ions in a sea of delocalised
electrons. The speed (average velocity) of electrons through a conductor is called the drift
velocity. When electrons move, they collide with impurities and the vibrating lattice thus
resistance. Electrons under the influence of an electric field gain energy but lose it by collisions
with ions which vibrate more rapidly creating heat.
4. Identify that resistance in metals is increased by the presence of impurities and
scattering of electrons by lattice vibrations.

Resistance is dependant on length of the wire, resistivity of the metal and the cross sectional area
Resistance also depends on impurities and temperature.
Temperature: increase means more lattice vibration electrons have more collisions with atoms in
the lattice thus reducing the average velocity
Impurities electrons again collide with more particles in the conductor, and thus their drift
velocity is slowed down.
From this, it was inferred that the reverse would be true, lower temps = superconductivity
5. Describe the occurrence in superconductors below their critical temperature of a
population of electron pairs unaffected by electrical resistance.

Resistance depends on temperature due to the vibration of the crystalline lattice.

Superconductivity is the state where the crystalline lattice vibration reduces to zero and thus the
resistance in the conductor reduces to zero. This is created by lowering the temperature of the
conductor to near absolute zero. This temperature is known as the critical temperature (Tc)
Naturally, one would expect that resistance would
decrease with the lowering of temperature, but
superconductivity refers to the point where resistance
drops to zero.
Kammerlingh Onnes in 1911 discovered the
resistance of mercury suddenly dropped to zero below
4.2K. This was due to the atomic vibrations ceasing to
exist, and the electrons thus having nothing impeding
their travel through the substance.
Type 1 superconductors have a critical temperature
from 0-23K. Type 2 semiconductors are manufactured
using metal alloys and metal oxides, and
superconductivity has been demonstrated as high as
120K. This has enabled the use of liquid nitrogen as a coolant instead of liquid helium, which is
much cheaper.

PRAC 1: Process information to identify some of the metals, metal alloys and
compounds that have been identified as exhibiting the property of
superconductivity and their critical temperatures.

PRAC 2: Perform an investigation to demonstrate magnetic levitation.

PRAC 3: Analyse information to explain why a magnet is able to hover above a
superconducting material that has reached the temperature at which it is
superconducting.

The Meissner effect is the expulsion of magnetic fields from a superconductor created by currents
induced on the surface of the ceramic/metal. This is demonstrated by the levitation of small
magnets on superconductors cooled by liquid nitrogen.1933, W. Meissner and R. Ochsenfeld
found that a magnetic field could not penetrate a superconductor.
An external magnetic field causes eddy currents to flow in the superconductor. By Lenzs law, the
magnetic field created by these opposes the field of the external magnetic field in such a direction
to create a force of opposition equal and opposite to the weight of the magnet in the form of eddy
currents.
Superconductors however, have no resistance, thus the eddy currents will continue to oppose the
magnetic field creating them as long as the superconductor and external magnetic field exist.
PRAC 4: Gather and process information to describe how superconductors and the
effects of magnetic fields have been applied to develop a maglev train.

The Maglev is a magnetically levitated train. Superconductivity and the Meissner effect suspends
an object so that it can move on a frictionless surface, which can be used in high speed trains.
Since there is no contact with the tracks, there is no friction and so much higher, smoother speeds
can be achieved. The train also has a streamlined shape to minimise air resistance.
The train is propelled by a continually changing polarity of alternate magnets along the tracks,
creating a force of movement forward. Speeds up to 517km/h have been achieved
However, these use large amounts of electrical power.

Electromagnetic suspension system (EMS) used in Germany uses conventional electromagnets

mounted under the train, lifting off the ground. However, this wastes a lot of energy as heat, and
the superconductors used are not very strong, as they need only liquid nitrogen to cool. These are
placed on the side of the train and interact with the electromagnets on the side of the track.
However, this can create an unstable system due to the varying distance between the magnets
and guideway. This is monitored by computer to correct instabilities.
Electrodynamic suspension system (EDS) used in Japan uses superconducting magnets on the
vehicle and electrically conductive strips or coils on the guideway to levitate the train. Theses
bottom magnets are permanent to create lift. This does not require as great computer monitoring,
but requires very low temperatures for superconductivity, using liquid helium (expensive.)
This system uses push and pull to move forward. The speed of the train is created by alternating
the current in the electromagnets on the sides of the track the changing magnetic field of the
electromagnets alternatively push and pull the train along the track.
6. Discuss the BCS theory.

A phonon is a type of vibrational motion occurring in a crystal lattice structure. Although a wave
like property, they acquire particle properties also. Every phonon carries a quantum of vibrational
energy.
Cooper Pair electrons tend to travel through the superconductor in pairs unimpeded.
(Resistance = 0) as long as the substance is below the critical temperature.
BCS refers to a theory of American physicists (John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and Robert Schrieffer)
in 1957. They proposed that electrons travel through superconductors in pairs cooper pairs that
constantly form, break down and reform. When electrons are moving in a superconductor, their
movement is enhanced by lattice vibrations phonons.
These phonons cause electric field effects, creating the cooper pairs thus overcoming the normal
strong repulsion between electrons.
As an electron passes, it creates an inward distortion of the crystal lattice - the positive ions move
towards the negative charge, but the electron moves past before the heavier positive ions can
respond.
Since a phonon/trough of positive charge builds up behind the electron, the second electron is
drawn into the trough of positive charge around the first electron before the lattice springs back
into shape, giving it a free run with virtually no resistance, whilst also pushing the first electron
forward. (The forces exerted by the phonons overcome the electrons repulsion.)
Thus, the electron behind accelerates as if it had been attracted to the electron infront.
The net effect is that the first electron has emitted a phonon and the other electron of the pair
absorbs the phonon. It is this exchange of phonon energy that keeps Cooper pairs together for
long periods of time. They are not permanent, and are constantly breaking and reforming.
The electrons attract each other by phonon-mediated attraction and travel as a pair, despite
normally repelling each other.
As the temperature is decreased below the critical
temperature, the current increases. However, this
current creates a magnetic field. This magnetic
field will become so strong that at a certain point, it
will cause a loss of superconductivity. This means
that there is a limit on the current that can flow in
any superconductor.

The application of superconductors is dependent on the critical temperature, the critical field, and
the current density.
7. Discuss the advantages of using superconductors and identify limitations to their
use.

Because they can carry large electric currents (although with a limit) without heat losses,
superconductors can be used to generate large magnetic fields. Such fields are used in a variety
of devices including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines. MRI machines provide doctors
with three-dimensional images of the internal structure of the human body. They would to be able
to carry large currents for long periods of time with little loss of energy. Narrow wires made of
superconducting materials can be used to carry large currents. Environmental benefits amass
from this higher efficiency, such as less pollution due to power generation in fossil fuel power
plants, resulting in a cleaner environment.
Maglev trains reduce friction to allow very high speeds due to the Meissner Effect.
Superconducting switching devices are being tested for use in high-speed computers since they
can operate at speeds up to ten times the speed of an equivalent semiconductor switch.
The original superconductors operated at temperatures only a few degrees above absolute zero.
This is still the case for metals. Over the years though, high temperature superconductors have
been produced, some operating at temperatures as high as 134K. This means that liquid nitrogen
can be used to cool them. This is much cheaper and more efficient at cooling than liquid helium
which is required for metals. However, there superconductors are ceramic and have limitations
including being brittle, difficult to manufacture and draw out into wires for electricity transmission.
PRAC 5: Process information to discuss possible applications of superconductivity
and the effects of those applications on computers, generators and motors and
transmission of electricity through power grids.

Power transmission - Electrical transmission lines lose a lot of energy due to resistance in the
wires. Superconductors would have zero energy losses through heat and so could be used to
create very large current densities through thin wires, reducing cost of power and the constant
demand for new power stations. It would also allow power stations to be built near consumers
rather than near fuel supplies. However, transmission would be have to be DC because the
switching current in AC would cause energy losses and heating in a superconducting wire.
Power generation - Motors and generators made using superconducting coils would be much
lighter and smaller as no soft iron cores would be needed, so the coil could be much smaller. Less
energy input would be needed to sustain their operation, thus saving environmental effects from
using fossil fuels.
Electronics The capacity of microprocessors and the efficiency of their operation is, in part,
limited by the heat produced in the devices they operate in. Having zero resistance circuits would
allow their capacity and speed of operation to be increased a predicted 250 times. The use of
superconductors in transistors and superconductive connection films would also allow the
processing of signals to be speeded up significantly. This could result in the transmission of
information in computers being speeded up several orders of magnitude.
MRI machines Magnetic solenoids need to be big enough for someone to enter, as well as able
to create a magnetic field of 4 Tesla. Ordinary solenoids need windings of a meter thick, i.e.
several hundred kilowatts of power is dissipated as heat for every meter length of conductor.
Superconductors such as tin-niobium can create 4 Tesla easily and once the current is applied, it
will continue to circulate around without energy loss. Therefore, the device doesnt need a
constant input. With superconductors, the need for a large instrument would be eliminated and
smaller solenoids can be used in connection with computers to make a more accurate image of
the body.