RIVER RESEARCH AND APPLICATIONS

River. Res. Applic. 24: 673687 (2008)

Published online in Wiley InterScience
(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/rra.1143

HYDRAULIC RESISTANCE OF SOME SELECTED VEGETATION IN OPEN

CHANNEL FLOWS
DONG SOP RHEE,a*,y HYOSEOP WOO,bz BO AE KWON ay and HONG KYU AHN ax
a

Department of Water Resources Research, Korea Institute of Construction Technology, 2311 Daehwa, Ilsanseo, Goyang, Gyeonggi 411-712,
Korea
b
Korea Institute of Construction Technology, 2311 Daehwa, Ilsanseo, Goyang, Gyeonggi 411-712, Korea

ABSTRACT
Vegetation in rivers has important roles in improving and restoring river environment. Other than it adds high aesthetic value to
revetments, that it can be used as a levee protection in environmental friendly way. In open channel hydraulics, vegetation often
causes changes in the flow resistance, usually resulting in the increase of flood stage. Both experimental and numerical
researches have been conducted on flow resistance of vegetation in open channels, however, the researches were based mostly on
the vegetation found in the region where the researches were conducted, and this restricts the generality of the results.
In this study, three Korean natural vegetations, Zoysia matrella (Korean zoysia), Pennisetum alopecuroides (L.) Spreng.
(Korean native vegetation) and Phragmites communis Trin. (Korean reed) were used in flume tests on the effect of vegetation in
the channel on flow resistance. n-VR retardance curves were developed for each grass. All the grasses were tested under
unmown conditions. Z. matrella was tested under fully submerged condition and other two were tested under both submerged
and un-submerged conditions.
Resistance coefficient, expressed as Mannings n, converged to about 0.027 (total roughness) for Z. matrella as VR increased.
Resistance coefficients for other plants were found affected by the states of the plants, that is, whether they were green or
dormant. Generally, resistance coefficients are higher when plants are green than when they are dormant. This is because
the resistance coefficient is influenced by the leaf elements of vegetation on the river flow in addition to the stem of vegetation.
The interaction between the bending part of vegetation and the water surface can also increase the resistance coefficient. In terms
of water depth, P. communis Trin were found more affected on the resistance coefficients compared to Z. matrella and
P. alopecuroides (L.) Spreng. Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
key words: flow resistance; open channel flow; resistance coefficient; vegetation
Received 31 August 2006; Revised 30 May 2007; Accepted 22 August 2007

INTRODUCTION
Vegetation in rivers is a problem for river management in Korea as well as in other parts of the world with a growing
interest in river restoration, and is a very important factor in improving and restoring river environments. Vegetation
used for levee protection and revetments in Korea has high aesthetic values as well as being environmental friendly.
Some emergent vegetation plays an important role in improving riparian and aquatic habitats. Low-flow revetment
using live willows may serve both as scour protection of river bank and riparian habitat; this is a good example
illustration of fulfilling two joint actions. Generally, the ecological characteristics of rivers are improved with
vegetation growth, but there are also unfavourable effects on rivers such as reduced conveyance, and increased river
resistance. In open channel hydraulics, vegetation causes changes in the flow resistance and thus usually results in
the increased water level compared with the un-vegetated reaches.

*Correspondence to: Dong Sop Rhee, Department of Water Resources Research, Korea Institute of Construction Technology, 2311 Daehwa,
Ilsanseo, Goyang, Gyeonggi 411-712, Korea. E-mail: dsrhee@kict.re.kr
y
Researcher.
z
Senior Research Fellow.
x
Senior Researcher.

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In vegetated river reaches and floodplains, the flow resistance is largely determined by the type, density and
characteristics of vegetation, as well as by flow depth and velocity. A number of studies have been conducted on
flow resistance of vegetation in open channels, both experimentally and numerically (Chow, 1959; Kouwen and Li,
1980; Temple et al., 1987; Fathi-Maghadam and Kouwen, 1997; Darby, 1999; Temple, 1999; Jarvela, 2002, Kirby
et al., 2005). The vegetation types in these studies were often limited on the local vegetation found in the regions
where the researches were conducted. This causes a problem when attempting to use their results in other regions,
since many of the vegetation used in the studies are uncommon and not found in other areas, for example, in Korean
rivers. Sometimes artificial vegetation can be used for flow resistance studies instead of natural ones. Wu et al.
(1999) used rubberized horsehair mattress to simulate bushes and shrubs in floodplain wetlands, and to study
variation in the vegetative roughness coefficients with the flow depth in submerged and un-submerged conditions.
Strong deflection and the bending of test material were disregarded in the study because the test material was stiff
enough. Cylindrical rigid elements were also used to investigate the effect of vegetation resistance at submerged
and un-submerged conditions (Stone and Shen, 2002; Musleh and Cruise, 2006). As it can be assumed that the
characteristics of artificial materials were quite different from natural vegetation, the universal application of the
study results for design purpose should be considered carefully.
The primary objective of this study is to investigate the effect of vegetative roughness on the flow resistance, and
to provide a better understanding of the vegetative roughness in vegetated open channels and rivers, especially for
Korean native aquatic vegetation. Three typical Korean grasses were selected to test the effects of vegetation type,
grass heights, flow depth and flow velocity on the flow resistance. The grasses selected in this study were all very
flexible and easily bent. Simplified flume tests were performed to evaluate the submerged and un-submerged
vegetation resistance under un-harvested conditions. This study did not intend to address the scaling of vegetation
and the complexities of flow in compound open channels, nor did it focus on the biomechanical properties of the
plants.

FLOW RESISTANCE
Hydraulic resistance of open channel flow occurs mainly by the viscous and drag forces over the wetted perimeter.
The roughness components in vegetated open channels are conceptually divided into three components: soil grain
roughness, form roughness and vegetative roughness. In most vegetated open channels, vegetative roughness
characterized by vegetation density, grass heights and type of vegetation dominates the flow resistance of channel
(Temple et al., 1987). This flow resistance is commonly represented by parameters such as the DarcyWeisbach
friction factor ( f), Chezys resistance factor (C) or Mannings roughness coefficient (n). Among these factors,
Mannings n is most frequently used in the computation of open channel flows (Wu et al., 1999; Kirby et al., 2005).
In Korea, designers also use Mannings n for design purpose.
Historically Mannings roughness coefficient can be selected from simple lists of channel descriptions (Chow,
1959; Henderson, 1966). According to Cowan (1956), total roughness of a channel can be divided into its
component parts. He developed a procedure for estimating the effects of the roughness factors to determine the
value of n. The value of n is calculated by (Arcement and Schneider, 1984)
n nb n1 n2 n3 n4 m

(1)

where nb is a base value of n for a straight, uniform and smooth channel in natural materials, n1 correction factor for
surface irregularities, n2 value for variations in the shape and size of a channel cross section, n3 value for
obstructions, n4 value for vegetation and flow conditions and m correction factor for meandering of a channel.
From an early stage, research on vegetative flow resistance showed that Mannings n varies systematically with
the product of mean flow velocity and the hydraulic radius (VR) for a given type of vegetation, and that the
relationship is practically independent of channel slope and shape. Further experiments found that vegetation
species having similar characteristics of density, rigidity, grass heights and the level of submergence would produce
similar n-VR curves (Kirby et al., 2005). In fact, this n-VR relationship is equivalent to a n-Re relationship, since
the product VR is proportional to the Reynolds number Re, whose conventional definition in open channel flow is
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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HYDRAULIC RESISTANCE OF SOME SELECTED VEGETATION

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given by (Chow, 1959)

Re

VR
n

(2)

The kinematic viscosity v of water does not vary significantly under normal conditions. The Manning equation
has been shown to be applicable for the case of fully turbulent flow (Henderson, 1966). Sometimes, the friction
factor f is used instead of Mannings n when Re < 104, where the flow regime is likely to be laminar to transitional.
Generally, Mannings n value decreases as VR increases. The decrease of n results from the increase of plant
bending and the submergence. Minimum Mannings n value occurs when the product VR is large enough to force
the grasses to be entirely flattened. The friction factor f, however, decreases as VR decreases when flow is laminar or
transitional, namely, when Re < 104 (Chen, 1976; Green, 2005).
In case of large flows or floods, the flow depth is usually much greater than the grass height so that the thickness
of boundary zone by vegetative growth tends to be a minimum and thus the vegetative part in the passing flow
becomes negligible. Consequently the resistance coefficient tends to converge to a constant (Temple et al., 1987).
Likewise, the effect of vegetation can be considered more important in small-scale rivers or watercourses and
floodplains in large rivers, for which the use of a constant roughness coefficient can cause inaccuracy in their
estimated flood level.

VEGETATION SELECTION
In this study, three Korean native vegetation types, Zoysia matrella (a Korean zoysia), Pennisetum alopecuroides
(L.) Spreng. (a Korean pennisetum) and Phragmites communis Trin. (a Korean reed) were used in the flume
experiment for the effect of vegetation on the channel flow resistance. As shown in Figure 1, the selected plants are
representative vegetation types in different elevation zones in typical Korean river cross-sections. Z. matrella
represents the vegetation in levee zones, where the most vegetation types are rather short and stiff.
P. alopecuroides (L.) Spreng. represents the vegetation in flood plain zones, where the most vegetations have
flexible stems and intermediate height. P. communis Trin. represents the vegetation in low-flow channel zones,
where the most vegetation grows very high and has flexible stems (Figure 2).
The three vegetations were tested under unmown conditions. Z. matrella was tested fully submerged and the
others were tested under submerged and un-submerged conditions. Table I summarizes the characteristics of the
vegetations used in this study.
P. alopecuroides (L.) Spreng. and P. communis Trin. were tested for green and dormant states. Green state
means that the tested grasses are fully green and in active growth state. Dormant state means that the tested grasses
are inactive and starting to be wilted or dead. Experiments on the target species were performed in order for two
years periods. First, experiments for the dormant state were conducted in autumn. This is because in autumn, the
plants are about to be withered after the active growth during the summer. Targeted vegetation types were planted in
the experimental flume and the temporary planting space just before the plants went withered. After the dormant
state experiment, the experiments for green grasses were performed similarly in the new experimental flume in
next summer.

Figure 1. Conceptual diagram for locations of selected vegetation in river reach. This figure is available in colour online at www.interscience.
wiley.com/journal/rra
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Figure 2. Plants tested (a) Zoysia matrella, (b) Pennisetum alopecuroides (L.) Spreng. and (c) Phragmites communis Trin.

Table I. Characteristics of experimental vegetation

Common name

Scientific name

Korean golden zoysia

Korean pennisetum

Zoysia matrella
Pennisetum alopecuroides (L.) Spreng.

610
3545

Reed

Phragmites communis Trin.

7080

Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Height of
plants (cm)

Average density
(stems m
2)
743
198
206
161
154

(series
(series
(series
(series
(series

A)
B)
D)
C)
E)

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Figure 3. Outdoor experimental flume for test series AC

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Experiments for the quantification of hydraulic resistance were conducted in two flumes located in the outdoor
hydraulic laboratory at the Korea Institute of Construction Technology. The first flume was 1.0 m wide and 18 m
long (Figure 3). The sidewalls and the bottom of the flume were made of concrete blocks with concrete linings. The
water discharge was measured by a rectangular weir located at upstream of flume. Three series of tests (series AC)
were performed for Z. matrella and dormant P. alopecuroides (L.) Spreng. and P. communis Trin. The
measurement reach, located at 4.0 m from the entrance channel section, was 6.5 m long, and made as 0.2 m deeper
in depth compared to upper and downstream reaches. It was filled with a loamy soil to transplant test grasses. The
bed depth was then adjusted to other reaches after planting. The stage measurements were made with a digital point
gauge which has an accuracy of 0.1 mm. A 3.0 m long mixed grass zone with zoysia and other short native grasses
was located at 1.0 m from the entrance channel section to provide a flow transition. Total 60 experimental runs
(Table II) were carried out with the flow rate and the downstream-end depth varied for each type of vegetation. The
tested flow depths covered a broad range so that the vegetation could experience both the submerged and
un-submerged conditions (except for Z. matrella; this type of plant is usually submerged in normal flow conditions).
All the flows were subcritical, and minor variations in the bed surface were neglected.
The second flume was 3.0 m wide and 30 m long (Figure 4). The sidewalls and the bottom of the flume were made
of the same materials as the first channel. The water discharge was measured by a suppressed weir located at the
upstream end of the flume. Two series of tests (series DE) were performed for green P. alopecuroides (L.)
Spreng. and P. communis Trin. The measurement reach, located at 5.0 m from the entrance channel section, was
18 m long, and made as 0.2 m deeper in depth compared to upper and downstream reaches. It was filled with a
loamy soil to transplant test grasses. The bed elevation was also adjusted after planting. The stage measurement was

Table II. Experimental conditions for each test series

Discharge (m3 s
1)

Flow depth (cm)
Velocity (m s
1)
Froude number
Type of vegetation
State of vegetation
Mannings n (total)

0.010.08
7.417.2
0.140.46
0.170.36
Zoysia
Green
0.0290.043

0.020.10
20.832.1
0.070.41
0.050.27
Pennisetum
Dormant
0.0460.098

0.020.10
20.541.1
0.070.40
0.040.26
Reed
Dormant
0.0540.097

0.030.36
12.035.3
0.030.39
0.020.22
Pennisetum
Green
0.0570.195

0.030.36
10.644.2
0.020.37
0.010.20
Reed
Green
0.0660.172

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Figure 4. Outdoor experimental flume for test series DE

made with a point gauge with an accuracy of 0.5 mm. The bottom of the upstream reach before the measurement
section from the entrance section of the channel was covered with gravel whose mean particle diameter d50 was
about 11.4 mm; again, this allowed for flow transition. Total 90 experimental runs (Table II) were carried out under
various conditions. Broader range of tested flows provided both the submerged and un-submerged conditions.
Minor variations in the soil surface were also neglected. It is noted that parts of stems and leaves of tested grasses
were bent as a result of flow condition changes. Damages to the vegetation and underlying bed, however, were
imperceptible or negligible.
Hydraulic characteristics for each experimental run were determined through a detailed examination of
experimental flow profiles or a series of cross sections along experimental flume. The cross-sectional area A was
calculated as the average flow depth multiplied by flume width. The wetted perimeter P was calculated in a similar
way. The discharge Q was evaluated using weirs located at the upstream end of each flume. The average
cross-sectional velocity V and the hydraulic radius R were determined as Q/A and A/P, respectively.

DATA ANALYSIS
The value of Mannings n was evaluated for each experimental run with the data obtained from the flume
experiments (water depth or stage, cross-sectional area, mean velocity, hydraulic radius). In the experimental
flumes used in this study, bottom slope was not adjustable. Instead, to evaluate Mannings n for each measurement
section, the friction slope was used as follows:



d
V2
h
Sf

dx
2g

(3)

in which h water surface elevation, g the acceleration of gravity and Sf friction slope. Mannings equation is
expressed in the metric system as
V

1 2=3 1=2
R S
n

(4)

in which S friction slope.

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From Equations (3) and (4), Mannings n for each measurement section between the adjacent cross sections is
given by Kirby et al. (2005)
" 4=3

1 #1=2
R d
V 2 
h
n
2
2g 2
V dx

(5)

where R R1 R2 =2 average hydraulic radius for the section, V average mean flow velocity defined
similarly and superscript 1 and subscript 2 refer to upstream and downstream cross-sections, respectively. The
Mannings n values for each measurement section were arithmetically averaged to obtain the final representative
value of the resistance coefficient for each experimental run. From the calculations, Mannings n values for total
roughness of each tested grass were obtained.
The blockage effect of the vegetation itself was considered after the calculation of total roughness. To consider
this blockage effect, an adjustment should be made in the cross-sectional area occupied by the vegetation when
calculating the roughness coefficients. The parameter that measures the channel blockage by vegetation is often
referred as the blockage factor B. In this study, the blockage factor B was estimated as a ratio between total
cross-sectional area and the projected area of the tested plants. In addition, the blockage effect by the vegetation can
be considered as a kind of n3 in the Cowans procedure. However, the n3 values are not considered general, because
the density of vegetation is fixed for each test series, AE (Table I).
After the blockage effects are deducted from the total n values, the vegetation roughness factor n4 is calculated by
subtracting the bed roughness to develop the n-VR retardance curve for each tested grass. Therefore, the final
roughness values for the vegetation alone are calculated by
n4 n
n3
nb

(6)

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

From the result of each experimental run, the resistance coefficient for the vegetation n was calculated.
The calculated n values are plotted against the product VR to develop the n-VR retardance curve for each tested
plant.
Zoysia matrella (Korean golden zoysia)
As mentioned above, Z. matrella was tested only under submerged condition, because Z. matrella is relatively
short and stiff and usually submerged for normal flow conditions. Figure 5 illustrates the n-VR retardance curve of
the total roughness for Z. matrella. This seems to be a good example of a typical retardance curve in which
Mannings n value decrease as VR increases. As the product VR continues to increase, it can be seen that the curve
of Mannings n approaches to an asymptotic constant value of about 0.027, which is equivalent to total Mannings n
value for flood plains with short grass, as suggested by Chow (1959). This implies that the resistance coefficients for
short grass may take similar values irrespective of the species of short grass. Although the value of the water depth
to vegetation height ratio ranges from 1.3 to 3.1, this asymptotic value can be easily defined on Figure 5. This
indicates that the resistance coefficient of short grass will be similar if the water depth on a flood plain is twice of the
height of short grass.
If the blockage effects are considered (Figure 6) and the bed roughness is deducted from total n values, the curve
of Mannings n should approach to an asymptotic value of about 0.007 as shown in Figure 7, which is also
equivalent to the vegetation roughness values n4 suggested by USGS (Arcement and Schneider, 1984). They
suggested the vegetation roughness values as 0.0010.010 for small amount of vegetation, which means that dense
growths of flexible turf grass, such as Bermuda grass or weeds growing where the average depth of flow is at least
two times the height of the vegetation. This also supports the fact that the resistance coefficient of short grasses is
similar to each other irrespective of the species of short grass.
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Figure 5. n-VR retardance curve of the total roughness for Zoysia matrella

Pennisetum alopecuroides (L.) Spreng. (Korean pennisetum)

Figure 8 illustrates the n-VR curves based on data with a range of downstream-end depths for P. alopecuroides
(L.) Spreng. The downstream-end depth of the measurement reach was controlled by the tail-water gate operation,
to test under both submerged and un-submerged conditions. As shown in this figure, it seems that the resistance
coefficients have a strong relationship when VR > 0.02, while the data on resistance coefficients for VR < 0.02 are
scattered because plants are either bent or not bent depends on the downstream-end depth. This means that if
VR > 0.02, flexible plants having an intermediate height like P. alopecuroides (L.) Spreng. are only influenced to a

Figure 6. n-VR retardance curve for Zoysia matrella after considering the blockage effect
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Figure 7. n-VR retardance curve of the vegetation roughness for Zoysia matrella

Figure 8. n-VR retardance curves of the total roughness for Pennisetum alopecuroides (L.) Spreng.

limited degree by variation in water depth, so for design purpose the same retardance curve can be applied to both
submerged and un-submerged conditions.
All data for dormant and green states are presented together in Figures 810. Comparing the trends for these
two data sets, it is found that green resistance coefficients are always larger than dormant ones. This seems to be
because the rigidity of green plants is larger than dormant plants, as dormant plants are bent more easily,
hence, the flow resistance in river decreases when the plants are dormant, as in autumn and winter. It is noted that
the green state roughness is about 80110% higher than dormant state if vegetation roughness is considered
only.
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Figure 9. n-VR retardance curves for Pennisetum alopecuroides (L.) Spreng. after considering the blockage effect

As shown in Figure 10, after the blockage effects and bed roughness are deducted from the total n values, the
Mannings n values for green state converge to a constant value of about 0.012, and this is equivalent to the
vegetation roughness value n4, as suggested by USGS (Arcement and Schneider, 1984). They suggested the values
as 0.0100.025 for medium amount of vegetation, turf grass growing where the average depth of flow is from one to
two times the height of the vegetation. The values of the water depth to vegetation height ratio ranged from 0.6 to
1.3 in this case. Similarly, the Mannings n values for dormant state converge to a constant value of about 0.001,
which is equivalent to the vegetation roughness values n4 suggested by USGS for small about of vegetation.

Figure 10. n-VR retardance curves of the vegetation roughness for Pennisetum alopecuroides (L.) Spreng.
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Figure 11. n-VR retardance curve of total roughness for dormant Phragmites communis Trin.

Equations (7) and (8) give the relationship between n4 and VR for green and dormant P. alopecuroides (L.) Spreng.:
green :

n4 0:0022=VR 0:012

dormant : n4 0:0011=VR 0:001

(7)
(8)

Phragmites communis Trin. (reed)

Retardance curves of the total roughness for P. communis Trin. are presented in Figures 11 and 12. The
downstream-end depth of measurement reach was also controlled by tail-water gate operation for these
experimental runs. As shown in these figures, the dormant n-VR curve is quite different from the green ones. The
dormant retardance curve has a similar tendency to the results for P. alopecuroides (L.) Spreng. If VR > 0.025, it
seems that the resistance coefficients converge to one curve irrespective of the downstream-end water depth. That
implies that the tested reeds affect the flow resistance in a similar way to Korean pennisetum. On the contrary, as
shown in Figure 12, the green retardance curves showed different patterns each other. The resistance coefficients
of these experimental runs are strongly influenced by the downstream-end water depth condition (in which
uncontrolled means no tail-water gate operation to maintain water level; water flows freely and tends to be
shallow). Mannings n increases as water depth increases, when VR > 0.07; each retardance curve begins to
converge into one curve such as dormant one. This is due to the fact that the tested green reeds were in growing
stage, and the stems and leaf elements of the vegetation were distinct, and only the stem-part affects flow resistance
when the flow depth is relatively shallow. As the flow depth increases, the leaf part of the vegetation also begins to
affect the flow resistance simultaneously with the stem part. At the beginning of dormant state, plants usually
begin to be dormant after a full growth, so the tested dormant reeds have many leaves compared to the green
ones. Therefore, it is concluded that the leaf part of all tested vegetation plays an important role in the flow
resistance of vegetation. This result is consistent to the previous studies that the variation of vegetation resistance
with water depth is usually due to the vertical variation of biomass distribution and a strong shear layer is developed
at the top of submerged canopy when the vegetation becomes submerged (Nepf and Vivoni, 2000; Wilson et al.,
2003; Defina and Bixio, 2005). Also the interaction between the surface-floating leaves of bending vegetation and
the water surface tends to increase the magnitude of the resistance coefficient.
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Figure 12. n-VR retardance curves of the total roughness for green Phragmites communis Trin.

Figure 13. n-VR retardance curves for dormant Phragmites communis Trin. after considering the blockage effect

After the blockage effects are considered (Figures 13 and 14) and bed roughness is deducted, as shown in
Figures 15 and 16, the Mannings n values of the vegetation roughness for dormant and green states converge to a
constant value of about 0.005 and 0.013, respectively. The usage of the value 0.013 however, should be limited,
because no reasonable asymptotic values are not found when the data for VR > 0.07 are considered only, so the data
for VR > 0.05 are used to develop a regression curve. From the value point of about VR > 0.05, it is observed that
the reeds are significantly deflected by the water flow. These values are also equivalent to the vegetation roughness
values n4 suggested by USGS for small and medium amount of vegetation. Equations (9) and (10) give the
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Figure 14. n-VR retardance curves for green Phragmites communis Trin. after considering the blockage effect

Figure 15. n-VR retardance curves of the vegetation roughness for dormant Phragmites communis Trin.

relationship between n4 and VR for green and dormant P. communis Trin., respectively:
green :

n4 0:0025=VR 0:013

dormant : n4 0:0013=VR 0:005

(9)
(10)

It is also noted that the applicability of the Equation (10) will be limited because limited data were used to
develop the regression curve. Compared with the experimental results of P. alopecuroides (L.) Spreng., the
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Figure 16. n-VR retardance curves of the vegetation roughness for green Phragmites communis Trin.

asymptotic values of this study are very similar. This indicates that these grasses should have similar roughness
values in large floods in summer season.

Application to the river restoration works in Korea

Before the river restoration works started in early 1990s in Korea, it was prohibited to plant vegetation in river
reaches because the vegetation generally reduces the conveyance of river flow, so the possibility of flooding events
increases. Most Korean river engineers usually consider concrete revetements and large ripraps when they design
river management projects. The resistance induced by the natural vegetation in the river reach is estimated
empirically based on the experience of senior engineers. In the design of river restoration works, the Mannings
roughness value n always was selected from the guidelines developed in foreign countries. Because there is no
linkage between those guidelines and the Korean natural vegetation, the engineers always suffered from lack of
reliability when they estimated the flow levels in rivers.
The advantage of the n-VR method is that engineers are already familiar with the use of the curves in spite of the
iterative characteristics of this method. In Korea, VR [m2 s- 1] values are usually about 46 for small streams, and
about 1822 for small to medium rivers. Therefore, the asymptotic values and regression curves developed for the
tested vegetation in this study can be successfully used as guideline values for the river restoration design. And this
result will be a bridge to other criteria developed for the foreign grasses and river environments, so those criteria can
be adapted to Korea in connection with the results of this study.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

An experimental study has been conducted using some Korean natural vegetation to investigate the effect of
vegetation on the flow resistance in variable water levels giving both submerged and un-submerged conditions.
Z. matrella, P. alopecuroides (L.) Spreng. and P. communis Trin. were selected as representatives of Korean native
vegetation. New experimental results presented in this paper can be used to evaluate the flow resistance in
connection, combined with the results of previous research that considered the differences in vegetation type. While
further experimentation is needed to extend the applicable range of the n and VR and to increase the target species
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

River. Res. Applic. 24: 673687 (2008)

DOI: 10.1002/rra

HYDRAULIC RESISTANCE OF SOME SELECTED VEGETATION

687

for the evaluation, similarities in vegetation characteristics in terms of the height and rigidity may support the worth
of this study.
The general conclusions can be drawn: (1) the resistance coefficient of Z. matrella approaches an asymptotic
value of 0.027, which is same as the value suggested by Chow (1959). This value can be applicable to other short
grasses; (2) flexible intermediate-height grasses like P. alopecuroides (L.) Spreng. are less influenced by variation
in water depth, therefore, for the channel design purpose the same retardance curve can be applied to both
submerged and un-submerged conditions; (3) the resistance coefficients of dormant plants are usually smaller
than those of green ones; (4) the resistance coefficients are larger when the flow is affected by both the leaf and
stem part of vegetation than when it is affected only by the stem part of vegetation. The findings of this study give an
extensive understanding to the characteristics of hydraulic resistance about the Korean riverine vegetations. The
asymptotic values and regression curves developed for the tested vegetation can be used as a guideline in the river
restoration design. The result can be used as a bridge to other researches, so the criteria developed for the foreign
grasses and river environments may be adapted to Korean river conditions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was supported by the research project Development of Multi-functional River Restoration Techniques
in Korea Institute of Construction Technology. The authors thank Duhan Lee and Hong Koo Yeo for providing
useful comments.

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Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

River. Res. Applic. 24: 673687 (2008)

DOI: 10.1002/rra