PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

universalconcept

PHYSICS

Notesby:DakshPandey

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

Formulasincurrentelectricity(DirectCurrent)
1

2
3

ElectricCurrent
DriftvelocityV
withElectric
d
field
CurrentIwithDriftvelocityV
d

Mobilityofcharge

Mobilityanddriftvelocity

CurrentandMobility

Resistance,P.D.,andCurrent

ResistanceRwithspecificRes.

SpecificResistance,

10 Resistivitywithelectrons

V
=
d

12 Currentdensitymagnitude
13 ConductanceG

I=neAV
d
=V
/E=
d

V
=

d
eE

I=Anex

E
e

VPotentialDifference,ICurrent.

R=V/I
R
=

l
islengthofconductorandAisareaofcross
section

=R

11 CurrentdensityJ

14 Conductivity

"q"ischargepassinginnormaldirectionthrough
acrosssectionofconductorintime"t"
eischargeandmismassonelectron,Eis
electricfield,isrelaxationtime.
nisnumberdensitywithoffreeelectrons,Ais
areaofcrosssection.

i=q/t

Iiscurrent,Jcurrentdensity,Aisareaofcross
section

=I/

JAcos=I

isanglebetween

15 MicroscopicformofOhmsLaw

isspecificresistance

J=

Eiselectricfield

16 Temperaturecoefficientof
Resistance

17 Resistancesinseries

Resistancesinparallel

18 Inacell,emfandinternal
resistance
19 Inacircuitwithacell
20 nCellsofemfEinseries

24 ncellsinparallel,resistance

R=R
+R
+R
1
2
3
1/R
=1/R
+1/R
e
1
2
+1/R3

R
isresistanceat0
C.R
isresistanceatto

and
o
o
t
tistemperaturedifference.
Samecurrentthroughallresistances(circuit
Current
SameP.D.acrosseachresistance(Vofcell)

V=EIr

Iiscurrent,Eisemf,Risexternalresistance,ris
internalresistance.
Visterminalpotentialdifference

Emf=nE

I=

21 Resistanceofncellsinseries
22 Currentincircuitwithncellsin
series
23 ncellsinparallel,thenemf

G=1/R

and

emf=E

risinternalresistanceofonecell,Rexternal
Resistance
risinternalresistanceofonecell,Rexternal
Resistance

R+r/n

Rexternalresistance,rinternalresistance

nr+R

I=

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

25 Cellsinmixedgroup,condition
formaximumcurrent
26 Internalresistanceofacell

27 Powerofacircuit
28 Energyconsumed
29 KirchoffLaw(junctionrule)
30 KirchoffLaw(Looprule)

R=

r=(

P=I.V=I2

R=
V2

/R
E=I.V.T

nisnumberofcellsinonerow,misnumberof
rows.risinternalresistance,Rexternalresis.
Eisemf,VisterminalPotentialdifference,Ris
externalresistance.

Tistimeduration
Sumofcurrentsatjunctioniszero.

Inaloopsumofallp.d.
s
isZero

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

ElectricCurrent
.
(1)
Definition : The time rate of flow of charge through any crosssection is called current. So if
through a crosssection,
Q charge passes in time
t then

and instantaneous current

.Ifflowisuniformthen
.Currentisascalarquantity.It'sS.I.unitis
ampere(
A
)and
C.G.S.unitis
emu
andiscalled
biot
(
Bi
),or
ab
ampere

.1
A
=(1/10)
Bi
(
abamp.
)
(2)
The direction of current :Theconventionaldirectionofcurrentistakento bethedirectionofflow
ofpositivecharge,
i.e
.fieldandisoppositetothedirectionofflowofnegativechargeasshownbelow.

Though conventionally a direction is associated with current (Opposite to the motion ofelectron),itis
not a vector. It is because the current can be added algebraically. Only scalar quantities can be added
algebraicallynotthevectorquantities.
(3)
Charge on a current carrying conductor :
In conductor the current is caused by electron (free
electron). The no. of electron(negativecharge)and proton(positivecharge)inaconductorissame.Hence
thenetchargeinacurrentcarryingconductoriszero.
(4)
Current through a conductor of nonuniform crosssection : For a given conductor current
doesnotchangewithchangeincrosssectionalarea.Inthefollowingfigure
i
=
i
=
i
1
2
3

(5)
Typesofcurrent:
Electriccurrentisoftwotype:
Alternatingcurrent(ac)
(i)

Directcurrent(dc)
(i)(Pulsatingdc)(Constantdc)

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

Magnitudeanddirectionbothvaries
withtime

dc
ac
(ii) Shows heating effect, chemical effect and magnetic
effectofcurrent

ac
dc
Showsheatingeffectonly

(ii)

(iii)

Itssymbolis

(iii)Itssymbolis

Note
:
Inourhousesacissuppliedat220
V
,50
Hz
.
(6)
Currentindifferencesituation:

(i)
Duetotranslatorymotionofcharge
In
n
particleeachhavingacharge
q
,passthroughagivenareaintime
t
then

If
n particles each having a charge
q pass per second per unit area, the current associated with
crosssectionalarea
A
is

If there are
n particle per unit volume each having a charge
q and moving with velocity
v
, the current
thorough,crosssection
A
is

,forelectronsi
=
n
e
av
d

(ii)
Duetorotatorymotionofcharge

If a pointcharge
qismovinginacircleofradius
rwithspeed
v(frequency

,angular speed
andtime
period
T
)thencorrespondingcurrents

(iii)
When a voltage
V applied across a resistance
R : Current flows through the conductor
alsobydefinitionofpower

(7)
Current carriers :
The charged particles whose flow in a definite directionconstitutestheelectric
currentarecalledcurrentcarriers.Indifferentsituationcurrentcarriersaredifferent.
(i)Solids:Insolidconductorslikemetalscurrentcarriersarefreeelectrons.
(ii)Liquids:Inliquidscurrentcarriersarepositiveandnegativeions.
(iii)Gases:Ingasescurrentcarriersarepositiveionsandfreeelectrons.
(iv)Semiconductor:Insemiconductorscurrentcarriersareholesandfreeelectrons.

Currentdensity(
J
)
.

In case of flow of charge through a crosssection, current density is defined as a vector having
magnitude equal to current per unit area surrounding that point. Remember area is normaltothedirection
ofchargeflow(orcurrentpasses)throughthatpoint.Currentdensityatpoint
P
isgivenby

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

If the crosssectional area is not normal to the current, the crosssectional area normal to current in
accordancewithfollowingfigurewillbe
dA
cos

andsointhissituation:
i.e.

or

i.e.
,intermsofcurrentdensity,currentisthefluxofcurrentdensity.

Note
:

If current density
[as

is uniform for a normal crosssection

then :

=constant]

or

[as

o
and

=0
]

(1)
Unit and dimension :
Current density
is a vector quantity having S.I. unit
Amp/m2
and
2
dimension.[
LA
]
(2)
Current density in terms of velocity of charge : In case of uniform flow of charge through a
crosssection normal to it as

so,

or

[With

]
i.e.
, current density at a point is equal to the product ofvolumechargedensitywith velocityofcharge
distributionatthatpoint.
(3)
Current density in terms of electric field :
Current density relates with electric field as
where

=conductivityand

=resistivityorspecificresistanceofsubstance.
(i)Directionofcurrentdensity

issameasthatofelectricfield

(ii)Ifelectricfieldisuniform(
i.e.

)currentdensitywillbeconstant[as

=constant]
(iii) If electric field is zero (as in electrostatics inside a conductor), current density and hence current
willbezero.

ConductionofCurrentinMetals
.
According to modern views, a metal consists of a
lattice
of fixed positively charged ions in which
billions and billions of free electrons are moving randomly at speedwhichatroomtemperature(
i.e.300
K
)
inaccordancewithkinetictheoryofgasesisgivenby

The randomly moving free electrons inside the metal collide with the lattice and follow azigzagpath
asshowninfigure(A).

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

However, in absence of any electric field duetothisrandommotion,thenumberofelectronscrossing

from left to right is equal to the number of electrons crossing from right to left (otherwise metal will not
remainequipotential)sothenetcurrentthroughacrosssectioniszero.
Amotionofchargeispossiblebymotionofelectronoracurrentcarrier.

Velocitiesofchargedparticle(electron)inaconductor
thermalvelocity
:Allelectronsintheatomarenotcapableofmotion.Onlyafewwhichhavelittlehigherlevelofenergy
leavetheirorbitandarecapableofmovingaround.Theseelectronsarecalledfreeelectrons.Thesefreeelectronsare
inverylargequantity

1029
m3
infreemetals.DuetotemperatureandthermalenergyTheyhavea
thermalvelocity

105

ms1
.Thisvelocityisinalldirectionsandofmagnitudesvaryingfromzerotomaximum.Duetolargenumberof
electronswecanassumethatvectorsumofthermalvelocitiesatanyinstantiszero.
i.e.
+
+
+......+u
=0
n
MeanFreepath
:Thefastmovingelectronskeepstrikingotheratoms/ionsintheconductor.Theyarereflectedand
moveinotherdirection.Theykeepmovingtilltheystrikeanotherion/atom.
Thepathbetweentwoconsecutivecollisionsiscalledfreepath.TheaveragelengthofthesefreepathsiscalledMean
FreePath.
RelaxationTime
:ThetimetotravelmeanfreepathiscalledRelaxationPeriodorRelaxationTime,denotedbyGreek
letterTau.Ift
,t
,t
arethetimeperiodsforncollisionsthenRelaxationTime= (t
+t
+...t
)
1
2
n
1
2
n
DriftVelocity
:WhenElectricFieldisappliedacrossaconductor,thefreeelectronsexperienceaforceinthedirection
oppositetofield.Durtothisforcetheystartdriftinginthedirectionofforce.TheVelocityofthisdriftiscalleddriftvelocity
V
.Duringthedrifttheymaintaintheirthermalvelocity.
d
Thedriftvelocitycanbecalculatedasaveragedvelocityofalltheelectronsdrifting.

Relationbetweendriftvelocity(V
d)andelectricfieldapplied.

WhenelectricfieldisappliedacrossaconductoreachelectronexperienceaForce

=q

inthedirectionof

Itacquiresanacceleration=
whereeischargeonelectronandmisitsmass.

Ifnelectronsarehavinginitialspeedsu
,u
,u
andtheirtimetotravelfreepathist
,t
,t
thenfinalvelocitiesare
1
2
n
1
2
n
v1

=u1

+t1

,
V
=u
+t
2
2
2,
Vn

=un

+tn
andsoon.
Driftvelocityisaverageofthesevelocitiesofchargedparticles.Therefore
V
d

(v
+V
+..V
)
1
2
n

(u
+t
+u
+t
+......u
+t
)
1
1
2
2
n
n

(u
+u
+...u
+t
+t
+...t
)
1
2
n
1
2
n

=(u
+u
+...u
)+
1
2
n
=0+

(t
+t
+...t
)
1
2
n

(t
+t
+...t
)
1
2
n

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

=
V
(=
)
d =

or

Relation of Current and Driftvelocity:When anelectricfieldisapplied,insidetheconductordue to

electric force the path of electron in general becomes curved (parabolic) instead of straight lines and
electrons drift opposite to the field figure (B). Due to this drift the random motion of electrons get modified
andthereisanettransferofelectronsacrossacrosssectionresultingincurrent.
Drift velocity is the average uniform velocity acquired by free electrons inside a metal by the
application of an electric field which is responsible for current through it. Drift velocity
is very small it is of
4
theorderof10

m/s
ascomparedtothermalspeed

ofelectronsatroomtemperature.

Ifsupposeforaconductor
n
=Numberofelectronperunitvolumeoftheconductor
A
=Areaofcrosssection
V
=potentialdifferenceacrosstheconductor

E
=electricfieldinsidetheconductor
i = current,
J = current density,
= specificresistance,
=conductivity

withdriftvelocityas

thencurrentrelates

wecanalsowrite

Note
: The direction of drift velocity for electron in a metal is opposite to that of applied electric
field(
i.e.
currentdensity

).

i.e.
,greatertheelectricfield,largerwillbethedriftvelocity.

When a steady current flows through a conductor of nonuniform crosssection drift

velocityvariesinverselywithareaofcrosssection

If diameter of a conductor is doubled, then drift velocity of electrons inside it will not
change.
(2)
Relaxation time (

) : The time interval between two successive collisions of electrons with the
positive ions in the metallic lattice is defined as relaxation time
riseintemperature
v

decreases.
rmsincreasesconsequently

(3)
Mobility : Drift velocity per unit electric field is called mobility of electron
i.e.
.
Concepts

with

. Its unit is

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

Humanbody, thoughhasalargeresistanceoftheorderofk(say10k),isverysensitivetominute currentsevenas low

asafewmA.Electrocution,excitesanddisordersthenervoussystemofthebodyandhence one failstocontroltheactivity
ofthebody.

1ampereofcurrentmeanstheflowof6.251018

electronspersecondthroughanycrosssectionoftheconductors.

Itis worthnoting that electric field inside achargedconductor iszero,but it isnonzero insidea currentcarrying conductor

dc flows uniformly throughout the crosssection of conductor while ac mainly flows through the outer surface area of the
conductor.Thisisknownasskineffect.

and isgiven by
where V = potential difference across the conductor and l=lengthofthe conductor.Electricfield
outsidethecurrentcarryingiszero.

ForagivenconductorJA=i=constantsothat

i.e.,J

1A

1=J

2A

2thisiscalledequationofcontinuity

Ifcrosssectionisconstant,IJi.e.foragivencrosssectionalarea,greaterthecurrentdensity,largerwillbecurrent.

Thedriftvelocityofelectronsissmallbecauseofthefrequentcollisionssufferedbyelectrons.

Thesmallvalueofdriftvelocityproducesalargeamountofelectriccurrent,duetothe presenceofextremelylarge number

of free electrons in a conductor. The propagation of current is almost at the speed of light and involves electromagnetic
process.Itisduetothisreasonthattheelectricbulbglowsimmediatelywhenswitchison.

In theabsence of electric field, the paths of electrons between successive collisions arestraight linewhile inpresenceof
electricfieldthepathsaregenerallycurved.

Freeelectron density in a metal is given by

where N
A = Avogrado number, x = number of free electronsper

atom,d=densityofmetalandA=Atomicweightofmetal
.

Example
:1

he potential differenceapplied to an
T
X
ray tube is5
KVand thecurrentthroughitis3.2
mA
.Thenthe
numberofelectronsstrikingthetargetpersecondis
[IITJEE(Screening)2002]

(a) 21016

Solution
:

(a)
Example
:2

Example
:3

(c) 11017

(d) 41015

beam of electronsmovingat aspeed of 10

A

m/s along a lineproduces acurrentof1.6106

A
.The
numberofelectronsinthe1
metre
ofthebeamis
[CPMT2000]

(a) 106

Solution
:(b)

(b) 5106

(b) 107

(c) 1013

(d) 1019

I
n the Bohrs model of hydrogen atom,theelectrons movesaround the nucleus in a circular orbitof a
radius51011

metre
.Itstimeperiodis1.51016

sec
.Thecurrentassociatedis
[MNR1992]

(a) Zero

(b) 1.61019

(c) 0.17
A

(d) 1.07103

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

Solution
:(d)
Example
:4

n electron is moving in a circular path of radius 5.1 1011

A

m at a frequency of 6.8 1015

revolution/sec.Theequivalentcurrentisapproximately
[MPPET2000SimilartoEAMCET(Med.)2000]

3
(a) 5.110

Solution
:(c)
Example
:5

3
(b) 6.810

3
(c) 1.110

3
(d) 2.210

=1.1103

copper wire of length 1

A
mand radius1
mmisjoinedin serieswithaniron wireoflength2
mandradius
3
mm and a currentis passed through thewire.Theratioofcurrentdensitiesinthecopperandironwire
is
[MPPMT1994]

Solution
:(b)
Example
:6

(a) 18:1

(b) 9:1

Weknow

when
i
=constant

Example
:7

conducting wireofcrosssectionalarea1
A
cm
has3 10
mchargecarriers.Ifwirecarriesa current
of24
mA
,thedriftspeedofthecarrieris
[UPSEAT2001]

(a) 5106

m/s

Solution
:(b)

(d) 2:3

(c) 6:1

(b) 5103

m/s

23

(c) 0.5
m/s

(d) 5102

m/s

wire has a nonuniform crosssectional area as shown in figure. Asteady current

A
iflows through it.
Whichoneofthefollowingstatementiscorrect

(a) Thedriftspeedofelectronisconstant
to
B

(b) The drift speedincreaseson movingfrom

A

(c) Thedriftspeeddecreasesonmovingfrom
A
to
B (d) Thedriftspeedvariesrandomly
Solution
:(c)
Example
:8

I
na wireofcircularcrosssectionwithradius
r
,freeelectronstravelwithadriftvelocity
v
,whenacurrent
iflows throughthewire. What isthecurrent in anotherwire of half the radiusand ofthesomematerial
whenthedriftvelocityis2
v

[MPPET1997]

(a) 2
i

Solution
:(c)
Example
:9

(b)
i

=
ner2

v
and

Example
:10

(c)
i/
2

(d)
i/
4

potentialdifferenceof
A
Visappliedattheendsofacopperwireof length
landdiameter
d
.On doubling
only
d
,driftvelocity
[MPPET1995]

(a) Becomestwotimes

Solution
:(c)

Foraconductorofnonuniformcrosssection

(b) Becomeshalf(c) Doesnotchange(d) Becomesonefourth

Driftvelocitydoesntdependsupondiameter.

current flows in a wire of circular crosssection with the free electrons travelling with a mean drift
A
velocity
v
.Ifanequalcurrentflowsinawireoftwicetheradiusnewmeandriftvelocityis

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

(a)
v
Solution
:(c)
Example
:11

(b)

Byusing

wo wires
T
Aand
B of the same material,having radiiintheratio1:2andcarrycurrentsintheratio4 :
1.Theratioofdriftspeedsofelectronsin
A
and
B
is
(a) 16:1

Solution
:(a)

(d) Noneofthese

(c)

(b) 1:16

(d) 4:1

(c) 1:4

As

I
n a neon discharge tube 2.9 1018

Ne+
ions move to the right each second while 1.2 1018

electronsmove to the leftper second. Electroncharge is1.6 1019

C
.Thecurrent inthedischarge
tube[
MPPET1999]

Solution
:(b)

(a) 1
A
towardsright

(b) 0.66
A
towardsright

Usefollowingtricktosolvesuchtypeofproblem.

(c) 0.66
A
towardsleft (d) Zero

Trick: In a dischargetube positive ionscarryq units ofchargeintsecondsfromanodetocathode

and negative carriers (electrons) carry the same amount of charge from cathode to anode in t
.

second.Thecurrentinthetubeis

towardsright.

Henceinthisquestioncurrent

If the currentflowing through copper wireof1

mmdiameteris1.1
amp
.Thedriftvelocityofelectron
is (Given density of
Cu is 9
gm/cm3

, atomic weight of
Cu is 63
grams and one free electron is
contributedbyeachatom)
[J&KCEET2000]

Solution
:(a)

(a) 0.1
mm/sec

(b) 0.2
mm/sec

6.02310atomshasmass=6310
kg
23

Sono.ofatomsper
m3

(c) 0.3
mm/sec

(d) 0.5
mm/sec

OhmsLaw
.
If the physical circumstances of the conductor (length, temperature, mechanical strain etc.) remains
constant, then the current flowing through the conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
acrossitstwoends
i.e.

or

where
R
isaproportionalityconstant,knownaselectricresistance.

UniversalConcept

PHYSICS

Daksh

Pandey

(1) Ohms law is not a universal law, the substance which obeys ohms law are known as ohmic
substance for such ohmic substances graph between
V and
i is a straight line as shown. At different
temperatures
Vi
curvesaredifferent.

(2) The device or substances which doesnt obey ohms law

e.g
. gases,crystalrectifiers,thermoionic
valve, transistors etc. areknownas nonohmicornonlinearconductors.Forthese
Vicurve isnotlinear.In
these situation the ratio between voltage and current at a particular voltage is known as static resistance.
Whiletherateofchangeofvoltagetochangeincurrentisknownasdynamicresistance.

while

(3)Someothernonohmicgraphsareasfollows:

Resistance
.
(1)
Definition :
The property of substance by virtue of which it opposesthe flowofcurrentthroughit,
isknownastheresistance.
(2)
Cause of resistance of a conductor : It is due to the collisions of free electronswiththeionsor
atomsoftheconductorwhiledriftingtowardsthepositiveendoftheconductor.
(3)
Formula of resistance : For a conductor if
l = length of a conductor
A =Areaofcrosssectionof
conductor,
n = No. of free electrons per unit volume in conductor,
= relaxation time then resistance of
conductor

where

=resistivityofthematerialofconductor

(4)
Unitanddimension:
ItsS.I.unitis
Volt/Amp
.or
Ohm
().Also1
ohm
9
=10

emu
ofresistance.Itsdimensionis

(5)
Conductance (
C
) : Reciprocal of resistance is known as conductance.
orSiemen.
1

.
Its unit is

or

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

(6)
Dependenceofresistance:
Resistanceofaconductordependsonthefollowingfactors.
(i) Length of the conductor :
Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length
i.e.
R
l
e.g.
aconductingwirehavingresistance
R
iscutin
n
equalparts.Soresistanceofeachpartwillbe
.
(ii) Area of crosssection of the conductor :
Resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to its
areaofcrosssection
i.e.

(iii) Material of the conductor : Resistance of conductor also depends upon the nature of material
i.e.
,fordifferentconductors
n
isdifferent.Hence
R
isalsodifferent.
(iv) Temperature : We know that
when a metallic conductor is heated, the
atom in the metal vibrate with greater amplitude and frequency about their mean positions. Consequently
the number of collisions between free electrons and atoms increases. This
reduces the relaxation time
andincreasesthevalueofresistance
R
i.e.fora
conductor

o
If
R
=resistanceofconductorat0
C
0
o
Rt
=resistanceofconductorat
t
C

o
and

=temperaturecoefficientofresistance(unitper
C
)

o
for
t
>300
C
and

then

Note
:

o
for
t
300
C
or

o
o
If
R
and
R
aretheresistancesat
t
and
t
respectivelythen
1
2
1C
2C

The value of
is different at different temperature. Temperature coefficient of resistance

o
o
averagedoverthetemperaturerange
t
t
whichgives
R
1Cto
2C isgivenby
2=
R
[1+

(
t

t
)].Thisformulagivesanapproximatevalue.
1
2
1
(v)
Resistance according to potential difference : Resistance of a conducting body is not unique
but depends on its length and area of crosssection
i.e. how the potential difference is applied. See the
followingfigures

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

Length=
b
Areaofcrosssection=
a

Length=
a
Areaofcrosssection=
b

Length=
c
Areaofcrosssection=
a

Resistance

Resistance

Resistance

(7)
Variationofresistanceofsomeelectricalmaterialwithtemperature:
(i) Metals : For metals their temperature coefficient of resistance
> 0. So resistance increases with
temperature.
Physicalexplanation
:Collisionfrequencyoffreeelectronswiththeimmobilepositiveionsincreases
(ii)Solidnonmetals:Forthese

=0.Soresistanceisindependenceoftemperature.
Physicalexplanation
:Completeabsenceoffreeelectron.

(iii)Semiconductors:Forsemiconductor

<0
i.e.
resistancedecreaseswithtemperaturerise.

Physicalexplanation
:Covalentbondsbreaks,liberatingmorefreeelectronandconductionincreases.
(iv)Electrolyte:Forelectrolyte

<0
i.e.
resistancedecreaseswithtemperaturerise.

Physicalexplanation
:Thedegreeofionisationincreasesandsolutionbecomeslessviscous.
(v)Ionisedgases:Forionisedgases

<0
i.e.
resistancedecreaseswithtemperaturerise.
Physicalexplanation
:Degreeofionisationincreases.

(vi) Alloys : For alloys

has asmallpositivevalues.Sowithriseintemperatureresistanceofalloysis
almostconstant.Furtheralloyresistancesareslightlyhigherthanthepuremetalsresistance.
Alloys are used to made standard resistances, wires of resistance box, potentiometer wire, meter
bridgewire
etc
.
Commonlyusedalloysare:Constantan,mangnin,Nichromeetc.

(vii) Super conductors : At low temperature, the resistance of certain substances becomes exactly
zero.(
e.g.

Hg
below4.2
K
or
Pb
below7.2
K
).
These substances are called superconductorsandphenomenonsuperconductivity.Thetemperature
atwhichresistancebecomeszeroiscalledcriticaltemperatureanddependsuponthenatureofsubstance.

ResistivityorSpecificResistance(

)
.
(1)
Definition :
From
If
l = 1
m
,
A = 1
m2
then

i.e. resistivity is numericallyequalto

theresistanceofasubstancehavingunitareaofcrosssectionandunitlength.
(2)
Unitanddimension:
ItsS.I.unitis
ohm

m
anddimensionis
(3)
Itsformula
:

(4)
Its dependence :
Resistivity is the intrinsic property of the substance. It isindependentofshape
andsizeofthebody(
i.e.l
and
A
).Itdependsonthefollowings:
(i) Nature of the body : For different substances their resistivity also different
e.g.

silver = minimum =
8
16
1.610

m
and

=maximum10

fusedquartz
(ii) Temperature :
Resistivity depends on the temperature. For metals
t
=
0
(1 +

t
)
i.e. resitivity
increaseswithtemperature.

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

increaseswithtemperature

decreaseswithtemperature

decreaseswithtemperatureand
becomeszeroatacertaintemperature

(iii)Impurityandmechanicalstress:Resistivityincreaseswithimpurityandmechanicalstress.
(iv) Effect of magnetic field : Magnetic field increases the resistivity of all metals except iron, cobalt
andnickel.
(v) Effect of light : Resistivity of certain substances like selenium, cadmium, sulphides is inversely
proportionaltointensityoflightfallinguponthem.
(5)
Resistivityofsomeelectricalmaterial:

>

>

>

insulator

alloy
semiconductor
conductor

Reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity (

)
i.e.

with unit
mho/m and dimensions

Stretching of Wire
.
If a conducting wire stretches, its length increases, area of crosssection

decreasessoresistanceincreasesbutvolumeremainconstant.
Suppose for a conducting wire before stretching its length=
l
,areaofcrosssection=
A
,radius=
r
,
1
1
1
diameter=
d
,andresistance
1
Beforestretching
stretching

After

After stretching length =

l
, area of crosssection =
A
, radius =
r
, diameter =
d
2
2
2
2 and resistance

Ratioofresistances

(1)Iflengthisgiventhen

(2)Ifradiusisgiventhen

Note
:

After stretching if length increases by

n times then resistance will increase by
n2

times
i.e.
decreases

. Similarly if radius be reduced to

times then area of crosssection

timessotheresistancebecomes
n4

times
i.e.

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

After stretching if length of a conductorincreasesby

x
%thenresistancewillincreasesby2
x
%(validonlyif
x
<10%)

VariousElectricalConductingMaterialForSpecificUse
.

(1)
Filamentofelectricbulb:
Ismadeupoftungstenwhichhashighresistivity,highmeltingpoint.
(2)
Element of heating devices (such as heater, geyser or press)
:
Ismadeupofnichromewhich
hashighresistivityandhighmeltingpoint.
(3)
Resistances of resistance boxes (standard resistances) :
Are made up of manganin, or
constantan as these materials have moderate resistivity whichis practicallyindependentoftemperatureso
thatthespecifiedvalueofresistancedoesnotalterwithminorchangesintemperature.
(4)
Fusewire : Ismadeupoftinleadalloy(63%tin+37%lead).Itshouldhavelowmeltingpointand
high resistivity. It is used in series as asafetydeviceinanelectriccircuit andisdesignedsoastomeltand
thereby open the circuit if the current exceeds a predetermined value due to some fault. The function ofa
fuseisindependentofitslength.
Safecurrentoffusewirerelateswithitsradiusas

(5) Thermistors : A thermistor is a heat sensitive resistor usually prepared from oxides of various
metals such asnickel,copper,cobalt,ironetc.Thesecompoundsarealsosemiconductor. Forthermistors
is very high which may be positive or negative. The resistance of thermistors changes very rapidly with
changeoftemperature.

Thermistorsareusedtodetectsmalltemperaturechangeandtomeasureverylowtemperature.

Concepts

In theabsenceofradiationloss,thetimeinwhichafusewillmeltdoesnot depends onits lengthbutvarieswithradiusas

.

Iflength(l)andmass(m)ofaconductingwireisgiventhen

MacroscopicformofOhmslawis

,whileitsmicroscopicformisJ=E
.

Example
:12

wowiresofresistance
T
R
and
R
havetemperaturecoefficientofresistance

and

respectively.
1
2
1
2
Thesearejoinedinseries.Theeffectivetemperaturecoefficientofresistanceis
[MPPET2003]

(a)
Solution
:(c)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Supposeat
to

C
resistancesofthetwowiresbecomes
and
respectivelyandequivalent
resistancebecomes
R
.Inseriesgrouping
R
=
R
+
R
,also
R
=
R
(1+

t
)and
R
=
R
(1+

t
)
t
t
1
t
2
t
1
t
1
1
2
t
2
2

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

R
R
(1+

t
)+
R
(1+

t
)=(
R
+
R
)+(
R

+
R

)
t
=
t=

1
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
2

Henceeffectivetemperaturecoefficientis

Example
:13
From the graph between current
i & voltage
V shown, identity the portion corresponding to negative

resistance

[CBSEPMT1997]

(a)
DE
(b)
CD
(c)
BC
(d)
AB
Solution
:(b)

Example
:14

inthegraph
CD
hasonlynegativeslope.Sointhisportion
R
isnegative.

wireoflength
A
L
andresistance
R
isstrechedtogettheradiusofcrosssectionhalfed.Whatisnew
resistance
[NCERT1974CPMT1994AIIMS1997KCET1999HaryanaPMT2000UPSEAT2001]

Solution
:(d)

Example
:15

(a) 5
R

(b) 8
R

Byusing

(c) 4
R

(d) 16
R

he
T
V

i
graphforaconductorattemperature
T
and
T
areasshowninthefigure.(
T

T
)is
1
2
2
1
proportionalto

(a) cos2

(b) sin

(c) cot2

Solution
:(c)

(d) tan

Asweknow,forconductorsresistanceTemperature.
Fromfigure
R

T
tan

T
tan

=
kT
1
1
1
1

.(i)(
k
=constant)

and
R

T
tan(90o

)
T
cot

=
kT
2
2
2
2

..(ii)

Fromequation(i)and(ii)

Example
:16

(
T

T
)cot2

2
1

he resistanceof awire at 20
T
Cis 20 and at 500
Cis 60.At which temperature resistancewillbe
25

[UPSEAT1999]

(a) 50o

C
Solution
:(d)

(b) 60o

Byusing

Againbyusingthesameformulafor20and25

(c) 70o

(d) 80o

t
=80o

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

Example
:17

Thespecificresistanceofmanganinis50108

m
.Theresistanceofamanganincubehavinglength
is
[MPPMT1978]

(a) 106

Solution
:(a)
Example
:18

(b) 2.5105

Example
:19

rod ofcertainmetalis1
A
mlongand0.6
cmindiameter.Itsresistanceis3103
.Adiscofthesame
metalis1
mm
thickand2
cm
indiameter,whatistheresistancebetweenitscircularfaces.
(b) 2.7107

Byusing

Example
:20

(d) 8.1106

R
=2.7107
.
disc

n aluminium rod of length 3.14

A
m is of square crosssection 3.14 3.14
mm2

. Whatshould bethe
radiusof1
m
longanotherrodofsamematerialtohaveequalresistance

Byusing

(b) 4
mm

(c) 1
mm

(d) 6
mm

r
=103

m
=1
mm

engthofahollowtubeis5
L
m
,itsouterdiameteris10
cmandthicknessofitswallis5
mm
.Ifresistivity
8
ofthematerialofthetubeis1.710
m
thenresistanceoftubewillbe
(a) 5.6105

Solution
:(a)

(c) 4.05106

(a) 2
mm
Solution
:(c)

(d) 5104

(a) 1.35106

Solution
:(b)

(c) 108

Byusing

(b) 2105

(c) 4105

(d) Noneofthese

here

Outerradius
r
=5
cm
2

Innerradius
r
=50.5=4.5
cm
1

So
Example
:21

Ifacopperwireisstretchedtomakeit0.1%longer,thepercentageincreaseinresistancewillbe

[MPPMT1996,2000UPSEAT1998MNR1990]

(a) 0.2

Solution
:(a)
Example
:22

Incaseofstreching
R

l2

Example
:23

(d) 0.1

(c) 1

So

he temperature coefficient of resistance of a wire is0.00125

T
/
C
. At 300
K
. Its resistance is1. The
resistanceofthewirewillbe2at
[MPPMT2001IIT1980]

(a) 1154
K

Solution
:(b)

(b) 2

(b) 1127
K

Byusing
R
=
R
(1+

t
)
t
o

(c) 600
K

(d) 1400
K

t
=854o

C
=1127
K
2

So

Equal potentialsareappliedon an iron andcopperwire of same length. Inorder to have samecurrent

flow in the wire,theratio

oftheir radiimustbe [Given thatspecific resistance of iron=1.0
7
10
m
andthatofcopper=1.7108

m
]
[MPPMT2000]

(a) About1.2

(b) About2.4

(c) About3.6

(d) About4.8

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

Solution
:(b)

=constant.,
i
=constant.

So
R
=constant

Example
:24

assesofthree wires are in the ratio1:3: 5andtheirlengthsarein theratio5:3:1.Theratiooftheir

M
electricalresistanceis

[AFMC2000]

(a) 1:3:5

(b) 5:3:1

(c) 1:15:125

(d) 125:15:1

Solution
:(d)

Example
:25

Following figure shows crosssections through three longconductors of the samelength and material,

with squarecrosssection of edge lengths asshown. Conductor

Bwillfitsnuglywithinconductor
A
,and
conductor
C
willfitsnuglywithinconductor
B
.Relationshipbetweentheirendtoendresistanceis

(a)
R
R
R
A=

B=

C
(b)
R
>
R
>
R
A
B
C
(c)
R
R
R
A<

B<

(d) Informationisnotsufficient
Solution
:(a)

Alltheconductorshaveequallengths.Areaofcrosssectionof

A
is

Similarlyareaofcrosssectionof
B
=Areaofcrosssectionof
C
=
a

Henceaccordingtoformula

resistancesofalltheconductorsareequal
i.e.

R
R
R
A=

B=

C

Example
:26

Dimensionsofablockare1
cm1
cm100
cm
.If specificresistanceofitsmaterialis3107

ohm

m
,
thentheresistancebetweenitsoppositerectangularfacesis
[
MPPET1993]
7
(b) 310

ohm

(a) 3109

ohm
Solution
:(b)

Length
l
=1
cm

(c) 3105

ohm

(d) 3103

ohm

Areaofcrosssection
A
=1
cm
100
cm

2
=100
cm2

=102

Resistance
R
=3107

=3107

Note
: In the above question for calculating equivalent resistance betweentwoopposite square
faces.

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

l
=100
cm
=1
m
,
A
=1
cm2

=104

m
,soresistance
R
=3107

=3103

3.
Two rods
Aand
B of samematerial andlength have theirelectricresistancesare inratio1:2. When boththerods
aredippedinwater,thecorrectstatementwillbe
[
RPMT1997]
(a)
A
hasmorelossofweight

(b)
B
hasmorelossofweight

(d) Lossofweightwillbeintheratio1:2

(c) Bothhavesamelossofweight

Solution
:(a)

,
L
constant)

Nowwhenabodydippedinwater,lossofweight=
V
=
AL
Lg

Lg

So
A
hasmorelossofweight

So

The
Vi graphfor a conductor makesanangle
with
V
axis.Here
Vdenotesthevoltageand
idenotes
current.Theresistanceofconductorisgivenby

Solution
:(d)

(a) sin

(b) cos

(c) tan

(d) cot

At aninstant approach the studentwillchoosetan

willbetherightanswer.Butitistobeseen here the
curvemakes the angle
with the
V
axis. So itmakes an angle (90

)withthe
i
axis.Soresistance=
slope=tan(90

)=cot

ColourCodingofResistance
.
The resistance, having high values are used in different electrical and electronic circuits. They are
generally made up of carbon, like 1
k
, 2
k
, 5
k

etc
. To know the value of resistance colour code is
used. Thesecodeare printedinformofsetofringsorstrips.Byreadingthevaluesofcolourbands,wecan
estimatethevalueofresistance.
The carbon resistance has normally four coloured rings or strips say
A
,
B
,
C and
D as shown in
followingfigure.

Colour band
A and
B indicate the first two significant figures of resistance in
ohm
, while the
C band
givesthedecimalmultiplier
i.e.
thenumberofzerosthatfollowsthetwosignificantfigures
A
and
B
.
Last band (
D band) indicates the tolerance in percent about the indicated value or in other ward it
representsthepercentageaccuracyoftheindicatedvalue.
The tolerance in the case of gold is 5% and in silver is 10%. If only three bands are marked on
carbonresistance,thenitindicateatoleranceof20%.
Thefollowingtablegivesthecolourcodeforcarbonresistance.
Lettersasanaidto
memory

Colour

Figure

Multiplier

(
A
,
B
)

(C)

Colour

Tolerance
(D)

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

Black

10o

Gold

5%

Brown

101

Silver

10%

Nocolour

20%

Red

10

Orange

103

Yellow

10

Green

105

Blue

10

Violet

107

Grey

10

White

109

Note
:

Torememberthesequenceofcolourcodefollowingsentenceshouldkeptinmemory.

BROY

G
reat
Br
itainV

eryG

oodW

ife.

GroupingofResistance
.

Series

Parallel

(1)

(1)

(2) S
ame current flows through each resistance but
potential difference distributes in the ratio of
resistance
i.e.

(2) S
ame potential difference appeared across each
resistance but currentdistributes in the reverse ratio

oftheirresistance
i.e.

Power consumed are in the ratio of their resistance

i.e.

Power consumed are in the reverse ratio of

resistance
i
.e.

(3)

equivalent resistance isgreater

than the maximum value of resistance in the
combination.

(3)

or
or

equivalent resistance
is smaller than the minimum value of resistance in
thecombination.
(4) Fortworesistanceinseries
R
=
R
+
R
eq
1
2

(4)

Fortworesistanceinparallel

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

(5)
Potential

difference

across

any

resistance

(5)Currentthroughanyresistance

Where
R
= Resistance across which potential
difference is to be calculated,
R
eq = equivalent
resistance of that line in which
R
isconnected,
V =
p.d.acrossthatlineinwhich
R
isconnected

Where
i
=requiredcurrent(branchcurrent)

e.g.

i
=maincurrent

and
and

(6)
If
n
identicalresistanceareconnectedinseries
andp.d.acrosseachresistance

(6)
In
n
identicalresistanceareconnectedinparallel

andcurrentthrougheachresistance

Note
: In case of resistances in series, if one resistance gets open, the current in the whole

circuit become zero and the circuit stops working. Which dont happen in case of parallel
gouging.

Decoration of lightning in festivals is an example of series grouping whereas all household

appliancesconnectedinparallelgrouping.
n
1
Using
n
conductorsofequalresistance,thenumberofpossiblecombinationsis2

n
Iftheresistanceof
n
conductorsaretotallydifferent,thenthenumberofpossiblecombinationswillbe2
.

MethodsofDeterminingEquivalentResistanceForSomeDifficultNetworks
.
(1)
Method of successive reduction : It is the most common technique to determinetheequivalent
resistance. So far, we have been using this method to find out the equivalent resistances. This method is
applicable only when we areabletoidentifyresistancesinseriesorinparallel.Themethodisbasedonthe
simplification of the circuit by successive reduction of the series andparallelcombinations.Forexampleto
calculate the equivalent resistance between the point
A and
B
, the network shown below successively
reduced.

(2)
Method ofequipotentialpoints:Thismethodisbasedonidentifyingthepointsofsamepotential
andjoiningthem.Thebasicruletoidentifythepointsofsamepotentialisthesymmetryofthenetwork.
(i)Inagivennetworktheremaybetwoaxesofsymmetry.

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

(a)Parallelaxisofsymmetry,thatis,alongthedirectionofcurrentflow.
(b)Perpendicularaxisofsymmetry,thatisperpendiculartothedirectionofflowofcurrent.
For example in the network shown below the axis
AA
is the parallel axis of symmetry, and the axis
BB
istheperpendicularaxisofsymmetry.

(ii) Points lying on the perpendicular axisofsymmetrymayhavesamepotential.Inthegivennetwork,

point2,0and4areatthesamepotential.
(iii)Pointslyingontheparallelaxisofsymmetrycanneverhavesamepotential.
(iv) The network can be folded about the parallel axis of symmetry, and the overlapping nodes have
samepotential.Thusasshowninfigure,thefollowingpointshavesamepotential
(a)

5and6
(b) 2,0and4
(c)

7and8

Note
:Abovenetworkmaybesplit upintotwoequalpartsabouttheparallelaxisofsymmetryas
showninfigureeachparthasaresistance
R
,thentheequivalentresistanceofthenetworkwillbe

SomeStandardResultsforEquivalentResistance
.

(1) Equivalent resistance between points

A and
B in an unbalanced Wheatstones bridge as shown in the
diagram.
(i)

(ii)

(2)
Acubeeachsidehaveresistance
R
thenequivalentresistanceindifferentsituations

(i) Between
E
and
C

i.e.
acrossthediagonalofthecube

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

(ii)
Between
A
and
B

i.e.
acrossonesideofthecube

(iii) Between
A
and
C

i.e.
acrossthediagonalofonefaceofthecube

(3) Theequivalentresistanceofinfinitenetworkofresistances
(i)

(ii)

Concepts

Ifn identical resistances are first connected in series and theninparallel,theratiooftheequivalent resistanceisgivenby

Ifequivalent resistance of R
1 and R
2 in series and parallel be R
s and R
p respectively then
and

Ifa wireofresistanceR,cutinnequalpartsandthentheseparts arecollectedtoformabundlethenequivalentresistance

ofcombinationwillbe

Example
:27

Solution
:(d)
Example
:28

I
nthefigure acarbon resistor hasbandofdifferentcolourson its body.The resistance ofthefollowing
bodyis
(a) 2.2
k

(b) 3.3
k

(c) 5.6
k

(d) 9.1
k
l
,
R

=91102

10%9.1
k

Whatistheresistanceofacarbonresistancewhichhasbandsofcoloursbrown,blackandbrown

[DCE

1999]
(a) 100
(b) 1000
(c) 10
(d) 1

Solution
:(a)

=10101

20%100

Example
:

29

Inthefollowingcircuitreadingofvoltmeter
V
is
(a) 12
V
(b) 8
V

[MPPET2003]

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

(c) 20
V
(d) 16
V
Solution
:(a)

P.d.between
X
and
Y
is
V
=
V

V
=14=4
V
XY
X
Y

.(i)

andp.d.between
X
and
Z
is
VXZ
=
V
V
V .(ii)

X

Z=116=16

On solvingequations (i)and (ii)we get potentialdifferencebetween

Y
and
Z

i.e.
,readingofvoltmeteris

Example
:30

An electric cable contains a single copper wire of radius 9

mm
. Its resistance is 5 . This cable is
replacedbysixinsulatedcopperwires,eachofradius3
mm
.Theresultantresistanceofcablewillbe
[CPMT1988]

(a) 7.5
Solution
:(a)

(b) 45

(d) 270

(c) 90

Initially:Resistanceofgivencable

..(i)
Finally:Resistanceofeachinsulatedcopperwireis

Henceequivalentresistanceofcable

..(ii)
Onsolvingequation(i)and(ii)weget
R

eq=7.5

Example
:31

Solution
:(d)

Tworesistance
R
and
R
providesseriestoparallelequivalentsas
1
2

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Seriesresistance

Example
:32

andparallelresistance

thenthecorrectrelationshipis

ive resistances are combined according tothefigure.The equivalent resistancebetweenthe point

F
X
and
Y
will
be
[UPSEAT1999AMU1995CPMT1986]

(a) 10
(b) 22
(c) 20
(d) 50

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

Solution
:(a)

Theequivalentcircuitofabovecanbedrawnas
Whichisabalancedwheatstonebridge.
Socurrentthrough
AB
iszero.

R
=10

So
Example
:33

Whatwillbetheequivalentresistanceofcircuitshowninfigurebetweenpoints

A
and
D

[CBSEPMT1996]

(a) 10
(b) 20
(c) 30
(d) 40
Solution
:(c)

Theequivalentcircuitofabovefigbetween
A
and
D
canbedrawnas

So
Example
:34

Inthenetworkshowninthefigureeachofresistanceisequalto2.Theresistancebetween

A
and
B
is
[CBSEPMT1995]

Solution
:(b)

(a) 1
(b) 2
(c) 3
(d) 4

Taking the portion

COD isfigure to outside thetriangle(left),the abovecircuitwillbenowasresistance
of each is 2 the circuit will behaves as a balanced wheatstonebridgeandno current flows through
CD
.Hence
R

AB=2

Example
:35

Sevenresistancesareconnectedasshowninfigure.Theequivalentresistancebetween

A
and
B
is
PET2000]
(a) 3
(b) 4
(c) 4.5
(d) 5

Solution
:(b)

[MP

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

Sothecircuitisabalancedwheatstonebridge.

Socurrentthrough8iszero
Example
:36

he equivalent resistance between points

T
A and
B of an infinite network of resistance, each of 1 ,
connectedasshownis
[CEEHaryana1996]

(a) Infinite
(b) 2

(c)
(d) Zero
Solution
:(c)

Suppose theeffectiveresistancebetween
Aand
Bis
R
.Sincethenetworkconsistsofinfinitecell.Ifwe
eq
excludeone cell from thechain,remainingnetworkhave infinitecells
i.e.effectiveresistance between
C
and
D
willalso
R
eq

Sonow
Example
:37

ourresistances 10, 5 ,7 and 3 are connected sothatthey form the sidesofarectangle

F
AB
,
BC
,
CD and
DA respectively. Another resistance of 10 is connected across the diagonal
AC
.The
equivalentresistancebetween
A
&
B
is

[EAMCETMed.2000]

(a) 2

Solution
:(b)

(b) 5

(d) 10

(c) 7

So
Example
:38

Theequivalentresistancebetween

A
and
B
inthecircuitwillbe
(a)

Solution
:(d)

(b)

(c)

(d)

In the circuit, by means of symmetry the point

C isat zeropotential. So the equivalentcircuitcanbe
drawnas

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

Example
:39

Inthegivenfigure,equivalentresistancebetween

A
and
B
willbe
(a)

(c)

Solution
:(a)

(b)

(d)

GivenWheatstonebridgeisbalancedbecause

[CBSEPMT2000]

.Hencethecircuitcanberedrawnasfollows

Example
:40

I
nthecombination ofresistances shown in the figurethepotential difference between
B and
D iszero,
whenunknownresistance(
x
)is
[UPSEAT1999CPMT1986]

(a) 4
(b) 2
(c) 3
(d) Theemfofthecellisrequired

Solution
:(b)

The potential difference across

B
,
D will be zero, when the circuit will act asabalancedwheatstone

x
=2

bridgeand
Example
:41

Acurrentof2

A
flowsinasystemofconductorsasshown.Thepotentialdifference(
V
V
A

B)willbe

[CPMT1975,76]

(a) +2
V
(b) +1
V

(c) 1
V
Solution
:(b)

Example
:42

Solution
:(d)

(d) 2
V

I
n the given circuit2
A current dividesequally at junction
D along the paths
DAC and
DBC (eachpath
carry1
A
current).
Potentialdifferencebetween
D
and
A
,
V
V
volt

.(i)
D

A=12=2

Potentialdifferencebetween
D
and
B
,
VD

VB
=13=3
volt
..(ii)

Onsolving(i)and(ii)
V

=+1
v

olt

A
B
Three resistances each of 4 are connected in the form of an equilateral triangle. The effective

resistancebetweentwocornersis
[
CBSEPMT1993]
(a) 8

(b) 12

(c)

(d)

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

OnSolvingfurtherwegetequivalentresistanceis

Example
:43

Ifeachresistanceinthefigureisof9thenreadingofammeteris

(a) 5
A

(b) 8
A

(c) 2
A
Solution
:(a)

Example
:44

(d) 9
A

ain current through the battery

M
. Current through each resistance will be 1
Aand only 5
resistances on the right side of ammeter contributes for passing current through the ammeter. So
readingofammeterwillbe5
A
.
wire has resistance12 . Itis bent in theformof acircle.The effective resistancebetweenthetwo
A
pointsonanydiameterisequalto
[
JIPMER1999]
(a) 12

Solution
:(c)

[RPMT2000]

(b) 6

(c) 3

(d) 24

Equivalentresistanceofthefollowingcircuitwillbe

Example
:45

wire of resistance 0.5

A
m1
isbent into a circleof radius1
m
.The samewireis connected across a
diameter
AB
asshowninfig.Theequivalentresistanceis
(a)

ohm

(b)

+2)
ohm

(c)

/(

+4)
ohm
Solution
:(c)

(d) (

+1)
ohm

Resistanceofuppersemicircle=Resistanceoflowersemicircle

Resistanceofwire
AB

=0.5(
R
)=0.5

=0.52=1

Henceequivalentresistancebetween
A
and
B

Example
:46

Solution
:(a)

wire of resistor
A
R isbent into a circular ring ofradius
r
. Equivalent resistance between twopoints
X
and
Y
onitscircumference,whenangle
XOY
is

,canbegivenby
(a)

(b)

(c)
R
(2

(d)

Here

and

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

Example
:47

Ifinthegivenfigure

i
=0.25
amp
,thenthevalue
R
willbe

[RPET2000]

(a) 48
(b) 12

(c) 120
(d) 42

Solution
:(d)

=0.25
amp

V
=12
V

Nowfromthecircuit
=
R
+6

R
=
R
6=486=42
eq

Example
:48

wo uniformwires
T
A and
Bare ofthesamemetalandhaveequalmasses.Theradiusofwire
Aistwice
thatofwire
B
.Thetotalresistanceof
A
and
B
whenconnectedinparallelis
[MNR1994]

(a) 4whentheresistanceofwire
A
is4.25

Solution
:(a)

(c) 4whentheresistanceofwire
B
is4.25

(b) 5whentheresistanceofwire
A
is4
(d) 5whentheresistanceofwire
B
is4

Densityandmassesofwirearesamesotheirvolumesaresame

i.e.

A
l
=
A
l
1
1
2
2
Ratioofresistancesofwires
A
and
B
Since
r
=2
r
so
1
2

R
R

B=16

Resistance
R
R
A and
B are connected in parallel so equivalent resistance
checkingcorrectnessofequivalentresistancefromoptions,onlyoption(a)iscorrect.

, By

Theeffectiveresistancebetweenpoint
P
and
Q
oftheelectricalcircuitshowninthefigureis

[IITJEE1991]

(a)

Solution
:(a)

(b)

(c) 2
r
+4
R

(d)

Thepoints
A
,
O
,
B
areatsamepotential.Sothefigurecanberedrawnasfollows

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

In the following circuit if key

K is pressed then the galvanometer reading becomes half. The
resistanceofgalvanometeris

(a) 20
50

Solution
:(c)

(b)

30

(c) 40

Galvanometer reading becomes half meanscurrent distributes equallybetweengalvanometer and

resistanceof40.Hencegalvanometerresistancemustbe40.

Cell
.
Thedevicewhichconvertschemicalenergyintoelectricalenergyisknownaselectriccell.

(1) A cell neithercreatesnordestroyschargebutmaintainstheflowofcharge presentatvariousparts

ofthecircuitbysupplyingenergyneededfortheirorganisedmotion.
(2)Cellisasourceofconstantemfbutnotconstantcurrent.
(3)Mainlycellsareoftwotypes:
(i)Primarycell:Cannotberecharged
(ii)Secondarycell:Canberecharged
(4) The direction of flow of current inside the cell is from negative to positive electrode while outside
thecellisformpositivetonegativeelectrode.

(5)Acellissaidtobeideal,ifithaszerointernalresistance.
(6)
Emf of cell (
E
) : The energy given by the cell in the flow of unit charge in the whole circuit
(includingthecell)iscalleditselectromotiveforce(emf)
i.e.
emfofcell

,Itsunitis
volt
or

Thepotentialdifferenceacrosstheterminalsofacellwhenitisnotgivenanycurrentiscalleditsemf.
(7)
Potential difference (
V
) :
The energy given by the cellintheflowofunit
charge in a specific part of electrical circuit (external part) is called potential
difference.Itsunitisalso
volt
or

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

The voltage across the terminals of a cell when it is supplying current to external resistance iscalled
potential differenceorterminalvoltage.Potentialdifferenceisequaltotheproductofcurrentandresistance
ofthatgivenpart
i.e.

V
=
iR
.
(8)
Internal resistance (
r
) :Incaseofacelltheoppositionofelectrolytetotheflowofcurrentthrough
it is called internal resistance of the cell. The internalresistanceofacelldependsonthedistancebetween
electrodes (
r
d
), area of electrodes [
r (1/
A
)] and nature, concentration (
r
C
) and temperature of
electrolyte [
r (1/temp.)]. Internal resistance is different for different types of cells and even for a given
typeofcellitvariesfromtocell.

CellinVariousPosition
.
(1)
Closedcircuit(whenthecellisdischarging)
(i)Currentgivenbythecell

(ii)Potentialdifferenceacrosstheresistance
(iii)Potentialdropinsidethecell=
ir
(iv)Equationofcell

(
E
>
V
)

(v)Internalresistanceofthecell

(vi)Powerdissipatedinexternalresistance(load)

Powerdeliveredwillbemaximumwhen
so
.
Thisstatementingeneralisedfromiscalled
maximumpowertransfertheorem
.
(vii)
Short trick to calculate
E and
r : In the closed circuit of a cell having emf
E and internal
resistance
r
R
R
i
i
. If external resistance changes from
1 to
2 then current changes from
1 to
2 and potential
differencechangesfrom
V
to
V
.Byusingfollowingrelationswecanfindthevalueof
E
and
r
.
1
2

Note

Whenthecellischarging
i.e.
currentisgiventothecellthen
E
=
V

ir
and
E
<
V
.

(2)
Opencircuitandshortcircuit
Opencircuit

Shortcircuit

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

(i)
Currentthroughthecircuit
i
=0

(i) Maximum current (called short circuit current)

flowsmomentarily
(ii)
Potentialdifferencebetween
A
and
B,

V
=
E
AB

(ii)
Potentialdifference
V
=0

(iii) Potentialdifferencebetween
C
and
D
,
V
=0
CD

Note
:

Aboveinformationscanbesummarizedbythefollowinggraph

Concepts

Itis a common misconception that current in the circuit will be maximum when power consumed by the loadis
maximum.
Actually current

is maximum (= E/r) when R = min = 0 with

2

while power

consumedbytheloadE
R/(R+r)
ismaximum(=E
/4r)whenR=rand

Emf is independent of the resistance of the circuit and depends upon the nature of electrolyte ofthe cell while
potential difference depends upontheresistancebetween thetwopointsofthe circuitandcurrentflowingthrough
thecircuit.

Emfisacauseandpotentialdifferenceisaneffect.

Whenever a cell or battery is present in a branch there must be some resistance (internal or external or both)
present in that branch. In practical situation it always happen becausewecan never have anidealcellorbattery
withzeroresistance.

Example
:49
Anew flashlightcell of emf1.5
volts givesacurrent of 15
amps
,whenconnecteddirectlytoanammeterof

[MPPET1994]

resistance0.04.Theinternalresistanceofcellis
(a) 0.04

Solution
:(b)

Byusing

(b) 0.06

(d) 10

(c) 0.10

r=
0.06

Example
:50
For acell,theterminal potential difference is2.2
Vwhenthecircuitisopenandreducesto1.8
V
, when the

cellisconnectedacrossaresistance,
R
=5.Theinternalresistanceofthecellis
[
CBSEPMT2002]
(a)

Solution
:(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Inopencircuit,
E
=
V
=2.2
V
, Inclosecircuit,
V
=1.8
V,

R
=5
Sointernalresistance,

Example
:51
The internal resistance of a cell of emf 2
V is 0.1 . Its connected to a resistance of 3.9 . Thevoltage

acrossthecellwillbe

[CBSEPMT1999AFMC1999MPPET1993CPMT1990]

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

(a) 0.5
volt
Solution
:(c)

(b) 1.9
volt

Byusing

(c) 1.95
volt

(d) 2
volt

Example
:52
When the resistance of 2 is connected acrosstheterminal ofthecell, the currentis0.5
amp
.When the

resistanceisincreasedto5,thecurrentis0.25
amp
.Theemfofthecellis
(a) 1.0
volt

Solution
:(b)

(b) 1.5
volt

(c) 2.0
volt

(d) 2.5
volt

[MPPMT2000]

Byusing

Example
:53 A primary cell has an emf of 1.5
volts
, when shortcircuited it gives a currentof3
amperes
. Theinternal

[CPMT1976,83]

resistanceofthecellis
(a) 4.5
ohm

Solution
:(c)

(b) 2
ohm

(c) 0.5
ohm

(d) 1/4.5
ohm

r
=0.5

Example
:54 Abattery of internalresistance 4 isconnectedtothenetworkofresistancesasshown.Inorder togivethe

maximumpowertothenetwork,thevalueof
R
(in)shouldbe

[IITJEE1995]

(a) 4/9
(b) 8/9
(c) 2
(d) 18
Solution
:(c)

Theequivalentcircuitbecomesabalancedwheatstonebridge

Formaximumpowertransfer,externalresistanceshouldbeequaltointernalresistanceofsource

Example
:55

i.e.

or
R
=2
A torch bulb ratedas 4.5

W
,1.5
Vis connected asshown in thefigure.The emfofthecell neededto
makethebulbglowatfullintensityis
[
MPPMT1999]
(a) 4.5
V
(b) 1.5
V

(c) 2.67
V
Solution
:(d)

(d) 13.5
V

When bulb glows with full intensity, potentialdifference across itis 1.5
V
.Socurrent through the bulb
andresistanceof1are 3
Aand1.5
Arespectively. Somaincurrentfromthecell
i=3+1.5
=4.5
A
.By
using

E
=1.5+4.52.67=13.5
V
.

Potential differenceacrossthe terminalsofthebattery shown in figureis (

r= internal resistance of
battery)

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

(a) 8
V
(c) 6
V

Solution
:(d)

10
V

(b)

Zero

(d)

Batteryisshortcircuitedsopotentialdifferenceiszero.

Groupingofcell
.
Groupofcelliscalledabattery.
(1)
Series grouping : In series grouping anode of one cell is connected to cathode of other celland
soon.
(i)
n
identicalcellsareconnectedinseries
(a)Equivalentemfofthecombination
(b)Equivalentinternalresistance

(c)Maincurrent=Currentfromeachcell

(d)Potentialdifferenceacrossexternalresistance
(e)Potentialdifferenceacrosseachcell

(f)Powerdissipatedinthecircuit

(g)Conditionformaximumpower

and

(h)Thistypeofcombinationisusedwhen
nr
<<
R.
(ii)
Ifnonidenticalcellareconnectedinseries
Cellsareconnectedinrightorder

Cellsarewronglyconnected
(
E
>
E
)
1
2

(b)
Current

(b) Current

(c)
in the above circuit cell 1 is discharging so its

(c)
Potential difference across each cell
and

(a) Equivalentemf
E
=
E

E2

eq
1

(a) Equivalentemf

equationis

2ischargingsoitsequation

andcell

(2)
Parallel grouping : In parallel grouping allanodesareconnected atonepointandallcathodeare
connectedtogetheratotherpoint.

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

(i)
If
n
identicalcellsareconnectedinparallel
(a)Equivalentemf
E
=
E
eq

(b)Equivalentinternalresistance

(c)Maincurrent

(d)P.d.acrossexternalresistance=p.d.acrosseachcell=
V
=
iR
(e)Currentfromeachcell

(f)Powerdissipatedinthecircuit

(g) Condition for max power

and
(h) This type of combination is used when
nr
>>
R
(ii)
If nonidentical cells are connected in parallel : If cells are connected with right polarity as
shownbelowthen
(a)Equivalentemf

(b)Maincurrent

(c)Currentfromeachcell

Note
:

and

In this combination if cells are connected with reversed polarity as shown in figure

then:

Equivalentemf

(3)
Mixed Grouping : If
n identical cells are connected in a row and such
m rows are connected in
parallelasshown.
(i)Equivalentemfofthecombination

(ii)Equivalentinternalresistanceofthecombination

(iii)Maincurrentflowingthroughtheload
(iv)Potentialdifferenceacrossload

(v)Potentialdifferenceacrosseachcell
(vi)Currentfromeachcell

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

(vii)Conditionformaximumpower
(viii)Totalnumberofcell=
mn

and

Concepts

In series grouping of cells their emfs are additive or subtractive while their internal resistances are always additive. If
dissimilar plates of cells are connected together their emfs are added to each other while if their similar plates are
connectedtogethertheiremfsaresubtractive.

In series grouping of identical cells. If one cell is wrongly connected then it willcancelout theeffect of twocellse.g.Ifin
the combination of n identical cells (each having emf E and internal resistance r) if x cell are wrongly connected then
equivalentemf

andequivalentinternalresistance

Inparallelgroupingoftwoidenticalcellhavingnointernalresistance

When two cellsof differentemfandnointernalresistanceareconnectedin parallelthen equivalentemfisindeterminate,

note that connecting a wire with a cell but with no resistance is equivalent to short circuiting. Thereforethe totalcurrent
thatwillbeflowingwillbeinfinity
.

Example
:56 Agroupof
N cells whoseemfvaries directly withtheinternal resistance aspertheequation
E
r
N =1.5
N are

connectedasshowninthefollowingfigure.Thecurrent
i
inthecircuitis
(a) 0.51
amp

[KCET2003]

(b) 5.1
amp

(c) 0.15
amp
(d) 1.5
amp

=1.5
amp

Solution
:(d)

Example
:57
Two batteries
A and
B each ofemf 2
volt are connected in series toexternal resistance
R =1. Internal

resistance of
Ais 1.9 andthat of
B is0.9, what isthepotentialdifferencebetweentheterminalsof
battery
A
[MPPET2001]

(a) 2
V

(b) 3.8
V
(c) 0

(d) Noneofthese

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

Solution
:(c)
Example
:58

I
na mixedgrouping of identicalcells5rows areconnectedinparallelbyeachrowcontains10cell.This
combination send a current
ithroughanexternalresistanceof20.Iftheemf andinternalresistanceof
eachcellis1.5
volt
and1respectivelythenthevalueof
i
is
[KCET2000]

(a) 0.14

Solution
:(d)

Example
:59

Example
:60

(b) 0.25

(c) 0.75

(d) 0.68

No.ofcellsinarow
n
=10No.ofsuchrows
m
=5

=0.68
amp

ogetmaximum currentinaresistanceof3onecanuse
T
nrowsof
mcellsconnectedinparallel.Ifthe
totalno.ofcellsis24andtheinternalresistanceofacellis0.5then
(a)
m
=12,
n
=2

Solution
:(a)

.Hence

(b)
m
=8,
n
=4

Inthisquestion

R
=3,
mn
=24,
r
=0.5and

(c)
m
=2,
n
=12

(d)
m
=6,
n
=4

.Onputtingthevaluesweget
n
=2and
m
=12.

00 cells each of emf 5

1
V and internal resistance 1 aretobe arranged soasto produce maximum
currentina25resistance.Eachrowcontainsequalnumberofcells.Thenumberofrowsshouldbe
[MPPMT1997]

(a) 2
Solution
:(a)

(b) 4

Totalno.ofcells,=
mn
=100

(d) 100
..(i)

Currentwillbemaximumwhen

(c) 5

Fromequation(i)and(ii)
n
=50and
m
=2

n
=25
m

..(ii)

Example
:61
Intheadjoiningcircuit, the battery
E
voltandzerointernalresistance, whilethebattery
E
1 has as emf of 12

hasanemfof2
volt
.Ifthegalvanometerreadszero,thenthevalueofresistance
X

ohm
is

Solution
:(b)

(a) 10

(b) 100

(c) 500

(d) 200

[NCERT1990]

Forzerodeflectioningalvanometerthepotentialdifferentacross
X
shouldbe
E
=2
V

Inthiscondition

X
=100
Example
:62
Inthecircuitshown here
E
E2
=
E
V and
R
R
A and
B
1=
3 = 2
1 =
2= 4 . The currentflowingbetweenpoint
throughbattery
E
is

[
MPPET2001]
2
(a) Zero

(b) 2
A
from
A
to
B
(c) 2
A
from
B
to
A
(d) Noneofthese
Solution
:(b)

Theequivalentcircuitcanbedrawnassince
E
&
E
areparallelyconnected
1
3
Socurrent

from
A
to
B.

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

Example
:63
Themagnitudeanddirectionofthecurrentinthecircuitshownwillbe

[CPMT1986,88]

(a)
from
a
to
b
through
e(b)
from
b
and
a
through
e
(c) 1.0
A
from
b
to
a
through
e
(d)1.0
A
from
a
to
b
through
e
Solution
:(d)

Current

from
a
to
b
via
e

Example
:64
Figurerepresentsapartoftheclosedcircuit.Thepotentialdifferencebetweenpoints
A
and
B
(
V
V
A

B)is

Solution
:(a)

(a) +9
V

(b) 9
V

(c) +3
V

(d) +6

The given part of a closed circuit can be redrawn as follows. It should be remember that product of

currentandresistancecanbetreatedasanimaginarycellhavingemf=
iR
.

Hence
V
V
V

A

B=+9

Example
:65
Inthecircuitshown below the cells
E
E2
have emfs 4
V and8
Vandinternalresistance0.5
ohmand
1and

respectively.Thenthepotentialdifferenceacrosscell
E
and
E
willbe
1
2

(a) 3.75
V
,7.5
V
(b) 4.25V

,7.5
V
(c) 3.75
V
,3.5
V

(d) 4.25
V
,4.25
V
Solution
:(b)

In the given circuit diagram external resistance

. Hence maincurrent through

thecircuit

Cell1ischargingsofromitsemfequation
E
=
V

ir

1
1
1

V
=4.25
volt
1

Cell2isdischargingsofromitsemfequation
E
=
V
+
ir

2
2
2

V
=7.5
volt
2

Example
:66
Awire of length
L and3 identicalcellsofnegligible internal resistancesareconnectedinseries.Duetothis

current, the temperature of the wire is raised by

T in time
t
. A number
N of similar cells is now
connectedinserieswithawireofthesamematerialand crosssectionbutoflength 2
L
.Thetemperature
ofwireisraisedbysameamount
T
inthesametime
t
.Thevalueof
N
is
[
IITJEE(Screening)2001]
(a) 4
(b) 6
(c) 8
(d) 9

Solution
:(b)

Heat=
mS

T
=
i2

Rt
CaseI:
Length(
L
)Resistance=
R
andmass=
m
CaseII:
Length(2
L
)Resistance=2
R
andmass=2
m
So

N
=6

identical cells,eachofemf
n
Eandinternalresistance
r
,arejoinedin seriestoformaclosedcircuit.
Thepotentialdifferenceacrossanyonecellis

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

(a) Zero

Solution
:(a)

(b)
E

(c)

(d)

urrentinthecircuit
C

The equivalent circuit of one cell is shown in the figure. Potential difference across the cell

KirchoffsLaws
.

(1)
Kirchoffs first law :
This law is also known as junction rule or current law (
KCL)
.Accordingtoit
thealgebraicsumofcurrentsmeetingatajunctioniszero
i.e.

i
=0
.
In a circuit, at any junction the sum of the currents entering the junction must
equalthesumofthecurrentsleavingthejunction.

Hereitisworthytonotethat:
(i) If a current comes out to be negative, actual direction of current at the
junction is opposite to that assumed,
can be satisfied only if at least
onecurrentisnegative,
i.e.
leavingthejunction.
(ii) This law is simply a statement of
conservation of charge

as if current reaching a junction is not

equaltothecurrentleavingthejunction,chargewillnotbeconserved.

Note
:

This law isalsoapplicabletoa capacitorthroughtheconceptofdisplacementcurrent

treating the resistance of capacitor to be zero during charging or discharging and infinite in
steadystateasshowninfigure.

(2)
Kirchoffs second law:
Thislawisalsoknownasloopruleorvoltagelaw(KVL)andaccordingto
it the algebraic sum of the changes in potential in complete traversal of a mesh (closedloop)iszero,
i.e.

V
=0
e.g.
Inthefollowingclosedloop.

i
R
+
i
R

i
R
+
E
+
E

i
R
=0
1
1
2
2
1
3
3
2
3
4
4

Hereitisworthytonotethat:
(i) This law represents
conservation of energy
as if the sum of potential changes around a closed
loopisnotzero,unlimitedenergycouldbegainedbyrepeatedlycarryingachargearoundaloop.
(ii) If there are
n meshes in a circuit, the number of independent equations in accordance with loop
rulewillbe(
n
1).

UniversalConcept

PHYSICS

Daksh

Pandey

(3)
Sign convention for the application of Kirchoffs law : For the application of Kirchoffs laws
followingsignconventionaretobeconsidered
(i) The change in potential in traversing a resistance in the direction of current is
iR while in the
oppositedirection+
iR

(ii)The changeinpotentialintraversinganemfsourcefromnegativetopositive terminalis+

Ewhilein
theoppositedirection
E
irrespectiveofthedirectionofcurrentinthecircuit.

(iii) The change inpotentialintraversingacapacitorfromthenegativeterminalto thepositiveterminal

is

whileinoppositedirection

(iv) The change in voltage in traversing an inductor in the direction of current is

oppositedirectionitis

while in

(4)
GuidelinestoapplyKirchoffslaw
(i) Starting from the positive terminal of the battery having highest emf, distribute current at various
junctionsinthecircuitinaccordancewith
junctionrule
.Itisnotalwayseasy tocorrectlyguessthedirection
ofcurrent,noproblemifoneassumesthewrongdirection.
(ii) After assuming current in each branch, we pick a point and begin to walk (mentally) around a
closed loop. As we traverse each resistor, capacitor, inductor or battery we must write down, the voltage
changeforthatelementaccordingtotheabovesignconvention.
(iii) By applying KVL we get one equation but in order to solve the circuit we require as many
equations as there are unknowns. So we selecttherequirednumberofloopsandapplyKirchhoffsvoltage
lawacrosseachsuchloop.
(iv) After solving the set of simultaneous equations, we obtain the numerical values of the assumed
currents. If any ofthesevaluescomeouttobenegative,itindicatesthatparticularcurrentis intheopposite
directionfromtheassumedone.

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

Note
:

The number of loops must be selected so that every element of the circuit must be
includedinatleastoneoftheloops.
Whiletraversingthroughacapacitororbatterywedonotconsiderthedirectionofcurrent.
While considering the voltage drop or gain across as inductor we alwaysassumecurrentto
beinincreasingfunction.
(5)
Determination of equivalent resistance by Kirchoffs method :Thismethodisusefulwhenwe
are not able to identify any two resistances in series or in parallel. It is based on the two Kirchhoffs laws.
Themethodmaybedescribedinthefollowingguideline.
(i) Assume an imaginary batteryofemf
Econnectedbetweenthetwoterminalsacrosswhichwehave
tocalculatetheequivalentresistance.
(ii)Assumesomevalueofcurrent,say
i
,comingoutofthebatteryanddistributeitamongeachbranch
byapplyingKirchhoffscurrentlaw.
(iii) Apply Kirchhoffs voltage law to formulate as many equationsas thereareunknowns.Itshould be
notedthatatleastoneoftheequationsmustincludetheassumedbattery.
(iv)Solvetheequationstodetermine
ratiowhichistheequivalentresistanceofthenetwork.
e.g.
Suppose in the following network of 12identicalresistances,equivalentresistance betweenpoint
A
and
C
istobecalculated.

Accordingtotheaboveguidelineswecansolvethisproblemasfollows
Step
(1)

Step
(2)

An imaginary battery of emf

E is assumed
acrosstheterminals
A
and
C

is

The current in each branch is distributed by

assuming4
i
currentcomingoutofthebattery.

Step
(3)
Applying KVL along the loop includingthenodes
A
,
B
,
Candthebattery
E
.Voltageequation

Step
(4)
Aftersolvingtheabove equation,weget6
iR=
Eequivalentresistancebetween
Aand
Cis

Concepts

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

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Pandey

Using Kirchoffs law while dividing the current having a junction through different arms of a network, it will be same
through different arms of same resistance if the end points of these arms are equilocated w.r.t. exit point for current in
network and will be different through different arms if the end point of these armsarenotequilocatedw.r.t.exitpointfor
currentofthenetwork.
e.g. In the following figure the current goinginarmsAB,ADandAL willbe samebecausethelocationofendpointsB,D
andLofthesearmsaresymmetricallylocatedw.r.t.exitpointNofthenetwork.

Example
:67

Inthefollowingcircuit
E
=4
V,

R
=2
1
1

[MPPET2003]

E
=6
V
,
R
=2and
R
=4.Thecurrent
i
is
2
2
3
1
(a) 1.6
A
(b) 1.8
A

(c) 2.25
A
(d) 1
A
Solution
:(b)

Forloop(1)

(i)

Forloop(2)

(ii)

Aftersolvingequation(i)and(ii)weget

and

Example
:68

Determinethecurrentinthefollowingcircuit

(a) 1
A

(b) 2.5
A
(c) 0.4
A
(d) 3
A
Solution
:(a)

Example
:69

pplyingKVLinthegivencircuitweget
A

Second method :Similar plates ofthe two batteries areconnectedtogether,sothenetemf=105=

5
V
Totalresistanceinthecircuit=2+3=5

Inthecircuitshowninfigure,findthecurrentthroughthebranch

BD
(a) 5
A

(b) 0
A

(c) 3
A

(d) 4
A

Solution
:(a)

hecurrentinthecircuitareassumedasshowninthefig.
T
ApplyingKVLalongtheloop
ABDA
,weget
6
i1

3
i2

+15=0 or2
i1

+
i2

=5(i)
ApplyingKVLalongtheloop
BCDB,
weget

3(
i

i
)30+3
i
=0or
i
+2
i
=10(ii)
1
2
2
1
2
Solvingequation(i)and(ii)for
i
,weget
i

=5
A
2
2

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

Example
:70

The figure shows anetwork of currents.The magnitude ofcurrent isshown here.The current

iwillbe
[MPPMT1995]
(a) 3
A

(b) 13
A
(c) 23
A

(d) 3
A
Solution
:(c)

Example
:71

Considerthecircuitshowninthefigure.Thecurrent
i
isequalto
3

[AMU1995]

(a) 5
amp
(b) 3
amp

(c) 3
amp

(d) 5/6
amp
Solution
:(d)

Supposecurrentthroughdifferentpathsofthecircuitisasfollows.

Afterapplying
KVL
forloop(1)andloop(2)
Weget

and

Hence
Example
:72

part of a circuit in steady state along with the current flowing in the branches, with value of each
A
resistanceisshowninfigure.Whatwillbetheenergystoredinthecapacitor
C
[IITJEE1986]

(a) 6104

J
(b) 8104

J
(c) 16104

J
(d) Zero

Solution
:(b)

ApplyingKirchhoffsfirstlawatjunctions

A
and
B
respectivelywehave2+1
i
=0
i.e.
,
i
=3
A
1
1
and
i
+120=0
i.e.,

i
=1
A
2
2
Now applying Kirchhoffs second law to the mesh
ADCBA treating capacitor asaseatofemf
Vinopen
circuit

353112+
V
=0
i.e.

V(
=
V

V
)=20
V
A
B

So,energystoredinthecapacitor
Example
:73

Solution
:(c)

Inthefollowingcircuitthepotentialdifferencebetween
P
and
Q
is
(a) 15
V

(b) 10
V

(c) 5
V

(d) 2.5
V

ByusingKVL

V
=5
V
PQ

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

Astheswitch
S
isclosedinthecircuitshowninfigure,currentpassedthroughitis

Solution
:(a)

(a) 4.5
A
(b) 6.0
A
(c) 3.0
A
(d) Zero
Let

V
bethepotentialofthejunctionasshowninfigure.Applyingjunctionlaw,wehave
or
or5
V
=45
V
=9
V

or402
V
+5
V
=2
V

DifferentMeasuringInstruments
.
(1)
Galvanometer : It is an instrument used to detect small current passing through it by showing
deflection. Galvanometers are of different types
e.g. moving coil galvanometer, moving magnet
galvanometer,hotwiregalvanometer.Indccircuitusuallymovingcoilgalvanometerareused.
where
G
isthetotalinternalresistanceofthegalvanometer.

(i)
Itssymbol:

(ii)
Principle :Incaseofmovingcoilgalvanometer deflectionisdirectlyproportionaltothecurrentthat
passesthroughit
i.e.

(iii)
Full scale deflection current : The current required for full scale deflection in a galvanometeris
calledfullscaledeflectioncurrentandisrepresentedby
i
g.

(iv)
Shunt : The smallresistanceconnectedinparallelto galvanometercoil,inordertocontrolcurrent
flowingthroughthegalvanometerisknownasshunt.

Meritsofshunt

Demeritsofshunt

(a) T
o protectthegalvanometercoil
fromburning

Shunt resistance decreases the

sensitivityofgalvanometer.

(b) I
t can be used to convert any
galvanometer into ammeter of
desiredrange.

(2)
Ammeter :
It is a device used to measure current and is always connected in series with the
elementthroughwhichcurrentistobemeasured.
(i)Thereadingofanammeterisalwayslesserthanactualcurrentinthecircuit.
(ii) Smaller the resistance of an ammeter more accurate will be its reading. An ammeter issaidtobe
idealifitsresistance
r
iszero.

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

(iii)
Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter : A galvanometer may be converted into an
ammeter by connecting a low resistance (called shunt
S
) in parallel to the galvanometer
G as shown in
figure.
(a)Equivalentresistanceofthecombination

(b)
G and
S are parallel to each other hence both will have equal
potentialdifference
i.e.

Requiredshunt

whichgives

(c) To pass
n
th part of main current (
i.e.

) through the galvanometer, required shunt

.
(3)
Voltmeter :
It isadeviceusedtomeasurepotentialdifferenceandisalwaysputinparallelwiththe
circuitelementacrosswhichpotentialdifferenceistobemeasured.
(i)Thereadingofavoltmeterisalwayslesserthantruevalue.
(ii) Greater the resistance of voltmeter, more accurate willbeitsreading.
A voltmeterissaid tobeidealifitsresistanceisinfinite,
i.e.,
itdrawsnocurrent
fromthecircuitelementforitsoperation.
(iii)
Conversionofgalvanometerintovoltmeter:Agalvanometermaybeconvertedintoavoltmeter
byconnectingalargeresistance
R
inserieswiththegalvanometerasshowninthefigure.
(a)Equivalentresistanceofthecombination=
G+R

(b)Accordingtoohmslaw
V
=
i
+
R
)whichgives
g(
G
Requiredseriesresistance

(c) If
nth
part of applied voltage appeared across galvanometer (
i.e.
resistance

) then required series

(4)
Wheatstone bridge : Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement offourresistancewhichcanbeused
to measure one of them in terms of rest. Here arms
AB and
BC are called
ratioarmandarms
AC
and
BD
arecalledconjugatearms
(i)
Balanced bridge :
The bridge is said to bebalancedwhendeflection
in galvanometer is zero
i.e. no current flows through the galvanometer or in
other words
V
V
Inthe balancedcondition
,onmutuallychanging
B=
D.
thepositionofcellandgalvanometerthisconditionwillnotchange.
(ii)
Unbalanced bridge : If the bridge is not balanced current will flow
from
D
to
B
if
V
i.e.

D>
V
B

whichgives
PS
>
RQ
.

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

(iii)
Applications of wheatstone bridge : Meter bridge, post office box and Carey Foster bridge are
instrumentsbasedontheprincipleofwheatstonebridgeandareusedtomeasureunknownresistance.

(5)
Meterbridge:Incaseofmeter bridge,theresistance wire
ACis100
cmlong.Varyingtheposition
of tapping point
B
, bridge is balanced. If in balanced position of bridge
AB =
l
,
BC (100
l
) so that
.Also

Concepts

Wheatstonebridgeismostsensitiveifallthearmsofbridgehaveequalresistancesi.e.P=Q=R=S

In Wheatstone bridge to avoid inductive effects the battery key should be pressed first and the galvanometer key
afterwards.

ThemeasurementofresistancebyWheatstonebridgeisnotaffectedbytheinternalresistanceofthecell.

If the temperature of the conductor placed in the right gap of metre bridge is increased, then the balancing length
decreasesandthejockeymovestowardsleft.

Example
:74 The scaleof agalvanometer of resistance100 contains 25divisions. Itgives a deflectionofonedivision

Solution
:(b)

on passing a currentof4 104

A
. Theresistance in
ohmstobe added to it, sothatit maybecomea
voltmeterofrange2.5
volt
is
[
EAMCET2003]
(a) 100
(b) 150
(c) 250
(d) 300
4
Currentsensitivityofgalvanometer=410

Amp/div.
Sofull scaledeflection current(
i
)

Current

sensitivity
Totalnumberofdivision=4 104
25= 102

g
A
To convert galvanometer in to voltmeter, resistance to be put in series is

Example
:75 Agalvanometer, having a resistanceof50givesafullscaledeflectionforacurrentof0.05
A
. thelengthin
meter of a resistance wire of area of crosssection 2.97 102

cm2
that can be used to convert the
galvanometerintoan ammeter whichcanreadamaximum of 5
A currentis:(Specific resistanceofthe
wire=5107

m
)
[
EAMCET2003]
(a) 9
(b) 6
(c) 3
(d) 1.5
Solution
:(c)
Given

G
=50,
i
Amp

.,
i
=5
A
,
A
=2.97102

cm2

and

=5107

m
g=0.05

Example
:76

Byusing

onputtingvalues
l
=3
m
.
100

mA current gives a full scale deflection in a galvanometer of resistance 2 . The resistance

connectedwiththegalvanometertoconvertitintoavoltmeterof5
V
rangeis

[KCET2002UPSEAT1998MNR1994SimilartoMPPMT1999]

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

(a) 98

(b) 52

(c) 80

(d) 48

.
Example
:77
A milliammeter of range 10
mA has a coil of resistance 1 . To use itas voltmeter ofrange 10
volt
,the
resistancethatmustbeconnectedinserieswithitwillbe
[
KCET(Engg./Med.)2001]
Solution
:(d)

(a) 999

Solution
:(a)

(b) 99

(c) 1000

(d) Noneofthese

Byusing

Example
:78 In the following figure ammeter and voltmeter reads 2
amp and 120
volt respectively. Resistance of

voltmeteris
(a) 100
(b) 200
(c) 300
(d) 400

Solution
:(c)

Letresistanceofvoltmeterbe

R
X

and
Y
is
V.Equivalentresistancebetween

Readingofvoltmeter=potentialdifferenceacross
X
and
Y
=120=
i

R
=
XY
300

R
=
V

Example
:79 Inthecircuitshowninfigure,thevoltmeterreadingwouldbe

(a) Zero
(b) 0.5
volt
(c) 1
volt
(d) 2
volt
Solution
:(a)

Ammeterhasno resistance so therewillbe nopotentialdifferenceacrossit,hencereadingofvoltmeter

iszero.

Example
:80
Voltmeters
V
V
V
reads80
Vandhasaper
voltresistance
1 and
2 are connected in series across a d.c. line.
1

of200,
V
hasatotalresistanceof32
k
.Thelinevoltageis
2
[
MNR1992]
(a) 120
V

Solution
:(d)

(b) 160
V

(c) 220
V

(d) 240
V

Resistanceofvoltmeter

V
is
R1

=20080=16000andresistanceofvoltmeter
V
is
R
=32000
1
2
2

By using relation
grouping.

where
V
= potential difference acrossanyresistance
R
in a series

Soforvoltmeter
V
potentialdifferenceacrossitis
1

V
=240
V

Example
:81 The resistance of 1
Aammeteris 0.018. To convertit into 10
Aammeter,theshunt resistancerequired

willbe
[MPPET1982]

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

(a) 0.18

(b) 0.0018

(d) 0.12

(c) 0.002

yusing
B

S
=0.002
Example
:82
Inmeter bridge the balancinglength from leftandwhenstandardresistanceof1isin rightgasisfoundto
be20
cm
.Thevalueofunknownresistanceis
[
CBSEPMT1999]
(a) 0.25
(b) 0.4
(c) 0.5
(d) 4

Solution
:(c)

Solution
:(a)

r
resistance of wire per
cm
,
X
unknown

The condition of wheatstone bridge gives

resistance

Agalvanometer havingaresistanceof8isshuntedbyawireofresistance 2.Ifthetotalcurrentis1

amp
,thepartofitpassingthroughtheshuntwillbe
[CBSEPMT1998]

Example
:83

Solution
:(b)

(a) 0.25
amp

(b) 0.8
amp

Fractionofcurrentpassingthroughthegalvanometer

(c) 0.2
amp

(d) 0.5
amp

or

Sofractionofcurrentpassingthroughtheshunt

Example
:84
A moving coil galvanometer is converted into an ammeter reading upto 0.03
A by connecting ashunt of

resistance 4
racross itand intoanammeterreadingupto0.06
Awhenashuntofresistance
rconnected
acrossit.Whatisthemaximumcurrentwhichcanbethroughthisgalvanometerifnoshuntisused
[MPPMT1996]

(a) 0.01
A
Solution
:(b)

(b) 0.02
A

(c) 0.03
A

Forammeter,

So

(i)and

(ii)

Dividingequation(i)by(ii)
3
i
=0.06
i
=0.02
A
g
g

(d) 0.04
A

Theammeter

A
reads2
A
andthevoltmeter
V
reads20
V
.Thevalueofresistance
R
is
[
JIPMER1999]

(a) Exactly10
ohm

(b)

Lessthan10
ohm

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

(c) Morethan10
ohm
definitelysay

Solution
:(c)

(d)

Ifcurrentgoesthroughtheresistance

R
is
i
then
iR
=20
volt

We

cannot

.Since
i
<2
A
so
R
>10.

Potentiometer
.
Potentiometer is a device mainly used tomeasureemfofa givencellandtocompareemfsofcells.It
isalsousedtomeasureinternalresistanceofagivencell.
(1)
Superiority of potentiometer over voltmeter : An ordinary voltmeter cannot measure the emf
accurately because it does draw some current to show the deflection. As per definition of emf, it is the
potential differencewhenacellis inopen circuitornocurrentthroughthecell.Thereforevoltmetercanonly
measureterminalvoltageofagive
n
cell.
Potentiometer is based on no deflection method. When the potentiometer gives zero deflection, it
does not draw any current from the cell or the circuit
i.e. potentiometer is effectively anidealinstrumentof
infiniteresistanceformeasuringthepotentialdifference.
(2)
Circuit diagram : Potentiometerconsistsofalongresistivewire
ABoflength
L(about 6
mto10
m
long) made up of mangnine or constantan. A battery of known voltage
e and internal resistance
r called
supplierbatteryordrivercell.Connectionofthesetwoformsprimarycircuit.
One terminal of another cell (whose emf
E is to be measured) is connected at one end of the main
circuit and the other terminal at any point on the resistive wire through a galvanometer
G
. This forms the
secondarycircuit.Otherdetailsareasfollows
J
=Jockey
K
=Key

R
=Resistanceofpotentiometerwire,

=Specificresistanceofpotentiometerwire.

R
AB
h=Variableresistancewhichcontrolsthecurrentthroughthewire

(3)
Pointstoberemember

(i) The specific resistance (

) of potentiometer wire must be high but its temperature coefficient of

resistance(

)mustbelow.
(ii) Allhigherpotentialpoints(terminals)ofprimaryandsecondarycircuitsmust beconnectedtogether
atpoint
A
andalllowerpotentialpointsmustbeconnectedtopoint
B
orjockey.
(iii) The value of known potential difference must be greater than the value of unknown potential
differencetobemeasured.
(iv) The potentialgradientmustremain constant.Forthisthecurrentintheprimarycircuitmustremain
constantandthejockeymustnotbeslidedincontactwiththewire.
(v)Thediameterofpotentiometerwiremustbeuniformeverywhere.

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

(4)
Potential gradient (
x
) :
Potential difference (or fall in potential) per unit length of wire is called
potential

gradient

i.e.

where

So

(i)Potentialgradientdirectlydependsupon
(a)Theresistanceperunitlength(
R/L
)ofpotentiometerwire.

(b)Theradiusofpotentiometerwire(
i.e.
Areaofcrosssection)

(c)Thespecificresistanceofthematerialofpotentiometerwire(
i.e.

)
(d)Thecurrentflowingthroughpotentiometerwire(
i
)
(ii)
x
indirectlydependsupon

(a)Theemfofbatteryintheprimarycircuit(
i.e.

e
)

(b)Theresistanceofrheostatintheprimarycircuit(
i.e.

R
h)

Note
:

Whenpotentialdifference
V
isconstantthen

Twodifferentwireareconnectedinseriestoformapotentiometerwirethen

If the length of a potentiometer wire and potential difference across its ends are kept
constant and if its diameter is changed from
d1

d2
then potential gradient remains
unchanged.
Thevalueof
x
doesnotchangewithanychangeeffectedinthesecondarycircuit.

(5)
Working : Suppose jocky is made to touch a point
J on wire then potential difference between
A

and
J
willbe

Atthislength(
l
)twopotentialdifferenceareobtained
(i)
V
duetobattery
e
and
(ii)
E
duetounknowncell

If
V
>
E
thencurrentwillflowingalvanometercircuitinonedirection

If
V
<
E
thencurrentwillflowingalvanometercircuitinoppositedirection

If
V =
E then no current will flow in galvanometer circuit this condition to known as null deflection
position,length
l
isknownasbalancinglength.
Inbalancedcondition

or

Note
:If
V
isconstantthen
L

(6)
Standardization of potentiometer : The processofdeterminingpotentialgradientexperimentally
isknownasstandardizationofpotentiometer.

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

Let the balancing length for the standard emf

E
l
E
xl
0 is
0 then bytheprincipleofpotentiometer
0=
0

(7)
Sensitivity of potentiometer : Apotentiometerissaid tobemoresensitive, ifitmeasures asmall
potentialdifferencemoreaccurately.
(i) The sensitivity of potentiometer is assessed by its potential gradient. The sensitivity is inversely
proportionaltothepotentialgradient.
(ii)Inordertoincreasethesensitivityofpotentiometer
(a)Theresistanceinprimarycircuitwillhavetobedecreased.
(b) The length of potentiometer wire will have to be increased so that the length may be measured
moreaccuracy.
(8)
Differencebetweenvoltmeterandpotentiometer

Voltmeter

Potentiometer

(i)

Itsresistanceishighbutfinite

Itsresistanceishighbutinfinite

(ii)

Itdrawssomecurrentfromsourceofemf

Itdoesnotdrawanycurrentfromthesourceof
knownemf

(iii)

Thepotentialdifferencemeasuredbyitislesserthan Thepotentialdifferencemeasuredbyitisequalto
theactualpotentialdifference
actualpotentialdifference

(iv)

Itssensitivityislow

Itssensitivityishigh

(v)

Itisaversatileinstrument

Itmeasuresonlyemforpotentialdifference

(vi)

Itisbasedondeflectionmethod

Itisbasedonzerodeflectionmethod

ApplicationofPotentiometer
.
(1)
Todeterminetheinternalresistanceofaprimarycell
(i)Initiallyinsecondarycircuitkey
K'remainsopenandbalancinglength(
l
)isobtained.Sincecell
Eis
1
inopencircuitsoitsemfbalancesonlength
l

i.e.

E
=
xl
.(i)
1
1
(ii) Now key
K
is closed so cell
E comes in closed circuit. If the
process is repeated again then potential difference
Vbalanceson
length
l

i.e.

V
=
xl

.(ii)
2
2
(iii)Byusingformulainternalresistance

(2)
Comparison of emfs of two cell : Let
l
l
E
E
1 and
2 be the balancing lengths withthecells
1and
2
respectivelythen
E
=
xl
and
E
=
xl

1
1
2
2

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

Note
:

Let
E
E
l
1 >
2 and bothare connectedin series. Ifbalancing length is
1whencellassist

eachotheranditis
l
whentheyopposeeachotherasshownthen:
2

or

(3)
Comparison of resistances : Let the balancing length for resistance
R
XY isconnected)
1 (when

is
l
R
R
YZ isconnected) is
1 and let balancing length for resistance
1 +
2 (when
l
.
2

Then iR
=
xl
and
i
(R

+
R2

)=
xl2

1
1
1

(4)
Todeterminethermoemf
6

(i) The value of thermoemf in a thermocouple for ordinary temperature difference is very low (10

4
volt
). For this the potential gradient
x must be also very low (10

V/m
).

Hence a high resistance (

R
) is connected in series with the potentiometer
wireinordertoreducecurrent.

(ii) The potential difference across

R must be equal to the emf of
standardcell
i.e.

iR
=
E

(iii)Thesmallthermoemfproducedinthethermocouple
e
=
xl
(iv)

where
L=lengthofpotentiometerwire,
=resistanceperunitlength,

l
=balancinglengthfor
e
(5)
Tocalibrateammeterandvoltmeter
Calibrationofammeter
(i) Ifp.d. across1resistanceis measured bypotentiometer,then currentthroughthis (indirectlymeasured)is
thusknownorif
R
isknownthen
i
=
V/R
canbefound.
(ii)
Circuitandmethod

(a)Standardisationisrequiredandperformedasalreadydescribedearlier.(
x
=
E
/
l
)
0
0
(b) The current through
R or 1 coil is measured by the connected
ammeter andsameis calculatedbypotentiometerbyfindingabalancing
lengthasdescribedblow.

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

Let current flows through 1 resistance givingp.d.as

where
l
i (measured
1 is the balancing length. So error can be found as [

byammeter)

Calibrationofvoltmeter
(i) Practical voltmeters are not ideal, because these donothaveinfinite resistance. Theerror of such practical
voltmetercanbefoundbycomparingthevoltmeterreadingwithcalculatedvalueofp.d.bypotentiometer.
(ii)
Circuitandprocedure

(a)
Standardisation:
If
l
isbalancinglengthfor
E
theemfofstandard
0
0
cellbyconnecting1and2ofbidirectionalkey,then
x
=
E
/
l
.
0
0

(b)The balancinglength
l
V
isgivenby
1forunknownpotentialdifference
.

(byclosing2and3)

If the voltmeterreading is
V thentheerror will be(
V
V
)whichmaybe
+
ve
,
ve
orzero.

Concepts

In case of zero deflection in the galvanometer current flows in the primary circuit of the potentiometer, not in the
galvanometercircuit.

Apotentiometercanactasanidealvoltmeter.

Example
:85 Abattery with negligible internal resistance isconnectedwith10
m longwire. A standardcellgetsbalanced

on 600
cmlength of this wire.On increasing the lengthofpotentiometer wire by2
m then the nullpoint
willbedisplacedby
(a) 200
cm

Solution
:(b)

Byusing

(b) 120
cm

(c) 720
cm

(d) 600
cm

Hencedisplacement=720600=120
cm

Example
:86
In the following circuit a 10
m longpotentiometer wire with resistance 1.2
ohm/m
,a resistance
R
1 and an

accumulator of emf 2
V are connected in series. When the emf of thermocouple is 2.4
mV thenthe
deflectioningalvanometeriszero.Thecurrentsuppliedbytheaccumulatorwillbe

(a) 4104

(b) 8104

(c) 4103

(d) 8103

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

Solution
:(a)

Example
:87
Theresistivityofapotentiometerwireis40108

mand its area ofcrosssectionis8106

m2

.If0.2
amp
.

[MPPET/PMT1998]

Currentisflowingthroughthewire,thepotentialgradientwillbe
(a) 102

volt
/
m

Solution
:(a)

(b) 101

volt/m

(c) 3.2102

volt/m

(d) 1
volt/m

Potentialgradient

Example
:88
Adenielcellisbalancedon125
cmlengthofapotentiometerwire.Whenthecellisshortcircuitedwitha2

resistancethebalancinglengthobtainedis100
cm
.Internalresistanceofthecellwillbe
(a) 1.5

Solution
:(b)

(b) 0.5

[RPMT1998]

(d) 4/5

(c) 1.25

Byusing

Example
:89
Apotentiometer wireoflength 10
m
and aresistance30is connected inserieswithabatteryofemf2.5
V

andinternal resistance 5 and anexternalresistance

R
. Ifthefall ofpotentialalongthepotentiometer
wireis50
V/mm
,thevalueof
R
is(in)
[KCET1998]

Solution
:(a)

(a) 115

(b) 80

Byusing

(d) 100

(c) 50

R
=115

Example
:90
A 2
volt battery, a 15 resistor and a potentiometer of 100
cmlength,allare connected inseries.If the

resistanceofpotentiometerwireis5,thenthepotentialgradientofthepotentiometerwireis
1982]
(a) 0.005
V/cm

Solution
:(a)

(b) 0.05
V/cm

Byusing

(c) 0.02
V/cm

[AIIMS

(d) 0.2
V/cm

Example
:91
In an experiment to measure the internalresistanceofa cell by potentiometer, itis foundthat the balance

point is at alength of2

m when the cellis shunted by a 5 resistanceandisatalengthof3
mwhen
thecellisshuntedbya10resistance.Theinternalresistanceofthecellis,then
[
HaryanaCEE1996]
(a) 1.5

Solution
:(b)

Byusing

(b) 10

(d) 1

(i)

.(ii)

and
Onsolving(i)and(ii)

(c) 15

=10

Example
:92
Aresistanceof4andawireoflength5
metresandresistance5 arejoinedinseriesand connected toa

cell of emf 10
V and internal resistance 1 . A parallel combination of two identicalcellsis balanced

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

across300
cm
ofthewire.Theemf
E
ofeachcellis
1997]

[RPET2001MPPMT

(a) 1.5
V
Solution
:(b)

(b) 3.0
V

Byusing

(c) 0.67
V

(d) 1.33
V

E
=3
volt

Example
:93
A potentiometer has uniform potential gradient acrossit.Two cells connected inseries (i)tosupport each

other and (ii) to oppose each other arebalancedover6

m and2
m respectivelyon the potentiometer
wire.Theemfsofthecellsareintheratioof
[MP PMT 2002 RPMT

2000]
(a) 1:2

Solution
:(d)

(b) 1:1

(d) 2:1

(c) 3:1

Ifsupposeemfsofthecellsare

E
and
E2

respectivelythen
1

E
+
E
=
x
6
1
2

and
E

E
=
x
2
1
2

[
x
=potentialgradient)]

.(i)

.(ii)

Example
:94
Inthefollowing circuit the potentialdifferencebetweenthepoints
B and
Cisbalancedagainst40
cmlength

of potentiometer wire. In order to balance the potential differencebetweenthepoints

C and
D
, where
shouldjockeybepressed

(a) 32
cm

(b) 16
cm

(c) 8
cm

(d)4
cm

or
R
=5
1

Solution
:(a)

R
=4,
l
=40
cm
,
l
=?
2
1
2

or

Example
:95
Inthefollowingcircuitdiagramfig.thelengthsof thewires
ABand
BCaresame buttheradiusof
ABisthree

timesthatof
BC
.Theratioofpotentialgradientsat
AB
and
BC
willbe
(a) 1:9
(b) 9:1
(c) 3:1
(d) 1:3

PHYSICS

UniversalConcept

Daksh

Pandey

Solution
:(a)

Example
:

96

With a certain cell the balance point is obtained at 0.60

m from one end of the potentiometer. With
another cell whose emf differs from that ofthefirstby 0.1
V
, the balancepointis obtained at0.55
m
.
Then,thetwoemfsare
(a) 1.2
V
,1.1
V

Solution
:(a)

(b) 1.2
V
,1.3
V

(c) 1.1
V
,1.0
V

=
x
(0.6)and
E
=
E
0.1=
x
(0.55)
1
2
1
or55
E
=60
E
6
1
1

(d) Noneoftheabove

thus
E
=1.1
V
2

Acell of internalresistance1.5and of emf1.5

voltbalances500
cm onapotentiometerwire.Ifa
wireof15isconnectedbetweenthebalancepointandthecell,thenthebalancepointwillshift
[MPPMT1985]

Solution
:(d)

(a) Tozero

(b)

(c) By750
cm

By500
cm

(d)

Noneoftheabove

In balance condition no current flows in the galvanometer circuit. Hence there will be no shift in
balancepointafterconnectingaresistancebetweenbalancepointandcell.