1

CCNA
Network: Network is the communication between two or more than two network devices, which
is allow to share information and services.
Information: Information is the data or signal, which is created and used by the user.
Ex. Sharing information like pictures, movies, database, documents etc.
Services: Services is the ability, which provide facilities to the network called as services.
Ex. Sharing services like sharing of printers, scanners, etc.
Internetworking: It is collection of more than one network, using Routers, Switches and
Bridges.
Network segment: Breaking up large network into no. of small parts, this parts called as
network segment.
Bandwidth: Bandwidth is data transmission capacity of given media.
Protocol: Protocol is the sets of rules, which allows to communicate user to user, application to
application, file to file and source to destination. Its designed for a specific services purpose.
E.g. http, FTP, SMTP, TFTP, DNS, DHCP etc.
Media: Media is resource which can carry electric, electromagnetic, light and wave signals for
source to destination.
Encryption: Its convert data into unreadable form and it is used for security.
Compression: This method reduces actual property (size) of object without changing of
meaning.

Three types of Computing networking models:

Centralized computing:
o This is a computing module, in these having one centralize server and all clients
will be terminals. Its provides centralize administrator.
o Large centralized computers called Mainframes. This is used for storing and
organizing information.
o A method for controlling network resource access and managing network setup
and configuration data from a single point of access.
o We enter data on Mainframes using local devices called Terminals. Terminal is a
client it has not having its own storage capacity (Disk less). Always boot from
centralize server (Mainframes server). These are only input and output devices.
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1
Mainframes
2

Distributed Computing:
1

Terminals
4

2
o This is a computing module, in these having one server and all clients will be
workstations. Its provides centralize administrator.
o It In this workstations has their own processing capabilities and storage media.
5

1
Workstations
2

Server

Collaborative Computing:
o In this all systems work as a Client and as well as a server (requester, provider
and peer), and not necessary of server.
1
Clients/Server

2
3

o Requester: This is able to send requests to service provider.

o Provider: This is able to provide services to requester.
o Peer: This is able to work as a provider and requester.
Every computer networking will be divided in to two types of structures:

Clint/Server (Server Centric): This architecture necessary required centralized server.

This network depends on server with out that client can not communicate each other.
A computing model in which certain computers, called clients, request services and other
computers, called servers, respond to these client requests.
Like Centralized and Distributed computing.

Clint/Network: In this server not required, it self all clients able to at as a requester and
provider both. Like Peer to Peer network.

Computer Network Classifications are:

1. LAN (Local Area Network): A LAN is a collection of networked computers that
covers within a small physical region, such as an office room or building.
Its measured in Mbps, and it is not depend on ISP (Internet Service Provider)
2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): It can be defined as a network that covers a
metropolitan area, which is a city of not more than tens of miles or tens of
kilometers. . And we can say group of LAN. It required ISP. Speed measured in
Kbps.
3. WAN (Wide Area Network): It able to covers entire country and countries
required ISP. Speed measured in Kbps.
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3
4. GAN (Global Area Network): It is a popular type of network which is providing
individual device to device connectivity. It is covered entire world. Speed
measured in Kbps and required ISP. Best example is Internet.
5. SAN (Storage Area Network): This is a type of network which is providing
centralize storage and replication. It is possible in LAN, MAN and WAN. E.g.:
yahoo, google.

Data Storage Units

1 char
8 bits
1024 bytes
1024 Kb
1024 Mb
1024 Gb
1024 Tb
1024 Pb

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

1 bit
1 byte
1 Kilo bytes
1 Mega bytes
1 Giga bytes
1 Tera bytes
1 Pera byte
1 Exa byte

Net work Topologies are five types:

1. Bus Topology: In this nodes are connected to a long cable called backbone, and
short cable called drop cable, can be attached to the backbone using cable taps
(Taps are mechanical devices that split the electric or electromagnetic signal.)
In recent bus topologies, computers are attached directly to the backbone using Tconnector. And should be terminate the bout ends of cable.

Terminator

Terminator
PC 1

PC 2

PC 3

PC 4

PC 5

Advantages:

It follows the common standards and is easy to install.

Compared to other network topologies, it requires the least amount of
network cable, and cheapest.
It is not dependent on any one device for its functioning and works well
even if only two computers are running.

Disadvantages:

Difficult to find out problem and high management.

Compared to other topologies, it is relatively hard to reconfigure.
In this backbones bandwidth share to all systems, which are, connected to
the network. Thus the systems increased in the network, transmission
speed will go to slow.
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4
2. Ring Topology: In this PCs are connected in a circle, in a series of point-topoint links between each device.
In this network signal generated by one computer passed from one device to
another in a single direction and the signal is regenerated each time at each
device.
In this topology Token works as a data carrier. Token is a logical frame, and it can
takes responsibility for delivering data from source to destination. And it can carry
multiple systems data at a time, maximum it can carry 1024 systems data at a
time. One Token only available in this topology.

Advantages: It is faster than bus topology.

2. Do not create traffic.
3. This is also less expansive.
4. When media breakup automatically it works like Bus topology.
Disadvantages: Same of Bus Topology.
3. Star Topology: In this PCs are connected to a central device like, hub or switch
via a point-to-point link. When a PC sends any data on the network, then the
central device receives the signals and sends the signals to all the PCs on
network, which is connected to the central device. Transmission media is UTP
cable.

Advantages: Moderate expansive, very easy to troubleshoot.

2. Effective PC will not effective on network. And required less management.
Disadvantages: Network depends on one centralize device if the device fails total
network will fails.
4. Mesh Topology: A mesh network has point-to-point connections between every
device in the network. It is the most commonly used topology in WANs and is
often seen in public networks like, internet.
But this type of network is not possible in physically.

5. Cellular Topology: A cellular topology combines wireless point-to-point and

multipoint strategies to divide a geographic area into cells. Each cell represents
the portion of the total network area in which a specific connection operates.
Devices within the cell communicate with a central station or hub. Hubs are
interconnected so that they route data across the network and provide the
complete network infrastructure.

Advantages: Easy to move devices one places to another place.

2. Not required cable to connect physically each device.
3. Its provide better speed.
Disadvantages: Very high expansive (each computer want wire less LAN card
and required wire less Devices)

Important topics of Networking

1. Firewall: This is a hardware or software its provide network security and it is filter all
incoming and out going packet.
E.g.: Windows firewall this is software base firewall
CISCO PIX firewall this is hardware base firewall
Working: All firewall can check port no and IP addresses as well as packet size (packet
size and details will be mentioned on each packet header when it is transferring)
Port No: Port no is always indicates service identity, total port nos are 65,535. These
port nos are two types
a. Well known Port No: Some specific port no which are reserved for some
services, these port nos we can not use for other services. These are 0 to 1024
ports. E.g. www, http, SMTP etc.
b. Unreserved Port No: These are unreserved ports we can choose for any new
services. These are 1025 to 65,535.
Segmentation: Segmentation means, one file will be divide in to multiple packets when
we are transfer the file through network
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Packet: In transferring time packet divided in to two parts Header and Data
Frame: In transferring time Frame divided in to three parts Header, Data and Trailer.
Header has all information of the source and destination.

Data has which we are transferring data.

Trailer has FCS (Frequency Check Sequence), each trailer will reserve one bit for parity
bit.
Parity Bit gives the acknowledgement for each frame after reaching the frame from
source to destination. If the destination is not received the frame, the Parity bit gives the
error information to source. Means parity bit is used for error detection.
2. Gateway: Gateway is inter mediatory between source and destination, its allows to
exchange resources.
3. Proxy: Proxy is application software which is allows sharing internet or intranet. And we
can say it is inter mediatory between Private network and Public network.

Proxy internal function is NAT (Network Address Translation).

Here server will communicate with internet but pcs arent communicating, because LAN
is different network (private), Internet is different network (public).
Different networks can not communicate directly.
Using Proxy we can communicate, this can translate Private IP address to Public and
Public IP address to Private IP address.
4. Backup: Backup allows to make secure copy of any object on different location. Its
format is .bkf.
These are five types:
a. Copy: This backup can take as it is
b. Normal Backup: This is like full backup
c. Full Backup: This backup always takes first to last.
d. Incremental Backup: It always consider last modify data.
e. Differential Backup: This backup always consider after last full backup. Must
want to select Archive in properties, when we are plan backup
5. Remote Accessing: Remote Access is a windows tool which is allow to access any one
computer from any server or PC.
Note: In XP and lower OS allows to access only one people at a time.
In Windows 2003 server allows to access up to three persons at a time.
In Terminal Server allows to access up to 256 persons at a time.
Remote Access setting:
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My Computer Right Click Properties select Remote

Chose options first option for: Allow how much time
Second opt for: whom you want to allow
Next:
Start Programs Accessories Communication Select Remote Desktop
connection
Window will open, in that to whom you want to communicate that IP want
enter and ok.
6. Net Meeting: It is available with windows components, we can see in program files in the
name of conf.exe
Run conf
Uses: 1. Desktop sharing
2. It is useful to transfer so many files at a time in the network.
3. We can chat using this.
4. It can support in LAN, MAN and WAN.

Transmission media
The three main types of transmission medium used in LANs are twisted pair, coaxial cable and optic
fiber.
Twisted pair is mostly used in connections of star and hub networks. It is easier to install twisted pair
than coaxial or optic fiber because it is more flexible and does not require new cable ducts.
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There are some limitations on the length of twisted pair cable according to the bit rate used. Normally at
1Mbps, the length limit is 100m. With additional circuits, 100m cable can be used at 10Mbps also.
Transmission media:

Transmitted energy is carried through some sort of medium

Transmitter encodes data as energy and transmits energy through medium
o Requires special hardware for data encoding
o Requires hardware connection to transmission medium

Media can be copper, glass, air, ...

Copper wires

Twisted pair uses two wires:

o UTP(Unshielded Twisted pair)
o STP(Shielded Twisted pair)

STP switch port modes:

Listening - The switch processes BPDUs (Bridge Protocol Data Units) and determines
the network topology
Learning - The switch builds a switching table that maps MAC addresses to port
numbers
Blocking - A port that would cause a switching loop, no user data is sent or received but
it may go into forwarding mode if the trunk link in use were to fail. BPDU data is still
received in blocking mode
Forwarding - A port receiving and sending data, normal operation

Disabled - Not strictly part of STP, a network administrator can manually disable a port

Coaxial cable includes shield for improved performance

Glass fibers

Thin glass fiber carries light with encoded data

Plastic jacket allows fiber to bend (some!) without breaking
Fiber is very clear and designed to reflect light internally for efficient transmission
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Light emitting diode (LED) or laser injects light into fiber

Light sensitive receiver at other end translates light back into data

Radio

Data transmitted using radio waves

Energy travels through the air rather than copper or glass
Conceptually similar to radio, TV, cellular phones
Can travel through walls and through an entire building
Can be long distance or short distance
o Long distance with satellite relay
o Short distance - wireless computer network

Microwave

High frequency radio waves

Unidirectional, for point-to-point communication
Antennas mounted on towers relay transmitted data

Infrared

Infrared light transmits data through the air

Similar to technology used in TV remote control
Can propagate throughout a room (bouncing off surfaces), but will not penetrate walls
Becoming common in personal digital assistants

Laser

Unidirectional, like microwave

Higher speed than microwave
Uses laser transmitter and photo-sensitive receiver at each end
Point-to-point, typically between buildings
Can be harmfully affected by weather

Choosing a medium
o
o

o
o
o

Copper wire is mature technology, rugged and inexpensive; maximum

transmission speed is limited
Glass fiber:
Higher speed
More resistant to electro-magnetic interference
Spans longer distances
Requires only single fiber
More expensive; less rugged
Radio and microwave don't require physical connection
Radio and infrared can be used for mobile connections
Laser also does not need physical connection and supports higher speeds

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Cable Structure: In UTP three types of structures is available, there are:

1. Cross over cable.
2. Straight cable.
a. Normal.
b. Standard.
3. Rolled cable.

Cross over cable: Speed is 100 Mbps

Used for connect to peer to peer.
Hub to Hub.
Hub to Host.
Switch to Switch.
Switch to Hub.
Router direct to host.
w/o
1

o
2

w/g
3

bl/w
4

bl
5

g
6

w/br
7

br
8

1
w/g

2
g

3
w/o

4
bl/w

5
bl

6
o

7
w/br

8
br

Straight cable Standard: Speed is 100 Mbps

Used to connect Hub to Pc
Switch to Pc
Wall jack to Pc
w/o
1

o
2

w/g
3

bl/w
4

bl
5

g
6

w/br
7

br
8

1
w/o

2
o

3
w/g

4
bl/w

5
bl

6
g

7
w/br

8
br

Rolled cable: Used to connect Router to Pc and Switch to Pc. In router console port uses and
Pc uses Ethernet port.
w/o
1

o
2

w/g
3

bl/w
4

bl
5

g
6

w/br
7

br
8

1
br

2
w/br

3
g

4
bl

5
bl/w

6
w/g

7
o

8
w/o

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Layers of the OSI

Concept of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) model:

It was developed in1977, designed to aid understanding of a network system functions.

Systems that are open for communication with other systems.
The OSI model has 7 layers.
The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers are as follows:
o A layer should be created where a different level of abstraction is needed.
o Each layer should perform a well defined function.
o The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining
internationally standardized protocols.
o The problem of successfully communicating between systems becomes more
difficult, as the complexity of computer hardware and software increases.
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o These difficult tasks can be divided into sub-tasks, whi9ch could be readily
understood and could be solved easily.
Network communication and the OSI model:

Two computers should be running on the same protocol in order to communicate with
each other.
Each layer communicates with its equivalent peer layer on the other computer via the
lower layers of the model.
Each layer provides services for the layer above and uses the services of the layer
bellow.

Layers of OSI:

OSI Models
Application layer 7
Presentation layer 6
Session layer 5
Transport layer 4
Network layer 3
Data Link layer 2
Physical layer 1

TCP/IP or DoD
Application layer
Transport layer
Internet layer
Network layer

Physical Layer 1: This is responsible for the transmission and reception of bits from one
computer to another computer.
Connection types: Networks are built using point-to-point and multipoint connections.
These two types of connections describe how devices connect to a single cable or
segment of transmission media.
1. Point to Point: A point-to-point connection is a direct link between two devices.
When we attach a personal computer directly to a printer, we have created a
point-to-point link. E.g. Computer to printer, one antenna to another antenna.
2. Multipoint: A multipoint connection is a link between three or more devices.
Normally, multipoint connections were used to connect one master computer with
a series of slave terminals. And multipoint connections share the same bandwidth
so that overall capacity is divided to all devices, which is connected to the media.
E.g. All topologies (bus, star, etc.)

Physical topology: Physical structure of transmission media is called Physical topology.

Or it explains the actual physical layout of the network. These are five types:
1. Bus Topology
2. Ring Topology
3. Star Topology
4. Mesh Topology
5. Cellular Topology

Digital signaling: Digital signals represent data using a limited number of states.
Benefits of this method: Equipment is simpler and cheaper, usally less error from noise
and interference.

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1. Current state: This can measure the presence or absence of a state or signal
characteristic. E.g. fiber optic networks represent data by turning a light source on
or off.
2. State transition: This can use transitions between signal to encode data. E.g.
instead of measuring the absolute voltage on a cable, a state transition strategy
measures the transition between two voltages.

Time
Analog signaling: Analog signals are constantly changing, registering an infinite
number of states. Analog signaling benefits are: 1. Allow multiplexing techniques, which
can maximize cable bandwidth use. 2. Usually less attenuation than digital over
comparable.
Waves are measured using one or more of the following characteristics:
1. Amplitude: The amplitude of a wave is the signal strength compared to a
reference value. The amplitude of an analog signal can be changed, or
modulated, during transmission.

Voltage

Time
2. Frequency: The frequency of a wave is the number of cycles completed by the
wave within a specified unit of time. Measured in hertz (Hz). The frequency of an
analog signal can be modulated during transmission.

Voltage
Time
3. Phase: The phase of a signal refers to the relative state of the wave when timing
began. The phase of an analog signal can be modulated during transmission.

Voltage
Time
4. Current state: The most common analog current state strategies use different
signal amplitudes or frequencies to represent data. The following are analog
signal encoding schemes that use a current state method:

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Amplitude-shift keying (ASK): ASK encodes binary data by

signals amplitude between two or more levels. E.g. a binary
one volt and a binary 1 might be three volts.
Frequency-shift keying (FSK): FSK encodes binary data by
signals frequency between two or more values. E.g. a binary
one frequency and a binary 1 might be some other frequency

varying the
0 would be
varying the
0 would be

.
5. State transition: Transitions from one analog phase to another can also encode
data on an analog signal. The method of analog signaling that uses a state
transition method is called phase-shift keying (PSK).
PSK: PSK encodes binary data by varying the phase of the signal to
indicate a value.

Bit synchronization: The control of measurement timing clock can be called bit
synchronization. Two types of bit synchronization:
1. Asynchronous: Asynchronous bit system use intermittent signals to transmit bits.
2. Synchronous: It is use other methods:
o Guaranteed state change: This method of synchronization embeds a
clocking signal within the data signal, and frequently used with digital
signals.
o Separate clock signal: Some communication systems use two separate
digital or analog media channels to transmit a single stream of data. One
channel for transporting data bits, and other provides a clock.
o Over sampling: Over sampling means that the receiver samples the signal
at a much faster rate than the data rate. E.g. if data signal sent rate of 10
Mbps, the receiver would measure the signal 10 Mbps.

Bandwidth use: Bandwidth refers to the amount of data that can be carried on a given
transmission media. Bandwidth use schemes are based upon the available and
utilization of channels.
A channel is a part of the medias total Bandwidth. It can be created by using the entire
bandwidth for one channel or by splitting up multiple EM frequencies to accommodate
multiple channels.
Bandwidth methods:
1. Baseband: It utilizes the full bandwidth of the media like a single transmission
path. This method is generally used by Digital signals, as it is more reliable than
the broadband.
2. Broadband: It distributes the full bandwidth of the media into a number of
transmission paths. This method is generally used by analog signals but it is less
reliable than baseband method.
And we can use Frequency modulation to allow each channel to use a different
range of frequencies.

Multiplexing: Multiplexing refers to several technologies that allows multiple devices to

communicate simultaneously over a single transmission medium segment. Multiplexes
use the following methods:
1. Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM): FDM uses separate frequencies to
establish multiple channels within a broadband medium. E.g. If A, B and C
systems are using in a network, these three systems are communicate with
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server. So using FDM method transmission media will divided by three parts.
Used in broadband LAN.
2. Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM): TDM systems divide a single channel into
short time slots. Bits, blocks of bits, bytes, or frames can be placed into each time
slot as long as the predetermined time interval is not exceeded. E.g. If A, B and C
systems are using in a network, these three systems are communicate with
server. So using TDM method data can transmit like ABC, ABC, and ABC etc.
3. Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing (StatTDM): Conventional synchronous
TDM system waste bandwidth if many time slots ate unused Stat TDM solves this
problem by dynamically allocating time slots to active devices on a first come,
first-served or priority basis.

We can defines normally Physical Layer 1:

This is responsible for the transmission and reception of bits from one computer to another
computer.

This layer includes the cables, cable length, connectors, etc.

The electric signal transmitting data in binary values of 0s and 1s.
Similarly it is also efficient in converting incoming signals into bits, which is then sent to
the layer above, i.e. the Data Link layer.
In short it performs the function of encoding and transmission. And it defines signaling
methods used in network media.
It specifies the following:
o The network medium.
o Physical network topology
o Mechanical and electrical specifications for using the medium, how 1s and 0s are
sent via electrical signals over the network medium.
o The network card.
o The medium connector and pin-out details, the number and functions of the
various pins in a network connector.
o The process of transmitting and receiving signals from the network medium
including bit transmission, encoding and timing rules. (FEM, TDM and StatTDM)
Connectivity devices found at the Physical layer include the following:
o Hub
o Repeater
o Media converter

Data Link layer 2: Organize the Physical layers bits (1s and 0s) in to logical group of
information called frames. Detect errors, control data flow, and identify computers on the
network. It uses physical device addressing.

Data Link-MAC (Media Access Control): The MAC sub layer controls the way
transmitters share a single transmission channel (also called Physical device address).

Collision: Ethernet is a shared media, so there are rules for sending packets of data to
avoid conflicts (war) and protect data integrity.
o Logical Topology: The actual signal path is called a logical topology.

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Bus: In a logical bus topology, a signal is generated and propagated

(transmitted) throughout the network, regardless of the location of its
intended receiver.

Ring: In a logical ring topology, the signal is generated and travels along a
specified path in a single direction.

o Media access: Logical topologies use specific rules that control when network
entities are allowed to transmit data signals. The control process is called media
access.
Media access methods: Nature of our transmission, amount of data transmission,
time sensitivity of the data, and number of active devices on the network.
Contention Systems: Contention based access method allow network
devices to transmit data whenever they want. If, workstations sometimes
transmit at the same time. When this happens, the result is a co-mingling
(mix) of signals. This is referred to as a collision.
Carrier Sense: Using CSMA (Carrier Sense, Multiple Access), reduce the
collision.
Collision Detection and Notification: It can work using CSMA protocol.
Collision Recovery: Collision recovery is performed by the transmitting node.
The node involved in a collision waits for a random amount of time and then
retransmits the data.

Token passing Systems: In Token passing systems, a small frame

(Token) is passed from one device to another. A token is a special
message that temporarily gives media control to the device holding the
token. Token can carry 1024 systems data simultaneously, and in this only
one token is used, so automatically collision can reduce. This token system
used in ring topology. Token passing standards are: 1. IEEE 802.5 and 2.
FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) used only fiber optical LAN.

Polling Systems: Polling is an access method that designates one device

(alled a controller, primary, or master) as a media access administrator.

o Addressing: Computer network entities need some way to distinguish between

different devices on the network. This is done through addressing.
Physical device address: Physical device addresses are unique hardware
addresses typically assigned by hardware vendors.

Data Link-LLC (Logical Link Control): The LLC sub layer establishes and maintains
the link for transmitting data frames from one device to the next device.
o Transmission synchronization:
Asynchronization: Asynchronization transmission methods rely on the
transmitting and receiving devices to maintain their own internal clocks.

Synchronization: Synchronization transmission methods require that the

communicating devices take responsibility for providing transmission clock.

Isochronous: This methods use a constant fixed-frequency transmission

clock to create set time slots. In these slots multiple bits can be inserted. In
this method, a clock signal is neither provided for every frame.

o Connection services:
46

LLC-level flow control: Control the amount of data transferred from one
computer to the next. Detect transmission errors and request retransmittals.

Error control:

IEEE 802 Standards:

IEEE 802.1: Defines Physical and Data link layer standards for allowing one IEEE 802 LAN
workstation to communicate with another workstation on a different LAN or WAN.

IEEE 802.2: Defines the LLC sub layer of the IEEE 802.x series. It is commonly used
with IEEE 802.3, 802.4, 802.5, and 802.6 implementations. It can adds header fields to
identify which upper layer protocol is used in the frame and which Network layer
processes the frames source and destination use.

IEEE 802.3: Specifies a variety of Physical layer options, including different signals
modes (Baseband and Broadband), media types, topologies, and data rates. The
common element of each option is their use of the CSMA/CD media access method.

IEEE 802.4: This standard defines a physical bus topology, a token passing media
access method, both Baseband broadband media, and 75 ohm CATV-type cable or
optical fiber.

IEEE 802.5: This is based on IBM Token ring specification. Support data rate of 1, 4, or
16Mbps.

IEEE 802.6: Use of data transfer technology called Distributed Queue Dual Bus (DODB)
that allows both synchronous and asynchronous traffic for supporting voice, video, and
data transmissions.

IEEE 802.7: Defines a standard for the design, installation, and test parameters of
broadband communication.

IEEE 802.8: Defines a Fiber Optic Technical Advisory Group to work with the 802
working groups on fiber optic technology and standards.

IEEE 802.9: Isochronous Ethernet (IsoEnet), focuses on the integration of voice

transmissions with data transmissions and supports both patterned (irregular) and
patterned (slowly) traffic.

IEEE 802.10: Defines a standard for services, protocols, data formats, and interfaces
that securely exchange data using encryption mechanisms.

IEEE 802.11: Defines standards for wireless LAN implementations like spread-spectrum
and infrared devices.

IEEE 802.12: Defines a 100 Mbps physical star topology. These network devices
contend for media access by signaling a hub. The hub works highest priority traffic first.

We can defines normally Data Link layer 2:

47

The data link layer assigns a meaning to the bits and bytes that are being transmitted over the
network and ensures that they are structured.

Data link layer organizes data in frames. And identify computers on the network.
The main task of the Data Link layer is to take a raw transmission facility and transform it
into a line that appears free of transmission errors in the Network layer.
It adds control information in the form of fields, such as a source and destination
hardware address and error checking values.
Other information includes the frame length, Network layer protocol identifier and a
preamble at the start of the frame.
Other functions of the Data Link layer:
o Addressing frames to specific computers on the network. (Using their hardware
address)
o Recognizing when the destination address in a frame matches the hardware
address of the installed network card and ignoring frames that do not match.
o Error control allows the detection and correction of errors between adjacent
nodes.
o Typically errors include frames lost on route and those recognizable as damaged
frames from using cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs)
o Controlling the data flow prevents fast transmitters from slow receivers with data
IEEE divides the functions of the Data Link layer into two sub layers.
1. Media Access Control (MAC): The MAC sub layer defines the way in which
multiple NICs share a single transmission medium. And it covers the following:
a. Logical topology: Bus or Ring topology.
b. Media Access Method: contention, token passing or demand priority.
c. Addressing: The hardware address of the NIC also known as the MAC
address.

2. Logical Link Control (LLC): The LLC sub layer is responsible for establishing and
maintaining a link between the communicating devices for the transmission of
frames.
This includes the following:
o Service level connection oriented or connectionless.
o Flow control and error control.
Connectivity devices working at the Data layer include:
o Switches
o Bridges
o Network interface boards.

Network layer 3: This layer can uses logical link addressing

Addressing:
o Logical network: To deliver data between networks on an internetwork, we must
use logical network addresses. A logical network address is the identifier used to
logically distinguish two networks in an internetwork.
Routers are internetwork connectivity devices that connect two networks with
different logical network addresses. The router knows where to send data, based
upon each data packets network address, by using route discovery and route
selection methods. Network addressing makes routing possible.
o Service: Physical device and logical network addresses are used jointly to move
data between devices on an internetwork. However, each computer or other
networked device can perform several roles simultaneously.
48

Each entity must have its own address so that it can send and receive data.
Each computer or other networked device can perform several roles
simultaneously.
Every process must have its own address so that it can send and receive
data.
This address can be called a service address and also called as port
address or a socket address.

Switching:
o Packet: Packet Switching combines the advantages of message and circuit
switching and minimizes the disadvantages of both.
These are two types:
Virtual packet switching: Virtual Circuits are logical connections between sender
and receiver. A logical connection is formed when sender and receiver exchange
messages.
Data gram packet switching: This can use when no logical connection is
required. Data gram packet switching relies on the Network layer to navigate
paths for each packet and to correct errors that might occur. Commonly used in
INTERNET.
In both packet switching methods, messages are broken into small parts, called
packets. Each packet is tagged with source, destination and intermediary node
addresses. These are strictly define maximum length and can be stored in RAM
instead of HDD.
Benefits: Cost effective, because devices do not need massive amount of
storage, less transmission delay, and optimal use of link bandwidth.
o Message: Message switching does not establish a dedicated path between two
workstations for an entire conversation. But conversations are divided into
messages. Each message is packaged with its own destination address and then
transmitted from device to device through the network. Supporting services like
email.
Benefits: More devices can share network bandwidth, TMP message storage can
reduce traffic congestion, Priority wise messages forwarded, one message can be
sent to many destinations.
o Circuit: Circuit Switching is a technique that connects the sender and the receiver
by a single path for the duration of a conversation. After a connection is
established, a dedicated path exists between both ends. E.g. Telephone.
Benefits: Guaranteed data rate, virtually no channel access delay after circuit is
established.

Route discovery: Route discovery is the process used to identify routes and to maintain
route tables.
Hop count: which is the number of routers that data must pass through to reach the
destination network.
Tick count: which is the amount of time required to reach the destination network.
Relative expense: which is an assignable number based on the amount of money or
other criteria required to use a specific path.
Route discovery uses one of the following methods:
o Distance vector: Distance vector routers compile and send network route tables
to other routers that are attached to the same media segment (or neighbor router).
49

Each router builds its own route table by constantly broadcasting and combining
tables from nearby routers.
The process of updating all routers routing tables so that they all contain the same
data is called convergence.
This protocol simple and automatic, requiring little management.
o Link-state: These protocols are considered more intelligent and faster than
distance vector. This method only exchanges information about specific routes
that have changed.
Using this method, routers identify the networks they are attached to, receiving an
initial route table from a local router.
This information is used to create an area map that is used to determine the best
route to send a packet (message).
This method requires less network functioning.

Route selection: After a router built a route table, it can use the cost information to
calculate the best path through an internet work.
o Static:

o Dynamic: Dynamic route selection uses routing algorithms to continually gather

and evaluate cost information. Every packet is assigned a route depending on the
latest route discovery costs. Multiple paths might be used to send packets
between two devices, depending on the changing nature of the network.
Router selections are made at every router in the network. Each router along the
path is responsible for selecting the next stop for each packet.
Dynamic route selection is flexible and can recover from failed or overworked
routers. This selection requires little or no management, but the routing devices
are complex and often expensive.
Connection services:
o Network layer flow-control: Network layer flow control is based on the inter
network s capabilities.
o Error control: Error control is primarily concerned with packet loss, duplicate
packets and altered data. This is same as Data link layer error control.

o Packet sequence control: This is used to put the arriving packets into proper
sequence to rebuild upper-layer messages. This type of control is required for
datagram networks where packets routinely arrive out of order.
Gateway services:
o Network layer translation: Network layer gateway is responsible for fragmenting
and reassembling the data into acceptable sizes for both networks.

We can defines normally Network layer 3:

This layer is efficient in converting the frames of Data Link layer into packets, thereby
adding additional headers.
These headers define a logical address, e.g. an IP address.
Each network has an address called the IP address or network address. It helps in
translating between hardware address (address of NIC card) and network address.
So the layer becomes important when a network uses a device called router to link two
different networks, each having a different network address.
Routers are hardware devices that work at the Network Layer.
50

This layer then routes the packet through the internetwork using intermediate devices
(routers). And the packet moves to the target network through the internetwork
The hardware address can be used to move the packet to the target network, once it has
reached the destination network.
The forward packets through the network segments to their destination through nodes.
Other functions of the network:
o Fragmenting packets (breaking them into smaller chunks), if required by a router
different network type.
o Flow Control regulating the speed of data transfer.
o Error control detection for transmission errors and retransmission of correct
data.
Connective devices found within the Network layer include.
o Routers
o Brouters (acts like a router)
o Layer 3 switches
The Net work layer routes data using.
o Switching
o Network layer addressing
o Routing algorithms.

Transport Layer 4:

Address/name resolution: This is function of identifying of mapping the name and

alphanumeric address to each other. This function can be performed by every entity on
the network or by a special service provider called a directory server or name server.
o Service requester initiated: In this method, each requester sends out a special
packet. This packet requests that any corresponds to a given name, address, or
service type respond by providing its name or address.
o Service provider initiated: In this method every service provider routinely sends
out a broadcast packet announcing its availability. These broadcast packets
include name and address information that can be collected by all other network
entities or by special directory servers.

Addressing:
o Connection identifier: A connection identifier (also called as Connection ID, Port,
or Socket) identifies a specific conversation. Using the connection identifier, a
service provider, such as a print server, can concurrently communicate with more
than one client..
o Transaction identifier: A transaction identifier (also called as Transaction ID) is
similar to a connection identifier, but it refers to a subset of a conversation.
Transaction IDs and Connection IDs can be used together to manage the tasks a
service provider performs for a service requester. Like E-MAIL

Segment development: Through segment development the transport layer divides and
combines messages as needed to ensure network efficiency.

51

o Division and combination: Some messages generated by network entities are

too large for the Network, and lower layers, to handle. The transport layer divides
these messages into smaller sizes, and combines, after reaching the destination.

Connection services:
Unacknowledged connectionless services send and receive frames with
no flow, error, or packet sequence control.
Connection oriented services provide flow, error, and packet sequence
control through the use of acknowledgment.
Acknowledged connectionless services uses acknowledgments to
furnish flow and error control between point to point transmissions.
o Segment sequencing: Messages are often divided into segments that arrive at
the destination out of order. The transport layer uses segment synchronization to
reorder the segment.
o End-to-end Error control: Data segments can be lost or delayed as they travel
through the network. Errors occur when a data segment is lost or when one
arrives with the same segment sequence number as a totally different segment.
To control or eliminate these errors, the Transport layer can uses bellow
strategies:
Use only virtual circuit
Allow only one virtual circuit for any given session
Make the segment sequencing numbers unique.
Use time outs to drop packets that have been passed around the network
too long.
o End-to-end flow control: End to end flow control is performed using
acknowledgments and either a guaranteed rate method or a window flow control
method.

Normally Transport Layer 4 defines:

The basic function of the Transport layer is to accept data from the Session layer, split it
up in smaller units if need be, pass these to the Network layer, and ensure that all the
pieces arrive correctly at the other end.
Furthermore, all this must be done efficiently, and in a way that isolates the Session layer
from the inevitable changes in the hardware technology.
The Transport layer is a true source-to-destination or end-to-end layer.
This layer can overcome any lack of reliability in the lower level protocols. It is achieved
using acknowledgement messages that inform the sender that the data was successfully
received.
Non-delivery of data and delivery in damaged condition are the problems that can occur
during data delivery.
In case of non-delivery of data, lack of acknowledgement results in retransmission of the
data.
In case of delivery of data in damaged state, a negative acknowledgment (NACK) force
retransmission.
The transport layer also accomplishes reliable delivery through other mechanisms:
o Orderly connection establishment and teardown.
Under normal circumstances a single connection is created between
computers.
Multiple connections can also be established to improve through put.
o Splitting messages into smaller packet.
52

The transport layer is also responsible for splitting messages from the
Session layer into smaller packet format where sequence numbers are
used by the receiver to rebuild the messages correctly.
o Flow controls enables one side to tell the other when the sending rate must be
slowed.

Session Layer 5:

Dialog control
o Simple: Only one direction signal travel. E.g. Radio
o Half duplex: Only one direction at a time. E.g. Wacky talky
o Full duplex: Both directions at a time. E.g. Phone, Cell, etc

Session Administration:
o Connection establishment: Connection establishment includes all subtasks
needed for the entities to recognize each other and agree to communicate. These
subtasks include the following:
Verifying user login names and passwords.
Establishing connection identification number.
Agreeing on which services are required and for what duration.
Determining which entity begins the conversation.
o Data transfer: Data transfer tasks maintain the connection or communication and
pass messages between two entities. The following sub tasks are often
performed:
Transfer data
Acknowledgement of data receipt(including negative, if data is not
received)
o Connection release: Connection release ends a communication session. It can
be ended by agreement between the two entities or by an understandable loss of
connection.

Normally Session Layer 5 defines:

The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between
them.
This layer maintains a groundwork or connection between the nodes on the network so
that when two applications need to communicate or share data over the network, the
session layer establishes a communication session between them.
It maintains the co-ordination by sending periodic messages to maintain the connection
and shutting the connection, when communication is finished.
Protocols of the session layer also determine which nodes are currently allowed to send
data.
Protocols are defined as the rules governing the exchange of information between
networked computers.
This layer provides features like file locking, log on and other administrative facilities.
The other services of Session Layer:
o This layer can provide a synchronization service for long transaction in which
check points are inserted into the data stream.
o If any problem occurs, only the data is transferred after the last checkpoint is
resent.
o It can allow traffic to go in three directions:
Simple duplex: Only one direction signal travel. E.g. Radio.
Half duplex: Only one direction at a time. E.g. Wacky talky.
53

Full duplex: Both directions at a time. E.g. Phone, Cell, etc.

Presentation Layer - 6:

Translation: When the data sending and receiving computers use different methods for
data encoding, some type of translation must be performed, given bellow some
translations:
o Bit order: Convert the transmitters bit scheme into the format the receiver uses
prior to transmission.
Convert the incoming data from the bit scheme used by the transmitter to the
format the receiver requires.
o Byte order: A byte is a collection of bits. Some times a computer will work a pair
of bytes. This pair of bytes is handled as a single unit and referred to as a ward.
The order in which a series of bytes is read is critical to the correct interpretation
of the data.
o Character order: Two types ASCII and EBCDIC.
o File syntax: Network operation systems are often required to extract the data and
file characteristics from one file system and convert them for another file system
across the network
Encryption:
o Secret key:
o Public/Private key:

Normally Presentation Layer 6 defines:

The Presentation layer presents data to the Application layer and is responsible for data
translation and code formatting. Means it want to convert signal (like electric,
electromagnetic, light and wave) to formats (like JPEG, BMP, DOC, XLS).
The OSI has protocol standard that define how standard data should be formatted. Tasks
like data compression, decompression, encryption, and decryption are associated with
this layer.
It can provide security through encryption of data.

Application Layer - 7:

Network services: : Services is the ability, which provide facilities to the network called
as services. Like File, Print, Message, Application, and Data base services
Service advertisement: Servers advertise the network services they provide to network
clients.
o Active: When performing this service, each server sends out periodic message to
announce its availability. And network clients collect advertisements and built
tables of available services. Upon timeout, the client removes the service from its
services table.
o Passive: A server performs passive service advertisement by registering its
service and address with a directory. When clients want to identify which services
54

are available, they ask the directory to locate the service and provide the service
address.
Service use:
o OS call interception: When using OS call interception, the local operating system
is completely unaware of the existence of network services.
o Remote operation: With this, the local operating system is aware of the network
and is responsible for submitting requests for network services.
o Collaborative computing: Collaborative computing involves sharing processing
abilities to accomplish a single task
E.g. Electronic messages, Document management, Group conferencing,
Workflow automation, Electronic commerce, and Workgroup scheduling.

Normally Application Layer 7 defines:

This is highest layer of the OSI model.

Always it able communicate user to user, application to application, and source to
destination, work with protocols.
All Operating systems fall in this category.
This layer provides support services to the applications required for network resources.
Layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed.
One of the most utilized services provided by the Application layer is file transfer.
Different file systems may use different file naming convention and data syntax.

REPEATER:

Network repeaters regenerate incoming signals.

Repeaters attempt to preserve signal integrity and extend the distance over which data
can safely travel.
Repeaters can be divided into two categories:

Amplifiers

Signal regenerators
Amplifier simply amplify (expand) the signals.
Signal regenerators strip out the original signal, which has weakened.
After that they build a new signal of the original strength and condition. Therefore signal
regenerators are preferred.
Features of Repeaters:
Repeaters work at the physical layer of the OSI model.
Repeaters can connect different types of cable provided, they use the same access
method.
A repeater has no packet conversion ability.

Hub:

A hub joints multiple computers or other network devices together to form a single
network segment.
55

On this network segment, all computers can communicate directly with each other. Small
hubs net work four computers.
Hub contains 8, 12, 16, and maximum 24 ports.
Hubs are also known as multi port repeaters or concentrators. They connect various
segments and act like a repeater.
The hub organizes the cables and transmits incoming signals to the other media
segments.
Types Hubs: All hubs provide us with various different facilities, and they are divided into four
different groups
Active hubs:
It can provide multiple attachments as well as generate or amplifies the signals.
It has their own power supply.

Passive hubs:
Does not amplify the signals, only provide multiple attachment.
They do not have their own power supply .
Passive hubs are not used in Ethernet networks.

Smart hubs:
They give us the same facilities as active hubs.
However they offer us with management and monitoring capabilities.
They can also be used to locate and identify problems on the network.

Switches:
It is a network device, which provide multiple attachments as well as amplify the
signals. And this is a small device that joins multiple computers together at a lowlevel network protocol layer.
When a switch receives a transmission, it only forwards the signal through the port
that will allow the transmission to be delivered to the device to which it is
addressed. This is two types:
1. Manageable Switch: It will filter packets and provide security setting.
2. Non Manageable Switch: It has Ethernet, and it can work like Active hub.

BRIDGES:

Bridges are devices that operate at Layer 2 of the OSI reference model.
A bridge consists of a computer unit, it is used for connect more than one different
networks.
The bridges use special software that accept data from the sending network and
translates it to the language other network.
A bridge therefore extends the maximum distance of network just like a repeater.
However it can also be used to segment the network to reduce network congestion.
A vast congested network can be divided into separate segments using a bridge.
It can support maximum 16 ports only.

Advantages of network bridge

Self configuring
Reduce size of collision domain
56

Transparent to protocols above the MAC layer

Allows the introduction of management - performance information and access control
LANs interconnected are separate and physical contraints such as number of stations,
repeaters and segment length don't apply

Disadvantages of a network bridge

Does not limit the scope of broadcasts

Does not scale to extremely large networks
Buffering introduces store and forward delays - on average traffic destined for bridge will
be related to the number of stations on the rest of the LAN
Bridging of different MAC protocols introduces errors
Because bridges do more than repeaters by viewing MAC addresses, the extra
processing makes them slower than repeaters.
Bridges are more expensive than repeaters.

ROUTERS:

A router is similar to a bridge, but can handle more complex type of communication
between different networks.
Routers filter out network traffic by specific protocol rather than by packet address.
Routers also divide networks logically instead of physically.
The router works network layer thus giving them the ability to understand the protocols
being used to carry the data over the network.

Features of Router:
Multiple Active paths:
o Routers are able to keep track of multiple active paths.
o They keep track of multiple active paths between and given source and
destination network.
o This makes it more rigid towards faults than a bridge.
o This is because in a bridge multiple concurrent paths are not allowed.

Identify address:
o Routers work at network layer and it can access more information than a bridge.
o Routers can identify source and destination network addresses within packets.

Traffic Management:
o Routers provide excellent traffic management using intelligent path selection.
o Routers select the best route, which is based on traffic loads, line speeds, number
of hops, or administrator pre set costs.
o The various parameters used to determine routes for packets are know as
metrics.

Sharing information:
o Routers can share status and routing information with other routers.
o By doing this they can listen to the network and identify which connections are
busy and which are not.
o The routers then route network traffic avoiding slow or faulty connections.

Filtering bad data:

o Routers dont forward any information that does not have a correct network
adderss.
57

o This is the reason they dont forward bad data.

o Routers also filter broadcast traffic by not routing broadcast packets. Means that
network broadcasts do not spread through out the inter network.

Performance:
o Routers perform complex tasks. Means they are slower than bridges because
they keep processing data intensively.

Network Addresses:
o Protocols that are routable differ from protocols that are not routable.
o Routable protocols contain information in each packet relation to the network
address of the source and destination nodes.
o This kind of information allows a router to forward the packet to a particular
network rather than a particular node.
o However they support on each network having a unique address.

BROUTER:

Routers that are also capable of bridging are called Brouter. And these are devices that
depend on protocol.
This device combines the best qualities of both a bridge and router.
If the brouter recognizes the Network layer protocol, it acts like a router and finds the
shortest path.
If the brouter does not recognize the Network layer protocol, it acts like a bridge and
forwards the frame to the next segment.

CSMA/CD: It always check cable media, its free or not. If it is free communicate network
devices, other wise wait for free. In this way collision will be reduce.
Ethernet: It is a methodology for accessing media, its allow to share bandwidth for all hosts.
It easy to implement and troubleshoot.
It is used in Physical layer and Data link layer, and it can work with CSMA/CD.
Collisions:

Ethernetisasharedmedia,sotherearerulesforsendingpacketsofdatatoavoidconflicts(war)
andprotectdataintegrity.
Nodes determine when the network is available for sending packets. It is possible that two

nodes at different locations attempt to send data at the same time. When both PCs are
transferringapackettothenetworkatthesametime,acollisionwillresult.Minimizingcollisions
isacrucialelementinthedesignandoperationofnetworks.
Increasedcollisionsareoftentheresultoftoomanyusersonthenetwork,whichresultsinalot
ofcontentionfornetworkbandwidth.Thiscanslowtheperformanceofthenetworkfromthe
user'spointofview.Segmentingthenetwork,whereanetworkisdividedintodifferentpieces
joined together logically with a bridge or switch, is one way of reducing an overcrowded
network.

58

Collision Domain: It is a ethernet host, which able to sence cable, and detect collision called as Collision
Deomain

59

SUB NETTING
Sub netting: Sub Netting is a IP address calculation method which allow to create multiple
networks using one IP address range.
Some benefits of sub netting:
Reduced network traffic:
Optimized network performance:
Simplified management:

Broadcast Address:
As mentioned earlier, there are two reserved numbers in each network. One number is the
network number, which is used to represent the entire network. The other reserved number is
called the broadcast address. This number is used to represent all IP addresses in the network.
The broadcast address is used when a packet needs to be sent to all hosts in a network. All
hosts receiving the packet should notice that the packet is destined for their own networks
broadcast address, and process the packet.
Subnetting is simply the process of treating subdivisions of a single Class A, B, or C network as
if it were a network itself. By doing so, a single Class A, B, or C network can be subdivided into
many nonoverlapping subnets.
Members of one subnet have the same numeric value in the subnet parts of the addresses.
Members of one subnet cannot be separated by a router.
Members of a second subnet must be separated from the first subnet by a router.
Term Definition
Network number A number representing a group of hosts, whose network parts of their
addresses
are identical. Either 1, 2, or 3 bytes are identical, depending on whether the
network is a Class A, B, or C network, respectively.
Subnet number A number representing a group of hosts, whose network and subnet parts are
identical. Many people in fact treat the network and subnet parts as one large
part of the address because hosts in this same subnet have the same value in this
large subnet part of the address.
Network address Another term for network Number.
Subnet address Another term for subnet Number
Mask 32-bit binary number, usually written in canonical decimal form, used for two purposes.
First, it defines the number of host bits in a particular address byhaving a value of binary 0 in
the mask for each bit in the address that is considered to be in the host part of the address. The
second feature is that the mask is used by computers using a Boolean AND operation to derive
the network number of which an individual address is a member.
Default mask The mask used by Class A, B, and C networks, that implies 24, 16, and 8 host
bits, respectively.
Subnet mask The subnet mask still defines the number of host bits in the addresses and is
used by computers to compute the subnet number that an address is a member of, by
performing a Boolean AND of the address and the subnet mask. This mask is used by an
organization for a network, in which there are fewer host bits than the default mask. This
creates a subnet part of the address.
Host address IP address assigned to some interface. It cannot be the same number as any
network number, and it cannot be the same number as any subnet number.
IP address Another name for host address.
60

Class
Class A
Class B
Class C
Class D
Class E

Subnet Mask
255.0.0.0 (N.H.H.H)
255.255.0.0 (N.N.H.H)
255.255.255.0 (N.N.N.H)
No Subnet Mask
No Subnet Mask

Range
0 to 126 (0111 1111)
128 to 191(1011 1111)
192 to 223(1101 1111)
224 to 239(1110 1111)
240 to 255

Uses
used for LAN
used for MAN
used for WAN
used for multicasting (ISP)
used for research and
development

Class A: Networks = 256 and hosts = 1,67,77,216.

Class B: Networks = 65,536 and hosts = 65,536.
Class C: Networks = 1,67,77,216 and hosts = 256.
Last valid IP addresses: 223.255.255.224
Last valid Broad cast IP: 223.255.255.255
Private IP Address: These private can be used on a private network, but they are not routable
through the Internet. This us designed for the purpose of creating a measure of well needed
security, but it also conveniently saves valuable IP address spae.
Class

Reserved address space (Private IP addresses)

Class A
Class B
Class C

10.0.0.0 through 10.255.255.255.

172.16.0.0 through 172.31.255.255
192.168.0.0 through 192.168.255.255

1. 150.100.0.0 subnets = 6, find no. of hosts for subnet and subnet mask.
Answer:
Subnet =2n 2 , n = Barrowed bit
2n 2 = 6
then n = 3

1110 0000
Delta/last barrowed bit (value 32)

Delta = Last barrowed bit

Delta = 32
Subnets = Delta + Last subnet
Subnets
32 + 0
32 + 32
32 + 64
32 + 96
32 + 128
32 + 160

150.100.32.0
150.100.64.0
150.100.96.0
150.100.128.0
150.100.160.0
150.100.192.0
61

Host for subnet = 2m 2 (m = free bits)

Free bits = 5
Then 213 -2 = 8190 hosts per subnet
Subnet Mask = Additional of all barrowed bits
We are barrowed 3bits
128 + 64 + 32 = 224
Subnet Mask = 255.255.224.0
2. You have been given the subnet mask of 255.255.255.224. Which IP address would be
valid? (Choose three)
A. 15.234.118.63
B. 92.11.178.93
C. 134.178.18.56
D. 192.168.16.87
E. 201.45.116.159
F. 217.63.12.192
Answer: B, C, D
Explanation:
B: Valid Host in subnetwork 2 ( 92.11.178.64 to 92.11.178.95)
C: Valid Host in subnetwork 1(134.178.18.32 to 134.178.18.63)
D: Valid host in subnetwork 2 (192.168.16.64 to 192.168.16.95
3. You have subnetted the 210.106.14.0 network with a /24 mask. Your boss at CMC
wants to know how many usable subnetworks and usable host addresses per subnet
this would provide.
What should you tell her?
A. 1 network with 254 hosts (mask 24 = 255.255.255.0)
B. 2 networks with 128 hosts
C. 4 networks with 64 hosts
D. 6 networks with 30 hosts

4. You work as a network technician at CMC. You have subnetted the 213.105.72.0
network with a /28 mask. Your boss asks you how many usable subnetworks and usable
host addresses per subnet this will provide. What should you tell her?
A. 62 networks and 2 hosts
B. 6 networks and 30 hosts
C. 8 networks and 32 hosts
D. 16 networks and 16 hosts
E. 14 networks and 14 hosts (mask 28 = 255.255.244.0)
5. You work as a network consultant. You are planning a network installation for a large
organization named CMC. The design requires 100 separate subnetworks, so CMC has
acquired a Class B network address. What subnet mask will provide the 100
subnetworks required, if 500 usable host addresses are required per subnet?
A. 255.255.240.0
B. 255.255.246.0
62

C. 255.255.252.0
D. 255.255.254.0
E. 255.255.255.0
F. 255.255.255.192
6. Given a subnet mask of 255.255.255.224, which of the following addresses can be
assigned to network hosts? (Select three.)
A. 15.234.118.63
B. 92.11.178.93
C. 134.178.18.56
D. 192.168.16.87
E. 201.45.116.159
F. 217.63.12.192
Answer: B, C, D
Explanation:
B: Valid Host in subnetwork 2 ( 92.11.178.64 to 92.11.178.95)
C: Valid Host in subnetwork 1(134.178.18.32 to 134.178.18.63)
D: Valid host in subnetwork 2 (192.168.16.64 to 192.168.16.95

63

Protocols
OSI Models
Application Layer

DoD Models

Presentation
Layer
Session layer

Process/Application

Transport Layer

Host to Host

Network Layer

Internet

Data Link Layer

Physical layer

Network Access

Protocols
Telnet
TFTP

FTP

LPD

SMTP

NFS

X Window
TCP
ICMP
Ethernet

UDP
ARP
IP
Fast
Ethernet

RARP
Token
Ring

FDDI

Process/Application Layer: This layer defines protocols for node to node application
communication and also controls user interface specifications.
In this Protocols are: Telnet, FTP, LPD, TFTP, SMTP, NFS, and X Window.
Telnet: Allows a user sitting on a remote machine to access the resources of another machine,
only in DOS mode not in GUI. Work with TCP port no 23.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Allow to transfer files one machine to another using TCP. And
also allows access to both directories and files. (TCP transmission is slower but reliable) port
no: 21.
TFTP (Trivial FTP): This is closed version of FTP. It has no directory browsing abilities, but it
can only send and receive files using UDP. (UDP transmission is faster but not reliable) port no
69
NFS (Network File System): This can allows to share files and folders in multiple operating
systems. This is most IMP protocol.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocal): This is used to send mail and POP3 is used to receive
mail using with TCP, port no 25

LPD (Line Printer Daemon): Designed for printer sharing. The LPD along with the LPR (Line
Printer Program) allows print jobs to spooled and sent to the networks printer using TCP/IP.
E.g.: Network Printer.
X Window: Defines a protocol for the writing of GUI based Client/Server application. It allows a
program to run on one computer and have it display on another computer. E.g.:Net meeting.

64

SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol): SNMP enable a central management of

network. Means using this administrator can watch the entire network. It can watch using
TCP/IP, but data transmission using UDP.
DNS (Domain Name Service): Maintains a database for IP address and Hostnames. Work with
TCP and UDP port no 53
It can search three types:
Forward lookup zone: Search host name to IP address from DNS database for
communication between private and public network (DNS database like VSNL, BSNL).
Reverse lookup zone: Search IP address to host name
Stab lookup zone: Maintain the copy of database
Boot/P(Bootstrap Protocol): This is older version of DHCP. In centralizing server all clients
are terminals, these terminals has no storage capacity and own OS, these can boot from
centralizing computer using Boot/P.
DHCP(Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): The DHCP server dynamically assigns IP
address to hosts. All types of hardware can be used as a DHCP server, even a Cisco Router. It
can provide while host registers for an IP address:
IP address
Subnet mask
Domain name
Default name
Default gateway (Router)
DNS
WINS information

Host to Host Layer: Defining protocols for setting up the level of transmission service for
applications. It tackles issues such as creating reliable end to end communication and ensuring
the error free delivery of data. It handles packet sequencing and maintains data integrity.
In this Protocols are: TCP and UDP
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): TCP work at Transport layer. It is a connection
oriented protocol, it take responsible for breaking messages into segments and reassembling
them. Supplies a virtual circuit between end user applications.
UDP (User Datagram Protocol): This is connectionless and unacknowledged protocol, and
responsible for transmitting messages but no checking for segment delivery is provided. It
depend on upper layer protocol for reliability.

TCP and UDP Functional Comparison

Function
Data transfer

Description (TCP)
Continuous stream of ordered
Data (Sequenced)

Description (UDP)
Message (datagram) delivery
(Un sequenced)

Multiplexing

Allows receiving hosts to

decide the correct application
the data is destined for, based
on port number

Allows receiving hosts to decide the

correct application the data is destined
for, based on port number

65

Reliable transfer

Data is acknowledged using the Not a feature of UDP

sequence and acknowledgement (No acknowledgement)
fields in the TCP header

Flow control

Used to protect buffer space and Not a feature of UDP

routing devices

Connections

Used to initialize port numbers

and other TCP header fields
(connection oriented)

Not needed for UDP(connectionless)

Internet Layer: Designating the protocols relating to the logical transmission of packets over
the entire network. It takes care of the addressing of hosts by giving them an IP address, and it
handles the routing of packets among multiple networks. It also controls the communication flow
between the two hosts.
In this Protocol are: IP, ARP, RARP, and ICMP
IP: Provides connectionless, best effort delivery routing of datagrams. It not concerned with the
content of the datagrams. But looks for a way to move the datagrams to their destination. It
work with TCP and UDP.
IP header protocols and their numbers:
ICMP
1
IGRP
9
EIGRP
88
OSPF
89
IPv6
41
GRE
47
IPX in IP
111
Layer 2 Tunnel(L2TP)
115

Message Types
Message
Purpose
Destination Unreachable: Tells the source host that there is a problem delivering a packet.
Time Exceeded:

The time it takes a packet to be delivered has become too long; the
packet has been discarded.

Source Quench

The source is sending data faster than it can be forwarded; this

message requests that the sender slow down

Buffer Full:

If a routers memory buffer for receiving incoming datagrams is full, it

will use ICMP to send out this message until the congestion abates.

Redirect:
which

The router sending this message has received some packet for
another router would have had a better route; the message tells the
sender to use the better router.
66

Echo:

Used by the ping command to verify connectivity.

Parameter Problem:

Used to identify a parameter that is incorrect.

Timestamp:

Used to measure roundtrip time to particular hosts.

Address Mask request/

Reply:

Used to inquire and learn the correct subnet mask to be used

Router Advertisement
and Selection:

Used to allow hosts to dynamically learn the IP addresses of the

routers attached to the same subnet.

Hopes:

Each IP datagram is allotted a certain number of routers, called

hops, to pass through. If it reaches its limit of hops before arriving at
its destination, the last router to receive that datagram deletes it. The
executioner router then uses ICMP to send an obituary message,
informing the sending machine of the demise (finish) of its datagram.

Traceroute:

Using ICMP timeouts, Traceroute is used to discover the path a

packet takes as it traverses an internet work.

ARP: ARP works at Internet Layer of DoD Model. It is used to resolve MAC address with the
help of a known IP address. All resolved MAC addresses are maintained in ARP cache table is
maintained
To send a datagram this ARP cache table is checked and if not found then a broadcast is sent
along with the IP address. Machine with that IP address responds and the MAC address is
cached.

RARP: RARP works at Internet Layer. It works exactly opposite of ARP, it resolves and IP
address with the help of a known MAC address,
DHCP is the example of an RARP implementation. Workstations get their IP address from a
RARP server or DHCP server with the help of RARP.

Network Access Layer: Monitors the data exchange between the host and the network. And
this layer oversees hardware addressing and defines protocols for the physical transmission of
data.

Network Address Translation (NAT): An algorithm instrumental in minimizing the requirement

for globally connect unique IP addresses, permitting an organization whose addresses are not
all globally unique to connect to the Internet however, by translating those addresses into
globally routable address space.

67

CISCO IOS (Internetwork Operating System):

This is kernel of Cisco routers and most switches, kernel is the basic, indispensable part of an
operating system that allocates resources and manages things such as low level hardware
interfaces and security.
And this was created to deliver network services and enable networked applications. Some
important things given bellow:
Carrying network protocols and functions.
Connecting high speed traffic between devices.
Adding security to control access and stop unauthorized network use.
Providing scalability for ease of network growth and redundancy.
Supplying network reliability for connecting to network resources.
Connecting to CISCO router: There are different ways to connect
Using rolled cable through console port to PC
Auxiliary port
Telnet
CISCO Hardware
Internal

External

1. RAM
Loads/boots the OS
Loads/boots the configuration
files
Also generate routing table
2. NVRAM
Stores the configuration files
3. Flash (EPROM)
Used to store the IOS
4. ROM
It has bootstrap program
(Booting sequence) or basic
IOS.

1. Terminal is used to configure the router.

2. Virtual Terminal also used to configure Router using

terminal serves, this will connected through Switch.
3. TFTP Server: Used to store backup of IOS.
Command is copy flash TFTP next it can ask the
TFTP server ip add and follow the instructions.
copy start TFTP it can take backup of NVRAM.

68

Router Configuration
COMMANDS
Enable command is used for enable prompt.
Router> : User mode (in this mode we can not change any modifications and can not see any
thing)
Router#: privilege mode (it will come after enable command) it can show any details of the
device.
Router#show: It can show the running system information
Router#show router: It can show the router name, router type, IOS version, ports details, and
memory details etc.
Router#show memory flash: It can show the router memory details.
Router# ? or show ?: It can show the commands list, show ? can show the details of command
of show.
Router#show interface: It can show how many interfaces are there.
Router#show running-config: It can show system running configuration.
Router#show terminal: It can show router device information
Router#terminal history size 50: We can modify the history using this command (50 is e.g.
size)
Router#show clock: It can show the router clock
Router#show history: It can show the how many commands are used.
Router#configure terminal: Using this command we can modify the system (router) details1.
Router#clock set ? or Router#clock set hh:mm:ss using this we can set the time
Router#show ip interface serial 0: Used for view IP address of particular interface (here serial
0).
Router#configure terminal press enter it can show router(config)#
router(config)#: This is called global mode or configuration mode. It is used for all types of
changes.
Router(config)#hostname vijay: it will change the router name, if enter here router name will be
arjun [ arjun(config)# ]
Arjun(config)#line aux or console or vty: line is used to enter into ports, after entering we can
modify the ports details like password setting etc.
69

Arjun(config-line)#login for setting password we must use this command in aux, console in vty
we can use login command after setting password also.
Arjun(config-line)#password cisco
Arjun(config)#interface serial 0 or Ethernet 0 or fastethernet 0 1 these are used to connect
devices. (It can show like arjun(config-if)#) only in serial interface, we can set the clock rate
depend on DCE. Like [arjun(config-line)#clock rate 64000] speed of 64000 is eg.
arjun(config-if)#ip address 192.168.10.1 255.255.255.0 (IP no and subnet no is only e.g.) after
setting IP we must want do no shut like arjun(config-if)#no shut
we can see the IP details using sh ip int brief s0 or sh run
arjun#sh ip int brief: we can see the IP details

Arjun(config)#banner motd #: we can give specific information about router. After allocating the
message must close using #. We can see the banner using
Arjun#sh ip route: it will give the information about routing
Note:
Auxiliary port used to connect switch, WAN and using rolled cable to PC for router configuration
perpose.
Console port used to connect PC using rolled cable and com port of PC
telnet (vty) used to connect

BANNERS: Banner will give exact information which we entered about router.
banners

Line: c banner-text c, where c is a delimiting character.

Exec: Set exec process creation banner.
Incoming: Set incoming terminal line banner.
Login: Set login banner.
Motd: Set message of the day banner.

70

Types of

IP ROUTING
Configuring IP Routing in Our Network
Three different types of routings, there are:
1. Static Routing
2. Default Routing
3. Dynamic Routing
1. Static Routing: In Static Routing, the administrator is responsible for updating all
changes by hand into all routers.
Benefits:
There in no overhead on the router CPU.
No band width usage between routers.
Its adds security, because administrator can choose to allow routing access to certain
networks only.
Disadvantages:
The administrator must really understand the Internetwork and how each router is
connected in order to configure routers correctly.
If a network is added to the Internetwork, the administrator has to add a route to it on all
routers by hand.
Its not feasible (possible) in large networks because maintaining it would be a full time
job in itself.
router(config)#ip route [destination network] [mask] [next hop add or exit interface]
[administrative distance] [permanent]
IP route: The command is used to create the static route
Destination network: The network we are placing in the routing table.
Mask: The subnet mask being used on the network.
Next hop address : The address of the next hop router that will receive the packet and forward
it to the remote network. This is router interface thats directly connected to network.
Exitinterface: We can use it in place of the next hop address if we want, but its got to be on a
point-to-point link, such as a WAN. This command was not work on a LAN such as Ethernet.
Administrative Distance : By default, static routes have an administrative distance of 1. (if we
are using exitinterface AD 0)

71

Permanent: If the interface is shut down, or the router cant communicate to the next hop
router, the router will automatically be discarded form the routing table. Choosing the
Permanent option keeps the entry in the routing table no matter what happens.

Routing Protocol Basics

Administrative Distances: AD is used to rate the responsibility of routing information received
on a router from a neighbor router. These are from 0 to 255, the lower number higher is integrity
rate.
Default AD:
Route source
Connected Interface
Static route
EIGRP
IGRP
OSPF
RIP
External EIGRP
Unknown

Default AD
0
1
90
100
110
120
170
255 (this route will never be used)

1. Static Routing:
Configure Static routing:

Subnetmask 255.255.224.0
s0 Serial 0, s1 Serial 1, e0 Ethernet, and N network.
R1
Router>en
72

Rrouter1#conf t
Router(config)#hostname R1
R1(config)#int s0
R1(config-if)#ip add 150.100.128.1 255.255.224.0
R1(config-if)#clock rate 64000
(64000 is E.g.)
R1(config-if)#no shut
R1(config-if)#int e0
R1(config-if)#ip add 150.100.32.1 255.255.224.0
R1(config-if)#no shut
R1(config-if)#exit
R1(config)#ip route 150.100.64.0 255.255.224.0 150.100.128.1 50 (50 is AD other AD must be
1)
R1(config)#ip route 150.100.96.0 255.255.224.0 150.100.128.1 50 (50 is AD other AD must be
1)
R1(config)#ip route 150.100.160.0 255.255.224.0 150.100.128.1 50 (50 is AD other AD must
be 1

R2
Router>en
Rrouter1#conf t
Router(config)#hostname R2
R2(config)#int s0
R2(config-if)#ip add 150.100.128.2 255.255.224.0
R2(config-if)#clock rate 64000
(64000 is E.g.)
R2(config-if)#no shut
R2(config-if)#int e0
R2(config-if)#ip add 150.100.64.1 255.255.224.0
R2(config-if)#no shut
R2(config-if)#exit
R2(config)#int s1
R2(config-if)#ip add 150.100.160.1 255.255.224.0
R2(config-if)#clock rate 64000
R2(config-if)#no shut
R2(config-if)#exit
R2(config)#ip route 150.100.32.0 255.255.224.0 150.100.128.1 50 (50 is AD other AD must be
1)
R2(config)#ip route 150.100.96.0 255.255.224.0 150.100.160.2 50 (50 is AD other AD must be
1)

R3
Router>en
73

Rrouter1#conf t
Router(config)#hostname R3
R3(config)#int s0
R3(config-if)#ip add 150.100.160.2 255.255.224.0
R3(config-if)#clock rate 64000
(64000 is E.g.)
R3(config-if)#no shut
R3(config-if)#int e0
R3(config-if)#ip add 150.100.96.1 255.255.224.0
R3(config-if)#no shut
R3(config-if)#exit
R3(config)#ip route 150.100.32.0 255.255.224.0 150.100.160.1 50 (50 is AD other AD must be
1)
R3(config)#ip route 150.100.64.0 255.255.224.0 150.100.160.1 50 (50 is AD other AD must be
1)
R3(config)#ip route 150.100.128.0 255.255.224.0 150.100.160.1 50 (50 is AD other AD must
be 1

PCs configuration
PC 1
C:>ipconfig /ip 150.100.32.2 255.255.224.0 (IP configuration)
C:>ipconfig /dg 150.100.32.1 (Default gateway)
PC 2
C:>ipconfig /ip 150.100.32.3 255.255.224.0
C:>ipconfig /dg 150.100.32.1
PC3
C:>ipconfig /ip 150.100.64.2 255.255.224.0 (or) wincfg
C:>ipconfig /dg 150.100.64.1
PC 4
C:>ipconfig /ip 150.100.64.3 255.255.224.0
C:>ipconfig /dg 150.100.64.1
PC 5
C:>ipconfig /ip 150.100.96.2 255.255.224.0
C:>ipconfig /dg 150.100.96.1
PC 6
C:>ipconfig /ip 150.100.96.3 255.255.224.0
C:>ipconfig /dg 150.100.96.1
74

2. Default Routing: The default routing sends packets to remote destination network when
not found in the routing table to the next hop router. We can only use default routing on
stub networks.
Stub network: A network having only one connection to a router
Command of default routing is:
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 [ip of next hop router]

3. Dynamic Routing (Adaptive routing): Dynamic routing is when protocols are used to
find network and update routing tables on router.
A routing protocol defines the set of rules used by a router when it communicates routing
information between neighbor routers

Routing Protocols
There are three classes of routing Protocols:
1. Distance vector protocols: The distance vector protocols find best path to a remote
network by judging distance. Each time a packet goes through a router, thats called a
hope. The route with the least number of hops to the network is determined to be the
best route. Distance vector protocols are RIP (Routing Information Protocol) and IGRP
(Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)
2. Link State Protocol (Shortest path first Protocol): A routing algorithm that allows
each router to broadcast or multicast information regarding the cost of reaching all its
neighbors to every node in the internetwork.
Packet will travel from predefined path only, created by the administrator.
The routers each create three separate tables. One of these tables keeps track of
directly attached neighbors, one determines the topology of the entire internetwork, and
one is used as the routing table.
3. Hybrid: Routing protocol that uses the attributes of both distance vector and link state for
e.g. EIGRP.

1. Distance vector protocols:

The distance vector (DV) routing algorithm passes complete routing tables to neighbor
routers.
The neighbor routers combine the received routing table with their own routing tables to
complete the internetwork map.
75

This is called routing by rumor, because a router receiving an update from a neighbor
router believes the information about remote networks without actually finding out for
itself.
It is possible to have a network that has multiple links to the same remote network, if that
is the case, the AD is first checked.
If AD is the same, it will have to use other metrics to determine the best path to use to
that remote network.
RIP uses only hop count to determine the best path to an internetwork.
If RIP finds more than one link to the same remote network with the same hop count, it
will automatically perform a round robin load balance.
RIP can perform load balancing for up to six equal cost links.
The problem arises when the two links to a remote network are different bandwidths but
the same hop count.

Routing Metrics:

Hope Count: Number or routers through which a packet will pass

Ticks: Delay on a data link using IBM PC clock ticks (approx 55 milliseconds)
Cost: Arbitrary value, usually based on bandwidth, dollar expense, or another
measurement, that may be assigned by a network administrator.
Bandwidth: Data capacity of a link.
Delay: Length of time required to move a packet from source to destination.
Load: Amount of activity on a network resource, such as a router or link.
Reliability: Usually refers to the bit error rate of each network link.
MTU: Maximum transmission unit. The maximum frame length in octets that is
acceptable to all links on the path.

Pinhole Congestion: A problem associated with distance vector routing protocols if more than
one connection to a remote network is known, but they are different bandwidths.

When hop count is same, data can divide in to two equal parts if bandwidth is not enough to
send from one way, at the same time one way can carry the one part of data and another part
of data send second way. If second way, bandwidth is less than data, problem will occur. This is
called Pinhole congestion.
Convergence: The process required for all routers in an internetwork to update their routing
tables and create a consistent view of the network, using the best possible paths. When the
routers are converging, no data is passed.

Routing Loops:
76

Distance vector (DV) routing protocols keep track of any changes to the internet work by
broadcasting periodic routing updates to all active interfaces.
This broadcast includes the completes routing tables.
This work fine, while it takes up CPU process and link bandwidth.
The slow convergence of Distance Vector routing protocols can cause inconsistent
routing loops.

Solving the router loop problems using:

Maximum Hop Count:
The routing loop problem just described is called counting to infinity.
It is caused by gossip and wrong information being communicated and propagated
(broadcast) throughout the internetwork.
Without some form of intervention, the hop count increases indefinitely each time a
packet passes through a router.
One way of solving this problem is to define a maximum hop count.
Distance vector (RIP) permits a hop count of up to 15, so anything that requires 16 hops
is deemed unreachable.
Split Horizon:
Another solution to the routing loop problem is called split horizon.
This reduce incorrect routing information and routing overhead in a distance vector
network by enforcing the rule that information cannot be sent back in the direction from
which it was received.
Route Poisoning:
Another way to avoid problems caused by inconsistent updates is route poisoning.
Used by various DV routing protocols in order to overcome large routing loops and offer
explicit information about when a subnet or network is not accessible (instead of simply
suggesting that the network is unreachable by not including it in updates). Typically, this
is accomplished by setting the hop count to one more than maximum.
Holddown Timers:
Holddown Timers are used to prevent (stop) regular update messages from
inappropriately (wrongly) reinstating a route that might have gone bad.
Holddowns tell router to hold any changes that might affect routes for some period of
time.
The holddown period is usually calculated to be just greater than the period of time
necessary to update the entire network with a routing change.
It works: When a router receives an update from a neighbor indicating that a previously
accessible network is now inaccessible, the router marks the route as inaccessible and
starts a holddown timer.
If an update arrives from a neighboring router with a better metric than originally
recorded for the network, the router marks the networks as accessible and removes the
holddown timer.
It expiring: Hold Timers are run on the router connected to the failed link. It will
connected to the failed link.
It will stop any updation or propagation for the failed Network.
A Hold Timer will expire under three condition with the help of triggered updates.
o The Timer expires
o A tasks proportional to no. of links received.
o Original path comes back or alternative path is available.
77

Triggered Updates:
Holddowns use triggered updates, which reset the holddown timer, to alert the neighbor
routers of a change in the network.
Triggered updates create a new routing table that is sent immediately to neighbor routers
because a change was detected in the internetwork.
There are three instance when triggered updates will reset the holddown timer:
o The holddown timer expires.
o The router receives a processing task proportional to the number of links in the
internetwork.
o Another update is received indicating the network status has changed.

Details of Distance vector protocols: RIPv1, RIPv2, and IGRP.

1. Routing Information Protocol (RIPv1):

This can sends the complete routing table out to all active interfaces every 30 seconds.
RIP only uses hop count to determine the best way to a remote network, but it has a
maximum allowable hop count of 15, means 16th is unreachable.
RIP works well in small networks, inefficient on large networks because hops will be
high.
RIP version 1 uses only classful routing, which means that all devices in the network
must use the same Subnetmask. Because this does not send updates with Subnetmask.
RIP administration distance is 120
RIP version 2 provides what is called prefix routing and it will send subnet mask
information with the route updates.
RIP timers:
o Route update timer: Sets the interval (30Seconds) between periodic routing
updates, in which the router sends a complete copy of its routing table out to all
neighbors.
o Router invalid timer:
o Hold down timer:
o Route flush timer:

Using RIPv1 and RIPv2 Router configuration:

78

Subnetmask 255.255.224.0
s0 Serial 0, s1 Serial 1, e0 Ethernet, and N network.
R1
Router>en
Rrouter1#conf t
Router(config)#hostname R1
R1(config)#int s0
R1(config-if)#ip add 150.100.128.1 255.255.224.0
R1(config-if)#clock rate 64000
(64000 is E.g.)
R1(config-if)#no shut
R1(config-if)#int e0
R1(config-if)#ip add 150.100.32.1 255.255.224.0
R1(config-if)#no shut
R1(config-if)#exit
R1(config)#router rip
We must want take only directly connected networks.
R1(config-router)#network 150.100.32.0
R1(config-router)#network 150.100.128.0
(R1(config-router)#version 2 this command is used for RIPv2 only otherwise not)
R2
Router>en
Rrouter1#conf t
Router(config)#hostname R2
R2(config)#int s0
R2(config-if)#ip add 150.100.128.2 255.255.224.0
R2(config-if)#clock rate 64000
(64000 is E.g. of clock rate)
R2(config-if)#no shut
R2(config-if)#int e0
79

R2(config-if)#ip add 150.100.64.1 255.255.224.0

R2(config-if)#no shut
R2(config-if)#exit
R2(config)#int s1
R2(config-if)#ip add 150.100.160.1 255.255.224.0
R2(config-if)#clock rate 64000
R2(config-if)#no shut
R2(config-if)#exit
R2(config)#router rip
We must want take only directly connected networks.
R2(config-router)#network 150.100.64.0
R2(config-router)#network 150.100.128.0
R2(config-router)#network 150.100.160.0
(R2(config-router)#version 2 this command is used for RIPv2 only otherwise not)
R3
Router>en
Rrouter1#conf t
Router(config)#hostname R3
R3(config)#int s0
R3(config-if)#ip add 150.100.160.2 255.255.224.0
R3(config-if)#clock rate 64000
(64000 is E.g.)
R3(config-if)#no shut
R3(config-if)#int e0
R3(config-if)#ip add 150.100.96.1 255.255.224.0
R3(config-if)#no shut
R3(config-if)#exit
R3(config)#router rip
We must want take only directly connected networks.
R3(config-router)#network 150.100.96.0
R3(config-router)#network 150.100.160.0
(R3(config-router)#version 2 this command is used for RIPv2 only otherwise not)
Note: PCs configuration is same in all.
Commands for checking:
1. Sh ip route:
2. Sh ip int brief
3. Passive interface: This is command prevents RIP update broadcasts from being sent
out a defined interface, but that same interface can still receive RIP updates.

80

2. Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP):

This is Cisco proprietary Distance Vector protocol, means that all routers must be Cisco
routers to use IGRP in the network.
Cisco created this routing protocol to overcome the problems associated with RIP.
This is help full in larger networks, it uses bandwidth and delay of the line by default as a
metric for determining the best route to an internetwork. And reliability, load, and
Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) can also be used, but not used by default.
IGRP has a maximum hop count of 255 with a default of 100.
To control performance, IGRP includes the following timers with default setting:
o Route update timer: These specify how frequently routing update messages
should be sent, the default is 90 seconds
o Router invalid timer: These specify how long a router should wait before declaring
a route invalid if it doesnt receive a specific update about it. The default is three
times the update period.
o Hold down timer: These specify the hold down period. The default is three times
the update timer period plus 10 seconds.
o Route flush timer: These indicate how much time should pass before a route
should be flushed from the routing table. The default is seven times the routing
update period.

Using IGRP Router configuration:

Commands is as simple as in RIP routing except that IGRP uses an AS number. This
number advertises only to routers we want to shre routing information with.
IGRP load balancing up to six unequal links, using bandwidth to determine how to load
balance.

Subnetmask 255.255.224.0
s0 Serial 0, s1 Serial 1, e0 Ethernet, and N network.
R1
81

We will take only directly connected networks. And steps must be done after configuring all
interfaces.
R1(config)#router igrp 10
(10 is Autonomous System number, these are 1 to 65,535. AS will be same in its any particular
network)
R1(config-router)#network 150.100.32.0
R1(config-router)#network 150.100.128.0
R2
We will take only directly connected networks. And steps must be done after configuring all
interfaces.
R2(config)# router igrp 10
R2(config-router)#network 150.100.64.0
R2(config-router)#network 150.100.128.0
R2(config-router)#network 150.100.160.0
R3
We will to take only directly connected networks. And steps must be done after configuring all
interfaces.
R3(config)# router igrp 10
R3(config-router)#network 150.100.96.0
R3(config-router)#network 150.100.160.0
Note: PCs configuration is same in all.

Controlling traffic in IGRP using commands:

1. Router(config-rourer)#variance multiplier control IGRP load balancing
2. Router(config-rourer)#traffic-share {balanced /min} control how load balanced traffic is
distributed.
Verifying configurations:
1. Router#sh ip router it can show the routing table.
2. Router#sh protocols it can show the network layer address configured on each
interface.
3. Router#sh ip protocol it can show the routing protocol that are configured on the router.
4. Router#debug ip rip it can sends routing updates as they are sent and received, to the
console session.
5. Router#debug ip igrp events it can show the summary of the IGRP routing running on
the router.
6. Router#debug ip igrp transactions it can show message request from neighbor routers
asking for an update and the broadcasts sent from router towards that neighbor route r
82

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP):

This is classless, enhanced distance-vector protocol that gives us a real edge over
another Cisco proprietary protocol, IGRP.
Like IGRP, EIGRP uses the concept of an AS describe the set of contiguous routers that
run the same routing protocol and share routing information.
EIGRP includes the subnet mask in its route updates.
EIGRP is sometimes referred to as a hybrid routing protocol because it has
characteristics of both distance-vector and link-state protocol.
EIGRP can send specific updates only when topology changes occur. This makes
EIGRP suitable for very large networks. EIGRP has a maximum hop count of 255.
It can support:
o Support for IP, IPX, and Apple Talk via protocol dependent modules.
o Efficient neighbor discovery.
o Communication via Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP)
o Best path selection via Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL).

Protocol-Dependent Modules (PDM):

One of the best features of EIGRP is that it provides routing support for multiple Network
layer protocol: IP, IPX, and AppleTalk.
EIGRP supports different network layer protocols through the use of PDM. And PDM
maintain a separate series of tables containing the routing information that applies to a
specific protocol. Means there will be IP/EIGRP tables, IPS/EIGRP tables etc.
Neighbor Discovery:
Before EIGRP routers are willing to exchange routes with each other, they must become
neighbors. There are three conditions that must be met for neighbor ship establishment:
o Hello or ACK (Acknowledgment) received: it can use Hello messages to establish
neighbor ship because the normally do not send out periodic route updates. Any
changes occur then can send Hello.
o AS numbers match: EIGRP routers that belong to different AS dont automatically
share routing information and they dont become neighbors. This system is very much
benefit when used in larger networks to reduce the amount of route information
If necessary to communicate different AS network, we can configure manually.
o Identical metrics
o Feasible Discovery: This is the best metric along all paths to a remote network,
including the metric to the neighbor that is advertising that remote network. This is the
route that we will find in the routing table, because it is considered the best path.
o Reported Distance: This is the metric of a remote network, as reported by a
neighbor.

83

o Neighbor Table: Each router keeps information about adjacent neighbors. When a
newly discovered neighbor is learned, the address and interface of the neighbor are
recorded and store in the neighbor table using each protocol wise, this is stored in
RAM.
e.g. ip/eigrp, ipx/eigrp and AppleTalk/eigrp.
o Topology Table: The topology table is populated by the PDU and acted upon by the
DUAL. It contains all destinations advertised by neighboring routers.
o Feasible Successor: A feasible successor is a path whose reported distance is less
than the feasible distance, and it is considered a backup route. This can store up to
six feasible successors in the topology table, in that one of the best metric is placed in
the routing table.
o Successor: A successor route is te best route to a remote network. A successor
route is used by EIGRP to forward traffic to a destination and is stored tin the routing
table. It is backed up by a feasible successor route that is stored in the topology table.
Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP):
EIGRP uses a proprietary protocol, called RTP, to manage the communication of
messages between EIGRP speaking routers.
As the name suggests, reliability is a key concern of this protocol.
Cisco has designed a mechanism that leverages multicasts and unicasts to deliver
updates quickly, and to track the receipt of the data. When sends multicast traffic it uses
the class D address 224.0.0.10.
Each EIGRP router is aware of who its neighbors are, and for each multicast it sends
out, it maintains a list of the neighbors who have replied. If EIGRP doesnt get a reply
from a neighbor, it will switch to using unicast to resend the same date.
It still doesnt get a re[;u after 16 unicast attempts, the neighbor is declared dead.
Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL):
EIGRP uses DUAL for selecting and maintaining the best path to each remote network.
This algorithm allows for the following:
o Backup route determination if one is available.
o Support of VLSM/
o Dynamic route recoveries.
o Sending out queries for an alternate route if no route can be found

Using EIGRP to Support Large Networks: EIGRP includes a bunch of cool features that
make it suitable for use in large network:
1. Support for Multiple AS on a single router.
2. Support for VLSM and summarization.
3. Route discovery and maintenance.

1. Multiple AS:
EIGRP uses AS number to identify the collection of routers that share route information.
Only routers that have the same AS numbers share routes.
In large networks, we can easily end up with really complicated topology and route
tables, and that can markedly slow convergence during diffusing computation operations.

84

Its possible to divide the network into multiple distinct EIGRP AS. Each AS is populated
by a contiguous series of routers, and route information can be shared among the
different AS via redistribution.
2. VLSM Support and Summarization:
As one of the more sophisticated classless routing protocol, EIGRP supports the use of
VLSM.
And it also supports the manual creation of summaries at any and all EIGRP routers,
which can substantially reduce the size of the route table. However, EIGRP automatically
summarizes networks at their class full boundaries.

3. Routing Discovery and Maintenance:

The hybrid nature of EIGRP is fully revealed in its approach to route discovery and
maintenance. Like many link state protocols, EIGRP supports the concept of neighbors
that are discovered via a Hello process, and whose state is monitored,
Like many DV protocols, EIGRP uses the routing by rumor mechanism which implies
many routers never hear about a route update firsthand, instead, they hear about it from
another router that may also have heard about it from another one, and so on.
EIGRP uses a series of tables to store important information about its environment:
o The neighbor ship table: Records information about routers with whom neighbor
ship relationships have been formed.
o The topology table: Stores the route advertisements about every route in the
internetwork received from each neighbor.
o The route table: Store the routes that are currently used to make routing
decisions. There would be separate copies of each of these tables for each
protocol that is actively being supported by EIGRP, whether its IP, IPX and Applle
talk.
EIGRP Metrics: EIGRP is that unlike many other protocols that use a single factor to compare
routes and select the best possible path, EIGRP uses a combination of four:
1. Bandwidth
2. Delay
3. Load
4. Reliability
By default it uses bandwidth and delay of the line to determine the best path to a remote
network by default.

Using EIGRP Router configuration: There are two modes which EIGRP commands are
entered:

Router configuration mode: This mode enables the protocol, determines which
networks will run EIGRP, and sets global characteristics.

Interface configuration mode: This mode allows customization of summaries, metrics,

timers, and bandwidth,

Router configuration mode:

R1
85

We must want take only directly connected networks. And steps must be done after configuring
all interfaces.
R1(config)#router eigrp 20
(20 is Autonomous System number, these are 1 to 65,535. AS will be same in its any particular
network)
R1(config-router)#network 150.100.32.0
R1(config-router)#network 150.100.128.0
R2
We must want take only directly connected networks. And steps must be done after configuring
all interfaces.
R2(config)# router eigrp 20
R2(config-router)#network 150.100.64.0
R2(config-router)#network 150.100.128.0
R2(config-router)#network 150.100.160.0
R3
We must want to take only directly connected networks. And steps must be done after
configuring all interfaces.
R3(config)# router eigrp 20
R3(config-router)#network 150.100.96.0
R3(config-router)#network 150.100.160.0

Verifying configurations:
1. Router#sh ip router: it can show the routing table.
2. Router#sh ip route eigrp: it can show only EIGRP entries in the routing table
3. Router#sh ip EIGRP neighbors: it can show all EIGRP neighbors
4. Router#sh ip EIGRP topology: it can show entries in the EIGRP topology table.
Passive interface: In this mode router wont send or receive route information on this interface.
Command is: router(config)#router EIGRP 20 (20 is AS)
Router(config)#passive-interface s0 (s0 is a interface name)

When we use sh ip EIGRP neighbor it can displays:

86

The H field indicates the order in which the neighbor was discovered.
The hold time is how long this router will wait for a Hello packet to arrive from a specific
neighbor.
The Uptime indicates how long the neighbor ship has been established.
The SRTT field is Smooth Round-Trip Timer an indication of the time it takes for a round trip
from this router to its neighbor and back. This value is used to determine how long to wait after
a multicast for a reply from this neighbor. If a reply is not received in time, the router will switch
to using unicasts in an attempt to complete the communication. The time between multicast
attempts is specifies by SRTT.
The RTO Retransmission Time Out field, which is the amount of time EIGRP waits before
retransmitting a packet from the retransmission queue to a neighbor.
The Q value indicates whether there are any outstanding messages in the queue consistently
large values would indicate a problem.
The Seq Num field indicates the sequence number of the last update form that neighbor
something thats used to maintain synchronization and avoid duplicate or out of sequence
processing of messages.

87

Link State Protocol (Shortest path first Protocol)

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF):
This is open standards routing protocol thats been implemented by a wide variety of
network vendors, including Cisco, means it can support different type of router. Basically
we can use RIP, RIPver2, but these are works in small network only.
This works by using the Dijkstra algorithm. It can construct shortest tree and then the
routing table is populated with the resulting best paths. OSPF converges quickly, but not
as quickly as EIGRP. And it supports multiple, equal cost routes to the same destination.
OSPF is supposed to be designed in a hierarchical fashion, which basically means that
we can separate the larger interwork into smaller internetworks called areas.
OSPF provides following features:
o Consists of area and AS
o Minimizes routing update traffic
o Allows scalability
o Supports VLSM/CIDR.
o Has unlimited hop count
o Allows multi-vendor deployment (open standard)
The reasons for creating OSPF in a hierarchical design include:
o To decrease routing overhead
o To speed up convergence
o To confine network instability to single areas of the network.

OSPF design example:

88

Each router connects to the backbone called area 0, or the backbone area. OSPF must
have an area 0, and all routers should connect to this area if at all possible, but routers
that connect other areas to the backbone within an AS are called ABR. Still, at least one
interface must be in area 0.
OSPF runs inside an AS, but can also connect multiple ASs together. The router that
connects these ASes together is called ASBR

OSPF Terminology
Link: A link is a network or router interface assigned to any given network. When an interface is
added to the OSPF process, its considered by OSPF to be a link.
Router ID: The Router ID (RID) is an IP address used to identify the router. Cisco chooses the
RID by using the highest IP address of all configured loopback interfaces. If no loopback, it can
choose the highest IP address of all active physical interfaces.
Neighbors: Neighbors are two or more routers that have an interface on a common network,
such as two routers connected on a point-to-point serial link.
Adjacency: An adjacency is a relationship between two OSPF routers that permits the direct
exchange of route updates. Not all neighbors will become adjacent; this depends upon both the
type of network and the configuration of the routers.
Hello protocol: The OSPF Hello protocol provides dynamic neighbor discovery and maintains
neighbor relationships. Hello packets are addressed to 224.0.0.5.
Neighbor ship database: The neighbor ship database is a list of all OSPF routers for which
Hello packets have been seen. A variety of details, including the RID and state, are maintained
on each router in the neighbor ship database.
Topology database: The topology database contains information from all of the LSA (Link
State Advertisement) packets that have been received for an area. The router uses the
information from the topology database as input into the Dijkstra algorithm that computes the
shortest path to every network.
Link State Advertisement (LSA): A LSA is an OSPF data packet containing link-state and
routing information thats shared among OSPF routers. An OSPF router will exchange LSA
packets only with routers to which it has established adjacencies.

89

Designated Router (DR): A DR is elected whenever OSPF routers are connected to the same
multi-access network (Cisco calls broadcast network). The election is won by the router with the
highest priority, and the RID is used as a tiebreaker if the priority of more than one router turns
out to be the same.
Backup Designated Router (BDR): A BDR is a hot standby for the DR on multi-access links
(Cisco some times calls broadcast networks). The BDR receives all routing updates from OSPF
adjacent routers, but doesnt flood LSA updates.
OSPF areas: An OSPF areas is a grouping of contiguous networks and routers. All routers in
the same area share a common Area ID. Because a router can be a member of more than one
area at a time, the Area ID is associated with specific interfaces on the router. If we use
different areas, that all different areas will be connected to Area 0 called Backbone of the
network.
Broadcast (multi-access): Broadcast networks such as Ethernet allow multiple devices to
connect to the same network, as well as provide a broadcast ability in which a single packet is
delivered to all nodes on the network. In OSPF, a DR and A BDR must be elected for each
broadcast multi-access network.
Non-broadcast multi-access (NBMA): NBMA networks are types such as Frame Relay, X.25,
and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). These networks allow for multi-access, but have no
broadcast ability like Ethernet. So, NBMA networks require special OSPF configuration to
function properly and neighbor relationships must be defined. DR and BDR elected on
broadcast and NBMA.
Point-to-point: Point-to-point refers to a type of network topology consisting of a direct
connection between two routers that provides a single communication path. The point to point
connection can be physical, as in a serial cable directly connecting two routers, or it can be
logical, as in two routers that are thousands of miles apart yet connected by a circuit in a Frame
Relay network. In this needed DRs or BDRs.
Point-to-multipoint: Point-to-multipoint refers to a type of network topology consisting of a
series of connections between a single interface on one router and multiple destination routers.
All of the interfaces on all of the routers sharing the point-to-multipoint connection belongs to
the same network. As with point-to-point, no DRs or BDRs needed.

SPF Tree Calculation:

Each router calculates the best/shortest path to every network in that same area.This
calculation is based upon the information collected in the topology database and an
algorithm called shortest path first (SPF).
One of the key criteria considered during the route selection process of the SPF
algorithm is the metric or cost of each potential path to a network. But this SPF
calculation doesnt apply to routes from other areas.
SPF calculation doesnt apply to routes from other areas
OSPF uses a metric referred to as cost. A cost is associated with every outgoing
interface included in an SPF tree. The cost of the entire path is the sum of costs of the
outgoing interfaces along the path.

Configuring OSPF:

Configuring basis OSPF is not as simple as RIP, IGRP, and EIGRP, and it can get really
complex once the many options that are allowed within OSPF are factored in.
90

These two elements are the basic elements of OSPF configuration:

o Enabling OSPF
o Configuring OSPF areas

Router configuration mode:

R1
We must want take only directly connected networks. And steps must be done after configuring
all interfaces.
R1(config)#router ospf 10
(20 is Autonomous System number, these are 1 to 65,535. AS will be same in its any particular
network)
R1(config-router)#network 150.100.32.0 0.0.31.255 area 0
R1(config-router)#network 150.100.128.0 0.0.31.255 area 0
R2
We must want take only directly connected networks. And steps must be done after configuring
all interfaces.
R2(config)# router ospf 20
R2(config-router)#network 150.100.64.0 0.0.31.255 area 0
R2(config-router)#network 150.100.128.0 0.0.31.255 area 0
R2(config-router)#network 150.100.160.0 0.0.31.255 area 0
R3
We must want to take only directly connected networks. And steps must be done after
configuring all interfaces.
R3(config)# router ospf 30
R3(config-router)#network 150.100.96.0 0.0.31.255 area 0
R3(config-router)#network 150.100.160.0 0.0.31.255 area 0

OSPF and Loopback Interfaces:

Configuring loopback interfaces when using the OSPF routing protocol is important, and
Cisco suggests using them whenever you configure OSPF on a router.
Loopback interfaces are logical interfaces, which mean they are not real router
interfaces.
The reason you want to configure a loopback interface on a router is because if you
dont, the highest IP address on a router will become that routers RID.
The RID is used to advertise the routes as well as elect the DR and BDR.
Configuring loopback interfaces rocks mostly because its the easiest part of OSPF
configuration. This loopback interface configuration must be done in all routers.
91

R1#config t
R1(config)#interface loopback 0
R1(config-if)#ip address 150.100.160.0 255 255.224.0
R1(config-if)#no shut

Verifying OSPF Configuration:

show ip route: It can show the routing table

show ip OSPF: It can display OSPF information for one or all OSPF processes running
on the router.
show ip ospf database: It can display the number of links and the neighboring routers
ID and is the topology
show ip ospf interface: It can display all interfaces or any specified interface related
OSPF information.
show ip ospf neighbor: it can show all OSPF neighbors
show ip protocols: It provides an excellent overview of the actual operation of all
currently running protocols.

Characteristic

RIPv1

RIPv2

Type of protocol

Distance vector

Classless
support
VLSM support
Auto
summarization
Manual
summarization
Discontiguous
support
Route
propagation
Path metric
Hop count limit
Convergence
Peer
authentication
Hierarchical
network
Updates

No

Distance vector Distance

vector
Yes
No

No
Yes

Yes
Yes

No

No

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Periodic
multicast
Hops
15
Slow
Yes

Periodic
multicast
Hops
15
Slow
Yes

Multicast on
change
Bandwidth
None
Fast
Yes

No (flat only)

No (flat only)

Yes
(using
areas)
Event
triggered
Dijkstra

Route
computation

IGRP

No

Route
table Route
table
updates
updates
Bellman-Ford
Bellman-Ford

92

EIGRP

OSPF

Hybrid

Link state

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes
No

Layer 2 switching
Switching:
It breaks the Collision Domain
It takes the packet and forwards to destined port without any modification.
Network still remains in one large Broadcast Domain.
It increases bandwidth of the network.
Multiple devices can be connected to each interface.
Switches versus Bridges:
Switches are nothing but bridges with more ports, with certain important differences:

Bridges are software based while Switches are hardware based. Using ASICs chip to
make filtering decision.
Bridges can only have one Spanning-Tree Instance per bridge, while switches can
have many.
Bridges can have only 16 ports, while switches can have hundreds
Bridges are self managed while switches are manageable.

Switching Technology:
93

Layer 2 Switching:
o This is hardware based switching
o It uses MAC address to filter the network.
o To build Filter Table, it uses ASICs (Application-specific Integrated Circuits)
o It is like Multiport bridge.
o Layer 2 switches do not look at the Network layer header and hence faster.
o Based on hardware address it decides whether to forward the packet or drop it.
o Layer 2 Switching provides the following:
Hardware-based bridging (MAC)
Wire speed
Layer 2 switch is considered faster because no modification in the
packet.
Low Latency
Because the switching is faster
Low cost

Address Learning: Switches and Bridges remember the source address of each
frame received on an interface and enter this information into MAC database.
o Whenever switch receives a packet it makes an entry of the source address and
sends a broadcast for destination.
o The destination machine then responds to broadcast and switch receives a packet
from destination.
o Switch again makes entry for the destination machines hardware address.
o Using this method Switch maintains a table stating that which hardware address is
available at which port.

Forward/Filtering Decisions: When a frame is received on an interface, the switch

looks at the destination hardware address and finds the exit interface in the MAC
database.
o When a frame is reached to the switch the destination port is checked in MAC
database to find out the exit interface.
o If found the packet will be forwarded to the mentioned port
o If not found the Broadcast / Multicast is sent on all the ports and the exit port for
this particular address is determined.

Broadcast /Multicast:
94

o When packets are sent to a specific machine that is called Unicast.

o It always knows the destination address.
o When packets are sent to few selected or a group of machines that is called
Multicast.
o This does not know the destination no. but it knows the network no. (few 1s &0s
and rest all 1s).
o When packets are sent to all that is called Broadcast.
o It the destination address will be all 1s.

Loop Avoidance: If multiple connections between switches are created for

redundancy, network loops can occur.
o Most commonly networks are implemented with redundant links for fault tolerance
purpose.
o These multiple links may cause loops and broadcast storm
o In a switched network some scheme should be implemented to avoid these loops.
o The Spanning-Tree Protocol (STP) is used to stop network loops and allow
redundancy.

Loop Occurring:
o In this scenario if no loop avoidance scheme is implemented the switch will
generate a broadcast storm.
o A device can receive multiple copy of same frames.
o The MAC address table will be continuously updated and the table itself will be
confused, because frames will be received from more than one link. This is called
thrashing MAC Table.
o This is how loops within other loop will be generated and no switching will be
performed in the network.
o Note : Spanning Tree Protocol is designed to solve this problem.

Spanning-Tree Protocol:
o The main function of STP is to maintain a loop free network.
o Originally STP was created by DEC (Now Compaq)
o It was modified by IEEE and was published in 802.1d specification.
o DEC and IEEE 802.1d are not compatible
o All CISCO switches run on IEEE802.1d version of STP
o STP uses the spanning-tree algorithm (STA) to first create a topology database,
then search out and destroy redundant links.

Spanning Tree Operations:

Selecting the Root Bridge:
95

o In one Broadcast Domain only one Bridge is designated as Root Bridge.

o All Ports on the Root Bridge are in Forwarding State and are called
Designated Port
o All ports in forwarding state can send and receive traffic.
o Bridge ID is used to determine the Root Bridge and Root Port.
o Bridge ID includes the priority and the MAC Address of the device.

Selecting the Designated Port:

o There will be only one Designated Port in one Segment.
o Designated Port is selected on the bridge that has the lowest cost path to
Root Bridge.
o Designated Port is in the forwarding state.
o Responsible for forwarding traffic for the segmentation
o Nondesignated Ports are normally in the blocking state to break the loop
topology. That means the Spanning Tree is preventing it from forwarding
traffic.
Spanning-Tree Port States:
o There are four different states for ports on Switch / Bridge running STP.
o Blocking : Wont forward frames; listens to BPDUs. All ports are in
blocking state by default when the switch is powered up.
o Listening : Listens to BPDUs to make sure no loops occur on the network
before passing data frames.
o Learning : Learns MAC addresses and builds a filter table but does not
forward frames.
o Forwarding : Sends and receives all data on the bridged port.

Convergence:
o Convergence occurs when bridges and switches have transitioned to either
the forwarding or blocking states.
o No data is forwarded during this time.
o Convergence is important to make sure all devices have the same
database.
Before data can be forwarded, all devices must be updated.
The problem with convergence is the time it takes for these devices
to update.
It usually takes 50 seconds to got from Blocking to forwarding state.
Forward delay is the time it takes to transition a port from listening to
learning state or from learning to forwarding state.

Spanning Tree Timers:

Timer
Primary Function
Setting
Hello Time
Time between sending of configuration
BPDUs by the root Bridge
Forward Delay
Duration of listening and learning
states
Max Age
Time BPDU stored

Default
2 seconds
30 seconds
20 seconds

o It is not recommended that you change the default STP Timers, but the
timers can be adjusted if necessary.

96

LAN Switch Types: Switching type basically effects the Latency and the reliability of
your network.

There are three Switching Types:

o Store and Forward:
It is default in Routers & Bridges
In this method the entire data is first stored, processed for errors, if it is
found error free, it is forwarded otherwise returned.
Uses CRC for error checking.
Latency is high in this case but it is extremely reliable.
Latency : Time involved in sending the data from one node to
another
o Cut-through:
Cut-Through switching is the fastest one, because it does not check for
errors.
It does not store data and process for error.
It just reads the destination address and forwards it.
It begins to forward the frame as soon as it reads the destination address
and determines the outgoing interface.
It has Lowest Latency and not reliable.
Hence it is also called Wire Speed Switching.

o Fragment Free:
It provides us both Low latency as well as Speed.
It is a modified form of Cut Through switching.
It reads the first 64 bytes and then forwards.
It checks 64 bytes because most of the errors occur in these bytes
only. If first 64 bytes are error free Fragment Free Switching
considers entire data error free.
If there is any error in first 64 bytes the packet will be dropped or else
forwarded.
It provides better reliability than the Cut-through with almost same Latency
as in Cut through.
Configuring the Catalyst 1900 and 2950 Switches:
Setting the passwords:
Setting the hostname:
Configuring the IP address and subnet mask:
Setting a description on the interfaces:
Erasing the switch configurations:
Configuring VLANs:
Adding VLAN memberships to switch ports:
Creating a VTP domain:
Configuring trunking:
97

VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network)

VLAN Basics
By default, routers allow broadcasts only within the originating network, but switches
forward broadcasts to all segments. The reason its called a flat network is because its
one Broadcast domain.
Network adds, moves, and changes are achieved by configuring a port into the
appropriate VLAN.
A group of users needing high security can be put into a VLAN so that no users outside
of the VLAN can communicate with them.
As a logical grouping of users by function, VLANs can be considered independent from
their physical or geographic locations.
VLANs can enhance network security.
VLANs increase the number of broadcast domains while decreasing their size.
Broadcasts occur in every protocol, but how often they occur depends upon three things:
Type of protocol
The application(s) running on the internetwork
How these services are used

Security
A flat internetworks security used to be tackled by connecting hubs and switches
together with routers which maintains security.
Anyone connecting to the physical network could access the network resources
located on that physical LAN.
Anyone would observe any and all traffic happening in that network was to simply
just plug a network analyzer into the hub which is non-security.
In VLAN creating multiple broadcast groups, administrators can have control over
each port and user, and whatever resources that port can access.
If you need inter-VLAN communication, you can implement restrictions on a router
to achieve it. You can also place restrictions on hardware addresses, protocols,
and applications.

Flexibility and Scalability

layer 2 switches only read frames for filteringthey dont look at the Network layer
protocol.
Implementing VLANs, youre essentially creating smaller broadcast domains at
layer 2.Broadcasts sent out from a node in one VLAN wont be forwarded to ports
configured to be in a different VLAN.
A VLAN can exist on a single switch or span multiple switches. It can include
stations in a single building or multiple-building infrastructures, or it can connect
across WANs.

VLAN Membership
o Static VLAN
Static VLANs are the usual way of creating VLANs, theyre created by
administrator and also the most secure.
This type of VLAN configuration is comparatively easy to set up and monitor.
Assignment of VLAN to port is configured statically by an administrator.
o Dynamic VLAN
A dynamic VLAN determines a nodes VLAN assignment automatically.
98

It makes management and configuration easier because if a user moves, the

switch will assign them to the correct VLAN automatically.
A dynamic port can belong to only one VLAN at a time. Multiple hosts can be
active on a dynamic port only if they all belong to the same VLAN.
Administrators can use the VLAN Management Policy Server (VMPS). A
VMPS database maps MAC addresses to VLANs.

Identifying VLANs

Access links
This type of link is only part of one VLAN, and its referred to as the native VLAN
of the port. Any device attached to an access link is unaware of a VLAN
membershipthe device just assumes its part of a broadcast domain, but it has
no understanding of the physical network.
Switches remove any VLAN information from the frame before its sent to an
access-link device.
Trunk links
Trunks can carry multiple VLANs and originally gained their name after the
telephone system trunks that carry multiple telephone conversations.
A trunk link is a 100- or 1000Mbps point-to-point link between two switches,
between a switch and router, or between a switch and server. These carry the
traffic of multiple VLANsfrom1 to 1005 at a time.
Trunking allows you to make a single port part of multiple VLANs at the same
time.
All VLANs are configured on a trunked link unless cleared by an administrator by
hand.
Frame Tagging
Frame identification method uniquely assigns a user-defined ID to each frame,
also know as VLAN ID.
As the frame reaches a switch it must first identify the VLAN ID from the frame
tag, then it finds out what to do with the frame by looking at the information in the
filter table.
Once the frame reaches an exit to an access link matching the frames VLAN ID,
the switch removes the VLAN identifier.
VLAN Identification Methods
VLAN identification is what switches use to keep track of all those frames as
theyre traversing a switch fabric. Its how switches identify which frames belong to
which VLANs, and theres more than one trunking method :
Inter-Switch Link (ISL):
This is proprietary to Cisco switches, and its used for Fast Ethernet
and Gigabit Ethernet links only.
ISL routing can be used on a switch port, router interfaces, and
server interface cards to trunk a server.
A trunked server is part of all VLANs (broadcast domains)
simultaneously, so users dont have to cross a layer 3 device to
access it.

IEEE 802.1Q
Created by the IEEE as a standard method of frame tagging,
It inserts a field into the frame to identify the VLAN. If youre trunking
between a Cisco switched link and a different brand of switch, you
have to use 802.1Q for the trunk to work.
99

You must designate each 802.1Q port to be associated with a

specific VLAN ID.

Inter-Switch Link (ISL):

This is proprietary to Cisco switches, and its used for Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet
links only.
ISL routing can be used on a switch port, router interfaces, and server interface cards to
trunk a server.
A trunked server is part of all VLANs (broadcast domains) simultaneously, so users dont
have to cross a layer 3 device to access it.
Inter-Switch Link (ISL) is a way of explicitly tagging VLAN information onto an Ethernet
frame.
This tagging information allows VLANs to be multiplexed over a trunk link through an
external encapsulation method (ISL).
which allows the switch to identify the VLAN membership of a frame over the trunked
link.
you can interconnect multiple switches and still maintain VLAN information as traffic
travels between switches on trunk links.
ISL functions at layer 2 by encapsulating a data frame with a new header and cyclic
redundancy check (CRC).
ISL is an external tagging process, the original frame isnt alteredits only encapsulated
with a new 26-byte ISL header.
It also adds a second 4-byte Frame Check Sequence (FCS) field at the end of the frame,
frames can be up to a 1522 bytes long!
The frame encapsulated by ISL information, only ISL-aware devices can read it.
ISL VLAN information is added to a frame only if the frame is forwarded out a port
configured as a trunk link.

VLAN Trunking Protocol (VTP)

Used to share the vlan configurations with multiple switch.
VLAN Trunking Protocol (VTP) are to manage all configured VLANs across a switched
internetwork and to maintain consistency throughout that network.
VTP allows an administrator to add, delete, and rename VLANs-information that is then
propagated to all other switches in the VTP domain.
Benefits of VLAN Trunking Protocol (VTP)
Consistent VLAN configuration across all switches in the network
Allows VLANs to be trunked over mixed networks, such as Ethernet to ATM LANE
or even FDDI
Accurate tracking and monitoring of VLANs
Dynamic reporting of added VLANs to all switches in the VTP domain
Plug-and-Play VLAN adding
VTP Modes of Operation
Server :
This is the default for all Catalyst switches. You need at least one server in your
VTP domain to propagate VLAN information throughout the domain.
The switch must be in server mode to be able to create, add, or delete VLANs in a
VTP domain.
Any change made to a switch in server mode will be advertised to the entire VTP
domain.
Client :
In client mode, switches receive information from VTP servers, and they also send
and receive updates. But they cant make any changes.
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None of the ports on a client switch can be added to a new VLAN before the VTP
server notifies the client switch of the new VLAN.
Transparent :
Switches in transparent mode dont participate in the VTP domain, but theyll still
forward VTP advertisements through any configured trunk links.
These switches cant add and delete VLANs because they keep their own
database which not share with other switch
The VLAN database in transparent mode is really considered locally significant
only.

VTP Pruning

Preserves bandwidth by configuring it to reduce the amount of broadcasts, multicasts,

and unicast packets.
VTP pruning only sends broadcasts to trunk links that truly must have the information.
Enabling pruning on a VTP server, enables it for the entire domain.
By default, VLANs 2 through 1005 are pruning-eligible, but VLAN 1 can never prune
because its an administrative VLAN.

Routing between VLANs

VLANs create network partitioning and traffic separation at layer 2 of the OSI.
If you want hosts or any other IP addressable device to communicate between VLANs, a
layer 3 device is absolutely necessary.
You can use a router that has an interface for each VLAN or a router that supports ISL
routing.
Router that supports ISL routing is the 2600 series router. The 1600, 1700, and 2500
series dont support ISL routing.
This means that each of the routers interface IP addresses would then become the
default gateway address for each host in each VLAN.
If you have more VLANs available than router interfaces, you can either run ISL trunking
on one Fast Ethernet interface or buy a layer 3 switch such as the Cisco 3550.
A Fast Ethernet interface on a router configured with ISL or 802.1Q trunking allows all
VLANs to communicate through one interface. Cisco calls this a router on a stick.

Configuring VLANs:
To configure a 1900 with VLANs
>en
#config t
(config)#hostname 1900
1900(config)#vlan 2 name sales
1900(config)#vlan 3 name marketing
To configure a 2950 with VLANs
Switch>en
Switch#vlan database
Switch(vlan)#vlan 2 name sales
Switch(vlan)#vlan 3 name marketing
Assigning ports to VLANs in 1900
101

1900#config t
1900(config)#int e0/2
1900(config-if)#vlan-membership static 2
1900(config-if)#int e0/3
1900(config-if)#vlan-membership static 3
Assigning ports to VLANs in 2950
Switch >en
Switch #config t
Switch(config-if)#int f0/2
Switch(config-if)#switchport mode access
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 2
Switch(config-if)#int f0/3
Switch(config-if)#switchport mode access
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 3

Configuring Trunk Ports:

The 1900 switch only runs the Dynamic Inter-Switch Link (DISL) encapsulation method.
To configure trunking on a FastEthernet port, use the interface command trunk.

1900#config t
1900(config)#int f0/26
1900(config-if)#trunk on
The following list describes the different options available when setting a trunk interface:
Auto The interface will become trunked only if the connected device is set to on or
desirable.
Desirable If a connected device is on either desirable or auto, it will negotiate to
become a trunk port. Nonegotiate, when mated with desirable, will result in a trunk
link, as well.
Nonegotiate The interface becomes a permanent ISL trunk port and will not
negotiate with any attached device.
Off The interface is disabled from running trunking and tries to convert any
attached device to be trunked as well.
On The interface becomes a permanent ISL trunk port. It can negotiate with a
connected device to convert the link to trunk mode.
The 2950 you use the switchport command
Switch#config t
Switch(config)#int f0/12
Switch(config-if)#switchport mode access
Switch(config-if)#switchport mode trunk

Configuring Trunking Router: This Router is used for communication of different VLANs.
Different VLANs will be communicate using Layer 3 device. This Layer 3 device configuration
is:
Router(config)#int f0/0
Router(config-if)#no ip add
Router(config-if)#no shut
Router(config-if)#int f0/0.1 (Sub interface required for each VLAN, ex. We have five VLANS
required five sub interfaces)
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Router(config-Subif)#ip add ip address subnet mask

Router(config-Subif)#no shut
Router(config-if)#int f0/0.2 (Sub interface required for each VLAN, ex. We have five VLANS
required five sub interfaces)
Router(config-Subif)#ip add ip address subnet mask
Router(config-Subif)#no shut

Configuring Inter-VLAN Routing

Hosts that are members of the same VLAN can communicate.
To allow inter-VLAN communication to be possible, you need a router or a layer 3 switch.
To support ISL or 802.1Q routing on a FastEthernet interface, the routers interface is
divided into logical interfacesone for each VLAN. These are called subinterfaces.
You cannot provide trunking between the 1900 and 2950 switch by default because the
1900 switch only supports ISL routing and the 2950 switch only supports 802.1Q routing.
You can set the interface to trunk with the encapsulation command.

For a connection to a 1900 trunk port (ISL), use the following command:
1900#config t
1900(config)#int f0/0.1
1900(config-subif)#encapsulation isl vlan# (# means vlan number)

For a router trunk connection to a 2950 switch (802.1Q), use the following command:
2600#config t
2600(config)#int f0/0.1
2600(config-subif)#encapsulation dot1q vlan# (# means vlan number)

Configuring VTP

Both the Catalyst 1900 and 2950 switchesactually, all switchesare configured to be
VTP servers by default.
To configure VTP, first you have to configure the domain name you want to use.
1900(config)#vtp server
1900(config)#vtp domain ARJUN
1900(config)#vtp password vijay

To configure VTP on the 2950 switch, configure the domain name to be use first.
Use the vtp global configuration mode command to set this information.
Switch(config)#vtp mode server
Switch(config)#vtp domain arjun

103

The Internal Components of a Cisco Router

Component

Description

Bootstrap

Stored in the microcode of the ROM, the bootstrap is used to bring a router
up during initialization. It will boot the router and then load the IOS.

POST (poweron self-test)

Stored in the microcode of the ROM, the POST is used to check the basic
functionality of the router hardware and determines which interfaces are
present

ROM

monitor Stored in the microcode of the ROM, the ROM monitor is used for
manufacturing, testing, and troubleshooting

Mini-IOS

Called the RXBOOT or bootloader by Cisco, the mini-IOS is a small IOS in

ROM that can be used to bring up an interface and load a Cisco IOS into
flash memory. The mini-IOS can also perform a few other maintenance
operations.

RAM
(randomaccess
memory)

Used to hold packet buffers, ARP cache, routing tables, and also the
software and data structures that allow the router to function. running-config
is stored in RAM, and the IOS can also be run from RAM in some routers

ROM

Used to start and maintain the router

Flash memory

Used on the router to hold the Cisco IOS. Flash memory is not erased when
the router is reloaded. It is EEPROM (electronically erasable programmable
read-only memory) created by Intel.

NVRAM
(nonvolatile
RAM)

Used to hold the router and switch configuration. NVRAM is not erased when
the router or switch is reloaded.

Configuration
Register

Used to control how the router boots up. This value can be seen with the
show version command and typically is 0x2102, which tells the router to load
the IOS from flash memory as well as tell the router to load the configuration
from NVRAM.

Router Booting Sequence:

Power on self test (POST) : This test verifies that all routers components are functional.
During this test, the router also determines what hardware is present. POST executes
from microcode resident in the system ROM.
Load and run bootstrap code : Bootstrap code is used to perform subsequent events,
such as finding the IOS software,loading it and then running it.After the IOS software is
104

loaded and running, the Bootstrap code is not used until the next time the router is
reloaded or powered-up.
Find the IOS software : The bootstrap code determines where the IOS software to be run
is located. The Flash memory is the normal place where the IOS image is found. The
configuration register and configuration file in NVRAM help determine where the IOS
images are and what image file should be used.
Load the IOS software : After the bootstrap code has found the proper image, it then
loads that image into RAM and starts the IOS running. Some routers (such as 2500
series) do not load the IOS image into RAM, but execute it directly from Flash memory.
Find the configuration : the default is to look in NVRAM for a valid configuration. A
parameter can be set to have the router attempt to locate a configuration file from
another location, such as a TFTP server.
Load the configuration : The desired configuration for the router is loaded and executed.
If no configuration exists or is being ignored, the router will enter the setup utility or
attempt an Autoinstall. Autoinstall will be attempted if a router is connected to a
functioning serial link and can resolve an address through a process of SLARP (serial
line address resolution protocol)
RUN : The router is now running the configured IOS.

Managing Configuration Registers:

Understanding the Configuration Register Bits

Configuration register bits 3, 2, 1, and 0 set boot option.

Configuration
Register boot
field value

Meaning

0x0

Use Rom monitor mode

(Manually Boot using the I Command)
Automatically boot from Rom

0x1

(Provides Cisco IOS Software Subset)

0x2 to 0xf

Examine NVRAM for Boot System Commands (0x2 default if router has flash)

Checking the Current Configuration Register Value

o Router# show version
o Cisco Internetwork Operating System Software
o IOS (tm) C2600 Software (C2600-I-M), Version
SOFTWARE (fc1)
o [output cut]
o Configuration register is 0x2102
Changing the Configuration Register
o Force the system into the ROM monitor mode.
o Select a boot source and default boot filename.
o Enable or disable the Break function.
o Control broadcast addresses.
105

12.1(8)T3,RELEASE

o Set the console terminal baud rate.

o Load operating software from ROM.
o Enable booting from a Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) server.
Router(config)#config-register 0x101
Router#show version
[output will show]
Configuration register is 0x2102 (will be 0x0101 at next reload)

Recovering Passwords
o Boot the router and interrupt the boot sequence by performing a BREAK.
o Change the configuration register to turn on bit 6 (with the value 0x2142).
o Reload the router.
o Enter privileged mode.
o Copy the startup-config file to running-config.
o Change the password.
o Reset the configuration register to the default value.
o Save the router configuration.
o Reload the router.

Interrupting the Router Boot Sequence:

Boot Router and perform a Break.
o Typically you perform break by pressing CTRL+Break key combination when
using Hyper Terminal.
o Note that Windows NTs default Hyper Terminal program will not perform the
break. So either upgrade or use Windows 95 /98
You should see something like this:
System Bootstrap, Version 11.3(2)XA4, RELEASE SOFTWARE (fc1)
Copyright (c) 1999 by cisco Systems, Inc.
TAC:Home:SW:IOS:Specials for info
PC = 0xfff0a530, Vector = 0x500, SP = 0x680127b0
C2600 platform with 32768 Kbytes of main memory
PC = 0xfff0a530, Vector = 0x500, SP = 0x80004374
monitor: command "boot" aborted due to user interrupt
rommon 1 >

Changing the Configuration Register:

To change the configuration register on a 2500 series router, type o after creating a
break sequence on the router.
This brings up a menu of configuration register option settings. To change the
configuration register, enter the command o/r , followed by the new register value.
Next slide is an example of turning on bit 6 on a 2500 series router:
System Bootstrap, Version 11.0(10c), SOFTWARE
Copyright (c) 1986-1996 by cisco Systems
2500 processor with 14336 Kbytes of main memory
Abort at 0x1098FEC (PC)
>o
Configuration register = 0x2102 at last boot
Bit# Configuration register option settings:
15
Diagnostic mode disabled
14
IP broadcasts do not have network numbers
106

13
Boot default ROM software if network boot fails
12-11 Console speed is 9600 baud
10
IP broadcasts with ones
08
Break disabled
07
OEM disabled
06
Ignore configuration disabled
03-00 Boot file is cisco2-2500 (or 'boot system' command)
>o/r 0x2142

Cisco 2600 Series Commands

To change the bit value on a Cisco 2600 series router, you just enter the command at
the rommon
1> prompt:
rommon 1 > confreg 0x2142
You must reset or power cycle for new config to take effect

Reloading the Router and Entering Privileged Mode:

At this point, you need to reset the router like this:
From the 2600 series router, type reset.
From the 2500 series router, type I (for initialize).
The router will reload and ask if you want to use setup mode (because no startup-config
is used). Answer No to entering setup mode, press Enter to go into user mode, and then
type enable to go into privileged mode.
Viewing and Changing the Configuration:
Now you are past where you would need to enter the user mode and privileged mode
passwords in a router.
Copy the startup-config file to the running-config file:
copy startup-config running-config
or
copy start run
The configuration is now running in RAM, and you are in privileged mode, which means
that you can view and change the configuration.
Although you cannot view the enable secret setting for the password, you can change
the password, as follows:
config t
enable secret todd
Resetting the Configuration Register and Reloading the Router:
After you are finished changing passwords, set the configuration register back to the
default value with the config-register command:
config t
config-register 0x2102
Finally, save the new configuration with a copy running-config startup-config and reload
the router.
Backing Up and Restoring the Cisco IOS:
Before you upgrade or restore a Cisco IOS, you really should copy the existing file to a
TFTP host as a backup just in case the new image crashes and burns.
Make sure you can access the network server.
107

 Ensure that the network server has adequate space for the code image.
Verify the file naming and path requirement.
Verifying Flash Memory:
Router#sh flash
System flash directory:
File Length Name/status
1 8121000 c2500-js-l.112-18.bin
[8121064 bytes used, 8656152 available, 16777216 total]
16384K bytes of processor board System flash (Read ONLY)
Router#
Notice that the filename in this example is c2500-js-l.112-18.bin. The name of the file is
platform-specific and derived as follows:
c
2500 is the platform.
j
indicates that the file is an enterprise image.
s
indicates that the file contains extended capabilities.
l
indicates that the file can be moved from flash memory if needed and is
not compressed.
11.2-18
is the revision number.
.bin
indicates that the Cisco IOS is a binary executable file.
The last line in the router output shows that the flash is 16,384KB (or 16MB). So if the
new
file that you want to use is, say, 10MB in size, you know that theres plenty of room for it.

Backing Up the Cisco IOS:

To back up the Cisco IOS to a TFTP server, you use the copy flash tftp command. The
key to success in this backup routine is to make sure that youve got good, solid
connectivity to the TFTP server.
Router#copy flash tftp
System flash directory:
File Length Name/status
1 8121000 c2500-js-l.112-18.bin
[8121064 bytes used, 8656152 available, 16777216 total]
Address or name of remote host [255.255.255.255]?
192.168.0.120
Source file name?c2500-js-l.112-18.bin
Destination file name [c2500-js-l.112-18.bin]?[Enter]
Verifying checksum for 'c2500-js-l.112-18.bin')file #1)
...OK
Copy '/c2500-js-l.112-18' from Flash to server
as '/c2500-js-l.112-18'? [yes/no]y
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! [output cut]
Upload to server done
Flash copy took 00:02:30 [hh:mm:ss]
Router#

Restoring or Upgrading the Cisco Router IOS:

Router#copy tftp flash
**** NOTICE ****
Flash load helper v1.0
108

This process will accept the copy options and then

terminate the current system image to use the ROM based
image for the copy. Routing functionality will not be
available during that time. If you are logged in via
telnet, this connection will terminate. Users with
console access can see the results of the copy operation.
---- ******** ---Proceed? [confirm][Enter]

Backing Up the Cisco Router Configuration:

Verifying the Current Configuration
To verify the configuration in DRAM, use the show running-config command (sh run for short)
like this:
Router#sh run
Building configuration...
Current configuration:
!
version 12.0
The current configuration information indicates that the router is now running version 12.0 of the
IOS.

Verifying the Stored Configuration

To check the configuration stored in NVRAM. To see this, use the show
startup-config command (sh start for short) like this:
Router#sh start
Using 366 out of 32762 bytes
!
version 11.2

109

Basic Terminology
Account: Information about a user, which can include the users account name, the users
password, and the access permissions assigned to the user for network resources.
Application server: A specialized server located on the network that provides access to
client/server applications and to the data that belongs to that application.
Backbone: We need backbones when we want to interlink more than one hub together using a
single cable. And the backbone cable needs to be capable of higher data transfer speeds than
the rest of the network, so that the performance is maintained and does not slow down.
Baseband: It utilizes the full bandwidth of the media like a single transmission path. This
method is generally used by digital signaling.
Broadband: It distributes the full bandwidth of the media into a number of transmission paths, it
is generally used by analog signaling.
Centralized administration: A method for controlling network resource access and managing
network setup and configuration data from a single point of access.
Central Processing Unit (CPU): The collection of circuitry usually a single chip on most PCs
that supplies the intelligence for most computers.
Client: A networked computer that requests resources or services from another computer,
usually a server of some kind.
Client/server: A computing model in which certain computers, called clients, request services
and other computers, called servers, respond to these client requests. Microsoft generally refers
to this type of network as a server-based network.
Dedicated server: A network computer that acts only as a server, and is not intended for
regular use as a client machine.
Device sharing: The capability to permit users to share access to devices of all kinds, including
servers and peripherals such as printers or plotters. This is the principal reason for having a
network.
Directory server: A specialized server that responds to client requests for specific resources
and services. In Windows NT parlance, this kind of server is commonly called a domain
controller.
Disk space: The amount of space available on a disk drive, generally measured in megabytes
(MB).
Domain controller: On a Windows NT Server-based network, a directory server that provides
access controls over users, accounts, groups, computers, and other network resources.
110

Email: A networked application that permits users to send electronic messages to individual or
multiple users, or to named groups of users.
Ethernet: A networking technology developed in the early 1970s that is governed by the IEEE
specifications. It is one of the most popular types of networking technology in use today.
File and print server: The most common type of network server. It provides networked file
storage and retrieval services, and handles print jobs for clients.
GAN (Global Area Network): It covers entire earth, and every one separately connected to the
Host using ISP(Internet Service Provided). Measured in Kbps
Group: A named collection of user accounts treated as a single entity, usually created for a
specific purpose. (For example, the Production group might be the only named entity permitted
to use a design application. By adding or removing users from the Production group, the
network administrator controls who may access the application.)
Host: Host is a TCP/IP networking term used to define any network enabled device like network
printer that allows client to access its services and is similar to a node.
Hub: The hub organizes the cables and transmits incoming signals to the other media
segments.
Hybrid network: A network that combines the principles of client/ server and peer-to-peer
networking.
IEEE 802 specification: A series of standards created by the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers that standardized network communications.
Internet work: Literally a network of networks. This term describes a logical network that
consists of two or more physical networks. Unlike a WAN, an internet work may reside in a
single location, but because it includes too many computers or spans too much distance, it
cannot fit within the scope of a single LAN.
Industry Standard Architecture (ISA): The 16-bit PC adapter interface that was originally
developed for use with the IBM PC/AT, but now it is included in most PCs available on the
market today.
Local Area Network (LAN): A collection of computers and other connected devices that fit
within the scope of a single physical network. LANs provide the building blocks for Internet
works and WANs. LAN transmission speeds are measured in mega bits per second (mbps).
Locally attached device: A device that is attached directly to a single computer, rather than a
device thats available only over the network(called network-attached or server-attached,
depending on whether it has a built-in network interface or whether it must be attached directly
to a server).
Logical Topology: It explains the logical flow of the data through the network.
Map: To translate one value into another. In virtual memory systems, a computer might

map a virtual address into a physical address.

111

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A network that makes use of WAN technologies to
interconnect LANs within a specific geographical region, such as a city.
Modulation: The process of changing a signal to represent data is often called modulation or
ecording.
Network administrator: The person responsible for the installation, configuration, and
maintenance of a network.
Network Interface Card (NIC): A PC adapter board that permits a computer to be attached to
some sort of network medium. It translates digital information into electrical signals for outgoing
network communications, and translates incoming signals into their digital equivalent for
delivery to the machine.
Network medium: The cable, whether metallic or fiber optic, that links computers together on a
network. This term is also used to describe frequencies used in wireless network
communications.
Network model/type: The type of networking capabilities available on a network, such as peerto-peer, server-based, or a combination of the two.
Network operating system (NOS): The specialized software that allows a computer to take
part in networked communications and to employ a broad range of networking services.
Windows NT is a network operating system available in Workstation and Server versions;
Windows 95 and Windows for Workgroups also include built-in network client and peer-to-peer
capabilities.
Network protocol: The set of rules used for communicating across a network. A common
protocol is required for any two networked devices to be able to communicate successfully.
Network resources: Devices, information, and services that are available across a network.
Network services: Network services are like file and print services or database services, which
are provided by the network and can be used by the network clients.
Node: Node is a device like workstation, server or printer that can exchange information on the
network.
Operating system (OS): The basic program running on any computer that controls the
underlying system and hardware. It is required for any computer to work.
Password: A privately selected string of letters, numbers, and other characters (which should
be hard to guess) used to identify a particular user and to control access to protected
resources.
Personal Computer Interface (PCI): A 32-bit PC bus that offers higher performance and more
sophisticated capabilities than the 16-bit ISA bus.
Peer-to-peer network: A type of network in which all connected computers can be a client
and/or a server to other computers on the network.
Peripheral device: In networking context, a device, such as a printer or a modem, that can be
shared across a network.
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Physical Topology: It explains the actual physical layout of the network.

Random Access Memory (RAM): The memory cards or chips installed in a PC that provide
working space for the CPU to use when running applications, providing network services, and
so on. As far as network servers go, the more RAM you have, the better.
Repeater: Electromagnetic waves attenuate as they pass through a transmission medium.
Each transmission medium can only be used for a certain distance. However, we can exceed
the physical mediums maximum effective distance by using an amplification device called a
repeater.
Request-response: How the client/server relationship works. A request from a client leads to
some kind of response from a server (usually, the service or data requested, but sometimes an
error message or a denial of service based on access permissions).
Router: This is a computer networking device that forwards data packets across a network
toward their destinations, through a process known as routing.

A D-Link Wi-Fi NAT router, popular for home and small office networks
Security: The set of access controls and permissions that are used to determine if a server can
grant a request for a service or resource from a client.
Segment: Segment is a part or a group of a large networks that is linked by a connecting
devices like, hub or bridge.
Server: The computer that responds to requests for services or resources from network clients.
Server-based network: A type or model of network in which a networked server provides
services and resources to client computers and manages and controls access to those services
and resources.
Sharing: The way resources are made available to the network. The main reason for
establishing a network is to share resources.
Specialized server: A type of special-function server. It can be an application server, a
communications server, a directory server or domain controller, a fax server, a mail server, or a
Web server, among other roles.
Standalone: Describes a computer, device, or application thats not attached to a network.
Topology: The structure or the layout of the network is called as the topology of the network.
Transceiver: It is responsible for converting the sent and receives data.
User: The person who uses a computer, whether standalone or networked.
Wide Area Network (WAN): A collection of interconnected networks in which a third-party
communications carrier is used to transmit communications between networks. WAN links can
be expensive because they are charged on the basis of bandwidth, so few WAN links support
the same bandwidth as that available on most LANs.
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Workgroup model: How Microsoft refers a peer-to-peer network that includes one or more
Windows NT-based computers.

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