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Introduction
st At cos t
where A(t) is the time-varying amplitude and (t) is the time-varying angle.
It is convenient to write
t 0t t
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st At cos0t t
Where 0 is the radian frequency of the carrier and (t) is the phase.
When the receiver exploits knowledge of the phase of the carrier to detect
the signals, the process is called coherent detection; when the receiver does
not utilize such phase reference information, the process is called
noncoherent detection.
Ideal Coherent Detection
There is available at the receiver a protoype of each possible arriving
signal. These prototype waveforms attempt to duplicate the transmitted
signal set in every respect even RF phase.
The received is the said to be phase locked to the incoming signal.
During detection, the receiver multiplies and correlates the incoming signal
with each of its prototypes replicas.
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And hybrids combinations. However, how do you account for the fact that
there is a form of phase shift keying under the noncoherent heading?
DPSK utilizes phase information of the prior symbol as phase reference for
detecting the current symbol.
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0t T
2E
si t
cos0t i t
i 1,..., M
T
where the phase term, i(t) will have M discrete values, typically given by
i t
2i
M
i 1,..., M
For the binary PSK (BPSK) as we can see in the Figure M=2. The
parameter E is the symbol energy and T is the time duration, 0tT.
In BPSK the modulating data signal shifts the phase of the waveform, si(t),
to one of two states, either zero or (180).
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0t T
2E
si t
cosi t
i 1,..., M
T
where the frequency term, i, will have M discrete values, and the phase
term, , is an arbitrary constant.
In the figure example M has been chosen to be 3. Note that this value
choice for FSK has been selected to emphasize the mutually perpendicular
axes. In practice, M is usually a nonzero power of 2 (2,4,8,16,).
The signal set is characterized by Cartesian coordinates, such that each of
the mutually perpendicular axes represents a sinusoid with a different
frequency.
0t T
2 Ei t
si t
cos 0t
i 1,..., M
T
Binary ASK was one of the earliest forms at the beginning of century XX
and is no longer widely used in digital communication systems
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0t T
2 Ei t
si t
cos0t i t
i 1,..., M
T
The APK waveform implies simultaneous phase and amplitude changes at
the symbol transition times.
For the example M has been chosen to be 8, corresponding to eight
waveforms types (8-ary).
Here we see eight-vector signal set on the phase-amplitude plane.
Four of the vectors are at one amplitude, the other four vectors are at a
different amplitude; and each of the vectors is separated by 45.
st A cost
where A is the peak value of the waveform. Since the peak value of a
sinusoidal waveform equals 2 times the root-mean-square (rms) value, we
can write
2
st 2 Arms cost 2 Arms
cost
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st 2 P cost
Replacing P watts by E [joules]/ T [seconds], we get
2E
st
cost
T
We shall use either the amplitude notation, A, or the energy designation.
Since the energy in a signal is the key parameter in determining the error
performance of the detection process, it is often more convenient to use the
energy notation.
sm t Re Am g t e
j 2f c t
0t T
Am g t cos 2f ct
m 1,..., M
Am 2m 1 M d m 1,..., M
here 2d is the distance between adjacent signal amplitudes. The waveform
g(t) is a real-valued signal pulse whose shape influences the spectrum of
the transmitted signal. The symbol rate is R/k at which changes occur in the
amplitude of the carrier to reflect the transmission of new information.
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1
1
Em sm2 t dt Am2 g 2 t dt Am2 Eg
2 o
2
o
where Eg denotes the energy in the pulse g(t). Clearly these signals are onedimensional (N=1), and then are represented by general form
sm t sm f t
Where f(t) is defined as the unit-energy signal waveform given as
2
f t
g t cos 2f ct
Eg
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sm t Am
1
Eg
2
The corresponding signal space diagrams for M=2, 4 and 8 are shown in
next figure. Digital PAM is also called amplitude shift keying (ASK).
M=2
0
M=4
00
01
11
10
M=8
000
001
011 010
110
111
101
100
d mn
sm sn
Eg 2 An Eg 2
1
1
Eg Am An
Eg 2m 1 M d 2n 1 M d d 2Eg m n
2
2
Hence, the minimum Euclidean distance is
e
d min
d 2 Eg
sm t Re Am g t jg t e j 2f ct
m 1,..., M
sm t Am g t
s1 t s2 t
Hence, these two signals have the same energy and a cross-correlation
coefficient of -1. As we mentioned previously such signals are called
antipodal.
1
1
E2
Re mn
s1 t s 2 t dt
s2 t dt
1
E
E
E1E2 0
2 0
2
T
Phase
Modulated Signals
sm t Re g t e j 2 m1 M e j 2f ct , m 1,..., M
2
m 1
sm t g t cos2f ct
M
sm t g t cos
2
m 1cos 2f ct g t sin 2 m 1sin 2f ct
M
M
1
1
E sm2 t dt g 2 t dt Eg
2o
2
o
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sm t sm1 t f1 t sm 2 t f 2 t
where
2
f1 t
g t cos 2f ct
Eg
f1 t
2
g t sin 2f ct
Eg
Eg
2
sm
cos m 1
2
M
Eg
2
m 1
sin
2
M
M=2
0
011
010
01
001
110
000
M=8
100
111
101
11
00
M=4
10
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d mn s m s n Eg 1 cos
mn
M
d min
Eg 1 cos
M
t ReA g t e
sm t Re Amc jAms g t e
j 2f c t
m 1,..., M
0t T
j 2f c t
j 2f c t
sm
jA
g
t
e
mc
ms
sm t Amc g t cos 2f ct Ams g t sin 2f ct
Where Amc and Ams are the information-bearing signal amplitudes of the
quadrature carriers and g(t) is the signal pulse.
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sm t Re Vme j m g t e j 2f ct Re Vm g t e j 2f ct m
sm t Vm g t cos2f ct m
where
2
2
Vm Amc
Ams
m tan
Ams
Amc
From this expression, it is apparent that the QAM signal may be viewed as
combined amplitude and phase modulation.
In fact we may select any combination of M1-level PAM and M2-levelPSK
to construct an M=M1M2 combined PAM-PSK signal constellation.
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M=8
M=16
M1=2
M2=4
M1=4
M2=4
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sm t sm1 t f1 t sm 2 t f 2 t
where
2
f1 t
g t cos 2f ct
Eg
f 2 t
and
2
g t sin 2f ct
Eg
Eg
sm
Amc
2
Eg
Ams
2
d mn
Eg
Amc Anc 2 Ams Ans 2
sm sn
2
In the special case where the signal amplitudes takes the set of discrete
values
Am 2m 1 M d m 1,..., M
The signal space diagram is rectangular, as shown in the next figure. In this
case the minimum Euclidean distance between adjacent points is
e
d min
Eg
2m 1 M d 2n
C 1 M d 2ms 1 M d 2ns 1 M d
Eg
2
2
2
2
4d 2 mc nc 4d 2 ms ns 2 Eg d 2 mc nc ms ns d 2 Eg
2
e
d min
for
m n m n 1
2
M=64
M=32
M=16
M=8
M=4
Multidimensional Signals
T1 NT
2T
3T
NT
2T
3T
NT
2T
3T
NT
2f
3f
Nf
2f
3f
Nf
f0+4f
f0+4f
f0+3f
f0+3f
f0+f
f0+f
f0
f0
2T
3T
2T
3T
sm t Re s lm t e
j 2f ct
m 1,..., M
0t T
2E
sm t
cos2f ct 2mft
T
Where the equivalent lowpass signal waveform is defined as
2E j 2mft
slm t
e
T
This type of modulation is called FSK (Frequency shift keying).
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Em
1
1
2
s
t
dt
lm
2 0
2 0
2 E j 2mft
e
dt
T
2
2E
2E
cos 2mf j
sin 2mf dt
T
T
1
Em
20
1
Em
20
2E
2E
dt
cos
2
sin
2
f
T
T
E
Em cos2 2mf sin 2 2mfdt E
T 0
km
km
km
2 Em Ek
s
t
s
lm lk t dt
1 2 E j 2f mk t
t dt
2 E T
sin T m k f jT mk f
e
T m k f
Rekm
sin T m k f
cosT m k f
T m k f
s1 E 0 0 0 0
s2 0
E 0 0 0
sN 0 0 0 0
E
sm sk
E E
2
2E
Which is also the minimum distance. Next figure illustrates the signal
space diagram for M=N=2 and 3.
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f 2 t
f 2 t
s2
2E
s1
2E
s1
s3
f1 t
f1 t
E
d12 2 E
2E
f 3 t
s2
M=N=3
M=N=2
Biorthogonal Signals
2E
f 2 t
s2
s2
- s1
s1
- s2
M=4
s1
- s1
f3 t
- s3
s3
f1 t
- s2
M=6
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Simplex Signals
1
s
M
s
m 1
sm sm - s m 1,2,...,M
The effect of the substraction is to translate the origin of the m orthogonal
signals to the point s.
The resulting signals waveforms are called simplex signals and have the
following properties.
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sm
sm
sm
sm
sm
2
s m - s dt s 2m 2s m s s 2 dt s 2m dt
M
0
0
0
2
2
E
M
1
E
M
m 1
0
T
1
2
s
dt
M
m 1 0
0
M T
m dt
m 1
M M 1
2ME 1 M 2
s
dt
2
s
s
m
n m dt
2 m
M
M 0 m1
m 1
n 1 m 1
T
M M 1 T
2ME 1 M 2
E
2 s m dt 2 sn sm dt
M
M m1 0
n 1 m 1 0
1
E 2E
M
0
T
M M 1
1 M 2
s
dt
2
E
2
s
s
m
n m dt
2 m
M 0 m1
m 1
n 1 m 1
1 M
1 M
E
1
E 2E 2 E E 2E 2 E E 2E
E 1
M m1
M m1
M
M
Re mn
s
s
dt
m n
sm sn
Em En
Em En 0
Em En
sm s n sn dt
T
T
T
T
1
Re mn
s ms n dt s m sn dt sms n dt sm sn dt
Em En 0
0
0
0
T
T
T
1 1 M
1 M
Re mn
s ms n dt s ms n dt sm sn dt
M m1 0
Em En M n1 0
0
T
T
M M 1
1
1
1 M 2
Re mn
s
s
dt
2
s
s
m n
n m dt
2 m
Em En 0
n 1 m 1
E 1 M 1 M 0 m1
T
M M 1 T
1
1 M 2
Re mn
s dt 2 sn sm dt
2 m
E 1 M 1 M m1 0
n 1 m 1 0
Re mn
1
1
1
1
1
ME
1 M 1 M 1 M
E 1 M 1 M 2
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Since only the origin was translated, the distance between any pair of
signals points is maintained at d 2E .
Next figure illustrate simplex
signals for M=2,3, and 4.
Note that signal dimensionality is
N=M-1.
2 Ec
cmj 1 smj t
cos 2f ct 0 t Tc
Tc
2 Ec
cmj 0 smj t
cos 2f ct 0 t Tc
Tc
Where Tc=T/N and Ec=E/N. Thus the M code words are mapped into a set
of M waveforms.
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sm sm1 sm2
Where smj E N for all m and j. N is called the block length of the
code, and it is also the dimension of M waveforms.
We note that there are 2N possible waveforms that can be constructed from
the 2N possible binary code words. We may select a subset of M< 2N signal
waveforms for transmission of the information.
We also observe that the 2N possible signal points corresponds to the
vertices of an N-dimensional hyper-cube with its center at the origin.
s2
f 2 t
f1 t
s3 -s1
s 4 -s2
s6
N=2, M=4
s3
s5
s4
f1 t
s7
s1
s7
s2
f3 t
N=3
M=8
2 Ec
s1 t
cos 2f ct 0 t Tc
Tc
4
2 Ec
s3 t
cos 2f ct 0 t Tc
Tc
4
2 Ec
3
s2 t
cos 2f ct 0 t Tc
Tc
4
2 Ec
3
s4 t
cos 2f ct 0 t Tc
Tc
4
s1 t
s3 t
s2 t
s4 t
2 Ec
2 Ec cos 2f ct sin 2f ct
cos 2f ct
Tc
4
Tc
2
2
2 Ec
2 Ec cos 2f ct sin 2f ct
cos 2f ct
Tc
4
Tc
2
2
2 Ec
2 Ec
3
cos 2f ct
Tc
4
Tc
cos 2f ct sin 2f ct
2
2
2 Ec
2 Ec
3
cos 2f ct
Tc
4
Tc
cos 2f ct sin 2f ct
2
2
s1 t
s3 t
s2 t
s4 t
Ec
cos 2f ct sin 2f ct
Tc
Ec
cos 2f ct sin 2f ct
Tc
Ec
cos 2f ct sin 2f ct
Tc
Ec
cos 2f ct sin 2f ct
Tc
cos 2f ct
f1 t
Tc
f 2 t
sin 2f ct
Tc
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E
E
E
E
s1
s3
s2
s4
Ec
Ec
Ec
We can obtain that the distance between any adjacent pair of waveforms
e
d min
Ec Ec
2 Ec 4Ec 4 E N