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This paper serves as an introduction to Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria or otherwise known as
PGPR. For in depth coverage of specific areas relating to PGPR the reader is directed to literature
citations given at the end of this paper.
The Rhizosphere
The thin layer of soil (about 1 to 2mm thick) surrounding crop roots and the volume of soil occupied by
roots is known as the rhizosphere. The shear extent of crop roots in soil dictates that a significant portion
of soil is actually within the rhizosphere (about 5 to 40% of soil in the rooting zone depending upon crop
root architecture). This zone is where the majority of soil microorganism (bacteria and fungi) reside. They
reside in the rhizosphere to utilize compounds and materials released from crop roots providing
microorganisms with energy. The majority of microorganisms present in the rhizosphere are thought to
have no direct consequence on plant growth and vigour. However there are many present that are
deleterious or beneficial to plant growth. Producers have exploited to great success the use of inoculants
of nitrogen fixing bacteria to limit the need for costly fertilizers in legume crops. As we strive to optimize
the performance of all crops, increasingly the value of inoculating soil with other microorganisms or
promoting the activity of residing beneficial microorganisms through management practices is being
explored.
Chris Chanway Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia Forest biofertilizers, bioprotectants
Jim Germida Department of Soil Science, University of Saskatchewan Biofertilizers
Russell Hynes Department of Soil Science, University of Saskatchewan Biofertilizers, bioprotectants
Kevin Vessey Department of Plant Science, University of Manitoba Biofertilizers
Dilantha Fernando Department of Plant Science, University of Manitoba Bioprotectants
George Lazarovits AAFC, London Ontario Bioprotectants
Bernie Glick Department of Biology, University of Waterloo Biostimulants
Donald Smith Macdonald College, McGill University Biofertilizers
Hani Antoun Sols et de génie agroalimentaire, Laval University Rhizosphere ecology
Joe Kloepper Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Auburn Bioprotectants (coined PGPR;
University used to work in Canada)
Biofertilizers are also available for increasing crop nutrient uptake of nitrogen from nitrogen fixing
bacteria associated with roots (Azospirillium), iron uptake from siderophore producing bacteria
(Pseudomonas), sulfur uptake from sulfur-oxidizing bacteria (Thiobacillus), and phosphorus uptake from
phosphate-mineral solubilizing bacteria (Bacillus, Pseudomonas). Nitrogen fixing biofertilizers provide
only a modest increase in crop nitrogen uptake (at best an increase of 20 lbs N per acre). Research is
being conducted by Dr. Vessey in the Department of Plant Science, University of Manitoba to increase
the efficiency of nitrogen fixation by biofertilizers. The popular inoculants presently commercialized for
increasing phosphorus uptake through phosphorus solubilization (Penicillium and Aspergillus) and
phosphorus transfer directly to roots (mycorrhizae) are not bacteria but fungi. Species of Pseudomonas
and Bacillus can produce as yet not well characterized phytohormones or growth regulators that cause
crops to have greater amounts of fine roots which have the effect of increasing the absorptive surface of
plant roots for uptake of water and nutrients. These PGPR are referred to as Biostimulants and the
phytohormones they produce include indole-acetic acid, cytokinins, gibberellins and inhibitors of
ethylene production. Figure 1 depicts the relation of the PGPR mechanisms in relation to the effect on the
crop.
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Current means of delivery of inoculants include peat, granular, liquid and wettable powder formulations
and are not unlike present delivery mechanisms for legume inoculants. However, growth promotion is
often inconsistent in the field compared to greenhouse or growth-chamber studies and is the dominant
barrier to widespread use of PGPR. A major determinant of growth promotion is degree of colonization of
the surface or interior of roots. The ability of a PGPR to establish in the rhizosphere is referred to as
rhizocompetence. A big part of the laboratory and greenhouse screening is to obtain types of PGPR with
the most rhizocompetence. However in field soil, environmental conditions and competition or
displacement by the myriad of organisms present in the rhizosphere limit colonization. Improving
delivery as well as selection of PGPR to thrive on specific crop varieties and specific soil types promises
more consistent crop performance response.
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conducted repeatedly for selection of vigorous PGPR organisms as well as to demonstrate efficacy using
different crop varieties, soil types and weather conditions. Of special note, bogus and unfounded efficacy
claims that abound in the PGPR inoculant industry in the United States, hampers product development.
Companies amounting to being basically snake-oil salespeople tarnish the industry and prevent legitimate
companies from raising capital required to bring effective products to market. Regulatory bodies in the
United States (Environmental Protection Agency) and Canada (Canadian Food Inspection Agency and the
Pest Management Regulatory Agency) have established procedures for the registration of PGPR.
Demonstration primarily of efficacy and safety are required prior to PGPR registration. Producers should
not use PGPR unless the product is registered and approved to be a Biofertilizer or Bioprotectant in
Canada. Currently there are no such products registered in Canada and only a handful in the United
States.
Recent advances in molecular techniques also are encouraging in that tools are becoming available to
determine the mechanism by which crop performance is improved using PGPR and track survival and
activity of PGPR organisms in soil and roots. The science of PGPR is at the stage where genetically
modified PGPR can be produced. PGPR with antibiotic, phytohormone and siderophore production can
be made. However until GMO-PGPR is accepted by regulators in response to public will, such products
will not be available commercially.
80
60 5-10% of these
Number of publications
field studies
40
20
0
1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
Publication year (up to 06-2003)
Figure 3. The steady growth in PGPR research activity evident as scientific
publications (peer-reviewed articles). Results obtained by searching Biological
Abstracts Database using the keyword “Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria”.
Final Comments
The agronomics of crop production is ever changing. Recent developments has invigorated research into
commercialization of PGPR. These developments include the need for alternatives to soil fumigants to
control soilborne plant pathogens. Current fumigants are being banned or restricted in use or are too
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costly for annual crop producers. Biofertilizers are being explored as a means to reduce fertilizer costs,
improve timing of nutrient availability and crop uptake to prevent contamination of water and air with
nutrients. The organic crop production industry requires new means to protect crops and supply nutrients.
As PGPR development is costly, commercialization will likely occur of products first in the United States
and then product registration in Canada. High value crops such a fruits and vegetables are to be targeted
for PGPR application as these producers may replace costly soil fumigants with as likely costly PGPR.
Further Readings:
Arshad, M. and Frankenberger, W.T. 1993. Microbial production of plant growth regulators. Pages 307-
348. In: In: Soil Microbial Ecology: Applications in Agricultural and Environmental
Management (ed. Metting, R.B.). Marcel Dekker, New York.
Glass, D.J. 1993. Commercialization of soil microbial technologies. Pages 595-618. In: Soil Microbial
Ecology: Applications in Agricultural and Environmental Management (ed. Metting, R.B.).
Marcel Dekker, New York.
Great Plains Inoculant Forum 2003 (paper titles and abstracts of meeting held March 27 & 28 in
Saskatoon, SK)
http://www.inoculants.com/encyclopedia/gpif_index.html (last accessed Jan 24 2004).
Kloepper, J.W. 1993. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria as biological control agents. Pages 255-274.
In: In: Soil Microbial Ecology: Applications in Agricultural and Environmental Management (ed.
Metting, R.B.). Marcel Dekker, New York.
Vessey, J.K. 2003. Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria as biofertilizers. Plant and Soil 255:571-586.
Walter, J.F. and Paau, A.S. 1993. Microbial production and formulation. Pages 579-594. In: In: Soil
Microbial Ecology: Applications in Agricultural and Environmental Management (ed. Metting,
R.B.). Marcel Dekker, New York.
Zehnder, G.W., Murphy, J.F., Sikora, E.J. and Kloepper, J.W. 2001. Application of rhizobacteria for
induced resistance. European Journal of Plant Pathology 107:39-50.