Stellar Nebula

Protostar

Equilibrium is formed
between outward forces Main Sequence Massive Star
(kinetic energy from fusion of
H into He) and inward forces 0.6-1.4 Solar masses >1.4 solar masses
(gravitational attraction).

Core runs out of H to fuse. Stops

Although the core is hotter
producing energy. Core contracts
than in the main sequence,
under gravitational forces, and
the radius is larger, thus the
outer layers drift further out.
energy is spread out over a
Red Giant Eventually core contracts so Red Supergiant
much larger area, therefore
much, the temperature increases
the surface temperature is
enough to allow fusion of He into
lower. This accounts for the
heavy elements. New equilibrium
cooler ‘red’ colour.
formed

Iron is formed in the core. As iron is the most

stable nucleus, no further energ can be gained
from fusing it. As no forther energy is being
produced, gravitational collapse occurs. Supernova
Temperatures in the core can reach 1x1012K.
Iron atoms are crushed together, resulting in a
shockwave. This is a supernova. Whole process
takes less than 1s.

Black Hole
Fusion stops again, core
contracts again. Core >3 Solar masses
contracts so much that
outer layers are
completley ejected,
White Dwarf Planetary Nebula
becoming the nebula.
Core becomes white Region of space from which
dwarf, very small nothing, even light, can
therefore surface escape.
temperature is very high.

A white dwarf has not got

sufficient energy to fuse
elements further than it
All protons are crushed into
already has, therefore it
neutrons. Space between
is merely a dense ball of Neutron Star / Pulsar
Black Dwarf atoms is virtually zero.
cooling matter. Once it
Result is a very small (radius
has cooled, it becomes a 1.4 – 3 Solar masses
order of 10km), very dense,
black dwarf, not radiating
very fast rotating (~600r/s)
any energy. Not expected
ball of neutrons. Ooms
to exist in the universe.
2010