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Hagia Sophia:
Justinian’s Gift to Christianity and Wonder of the World
Abstract
This paper looks at how Hagia Sophia, a 6th century masonry edifice, captures the spirit
and history of Istanbul. Beyond being the pulse of the city, the argument will be made
that Hagia Sophia warrants consideration as a Modern Wonder of the World. The
building has uniquely stood for nearly fifteen centuries in a land notorious for religious,
geopolitical, and geophysical instability. Moreover, like the original Seven Wonders of
the World, Hagia Sophia possesses unprecedented architectural innovation and elaborate
ornamentation. The paper begins with a discussion of the founding of the Byzantine
Empire and Hagia Sophia’s origins. Next, the paper looks at the extraordinary
architectural skill and ingenuity that is manifested in the structure. The focus will be on
Hagia Sophia’s enormous dome and its earthquake resistant walls that have allowed it to
remain the iconic symbol of Istanbul. Subsequently, the paper will take the reader inside
the monumental structure and highlight several renowned pieces of Byzantine and
Islamic ornamentation. In the end, the reader will understand the captivating qualities of
Hagia Sophia, qualities that make Hagia Sophia a Wonder of the World.
Table of Contents
Istanbul is the indisputable symbol of Turkey; however, the city has struggled to
attain a single identity. Istanbul links the East and the West, reified by the colossal
suspension bridges that cross the Bosphorus, connecting Asia and Europe. In addition to
fusing distinct cultures, Istanbul transcends time – the city couples the legacies of past
civilizations with the present Republic. Due to its unique geography and history, Istanbul
importance as an economic, political, and military passage for the West into the Middle
East and Central Asia, Turkey is frequently isolated from its European counterparts. The
country has been denied membership into the European Union (EU) and disenfranchised
due to its eclectic population and heritage. According to the members of the EU, Turkey
Though Europe has turned its back on the multidimensional Turkey, the European
Union has recognized Istanbul’s vibrancy. Ironically, for similar reasons as Turkey’s
exclusion from the EU, the EU has proclaimed Istanbul a European Capital of Culture for
the 2010 calendar year. The honorary title presents an opportunity for the city to highlight
visitors will flock to the city and take in its many sites. However, if visitors truly want to
understand the complex city, it is only necessary to visit a single monument, the
magnificent Byzantine Church of Hagia Sophia. Just as Istanbul exemplifies the greater
1
Alphonse de Lamartime as cited in Orhan Pamuk, Istanbul (New York: Vintage, 2006), 63.
2
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country, Hagia Sophia exemplifies Istanbul. The church is the pulse of Istanbul, the heart
The paper begins with a brief historical background that will contextualize the
extraordinary permanence of Hagia Sophia, emphasizing how the structure has been a
constant in a land notorious for political, religious, and geophysical instability. It will
then explore the extraordinary architectural ingenuity that is manifested in the structure
before entering the church and highlighting its elaborate ornamentation. This examination
Approaching Istanbul by water, as travelers have done for centuries, the skyline is
an overwhelming scene of domes and minarets. The formidable Blue Mosque sails by,
followed by the Sultan's palace, and then the “strange ancient-futuristic form of Hagia
Sophia, bulking like a giant Jedi helmet cast from dark-red masonry.”3
Today, Hagia Sophia, which stands atop the first hill of ancient Constantinople,
surrounded by the Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus, and the Golden Horn, is a museum. In
his effort to unify the infant nation, Kemal Ataturk, founder of the Republic of Turkey,
secularized the building in 1934. But, for a majority of its lifetime, Hagia Sophia was
affectionately glorified by two of the world's great religions, Christianity and Islam. For
Christians, Hagia Sophia, Holy Wisdom, was the home of the Orthodox faith. For
Muslims, the building was Ayasofya, a divine mosque. For all, it was, as the sixth-
2
W. Eugene Kleinbauer, Antony White, and Henry Matthews, Hagia Sophia (London: Scala, 2004), 7.
3
Melik Kaylan, "Masterpiece: A Beautiful Confusion; Istanbul’s Hagia Sophia seems to yearn for its past sanctity" Wall Street
Journal, Eastern Edition, July 7, 2007.
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those who know it… altogether incredible. For it soars to a height to match the
Hagia Sophia’s history can be drawn back to the founding of the Eastern Roman
Empire. In A.D. 326, Emperor Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire to the
shores of the Bosphorus, renaming the small port of Byzantium to Constantinople. Thirty
years later, Emperor Theodosius II built Constantinople’s first great church. The church,
also named Hagia Sophia, stood for 172 years before the peasant revolt, the Nika
In order to reestablish his power after the revolt, Emperor Justinian began
construction of a new basilica just thirty-nine days after the destruction of the original
Emperor Justinian built not long afterwards a church so finely shaped, that if anyone had
enquired of the Christians before the burning if it would be their wish that the church should
be destroyed and one like this should take its place… it seems to me that they would have
prayed that they might see their church destroyed forthwith, in order that the building might
be converted into its present form. 5
with the task of building the symbol of Eastern Orthodoxy and Justinian’s authority.
Isidorus and Anthemios loosely modeled their plan on the Roman Pantheon. The gigantic
structure would measure 270 by 240 feet along its main floor. Soaring 180 feet above the
central nave would be a dome supported by four massive pendentives on equally large
piers. At the east and west ends of the dome’s supporting square would be two
semidomes, forming the apse and entrance bay (see figure 1).
The builders’ plan was unprecedented and for many, seemingly impossible. The
4
Procopius, Buildings, (Cambridge (US): Loeb Classical Library, 1940), 14.
5
Procopius, Buildings, 12.
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size and height of the dome, some fifteen stories high, were unparalleled, and remained
so for a millennium. Unlike the Romans, Byzantium did not possess the knowledge of
how to make concrete, so the engineers had to rely solely on brick, mortar, and stone,
making the task more difficult.6 Nonetheless, in 537, just six years after work began,
Justinian went on to embellish the interior with riches. Four acres of gold mosaics
shimmered from the ceiling while multicolored marble and stones gleamed from the
floors, columns, and wall panels. Evidently, for Justinian, splendor was a greater concern
than expense; the emperor spent 145,000 kg of gold (worth approximately US$3 billion)
on the church, a sum that makes it one of the most expensive structures ever built.7
For hundreds of years, Hagia Sophia served its purpose as the physical
manifestation of Orthodoxy. The edifice was arguably the world's most desirable stand-
alone piece of sacred real estate. Hagia Sophia’s importance as the center of religious
authority in the Byzantine capital was compounded with its importance as the primary
setting for state rituals and celebrations. Hagia Sophia was irresistible to both Byzantines
and outsiders. Armies of Arabians, Bulgars, Russians, and others effortlessly tried, and
After centuries of holding out, the Byzantine capital was breached in 1204.
and the cathedral. Yet, the gutted structure was still a marvel and an enticing prize for
foreign armies. In 1453, Sultan Mohammed II attacked the city, defeating the Byzantines
6
Anthony Cutler, “Structure and Aesthetic at Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.” The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 25
(1966): 28.
7
Virginia Hughes, “Shaken, Not Stirred.” Nature 443 (206): 390.
8
Kaylan, “A Beautiful Confusion.”
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after a fifty-three day siege. Although the Byzantine’s great capital was finally lost,
Hagia Sophia proved too great to be destroyed. Upon entering the city, the Sultan
marched directly to the cathedral, was taken back by its magnificence, and instantly
ordered its preservation. Hagia Sophia was then converted from Eastern Christianity's
figures of humans. Koranic inscriptions were placed in the four corners of the central
nave while four minarets were erected at the corners of the exterior perimeter. To replace
the large metal cross crowning the dome, the Ottomans erected a bronze crescent. While
the transformation was not taken lightly by Christians, Ayasofya quickly became a major
In 1847, the mosque underwent its most famous restoration. Sultan Abdülmecid II
invited Swiss architects Gaspare and Guiseppe Fossati to refurbish the building. In
addition to strengthening the dome and vaults, the two architects revised the decoration of
In the 20th century, Turkish leader Kemal Ataturk viewed the structure as a
unifying symbol for East and West. He closed the mosque in 1932, uncovering the
national museum. Nearly fifteen centuries after Justinian, Hagia Sophia still holds its
prominent place on the first hill of ancient Constantinople. Despite having to transition
empires, handle religious conversion, withstand world wars, Hagia Sophia has remained
an icon. Justinian’s church has transcended century upon century and still stands as a
9
Kaylan, “A Beautiful Confusion.”
10
Kleinbauer, Hagia Sophia, 87.
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Istanbul is a city in constant motion. Not only has the city swelled in population
from two million to ten million in the last forty years, but the city is also in literal motion.
In addition to enduring geopolitical turmoil and religious conversion, Hagia Sophia has
withstood constant geophysical instability. Istanbul is located near the North Anatolian
fault (see figure 2).12 In 1999, Izmit, a town lying 100 kilometers east of Istanbul was
struck by a magnitude 7.4 earthquake. The earthquake killed about 18,000 people and
Though Istanbul proved fortunate in 1999, the future appears foreboding. While
difficult to forecast future seismic activity, a study based on historical trends, predicts a
greater than seven magnitude earthquake in the next four decades for the greater Istanbul
This news is not easy for the millions living in hastily constructed, unstable
concrete high-rises. Yet, if the past can be telling of the future, Istanbul’s prize jewel,
Hagia Sophia, should be safe. Hagia Sophia has already survived fifteen centuries of
earthquakes. Though it has survived, it is important to note that it has not been
completely unscathed. Resulting from both man-made changes and natural disasters, it
has experienced many cracks in its structural elements. Most notably, due to earthquakes
in 558 the eastern arch, in 989 the western arch, and in 1346 again the eastern arch
11
P.R. Morey, “Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.” Boston Daily Globe, 8 July 1923.
12
Hughes, “Shaken, Not Stirred,” 390.
13
Hughes, “Shaken, Not Stirred,” 390.
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collapsed together with portions of the main dome and the semidomes.14
Nonetheless, Hagia Sophia has by and large stood the test of time. For decades,
historians, architects, and engineers have wondered how it has done so. Today,
computerized models and chemical analyses are offering answers. To understand these
answers, it is necessary to understand how Hagia Sophia’s builders were well ahead of
University, says "Anthemius was the best military engineer that Justinian had.”
Additionally, "Isidorus was the director of the biggest scientific academy in the world…
Çakmak and his engineering colleague Robert Mark are at the forefront of
computerized models that simulate Hagia Sophia’s movement under various conditions
such as earthquakes. Their models have demonstrated that the building's strength comes
from its original square core. "Virtually all domed structures before this time were
Harvard.16 Conversely, Hagia Sophia was built on the crowns of arches, which support
the dome and extend to piers that form the corners of a square. What were also innovative
and unseen were Hagia Sophia's pendentives – the concave triangles of brick and mortar
that structurally transition between the curved tops of the four supporting arches and the
Remarkably, Anthemius and Isidorus built Hagia Sophia long before the
14
Tulay Aksu Ozkul and Eiichi Kuribayashi, “Structural characteristics of Hagia Sophia: II--A finite element formulation for
dynamic analysis.” Building and Environment 42 (2007): 2100.
15
Hughes, “Shaken, Not Stirred,” 390.
16
Hughes, “Shaken, Not Stirred,” 391.
17
Hughes, “Shaken, Not Stirred,” 391.
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discovery of calculus and Newton's laws of force. In place of such knowledge, the
architects must have relied heavily on simple geometric ratios; such ratios played a
prevalent role in the construction of the Pantheon, a building Mark modeled in the late
1980s.18 Mark’s model of the famous Roman temple helped him realize that the
Pantheon’s windows, like those in Hagia Sophia's dome, were not added solely for their
mystical visual effect, but to also play a crucial role in avoiding cracks. Mark
summarized his finding by affirming, "They [Anthemius and Isidorus] knew from
looking at the Pantheon that that region would want to crack anyway along the axis of the
windows," he explains, "so they used windows to, in a way, put the cracks in
themselves.”19
pendentives, and windows. These features, when shaken, distribute the dome's weight
equally among the four supporting pillars. But the very bricks and mortar used in place of
concrete have also proved vital. In the same fashion as modern earthquake-resistant
buildings, Hagia Sophia was constructed to be light and flexible. Hagia Sophia’s bricks
are much lighter and more porous than those used elsewhere in the empire.20 Çakmak's
research found that the bricks must have been baked at relatively low temperatures to get
the right reaction between sand and lime. "If it becomes higher than that," he says, "the
In addition to lighter bricks, the original builders also used a particular type of
mortar. With the help of the National Technical University of Athens, Çakmak has found
18
Ahmet Ş. Çakmak, Rabun M. Taylor, and Eser Durukal, “The structural configuration of the first dome of justinian's hagia sophia
(A.D. 537–558): An investigation based on structural and literary analysis.” Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 29 (2009):
696.
19
Hughes, “Shaken, Not Stirred,” 391.
20
Nicola Dixon, "Byzantine church gives up the secret of its longevity." New Scientist 176 (2002): 13.
21
Hughes, “Shaken, Not Stirred,” 391.
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that the mortar contains a calcium–silicon compound similar to that used in today's
Portland cement, the most common cement in the 21st century.22 Such a mixture has a
higher tensile strength than regular mortar, allowing the church to absorb the shaking of
an earthquake. Çakmak also found that after 1,500 years the calcium and silicon in the
mortar still reacts. Thus, the microcracks formed during an earthquake are eventually
Cakmak and Mark, like many others, were curious to see how Hagia Sophia
would fare in the next large earthquake. Just as the past would have it, Anthemius’s and
Isidorus’s 6th century structure should continue to mark the Istanbul skyline.
Computerized models and dynamic finite analysis have shown that when hit by a
magnitude-7.5 tremor, the walls of Hagia Sophia will tremble and sway dramatically
back and forth. The tops of its arches will feel the most stress, but the dome will remain
Beyond its structural stability, there are other qualities that have allowed Hagia
Sophia to remain standing despite its location in a land notorious for instability. Turks
and visitors alike have revered Hagia Sophia for generations. Christians and Muslims
have flocked to the building. Nobles and peasants have similarly gazed at the dome.
22
Dixon, “Byzantine church,” 13.
23
Hughes, “Shaken, Not Stirred,” 391.
24
Ozkul, “Structural characteristics of Hagia Sophia,” 2105.
25
Kleinbauer, Hagia Sophia, 33.
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wonder. Hagia Sophia presents a sense of awe to everyone who is fortunate enough to
visit. As Princeton Professor of Classics Ruth Webb puts it, “How can one represent in
words the totality of visual experience – the infinite varieties of color, space, depth,
same manner as the innovations manifested in the structural stability. “Many of the ideas
in the great church were new at the time, and cannot be explained as the inevitable
encircling the dome, for example, far exceeds any known Byzantine precedent or
successor.”27 Additionally, while the ideas of a masonry dome on a cylinder had existed
in the Western Roman Empire, Hagia Sophia’s vaulting scheme as a whole – as opposed
original accounts, such as that of Procopius, to understand its aesthetic beauty. Procopius
somehow to float in the air on no firm basis, but to be poised aloft to the peril of those
inside it. Yet actually it is braced with exceptional firmness and security.” 29 He adds,
"The dome is a work admirable and terrifying... seeming not to rest on the masonry
below it, but to be suspended by a chain of gold from the height of the sky."30
Even more incredible than the originality of the dome or the engineered windows
26
Ruth Webb, “The Aesthetics of Sacred Space: Narrative, Metaphor, and Motion in ‘Ekphraseis’ of Church Buildings.” Dumbarton
Oaks Papers 53 (1999): 59.
27
Rabun Taylor, “A Literary and Structural Analysis of the First Dome on Justinian’s Hagia Sophia, Constantinople.” Journal of the
Society of Architectural Historians 55 (1996): 74.
28
Taylor, ““A Literary and Structural Analysis,” 74.
29
Procopius, Buildings, 18.
30
Procopius, Buildings, 15.
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is the effect of the two when combined with each other and with the rest of the church.
The interior of Hagia Sophia was paneled with costly purple, green, and white marble as
well as ornamental gemstones that convinced visitors that they “had come upon a
meadow with its flowers in full bloom.”31 The marble columns were complexly arranged
throughout the interior of the church in terms of size, proportion, and color. Many of
these decorative marble columns were actually taken from other ancient buildings and
reused to support the interior arcades. Along with the marble were colored stones. Black
stones were taken from the Bosphorous region, green stones from Carystus, polychrome
stones from Phygia, yellow stones from Libya, and red stones from Isauria.32
Working in conjunction with the decorative marbles and stones were precious
metals. The upper part of the building was elaborately decorated in gold that was
arranged to form a medallion with a huge cross in the center. During the day, the sun’s
rays reflected off the marble and the gold to illuminate the dome and central nave with a
mystical light.33 The effect of lighting was so profound that the glow appeared to come
from within the church instead of from the outside sun. This effect convinced ancient
visitors that Hagia Sophia’s dome was in fact the dome of heaven. Procopius attempted to
All these details, fitted together with incredible skill in mid-air and floating off from each
other and resting only on the parts next to them, produce a single and most extraordinary
harmony in the work, and yet do not permit the spectator to linger much over the study of any
one of them, but each detail attracts the eye and draws it on irresistibly to itself. So the vision
constantly shifts suddenly, for the beholder is utterly unable to select which particular detail
he should admire more than all the others. But even so, though they turn their attention to
every side and look with contracted brows upon every detail, observers are still unable to
understand the skillful craftsmanship, but they always depart from there overwhelmed by the
bewildering sight.34
31
Procopius, Buildings, 28.
32
Kleinbauer, Hagia Sophia, 33.
33
Emma Wegner, "Hagia Sophia, 532–37.” Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2004.
34
Procopius, Buildings, 22.
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In addition to the silver, gold, marble, and gemstones that decorated the Church of
Holy Wisdom, there was an abundance of magnificent mosaics. The history of the
during Iconoclasm, a period (between 730-787 and again between 814-842) when the
new figural mosaics were added to Hagia Sophia. These mosaics depicted the Virgin
The most famous of Hagia Sophia's mosaics are on the upper floor, in the galleries
(see figure 3). The galleries were originally used for church councils. When Hagia Sophia
became a mosque, the galleries were the place of worship for women. Today, the
galleries offer visitors a bird’s eye view of the nave and a close-up view of some of the
Though not the most complete work, the best-known mosaic is the Deësis Mosaic
(see figure 4). Deësis depicts Christ flanked by the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist. The
Virgin Mary and John the Baptist are seen evidently concerned with the coming suffering
straightforward, intended to teach the viewer a religious lesson, in this case, a reminder
that everyone will eventually be held accountable for their actions on earth. The work
exemplifies Byzantine art as it employs rich colors, a gold background, and shows flat,
35
Procopius, Buildings, 28-29.
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Many of the earliest mosaics were stolen and shipped to Venice during the 4th
Crusade. This event helps explain how such Byzantine art influenced Renaissance artists
who also used a vibrant array of colors and painted similar scenes of intense humanity
With the conversion of Hagia Sophia into a mosque, the mosaics were covered with
whitewash and plaster. It was at this time that the Islamic calligraphic disks were
suspended from the main dome. The names painted on the eight wooden disks are: Allah
and Muhammad (flanking the apse); the first four Caliphs Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and
Ali (at the four corners of the dome); and the two grandsons of Mohammed, Hasan and
When the Fosatti brothers’ restored the Mosque in 1847, the mosaics were
momentarily uncovered and recorded; yet, the mosaics remained hidden until a
restoration and recovery program began under the leadership of Thomas Whittemore in
1931. Today, the interior of the church continues to captivate visitors in the same way as
36
Kleinbauer, Hagia Sophia, 77.
37
Kleinbauer, Hagia Sophia, 49.
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The list of the Seven Ancient Wonders of the World has its roots in the Hellenistic
period when scholars such as Herodotus published guidebooks for the must see “sights”
in the known world. However, it was the Dutch artist Maerten van Heemskerck who
canonized the official Seven Wonders during the Renaissance. Van Heemskerck crafted a
series of engravings that captured and paid tribute to the now accepted list.39
The Seven Wonders – the Great Pyramid of Giza, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon,
the Statue of Zeus at Olympia, the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, the Mausoleum at
Halicarnassus, the Colossus of Rhodes, and the Pharos at Alexandria – all have several
commonalities, despite their varied origins, appearances, and locations. In general, all the
innovation and originality in appearance. To complete them, they were largely decorated
with remarkable works of ornamentation, whether in the form of statues, friezes, murals,
or exotic treasures.
In terms of longevity, Hagia Sophia surpasses many of the Seven Wonders of the
Ancient World. Hagia Sophia has stood for nearly fifteen centuries, a lifetime that is only
clearly exceeded by the Great Pyramid that has lasted since 2561 BC. The Pharos existed
in some form for a little more that fifteen centuries; however, for the last few centuries
the structure was not much of a wonder as earthquakes had largely ruined it, unlike Hagia
Sophia.40 Also of praise for its permanence was the Mausoleum. The Mausoleum lasted
38
Procopius, Buildings, 27.
39
Peter A. Clayton and Martin J. Price, The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World (New York: Routledge, 1988), 4-6.
40
Clayton, The Seven Wonders, 155.
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for about eighteen centuries, but like the Pharos, the Mausoleum had been in ruins for the
last several centuries. Ultimately, crusaders used the remnants to build a castle for the
Knights of St. John.41 While the Pharos and Mausoleum may have technically survived
longer than Hagia Sophia, Hagia Sophia, as earlier noted, does not appear as though it
Additionally, like many of the Seven Wonders, Hagia Sophia has acted as an
the epitome of Byzantine architecture, a style that held its prominence as a transition
between Hellenistic and Medieval styles. Along with influencing other monumental
Hagia Sophia maintains a level of tyranny when it comes to the construction of Greek
Orthodox churches. In a study where Cutler traced the origins of design for contemporary
Orthodox churches, Cutler concluded, “each of the architects did look to the past for
inspiration, not to the historical regional origins of their clients, not to the variety of
middle and late Byzantine building types of their clients’ childhood or ancestral homes,
added, “There is a dependence on a common model, however well its qualities may
In their own way, all the Seven Wonders were architecturally original and
magnificent engineering feats. For example, the Temple of Artemis was on a scale never
41
Clayton, The Seven Wonders, 121.
42
Anthony Cutler, “The Tyranny of Hagia Sophia: Notes on Greek Orthodox Church Design in the United States” Journal of the
Society of Architectural Historians 31 1972): 50.
43
Cutler, “The Tyranny of Hagia Sophia,” 50.
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attempted – twice the size of the Parthenon.44 Likewise, Hagia Sophia lasted as the largest
cathedral in the world for nearly a thousand years until the completion of the Seville
Cathedral in the 16th century. Hagia Sophia was the first pendentive dome and the tallest
in the world until the Florence Duomo was built in 1436. Finally, the entire church was
engineered with remarkable innovation that has allowed it to withstand earthquake after
earthquake.
commercial hub, was also a fusion of east and west. As Edward Gibbon, an English
historian and Member of Parliament lyrically put it, “The arts of Greece and the wealth of
Asia had conspired to erect that sacred and magnificent structure… Successive empires,
the Persians, the Macedonian and the Roman revered its Sanctity and enriched its
splendor.”45 Such an account draws distinct parallels to Hagia Sophia, which was
similarly the product of east and west, a structure that is layered with history, culturally
ornamentation. Decorative gold reliefs and elaborate friezes complemented the Statue of
Zeus. Additionally, on the screen walls preventing access to the throne were paintings by
Panaenus. The screen walls showed nine scenes, a sequence of separate pictures that
related to the iconic frieze, the founding Olympic Games, and various stories from Greek
mythology. The complementary ornamentation of a central focal point such as the Statue
of Zeus, mirrors Justinian’s church. Though visitors come to be amazed by the mystical
dome that appears to rest on the mere support of the air below, glowing Byzantine
44
Clayton, The Seven Wonders, 80.
45
Clayton, The Seven Wonders, 78.
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Perhaps more important than any of the above criteria, a Wonder of the World must
convey a “feeling of excitement and awe” that moves people “when they find themselves
in the presence of one of the Wonders of the World.” 46 As seen by both original and
contemporary accounts, Hagia Sophia has such an impressionable effect. To recall the
words of Procopius, “When one enters this building to pray, he feels that it is not the
work of human power....The soul, lifting itself to the sky, realizes that here God is close
by, and that He takes delight in this, His chosen home." Recognizing the consensus of
such sentiments, both today and for the past fifteen centuries, it is only appropriate and
just to provide Hagia Sophia with its necessary acknowledgement as a Modern Wonder
of the World.
46
Clayton, The Seven Wonders, 168.
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Figures:
19
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20
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