Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Bahria university
Presents
DELTA
The term "delta," the Greek character ▲, was used to describe the mouth of the Nile by
Herodotus nearly 2500 years ago. This term is still used by geographers and geologists
alike. A modern definition cites a delta as "the subaerial and submerged contiguous
sediment mass deposited in a body of water (ocean or lake) primarily by the action of
a river"
OR
As sedimentation continues, the delta progrades out into the standing body of water.
Three main morphological units appear. The delta platform is the subhorizontal surface
nearest the jet mouth. It is basically composed of sand and is traversed by the distributary
channel and its flanking leevs.
The delta platform grades away from the source into the delta slope on which finer sands
and silts come to rest. This in turn passes down into the prodelta area on which clay
settles out of suspension. A vertical section through the apex of a delta thus reveals a
gradual vertical increase in grain size. At the base the prodelta clays grade up through
delta slope silts into sands of the delta platform. Classically, these three elements have
been termed the bottomset, foreset, and topset, respectively.
Eventually a distributary channel extends so far that its mouth becomes choked with
sediment. At a point of weakness the lev6e bursts and a new distributary system is
established. The abandoned distributary is choked by suspended sediment, and the whole
abandoned lobe sinks beneath the water as it compacts. This ideal delta model consists of
a series of interdigitating lobes, each one showing a gradual upward increase in grain
size, and a decrease in grain size from its point of origin.
Classification Of Deltas
1. Grain Size and Sediment Supply
2. On bases of Geomorphology(Shape and size)
3. Modern Delta systems(Process controlled)
Deltas are now commonly classified in terms of the dominant grain size
of the deposits and the relative importance of fluvial, wave and tide
processes This scheme can be applied to modern deltas and is useful
because the characteristics of the deposits formed by different deltas
within it can be used as a basis for classifying strata that are
interpreted as delta facies.
There are four main types of deltas classified on the bases of shape and size.
2. Arcuate Delta
An arcuate delta forms when a river meets the sea in a place where the waves, currents,
and tides are strong. It is often bow shaped and has a number of distributaries flowing
across it. An example is the Nile delta of Egypt. Found in areas where longshore drift
keeps the seaward edge of the delta trimmed and relatively smooth, is only one form of
delta
3. Estaurine Delta
When the mouth of a river enters the sea and is inundated by the sea in a mix with
freshwater and very little delta, it is called an estuary. An example of a estuarine delta is
the Seine river delta in France or the Mackenzie river delta in Canada
4. Cuspate Delta
Tooth-shaped delta in which a single dominant river builds the delta forward into a lake
or sea. A cuspate delta is formed when a river drops sediment onto a straight shoreline
with strong waves. Waves force the sediment to spread outwards in both directions from
the river's mouth making a pointed tooth shape with curved sides. An example is the
Tiber delta in Italy.
MODERN DELTA TYPES (PROCESS CONTROLED)
1. NILE DELTA
River-dominant deltas are found where rivers carry so much sediment to the coast that the
deposition rate overwhelms the rate of reworking and removal due to local marine forces. In
regions where wave energy is very low, even low-sediment-load rivers can form substantial
deltas
3. WAVE DOMINATED
At wave-dominant deltas, waves sort and redistribute sediments delivered to the coast by
rivers and remold them into shoreline features such as beaches, barriers, and spits. The
morphology of the resulting delta reflects the balance between sediment supply and the rate
of wave reworking and redistribution.
4. TIDE DOMINATED
At the river mouths, mixing obliterates vertical density stratification, eliminating the
effects of buoyancy. For part of the year, tidal currents may be responsible for a greater
fraction of the sediment transporting energy than the river. As a result, sediment transport
in and near the river mouth is bidirectional over a tidal cycle
DELTA ENVIRONMENTS AND SUCCESSIONS
Marine deltas form at the interface of continental and marine
environments. The processes associated with river channel and over
bank settings occur alongside wave and tidal action of the shallow
marine realm. Flora and fauna characteristic of land environments,
such as the growth of plants and the development of soils, are found
within a short distance of animals that are found exclusively in marine
conditions. These spatial associations of characteristics seen in modern
deltas occur as associations of facies in the stratigraphic record. Deltas
can therefore be considered in terms of sub environments, divisions of
the overall delta environment in which these combinations of
processes occur.
Delta-top subenvironments
Deta Top/Plain
Interdistributary Bays
At the mouth of the channels the flow velocity is abruptly reduced as the water enters the
standing water of the lake or sea. The delta front immediately forward of the channel
mouth is the site of deposition of bed load material as a sub aqueous mouth bar.
Delta slope
The current from the river is dissipated away from the channel mouth and wave energy
decreases with depth, leading to a pattern of progressively finer material being deposited
further away from the river mouth. the delta slope, is often shown as a steep incline away
from the delta top, but the slope varies from only 1 or 2 degree in many fine-grained
deltas to as much as 30 degree in some coarse-grained deltas.
River-borne suspended load enters the relatively still water of the lake or sea to form a
sediment plume in front of the delta. Fresh river water with a suspended load may have a
lower density than saline seawater and the plume of suspended fine particles will be
buoyant, spreading out away from the river mouth. As mixing occurs deposition out of
suspension occurs, with the finest, more buoyant particles traveling furthest away from
the delta front before being deposited in the prodelta region. Gravity currents may also
bring coarser sediment down the delta front and deposit material as turbidites
Deltaic successions
A delta building into shallow water will tend to have a large delta-plain
area. If the climate is suitable for abundant plant growth, peat mires
may develop on parts of the plain away from the delta channels and
delta successions that have developed in a shallow-water setting may
therefore include coal beds. The delta-front facies will all be deposited
in shallow water, and hence will be strongly influenced by processes
such as wave action . Sandy and gravelly deposits are therefore likely
to be relatively well sorted.
Ancient deltaic deposits are extremely important economically. They host most of the
world's coal, and many major petroleum provinces. Deltas make excellent petroleum
provinces because they fulfil all the conditions necessary for petroleum source bed
formation, petroleum generation, and entrapment.
The deltaic process is a way of depositing lobes of sand (potential reservoirs) into
envelopes of organic-rich marine muds (potential source beds). Deltaic environments
deposit many potential stratigraphic traps, including mouth bars, barrier bars, and
channels. Rapid deposition often leads to overpressuring. This may generate diapiric
traps and roll-over anticlines. Deltas need a basin, or at least some subsidence, before
they may form. Subsidence implies crustal stretching and thus increased heat flow. This
expedites the maturation of source beds. No wonder then that ancient deltas are major.
petroleum provinces. The Tertiary Niger Delta and the Tertiary Gulf Coast province of
the USA are two classic examples
Once a deltaic petrolum accumulation has been found, however, sedimentology must
be applied to develop it efficiently. The earlier discussion of fluvial reservoirs introduced
the problems of mapping channels, first trying to establish their continuity
deterministically, but then often having to resort to modelling the reservoir statistically.
Similar situations are encountered in deltaic reservoirs. Here the problems are
complicated by the fact that, not only may there be downslope trending channels, but
there may also be shallow marine sands elongated perpendicular to the distributaries.
Deeper, lower delta slope deposits and prodelta facies are finer
grained, deposited from plumes of suspended material disgorged by
the river, or as turbidites that flowed down the delta front.
ESTUARIES
An estuary is the marine-influenced portion of a drowned valley
(Dalrymple et al. 1992). A drowned valley is the seaward portion of a
river valley that becomes flooded with seawater when there is a
relative rise in sea level. They are regions of mixing of fresh and
seawater. Sediment supply to the estuary is from both river and
marine sources, and the processes that transport and deposit this
sediment are a combination of river and wave and/or tidal processes.
An estuary is different from a delta because in an estuary all the
sedimentation occurs within the drowned valley, whereas deltas are
progradational bodies of sediment that build out into the marine
environment. A stretch of river near the mouth that does not have a
marine influence would not be considered to be an estuary. Estuaries
are common features at the mouths of rivers in the present day
because since the last glacial period there has been a relative rise in
sea level.
Wave-dominated estuaries
Bay-Head Delta
The bay-head delta is the zone where fluvial processes are dominant.
As the river flow enters the central lagoon it decelerates and sediment
is deposited. The form and processes of a bay-head delta will be those
of a river-dominated delta, because the tidal effect is minimal and the
barrier protects the central lagoon from strong wave energy. A
coarsening-up, progradational succession will be formed, with channel
and overbank facies building out over sands deposited at the channel
mouth, which in turn overlies fine-grained deposits of the central
lagoon.
Central Lagoon
The lowest energy part of the estuarine system is the central lagoon,
where the river flow rapidly decreases and the wave energy is mainly
concentrated at the barrier bar. The central lagoon is therefore a
region of fine-grained deposition, often rich in organic material, similar
to normal lagoonal conditions .When the central lagoon becomes filled
with sediment it becomes a region of salt-water marshes crossed by
channels. In wave-dominated estuaries, parts of the lagoon that
receive influxes of sand may be areas where wave-ripples form and
these may also be draped with mud.
Beach Barrier
Tide-dominated estuaries
Tidal processes may dominate in mesotidal and macrotidal coastal
regimes where tidal current energy exceeds wave energy at the
estuary mouth. The funnel shape of an estuary tends to increase the
floodtidal current strength, but decreases to zero at the tidal limit, the
landward extent of tidal effects in an estuary. The river flow strength
decreases as it interacts with the tidal forces that are dominant. Three
areas of deposition can be identified : tidal channel deposits, tidal
flats and tidal sand bars.
Tidal Channels
In the inner part of the estuary where the river channel is influenced by
tidal processes, the low-gradient channel commonly adopts a
meandering form (Dalrymple et al. 1992). Point bars form on the inner
banks of meander bends in the same way as purely fluvial systems,
but the tidal effects mean that there are considerable fluctuations in
the strength of the flow during different stages of the tidal cycle: when
a strong ebb tide and the river act together, the combined current may
transport sand, but a strong flood tide may completely counteract the
river flow, resulting in standing water, which allows deposition from
suspension. The deposits in the point bar are therefore heterolithic,
that is, they consist of more than one grain size, in this case
alternating layers of sand and mud (Reineck & Singh 1972). This style
of point-bar stratification has been called ‘inclined heterolithic
stratification’, sometimes abbreviated to ‘IHS’ (Thomas et al. 1987).
These alternating layers of sand and mud dipping in to the axis of the
channel (perpendicular to flow) are a distinctive feature of tidally
influenced meandering channels.
TIDAL FLATS
Adjacent to the channels and all along the sides of the estuary there
are tidal flat areas that are variably covered with seawater at high tide
and subaerially exposed at low tide. These are typically vegetated salt
marsh areas cut by tidal creeks that act as the conduits for water flow
during the tidal cycles. The processes and products of deposition in
these settings are the same as found in macrotidal settings
TIDAL SAND BARS
Tidal mudflats
------------------------------------------------
END--------------------------------------------------