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OF
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THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY
FOUNDED BY JAMES LOEB, LL.D.
EDITED BY
fT. E. PAGE, O.H., LITT.D.
ARISTOTLE
PARTS OF ANIMALS
MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS
ARISTOTLE
PARTS OF ANIMALS
WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY
A. L. PECK, M.A., Ph.D.
FELLOW OF Christ's college, cambriook
AND DNIVERSITY LECTURER IN CLASSICS
AND A FOREWORD BY
F. H. A. MARSHALL, C.B.E., Sc.D., F.R.S.
MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS
WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY
E. S. FORSTER, M.A.
PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN THE I'NIVERSITV OF SHEFFIKLD
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS
HAR\^ARD UNIVERSITY PRESS
LONDON
WILLIAM HEINEMANN LTD
MCMLXI
First printed 1937
Revised and reprinted 1945, 1955
Revised and reprinted 1961
....
Text and Translation
8
52
MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS
Introduction ......
....
Text and Translation
43
440
Index to
Animals. ......
Movement and Progression of
552
From quotations which I had seen, I had a high notion
of Aristotle's merits, but I had not the most remote notion
what a wonderful man he was. Linnaeus and Cuvier have
been my two gods, though in very diiferent ways, but they
were mere schoolboys to old Aristotle.
Charles Darwin to
William Ogle, on
the publication of
his translation of
The Parts of Ani-
mals, 1882.
PARTS OF ANIMALS
To
. . P. and L. A. P.
FOREWORD
Aristotle refers to the De partibus animaliiim as an
inquiry into the causes that in each case have deter-
mined the composition of animals. He does not,
hovever, employ the category of causation in the
manner normally adopted by men of science, since
in this book causes are ahvays considered in relation
to ends or purposes, and design is regarded as having
had a far larger share in the origin and development
of living structures than that allotted to necessity.
In the Histor'ia ajiimalium the parts themselves are
described, for although this work is to some extent
physiological, its main object vas to deal with the
anatomy of the organism. The De partibus ariimaliu?n,
on the other hand, is almost exclusively physiological
and teleological, and treats of the functions of the
parts. But Aristotle's position Avas that of a teleo-
logist only in a limited degree, for he appears to
have taken that view of life which Bergson calls the
doctrine of internal finality (that is to say, that each
of the ,
individual, or at any rate each species, is made for
itself, that all its parts conspire for the greatest good
and are intelligently organized in view
of that end but without regard for other organisms
or kinds of organisms). Since every organ or part
of the body was held to have its peculiar function,
the existence of vestigial or rudimentary organs was
a2 3
FOREWORD
unrecognized. This Avas the doctrine of internal
finalitywhich was generally accepted until DarAvin
elaborated his theory of Natural Selection. The
wider doctrine of external finality, according to
which living beings are ordered in regard to one
another, never gained acceptance among scientific
philosophers, and the only indication that Aristotle
ever adopted it is furnished by a passage in \vhich
he suggests that the mouth in Selachians is placed
on the under surface so as to allo\v their prey to
escape while the fish are turning on their backs
before taking their food ; but even this he qualified
by the suggestion that the arrangement served a
useful end for the fishes in question by preventing
them from indulging in the harmful habit of gluttony.
The De partibus animalium opens with an intro-
duction devoted to general considerations. This is
followed by a discussion of the three degrees of
composition, the first degree being composition of
physical substances, the second degree, of homo-
geneous parts or tissues, and the third, of hetero-
geneous parts or organs. The tissues referred to are
blood, fat, marrow, brain, flesh, and bone. After
describing these, the organs are dealt vith, and a
consideration of their respective functions, first in
sanguineous animals (i.e. in Vertebrates), and secondly
in bloodless animals (i.e. Invertebrates), occupies the
remainder of the book. The account given of the
physiology of the blood is especially interesting, and
it is noteworthy that Aristotle understood something
of the nature of the process of absorption whereby
the food becomes converted into nutriment which is
carried by the blood to all parts of the body. He
supposed, however, that the matter derived from the
FOREWORD
gut passed first to the heart in the form of vapour
or serum, and that it was there converted into true
blood by a process of concoction. Aristotle knew
nothing of the real nature of respiration, and he
regarded the lungs as serving to temper the bodily
heat by means of the inspired air. He Avas also
entirely ignorant of the fact that the blood passes
back to the heart and lungs after supplying the
tissues and organs with nourishment. On the other
hand, he fully appreciated the existence of excretory
organs, the function of which was to remove from the
body such substances as could not be utilized. In
this category are included fluids such as bile, urine,
and sweat. In the section on the gall-bladder, as
in so many other passages in his works on natural
history, it is truly remarkable how correct Aristotle
is in his statements. He points out that the gall-
bladder is not found either in the horse and ass or
in the deer and roe, but is generally present in the
sheep and goat. In the light of the knoAvledge that
he possessed, therefore, Aristotle could scarcely have
adopted a theory about this organ which has found
expression in certain modern writings. According
to this theory the gall-bladder is present in the sheep
and ox because, these being ruminating animals,
bile is only required at certain particular times when
food passes into the intestine, Avhereas in the horse,
which does not chev the cud, but yet is constantly
eating, food is continually passing into the intestine
and consequently a perpetual flow of bile is desirable.
Since the gall-bladder is present in the non-ruminating
pig but absent in the ruminating deer and roe, it
is obvious that this theory cannot be consistently
applied.
FOREWORD
It is interesting to speculate about the school of
research workers who must have contributed in
providing material for this and the other works on
—
natural science ascribed to Aristotle v/ho they were,
the circumstances under Avhich they lived, and what
manner of facilities were available for their investiga-
tions— for it would seem certain that no man single-
handed could possibly have acquired such a vast body
of knowledge, hardly any of which could have been
derived from earlier observers. Yet the work in its
completed M'hole seems to show the mark of one
master hand, and its uniform character and the clear
Une of teleological reasoning that runs through it
have been well brought out in Dr. Peck's translation.
But putting aside its philosophical implications, the
book consists of an attempt at a scientific record of
all the apparently known facts relating to animal
function. These are considered comparatively and
as far as possible are brought into relation with one
another. And thus, as the earliest text-book on
animal physiology in the world's history, this treatise
will ever make its appeal, not only to the classical
philosopher, but to all are interested in the origin
and growth of biological science.
F. H. A. M.
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Title. The traditional title of this treatise is not a very
informative one. The subject of the work is, how-
ever, stated quite clearly by Aristotle at the begin-
ning of the second Book in these words "I have:
8
PARTS OF ANIMALS
spurious), in which observations are recorded, and
consequent upon this are the treatises in which
Aristotle puts forward theories founded upon these
observations.
An animal according to Aristotle, a " concrete
is,
I. Record of observations.
Historia animalium. 10 (9) books.
'
animalium 4 books
of animals is ar-
(«)
ranged to subserve
De incessu
their various pur-
animalium 1 book
poses.
the years 347 and 335 and this view has recently
:
ARISTOTLE
and when we have discovered what are its actual
characteristics we may then go on to work out its
Causes and to examine the processes by vhich it was
produced.
Syiiojisis I give a brief synopsis and a contents-summary
Summrry! «f the De partibus :
SUMMARY
Book I.
12
PARTS OF ANIMALS
639 b 8 (2) (Put in three ways) :
ARISTOTLE
some " portion " of Soul which fulfils this
office.
641 b 10 Thus the universe and the living objects
in it are the products of something
analogous to human art : they are con-
trolled by a Final Cause.
642 a 1 But Necessity also has its place in the
universe
not (1) " absolute " necessity
nor (2) " coercive " necessity
but (3) " conditional " necessity.
These two Causes, the Final Cause and
Necessity, set the stage for our piece.
Book II.
646 a 8 ch. 1 Purpose and outline of the Treatise : Our
subject is the causes of the parts of
animals.
14
PARTS OF ANIMALS
646 a 13 Three modes of composition .•
ARISTOTLE
697 a 15 (c) Intermediate Creatures:
Cetacea.
Seals and Bats.
Ostrich.
697 b 27 Conclusion.
Method of
BwiUon.
A glance at the summary will show clearly the
order of subjects which Aristotle lays in the
first book to be followed in a treatise such as the
(
one in which he is enffaged.
First, (A) to describe the parts of animals as they
are observed to be ; and
then, (B) to give an account of their causes, and
their formative processes.*
Under (A) the order of preference is to be €rst, :
feather.
(Reff. for the above, De part. an. 644. a 1 1-b 15 Hist, ;
an. 486 a 15-b 21. See also Gen. An. (Loeb), Introd.)
The doctrine of differences of" excess and defect," "The more
'®^^•
or, as Aristotle also calls them, of " the more and ^°
less," may usefully be compared with that which
underlies the modern theory of Transformations, and
the comparison of related forms. Indeed, Professor
D'Arcy Thompson asserts that " it is precisely . . .
PARTS OF ANIMALS
to A (2) above —
the parts common to a group
of animals, and we have first :
(ii) Birds.
(iii) Fishes,
(c) Intermediate Creatures.
References to exceptional instances, as to Man,
corresponding to the division A (3) above, are of
course to be found throughout the Avork,
Aristotle thus works out the main lines of his
classification. And in each instance, where possible,
he endeavours to assign the Cause, to name the
purpose, which is responsible for the parts as he
describes them. This corresponds to (B) above.
And here Aristotle is forced to admit an apparent Necessity.
A. Blooded Animals
PARTS OF ANIMAI^
Intermediate
ARISTOTLE
Terminology
Technical The follo^^ng notes on some of the more difficult
**'"™^•
and important of the technical terms used by Aristotle
in the pariibus will, I hope, help to explain my
De
translation and also to give some indication of the
background of Aristotle's thought. (A fuller account
will be found in De Gen. An., Loeb edn.)
, I
" cause."
Aoyos.
?
the
of the
of the house which is built
,
Final Cause is described as being a
-?
creature.
is also contrasted vith
order of things,
'' and ?"
the
are told, in the process of formation
:
.5
"
" the process of ."
Care should be taken not to regard as meaning
27
—
ARISTOTLE
which is to be built out of them, but they and not it
come first in the order of time and fact. Aristotle
sums this up by saying that what comes last in the
process comes in " nature " (64^6 a 25).
,
first
" part."
,
;
^
which are the subject of the next following note.
these classes
,, " the uniform parts."
" the non-uniform parts."
term
Aristotle's application of the to both
emphasizes the inclusiveness of its
meaning. As examples of the " uniform " parts he
mentions (647 b 10) blood, serum, lard, suet, marrow,
semen, bile, milk, flesh— these are soft and fluid"'
ones also bone, fish-spine, sinev, blood-vessel
;
"
these are hard and sohd ones. Of " non-uniform
parts he gives as examples (640 b 20) face, hand, foot.
The relation of the " uniform " parts to the " non-
uniform " he describes as foUoAvs (647 b 22 foil.) :
" For the meaning of " fluid " and " solid " see below,
p. 32.
28
PARTS OF ANIMALS
(a) some of the uniform are the material out of
which the non-uniform are made (i.e. each
instrumental part is made out of bones, sinews,
flesh, etc.) ;
(c) —
some are the residue of (b) faeces, urine.
ARISTOTLE
We have thus
(1) the simplest sorts of matter ;
.
Nor
were
(1)
that there is no need to enlarge upon it here.
need I discuss the mathematical meaning of
later
/xts
to be called -
Other meanings need some comment.
was the old technical term for what
(elements). It
appears in the writings of the Hippocratic corpus
and in Plato's Tiinaeus. The best example of its
the first
', -,
vypov, ro
<;',
use in De pariibus is at the beginning of Book II.
).
priate to TO 8,
TO TTLKpov, etc. (see Uepl
There
no notion here of the substance
is
8e
yap {'>^
'.-
term. This seems to be its meaning in 655 b 12 :
']^ €^
Indeed, in this mean-
ing, /^-,
version of
seems to be a slightly more emphatic
with which it is often used in con-
junction (in Hippocrates, for instance), or in a parallel
way as in the passage just cited. Compare also
Tts,
651 b 21, where the marroAV is asserted to be !'/05
Svi'apAs.
be found
not, as some suppose, x/ys yovijs
Other instances of this use of
in De partibus.
will
-€
''/§
(3) From this usage it is not far to the idiomatic,
pleonastic usage, e.g.
678 a 13
682 h 15
i) tmv
:
31
—
This
657 a 4
is paralleled
ARISTOTLE
by a
$ ^?.
similar usage of - i
663 a 34 '.
676 b 11 .'.
b
(Other references for
17,
/xis /
640 a 24, 646 a 14,
:
To vypov KOI Th ,
" fluid substance and solid
substance," " the fluid and the sohd."
,
terms are used at 649 b 9 following.
" residue."
—
by means of heat in other words, it is turned into
blood, which is the " ultimate nourishment " ; and
this, when distributed into the blood-vessels, supplies
the body with nutrition. Generally, hovever, more
blood is produced than is necessary for the actual
upkeep of the body, and this surplus undergoes a
further stage of concoction, and is used by Nature
in various ways. Marrow is a residue so are semen,
;
ARISTOTLE
in Hamlet (iii. iv.) where the Queen says to Hamlet
Your bedded haire, like life in excrements,
Start up, and stand an end.
,
" Concoct," " concoction."
that
/€5
.
denote the process of ripening or maturing of fruit,
corn, and the like by means of heat also that of
baking and cooking.
Terms sometimes associated Anth these are
and
/?and
For example, at 650 a 5 we read
take place }?
and at 651 b 26, as the creatures grow
;
The English rd
" Soul," as ,'
be seen, over-
emphasizes, vhen compared with certain ^',
aspects of the Greek term, but it is by far the most
convenient rendering, and I have used it in pre-
ference to " life " or " vital principle."
It will be useful to have an outline of Aristotle's
general doctrine about Soul.
The different " parts " or " faculties " of Soul can
S4.
PARTS OF ANIMALS
be arranged in a series in a definite order, so that the
possession of any one of them implies the possession
of all those which precede it in the list :
^
raised in De partibus. As we have seen already, a
is a single concrete entity made up of Soul and
body, i.e. a certain form implanted in certain matter.
The matter can exist, for it did exist, apart from the
form ;and as the form that is implanted in all the
individuals of a species is one and the same form,
clearly it can exist apart from any one individual's
—
matter though of course its existence is not in-
dependent of all the individuals' matter. Further-
— —
more, the form the Soul requires matter of a
particular kind :not any sort of matter will do.
From these considerations tvo conclusions seem to
follow (1) that transmigration is impossible
: a :
36
PARTS OF ANIMALS
So far, But Aristotle is not satisfied.
so good.
He feels more than that. He finds a
the Soul is
^^»
I
Kpacris, , (.
have indicated above, in the note on '/.5,
some of the older (Hippocratic) medical terminology
of vhich traces are to be found in the De pariibus.
There is no room for an adequate discussion of such
terms and theories, and the following bare references
must suffice.
In the Hippocratic treatise Tlepl the theory
is put forward that the human organism, body and
Soul alike, is composed of fire and water (Avhich
really consist of " the hot," " the solid," " the cold,"
—
and " the fluid ") the function of fire being to cause
motion, of Avater to provide nourishment. In ch. 35
we have a list of the different varieties of Blend
(,, ^?) of fire and water Avhich may be
37
ARISTOTLE
found in the Soul in different individuals, and upon
the Blend its health and sensitivity " depend.
With these statements may be compared the
following passages in De partibus :
'
64)7 b 30 foil. Here is a reference to the different
varieties of blood, and Aristotle tells
us which sort of blood is
and which animals are on that account
(cf. 650 b 24 and 686 b 28).
The phrase •;
is actually
jLterpos -
KpaaLs in the heart 652 b 35, the parts
in the head are colder than the
of the body ;
;
;
Ilept
The term •;, which occurs frequently in the
is found only once in the De partibus
,)/?,
— •;.
Properly speaking, •;
at 677 a 14 bile is said to be a residue or
is the term applicable to
S8
" The adjective used is .
PARTS OF ANIMALS
-.,
unhealthy (abscession) —a
very common
term in Ilepl (see chh. 58 throughout).
foil,
It occurs twice in De partibus. In both places it is
used of a At 690 a 9 the surplus earthy
matter and forms a continuous
--
nail or hoof.
place where the
At 681 b 35 Aristotle speaks of the
.,
mean simply " act of excretion." The meaning of
the term seems both here and in Hippocrates to be
?.
specially associated with either useful
ones, or useless and even harmful ones. A great
deal of is taken up with suggestions for
Modern Editions
The Text
The Mss. The manuscript authorities cited by Bekker for the
De partibus be found on p. 50.
The dates of some of the mss. as given by different
scholars vary considerably for details I refer the
:
46
PARTS OF ANIMALS
translation made from it. Dr. Reuben Levy has
most kindly read passage for me in the 13th-14th
this
century Arabic MS. in the British Museum, Add. 7511.
For these two passages, and for a good many other
suspected places, I have consulted all the known mss.
of Michael Scot's version which are to be found in
this country. They are (excluding mss. Avhich contain
merely abridgements or extracts) :
Reference
Short bibiio- The following list includes authorities for state-
nients made in the Introduction,and books Avhich
the student of the Aristotelian zoological works and
their history will find useful :
Acknowledgements
It is a great pleasure to acknowledge here the help
which I have received from many friends at Cambridge,
not only by Avay of reading typescript and proof and
by discussion, but also by the interest w'hich they
have shown in the work and by their continuous
encouragement. The follo\Adng have read the trans-
lation either in whole or in part Prof. F. M. Corn-
:
Q Marcianus 200
Parisinus 1859
m Parisinus 1921
vulg.
\
Michael Scot's Latin version, from
The
transcription.
usual reading, as in the
my
Berlin
edition.
Langkavel Emendations proposed by Langkavel in
his edition.
Ogle Emendations proposed by William Ogle
in footnotes to his translation.
Piatt Emendations proposed by Arthur Piatt,
either (a) in " Notes on Aristotle," in
Journal of Philology, 1913, xxxii. 292
follo^\^ng,or (b) recorded by Ogle in
footnotes to his translation.
e \ /Suggestions in private communications
T? kh (
1^^ "^^ from Professor Cornford and Mr.
[Rackham.
Th(urot) Ch. Thurot, in Rev. Arch., 1867."
Peck Emendations proposed by myself.
" Of over 100 textual points, many being of minor import-
ance, raised by Th., about a third had been dealt with in my
first edition (before Th.'s work came to my notice), some of
them more fully, by other scholars or myself. Some of Th.'s
other suggestions have been adopted in this edition.
50
The maister Cooke was called Concoction.
Spenser, Faerie Queen
API2TOTEAOT2
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52
ARISTOTLE
PARTS OF ANIMALS
BOOK I
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. i.
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ARISTOTLE
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. i.
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ARISTOTLE
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ARISTOTLE
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i.e.
66
PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. i.
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. i.
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ARISTOTLE
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70
PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. i.
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prior to potentiality.
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74
PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. i.
potentiality to actuality.*
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80
PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. ii.-iii.
(a) Some " groups will get only one differentia,'' the
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example footed, two-footed, cloven-footed ^ since
: —
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in the divisions made by certain A\Titers in these :
is " superfluous."
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" i.e. with the preceding terms. See below, 644 a 5.
iii. 241.
.
PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. iii.
—
" winged " and " ^vingless " and by " wild " and
" tame," " is not permissible, for this similarly would
appear to divide up species that are the same, since
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wild ones e.g. Man, the horse, the ox, the dog (in
:
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take the animals according to their groups, fol-
loving the lead of the bulk of mankind, have
marked off the group of Birds and the group of Fishes.
Each of these groups is marked by ma?iy differentiae,
not by means of dichotomy. By dichotomy (a) either
these groups cannot be arrived at at all (because the
same group falls under several divisions and contrary
groups under the same division) or else there will be
one differentia only, and this either singly or in
combination Avill constitute the ultimate species.*
**
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. in.
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. iv.
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. iv.-v.
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Independent approaches to the position
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my article in C.Q. xxv. 27 ff., 112 ff.), vho held that " the
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separate one from another" (frag. 8, Diels, Fragmented,
100
PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. v.
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brates and invertebrates ; for there are some invertebrates
which have red blood, e.g. molluscs {Planorbis), insect
102
PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. v.
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. v.
and is the " end " of that other action, then the part
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''
In some contexts, " fluid " and " solid " seem more
106
BOOK II
—
of Elements some of the dynameis, that is, not all,
as I have stated previously elsewhere. It is just
'^
these four, the fluid substance, the solid,'' the hot, and
the cold, which are the matter of composite bodies ;
and the other differences and qualities such as —
heaviness lightness, firmness looseness, roughness
—
smoothness, etc. which composite bodies present
are subsequent upon these. (2) The second sort of
contposition is the composition of the "uniform"*
substances found in animals (such as bone, flesh,
etc.). These also are composed out of the primary
appropriate : in others, " moist " and " dry " (the traditional
renderings). Aristotle defines them at De gen. and corr.
329 b 30. See also below, 649 b 9. I have normally trans-
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* " Uniform," " non-uniform " ; see Introduction, p. 28.
107
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108
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. i.
be demonstrated logically, as .
materials of every kind. Thus the truth of my state-
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. i.-n.
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118
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. n.
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What applies to the blood applies as well to the
other uniform parts and also to the non-uniform
parts similar variations occur.
; And it must be
supposed that these variations either have some re-
ference to the activities of the creatures and to their
essential nature, or else bring them some advantage
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" Alluding, perhaps, to the expansion due to heat.
124.
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. ii.
both these cases Ave call the thing " hotter " in its
—
nature as we call one thing " contrary " to another
Avhen it is far removed from it, and " like " it when
it is near it. But although the senses in which
one thing is said to be " hotter " than another
are certainly as many as this, if not more, yet
no one thing can be " hotter " in all of these
Avays at once. For instance, boiling water can im-
part heat more eifectiv^eh^ than flame ; but flame
is able to cause burning and melting, whereas
Avater is not. Again, boiling \A^ater is hotter than
a small fire, but the hot water will cool off more
quickly and more thoroughly than the small fire,
since fire does not become cold, but all water
does. Again, boiling water is hotter to the touch
than oil, yet it cools and solidifies more quickly. And
again, blood is Avarmer to the touch than either water
or oil, yet it congeals more quickly. Again, stone
and iron and such substances get hot more sloAvly
than water, but once they are hot they burn other
things more than water can. In adchtion to all this
there is another distinction to be made among the
things that are called " hot " : in some of them the
125
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more hot of its own nature than the " water " in " hot water."
Cf. 649 b 21 ff., and Torstrik, Bh. Mus. xii. 161 ff.
""
Perhaps a reference to the resin which is in firwood or is
obtained from it.
126
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. ii.
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130
PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. in.
are the cases where the term " solid " is applicable
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not hot. This means that in one respect blood is
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. iii.
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must have some instrument corresponding to the
roots of a plant. The mouth, then, having done its
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taken by the blood-vessels, Avhich begin at the bottom
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Natural History.^
We see then that there is a receptacle for the food
at each of its stages, and also for the residues that
are produced and as the blood-vessels are a sort of
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. v.-vi.
' Dynamis. See Introduction, pp. 30 ff. and note on 6\6 a 14.
* Lit. " are concocted."
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. vi.-vii.
can stretch.
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shown not only by its being cold to the touch, but
also by its being the driest of all the fluid parts of the
body and the one that has the least blood in it in —
fact, it has none at all. It is, however, not a residue,
nor is it to be classed among the parts that are con-
tinuous. It is peculiar in its nature, and this after all
is but reasonable. Inspection shoAvs that the brain
has no continuity with the sensory parts, but this is
shown still more unmistakably by the fact that like
the blood and the residue of animals it produces no
sensation when it is touched.
« Cf. Plato, Timaeus 75 c, d.
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. x.
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. x.
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. x.-xii.
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. xn.-xiii.
dependent on the ,
as blinking is a natural and instinctive one, not
and its object is to prevent
things from getting into the eyes. All animals
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eyelid only. This is due to the hardness of the
skin which surrounds the head, (a) The heavily
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taloned birds are sharp-sighted, for they view their
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. .
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. iv.
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300
PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. xiv.-xv.
lower gut.
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306
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. ii.
gets too full it spurts its liquid out into the lung and
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326
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. v.
in Avords.
The Sea-urchin and the genus of Ascidians are
peculiar among the Testacea. The Sea-urchin has
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testes are large and swollen during the week preceding each
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For a most interesting discussion of this and kindred matters
328
PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. v.
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. v.-vi.
around the Black Sea. Still, they live only for the
space of a day whereas the grasshoppers live for
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. vi.
tribes. The small ones have only two wings all told
— like the flies. Those that are heavy and sedentary
in their habits have the larger number of wings like
the bees, but they have shards round their wings
(e.g. the Melolonthae" and similar insects) to preserve
them in their proper condition ; for, as these creatures
are sedentary, their Avings are more liable to be
destroyed than those of the nimbler insects ; and
that is why there is this protection round them.
An insect's wing is not divided, and it has no shaft.
In fact, it is not a wing at all, but a membrane of skin,
which being dry detaches itself of necessity from the
creature's body as the fleshy part cools off.
I have already stated some reasons vhy these
creatures have " insected " bodies : there is another,
viz. it is so that they may curl up and thus escape
injury and remain safe. It is the long ones that roll
themselves up, and this would be impossible for them
if they were not insected. Those that do not roll up
« Perhaps cockchafers (Ogle).
343
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. vi.-vii.
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. vin.-ix.
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. ix.
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is the very place where they can get it. In man, both
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At the end of Avhat is called the trunk are the parts Excretory
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. xii.
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instead of fins for propulsion length such as fish
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. xm.
cloven hoofs (it has hoofs and not toes). The reason
is that it has the size not of a bird but of a
quadruped. Speaking generally, a bird has to be
very small in size, because it is difficult for a body of
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PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. xiii.
431
ARISTOTLE
diagram at all, nor has the Arabic ms. B.M. Add. 7511.
I give below the passage as it appears in Michael Scot's
version.
Natura ergo istorum duorum modorum est sicut diximus ;
etpropter hoc ambulant imiformiter^ sicut accidit animalibus
quadrupedibus et hominibus etiam. homo vero habet os in
capite, scilicet in parte superiori corporis ; delude habet
stomachum, deinde ventrem, et post ventrem intestinum per-
veniens ad locum exitus superfluitatis. iste ergo res in
animalibus habentibus sanguinem sunt secundum hanc dis-
positionem, et post caput est clibanus, scilicet pectus, et quod
vicinatur ei. membra sunt propter ista, etc.
alia vero
I am much
indebted to Dr. R. Levy for his kindness in
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Add. 7511.
" inuniformiter Caius 109 & Camb. U.L. li. 3. 16; fortasse igitoi
scribendum uniformiter et non inuniformiter.
432
PARTS OF ANIMALS
433
ARISTOTLE
fol. 61',
60'.
61'.
I.
I.
639 b 29 to 640 b 24.
inclusive.
644 a 25 to 645 a
clusive.
17. ^
Between these two folios it has apparently lost four folios,
to
to to'is in-
4S4
MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS
INTRODUCTION
That the De incessu animalium is a genuine work of
Aristotle himself has never been disputed. The De
viotu animalium has been regarded by many critics as
a spurious work, though recent opinion has favoured
its genuineness. Brandis, Rose and Zeller all con-
denon it, but its Aristotelian authorship has been up-
held by Werner Jaeger {Hermes, xMii. pp. 31 if.), who
makes out a very strong case in its favour, and by the
Oxford translator, Mr. A. S. L. Farquharson. Those
who deny its authenticity rely mainly on the supposi-
tion that there is a reference in 703 a 10-1 1 to the De
spiritu. This treatise is generally admitted to be im-
Aristotelian, but the reference, as Mr. Farquharson
" For the meanings of these symbols see pp. 439 and 483.
4.37
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS
Chap. I. The origin of all movement must itself be un-
moved. So if there is to be animal movement, something
in the animal must be at rest. Hence joints are necessary.
II. There must also be a resisting medium external to the
moving animal. Illustration from the rowing of a boat.
III. The nature of the " prime mover." The fable of
Atlas.
IV. The " prime mover " is of necessity outside the
universe. The movement of inanimate things must
originate from animate things.
V. Alteration, growth, generation and corruption as
forms of motion.
VI. How does the soul move the body Animal move-
.''
438
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE APPARATUS
CRITICUS
= Codex Parisinus Regius 1853.
= Codex Vaticanus 261.
= Codex Vaticanus 1339.
S = Codex Laurentianus 81. 1.
Leon. = Latin translation of Nicolaus Leonicus.
Mich. = Greek commentary of Michael Ephesiug.
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ON THE MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS
I. We have inquired elscAvhere " into the details of
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differencesbetween these movements, and the causes
of the characteristics which each exhibit we must ;
441
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good for a man, one does not waste time over the pre-
miss " I am myself a man." Hence such things as we
do without calculation, we do quickly. For when a
man acts for the object which he has in view from
either perception or imagination or thought, he
immediately does what he desires the carrying out
;
463
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464
MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, vii.-viii.
—
idea conceived of hot or cold or pleasant or terrible
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* i.e. here, the heart, cf. below, 701 b 30 ; see also note on
698 bl.
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MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, ix.-x.
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action of the
aos cf. Plato, 7V?)?. 61 a. The
is represented as resembling that of the
breath in the lungs ; when the breath contracts it lacks force
and the lungs collapse, when it expands it thrusts outwards
and exercises force.
* Namely, expansion.
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478
MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, xi.
479
PROGRESSION
OF ANIMALS
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS
Chap. I. Introduction. Problems which arise about
animal locomotion. Diiferent number of limbs and
different modes of bending them found in different animals.
II. Assumption of generally-accepted principles and
definitions.
III. Animal movement requires (1) a resisting surface
against which the limbs can press, (2) a distinction of
active and passive parts in the animal.
IV. The dimensions of living bodies. Superior and
inferior determined by function and not by position.
Plants and animals compared. Distinction of front and
back, right and left. The right, as the source of move-
ment, superior to the left. Man the most highly differen-
tiated of the animals.
V. Bipeds, quadrupeds, polypods and footless animals
distinguished. Quadrupeds inferior to bipeds. Man the
highest form of biped, being the most " natural."
VI. All movement in the animal must originate in a
common centre, equidistant from the centres of movement
in the limbs.
VII. Red-blooded animals move at four points : such
animals are a continuous whole, while bloodless animals
and polypods are composed of a number of separate
entities. Even limbless red-blooded animals move at
four points.
VIII. Reason for the absence of limbs in snakes. Limbs
necessarily even in number.
IX. Flexion necessary to movement, even in limbless
animals. Its mechanism explained. Illustrations from
leaping, flying, and swimming animals.
X. Movement of birds. Use of the tail to guide flight.
482
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS
XI. Man, the only erect animal, compared with the
birds. Winged human beings an impossible invention of
the artists.
XII. Differences of flexion in the limbs of man and of
the quadrupeds explained.
XIII. The diff'erent modes of flexion enumerated and
illustrated by diagrams.
XIV. " Diagonal " movement of the legs of quadrupeds.
Movement of crabs.
XV. Birds and quadrupeds compared. The structure
of the legs of birds. Oblique attachment of wings and
fins. The structure of oviparous quadrupeds.
XVI. Movement of bloodless animals. The peculiar
movement of the crab.
XVII. Crabs, lobsters, flat-fish, and web-footed birds.
XVIII. \^Tiy birds have feet, while fishes have not.
Fins and wings compared.
XIX. The movement of testaceans. Conclusion.
Q2 483
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PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS
I. We must next discuss the parts which are useful
to animals for their movement from place to place,
and consider why each part is of the nature which
it is, and Avhy they possess them, and further the
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* The Historia Animalium.
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488
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, ii.-iii.
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part ; for the superior and the inferior are not in the
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relation to the universe they have not the same posi-
tion, they are similarly situated as regards function.
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PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, iv.
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PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, v.
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PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, v.-vi.
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PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, viii.
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PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xii.-xiii.
(Mich, supplies the figures which are lacking in the mss. In each group
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PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xiv.-xv.
not move separately with their front and back legs "
and, if they moved with both their right legs first,
they would not be above their supporting hmbs and
would fall. If, then, they must necessarily move in
one or other of these tAVO ways or else diagonally,
and neither of the first two ways is possible, they
must necessarily move diagonally for if they move
;
move obliquely, and so, for this reason, crabs too can,
in a sense, be said to move " forward."
XV. Birds bend their legs in the same manner as
quadrupeds ; for in a way their nature is closely
" i.e. do not move first the front legs together and then
their back legs together. The ms. authority is strongly in
favour of the omission of the negative; but 712 b 4 " one or
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with the front legs together and then the back legs together,
or else with the right legs together and then the left legs
together.
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PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xv.
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The whole of the section is obscure, and the text doubtful.
536
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xvi.-xvii.
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540
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xviii.-xix.
(,
lizard 76a25 /91a5ff
" lizards "
tubes) 85b5
plaited
Murex 61a20
mussel 79b25 / 83b 15
mytis 79a5 / 81b20ff
lobster 84a30
locust 83a30 nails 87b20 / 90b5
logos 26 f / 39bl5 / 40a30 / Natural science 39al0 / 40a
42a20 / 46b 1 / 49b25/ " Natural Selection " 4
78a35 / 95bl5 Nature 39bl5/41a25, blOff,
Lophius piscatorius 95bl0 42a 15 / and passim
lumen 71bl Naxos 77al
lung 64a20 f / 65al5 / 68b30 if Necessity 21 / 39b20ff /
lynx 89a30 42a Iff, 30 ff / 45b30 /
46b25 / 51al5 / 63b20 /
Maia 84a 10 70a30, b20 / 72b30 / 77al5,
mammae 88al5fF b20 / 7Sal / 79a25 / 82b25 /
Man 44al 45b25
/ / 53a25 fF / 85bl5 / 92a 1 / 94b5
56a5 / 5Sal5, bl / 59b30 / neck 64al0/86a5ff/92b20ff
eOalOff / 61b5 / 62bl5 / Nerites 79b20
66b5 / 69a20, b5 / 71bl / nictitating membrane 57a30
73a5, 25 / 76b30 / 86a2o if / ' non-imiform " parts 28-30
/
88b30 / 89b5if / 90a2o / 46a20, b5, 30 / 47a25 /
95a5 55b25 ff
maOV 51b20ff nostrils 58b25 ff
marten 67a20 nutriment (" ultimate ")
matter and form 9/35/36 50a30 / 51al5 / 78a5, 15
mecon 79b 10 / 80a20 nutrition 47a25 / 50a35
melanin 34
Melolontha 82b 15 octopus 52b25 / 54a20 /
membrane 73blflF/77bl5, 35/ 78b25 / 79a5 ff / 85a5,15 ff
82b 15 /83b20 / 91a20 oesophagus 50al5 / 64a 15 ff /
mesentery 50a25 / 76blO / 74a 10, b20 / 86a20 /
77b35 ff 91al
jMethydrion 73al5 omasum 74bl5 / 76alOf
metre 60a5 omentum 76bl0 / 77bl5
mice 67a20 / 76b30 operculum 79bl5
Michael Scot 40 ff / 46-47 opposites, division by 43a30
migrants 94a5 orifice 81a25
milk 76al0f /88bl Oryx 63a20
moderation 52b 15 OS sepiae 54a20
Moerbeke, William of 42 Ostreae 80b20
548
INDEX TO PARTS OF ANIMALS
58alO
ostrich / 95al5 / Purpura 61a20 / 79bl5f
97blOff Pyrrha, strait of 80b 1
"ova " SOalOiF, biff Pythagoreans 70b20
ox 66bl5 / 71b5 / 88b25
etc. rain 53al
oyster 80b5, 20 / 8 lb 10 razor-fishes 83b 15
" realization " 35 ff
Parmenides 48a2o relative size of parts 65b5
Parnassus 81a20 rennet 76a5 ff
parrot-fish 62a5 / 75al residue 29 / 32-34 / 47b25 /
"part" 28-30 / 51b25 / 64a5 / 50a20 / 70b25 / 71a5 /
90a5/ 74al5 / 75blOff / 76a30 /
551
INDEX TO MOVEMENT AND
PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS
Note 98a-99b = 69Sa-699b
00a-14b = 700a-714b.
The matter contained in lines 1-5, 5-10 etc. is treated as a
section, and each section is referred to by the number of its
first line : e.g. 98al refers to anything contained in page
698a lines 1-4, and ISblO to anj'thing contained in page
713b lines 10-14.
(323)
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Caesar Civil Wars. A. G. Peskett.
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. S. .
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Aristotle Organon Sophistical Refutations.
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Aristotle Poetics: Longinus on the Sublisie. W. ;
A. T. Murray.
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Mahcus Aurelius. C. R. Haines.
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Minor Attic Orators. 2 Vols. K. J. Maidmcnt and
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:
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Philostratus Imagines ; Callistratus
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Philostratus and Eunapius Lives of the Sophists.
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Plato Theaetetus and Sophist. H. N. Fowler.
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Plato IV Laches, Protagoras, Meno, Euthydemus.
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Plato V Lysis, Sysiposium, Gorgias. W. R. M. Lamb.
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Cherni55 and ^'. C. Helmbold.
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5
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THEOPHRASTCi : EjfQOBT PLANTS. .\rthur
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VOLUMES L\ PREPARATION
GREEK AUTHORS
B. E. Perry.
BIOMED LIB
JLUL 1 6 1986
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