Mapping
Water
Stress
in
Paramount


Almond
Orchards
using
Remote

Sensing

Amanda
Rupiper

Student
Airborne
Research
Program
2010

July,
27th
2010

Goal:
To
determine
potenDal
areas
of

mild
to
severe
water
stress
by

mapping
water
stress
in
the
Almond

Canopies
using
thermal
imagery,
stem

water
potenDal
(SWP)
data,
and
a

calculated
water
index.

Hypothesis:
The
almond
fields
will
undergo

some
level
of
stress
during
the
aOernoon,

however
they
will
sDll
be
far
from
a
level
that

would
result
in
yield
reducDon.


 Outline

Water
Stress:
DefiniDon
and
Why
important

Imagery

Indices:
How
they
are
helpful
(NDVI
and
Water
Indices)

Thermal
Imagery
and
Water

Field
Samples:
Pressure
Bomb

InterpreDng
Plant
Stress
(linking
thermal,
pressure

bomb,
and
water)

Conclusion
and
IrrigaDon
implicaDons

 Water
Stress

Water
stress
occurs
when
a
plant
is
losing
water

faster
than
it
is
taking
it
up
thus
creaDng
an

increase
in
the
tension
pulling
water
up.


•  Plant
Response:
Balance
between
open
and

closed
pores

–  If
leave
stomata
open
CO2
is
able
to
freely
enter
and

be
used
for
plant
processes,
however
increases
water

loss
and
chance
of
an
embolism

–  If
close
stomata
water
loss
is
highly
minimized,

however
CO2
unable
to
enter
and
leaf
starts
to
heat

up
without
evaporaDon.

(Cohesion‐Tension
Theory

(Tyree,
1997))

hZp://leavingbio.net/TRANSPORT%20OF%20MATERIALS%20IN%20A%20FLOWERING%20PLANT_files/image007.gif

hZp://jxb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/48/10/1753.pdf

 MASTER

Summary
characterisDcs
of
the
MASTER
instrument

•  Wavelength
range






0.4±13
mm

•  Number
of
channels


50

•  Number
of
pixels








716

•  Total
field
of
view







85.92°

•  Plahorms






















DOE
King
Air
BeachcraO
B200,

















































NASA
ER‐2,
and
NASA
DC‐8

•  Pixel
size
DC‐8













10±30
m

•  Pixel
size























ER‐2
50
m

•  Pixel
size























B200
5±
25
m

•  DC‐8
range










(without
refueling)



5403
statute
miles

•  Scan
speeds

















6.25/12.5/25
rps

•  CalibraDon
VIS‐SWIR


Laboratory
IntegraDng
Sphere

•  CalibraDon
MIR‐TIR





2
on‐board
blackbodies

•  Data
Format
















Hierarchical
Data
Format
(HDF)


S.J.
Hook
et
al.
(2001)

hZp://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/images/content/152985main_DC‐8.jpg

 Imagery

True
color
 VegetaDon
 Thermal

(b5,3,1)
 (NDVI)


Atmosphericly
Calibrated,
Thermal,
and
Georeferenced
Imagery:
Collins
C.,Sopher
H.,
&
Zunkel
P.,2010

 NDVI

•  Normalized
Difference
VegetaDon

Index
(NDVI)
(reflectance
in
nm)


Ranges:

Dense

vegetaDon.3‐.8






Soil
.1‐.2

0.0













0.35
















.70


UsDn
S.
presentaDon,
2010

Swain
D,
2010

 Water
Indices

•  Water
Band
Index
(WBI)


•  Normalized
Difference
Water
Index
(NDWI)



(targeted
SW
bands
unavailable
in
MODIS)


UsDn
S.
&
Kefauver
S.
ENVI
Tutorial,
2010

 Water
Indices

Water
Band
 Band
17
 AWI

Index
 (1.928)

 Leaf

Visible 
Near
Infrared 
Shortwave
infrared

VIS 
NIR 
 
or
mid‐infrared




 
 
SWIR
or
MIR


UsDn
S.,
2010

 AWI

•  (B18‐B5)/(B18+B5)


•  Combined
high
absorpDon
band
in
water
with

red
absorpDon
band

 Water
and
Thermal

•  Latent
heat
of
vaporizaDon
of
water
is
540
cal/g

•  EvaporaDon
cools
a
canopy

•  Low
water
content
cause
plant
to
close
its
pores,
if

stomata
close
less
evaporaDon
occurs,
and

temperatures
begin
to
rise.

•  Canopy
temperature
is
recognized
as
an
indicator
of

plant
water
status
(Cohen
et
al.
2005)


hZp://weather.vouhead.gr/vouhead‐images/stomata001.gif

 Water
and
Temperature


Correlate
inversely,
as
water
content
decrease

temperature
increases
due
to
less
availability

for
evaporaDon
 Thermal

AWI

 Thermal
Imagery

•  6/29/2010

300K











315K


















355K


318.5
 316.2


307.2
 313.3

320.0

319.4


310.1
 321.8

312.5
 313.2


True
Color
























Pass
1
(11:47)
Air
Temp:
306K


Pass
2
(14:03)
Air
Temp:308.5K

AWI

 Explaining
Temp
Changes
Using
AWI

6/29/2010


11:47

300K











315K


















355K


14:03


AWI
























Thermal


AWI
























Thermal

Sample
LocaDons

1
 2


3
 4
 5


6
 7


8

9


10
 11

 Pressure
Chamber
and
Stem
Water

PotenDal
(SWP)


hZp://pmsinstrument.com/howitwks.jpg

hZp://pmsinstrument.com/pumpupsteminsert.jpg

hZp://pmsinstrument.com/tutorials/measuring%20winegrapes%2011.JPG

 Pressure
bomb
measurements

•  Fully
watered
tree
under
varying
condiDons
of

temperature
and
relaDve
humidity.
(Lampinen
et
al.)

(The
table
was
developed
for
prunes
but
the
values
are

similar
for
almonds)


Air
RelaDve
Temperature
Humidity
(RH,
%)

(°F)



10





20






30





40





50





60





70

70




‐6.8


‐6.5



‐6.2



‐5.9


‐5.6

‐5.3


‐5.0

75



‐7.3



‐7.0



‐6.6



‐6.2


‐5.9

‐5.5


‐5.2

80



‐7.9


‐7.5



‐7.0



‐6.6



‐6.2

‐5.8


‐5.4

85



‐8.5


‐8.1



‐7.6



‐7.1



‐6.6

‐6.1


‐5.6

90



‐9.3


‐8.7



‐8.2



‐7.6



‐7.0

‐6.4


‐5.8

95



‐10.2
‐9.5



‐8.8


‐8.2



‐7.5

‐6.8


‐6.1

100
‐11.2

‐10.4

‐9.6


‐8.8



‐8.0
‐7.2


‐6.5

105
‐12.3

‐11.4

‐10.5
‐9.6


‐8.7

‐7.8


‐6.8

110
‐13.6
‐12.6

‐11.5

‐10.4
‐9.4

‐8.3


‐7.3

115
‐15.1
‐13.9

‐12.6

‐11.4
‐10.2‐9.0


‐7.8

‐Prichard
(2001)
find
that
‐16bars
midday
result
in
no
significant

influence
on
almond
yield.

‐Blake
(2010)
find
wilDng
and
some
defoliaDon
begin
around
‐18
to

‐20
bars.

 Temperature
vs.
SWP

0

304
 306
 308
 310
 312
 314
 316
 318


‐5


‐10


Series1


‐15


‐20


‐25


Plot
of
all
SWP
measurements
taken
within
one
hour

of
flight
vs.
remote
sensing
thermal
data

 Plot
6


Plot
6
 0

Time
Range
(14:00‐14:40)
 308
 309
 310
 311
 312
 313
 314


Temp
(K)

Stress
(bars)
 ‐5


309.77













‐15.8

‐10

313.60













‐17.4
 Plot
6

310.50













‐20.2

310.68













‐23
 ‐15

308.82













‐15.5

310.09 









‐21.4

‐20


‐25

 SWP
and
AWI

Plot
4:
(bars)
 Plot
5:
(bars)


‐12.2
 ‐11

‐18.8
 ‐12

‐14.7
 ‐11.5

‐19
 ‐12

‐14.5


Plot
6:
 Plot
7:


‐15.8
 ‐12

‐17.4
 ‐13

‐20.2
 ‐12.5

‐23
 ‐12

‐15.5
 ‐10.5

‐21.4
 ‐9

______
 _________

Avg:
18.9
 Avg:11.5

 Conclusions

•  Water
content
is
directly
correlated
with
SWP

•  Water
content
and
temperature
vary
inversely

•  Thermal
may
sDll
have
possibility
of
being
used

for
mapping
stress,
need
more
SWP
data
at

appropriate
Dmes
to
validate.

•  Looking
just
at
raw
stress
values,
the
almonds
are

not
overstressed.
The
stress
values
could
be
more

extreme
and
not
reduce
yield,
thus
watering

could
potenDally
be
reduced
in
certain
plots.


 Ways
to
Improve

•  Use
sensor
with
more
sensiDve
water
bands

•  Take
SWP
measurements
at
same
Dme
as

temperature
readings
for
correlaDon.

•  More
SWP
data
points
to
improve
possible

correlaDons.


Then
maybe
could
use
water
and
thermal
to
map

water
stress
using
remote
sensing
in
this
method

 Acknowledgements


•  NASA
Student
Airborne
Research
Program

•  Shawn
Kefauver
and
ET
Group

•  Dr.
Susan
UsDn

•  Rick
SheZer

•  NSERC

•  DC‐8
Flight
Crew
and
Data
Processors
at
Ames

•  UC
Davis
Lab

•  All
speakers
and
presenters

 References

•  Cohen
Y,
AlchanaDs
V,
Meron
M,
Saranga
Y,

&
Tsipris
J.
EsDmaDon
of
leaf
water
potenDal
by
thermal
imagery
and
spaDal

analysis.
2005;56(417):1843‐1852.
Available
from
hZp://jxb.oxfordjournals.org

•  Dallon
D.
Measurement
of
water
stress:
comparison
of
reflectance
at
970
and
1450nm.
Utah
stat
university
crop
phys
lab.

Available
from:
hZp://www.usu.edu/cpl/PDF/Water%20Stress_Dallon.pdf

•  Hook
SJ,
Myers
JJ,
Thome
KJ,
Fitzgerald
M,
&
Kahle
AB.
The
MODIS/ASTER
airborne
simulator(MASTER)‐
a
new
instrument

for
earth
science
studies.
Remote
sensing
of
environment.
2001;76:93‐102

•  Jackson
RD.
Remote
sensing
of
bioDc
and
abioDc
plant
stress.
Annual
reviews
phytopathol
1986;24:265‐87.
Available
from:

hZp://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.py.24.090186.001405?cookieSet=1

•  Jackson
RD,
Idso
SB,
Reginato
RJ,
&
Pinter
PJ.
Canopy
temperature
as
a
crop
water
stress
indicator.
Water
resources
research

1981;17(4):1133‐1138.
Available
from:
hZp://www.uswcl.ars.ag.gov/pdf/uswclpubs/wclpub‐0797‐Jackson.pdf

•  Jackson
RD.
Canopy
temperature
and
crop
water
stress.
Advances
in
irrigaDon.
1982;1:43‐85

•  Lampinen
B,
Shackel
K,
&
Metcalf
S.
Using
middday
stem
water
potenDal
to
refine
irrigaDon
scheduling
in
almond.
Dept
of

plant
sciences
UCDavis.
Available
from:

hZp://199.199.209.134/email/almond/eNewsleZer/December/Almond_midday_stem_water_potenDal_full_report.pdf

•  Prichard
TL.
IrrigaDon
management
for
almond
trees
under
drought
condiDons.
University
of
california
davis.
Available
from:

hZp://cesanjoaquin.ucdavis.edu/files/1683.pdf

•  Sanden
B.
ScienDfic
irrigaDon
scheduling
in
permanent
crops:
process,
planning,
programs,
&
pressure
bomb.
Kern
soil
and

water.
2010.
Available
from:
hZp://cekern.ucdavis.edu/newsleZerfiles/Kern_Soil_and_Water19489.pdf

•  Summary
of
university
of
california
research
on
irrigaDon
management
for
almond
trees
under
drought
condiDons.
UC

drought
management.
2010.

Available
from:

hZp://ucanr.org/sites/Drought/Agriculture/Crop_IrrigaDon_Strategies/Almonds/

 QuesDons?


EvapotranspiraDon!

 Thermal
Imagery

•  7/1/2010


316.1

313.3


305.9
 310.0


321.0

317.6


311.3

312.1
 315.4

313.0











True
Color 

































Pass
1
(12:01)































Pass
2
(14:00)

Plot
6
 ‐11.6
 Plot
5

Time
Range
 (13:15)
 Time
Range

(14:00‐14:40)
 ‐16
 (13:10‐13:56)

(13:45)

Temp
(K)

Stress
(bars)
 Temp
(K)

Stress
(bars)

5

‐12

309.77













‐15.8
 (13:56)
 311.66










‐11

313.60













‐17.4
 311.56










‐12

310.50













‐20.2
 6
 308.48










‐11.5

310.68













‐23
 ‐23
 306.17









‐12

308.82













‐15.5
 (14:20)

310.09 









‐21.4
 ‐7.55

(14:00)


‐20.1

(14:46)