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AARLARDIN

A knight with magical knowledge. When Guignier, wife of Caradoc Briefbras, lost her Breast when aiding
her husband, Aarlardin supplied a magic shield boss which provided a golden breast. He married Arthur's
grand-niece, Guigenor. # 156 - 153

ABARIS

Greek tradition makes Abaris a priest and servant of Hyperborean Apollo. He rode on a golden arrow as
Apollo's messenger and visited Pythagoras, who received and initiated him. It is possible that he represents
a holy man or druid from Britain. # 258 - 454

ABLAMOR OF THE MARSH

A knight who possessed a white hart which was killed by Gawain and Gaheris. In retaliation, Ablamor
killed two of their greyhounds. This led to combat with Gawain who was on the point of killing him when
his lady threw herself between them and Gawain killed her instead. Horrorstricken by this, Gawain did not
kill Ablamor. # 156

ABRED

The innermost of three concentric circles representing the totality of being in the Cymric cosmogony - the
stage of struggle and evolution. # 562

ABUNDANCE

See: STONE OF ABUNDANCE.

ACCOLON

A Gaulish knight, of whom Morgan was enamoured. He was hunting with Urien and Arthur when they
were separated from their companions. They came upon a vessel where they settled down for the night. To
his astonishment, Accolon awoke in a field where he was given Excalibur and told he would have to use it
in a fight. His opponent turned out to be Arthur. Neither recognized the other. Arthur had been given a fake
Excalibur and at first it looked as though Arthur would lose the contest, but the Lady of the Lake appeared
and magically caused Excalibur to fall to the ground. Arthur then seized it and defeated Accolon but, when
the King discovered that Morgan had set up the whole affair, he assured Accolon he would not be punished.
However, Accolon had sustained a mortal wound in the fight. (The Matthews # 454, call him Accalon of
Gaul, and let Merlin intervene with the Excalibur, both have Malory as source, though) # 156 - 418 - 454

ACHEFLOUR

In SIR PERCEVAL OF GALLES, Acheflour is Arthur's sister and Perceval's mother. Thinking her son had
been killed she went mad and lived in the woods. Perceval found her. She recovered her sanity and went to
live with him and Lufamour. # 156

ADDANC
See AFANC.

ADDANZ

An ancestor of Perceval. # 156

ADDAON

The son of Taliesin, he was noted for his wisdom; he was slain by Llongad rwrm Fargod Eidyn. # 156 - 346

ADDER

As the only poisonous snake in the British Isles the adder has a reputation for wisdom and sly cunning. The
amulets said to have been carried by the druids, 'gloine nathair' (the glass of the serpent), were really adder
stones.

It was an adder which caused the Battle of Camlan; while the armies of Mordred and Arthur were drawn up
during a parley in which the battle might have been averted, an adder darted out from the scrub, so startling
one of Arthur's men that he drew his sword to slay it. Taking the flash of his sword as an instance of
Arthur's treachery, Mordred's army attacked. In the Highlands, the adder or serpent is supposed to represent
the CAILLEACH'S power, which Brigit defeats with her lamb. See: SAMHAIN, and OIMELC. # 225 -
389 - 454

ADELUF

The name of a number of persons mentioned in Rauf de Boun's PETIT BRUT. The first two were kings
before Arthur's time. The third was a son of Arthur. # 156 - 221

ADVENTURES

Visits to a strange Land and experiences among a strange race constitute a substantial part of Celtic
mythology, and, as in modern fiction, a whole class of tales are known as 'adventures'. But whereas the
adventures of fiction are concerned with escapades among the natives of distant lands or planets in this
world, the adventures of mythology are experienced among the mysterious denizens of a supernatural
world. In this the Celt is no exception. The prodigies of Asia, Africa, and native America may be sufficient
to excite the imagination of modern man, but for the inhabitants of those continents, no less than for the
ancient Celts, the adventures worth recording are adventures in another 'dimension', and the only journeys
of real significance are journeys between this world and the world beyond. #548

AEB

(ayv)

AED MAC LIR

(a moc leer) Son of Aobh. He was turned into a swan by his stepmother, Aoife. # 454

AED SLANE

(a slôn) King of Tara ca. AD 600. # 166


AED THE FAIR

(aid) (FINN) Chief sage of Ireland; author of VOYAGE OF MAELDUN. # 562

AEDA

(ay'da) 1. Dwarf of King Fergus mac Leda; 2. Royal suitor for Vivionn's hand; Vivionn slain by Aeda. #
562

AEDD

The father of Prydein from whom Britain took its name in Welsh tradition. (There are also a number of
Aedds referred to in Irish mythology.) # 156

AEDH

(ay) The son of Eochail Lethderg, Prince of Leinster, who was playing Hurling with his young companions
when he was carried into a Brugh, or palace, of Fairyland by two Sidh-women who were in love with him,
and held captive there for three years. At the end of this time Aedh escaped and made his way to St Patrick,
and begged him to free him from the fairy dominion. Patrick took him in disguise to Leinster to his father's
court, and there restored him to humanity and freed him from the timeless life of the fairies. This account
from SILVA GADELICA (pp 204-20) is one of the earliest stories of captives in Fairyland. See: TIME IN
FAIRYLAND. # 100 - 504

AEGIDIUS

Roman count, ruler of Gaul AD 461-4. Jacques de Guise (14th century) claims Arthur flourished when
Aegidius ruled Gaul. Philippe de Vignelles (16th century) suggest that Aegidius was in frequent contact
with Arthur. # 31 - 156

AEGIRA

Custom of the priestess of Earth at Ægira, in Achæa, ere prophesying.# 562

AEI

(ay'ee) Plain of Aei, where Brown Bull of Quelgny meets and slays Bull of Ailell. # 562

AELLE

Saxon King of Sussex who, with his sons Cymen, Wlencing and Cissa, defeated the Britons at Cymenes
ora (AD 477). He fought against them once more near Mearc Raedesburna AD 485 and captured Anderida
(modern Pevensey) about the year AD491 According to Bede, he held the title Bretwalda (Britain-ruler),
indicating a primacy among the Saxon kings. S. G. Wildman suggests he probably led the Saxons at Badon;
he was certainly flourishing at a time when he might have been a leading adversary of an historical Arthur.
# 156 - 729

AENEAS
In Greek mythology, the son of Anchises, by the goddess Aphrodite (Roman Venus). He was a member of
the Trojan royal family and, according to Virgil, made his way to Italy after the fall of Troy, becoming an
ancestor of the Emperor Augustus. Geoffrey of Monmouth asserts that he was an ancestor of the ancient
British kings and Dryden specifically says that he was an ancestor of Arthur himself. # 156 - 194

AES SIDHE

The Hosts of the Sidhe or Hollow Hills. The inhabitants of the Otherworld. They were thought to ride out
on the eves of the four great fire festivals: Samhain(31 October), Oimelc (31 January), Beltaine (30 April),
and Lughnasadh (31 July), when they had communion with earthly folk. Yeats wrote of them as 'The Hosts
of the Air'. See: DAOINE SIDHE. # 128 - 711

AESUN

Umbrian deity. # 562

AESUS

Deity mentioned by Lucan. # 562

AFAGDDU

See: MORFRAN.

AFANC

# 156: A legendary Welsh monster which was overcome by Peredur (Perceval) who had been given a stone
by the Empress of Constantinople which rendered him invisible to it (#346). Arthur himself killed an afanc
at Llyn Barfog #717. Another tale tells how Hu Gadarn may have been invented by Iolo Morgannwg (1747
-1826), who claimed that Hu Gadarn had led the Britons to Britain from Sri Lanka. As to the nature of the
afanc, it seem s to have had manipulative skills, as the one encountered by Peredur could throw spears. In
modern Welsh AFANC means a beaver; the mystical creature certainly had watery connections. The
cognate Irish word ABHAC (dwarf) is derived from AB, modern ABHA, a river; J.Vendryes claims it
originally signified a spirit inhabiting waters. - # 454: A primeval monster which dwelt in the Llyn yr Afanc
on the River Conwy in North Wales. It was sometimes thought to be in the shape of a beaver and dragged
people into the depths of the lake. Finally it was lured to sleep in a maiden's bosom. # 104 - 156 - 346 - 454
- 693 - 717

AFRICAN ORIGIN

Primitive population of Great Britain and Ireland, evidence of language suggests. # 562

AGNED, MOUNT

The site of one of Arthur's battles, mentioned by Nennius. Some manuscripts give the name Breguoin
instead. See CASTLE OF MAIDENS. # 156

AGNOMAN

Nemed's father. # 562


AGRAVAIN

A son of Lot and Morgause, brother of Gawain. He married Laurel, the niece of Lionors and Lynette. He
knew of the adultery of Lancelot and Guinevere and arranged for them to be found in compromising
circumstances. He was slain by Lancelot, either when the pair was discovered or when Lancelot rescued
Guinevere after she had been condemned to death. # 156 - 418

AGRESTES

# 156: The ruler of Camelot in the time of Joseph of Arimathea. # 454: In the 'Grand Saint Greal', a
thirteenth-century Arthurian romance, Agrestes is described as the King of Camelot in a time long before
Arthur. As a pagan he persecuted Josephus, son of Joseph of Armathea and guardian of the Grail, and was
punished by madness and death. # 156 - 418 - 454

AGRICOLA

King of Dyfed (South Wales) around the year AD 500, in the traditional time of Arthur. Gildas thought him
a good king. He may have liberated Dyfed from the Irish dynasty of the Uí Liatháin which had previously
ruled there. He may have been one of Arthur's commanders. See DEMETIA. # 156 - 484

AGUIGRENONS

According to various Grail romances Aguigrenons was the General of King Clamadex, an evil monarch
who entrapped many Grail Knights. Perceval finally overcame Aguigrenons when he defended the maiden
Blanchfleur, and eventually sent both he and his master to Arthur's court. # 454

AHES

See MORGAN.

AIDAN, SAINT

(d. 651) Monk of Iona and Bishop of Lindisfarne. He was an Irishman who came to England and helped
Oswald in the evangelization of Northumbria. He was on Inner Farne when he saw the burning of the royal
castle of Bamburgh by pagan King Penda. Aidan prayed for the wind to change and it did so. His spiritual
successor was Cuthbert who saw Aidan's glorious ascent to heaven. His symbol is the torch and his feast-
day is 31 August. # 454

AIDEEN

Wife of Oscar, grandson of Fionn mac Cumhail; she died of grief after Oscar's death when he fell at the
battle of Gabhra, and was buried on Ben Edar (Howth). # 562

AIFA AIFE

(eefa) Princess of Land of Shadows; war made upon Aife by Skatha; CuChulain overcomes by a trick; life
spared conditionally by CuChulain; bears a son named Connla. According to one version she was sister to
Scathach and daughter of Ardgeimm. # 562
AILBACH

(el-yach) Fortress in Co. Donegal, where Ith hears MacCuill and his brothers are arranging the division of
the land. # 562

AILBE

(il'bé) Famous hound of Mac Datho. # 166

AILILL AILELL

# 562: (el'yill) 1. Son of Laery, treacherously slain by his uncle Covac. 2. Brother of Eochy (Eochaid)
Airem; he desired Etain desparately. 3. King of Connact; Angus Og and Fergus seeks aid of Ailill. Assists
in foray against province of Ulster. White-horned Bull of Ailill, slain by Brown Bull of Quelgny; make
seven years' peace with Ulster; hound of mac Datho pursues chariot of Ailill; slain by Conall. # 454: King
of Connacht, husband of Medb, (see Maeve or Maev). He owned a great bull Finnbennach (Whitehorn),
causing his wife to be jealous and covert the Donn Cuailuge (Brown One), a bull owned by an Ulsterman.
This precipitated the great cattleraid in which both Ulster and Connact came to blows. Ailill was no match
for his wife, who took her lovers indiscriminately, but he was responsible for the death for one of them -
Fergus mac Roigh. Ailill himself was slain by Conall Cernach at the instigation of a jealous Medb after she
found him lying with a maiden on May Day. # 367 - 454 - 548 - 562

AILILL EDGE-OF-BATTLE

Of the sept of the Owens of Aran; During a foray into another territory, he raped a nun where Maeldûn was
conceived. Ailill Edge of Battle were slain by reavers from Leix. # 562

AILILL OLUM

(el-yill olum) King of Munster; ravishes Ainé and is slain by her. # 562

AILLEANN

In the Irish romance, VISIT OF GREY HAM, a woman of the Otherworld who had a tendency to turn into
a deer. She took Arthur and his men away to marry various Otherworld wives, wedding Arthur himself. In
this work, Ailleann is given an interesting family tree as shown. The Family Tree of Ailleann - King of
Iceland | Ioruaidh | Daire, King of the Picts = Rathlean Ailleann. # 156

AILLEN MAC MIDHNA

A fairy musician of the Tuatha de Danaan who came every year at Samhain Eve (All-Hallow Eve) out of
Sidhe Finnachaid to Tara, the Royal Palace of the High King, playing so marvellously on his timpan (a kind
of belled tambourine) that all who heard him were lulled asleep, and while they slept he blew three blasts of
fire out of his nostrils and burnt up the Hall of Tara. This happened every Samhain Eve for twenty-three
years, until Finn of the Fianna conquered Aillen and killed him (Silva Gadelica, vol.II, pp 142-44). He
conquered him by himself inhaling the fumes of his magic spear, whose point was so venomous that no one
who smelled it could sleep, however lulling the music. # 100 - 504

AINE
(aw-ne) A love-goddess, daughter of the Danaan Owel; Ailill Olum and Fitzgerald her lovers; mother of
Earl Gerald; still worshiped on Midsummer Eve; appears on St. John's Night, among girls on the Hill. #
454: A goddess who seems to have functioned as a type of Sovereignty in south west Ireland. She gave her
name to a sidhe dwelling in Munster, Cnoc Aine. She is variously described as the wife or daughter of
Manannan mac Lir. - Later folk tradition tells of Gearoid Iarla (Earl Gerald of Desmond, 1338-98) who
encountered Aine bathing in a river and raped her. The first earl of Desmond was called 'Aine's king' and
Gerald himself 'the son of fair Aine's knight'. Gerald was said to have disappeared in the form of a goose,
after a lifetime building up his reputation as a magician. This legend shows how active the myth of
Sovereignty was persisting right into the medieval era. # 100 - 454 - 505 - 548 - 562

AINGEN

(in'gen) Son of Nera and a fairy woman; owner of the cow bred to the Dun of Cooley. # 166

AINNLE

(in'le) Brother of Naisi (Naoisi); Son of Usnech; Lover of Deirdriu. # 454 - 562

AINSEL

A widow and her little boy lived in a cottage near Rothley. One night the child was very lively and would
not go to bed when his mother did. She warned him that the fairies would come and fetch him if he sat up
too late, but he only laughed and went on playing. She had not long blown out the candle when a lovely
little creature jumped down the chimney and began to frisk about in front of the boy. 'What do they ca'
thou?' he said fascinated. 'Ainsel,' she answered. 'And what do they ca' thou?' 'my ainsel,' he answered,
cannily, and they began to play together like two children of one race. Presently the fire got low and the
little boy stirred it up so vigorously that a cinder blew out and burnt little Ainsel on the foot. She set up a
yell quite dis-proportionate to her size, 'Wow! I'm brent!' 'Wha's done it? Wha's done it?' said a dreadful
voice from the chimney, and the boy made one leap into bed as the old fary mother shot down on to the
floor. 'My ainsel! My ainsel!' said the little fary. 'Why then,' said her mother, 'what's all this noise for:
there's nyon to blame!' And she kicked Ainsel up the chimney. # 100

AIRDRIE

Contraction in Gaelic of the ancient Celtic term 'Aird Righ' meaning High King. # 383 p 37

AISLING

The word means dream or vision and is, in modern Irish, a woman's name,but in the many Irish tales
bearing this title, the dreamer experiences a vision of a Speir-Bhean or vision-woman whose beauty leads
him into closer communion with the Otherworld. A great many poets of the eighteenth century wrote
Aisling poems, in which a fair woman is found wandering in powerty and distress. She represents the land
of Ireland itself, oppressed under the English yoke. # 438 - 454

ALAN

The son of Brons and Enygeus, who did not marry and was made ruler of his brothers and sisters. In the
Didot Perceval he was Perceval's father. he was told by the Holy Spirit that he would be the father of the
Grail King (# 185-# 604). He is also said to be a son of King Pellinore. # 454: Alain le Gros. In one story he
fed a multitude from a single fish and was afterwards known as the Fisher King. He also built the castle of
Corbenic to house the Hallows of the Grail. # 156 - 185 - 454 - 604
ALBANACT

The captain of Arthur's guard in Dryden's opera KING ARTHUR. His name was presumably taken from
Albanact, son of Brutus, in Geoffrey of Monmouth, and from whom Albany or Scotland is named. # 156 -
454

ALBION

Albion: The primal archetype of the Celtic world. Albion in its origin was the Form of forms, the original
pattern for all that flowed into creation of the unique and magnificent wonder known as the Celtic spirit. -
The Otherworld (Albion) did not have a historical foundation, but the historical world (the Britons of old
called their island Alba) had an Otherworldly foundation. See also: PRETANI. # 454: The name of Britain
before Brutus landed from Troy (See also: TROY). William Blake personified Albion as a giant, associating
him with Cronos, in his poetical and artistic works. # 74 - 243 - 383 p 146 ff - # 454 - 455 p 144

ALCARDO

A squire, brother of Iseult and companion of Tristan. Later known as Lantris, he was killed when he
attempted to rescue his sister from Mark. # 156

ALCHENDIC

A giant who ruled the ancient city of Sarras, according to the PROPHÉCIES de MERLIN. He had attained
his eminence by killing the previous ruler. The folk of Sarras would not desert him, even when the city was
menaced by Crusaders under King Richard of Jerusalem. He defeated four champions of the Crusaders and
after this a truce ensued, followed a month later by Alchendic's baptism. # 156

ALCLUD

The old name for Dumbarton. Hoel, King of Brittany and Arthur's ally, was besieged there by the Picts and
Scots until Arthur came to relieve him. # 156

ALDAN

In Welsh tradition, Merlin's mother, daugther of a nobleman of South Wales. # 156 - 211

ALDER

A tree associated with several pagan gods, the alder represented the letter F (fearn) in the druidic tree
alphabet. It was known in medieval legend as the tree of the Erl King, or alternatively as the tree sacred to
the god Bran, brother of Branwen who kept the Cauldron of Regeneration.

Thus the tree stood for the idea of resurrection. It bore the same significance in the Odyssey. The beginning
of the Celtic solar year was marked by the alder tree. In the territory of Celtic druids there used to be a tribe
known as Arverni, 'People of the Alder'. # 701

ALDERLY EDGE
An elevation in Cheshire. According to a folktale, a farmer of Mobberley once had his horse purchased by a
wizard for the use of a king and his knights who were slumbering beneath the Edge. The story was told by
Parson Shrigley (died 1776) who maintained the events had occurred about eighty years before his time. In
a rhyming version by J. Roscoe the king was identified as Arthur. The story was utilized by Alan Garner in
THE WEIRDSTONE OF BRISINGAMEN (1960). # 156

ALDROENUS

King of Brittany, he sent his brother Constantine, Arthur's grandfather, to rule the Britons at their request. #
156 - 243

ALEINE

Gawain's niece. In the 'Didot Perceval' she sent Perceval a suit of red armour and persuaded him to take
part in a tournament at Arthur's court from which he had hitherto refrained. Thus disguised he carried all
before him and won a place at the Round Table. # 185 - 454

ALEXANDER THE GREAT

King of Macedonia 336-323 BC. He conquered the Persian Empire and died at Babylon.

Alexander was much celebrated in medieval romance. In PERCEFOREST he is an ancestor of Arthur as


the result of an affair with Sebille, the Lady of the Lake in his time. In 1991 a literally work about
Alexander the Great was published in Denmark. It was claimed to have been channeled from Aron, which
is the name of Alexander in the spiritual world, to the publisher and coauthor, Margrethe Clara Grace. The
works three volumes describe the life of not only Alexander the Great, but even all the incarnations he have
lived since, ending in our time as no less than the American pop-singer Elvis Presley. The work might be
ahead of its time, as only few copies were sold in Denmark and so far it hasn't been translated into other
languages. # 156 - 198 - 257

ALFASEM

King of Terre Foraine and one of the Wounded Kings. After being baptised by Alain le Gros he attempted to
look into the Grail and was struck down for his temerity. He is healed when the Grail is achieved. # 454

ALFRED THE GREAT

(849-900) King of Wessex. He repulsed the Danes. It was while hiding in the marches of Somerset on the
Isle of Athelney that he was supposed to have burnt the cakes. He also had a vision of the Virgin at whose
feet he cast a jewel as a offering. In 1693 such a jewel was found, inscribed 'Alfred had me made'. (This is
now housed at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford). Alfred codified laws, established the first real navy and
was the translator of Boethius: 'CONSOLATIONS OF PHILOSOPHY'. He and Arthur are the two heroes
who bracket that period called, by historians, the Dark Ages. Their two careers were concerned with the
defence of Britain in battle and its civilization by means of the gentle arts. # 454

ALICE

Called 'the Beautiful Pilgrim'.Daughter of Ansirus le Pilgrim, one of Lancelot's many cousins. She helped
Alisander le Orphelin escape from the castle of Morgan le Fay and afterwards married him. She always
kept her face veiled, suggesting she was of more than mortal beauty. It was when she was unveiled that
Alisander fell in love with her. # 454
ALIFATIMA

The King of Spain, a follower of Lucius. He was killed fighting against Arthur, during the latters campaign
against the Romans (# 243). His name probably originated from Moorish influence in Spain in the Middle
Ages. # 156 - 243

ALIS

The Byzantine emperor who, in CLIGES, married Fenice with whom, unfortunately, Cligés, his nephew
was in love. Alis is a form of Alexius, a name borne by a number of Byzantine emperors. # 156

ALISANDER THE ORPHAN

# 156: Son of Baldwin, Mark's brother, by his wife Anglides. Mark had murdered his father. He was
imprisoned by Morgan Le Fay but Alice the Beautiful Pilgrim helped him to gain his freedom and they
subsequently married. Alisander was welcomed at Arthur's court. And from the Matthews(#454) we read
this: He never reached Camelot and was numbered among Mark's knights. # 156 - 418 - 454

ALL HALLOWS EVE

The time of year when the boundaries between this world and the next weaken and the dead rise and walk
amongst men. A time of year hallowed back into the distant past, honoured as Samhain, the new year. A
time of year hallowed by both the followers of the Christ and those who still kept faith with the older,
wilder gods. A time of power. A time of death. # 582, vol. 3, p 150

ALLEN, HILL OF

In Kildare; Finn's chief fortress. # 562

ALMU ALMHAIN

(ol'møø) (ol-en) Principal seat of Finn mac Cumaill; now the Hill of Allen 5 miles north-east of Kildare. #
166

ALOIS

King of Northgalis. He went to war with Amoraldo, King of Ireland, who was supported by Lancelot.
Tristan supported Alois. In due course, through the interventions of Guinevere and Iseult, the two leaders
were reconciled. # 156 - 238

ALTERNATE SPELLING

Through all the sources consulted in making this encyclopaedia there does not seem to be a standard
spelling for the places and peoples in the myths and historical events, which, of course, considering time
and localities where it was written down, is not even a perfectly natural function but also inevitably. In this
work, however, the editor have tried to mention several alternatives and place them properly beside the
name chosen. But in addition to that, it might be helpful to the reader to have a list of the most often used
names in Celtic tradition together with their alternate spellings. Below you will find a collection of some of
these names, but we must emphasize that the alternate spelling-form is by no means less correct than the
chosen form, and is brought only to clear the possible confusion if the same person's name or a place-name
is spelled quite differently. See Alternate Spelling.

AMANGONS

A cruel and avaricious king who lived before the times of Arthur, but whose actions determined much of
the later quest for the Grail. Together with his followers, he raped the damsels of the wells and stole their
golden cups. In Arthur's time, the descendants of these damsels and knights, lived deep in the forest.
Behind this story is a powerful myth of otherworldly women, representing the Sovereignty of the land, who
guard the Hallows of Britain but whose guardianship is eroded and usurped, causing the Wasteland. Only
the finding of the Grail can heal the land. # 454 - 461

AMANT

A knight of Mark who accused his royal master of treachery. Trial by combat ensued, in which Mark
proved the victor. # 156

AMASIS I

Human sacrifices abolished by Amasis I. # 562

AMATHAON

# 562: Son of Dôn; In 'Culhwch and Olwen', Amathaon is the only one who can do the ploughing task, and
he will not. # 454: He is described as a wild husband-man, and in the poem attributed to Taliesin, the 'Cad
Goddeu', where he fights his brother, Gwydion, against the Arawn, king of Annwn. The modern Welsh for
farmer is still 'amaethwr', but we can only speculate as to the original nature of Amaethon, who may indeed
have fulfilled the function of a patron of agriculture. # 104 - 226 - 259 - 454 - 562

AMAZONS

The name of a famous race of warrior women in Greek mythology. Medieval legend claimed they were, in
origin, Goths who, under Marpesia, formed an army of women and travelled to Africa by way of the
Caucasus. It was only to be expected that they would surface from time to time in Arthurian romance. Thus,
Tristan the Younger rescued their queen from the king of the Idumeans. They fought with Gawain and their
queen was slain by the Crop-eared Dog. The MORTE ARTHURE says they were subjects of Arthur's foe,
Lucius. In Spencer's poem THE FAIRIE QUEENE their queen, Radigund, was killed by Britomart. # 81 -
156

AMBROSIUS AURELIUS

According to Nennius, this was the fatherless child whom Vortigern intended to sacrifice. Geoffrey of
Monmouth, however, maintained that Ambrosius the child was identical with Merlin and distinct from
Ambrosius Aurelius. Nennius in fact contradicts himself by saying Ambrosius was a Roman consul's son.
His career, as outlined by Geoffrey, is as follows: when his brother, King Constans of Britain, was
murdered by Vortigern he was smuggled to Brittany, whence he returned to Britain with his brother, Uther,
anxious to seize the throne from the usurper. He laid siege to Vortigern's tower and burnt it down, thereby
causing Vortigern's death. He defeated the Saxons and then had their leader, Hengist, killed. Paschent,
Vortigern's son made war against him and had him poisoned by a Saxon, Eopa. According to the fifteenth-
century poet, Rhys Goch Eryri, his head was buried beneath Dinas Emrys. That Ambrosius was a genuine
historical character is not in doubt. Gildas, who calls him Ambrosius Aurelianus (certainly the most correct
form of his name) claims he began the fighting that eventually ended the Saxon attacks. It has even been
suggested that he is the original of Arthur, though Geoffrey of Monmouth says that he is his nephew. # 32 -
156 - 243 - 494

AMBROY OYSELET

A knight in Lovelich's MERLIN whose existence is due to a misunderstanding by the author who thought
the French phrase oiseau au brai was a personal name. # 156

AMENE

A queen whose kingdom had almost entirely been conquered by Roaz. Arthur sent Wigalois to aid her. See
LAR. # 156 - 746

AMERGIN

(am ORG in, or OY ar gin) Milesian poet, son of Miled, husband of Skena. His strange lay, sung when his
foot first touched Irish soil; his judgment, delivered as between the Danaan's and Milesians; chants
incantation to land of Erin; Amergin the Druid, gives judgment as to claims to sovranty of Eremon and
Eber; Ollav Fôla is compared with Amergin. THE JUDGMENT OF AMERGIN: The Milesian host, after
landing, advance to Tara, where they find the three kings of the Danaans awaiting them, and summon them
to deliver up the island. The Danaans ask for three days' time to consider whether they shall quit Ireland, or
submit, or give battle; and they propose to leave the decision, upon their request, to Amergin. Amergin
pronounces judgment -"the first judgment which was delivered in Ireland." He agrees that the Milesians
must not take their foes by surprise - they are to withdraw the lenght of nine waves from the shore, and then
return; if they then conquer the Danaans the land is to be fairly theirs by right of battle. The Milesians
submit to this decision and embark on their ships. But no sooner have they drawn off for this mystical
distance of the nine waves than a mist and storm are raised by the sorceries of the Danaans - the coast of
Ireland is hidden from their sight, and they wander dispersed upon the ocean. To ascertain if it is a natural
or a Druidic tempest which afflicts them, a man named Aranan is sent up to the masthead to see if the wind
is blowing there also or not. He is flung from the swaying mast, but as he falls to his death he cries his
message to his shipmates: 'There is no storm aloft.' Amergin, who as poet - that is to say, Druid - takes the
lead in all critical situations, thereupon chants his incantation to the land of Erin. The wind falls, and they
turn their prows, rejoicing, towards the shore. But one of the Milesian lords, Eber Donn, exults in brutal
rage at the prospect of putting all the dwellers in Ireland to the sword; the tempest immediately springs up
again, and many of the Milesian ships founder, Eber Donn's among them. At last a remnant of the Milesians
find their way to shore, and land in the estuary of the Boyne. # 562

AMERGIN MAC EIT

(ov'ar gin moc at) An Ulster warrior; husband of Findchoem, Conchobar's sister. # 166

AMFORTAS

Known as the Grail King/Fisher King in Wolfram. The son of the Grail King Frimutel, he was wounded in
the scrotum by an envenomed spear while jousting. He was carried into the presence of the Grail where he
awaited the coming of the questioner (Perceval) who would ask the question about the Grail and thus
restore him to health. Amfortas is called Anfortas in Wagner's opera Parzival. His name may be derived
from Latin infirmitas. # 156 - 748
AMINABAD

The son of Joshua and an ancestor of Arthur in the pedigree of John of Glastonbury. Father of Castellors. #
156

AMLAWDD WLEDIG

According to Welsh sources, the father of Igaine (Eigyr), the mother of Arthur. Amlawdd is also credited
with being the father of Goleuddydd and Rieingulid who were, respectively, the mothers of Arthur's
cousins, Culhwch and Illtyd. Amlawdd's wife was called Gwen. The word Wledig is a title meaning,
roughly, 'chief', perhaps used as a Celtic translation of the Latin title Protector. # 156

AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS

Gauls described by Ammianus Marcellinus. See: GAULS. # 562

AMORGIN

Father of Conall of the Victories. # 562

AMOROLDO

In the TAVOLA RITONDA, the son of Marhaus. He was made a knight by Tristan. In due course he
ascended the throne of Ireland and became involved in a war with King Alois of Northgalis. Tristan
supported Amoroldo, Lancelot supported Alois. However, Iseult and Guinevere brought about a
rapprochement between the two knights. Amoroldo was eventually slain by Lancelot. The name Amoroldo
is Italian for Marhaus, and the name is used for both father and son. # 156 - 238

AMR

According to Nennius, the son of Arthur, probably identical with Amhar, son of Arthur mentioned in the
MABINOGION. The form Amr is preferable to Anir, which is also found. Nennius says that Arthur killed
him at Archenfield and that he was buried under a mound called Licat Anir. # 156 - 494

AMREN

The son of Bedivere. # 156

AMUSTANT

The chaplain to Guinevere, he had originally been chaplain to her father. He eventually became an
anchorite. # 156

AMYNTAS II

King of Macedon, defeated and exiled. # 562

ANDRASTE
Icenian warrior goddess of Victory, propitiated by Boudicca in her campaigns against the Romans. She was
worshipped in a sacred grove. Boudicca released a hare as part of the rite of propiation. # 446 - 454

ANDRED

Resident at Mark's court, he was a cousin of Tristan on whom he spied, eventually betraying him and Iseult
to Mark. He hailed originally from Lincoln. # 454: In some versions he is credited with the murder of
Tristan, but is himself slain by Bellangere le Beuse, together with all those who had plotted Tristan's death.
# 156 - 418 - 454

ANDREW, SAINT

The patron of Scotland. Brother of Simon Peter, and fisherman of Capernaum. He became an apostle and
tradition says he was martyred in Achaia by being crucified on a decussated or saltire cross. He was said to
have given the Pictish army a vision of this cross at the battle of Athelstoneford between King Angus of the
Picts and King Athelstan of the Angles. However, it is fairly clear that Andrew was foisted upon Scotland
as its patron when the old Celtic and Culdee centres of Dunkeld and Abernethy were superseded by the new
bishopric of St Andrew's. His feast-day is 30 November. # 454

ANDRIVETE

The daughter of King Cador of Northumberland. On her father's death her uncle, Ayglin, tried to get rid of
her by marrying her off to someone unsuitable, but she thwarted his designs by escaping and marrying Kay.
With Arthur's support she was all set to overthrow her uncle but then the people of Northumberland forced
him to surrender before any violence could occur. # 156 - 712

ANEIRIN

(an OI rin).

ANFORTAS

See: AMFORTAS.

ANGELICA

The mother, by Arthur, of Tom a' Lincoln. # 156 - 668

ANGHARHAD GOLDEN HAND ANGHARAD

The lover of Peredur (Perceval) in the MABINOGION. At first she refused to be his lover and he promised
never to speak to any Christian until she changed her mind. Lady Guest, in her edition of the
MABINOGION, suggests that her epithet indicated generosity. # 454: She may possibly be a much older
Celtic deity, who like so many of her kind has dwindled to a minor role in Arthurian romance. See:
PERCEVAL. # 156 - 346 - 438 - 454

ANGLIDES

Mother of Alisander the Orphan. After her husband's murder by King Mark, Anglides raised her son
secretly. # 156 - 243
ANGLITORA

The daughter of Prester John, she eloped with Tom a' Lincoln. Their son was the Black Knight. She
abandoned Tom and later murdered him, but he was avenged by the Black Knight. # 156 - 668

ANGLO-SAXON

# 676: The most widespread ideas among the British today about the Anglo-Saxons have become set in a
fixed pattern which does not always re-flect the true reality. It has been suggested that we would come
nearer the truth if we could think of them as Celtic-Saxons, and, as far as religious affinities go, that would
be more accurate.

Many of the leading members of the Irish/Scottish Celtic Church in Iona and Lindisfarne bear Saxon names
such as Cuthbert and Chad, and were probably descendants of those Saxons who were initially invited to
the Northeast by the Romans in order to help them quell the invading hordes of Picts and Scots who were
making the country untenable by the legions. By the time that the Roans had completely withdrawn, the
Saxons had intermarried with the Britons and settled down to farm the new lands. The violent pirate
invaders, forerunners of the Viking raiders were quite another matter. # 562: Wace's French translation of
"Historia Regum Britaniæ" translated by Layamon into the Anglo-Saxon language. # 562 - 676

ANGUISH

King of Ireland and father of Iseult. His name seems to be genuinely Irish in origin, a form of Oengus.
Surprisingly, at the time in question, a King Oengus is thought to have been reigning at Cashel, in the south
of Ireland. There may be some confusion with the Scottish king Auguselus in Geoffrey; this name is also
found in the form of Anguisel, Angwish, and Agwisance. See: ANGWISH. # 156 - 243 - 418

ANGUS

(een us) 1. A Danaan deity. 2. Son of Aed Abrat; brother of Fann; a messenger sent to invite CuChulain to
the Fairy World. See also: ANGUS OG. # 166 - 562

ANGUS MAC OG AENGUS OR OENGUS

# 562: Son of the Dagda, Irish god of love; wooes and wins Caer. Dermot of the Love Spot bred up with
Angus Og, and is revived by him; father of Maga; Dermot and Grania rescued by magical devices of
Angus; Dermot's body borne away by Angus. # 454: Angus mac Og / Aengus / Oengus. God of youth. His
mother was Boann. He was called Mac Og (or the Young Son) after his mother's words, 'Young is the son
who was begotten at break of day and born betwixt it and evening', referring to his magical conception and
gestation. He was fostered by Midir. - An eight-century text, 'Aislinge Oenguso' (The Dream of Angus),
tells how he was visited by an otherworldly maiden, Caer Ibormeith in his sleep and conceived such a love
for her that he fell ill until he found her, with the help of Bodb. She was in the form of a swan one year and
assumed human shape the next. He found her at Loch Bel Dracon at Samhain, together with 149 other girls
all in swan-form, with silver chains between each pair. Angus also assumed the form of a swan, and
together they circled the lake three times, singing sleep-music so profoundly moving, that everyone in the
vicinity fell asleep three days and nights. They returned to his otherworldly palace, Bruig na Boinne (New
Grange, Meath). W. B. Yeats' poem THE SONG OF WANDERING AENGUS is a retelling of this event.
Because of his magical birth, he had power over time. When the mounds of the Sidhe were being
distributed between the Tuatha De Danann, he arrived late and demanded to spend a day and night in the
dwelling of the Dagda. This was granted, but on the following day when he was asked to leave, he said, 'It
is clear that night and day are the whole world, and it is that which has been given to me.'
Variants state that Angus was given the sidi of Bruig na Boinne in place of his mother's husband, Elcmar.
He was the foster-father of Diarmuid.

See also: OENGUS, THE DREAM OF. # 96 - 166 - 416 - 454 - 562

ANGWISH

(or Agwisance) King of Ireland and father of Iseult of Ireland. He seems to have fought against Arthur on
the side of the rebel kings at the beginning of Arthur's reign. He later became a companion of the Round
Table. Mark of Cornwall owed him allegiance and it was on account of Tristan's coming to dispute this, at
which time he also killed Anguish's brother the Morholt, that Tristan first saw Iseult. See: ANGUISH. # 418
- 454

ANJOU

A French province which was conquered by Vortigern and given to Hengist. Kay, Arthur's seneschal, was
its first count. In Wolfram, Herzeloyde was its queen. # 156

ANKH, THE

Found on Megalithic carvings. The symbol of vitality or resurrection. # 562

ANLUAN

(An'luan) Son of Maga; rallies to Maev's foray against Ulster. Conall produces the head of Anluan to his
brother Ket (Cet). # 562

ANMCHARA

See: PERIGLOUR. # 676

ANNA

In Geoffrey, the full sister of Arthur. Geoffrey seems confused about whom she married; he says she wed
Lot, but also that she married King Budic of Brittany. L. A. Paton quotes a source which says she was also
called Ermine and that she married Budic while her sister married Lot (# 516). Miss Paton wonders if she is
to be identified with Morgan. The possibility that she was derived from the Celtic goddess Anu cannot be
ruled out (# 243)..# 156 - 243 - 516

ANNOWRE

# 156: A sorceress who got Arthur into her power as she wished him to be her lover, but he would not
comply. She was about to have him slain when Lancelot, tipped off by Nimue, rescued him and killed
Annowre. # 454: A sorceress of the Perilous Forest who desired Arthur. She succeeded in enticing him into
the forest, but when he refused her she plotted his death, inviting various knights to kill him. Nimue,
hearing of this, brought Tristan to the place where Arthur was held captive, just in time to kill two knights
who had beaten him. The King himself slew Annowre, who had tried to steal Excalibur. The whole story
may well be a variant of Morgan le Fay's plot to entrap Arthur with the help of her lover Accalon of Gaul. #
156 - 454

ANNWFN
# 156: See also ANNWN. The Celtic Otherworld. An early Welsh poem, PREIDDEU ANNWFN, tells how
Arthur led a raid there, apparently to carry off the cauldron to be found in that region. The narrator of the
story is Taliesin, one of those who took part in the expedition. Those involved sailed overseas in the ship
Prydwen to reach their goal. They reached the fort or city of the Otherworld, called by a number of names
(Caer Rigor, Caer Siddi, etc.), but only seven returned. The language of the poem is obscure. The
expedition of Arthur to Ireland in CULHWCH may be another version of this story, Ireland being
substituted for the Otherworld. It is not impossible that the original story told how Arthur obtained
Excalibur from the Otherworld.

# 562: (an noon) Corresponds with Abyss, or Chaos; the principle of destruction in Cymric cosmogony.

# 454: The British Underworld, ruled over by Arawn. Unlike the Classical or Christian Underworld or hell,
Annwn is not considered to be a place of punishment or eternal lamentation; it is rather a place of ancestral
power which mortals may visit, and from which the Wild Hunt rides out. # 156 - 260 - 454 - 562

ANNWN

(an noon - or - ann oo in) See: ANNWFN.

ANNWVYN

(an OOV an)

ANOETHU

Impossible tasks. # 439

ANSWERER

Mananan's magical sword. # 562

ANTICONIE

Lover of Gawain and sister of King Vergulaht of Ascalun in Wolfram. # 156 - 748

ANTONY

An Irish bishop, secretary to Merlin in Continental romance. # 156 - 238

ANU

The mother of the gods in Ireland. The twin hills near Killarney in Munster are named the Paps of Anu after
her. She is identical with Danu, in being the ancestress of the Tuatha de Danaan. Eleanor Hull (#328)
suggests tentatively that Anu is the same person as Aine, the mother of Earl Fitzgerald, to whom fires were
lit at Midsummer, and who was the guardian of cattle and a health-giver. Anu is known to be one of the
Dea Matronae of Ireland and was a goddess of fertility. Hull regards her as a local goddess, and rejects the
suggestion that she has any connection with Black Annis of the Dane Hills in Leicestershire, though she
thinks its possible that Dana and Anu are the same. # 166 - 328 - 454 - 548
AOBH

The first wife of Lir. Mother of Fionuala, Aed, Conn and Fiachna. # 454

AODH

(ay) See: AEDH.

AOIBHELL

A woman of the Sidhe at Craig Liath in Munster. She was the tutelary spirit of the O'Briens, though in later
years she was considered to be more like a banshee since whoever hears the music of her magical harp does
not long survive the experience. She was the mistress of Dubhlainn. # 454

AOIFE

(EEF ay) Lir's second wife; she felt an extreme jealousy to her stepchildren and after her spells against
them, she was punished by Bôv the Red. # 454: 1. The woman-warrior who was Scathach's rival.
CuChulain defeated her in combat and begot her with child. When she heard that he had married Emer, she
planned her revenge. She raised his son, Conlaoch, in every skill and laid three geasa or prohibitions upon
him: that he should never give way to anyone, that he should never refuse a challenge, and that he should
never tell anyone his name. 2. The foster-daughter of Bodh Dearg. She married Lir becoming the step-
mother of her sister's children, Fionuala, Aed, Conn and Fiachra. She turned them into swans, destined to
roam the world for 900 years. She was turned into a witch of the air, destined to sweep the winds till
doomsday by Bodh Dearg. # 166 - 267 - 454 - 562

AONBARR

(ain-barr) # 562: Mananan's magical steed. - # 454: It could travel on either land or sea and was later ridden
by the god Lugh during his quest for the Sword of Light. # 454 - 562

APOLLO

# 562: Celtic equivalent, Lugh. Magical services in honour of Apollo, described by Hecatæus; regarded by
Gauls as deity of medicine. See also: LIANES - # 454: Originally a Thracian god, Apollo was associated
with the northern land of Hyperborea, where he was said to winter every year. Diodorus Siculus and others
supposed that this northern region was analogous with Britain.

Apollo was originally god of music, archery and hunting, as well as being a herdsman. These are also the
attributes of Mabon or Maponus. Apollo's temple was identified by Diodorus as Stonehenge. Apollo was
also taken up by the Romans during their occupation of Britain. Archaeological evidence suggests that
Apollo's cult was already well-established under the native form of Maponus. There is a dedication to
Apollo Cunomaglus or Hound-Lord, stressing his early associations rather than the later classical attributes.
Apollo was also patron of Troy - the mythical origin of the British.

# 258 - 454 - 562

AQUITAIN

(AA-KI-taen)
AQUITANI

One of three peoples inhabiting Gaul when Cæsar's conquest began. # 562

ARABIA

Dolmens equal to those known from the Celtic countries found in Arabia. # 562

ARAVIA, MOUNT

The home of the giant Rience (Ritho), also called Mount Aravia, nowadays known as Snowdonia. # 156

ARAWN

# 562: (a ROWN) A king in Annwn; appeals to Pwyll for help against Hafgan, and exchanges kingdoms for
a year with Pwyll. Annwn corresponds with Abyss or Chaos; the principle of destruction in Cymric
cosmogony. # 156: The name Arawn is used to translate Auguselus, the brother of Urien, in a Welsh version
of Geoffrey. THE TRIADS also makes mention of an Arawn, son of Kynvarch. In Welsh tradition Arawn
was the name of the king of Annwfn, but it may also have been the name of Urien's brother in Welsh legend
before Geoffrey wrote his HISTORIA. # 454: God of the Underworld, Annwn. He appears in PWYLL,
PRINCE OF DYFED as a huntsman, pursuing a white stag with a pack of red-eared hounds. He is
frequently challenged by other would-be claimants for his title, 'Pen Annwn' or Head of Annwn, two such
stories involve Hafgan and Amatheon. He gave pigs - originally underworld animals - to Pwyll in return for
having rid him of Hafgan. He seems to cede place, seasonally, to another in order to retain his position and
so is closely related to the other South Welsh God of the Underworld, Gwynn ap Nudd, who engages in a
similar seasonal contest. # 104 - 156 - 272 - 439 - 454 - 562

ARD GREIMNE

The father of the two woman warriors who taught CuChulain, Scathach and Aoife. His name means 'High
Power'. # 454

ARD MACHA ARMAGH

Emain Macha now represented by grassy ramparts of a hill-fortress close to Ard Macha. It enshrines the
memory of the Fairy Bride and her heroic sacrifice. # 562

ARD RIGH

(ard ree) (High King) Dermot MacKerval, of Ireland. # 562

ARDAN

An uncle of Arthur, mentioned in French romance. Brother of Naisi, who was the lover of Deirdriu. # 156 -
562

ARDCULLIN

CuChulain places withe round pillar-stone of Ardcullin. When the host of Maev came to Ardcullin, the
withe upon the pillar-stone was found and brought to Fergus to decipher it (it was cut in Ogham). There
was none amongst the host who could emulate the feat of CuChulain, and so they went into the wood and
encamped for the night. A heavy snowfall took place, and they were all in much distress, but next day the
sun rose gloriously, and over the white plain they marched away into Ulster, counting the prohibition as
extending only for one night. In the Irish bardic literature, as in the Homeric epics, chastity formed no part
of the masculine ideal either for gods or men. # 562

ARDEE

Ath Fherdia, which is pronounced and now spelt 'Ardee'. It is in Co. Louth, at the southern border of the
Plain of Murthemney, which was CuChulain's territory. The name of the little town of Ardee, as we have
seen, commemorates the tragic death of Ferdia at the hand of his 'heart companion,' the noblest hero of the
Gael. # 562

ARDERYDD

See: ARTHURET.

ARGANTE

# 156: The Queen of Avalon, an elf, to whom, according to Layamon, Arthur went after his last battle. It
has been suggested that she was a form of the British goddess Arianhrod.

# 454: The name is possibly a corruption of Morgan le Fay (i.e. Morgante)# 156 - 454 - 697

ARGISTES

When Merlin was a boy (according to Italian romance), he prophesied that this man would be hanged,
drowned and burned. Argistes set fire to Merlin's house. The fire spread to his own, so he rushed to the
well, but the chain entwined itself about his neck. As he was in the well, people threw in burning rafters.
Thus he died in the way Merlin had foretold. # 156 - 238

ARGUS

In Y SAINT GREAL, the Welsh version of the Grail story, another son of Elaine, the mother of Galahad. #
156 - 740

ARGUTH

An ancestor of Lot. # 156 - 344

ARIANRHOD

# 628: (aree AN rod) Arianrhod appears in Welsh Celtic mythology as one of the major characters. The key
to the nature of this goddess is that she is a weaver, in control of the interactions of human lives and of the
matter of creation itself. In Irish tradition we find that the goddess of the Land of Erin may manifest as a
weaver. # 562: Sister of Gwydion; proposed as virgin foot-holder to Math; Dylan and Llew sons of
Arianrhod. See also: ARGANTE.

# 454: Mistress of the otherworld tower of initiation. Caer Sidi, where poets learn starry wisdom and where
the dead go between incarnations. She appears in the story of MATH, SON OF MATHONWY as the
daughter of Don and sister of Gwydion. When Math loses his footholder, she applies for the post. This
involves a magical test of virginity by which she steps over Math's wand. On doing so, she gives birth to
two infants: Dylan, and the premature Llew, whom Gwydion scoops up, incubates and raises as his protégé.
- Having been so shamed before the whole court, Arianrhod lays a geise upon Llew: that he shall have no
name, no arms and no human wife. All three prohibitions are overcome with the help of Gwydion's magic.
The sub-text of the story and earlier references suggest that both her children were incestuously conceived
with Gwydion her brother, or by Math, her uncle. The Corona Borealis is named Caer Arianrhod in Welsh -
the self-same constellation which is associated with Ariadne, a Greek resonance of Arianrhod. # 272 - 439 -
454 - 562 - 628 p 84 ff

ARIES

# 156: In Malory, a cowherd who raised Tor, son of King Pellinore, whom he believed to be his own child.
In French romance, he was a king and the real father of Tor. # 454: He went on to become an excellent
knight of the Round Table. Aries is probably the only character in the entire Arthurian saga who was of
humble origin. # 156 - 243 - 454

ARISTOTLE

Aristotle knew that the Celts dwelt 'beyond Spain', that they had captured Rome, and that they set great
store by warlike power. # 562

ARMAGH

Invisible dwelling of Lir on Slieve Fuad in County. # 562

ARMENIA

According to FLORIANT ET FLORETE this country was ruled in King Arthur's time by King Turcans.
Actually, in this period Armenia was ruled by Persian representatives or by leaders who were in revolt
against Persia, such as Shapur of Ravy (AD 483-84) See PARMENIE. # 156

ARNIVE

In Wolfram, Arthur's mother who was rescued by Gawain from the clutches of Klingsor. # 156 - 748

ARON

One of the Twenty-four Knights of Arthur's Court. See also: ALEXANDER THE GREAT. # 104 - 156

ARONDIGHT

The sword of Lancelot. # 454

ARRIAN

Evidence of Celtic characteristics, regarding Arrian. If these ancient references to the Celts could be read
aloud, without mentioning the name of the race to whom they referred, to any person acquainted with it
through modern history alone, he would without hesitation, name the Celtic peoples as the subject of the
description which he had heard. # 562
ART

# 156: In the Irish romance entitled CAITHREIM CONGHAIL CLAIRINGNIGH (edited by P. M.


McSweeney and published by the Irish Texts Society), the son of Arthur. In other Irish material, this Art
was the son of King Conn of the Hundred Battles, a legendary character, perhaps a god in origin, who was
thought to have reigned in prehistoric times (also called Aoinfhear). # 454: The son of Conn Cetchathach.
He was banished from Ireland at the request of his step-mother, Becuma, but returned to reign in his father's
absence. Becuma desired him secretly, but challenged him to a game of fidchell (a chess-like game) in
which the stake was to be the wand of Cu Roi. Art won and forced Becuma to obtain this. He won the
second game and had to go on a perilous quest for Delbchaem, daughter of Coinchend. He overcame
giants, hags and the warrior-woman, Coinchend herself, to win Delbchaem. # 156 - 188 - 439 - 454

ART SON OF CONN, THE ADVENTURES OF

Art son of Conn of the Hundred Victories, referred in the ADVENTURES OF CONNLA THE FAIR, was
one of the early traditional kings of Ireland, his reign extending from AD 220 to 254. As a usual thing the
material regarding traditional kings is later in time of composition than the material of the Ulster cycle.
This story, however, although it appears in a late manuscript, has all the appearance of belonging to the
Old-Irish tradition. In this, as in several other stories dealing with the early kings, there is a rather strong
emphasis on the legal and governmental system of ancient Ireland. Superstitions regarding the kingship,
curious ideas about the influence of the moral and physical state of the monarch upon that of his people, the
custom of human sacrifice for the good of the country - all these make the material of this selection
especially interesting to the student of early Irish social history. Here, as in numerous other romantic tales
included in the above mentioned work, we encounter the motif of a visit to the fairy world, the Land of
Promise, the Land of Youth. Conn and Art are regarded as contemporaries of Finn mac Cumhal. # 166

ARTAIUS

A god in Celtic mythology who occupies the place of Gwydion. # 562

ARTEGALL

This personage occurs for the first time in Geoffrey where, as Artgualchar, he is described as an earl or
count of Guarensis (Warwick). Richard Grafton, in his Cronicle at Large (1569), says he was a Knight of
the Round Table and first Earl of Warwick. Spencer says he was the son of King Cador of Cornwall and
bore the arms of Achilles. Spencer further tells us that he married Britomart, the warrior maiden, daughter
of King Rience. # 156

ARTHUR

(arthir) Legendary King of Britain, the traditions and literary compositions about whom form the subject
matter of the following: 1. The name Arthur may be a form of Artorius (# 401), a Roman gens name, but it
is possibly of Celtic origin, coming from 'artos viros' (bear man) see Welsh 'arth gwyr'. Bruce also suggests
the possibility of a connection with Irish 'art' (stone) (# 178).

2. Life. Arthur is not mentioned by any contemporary and his historicity cannot be regarded as certain.
Milton (History of England) reckoned him a fiction, but Gibbon (Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire)
felt there might be substance behind the legend. Modern opinion tends to echo Gibbon. The earliest
mention of Arthur is in the GODODDIN (sixth century) of Aneirin, but it is possible that the line alluding
to Arthur may not have formed part of the original. Nennius (early ninth century) links Arthur's name with
a succession of battles but does not describe him as a king, saying that he came to the aid of various British
rulers.
An outline of the hero's life is given by Geoffrey of Monmouth (twelfth century) in his HISTORIA
REGUM BRITTANIAE. Just how much of this life was Geoffrey's invention and how much was culled
from traditional material is uncertain. He tells us that King Arthur was the son of Uther and defeated the
barbarians in a dozen battles. Subsequently, he conquered a wide empire and eventually went to war with
the Romans. He returned home on learning that his nephew Mordred had raised the standard of rebellion
and taken Guinevere, the queen. After landing, his final battle took place.

The saga built up over the centuries and Celtic traditions of Arthur reached the Continent via Brittany.
Malory (fifteenth century) produced a huge Arthuriad that many would regard as the standard 'history' of
Arthur. In this, we are told of Arthur's conception when Uther approached Igraine who was made, by
Merlin's sorcery, to resemble her husband. The child was given to Ector to be raised in secret. After Uther's
death there was no king ruling all England. Merlin had placed a sword in a stone, saying that whoever drew
it out would be king. Arthur did so and Merlin had him crowned. This led to a rebellion by eleven rulers
which Arthur put down. He married Guinevere whose father gave him the Round Table as a dowry; it
became the place where his knights sat, to avoid quarrels over precedence. A Magnificent reign followed,
Arthur's court becoming the focus for many heroes. In the war against the Romans, Arthur defeated the
Emperor Lucius and became emperor himself. However, his most illustrious knight, Lancelot, became
enamoured of Guinevere and an affair between them followed. (See LANCELOT). While Arthur was in
Brittany to fight Lancelot, he left his natural son, Mordred , in charge. (Mordred was also his nephew, the
result of an unwittingly incestuous affair between Arthur and his sister Morgause.

Arthur had been unaware of the incestuous nature of the intrigue because he was ignorant of his own
parentage.) Mordred rebelled and Arthur returned to quell him. This led to Arthur's last battle on Salisbury
Plain, where he slew Mordred but was himself gravely wounded. (In Welsh accounts, the site of this battle
is called Camlann.)

Arthur was then carried off in a barge, saying he was heading for the vale of Avilion (Avalon). Some said
he never died, but would one day return. However, his grave was supposedly discovered at Glastonbury in
the reign of Henry II (1154-89). One of the most mysterious aspects of Arthur's reign involves his
relationship with Morgan Le Fay. In Malory she is the sister but, when Geoffrey mentions her in the VITA
MERLINI, he seems to know nothing of the kinship, nor does he mention any enmity between them. This
seems to be a later development. It has been suggested that Arthur was originally her lover and only latterly
her brother, but such a suggestion is unsupported by evidence.

Whether Morgan is in origin identical with Arthur's sister (Anna in Geoffrey) cannot be decided with
certainty. In THE MISTS OF AVALON by Marion Zimmer Bradley, (1982), Morgan is the sister with
whom Arthur unknowingly commits incest - this is not implausible. Morgan's enmity towards Arthur is
generally taken to spring from the fact that Arthur's father, Uther, killed her father, Gorlois. The actual
status or title of Arthur is also uncertain. He is usually styled a king, sometimes an emperor and, in
Rosemary Sutcliffe's novel SWORD AT SUNSET (1963), he is represented as turning Britain into the last
vestige of the Western Roman Empire.It is certainly not impossible that he did so.

Nennius does not speak of him as a king but as Dux Bellorum (leader of wars), a title which suggests he
held a Roman-invented designation such as Dux Brittaniarum (leader or 'duke' of the Britons). Apart from
his title, the question of where Arthur functioned also arises. Various persons have favoured the view that
he was a leader in the north, in the south-west, in Wales or throughout Britain, but the truth of the matter is
that we cannot be certain. Nennius list of battles does not really help, as some or even all of them may not
have been originally associated with Arthur.

3.DATE. The date of Arthur's death is given by Geoffrey as AD 542. Malory places his life in the fifth
century. Geoffrey Ashe puts forward the argument that Arthur is, at least to some extent, to be identified
with the historical Celtic King Riothamus. If this is so, he would have flourished in the fifth century. It is
not impossible that the legendary Arthur is a composite of a number of persons so called, living at different
times.
4. SURVIVAL. Arthur's survival after death was believed in by many Britons who awaited his return. He
was thought to have journeyed to Avalon (a Celtic paradise) or to be lying asleep in a cave somewhere,
awaiting arousal. The finding of his possible grave at Glastonbury did not extinguish these beliefs.

5. ATTRACTION OF THE LEGEND OF ARTHUR. We must consider the allure of Arthur's saga and why
he is so widely known when compared with other national heroes, such as the Russian Ilya Muromets, the
Serbian Prince Marco, etc. To some extent the lines of transmission assisted the legend. It was originally
adopted from the Bretons by their neighbours, the Normans, who travelled far and wide and took it with
them. But another factor is the magical echoes of the legend that convey a sense of the mysterious, the
otherworldly, the intangible that is absent elsewhere and which renders them unique.

See: ACHEFLOUR, ACCOLON, AEGIDIUS, AENEAS, CADOC, FFYNNON CEGIN ARTHUR, GIANT
OF ST MICHAEL'S MOUNT, GREAT SPIRITS SPRING, GWYDDBWYLL, PARIS, SEVEN KINGS OF
CORNWALL, TY-NEWYDD STANDING STONES. # 30 - 156 - 178 - 401 - 562

ARTHUR KING, AND CONGHAL CLáIRINGHNEACH

The Arthurian and Celtic traditions are so inseparable that the editor gladly include some Arthurian material
in the Celtic Reader. Notable among this is 'King Arthur and Conghal Cláiringhneach' where we return to
the curiously different world of the Irish Arthurian tales. A very different picture of Arthur is to be found
herein than we are used to, but nearer, for all that, to the possible Celtic origin of the greatest of all heroes.
# 455 pp 255 and 268 ff

ARTHUR, THE LITTLE

In the PROSE TRISTAN he is an illegitimate son of Arthur whose mother had been raped by Arthur. He
supported Arthur against his Cornish and Saxon foes and went on the Grail Quest. # 156 - 712

ARTHUR'S BATTLES

Nennius gives us a series of battles in which Arthur led the British side. There is no certainty that any of the
battles were originally associated with Arthur. They are listed as follows: 1. At the mouth of the River
Glein. There are two English rivers called Glen, either of which might be the site (# 401). 2-5.The River
Douglas in Linnuis. 6. On the River Bassus (location unknown). 7. At Cat Coit Celidon in the north, the
region called Silva Caledoniae (Wood of Scotland) in Latin. 8. At Guinnion (location unknown). 9. At the
City of the Legions, identified as Chester (called Urbs Legionis in Latin). 10. At the River Tribuit (possibly
in Scotland). 11. At Mount Agned (K. H. Jackson suggests High Rochester for this). In one tenth-century
manuscript it is called Breguoin, but there may be confusion here with a victory ascribed elsewhere to
Urien of Rheged. 12. Badon. # 26 - 156 - 401

ARTHUR'S BOSOM

The name sometimes given to the Otherworld in which heroes were summoned to rest after their labours. It
recalled Arthur's sojourn in Avalon. # 454

ARTHUR'S CAVE

A cave on Anglesey where Arthur was thought to have taken shelter during his strife with the Irish. His
treasure may have been hidden in a cromlech, surrounded by stones, which once stood there. The treasure
was said to be guarded by supernatural creatures. # 156

ARTHUR'S INSIGNIA
Nennius tells us that, at the battle of Guinnion, Arthur had an image of the Virgin Mary on his shoulders.
The ANNALES CAMBRIAE claim that Arthur carried the cross on his shoulders at Badon. At Stow in
Scotland the Church of St Mary at Wedale once had what were believed to be fragments of the image of the
Virgin Mary that Arthur wore. # 156 - 483 - 494

ARTHUR'S O'ON

A Roman temple (second century AD) near Falkirk, Scotland. It was pulled down in 1743, but the dovecote
at Oenicuick House, close at hand, was build as a replica of it. N. L. Goodrich (# 255) argues that the
temple was used by Arthur and was the original of the Round Table. Interestingly, a suburb of Falkirk is
called Camelon. # 156 - 255

ARTHUR'S OVEN

Some French priests were shown this in 1113. While it cannot be identified with certainty, it undoubtedly
lay west of Exeter. King's Oven on Dartmoor has been suggested as its site. # 156

ARTHUR'S STONE

1. A stone in Gower, Wales. It is said that, on his way to his final battle, Arthur removed this stone from
inside his shoe and flung it into the distance. The stone landed at Cefn-y-Bryn.

2. A stone at Dorstone (Herefordshire) from which Arthur was said to have drawn Excalibur. There is a
confusion here; Excalibur was not the original sword in the stone. It is also said that Arthur is buried
beneath the stone. # 156

ARTHUR'S TOR

A Country Durham earthwork, said to contain treasures guarded by the ghosts of Arthurian warriors. # 156
- 753

ARTHUR'S WAIN

A constellation of the Plough. # 454

ARTHUR, THE HISTORICAL KING

From KING ARTHUR - THE TRUE STORY, M. Keatman and G. Phillips tells us: 'Having traced the life
and times of the real King Arthur, we close in on the historical figure himself, piecing together the evidence
to reveal the flesh and blood warrior behind the legend.

1. The most likely date for Arthur's death coincides precisely with the abandonment of Viroconium about
520. This is the generally accepted date for Cuneglasus becoming king of Powys, and Maglocunus
becoming king of Gwynedd, a time when the two kingdoms split apart. Since Viroconium was under no
threat from the Saxons for decades to come, the only explanation for the abandonment of the city for a
more defendable site is a threat from the adjoining kingdom of Gwynedd.In other words, Cuneglasus was
preparing to defend himself against the threat from Maglocunus. Internal feuding breaking out at this time
is not only evidence for Arthur's demise, but also suggests that Cuneglasus and Maglocunus were his rival
successors.
2.Arthur appears to have been the son of the Head Dragon, the leader of the Votadini in the 480s and king
of both Gwynedd and Powys. The Head Dragon seems to have been Cunedda's son, Enniaun Girt, who
according to the genealogies is the grandfather of Maglocunus and Cuneglasus, both of whom became
kings in their own right. If Enniaun Girt was Arthur's father, then Arthur must have been the father of either
Maglocunus or Cuneglasus.

3. Since Maglocunus was by far the most powerful of the two kings, then perhaps Arthur was Maglocunus'
father, named in the genealogies as Cadwallon Lawhir. However, on reading Gildas we discover that
Maglocunus did not succeed from his father, but from his uncle. From the genealogies we discover that his
uncle was Cuneglasus' father.

4. The name of this Dark Age warlord survives in a list of genealogies, compiled around 955 from earlier
monastic records and now attached to the ANNALES CAMBRIAE in a manuscript indexed 'Harley 3859'
in the British Library. The genealogy reveals that Cuneglasus' father was called Owain Ddantgwyn.

5.All the available evidence indicates that Owain Ddantgwyn was the historical figure who assumed the
title Arthur. He ruled in the same place and at the same time as the research has located King Arthur. He
ruled Gwynedd and Powys simultaneously, and was thus the most powerful ruler in Britain at the time of
the battle of Badon, in which Arthur led the British to their most important victory of the era. Arthur almost
certainly means the Bear and Owain Ddantgwyn was the father of Cuneglasus, whom Gildas refers to as
the 'charioteer of the Bear's stronghold'.

6. According to Geoffrey of Monmouth, Arthur was mortally wounded at the battle of Camlan while
attempting to quash a revolt led by his nephew. Although this nephew is called Modred, the legend may
have sprung from the real-life Maglocunus who, according to Gildas, aquired his kingdom by overthrowing
his uncle. Since Gwynedd and Powys formed a united kingdom prior to the succession of Maglocunus in
Gwynedd, the border land between the two kingdoms is the logical site for a battle in which Maglocunus
severed his kingdom of Gwynedd from the kingdom of Powys.

7. A bleak and remote valley about five miles to the east of Dolgellau in Central-West Wales is actually
called Camlan. It is surely beyond coincidence that the only location in Great Britain ever known to have
been called Camlan is and strategically situated in the border area of the kingdoms of Gwynedd and Powys
as they existed in the early sixth century. Not only is Camlan the name given to Arthur's last battle by
Geoffrey of Monmouth, but the ANNALES CAMBRIAE also record Arthur's death at the battle of
Camlann. # 524

ARTHURET

(In Welsh: Arderydd) The scene of a battle fought about the year AD 575 in which Rhydderch Hael
defeated Gwenddolau. Merlin is said to have taken part in the battle - traditions vary as to the side he was
on - and to have lost his sanity because of a vision he saw in the sky there. # 156 - 242

ARTHURIAN SAGA

For the majority of modern readers who have not made any special study of the subject, the mention of
early British legend will inevitably call up the glories of the Arthurian Saga - they will think of the fabled
palace at Caerleon-on-Usk, the Knights of the Round Table riding forth on chivalrous adventure, the Quest
of the Grail, the guilty love of Lancelot, flower of knighthood, for the queen, the last great battle by the
northern sea, the voyage of Arthur, sorely wounded, but immortal, to the mystic valley of Avalon. But as a
matter of fact they will find in the native literature of medieval Wales little or nothing of all this - no Round
Table, no Lancelot, no Grail-Quest, no Isle of Avalon, until the Welsh learned about them from abroad; and
though there was indeed an Arthur in this literature, he is a wholly different being from the Arthur of what
we now call the Arthurian Saga. # 562
'Historia Regum Britaniæ.' Arthurian Saga in Brittany.

# 156: A territory which, in the Arthurian period, was largely inhabited by an immigrant population from
Britain. In Geoffrey, the Breton royal family was closely related to the British. He tells us that the Breton
kingdom was founded when the Roman emperor Maximianus (properly called Maximus, reigned AD 383-
88) bestowed the crown on Conan Meriadoc, a nephew of Octavius, elsewhere called Eudaf, King of
Britain. When the British wanted a king, Conan's successor, Aldroenus, gave them Constantine, his brother.
Constantine was Arthur's grandfather. In the Arthurian legend, King Hoel of Brittany was said to be
Arthur's relation and ally. Traditionally, this Hoel reigned from about AD 510-45. See also: SOLOMON. #
156 - 562

ARTHURS, SUCCESSION OF

B. Le Poer Trench in his book, MEN AMONG MANKIND (1962), argues that there was a series of
Arthur's hereditary priests of the Great Goddess, and that the last was identical with Arviragus. He accepts
the identification of Arthur with Arviragus which J. Whitehead (# 726) proposed. # 156 - 726

ARVIRAGUS

# 156: A personage who became known to history because of an obscure refer-ence by the Roman writer
Juvenal, made between the years AD 80 and 90, in which Arviragus appears as a British opponent of the
Romans. Geoffrey makes him a king of Britain who succeded his brother Guiderius who had been killed in
Claudius's invasion of Britain (AD 43). Peace was established between Claudius and Arviragus, the latter
marrying Claudius's daughter, Genvissa. Later, Arviragus revolted, but peace was restored through
Genvissa's good offices. Elsewhere Arviragus was thought to have given Joseph of Arimathea the famous
twelve hides of land in the Glastonbury locality. G. Ashe thinks Arviragus may have been a local prince in
the Somerset area who maintained his independence after the Claudian conquest. I. H. Elder identifies him
with Caratacus, while E. Ratcliffe and J. Whitehead all argue that Arviragus, Caratacus and Arthur were
different names for the same person. See: ARTHURS, SUCCESSION OF, and MARINS. # 24 - 156 - 243 -
542 - 726

ASAL

King of the Golden Pillar. # 562

ASCALUN

(Iis-cae-lön).

ASH

A substitute for Rowan as a protection against fairies. Odd and even ash keys (seed-pods) were often used
in divination. # 100

ASPEN

Aspen was the letter E, (eadha), in the druid's tree alphabet. # 701 p 461

ASSURNE

A River. See: SURLUSE. # 156


ASSYSLA

In the BRETA SOGUR (the Scandinavian version of Geoffrey of Monmouth's works), an island on which
Arthur died. # 156

ASTOLAT

Dwelling place of Elaine the White who died of love for Lancelot. The name may come from Alclud, the
old name for Dumbarton, through an intermediary Asclut. In Malory it is Guildford (Surrey). See:
SHALOTT. # 156 - 418

ASURA-MASDA

Persian deity. From the root as (meaning to be) formed the Persian Asura-Masda (l'Esprit-Sage). # 562

ATH

(ah) A ford. # 166

ATH CLIATH

See: BAILE ATHA CLIATH.

ATH CLIATH CUALANN

(DUBLIN) See: PLACE NAME STORIES.

ATH LUAIN

(àh loo'in) Now Athlone on the Shannon. # 166

ATHACH

(a-huch) This, which means 'monster' or 'giant', is a general term for those most unpleasant creatures which
haunted lonely lochans or gorges in the Highlands, such as Luideac, the Rag, a female demon who haunted
Lochan Nan Dubh Bhreac in Skye and slew what men she could catch; or the Bocan, which can assume a
variety of monstrous shapes; or the Direach of Glen Etive, with one hand out of his chest, one leg out of his
haunch and one eye out of the front of his forehead, almost identical with the Fachan. # 100

ATHNURCHAR ARDNURCHAR

(ath-nur'char) The Ford of the Sling-cast. The river-ford where Ket slings Conall's "brain-ball" at Conor
mac Nessa. # 562

ATHRWYS

In the shady area of early Welsh history, he may have been King of Gwent when his father, Meurig, was
King of Glenvissig. He is identified by Blackett and Wilson (# 72 - 73) with the Arthur of legend, but he
probably lived in the seventh century. # 72 - 73 - 156
ATLANTIS

# 156: In the writings of Plato, the name of an island which sank beneath the Atlantic Ocean. Some have
argued that Plato was recounting a genu-ine legend, while a different body of opinion has contended that
the story is a moral fable.

According to Gareth Knight some occultist maintain that Merlin originally came from Atlantis. The same is
said of Igraine. # 454: Legendary continent of great magical power, said to have existed in the Atlantic
Ocean, and to have been inundated by water because of the corrupt practices of its priesthood. - The
mythology of Britain is shot through with traces of this legend. Inundations and incursions by the sea occur
frequently along the western sea-bord of the British Isles, while the Breton legend of the legendary city of
Ys is a reflection of this legend. Atlantis represents a primal or otherworld tradition which fell through
misuse of power. Legend and esoteric tradition state that survivors of Atlantis colonized parts of Britain,
becoming the nucleous of its priesthood.

See also: PREHISTORIC BRITAIN, THE RIDDLE OF. # 156 - 374 - 445 - 454 - 608

ATLAS MOUNTAINS

The high mountains of northwest Africa are called the Atlas Mountains, a name that has not been
transposed to Greece. There has in the past been considerable speculation as to why a 'Greek' god should
give his name to a region so far away from Greece, but it is perfectly understandable now that archeological
research has proved that 3,000 years ago Celtic peoples were living not only in the south of Spain, but also
in the north of Morocco. This explains why the mountains on either side of the Strait of Gibraltar are called
the Pillars of Hercules - they were named after the god that was particularly revered in this region - and
confirms, if further confirmation were necessary, that the Greek gods were Celtic. Although the name of the
Atlas Mountains was not transposed to Greece, the Homeric names of other Iberian mountains were.
Examples are Espartero/Sparta, Mount Ossa, east of Lisbon, which gave its name to the Ossa Mountains in
northern Greece and, probably, the Sierra Bermeja in Spain, which has become Mount Parnassus in Greece.
# 730

AUDRIEN

See: ALDROENUS.

AUGHISKY

(agh-iski) The water-horse. This is the same as the Highland EACH UISGE. Yeats, in IRISH FAIRY AND
FOLK TALES (#364), tells us that the aughiska were once common and used to come out of the water -
particular it seems, in November - and gallop along the sands or over the fields, and if people could get
them away from the fields and saddle and bridle them, they would make the finest horses. But they must be
ridden inland, for if they got so much as a glimpse of salt water they would gallop headlong away, carrying
their riders with them, bear them deep into the sea and there devour them. It was said also that the untamed
aughiska used to devour mortal cattle. # 100 - 364

AUGUSELUS

In Geoffrey, he is designated the King of Scotland. He was Urien's brother, possibly called Arawn in Welsh
tradition. He supported Arthur in his Roman campaign but, on his return, fell by the hand of Mordred. See
ANGUISH.# 156 - 243

AURELIUS AMBROSIUS
See: AMBROSIUS AURELIUS.

AURELIUS CONAN

According to Geoffrey, the king who ruled Britain after Constantine, Arthur's successor. Gildas, a
contemporary, makes Aurelius Conan and Constantine local kings, calling him Ayrelius Caninus and saying
that he enjoyed war and plunder. # 156 - 243

AUSTRIA

Discovery of pre-Roman necropolis in Austria, where relics developed in La Tène culture were found. #
562

AVAGDDU

(avagdhoo) Son of Tegid Voel and Ceridwen; he was the most illfavoured man in the world. To compensate
for his lack of beauty, Ceridwen began to boil a 'cauldron of inspiration and science for her son, that his
reception might be honourable because of his knowledge of the mysteries of the future state of the world.'
She put Gwion Bach to stir the cauldron. But one day towards the end of the year three drops of the magic
liquor flew out of the cauldron and lighted on the finger of Gwion, who put his finger in his mouth, and
immediately became gifted with supernatural insight. He saw that he had got what was intended for
Avagddu, and he saw also that Ceridwen would destroy him for it if she could. So he fled to his own land,
and the cauldron, deprived of the sacred drops, now contained nothing but poison, the power of which burst
the vessel, and the liquor ran into a stream hard by and poisoned the horses of Gwyddno Garanhir which
drank of the water. Whence the stream is called the Poison of the Horses of Gwyddno from that time forth.
# 562

AVALLOC

# 156: William of Malmesbury maintains that Avalloc lived in Avalon with his daughters. Avalloc is also
found in Welsh pedigrees in which he is the father of the goddess Modron; he was evidently a god himself
in origin. He is found in Arthurian romance as Evelake. # 454: Avallach - Afallach. The father of Modron.
King of the otherworldly kingdom of Avalon. # 104 - 156 - 439 - 454

AVALON

# 562: Land of the Dead; bears relation with Norse Valhall; it is later identified with Glastonbury. # 156:
The Island to which Arthur was taken after his last battle to be healed of his wound. Geoffrey calls it Avallo
in the HISTORIA and insula pomorum (island of the apples) in the VITA MERLINI. It is often seen as
having a connection with apples because of the similarity of its name to various Celtic words deno-ting that
fruit: Old Irish ABALL, Middle Welsh Afall, Middle Breton Avallenn, Celtic Avallo. It has also been
connected with Avalloc, evidently originally a god who, according to William of Malmesbury, lived there
with his daughters. The present form of the name may have been influenced by the Burgundian place name
Avallon. One school of thought suggests that it comes from Irish Oileán (island). It was perhaps originally
a Celtic paradise. It was said to produce crops without cultivation, to be ruled by Guingamuer, Morgan's
lover, or by a king named Bangon. In PERLESVAUS, Guinevere and Loholt died before Arthur and were
buried there. Avalon was then identified with Glastonbury, probably because Arthur's grave was supposedly
found at Glastonbury in the reign of Henry II and, as tradition had had him borne away to Avalon, the two
were considered the same. However, because of the first syllable in Glastonbury's name, some may have
thought it identical with Caer Wydyr, the Fort of Glass, another name for Annwfn.
Another tradition claims that a man named Gkast or Glasteing found his eight-footed pigs here under an
apple tree, and called it Insula Avalloniae. Not all tales suggested that Avalon was identical with
Glastonbury. According to OGIER LR DANOIS (a medieval French romance with some Arthurian
content), it lay near the Earthly Paradise. In the Spanish medieval poem LA FAULA it seems to be
considered an oriental isle, for the narrator tells how he was carried to the East on the back of a whale and
arrived at an island where Arthur and Morgan were still alive. That Avalon seems to have had a connection
with the pagan Celtic religion is supported by the fact that, in the VITA MERLINI, Morgan is described as
the chief of nine sisters living on the island, just like the nine Celtic priestesses able to turn into animals,
heal the incurable and prophesy the future, who lived on the Gaulish isle of Sena, according to the Roman
writer Pomponius Mela. It is also noteworthy that, in Irish mythology, the name of the island over the seas
belonging to the sea-god Manannan was Emhain Abhlach. # 24 - 63 - 112 - 156 - 242 - 558 - 562

AVENABLE

Features in a legend of Merlin as a girl who disguised herself as a squire and became the senechal of the
Emperor of Rome calling herself Grisandole q.v. One day the Emperor had a dream in which he saw a sow
with a crown on its head. He was told that only a wild man living in the woods nearby could explain the
meaning of the dream. Grisandole found the wild man, who also took the shape of a stag, and this was
Merlin. He explained that the sow with tha crown was the Empress, and that her twelve squires were in fact
youths. She was summarily burned at the stake and Grisandole, revealed as a young woman, then married
the Emperor! # 454 - 481

AVILION

An alternative name for Avalon, used by Malory and in modern times by Tennyson, who calls it 'the island-
valley of Avilion'. The idea that it was a valley is found in both Malory and Ralph Higden's
POLYCHRONICON (fourteenth century). # 156

AVON DIA

Duel between CuChulain and Ferdia causes waters of Avon Dia to hold back. # 562

AWEN

The power and knowledge from the Good-God Dagda, given as a breath through a dying Phantarch as a
kiss to the one he, or in fact the Dagda has chosen as successor as Chief Bard of the Druids. The awen is
the breath of the Dagda which guides and instructs, and which sets a bard apart from other men. # 383 p
250 ff
BROCELIANDE

A forest BABYLON. See: THOLOMER.

BACH BYCHAN

The page of Tristan in the Welsh romance TRYSTAN. His name means 'little small one'. # 156

BADB BADHBH

(bôv baib) # 454: Crow - an aspect of the Morrighan. She confronted CuChulain on his way to the last
battle as a Washer of the Ford. She likewise appeared as a harbinger of death to King Cormac. # 166: A
supernatural woman or demon who frequented places of battle; regarded by some as a 'battle goddess'. #
100: The Celtic goddess of war, who, according to Evans Wentz in THE FAIRY-FAITH IN CELTIC
COUNTRIES, incorporated the three goddesses NEMAN, MACHA and MORRIGU in a single form, that
of a Royston or hoodie crow. The mythology has declined into folklore, and a crow perching on a house is
often the form taken by the BANSHEE or 'fairy woman'. The narrative of the battle of Moytura (q.v.) in
THE BOOK OF LEINSTER gives one of the most vivid descriptions of the activities of Badb and her
attendant spirits. # 100 - 166 - 367 - 454 - 548 - 711

BADGER

# 454: Famed for its tenacity and courage, the badger has entered folklore as the most unyelding animal;
significantly, badgerhead sporrans keep a Highlander's loose change safe. The story of Gwawl and
Rhiannon shows how an ancient game 'Badger in the Bag' was supposed to have originated, but traces of
this custom, called 'Beat the Badger' in Fife, show how it may have been a form of ancient ordeal, a
running the gauntlet, where the player ran between a double line of boys wielding sticks. # 225 - 439 - 454

BADON

# 156: A battle in which Arthur was said to have totally defeated the Saxons. Gildas is the first to refer to it,
but he does not mention Arthur by name. The date of the encounter is uncertain, but it is generally placed
between AD 490 and 516 sometimes more specifically about AD 500. In DE EXCIDIO, Gildas is
ambiguous: his statement could be variously interpreted as meaning that the battle occurred in the year he
was born, forty-four years before he wrote, forty-four years after the coming of the Saxons or forty-four
years after the resurgence of the Britons under Ambrosius. As regards the first of these possibilities, it is
worth noting that T. D. O'Sullivan in a recent study opines that Gildas wrote DE EXCIDIO as a young man.
Although Gildas does not name the British commander, both Nennius and the ANNALES CAMBRIAE
identify him as Arthur. So does Geoffrey, who regards Badon as identical with Bath. A recent linguistic
argument, against this identification, by N. L. Goodrich betrays insufficient knowledge of the Welsh
language. Other locational suggestions have been variously Liddington Castle near Swindon and Badbury
Rings (Dorset). The Battle is described as a siege, though it is not clear who was beleageured by whom.
See: GREENAN CASTLE. # 26 - 156 - 243 - 255 - 494

BAGDEMAGUS

# 156: King of Gore, a Knight of the Round Table and a cousin of Arthur. He seems to have been a benign
character, but he took umbrage when Tor was made a Knight of the Round Table before him. His son was
Meleagaunce and, when this character carried off Guinevere, Bagdemagus prevented him from raping her.
At the time of the Grail Quest he took a special shield with a red cross on it, intented for Galahad, and for
his pains he was wounded by a white knight. Killed by Gawain. # 156 - 418 - 604

BAGPIPE

It is a very ancient instrument-as old as ancient Persia- which was introduced into the British Isles by the
Romans. While it is considered to be the national instrument of Scotland, historically it is hardly more
Scottish than Irish. Each bagpipe consists of five pipes: the intake pipe, through which the player's breath
enters the bag; the pipe on which the performer plays the melody; and three drone pipes, to provide a bass
background. # 118 p 17

BAILE ATHA CLIATH

(bal'ye á'ha clé'ah) 'Place of the Ford of the Hurdles'. Now Dublin. # 166

BALAN

# 156: The younger brother of Balin. After killing a certain knight, he had to assume a guardian's rôle,
fighting all comers in place of the knight he had slain. In this capacity he fought with Balin, neither
recognizing the other. Each received a fatal wound. # 156 - 418

BALDULF

# 156: Brother of Colgrin, the Saxon leader. He was on his way to help his brother during the siege of York
when his force was attacked by Cador and defeated. After this, he sneaked into York disguised as a
minstrel. He was eventually slain at Badon. # 156 - 243

BALDWIN

See: BEDWIN.

BALIN

# 156: A famous knight, who was born in Northumberland. He had incurred Arthur's displeasure by killing
a Lady of the Lake. However, he and his brother Balan captured Rience and became supporters of Arthur.
When Pellam tried to kill him for slaying his brother Garlon, Balin struck Pellam with the Lance of
Longinus. This was the Dolorous Stroke. Balin was also known as the Knight of the Two Swords. He and
his brother unwittingly killed each other. Balin's name may be a variant of Brulen/Varlan who, elsewhere
and long before Arthur's time, was thought to have struck the Dolorous Stroke. See: COLOMBE. # 156 -
418

BALKANS

Earliest home of mountain Celts was ranges of Balkans. # 562

BALOR

# 562: (bá'lor) Son of Net. Ancestor of Lugh; Bres sent to seek aid of Balor; informed that Danaans refuse
tribute; Fomorian champion, engages Nuada of the Silver Hand, and slain by Lugh; one of the names of the
god of Death; included in Finn's ancestry. # 156: A one-eyed giant in Irish mythology who seems to be
related to Yspadadden in CULHWCH. # 454: King of the Fomorians. It was prophesied that his grandson
would kill him and so he kept his daughter secluded on an island. But Cian mac Cainte was able to visit the
island where he slept with Ethniu, Balor's daughter. Of their union Lugh was born. Balor was one-eyed
because he had spied on some druids who were preparing a draught of wisdom. Some splashed out and hit
him in the eye thus making the glance of this eye baleful to any he looked upon. He kept that eye-lid closed
and had four attendants to raise it when he wanted to kill his enemies. At the second Battle of Mag Tuired,
Lugh put out this eye with a sling-stone and killed him. Traces of Balor occur in many extant folk-stories of
the British Isles. Parallels between him and Yspaddaden are so striking that it is clear they are analogous
with each other. # 156 - 157 - 166 - 326 - 454 - 562

BAN

# 156: King of Gomeret or Benwick. He supported Arthur in the battle with the rebel leaders at the outset of
Arthur's reign. His realm was on the Continent and, in return for his assistance, Arthur was to aid him
against his foe, King Claudas. When Claudas destroyed Ban's castle at Trebes, he died of a broken heart.
Ban's wife is usually called Elaine but, in the French medieval romance 'Roman des fils du roi Constant,'
she is named Sabe. In that romance, he has a daughter called Liban. His son Lancelot became Arthur's chief
knight. Ban also had an illegitimate son, called Ector de Maris, whose mother was the wife of Agravadan.
Ban's sword was called Courechouse. He was the brother of King Bors of Gaul. It has been suggested that
he was, in origin, the god Bran and that the name Ban de Benoic (Ban of Benwick) was a corruption of
Bran le Benoit (Bran the Blessed; see the MABINOGION, where Bran is called Bendigeidfran, Bran the
Blessed). Ban's name has also been connected with Irish BáN (white). # 156 - 418 - 496

BANBA

# 562: Wife of Danaan king, MacCuill. # 454: According to a lost early manuscript, she was the first settler
in Ireland which was called 'the island of Banba of the women' - which perhaps is associated with TIR NA
MBAN. She was one of the three goddesses of Sovereignty to whom Amergin promised the honour of
naming the island after her. Thus Banba is a poetic name for Ireland. # 166 - 454 - 469 - 562

BANFáITH

Ancient Celtic word for prophetess. A Banfáith was exalted among her kind. Like bards they could sing and
play the harp, and like bards they were able counsellors. But they also possessed an older, more mysterious
power: the ability to search the woven pathways of the future to see what will be and to speak to the people
in the voice of the DAGDA. # 383 p 200

BANFILIDH

A female Filidh, or harper. # 383 p 202

BANN, THE RIVER

Visited by Mac Cecht in his frantic search for water. But the Fairy Folk, who are here manifestly elemental
powers controlling the forces of nature, have sealed all the sources against him. He tries the Well of Kesair
in Wicklow in vain; he goes to the great rivers, Shannon and Slayney, Bann and Barrow - but they all hide
away at his approach. # 562

BANSHEE

# 701: From Gaelic BEAN-SIDHE, 'woman of the fairy-mounds,' the Banshee was another form of the
Goddess-voice, for she was heard, but rarely seen. Irish folklore said the voice of the Banshee was
sometimes a terrifying shriek or ghastly wail that would cause any hearer to drop dead at once; or, at other
times, it was a soft, comforting voice adressed to those whom the Goddess loved 'a welcome rather than a
warning' of the coming passage into the realm of death. # 100: Her name may be more correctly written
BEAN SI, who wails only for members of the old families. When several keen together, it foretells the
death of someone very great or holy. The Banshee has long streaming hair and a grey cloak over a green
dress. Her eyes are fiery red with continual weeping. In the Scottish Highlands the Banshee is called
BEAN-NIGHE or 'Little-Washer-by-the-Ford', and she washes the grave-clothes of those about to die. The
Highland Banshee, like the other fairies, has some physical defects. She has only one nostril, a large
protruding front tooth and long hanging breasts. A mortal who is bold enough to creep up to her as she is
washing and lamenting and suck her long breast can claim to be her foster-child and gain a wish from her.
Since the word 'banshee' means 'fairy woman', the beliefs about her are various, and occasionally the
Glaistig is spoken of as a banshee, though she has nothing to do with the Bean-Nighe. # 100 - 701 p 235

BAOBHAN SITH

(baavan shee) This Highland word is the same as BANSHEE, and means 'fairy woman', but is generally
employed to mean a kind of succubus, very dangerous and evil. See: BANSHEE. # 100

BARATON

The name of the King of Russia in Arthurian romance. # 156

BARBAROSSA, KAISER

Tradition has that Finn lies in some enchanted cove spellbound, like Barbarossa. # 562

Bard

A poet, storyteller, singer. Bards were initiates in different degrees. From Penderwydd - that is the Head
Druid, or Chief Bard - on to the Brehon, and further down to the Mabinog, which is a pupil or apprentice.
There are many more kinds of specialized bards, like the Gwyddon who is an expert on anything to do with
land or cattle, and many times have skills as a physician.

The Bards of ancient Britain always maintained that their language emanated from an otherworldly source,
and from where also the modern Gaelic have its roots. The tutor syllable in modern language has to be swift
for tongue-knotting syllable, and vowel for elusive vowel. - Under an intensive and imaginative instruction,
the speech of ancient Britain was a valued currency, and no words rendered meaningless through overuse or
cheapened through bureaucratic doublespeak. It was a language alive with meaning: poetic, imaginative,
bursting with rhytm and sound, they spoke to the soul.

On the lips of a bard, a story became an astonishing revelation, a song became a marvel of almost
paralyzing beauty. - As mentioned above the degrees of bardship were elaborate and formal, their roles well
defined through eons, apparently, of unaltered tradition. The candidate progressed from Mabinog - which
had two distinct subdivisions, Cawganog and Cupanog and proceeded up through the various degrees:
Filidh, Brehon, Gwyddon, Derwydd, and finally Penderwydd, sometimes called the Chief of Song. There
was also a Penderwydd over the whole, the Chief of Chiefs, so to speak. He was called the Phantarch, and
was chosen by acclamation of his peers to rule over the bardship of old Albion. The lore said, that in some
obscure way, the Island of the Mighty was protected by the Phantarch as if he was standing underneath the
realm, supporting it on his shoulders. # 62 - # 383 pp 170-8

BARDDAS
# 628: One of the most curious and difficult documents is a chapter from BARDDAS by Edward Williams,
better known as Iolo Morgannwg. The work of this brilliant eighteenth-century antiquarian has probably
given rise to more argument and discussion on the question of the authenticity of the bardic tradition than
any other writer of any age. Iolo's brilliance is beyond question. The problem is that we no longer know
how much he translated and how much he made up on the spur of the moment, having reached a point
where he could no longer fill out the gaps in his knowledge by any other means. Most of the material
reprinted in 'A Celtic Reader' is clearly a forgery; yet for all that it is fascinating as an example of the way a
tradition can be extended in such a way that it complements rather than contradicts the original material.
Thus it is with the BARDIC TRIADS much in the spirit of the originals.

# 562: Compilation enshrining Druidic thought, although Christian persons and episodes figure in the
BARDDAS. At any rate, BARDDAS is a work of considerable philosophic interest, and even if it
represents nothing but a certain current of Cymric thought in the sixteenth century it is not unworthy of
attention by the student of things Celtic. Purely Druidic it does not even profess to be, for Christian
personages and episodes from Christian history figure largely in it. But we come occasionally upon a strain
of thought which, whatever else it may be, is certainly not Christian, and speaks of an independent
philosophic system. # 562 - 628 Iolo Morgannwg (ed.) Barddas pp 177, 241 ff

BARDIC

The popular conception of the Danaan deities was probably at all times something different from the bardic
and druidic, or in other words the scholarly, conception. The latter represents them as presiding deities of
science and poetry, which is the product of the Celtic, the Aryan imagination, inspired by a strictly
intellectual conception. # 562

BARINTHUS

Called the 'Navigator' he guided Merlin and Taliesin on their voyage to the otherworld island with the
wounded Arthur. He epitomizes the ferryman of the dead and may be drawn from the mythos of Manannan.
He is also, in the form of St Barrind, responsible for starting Saint Brendan on his voyage to the paradise of
the Blest. See:FORTUNATE ISLANDS. # 399 - 416 - 454 - 507

BARROW, THE RIVER

Visited by Mac Cecht. See: BANN, THE RIVER. # 562

BARUCH BARUC

# 562: A lord of the Red Branch; meets Naisi and Deirdre on landing in Ireland; persuades Fergus to feast at
his house; # 454: The Red Branch warrior who met Deirdre and Naosi on their return from Scotland. He
persuaded Fergus to leave his guarding of the runaway couple in order to feast with himself. Fergus, one of
whose geise included the inability not to respond to any hospitality offered to him, complied, thus leaving
the doomed couple to their fate. # 156: The Caliph of Baghdad, with whom Gahmuret took service in
Wolfram's PARZIFAL. In actual fact, the potentate denoted was the Caliph of Baghdad, head of Islam in
the Middle Ages, an anachronism since the Arthurian period predated Mohammed. The title Baruc seems to
come from the Hebrew personal name Baruch. In the LIVRE D'ARTUS, Baruc is the name of a knight. #
156 - 454 - 562 - 748

BASSUS, THE RIVER.

The site of one of Arthur's battles was the River Bassus (# 494). It has not been identified. # 156 - 494
BATRADZ

See: SARMATIANS.

BATTLE OF CNUCHA, THE CAUSE OF THE

The parentage of Finn and the beginning of the hereditary feud between him and Goll mac Morna are
related in this story. The battle is supposed to have taken place toward the end of the second century of the
Christian era. The date of composition is at least as early as the eleventh century, and may be considerably
earlier, for the short, dry succession of factual statements is a trait which is distintcly reminiscent of the
earlier style. # 166

BATTLE OF MOYTURA, THE

The full title of THE BATTLE OF MOYTURA in the original Irish is CATH MAIGE TUREDH AN
SCEL-SA SIS & GENEMAIN BRES MEIC ELATHAN & A RIGHE which translates as THIS TALE
BELOW IS THE BATTLE OF MAIGE TUIRED AND THE BIRTH OF BRES SON OF ELATHA AND
HIS REIGN. Note the triple aspect of this full title: a battle, a birth, and a king's reign. There are only two
complete original manuscript copies extant today. The older is from the first half of the sixteenth century
and was committed to writing by the scribe Gilla Riabhach O'Cleirigh, Son of Tuathal, Son of Tadhg Cam
O'Cleirigh, and is in the Old Irish language. The second manuscript was written between 1651 and 1652 by
David Duigenan, and is in Middle Irish. Both, however, are believed to have come from a text which was
known in the ninth century, and which in turn was based on oral traditions of immeasurable antiquity. Its
very longevity speaks volumes. Because these old Celtic Pagan legends were written down many centuries
after their original oral telling, and because the people who wrote them down were Christian monks, it is
often taken as fact that the versions we have inherited today must be corrupted or altered, perhaps even
deliberately, and therefore probably bear little resemblance to their original form. On the surface this
argument appears plausible and quite likely but, on closer thought and examination, it soon becomes
apparent that it is an error to assume this automatically.

It has often been argued that the original oral tellings must have gradually changed and been altered and
embellished by each individual story-teller over the many long years these tales were told, the result being
that it is no longer possible today to say that any one version is the true and original one. This, however,
assumes that the original story-tellers were incapable of remembering the full story verbatim as they had
heard it, or that they wilfully changed the content of the tale for the reasons of their own. It is highly
unlikely that either of these suppositions are correct. The main fault with this argument is that it is based on
our modern inability to remember long spoken passages, and, secondly, upon our equally modern desire to
express ourselves in our own, individual way. These assumptions do not take into account the way the
ancient Celts - who after all were the ones telling the story in the first place - regarded the importance of
memory; nor do they take into account the need that existed to pass on spoken words accurately and
precisely.

With the invention of writing neither a retentive memory nor the ability to recall long oral pieces verbatim
was so important, and gradually over the centuries we have lost the memory capacity which our forebears
most definitely had. Indeed, the Celts were wise enough to see both the dangers and advantages of this new
form of communication known as writing, and in order to preserve the memory abilities of their holy men,
the Druids, they forbade them writing down any of their secular works. There was no such prohibition on
the layman, however, as it was recognized that writing did have distinct advantages in the commercial
world. It is feasible then that the legends which eventually came to be written down in the seventh-to-ninth
centuries were accurate copies of the extant oral tradition. This is also borne out by the fact that for several
centuries the two traditions existed side by side. The ordinary Celt did not have the luxury of books nor the
ability to read and therefore still depended entirely upon the spoken word. The monks on the other hand,
who wrote these spoken words down, would also have been familiar with the oral tradition, and it would
have been pointless for them to set down in writing (for writing was a very laborious and expensive
business), works which they knew to be inaccurate or simply wrong. It is also often argued that the written
legends are not faithful reproductions of the oral legends because the Christian scribes edited or changed
the very Pagan nature of the legends and deliberately altered them in an attempt to convert the common
people to the new Christian religion. This again is highly unlikely for several reasons. It must be
remembered that the Christian monks had originally been Pagan Celts, and these tales, as demonstrated in
Steve Blamires' book THE IRISH CELTIC MAGICAL TRADITION, were not just stories or fanciful
fairy-tales but the very basis on which the whole of their society was constructed (on three levels, as
mentioned above), and it would have been unthinkable, even on the part of converts to the new Christian
religion, deliberately to alter or otherwise tamper with such important information. This fact can be seen by
the way the Irish Catholic church incorporated a very great deal of the existing Pagan religious beliefs and
practices into its own teachings, much to the annoyance and eventual fury of Rome. In the case of this
particular legend there is no evidence whatsoever of the text having been altered by over-zealous scribes,
and although there are a couple of places where the Christians scribe did insert a few comments of his own,
these do not in any way alter the sense of the story nor attempt to discredit the events being described.

It will also be seen that the text contains some very explicit sexual descriptions as well as references to
some very basic bodily functions, normally not talked about even today. It seems very unlikely then that if
the monks' aim was to edit and change the old Pagan legends into acceptable Christian versions they would
have left in such unChristian passages. The important point about any of these ancient Celtic legends is that
the information they contain goes beyond such things, and 'speaks' directly to the innermost part of the
reader, who instinctively knows it is correct. They are truly timeless and they adopt and adapt themselves to
the times in which they are being read. Therefore their spiritual instruction and guidance is as valid now as
it was a thousand years ago and will be a thousand years hence. Blamires say in his Introduction that he
have tried as much as possible to split the narrative into sections which are complete in themselves and
which make sense if read in isolation apart from the rest of the main story. There are however some
passages which are so archaic and obscure that it is impossible even to attempt a guess as to what they
originally symbolized. This, however, does not matter. Most of the narrative can still be read and
understood perfectly; the uninterpretable passages do not affect the overall outcome of our dissection of the
symbolism contained within the rest of the legend. These totally obscure passages in an ironic way do serve
an important function, in that they demonstrate very clearly that the physical, mental and spiritual needs of
humanity have altered as our understanding of the world around us have changed.

When the legend was originally told these now obscure passages would have had an immediate relevance
to the Celtic listener, and he or she would have been able to see and understand the symbolism and
information which they contained. As our needs and understanding of life have altered through the
centuries so the information contained within parts of the legend has lost its relevance and is of no use to us
today. This is a perfectly natural function and simply reflects what happens in the Green World, the World
of Nature - when something has lost its relevance or its ability to adopt to changing circumstances it is done
away with or modified to suit the times. We call this evolution in the plant and animal world, and this same
principle of evolution can be applied to the texts of the Celtic legends. Perhaps some of the major world
religions would do well to pay heed to this important point, and to accept that parts of their teachings are
outdated and need to be allowed to evolve. Evolution brings life, stagnation brings death. The author's
examination of THE BATTLE OF MOYTURA begins with the first nine sections of the legend, which are
probably the most important and contain within them the essence of the Celtic philosophical, religious and
magical beliefs. The first chapter focus on the first six sections; Chapter 2 examines Sections 7 to 9 more
fully. 1. The Tuatha De Danann were in the northern islands of the world, studying occult lore and sorcery,
druidic arts, witchcraft and magical skills, until they surpassed the sages of the pagan arts. 2. They studied
occult lore, secret knowledge and diabolic arts in four cities; Falias, Gorias, Murias and Findias. 3. From
Falias was brought the Stone of Fal, which was located in Tara. It used to cry out beneath every king that
would take Ireland. 4. From Gorias was brought the spear which Lug had. No battle was ever sustained
against it, or against the man who held it in his hand. 5. From Findias was brought the sword of Nuadu. No
one ever escaped from it once it was drawn from its deadly sheath, and no one could resist it. 6. From
Murias was brought the Dagda's cauldron. No company ever went away from it unsatisfied. 7. There were
four wizards in those four cities. Morfesa was in Falias; Esras was in Gorias; Uiscias was in Findias; and
Semias was in Murias. They were the four poets from whom the Tuatha De learned occult lore and secret
knowledge. 8. The Tuatha De then made an alliance with the Fomoire, and Balor the grandson of Net gave
his daughter Ethne to Cian the son of Dian Cecht. And she bore the glorious child, Lug. 9. The Tuatha De
came with a great fleet to Ireland to take it by force from the Fir Bolg. Upon reaching the territory of Corcu
Belgatan (which is Conmaicne Mara today), they at once burned their boats so that they would not think of
fleeing to them. The smoke and the mist which came from the ships filled the land and the air which was
near them. For that reason it has been thought they arrived in clouds of mist.

To begin the examination of the symbolism contained within these first nine sections one should be
reminded of what was said earlier regarding a change of attitude concerning linear time, and adopting the
concept of the three levels (See also: IRISH CELTIC MAGICAL TRADITION, THE). This opening to the
legend is the closest we can get to a Celtic creation myth. All of the world's main religions and mythologies
contain some sort of creation myth, the Christian concept of the seven days of creation probably being the
most familiar to Western readers, but there is no such clear-cut explanation of creation within the Celtic
system. These first nine sections of THE BATTLE OF MOYTURA are the closest we shall get to such an
idea, as will be explained. It will be noted that there are three separate races of beings mentioned - the
Tuatha De Danann, the Fomoire, and the Fir Bolg. These three races can be equated with the three levels in
the following manner:

1. Tuatha De Danann = Spiritual Level


2. Fomoire = Mental Level
3. Fir Bolg = Physical Level

There are also three separate locations mentioned: the northern islands of the world, the four cities, and
Ireland. These can also be equated with the three levels, thus:

1. Northern Islands = Spiritual Level


2. Four Cities = Mental Level
3. Ireland = Physical Level

It is important to note at this point that these people and places are still all separate and have not yet united
into the three-levels-in-one which we have today, and therefore the concepts we are dealing with here exist
on a macrocosmic level, and therefore do not immediately apply to our own mundane level. All that has
been described so far has occurred on the spiritual level. It is the beginning of creation which, eventually,
will become the physical creation in which we exist today. # 75

BATTLE, EAST SUSSEX

It is said that at the Battle of Hastings, now preserved in the place name Battle, the flag raised by King
Harold was painted with a golden dragon. This is almost certainly true, for this dragon appears twice on the
famous Bayeux Tapestry, which was embroidered to commemorate this historic fight that so influenced the
future history of Britain. This dragon is sometimes called 'The Golden Dragon of Wessex', because it was
said to have been carried by Cuthred of Wessex at the battle of Burford in AD 752, yet it appears to have
been originally used by Saxon tribes on the Continent. It seems that when the West Saxons invaded Britain
in AD 495, they carried a golden dragon as their standard. The dragon appeared on the standards of at least
four of William's successors, and in his account of the crusade undertaken by Richard I, the chronicler
Ricard of Devizes mentions 'The terrible standard of the dragon...borne in front unfurled'. According to the
records, the dragon on the standard of Henry III was made of red silk, 'sparkling all over with gold', its
tongue like burning fires, and its eyes made of 'sapphires or some other suitable stones'. It was a dragon of
this descent which was unfurled to witness the English victory at Agincourt, though it is not the same
dragon which is nowadays mis-called a 'griffin' on the shield of the city of London. There are many myths
and legends attached to the Battle of Hastings, almost all of them elaborations. The most famous tells how
Richard le Fort, seeing William in danger, threw his own shield in front of him, thereby saving him from
being killed. For this reason, it is claimed, Fort was permitted to add to his name 'escue' ('shield'), hence the
modern name for the family, as Fortesque. The story is almost certainly apochryphal, though the family's
motto is a pun on their name, reading in Latin 'Forte scutum salvus ducum' (A strong shield is the leader's
safety). # 702

BAUCHAN BOGAN

(buckawn) or Bogan. A hobgoblin spirit, often tricky, sometimes dangerous, and sometimes helpful. # 100

BAUDWIN

A knight whom Arthur made constable of his realm at the time of his accession. He was one of the
govenors of Britain while Arthur went to war with Rome. He later became a hermit and physician. # 156 -
418

BAUDWIN OF BRITTANY

One of the best of the later Knights of the Round Table, he survived the last battle of Camlan and lived
thereafter as a hermit. He was also known for his skill as a surgeon. # 454

BAVE

(bayv) Calatin's daughter; puts a spell of straying on Niam. # 562

BEAN SI

(banshee) Bean Si is the Gaelic for 'fairy woman', and is commonly written BANSHEE, as it is
pronounced, because it is one of the bestknown of the Celtic fairies. In the Highlands of Scotland she is
also called BEAN-NIGHE, or the 'Little-Washer-by-the-Ford' because she is seen by the side of a burn or
river washing the blood-stained clothes of those about to die.# 100

BEAN NIGHE

(ben-neeyeh) or 'the Washing Woman'. She occurs both in Highland and Irish tradition as one of the
variants of the BANSHEE. The name and characteristics vary in different localities. She is to be seen by
desolate streams washing the blood-stained clothing of those about to die. She is small and generally
dressed in green, and has red webbed feet. She portends evil, but if anyone who sees her before she sees
him gets between her and the water she will grant him three wishes. She will answer three questions, but
she asks three questions again, which must be answered truly. Anyone bold enough to seize one of her
hanging breasts and suck it may claim that he is her foster-child and she will be favourable to him. But the
Caointeach of Islay, which is the same as the Bean-Nighe, is fiercer and more formidable. If anyone
interrupts her she strikes at his legs with her wet linen and often he loses the use of his limbs. Is is said that
the bean-nighe are the ghosts of women who have died in childbirth and must perform their task until the
natural destined time of their death comes. The bean-nighe, sometimes called the Little Washer By The
Ford, chiefly haunt the Highlands and Islands of Scotland, but Peter Buchan collected a washer story in
Banffshire. # 100

BEAR

# 161: In Celtic myth the bear is a lunar power, emblem of the goddess Berne; it also represents Andarta
-'Powerful Bear', while the 'Son of the Bear' occurs frequently in Irish and Welsh names. The dual
symbolism is also apparent in the Celtic association between the Bear and the Boar, with the Boar as
spiritual authority and the Bear as Temporal Power. # 454: Although no longer native to these islands, the
bear has remained one of Britain's totem beasts at a deep level. An old Gaelic proverb, 'Art an neart',
describes a hero as a bear in vigour. Arthur's own name derives from the British 'arth' or bear. The
constellation of the Plough or the Great Bear is also called Arthur's Wain. # 161 - 454

BEARE

A princess of Spain who married Eoghan Mor. It was prophesied that her destined husband would appear to
her if she went one night to the River Eibhear where she found a salmon arrayed in brilliant robes. The
Beare peninsula on the south-west tip of Ireland is named in her honour. See: CAILLEACH BHEARE. #
454

BEAROSCHE

The scene of a siege in Wolfram's PARZIFAL. Its lord, Duke Lyppaut, defended it against his sovereign,
King Meljanz of Liz, who had gone to war because he had been piqued when he was rejected by the duke's
daughter, Obie. Gawain fought on the side of the defenders, Perceval on that of the attackers. Peace was
made in due course, Obie's little sister Obilot playing an important role. # 156 - 748

BEATRICE

The wife of Carduino, rescued by him from an enchantment. # 156 - 238

BEAUTÉ

Guinevere's maid who fell in love with Gliglois, Gawain's squire. # 156

BEÄLCU

(bay'al-koo) A Connacht champion. Beälcu rescues Conall. Slain by sons owing to a strategem of Conall's.
Conall slays son of Beälcu. # 562

BEBO

Wife of Iubdan, King of Wee Folk. # 562

BECFOLA, THE WOOING OF

'The Wooing of Becfola' is connected with Diarmuid, son of the wellknown high-king Aed Slane, who
flourished during the first half of the seventh century after Christ. In its form retailed in Cross' and Slover's
ANCIENT IRISH TALES, the story appears to consist of confused reminiscences of humanly possible
events colored by Irish fairy lore. The allusion to 'bearded heroes' is to be explained by the fact that Dam
Inis ('Ox Island'), in Loch Erne, associated with the famous Saint Molassa, was regarded as a sanctuary for
women. # 166

BECUMA

An otherworldly woman, exiled from Tir Tairngire for an unspecified transgression. She lusted after Art,
but married his father, Conn Cetchathach because he was king. The union was illfated because she did not
rightfully represent Sovereignty, and the land was without milk or corn. - She made Conn banish Art, but
when he returned to reign in his father's stead she challenged him to a game of fidchell (chess). Art won the
first game and demanded she obtain the wand of Cu Roi. She won the second game and made Art seek for
Delbchaem. When Art successfully returned with his new bride, he banished Becuma from Tara. # 454 -
548

BEDEGRAINE

A forest, the site of a major battle between Arthur and rebel forces at the beginning of his reign. Malory
identifies it as Sherwood or a part thereof. There was within it a castle of Bedegraine, loyal to Arthur, to
which the rebels had laid siege before the battle. # 156

BEDIVERE

# 156: (In Welsh: Bedwyr). A prominent companion of Arthur. He is one of Arthur's followers in the earliest
Welsh traditions. He helped Arthur to fight the Giant of St. Michael's Mount. In Geoffrey, he was made
Duke of Neustria and perished in the Roman campaign. In Malory, he was present at Arthur's last battle. He
and Arthur alone survived and he was charged with flinging Excalibur into the lake. He had only one hand.
His son was called Amren, his daughter Eneuavc and his father Pedrawd. His grandfather was also called
Bedivere and founded the city of Bayeux. # 562: Bed'wyr (bed-weer). Equivalent, Sir Bedivere. One of
Arthur's servitors who accompanies Kilhwch (Culhwch) on his quest for Olwen. # 156 - 243 - 346 - 418 -
562

BEDWIN

A bishop who appears in a number of Arthurian sources. In THE TRIADS he is described as the chief
bishop of Kelliwig. He is identical with Bishop Baldwin, a companion of Gawain in SIR GAWAIN AND
THE CARL OF CARLISLE. He is also mentioned by this name in SIR GAWAIN AND THE GREEN
KNIGHT. See: ALISANDER THE ORPHAN. # 156

BEE

In Celtic lore bees have a secret wisdom derived from the Otherworld. # 161

BEFIND

Midir's name for Etain when she was his wife in the Sidhe. # 454

BEHEADING GAME

The game in which a mysterious challenger - usually a giant, or Green Knight - enters the hall during
wintertime and offers his axe to any hero who will cut off his head in return for a similar beheading blow. A
hero accepts and find the challenger rises and immediately picks up the axe and demands the right to return
the blow. - In the case of Gawain, he was allowed a year's grace to receive the return blow. In the case of
CuChulain, he knelt immediately and was judged the bravest knight of Ulster. The game is clearly part of
the midwinter festivities in which the old year enters as the giant or Green Knight, the old spirit of the
forest, and is challenged by the one representing the new year in its strenght and hardiness. # 166 - 454 -
507 - 672

BEK, ANTHONY

According to the historian G. M. Cowling (# 753), it was said that, in 1283, Anthony Bek, bishop-elect of
Durham met Merlin while hunting in the forest. # 156 - 753
BELAGOG

According to one tradition, a giant who guarded Arthur's castle which was nothing more than a grotto. #
156 - 753

BELATUCADROS

Celtic war-god reverenced in Northern Britain, whom the Romans associated with Mars. His name means
'Fair Shining One', and he is the horned god of the north. # 265 - 454 - 563 - 709

BELGAE

One of three peoples inhabiting Gaul when Cæsar's conquest began. # 562

BELI

# 156: A legendary early Briton, thought originally to have been a god. His daughter or sister was Penardun
who, by Llyr, was the mother of Bran who was thought to have been Arthur's ancestor in both the male and
female lines. According to Henry of Huntingdon, Beli was the brother of the historical British king
Cunobelinus or Cymbeline (first century). See: BELINANT. # 562: Cymric god of Death, husband of Don;
corresponds with the Irish Bilé; Lludd and Llevelys, sons of Beli. # 156 - 272 - 562

BELIDE

Daughter of King Pharamond of France, she became enamoured of Tristan but, as he did not requite her
love, she died of lovesickness. # 156

BELINANT

The father of Dodinel. He may be, in origin, the Celtic god Beli. # 156

BELINUS

Brother of Brennius, King of Britain. He quarrelled with his brother but they were eventually reconciled
and together they sacked Rome. He built many roads and established his capital at Caer Usk. He built
Billingsgate in Trinovantum (London) and was buried there in a golden urn. # 243 - 454

BELISENT

In ARTHOUR AND MERLIN (a thirteenth-century English poem), a sister of Arthur who married Lot.
See: BLASINE, and HERMESENT. # 156

BELLANGERE

The Earl of Laundes, he was the son of Alisander the Orphan and the killer of King Mark of Cornwall. #
156 - 418

BELLEUS
A knight wounded by Lancelot in unfortunate circumstances. Chancing on Belleus's pavilion, Lancelot
went to bed there. Then Belleus came to the bed and climbed in, mistaking the slumbering Lancelot for his
lover. He embraced him and the shocked Lancelot arose and wounded him but, to atone for the harm he had
done, he made him a Knight of the Round Table. # 156 - 418

BELLICIES

In Italian romance, daughter of King Pharamond of Gaul; she fell in love with Tristan and, when her
passion was unrequited, killed herself. # 156 - 238

BELLS

No account of the Fairy Rade is complete witout a mention of the jingling bells ringing from the horses'
harness. We hear of it, for instance, in YOUNG TAMLANE and in the Galloway account of the Fairy Rade.
It is never explained why the fairy bells rang, unless it be from their great love of music, but it is genarally
supposed that these fairies, in spite of their general habit of kidnapping human beings and purloining
human food, belonged to the Seelie Court, and it might be conjectured that these bells rang to scare away
the evil creatures who made up the Unseelie Court. On the other hand, the fairies were also repelled by the
sound of church bells. Jabez Allies' anecdote of the fairy who was heard lamenting: 'Neither sleep, neither
lie, For Inkbro's ting-tang hangs so high' is the first of quite a number that record the fairies' dislike of
church bells. # 100

BELTAINE (BELTANE)

# 438: (baalt'an - or - BAIL tin)) May Eve, time of enchantments, the beginning of summer. See also: MAY
EVE. # 454: The Celtic feast of May-Eve, celebrated on the evening of April 30. It marked the beginning of
Summer, when livestock was let out of winter pasture to crop the new greenness of Spring. The word
means literally 'the fire of Bel', a deity related to Belinus. At this feast, all household fires were doused and
rekindled from the new fire which the druids built on this night. See: LUGHNASADH, OIMELC and:
SAMHAIN and: LUNANTISHEE. # 438 - 454

BELTENÉ

One of the names of the god of Death; first of May sacred to Bel'tené.

See: BELTAINE. # 562

BEN BULBEN

Dermot of the Love Spot slain by the wild boar of Ben Bulben. # 562

BEN-VARREY

(bedn varra) The Manx name for the Mermaid, of which many tales are told round the coasts of Man. She
bears the same general character as mermaids do everywhere, enchanting and alluring men to their death,
but occasionally showing softer traits. # 100

BENDIGEIDFRAN

(ben dig ide vran)


BENDITH Y MAMAU

(bendith er mamigh) 'The Mothers' Blessing'. The euphemistic name for the Fairies in Wales. They steal
children, elf-ride horses and visit houses. Bowls of milk were put out for them. It is significant that they are
associated with the triple form of the Goddess. See: MOTHERS. # 100 - 454

BENEN BENIGNUS

An early Irish saint; a contemporary of St Patrick (fifth century). # 166

BENN ETAIR

(bén ad'yer) Now the Hill of Howth near Dublin. # 166

BENWICK

The Kingdom of Ban. 'Lestoire de Merlin' (part of vulgate Version) states that the town of Benwick was
Bourges. Malory points out that Benwick is variously identified with Bayonne and Beaune. An
identification with Saumur has also been suggested. # 156 - 418

BEOWULF

# 454: Perhaps the most famous of all heroes, his story is told in an eight-century poem written in the West
Saxon dialect of Old English. It combines three major stories, which tell of Beowulf's battle with the
monster, Grendel, whom he maimed after a wrestling match. The second story tells of his struggle with
Grendel's mother - watertroll - beneath the waters of a lake; and the third tells of his combat with a dragon
in which Beowulf received a fatal wound. These stories were probably part of a longer cycle of hero-tales
current in Saxon countries.

# 169: Beowulf is a stirring and wonderfully readable poem, and the mirror of Anglo-Saxon society. It was
composed by a court poet or a monk - a man equally at home with battle action, highly atmospheric
evocation of place, and grand set-pieces in the feasting-hall. Sophisticated and humane, it is both a thrilling
adventure story and a deeply serious commentary on human life. The very last words of the poem (and their
position indicates the importance their poet attached to them) describe its hero in these terms:

cwaedon thaet he waere wyruld-cyninga,


manna mildust ond mon-thwaerust,
leodum lithost ond lof-geornost.

they said that of all kings on earth


he was the kindest, the most gentle,
the most just to his people, the most eager for fame.
# 89 - 168 - 169 - 454

BERNARD OF ASTOLAT

Father of Elaine the White and Lavaine. # 156 - 418

BERTHOLAI

This character was the champion of the False Guinevere and her partner in deception. # 156 - 604
BERTILAK

The name of the Green Knight. - See GREEN KNIGHT. # 156 - 454 - 644 - 672

BERTRAND, A.

Author of "La Religion des Gaulois" # 562

BETHIDES

The son of Perceforest, he made an unfortunate marriage to Circe. # 156

BEUND

An important saint in North Wales. He was said to be the grandson of Arthur's sister Anna through her
daughter Perferren. Beund's popularity survived the Reformation. # 55 - 156 - 216

BIASD BHEULACH

(beeast veealuch) The monster of Odail Pass on the Isle of Skye, and one of the Highland demon spirits.
The distinction between demon spirits and demonic ghosts is hard to draw, and people might well have
accounted for Biasd Bheulach as the ravening ghost of a murdered man, hungry for revenge. # 100

BIAUSDOUS

Son of Gawain. He managed to unsheath the sword Honoree and thereby marry Biautei, daughter of the
King of the Isles. # 156 - 713

BILE

# 454: (BEE leh) The Celtic world understood an archetype roughly equivalent to the powerful lord of life
and death. In British tradition he was called Bel or Belinus, but in Irish he was Bile. In some texts, he is
said to come to Ireland from Spain - which is clearly intended to be the Land of the Dead. The fires of
Beltaine were lit to mark his recognized feast. Very little is known of his mythos, but he, like Danu who is
sometimes named as his consort, was a powerful ancestral deity to the Celtic races. # 562: (bil-ay) One of
the names of the god of Death (i.e. of the Underworld), father of Miled; equivalent, Cymric god Beli,
husband of Don. # 454 - 562

BIRCH

The birch tree stood for Beth, the first letter of the druIdic alphabet. It was the sacred beth of Cerridwen,
representing beginnings and birth.

The whiteness of the tree's bark apparently suggested its connection with the White Goddess, who was both
birthgiver and death-bringer in her Crone form as the carrion-eating white sow. Birch or beorc was also the
runic letter B. # 701 p 461

BIROG

A Druidess who assists Cian to be avenged on Balor. # 562


BIRTH MYTHS IN CELTIC HERITAGE, THE

To resolve the paradox of the Celtic Birth Myths, they must be regarded as symbols of the transcendental
meaning of birth, of what birth is from the point of view of the unseen world. From an earthly standpoint a
child is conceived inadvertently during the course of its parents' conjugal relations, without the intervention
of any other agency. But from the point of view of the supernatural world, the child's birth is destined, the
parents are chosen, the time and place are ordained, and the earthly life of the child is 'pre-figured' before
he is conceived.

The hostility of earthly powers cannot prevent his advent; his mother has no choice and, in a sense, is
violated. And in every conception there is a third factor. The child may derive its biological inheritance
from its earthly parents, but it is also the incarnation of a supernatural essence. This doctrine, that a spirit
enters the womb at conception, is widespread among both 'primitive' and highly sophisticated peoples.
'Man and the Sun generate man,' says Aristotle; 'Call no man father upon earth,' says St Paul, and according
to St Thomas Aquinas, 'The power of the soul, which is in the semen through the Spirit enclosed therein,
fashions the body.' The myths are concerned with this third factor, symbolized by the mysterious begetter
and by the fructifying substance which is swallowed by the mother. In some of the stories, the begetter is a
supernatural being - Lugh, Manannan, a bird-man, or one of the sidhfolk. In others he is the king or a
stranger from another race.

Traces of rituals of this kind in the Celtic lands have survived both in the mythological literature itself and
in later tradition. It is said that King Conchobar, who was regarded as a 'terrestrial god', was entitled to the
first night with the bride of every Ulsterman, 'so that he became her first husband. According to oral
tradition, Balor's two deputies exercised the same right. The Fenians had the option on the women of the
tribe and claimed either a ransom or the right to cohabit with even a princess the night previous to her
marriage. Boswell refers in ERIU, VOL. IV, to a Scottish laird who insited that the Mercheta Mulierum
mentioned in old charters did really mean the privilege of a lord to have the first night with his vassals
wives, and that on the marriage of each of his own tenants a sheep was still due to him. In Ireland, there are
still 'widespread traditions of the days when landlords excercised the Jus Primae Noctis over their tenants'
wives, and one hears of leases which contained clauses governing the right. As Mrs Chadwick has argued
in her study of Pictish and Celtic Marriage in SCOTTISH GAELIC STUDIES, there is a great deal of
evidence which 'suggests the right of a king or his Fili to beget children ritualistically among married
couples.

A belief in the fructifying potentialities of water has driven childless women throughout the ages to bathe
and to drink at sacred wells in the hope of conceiving, and a belief in the embodiment of the supernatural
essence in worms and flies seems to account for the fact that in Wales it is still said of a pregnant girl that
she has swallowed an insect (pry') or a spider (corryn). Individual reincarnation is implied in most of the
ancient tales, as there might be a hint of the rebirth of the begetter in the birthstories of Finn, Cormac mac
Art, and Fiacha Broad-Crown, whose fathers were destined to die as soon as they had begotten their sons. #
173 - 243 - 548 - 714

BLACK ANNIS

# 454: A blue-faced hag, akin to the Cailleachs Bheare and Bheur, who eat people. She is supposed to live
in a cave in the Dane Hills in Leicestershire.

# 100: There was a great oak at the mouth of the cave in which she was said to hide to leap out, catch and
devour stray children and lambs. The cave, which was called 'Black Annis' Bower Close', was supposed to
have been dug out of the rock by her own nails. On Easter

Monday it was the custom from early times to hold a drag hunt from Annis' Bower to the Mayor of
Leicester's house. The bait dragged was a dead cat drenched in aniseed. Black Annis
and Gentle Annie are supposed to derive from Anu, or Dana, a Celtic mother goddess. It has also been
suggested that she is MILTON'S 'blew meager hag'. # 100 - 415 - 454

BLACK BOOK OF CARMARTHEN, THE

See: BOOK OF CARMARTHEN, THE BLACK

BLACK DOGS

Stories of Black Dogs are to be found all over the country. They are generally dangerous, but sometimes
helpful. As a rule, the black dogs are large and shaggy, about the size of a calf, with fiery eyes. If anyone
speaks to

them or strikes at them they have power to blast, like the Mauthe Doog, the Black Dog of Peel Castle in the
Isle of Man. # 100

BLACK HORSE

S. G. Wildman has propounded a theory that the black horse was the symbol of the Arthurian Britons, just
as the white horse was that of the Saxons, and that is possible to find out where Arthurian influence
prevailed by discovering the whereabouts of inns called the Black Horse. # 100 - 729

BLACK KNIGHT

# 562: Kymon was defeated by the Black Knight who rode away with his horse. Kymon went back afoot to
the castle, where nothing was asked, but they gave him a new horse, 'a dark bay palfrey with nostrils as red
as scarlet' on which he rode to Caerleon Fired by the tale of Kymon, Owain rode forth to seek for the same
adventure. He wounded the Black Knight so sorely that he fled, Owain pursuing him hotly and so close that
his horse was cut in two when they passed an outer castlebridge and its portcullis fell. He was by this
imprisoned between the outer gate of the drawbridge and the inner. A maiden gave him a ring, which made
him invisible, when clenched in his hand. In that night a great lamentation was heard in the castle - its lord
had died of the wound which Owain had given him. Owain got sight of the castle's mistress, and he fell
instant in love. He soon became her husband and lord of the Castle of the Fountain and all the dominions of
the Black Knight.

# 156: 1. A knight with whose wife Perceval had innocently exhanged a ring. The Black Knight, furious,
tied her to a tree but Perceval overcame him and explained the situation, so that they were reconciled. 2.
Arthur's grandson, the son of Tom a'Lincoln and Anglitora. 3. A warrior who guarded a horn and a wimple
on an ivory lion. Fergus killed him. 4. Sir Percard, who was killed by Gareth. 5. One of Arthur's knights
who was defeated by the Knight of the Lantern. He was the son of the King of the Carlachs.

# 156 - 562

BLACK SAINGLEND

(sen'glend) CuChulain's last horse breaks from him minutes before he died. See: CUCHULAIN, THE
DEATH OF. # 562

BLACKBIRD
The blackbird has ever been one of Britain's most melodious songsters and this is doubtless why the Birds
of Rhiannon are said to be three blackbirds: they sing on the branch of the everlasting otherworldly tree
which grows in the centre of the earthly paradise. Their singing entranced the hearer, ushering him or her
into the Otherworld. They sing for Bran and the Company of the Noble Head, in their feasting between the
worlds. The blackbird is also responsible for the finding of Mabon. # 439 - 454

BLADUD

# 628: A perpetual fire, dedicated to Minerva by the mythical godking Baldudus (Bladud), was kept
burning at Aquae Sulis. Bladud reigned for twenty years and built the city of Kaerbadus, now called Bath.
Baldudus was a man of great ingenuity, and taught necromancy throughout Britain, continually doing many
wonderful deeds, and finally making himself wings to fly through the upper air. But he fell onto the Temple
of Apollo in Ternova (London), his body broken to many pieces. # 454: King of Britain who built Caer
Badum (Bath). He established the temple to Minerva at Bath and, having discovered the medicinal qualities
of the waters, caused the baths to be attached to the temple-precincts. He made wings and crashed to his
death from the Temple of Apollo in Trinovantum (London). His mythos is similar to that of Abaris, and he
seems to embody the traditions of both priest and king in one. # 243 - 454 - 627 - 628 p 96

BLAES

One of the twenty-four Knights of Arthur's Court, possibly identical with Blaise, the master of Merlin. #
104 - 156

BLAI

Oisin's Danaan mother. # 54 - 562

BLAI BRIUGA

(blà'e broo'ha) An Ulster warrior famous for his hospitality; one of CuChulain's fosterers. # 454

BLAISE

# 156: A hermit, to whom Merlin's mother went when she was enceinte (pregnant). When Merlin was two,
he dedicated to Blaise the story of the Grail. Blaise also wrote an account of Arthur's battles. He hailed
originally form Vercelli (Italy). He may be identical with the Blaes of THE TRIADS in which he is called
the son of the Earl of Llyclyn. # 454: The shadowy figure who stands behind Merlin. Described as his
teacher, Blaise retired from Northumberland where Merlin often visited him and where his deeds and
prophesies were recorded. # 104 - 156 - 185 - 238 - 418 - 454

BLAMORE DE GANIS

A Knight of the Round Table. On one occasion he accused King Anguish of Ireland of murder but he was
defeated in trial by combat by Tristan. Afterwards, they became friends. When Lancelot quarrelled with
Arthur, Blamore and his brother Bleoberis supported their father, Lancelot, and Blamore became Duke of
Limousin. After Arthur died, he became a hermit. # 156 - 418

BLANAID BLATHNAT BLANID

The wife of Cu Roi mac Daire who came originally from the Otherworld, and who fell to him as the spoils
of war. She secretly loved CuChulain and enabled him to murder Cu Roi by entangling his hair, Delilah-
like, to the bedstead. She was killed by Cu Roi's poet who avenged his lord by throwing himself off a high
place clasping the faithless Blanaid. Her name means 'flower' and she is analogous to Blodeuwedd. # 166 -
399 - 439 - 454

BLANCHARD

The fairy steed of Lanval, given him by his lover Tryamour. # 156 - 425

BLANCHEFLEUR

# 156: 1. The mistress of Perceval. Besieged by King Clamadeus, who desired her, she would have killed
herself but Perceval defeated him in single combat (# 153). 2. In Gottfried von Strassbourg: Tristan, the
sister of King Mark; she eloped with Rivalin of Parmenie. Their son was Tristan. When she heard of her
husband's death, she died of grief. # 454: The name sometimes given to Perceval's sister. She gave her life
to heal a leprous woman and her body accompanied the Grail Questers to Sarras. See: DINDRAINE. # 153
- 156 - 256 - 454

BLANID

Wife of Curoi; sets her love on Cuchulain; Fercartna, the bard of Curoi, avenged him by taking Blanid with
him in a jump from a cliffedge, and from where they perished. See: BLANAID. # 562

BLASINE

A sister of Arthur. She married Nentres of Garlot. Their son was Galachin, Duke of

Clarence. See: BELISENT and HERMESENT. # 156

BLATHNAT

(blàh'nid) Daughter of Mind and wife of Cu Roi mac Dairi; betrayer of her husband. # 166

BLEHERIS

A Welsh poet identical with Bledhericus, mentioned by Giraldus Cambrensis, and with Brèris, quoted by
Thomas of Brittany. # 562

BLENZIBLY

Tristan's mother in the Icelandic SAGA OF TRISTAN AND ISODD. Her lover, Plegrus, was killed jousting
with Kalegras who thereafter became her lover and Tristan's father. # 156 - 355

BLEOBERIS

A Knight of the Round Table, brother of Blamore. He was defeated by Tristan when he abducted
Segwaride's wife from Mark's court. He supported Lancelot, who was his relation, when the latter
quarrelled with Arthur. He became Duke of Poitiers and eventually a Crusader. # 156 - 418

BLERUM, BLERUM
(bleeroom) Sound made by Taliesin by which a spell was put on bards at Arthur's court. (In the
'Mabinogion' transl. by Charlotte Guest, however, Elphin was a prisoner of Maelgwyn and not King Arthur
(# 272)). # 562

BLESSED ISLANDS

The group of otherworldly islands which lie west of Ireland, wherein the worthy dead and otherworldly
folk live in the Celtic earthly paradise. ># 454

BLIGHTS ATTRIBUTED TO THE FAIRIES

The word 'Stroke' for a sudden paralytic seizure comes directly from fairy belief. It is an abbreviation of
'fairy stroke' or 'elf stroke', and was supposed to come from an elf-shot or an elf-blow, which struck down
the victim, animal or human, who was then carried off invisibly, while a Stock remained to take its place.
Sometimes this was a transformed fairy, sometimes a lump of wood, transformed by glamour and meant to
be taken for the corpse of the victim. See: KIRK, ROBERT. # 100

BLODEUWEDD

(blod AI weth) Flowerface. # 454: The Flower-wife of Llew, formed out of flowers, blossom, and nine
separate elements by Gwydion and Math, in order to circumvent the geise laid upon Llew by Arianrhod.
She was never asked whether she loved Llew and soon fell in love with a passing hunter, Gronw Pebr, with
whom she plotted her husband's death. Like Delilah, she coaxed the destined cause of death from Llew and
then entrapped him by enacting the conditions exactly. She was then punished by Gwydion, by being
turned into an owl - the night-hunting bird which is mobbed and shunned by all day-time fowls.

Her story follows a well-known folk motif: that of the betraying Flower-Bride, a role she shares with both
Blanaid and Guinevere. # 272 - 439 - 454 - 562

BLONDE ESMERÉE

Daughter of the King of Wales, turned into a serpent by the magicians Mabon and Evrain. She was freed by
Guinglain who kissed her. # 156

BLUE MEN OF THE MINCH

The Blue Men used particularly to haunt the strait between Long Island and the Shiant Islands. They swam
out to wreck passing ships, and could be baulked by captains who were ready at rhyming and could keep
the last word. They were supposed to be fallen angels. The sudden storms that arose around the Shiant
Islands were said to be caused by the Blue Men, who lived in under-water caves and were ruled by a
chieftain. # 100

BOANNA

# 562: (bô'en) (The River Boyne) Angus Og (Angus the Young), son of the Dagda, by Boanna, was the
Irish god of love. His palace was supposed to be at the New Grange, on the Boyne. See also: BOYNE, THE
RIVER. # 454: Goddess of the river Boyne, wife of Elcmar, mother of Angus. Her name means 'She of the
White Cows'. The Dagda desired her and sent Elcmar on an errand which lasted nine months, although it
was made to seem like one day. # 96 - 454 - 496 - 562
BOAR

# 701: The Boar was sacred to the Celtic Goddess Arduinna, patroness of the forests of the Ardennes. He
was sacrificed as the Yule pig with an apple in his mouth, and his blood begot gods both east and west, in
the primitive times when men still believed that only blood could generate offspring because that seemed to
be how women did it. Warriors of northern Europe crested their helmets and their swords with the boar's
image. - Britain still has a number of 'Boar's Head' inns and taverns, suggesting that in pre-Christian times
the heads of sacrificed animals were preserved as oracular fetishes just like the heads of deified ancestral
heroes.

# 161: The boar which killed Adonis is paralleled in the Celtic myth of Finn arranging for Diarmuid to be
killed when boar-hunting. Few animals are more important for the Celts than the boar; it was a sacred,
supernatural, magical creature, symbolizing the warrior, warfare, the hunt, protection, hospitality and
fertility. The boar's head signifies health and preservation from danger, it contains the power of the life-
force and vitality. The boar and the Bear together represent Spiritual and Temporal Power. The boar is often
depicted in association with the tree, wheels and ravens; it appears on the helmets of warriors and on
trumpets. It is the animal of Celtic ritual feasts and food for the gods, esteemed the fitting food for gods and
heroes. Bones were found placed ritually in graves, the head, again, being of special importance. Figures of
boars appeared on British and Gaulish altars. In Irish myth there are divine, magical and prophetic boars,
and supernatural and otherworld pigs which bring death and disaster. In Celtic saga there are also the
magical Pigs of Manannan and other legends (see Swine), according to which eating the flesh restored
health and happiness. The boar was ritually hunted and slain and there are many accounts of a Great Boar
hunted by a hero. Twrch Trywth was a king turned into a boar who was chased by Arthur and his warriors
across Ireland, Wales and Cornwall, where it disappeared into the sea. A Gaulish god is depicted with a
boar and sculptures of boars are found in Celtic forts and in France and Portugal. Druids called themselves
boars, probably as solitary dwellers in the forest.

# 454: The wild boar, once commonly hunted throughout the British Isles is now only to be found in remote
areas of Europe. The ferocity and cunning of the animal made him a dangerous quarry, yet the art and
literature of Celtic peoples attest to his importance in their mythology. Twrch Trwyth appears in the
MABINOGION as a devastating foe to Arthur and his kingdom; this boar is paralleled in Irish tradition by
Orc Triath. A white boar leads Pryderi into slavery in Annwn, while a similar animal is the cause of
Diarmuid's death. # 161 - 439 - 454 - 701 p 365

BODACH

(budagh) The Celtic form of Bugbear, or Bug-A-Boo, literally, 'old man'. It was a Highland belief that the
Bodach would creep down chimneys and steal naughty children, although in other parts it was considered
to be a death-warning spirit. The Bodach Glas, or Dark Grey Man is a death token, of which Sir Walter
Scott makes such effective use in WAVERLEY towards the end of Fergus MacIvor's history. # 100

BODACHAN SABHAILL

(botuchan so-will) 'The Little Old Man of the Barn'. A barn Brownie who took pity on old men, and treshed
for them. D. A. Mackenzie gives us a verse about him in his Scottish Folk Lore and Folk Life:

When the peat will turn grey and shadows fall deep
And weary old Callum is snoring asleep...
The Little Old Man of the Barn
Will tresh with no light in the mouth of the night,
The Little Old Man of the Barn.
# 100 - 415
BODB DERG

(bôv dârg) # 454: A fairy king of the Sidi of Munster. Son of the Dagda. He assisted Angus in the finding of
Caer Ibormeith. It was to his kingdom that Lir retired. # 166 - 267 - 416 - 454

BODBALL

(bov bal)

BODMIN MOOR

Bodmin Moor, Cornwall is littered with the visible remains of primitive man in the form of stone circles
and burial grounds, and has been the unhappy hunting ground of so many thousands of superstitious miners
that one is surprised it does not have far more ghosts and mythologies than it has.

Almost all the ruined mineshaft enginehouses on the moors have their resident ghosts, while the long
chambers within the mine shafts still have their 'kobolds' minegoblins, who de-light in confusing the miners
with acts of mimicry and the use of echoes. We learn that the name of the metal cobalt is taken from this
demon's name, because the metal was considered for a long time to be useless and (because of the arsenic
and sulphur with which it was found combined) harmful to health. It was therefore said to have been made
by the Kobalt demon. In some Cornish mines the tinmine demon was called a Bucca, though the same
name is also used for a wind-gob-lin which could foretell shipwrecks, and which was popular with the
wreckers. It may be just a question of shaft acoustics magnifying underground waterfalls, but inexplicable
and often deafening noises were frequently reported in the days when the tinmine shafts were still worked.
Most famous was that called 'Roaring Shaft' in the com-plex of mines on Goonzion Down: the noise was
described as being akin to 'a battery of stamps falling regularly with thuds and reverberated through the
ground'. Such noises were probably natural in origin, but they served only to feed the dark images of spirits
and demons in the minds of those who worked in those hellish corridors to mine copper, silver and gold. #
702

BOEOTIAN REGIMENT

From the ILIAD, II, 494-510: Of the Boeotians Peneleos and Leïtus were captains, and Arcesilaus and
Prothoënor and Clonius; these were they that dwelt in Hyria and rocky Aulis and Schoenus and Scolus and
Eteonus with its many ridges, Thespeia, Graea and spacious Mycalessus; and that dwelt about Harma and
Eilesium and Erythrae; and that held Eleon and Hyle and Peteon, Ocalea and Medeon, the well-built
citadel, Copae, Eutresis, and Thisbe, the haunt of doves; that dwelt in Coroneia and grassy Haliartus, and
that held Plataea and dwelt in Glisas; that held lower Thebe, the well-built citadel, and holy Onchestus, the
bright grove of Poseidon; and that held Arne, rich in vines, and Mideia and sacred Nisa and Anthedon on
the seaboard. Of these there came fifty ships, and on board of each went one hundred and twenty young
men of the Boeotians.

Homer begins the list of regiments of the Achaean army with the Boeotians, apparently out of politeness
towards the population of the country playing host to the entire fleet assembled for the invasion of the
Troad. The host country was in fact the present Denmark, where virtually all place-names of Regiment 1
can still be identified. That Denmark was once a Celtic country is well attested, both by archaeological
finds and by the Danish language, which has a curious way of counting, different from that of its
neighbours and reminiscent of the French system, where, for example, 'ninety-two' is 'quatre-vingtdouze',
'four (times) twenty (plus) twelve'.

In Old Danish this same number is 'tooghalvfemsindstyve', literally 'two and half of the fifth twenty' - a
Celtic method of counting. In the north of mainland Denmark, Jutland, the Limfjord links the North Sea
with the Baltic through a series of big lakes and forms the ideal place for the secret rendezvous of the great
fleet of 1,186 vessels. Homer calls this place Aulis, a name preserved in that of a number of towns on the
shores of the fjord, such as Aalborg (Aal is pronounced like English awl), Oland, Aalum and Aalestrup.

Other names mentioned by Homer are still to be found in the same region: Hyria (Hjørring, the region north
of Aalborg), Scoinos (Skjern, a town southwest of Limfjord), Scolos (Skjoldborg, in the extreme northwest
of Jutland), while in the northeast is the famous Cnossus, now Knøsen. This whole region of northern
Jutland was already an important religious centre long before the Bronze Age, as evidenced by the presence
of many megalithic monuments. Closely connected with Cnossus is the story of Icarus, who escaped from
the labyrinth on wings that he made himself. His names is preserved in the present town of Ikast in the
centre of Jutland (from Ikar-sted = town of Icarus). Homer mentions the Icarian Sea once (Il. II, 145). This
must have been part of the North Sea, most probably the waters between Oslo and Jutland, where the 'south
and east winds whip up the sea', against the coast, that is. It should be noted in passing that this description
makes little sense in the Mediterranean, where the Icarian Sea is just off the southwest coast of Turkey, not
between Crete and mainland Greece as one would expect. Homer rightly calls Denmark 'a land exceeding
rich'. apparently because of its first-rate agricultural land. A region called by Homer 'spacious Mycalessus'
was eastern Jutland, where we find Mygind and Mylund. He mentions Graea (Grærup), 'grassy' Haliartus
(Halling), Hyle (Hyllebjerg). Other recognizable names are: Harma (Harnorup), Medeon (Madum), Thisbe
(Thisted), Arne 'rich in vines' (near the river ArnAa).

The epithet is not so surprising, since there were vineyards in Scandinavia in the Bronze Age, in particular
in the south of Jutland, where we find Pramne (now Bramming), where Circe got her wine from (Od. X,
235).

An interesting Scandinavian name found in Homer is Scandeia, a town and region in east Jutland now
Skanderborg (Il. X, 268). Eutresis ('good' Tresis) was probably Dreslette, Copae (Copenhoved - a name
also found further east: Copenhagen = port of Copae), Nisa (Nissum, but also the name of the river Nissan
in southwest Sweden) and Anthedon 'on the seaboard' seems to be Andkaer, while Eilesium could be Elsø.
# 730

BOGIES

'Bogies, 'Bogles', 'Bugs', or 'bug-a-boos' are names given to a whole class of mischievous, frightening and
even dangerous spirits whose delight it is to torment mankind. Sometimes they go about in troops, like the
Hobyahs, but as a rule they may be described as individual and solitary fairy members of the Unseelie
Court. A nickname of the Devil in Somerset is 'Bogie', presumably to play him down a little, for bogies
generally rank rather low in the retinue of hell. They are often adepts at shape-shifting, like the Bullbeggar,
the Hedley Kow and the Picktree Brag. These are generally no more than mischievous. The well-known
Boggart is the most harmless of all, generally a Brownie who has been soured by mistreatment; among the
most dangerous are the fiendish Nuckelavee and the Duergar, and other examples appear under Bogy or
Bogey-Beast. But even so, some bogies, like minor devils, are just simple and gullible. # 100

BOGLES

On the whole, these are evil Goblins, but according to William Henderson in FOLK LORE OF THE
NORTHERN COUNTIES, who quotes from Hoog's WOOLGATHERER, the bogles on the Scottish
Borders, though formidable, are virtuous creatures: 'Then the Bogles, they are a better kind o' spirits; they
meddle wi' nane but the guilty; the murderer, an' the mansworn, an' the cheaters o' the widow an' fatherless,
they do for them.' Henderson tells a corroborative story of a poor widow at the village of Hurst, near Reeth,
who had had some candles stolen by a neighbour. The neighbour saw one night a dark figure in his garden
and took out his gun and fired at it. The next night while he was working in an outhouse the figure appeared
in the doorway and said, 'I'm neither bone nor flesh nor blood, thou canst not harm me. Give back the
candles, but I must take something from thee.' With that he came up to the man and plucked out an eyelash,
and vanished. But the man's eye 'twinkled' ever after. # 100 - 302 - 314
BOOBRIE

A gigantic water-bird, which inhabits the lochs of Argyllshire. It has a loud harsh voice and webbed feet
and gobbles up sheep and cattle. J. F. Campbell thinks the Boobrie is one form taken by the water-horse,
but gives no reason for thinking so. He gives an eyewitness account in POPULAR TALES OF THE WEST
HIGHLANDS IV from a man who claimed to have seen it. He waded up to his shoulders in the waters of a
loch in February to get a shot at it, but had only come within eighty-five yards when the creature dived. It
looked like a gigantic Northern Diver, but was black all over. Its neck was two feet eleven inches long, its
bill about seventeen inches long and hooked like an eagle's. Its legs were very short, the feet webbed and
armed with tremendous claws, its footprints were found in the mud to the north of the loch, its voice was
like the roar of an angry bull, and it lived on calves, sheep, lambs and others. # 100 - 130

BOOK OF ARMAGH

References to the Book of Armagh. The Danaans were, as a passage in the Book of Armagh names them,
DEI TERRENI, earth gods. # 562

BOOK OF CARMARTHEN, THE BLACK

The BLACK BOOK OF CARMARTHEN, famous in the literary history of Wales, belongs to the town of
Carmarthen, a product of St John's Priory.

In it there is a collection of pieces of mediaeval Welsh writing - in the sphere of legend and prophesy, with
unique material connected with Merlin or Myrddin, and revealing the deeply devotional muse of the Welsh
monks. Gwyn ap Nudd figures in poem included in THE BLACK BOOK OF CARMARTHEN.

As the name already indicates, The Black Book of Carmarthen has traditionally been connected with the
ancient town of Carmarthen. It has been said to have been produced by one of the Welsh-speaking monks
of the Augustinian Priory of St Johns in Carmarthen who was a bit of an amateur in the art of copying, but
loved Welsh literature and wanted to anthologise poems with a Dyfed if not Carmarthen bias. He may have
had to do this in an institution the members of which would have looked askance at his labour of love.
What, Taffy, are you doing there? For the other monks were probably Normans and English. But then
Welsh persons have had to further their beloved culture in alien institutional surroundings since then. Our
Austin canon smiled and said, 'Ah' and went on copying. All we can say is that we are deeply grateful to
him. Certain poems would never have survived if it were not for him. Nor would the graphic wonder of the
Black Book be with us today. It may be amateurish, a bit of a manuscriptual mess according to the
connisseur, what with differing scripts and letter sizes, but it is a feast to the eye, and certainly a literary
beano.

Doubt has been thrown on the connection with Carmarthen. But why the book be given on conjecture to
say Whitland when the only place it has been linked with is Carmarthen? When tradition has it and we have
no proof otherwise then from Carmarthen it comes. Sir John Price of Brecon who did a lot of work
collecting manuscripts at the time of the Dissolution said that it came from the Priory there. It got a black
cover eventually and hence the name. Its contents too indicate strongly that the anthologist was from the
area. The fact that the central portion of the manuscript is given up to long poems in the PERSONA of
Myrddin corroborates the Carmarthen link. The legend of Myrddin is said to be in part a fictional
explanation of the name of the town. Of course he may simply have come from Carmarthen. We know that
the name of Caerfyrddin is derived from the Roman name of the fortress, Moridunum. Myrddin as poet and
prophet was known in Wales as early as the tenth century, for he is referred to in the prophetic poem Armes
Prydain which was composed by a staunch supporter of the dynasty of Deheubarth (South-West Wales).
The connection made between Myrddin, a poet from Northern Britain and a contemporary of Taliesin, and
the town of Carmarthen was made at least as early as the time of the composition of Armes Prydain. There
are numerous references to places in Dyfed in the Myrddin poems in the Black Book of Carmarthen and
they reveal a striking and emotional loyalty to the Southern dynasty of Deheubarth.

Dating the book is not without its problems, but it is generally accepted that it was produced around 1250.
But a lot of material in it is far older than that. For our understanding of it we owe much to A. O. H.
Jarman. # 519 - 562

BOOK OF HERGEST, THE RED

Forms main source of tales in the 'Mabinogion' but the story of Taliesin were not found in The Red Book of
Hergest. # 562

BOOK OF INVASIONS

The narrative assembled under the title BOOK OF INVASIONS (or Occupations) are the literary
embodiment of Ireland's own impressions regarding the history of her population. For the early Irish they
served somewhat the same functions as the accounts of the wandering of Aeneas did for the Romans. To
say, as some have done, that THE BOOK OF INVASIONS is a collection of Irish mythology is to give an
entirely wrong impression of its contents. Some of the characters, it is true, may be rationalized gods, but
the stories as they now stand belong rather to pseydo-history than to mythology. For example, Emer, Eber,
and Eremon, though represented in the narrative as ancient kings, are in fact merely fictitious personages
with names made up from the ancient name for Ireland, spelled in the earliest manuscripts as Ériu. Modern
students of early Irish history are inclined to see underlying these obviously fictitious narratives a
substratum of fact, and to regard the account as reflecting in a general way an historical record of early
population groups.

The version of BOOK OF INVASIONS presented in Cross and Slover's ANCIENT IRISH TALES is
preserved only in rather late manuscripts, but the ancient origin of at least some parts of it is convincingly
supported by comparison with the early forms of the British-Latin HISTORY OF THE BRITONS
(HISTORIA BRITONUM). The selections presented in that work are not continuous, but they form
tolerably unified sections, describing the arrival of three different groups of immigrants. The first of the
divisions there given is preceded in the complete text by the account of the arrival of Partholon and his
people. # 166 - 562

BOOK OF LEINSTER

The Book of Leinster is an Irish manuscript of the twelfth century. It has 187 nine-by-thirteen leaves; it
dates to about 1160 and includes in its varied contents complete versions of 'The Cattle Raid of Froech',
'The Labour Pains of the Ulaid', 'The Tale of Macc Da Tho's Pig' and 'The Exile of the Sons of Uisliu' as
well as an unfinished and rather different 'Intoxication of the Ulaid' and a complete, more polished 'Cattle
Raid of Cuailnge'. # 236 - 562

BOOK OF THE DUN COW

# 562: Reference to the 'Book of the Dun Cow.' Cuchulain makes his reappear-ance legend of Christian
origin in this Book. 'Voyage of Maeldûn' is likewise found here. # 236: Of the manuscrpts that have
survived, one of the earliest and most important belong to the twelfth century. Lebor na huidre (The Book
of the Dun Cow) is so called after a famous cow belonging to St Ciaran of Clonmacnois; the chief scribe, a
monk named Mael Muire, was slain by raiders in the Clonmacnois cathedral in 1106. Unfortunately, the
manuscript is only a fragment: though sixty-seven leaves of eigthby-eleven vellum remain, at least as much
has been lost. Lebor na huidre comprises thirty-seven stories, most of them myths/sagas, and includes
substantially complete versions of 'The Destruction of Da Derga's Hostel', 'The Birth of CuChulain', 'The
Wasting Sickness of CuChulain' and 'Bricriu's Feast' as well as an incomplete 'Wooing of Etain' and
acephalous accounts of 'The Intoxication of the Ulaid' and 'The Cattle Raid of Cuailnge'. # 236 - 562

BORRE

The illegitimate son of Arthur by Lionors. When he grew up, he became a Knight of the Round Table. He is
usually identified with Loholt.# 156 - 243

BORS

1. The King of Gaul or Gannes and Arthur's ally in the battle against the rebel kings at Bedegraine. He
married Evaine and they were the parents of the younger Bors (# 44). See: BAN. 2. Knight of the Round
Table and son of the elder Bors, whom he succeeded as King of Gannes. He was a chaste knight, but the
daughter of King Brandegoris fell in love with him. Her nurse forced Bors to make love to her with the aid
of a magic ring. As a result, Bors became the father of Elyan the White, later Emperor of Constantinople.
Bors was one of the three successful knights on the Grail Quest but, unlike Galahad and Perceval, he
returned to Arthur's court and eventually died on crusade. It has been suggested that, in origin, Bors may
have been a character who figures in Welsh legend as Gwri. See: TWENTY-FOUR KNIGHTS. # 156 - 418

BOSO

Ruler of Oxford, one of Arthur's vassals, who accompanied him on his Roman campaign. # 156 - 243

BOUDICCA

# 454: (d. AD 62) Queen of the Iceni. When her husband, Prasutagus, died leaving half his kingdom to the
Romans, she discovered that the Romans intended to take the whole kingdom for themselves. After
scourging Boudicca and raping her two daughters, the Romans were to suffer the worst native rebellion
since they conquered Britain. Sacking Colchester and London, Boudicca and her tribesmen ravaged the
countryside until finally she was overcome by Suetonius Paulinus, when, to avoid being paraded in a
Roman triumph as a captive queen, she is said to have taken poison. She was a devotee of Andraste, the
goddess of victory, to whom she sacrificed her captives. She is fondly remembered, despite the bloodiness
of rebellion, as an example of liberation to captive peoples - a concept dear to the hearts of all Britons.

# 702:Undoubtedly Boudicca had been a courageous Queen, but the fight between her tribesmen and the
Romans had been made inevitable by the rapacious cruelty of the Roman occupiers, and she had no
alternative but to rebel. Her initial success against the Roman settlements of Colchester, London and St
Albans was probably due to the fact that these places were only poorly garrisoned, the main Roman legions
being occupied in advances to the west.

However, whatever the reasons for the war, and whatever the outcome, the fact remains that Boudicca
entered with vigour into British mythology as the most important symbol of feminine courage and
endurance. Could this have been connected with the mystery of her name, which would suggest that she
was associated with a Celtic goddess? Boudicca's name meant 'Victory', and it has been remarked that the
name of the goddess openly invoked by Boudicca prior to the last battle was 'Andrasta', whose name also
meant 'Victory'. This suggests that the Queen's name was not a personal one at all but perhaps a religious
title, which means that from the point of view of the tribesmen who followed her, she was a goddess.

Indeed, in his fascinating study of British folk heroes, Charles Kightly points out that there was actually a
Celtic goddess named 'Boudiga', as proved by the fact that a Romano-British merchant of York and Lincoln
erected an altar in her name as late as AD 237. 'She has close links, therefore,' writes Kightly, 'with
Brigantia ('the High One'), the ruling war-goddess of the Brigantes, whom the Romans also called
'Victoria', and with the terrifying Irish Morrigan ('Great Queen'), the triple war-goddess whose three
persons were Nemain ('Frenzy'), Badb Catha ('Battle Raven') and Macha ('Crow'), whose sacred birds were
fed on the stake-impaled heads of the slaughtered.' Forgotten, save by specialist historians, for many
centuries, Boudicca did not enter into popular British mythology until 1780, when the poet Cowper
resurrected her ancient fame and created a new image of her in the form of a Druid bard's 'prophetic words'
which foretold her role in the making of the coming mighty Brtish Empire:

Then the progeny that springs


From the forests of our land,
Arm'd with thunder, clad with wings
Shall a wider world command.
Regions Caesar never knew
Thy posterity shall sway,
Where his eagles never flew,
None invincible as they.

It was Cowper who gave life to the mythological view of the rebel queen, and the myth grew to such an
extent that towards the end of the reign of Queen Victoria (who bore the same ancient name and ruled 'a
wider world'), the huge statue of the horse-drawn chariot and its fierce queen was erected at Westminster
Bridge, on the north bank of the River Thames, which was itself named after a Roman goddess. As with so
many folk-heroes, it is claimed that Boudicca did not die, but still sleeps awaiting the call for feminine
valour when Britain is next hard-pressed. In contradiction of this belief, her ghost (as sure a sign of death as
anything) has been reported in places as far apart as the two extremes of the vast Iceni territory in which
she fought, and several places have been claimed as marking the site of her grave. Some have suggested
that Boudicca's resting place is marked by the magnificent Stonehenge - though the fact is that this
monument was at least 2,000 years old when the Iceni queen died. Others claim for her burial-place a
mound on Parliament Hill Fields, in London. Some say that her ghost is still seen on the Essex hill fort of
Ambresbury Banks. # 232: Finally, we may add that the rebellion had enormous loss of lives. Excavation at
Verulamium has revealed the burnt debris of her destruction, and Tacitus quotes the official figure of
70,000 slain, citizenz and allies, at the three sacked towns. The Britons, he says, had no thought of taking
prisoners but only of slaughter, the gibbet, the fire and the cross. It was also said that for the 70-80,000
British who fell, the loss for the Romans were only 400 slain. # 232 - 446 - 454 - 702

BOUDIN

The father of Alisander the Orphan and brother of Mark of Cornwall who murdered him. # 156 - 418

BOYNE, THE RIVER

Angus Og's palace at river Boyne; Angus and Caer at river Boyne; Milesians land in estuary of the river;
Ethné loses her veil of invisibility while bathing in the river; The church on the banks where Ethné died
was named Kill Ethné by St Patrick (even though she would have been about 1500 years old at that time).
See also: BOANNA and PLACE NAME STORIES. # 562

BôV THE RED

King of the Danaan's of Munster, brother of the Dagda; searches for maiden of Angus Og's dream;
goldsmith of Bôv, named Len; Aoife travel to Bôv, with her step-children. # 562

BRABANT

A territory sited partially in the Netherlands and partially in Belgium. See: LOHENGRIN. # 156
BRADMANTE

According to Ariosto, the female warrior of the Carolingian era was told that the House of Este would
descend from her. # 21 - 156

BRAHAN SEER

(d. 1577) Coinneach Odhar was a man who had the gift of sight into the future. His prophecies concerning
the Battle of Culloden, the Highland Clearances and the coming of the railways were all borne out, as was
his series of prophecies concerning the Seaforth family. He informed the Countess of Seaforth that her
husband was unfaithful to her and she had him hideously burned to death in a tar-barrel, but not before he
foretold the dying out of the Seaforth line, which would end with a man both deaf and dumb. This was
indeed fulfilled. # 282 - 454 - 717

BRAN AND SCEOLAN

(bran and shkeolawn) Bran and Sceolan were the two favourite hounds of Finn Mac Cumhal. They were so
wise and knowing that they seemed human in knowledge, and so indeed they were. According to the Irish
story, this was how they were born. One time Finn's mother Muirne came to stay with him in Almhuin
(Allen) which was the headquarters where he lived with the Fianna, and she brought her sister Tuiren with
her. And Iollan Eachtach, an Ulster man and one of the chiefs of the Fianna there, was with him at the time,
and he asked Tuiren's hand in marriage from Finn, and Finn granted it, but he said that if Tuiren had any
reason to be displeased with her bargain, Iollan should allow her to return freely, and he made Iollan grant
sureties for it and Iollan gave sureties to Caoilte and Goll and Lugaidh Lamba before he took Tuiren away.

Now, whether Finn had any inkling of it or not it is certain that Iollan had already a sweetheart among the
Sidhe and she was Uchtdealb of the Fair Breast, and when she heard that Iollan was married she was
bitterly jealous. She took on the appearance of Finn's woman messenger and, going to Ulster to Tuiren's
house, she said: 'Finn sends all good wishes and long life to you, queen, and bids you prepare a great feast,
and if you will come aside with me I will tell you how it must be.' Tuiren went aside with her, and when
they got out of sight Uchtdealb took out a rod and smote her with it, and at once she turned into a most
beautiful little bitch, and she led her away to the house of Fergus Fionnliath, the king of the harbour of
Gallimh. She chose Fergus because he hated dogs more than anything in the world, and, still in the shape of
Finn's messenger, she led the little bitch in to Fergus and said to him: 'Finn wishes you to foster and take
charge of this little bitch and she is with young, and do not let her join the chase when her time is near'; and
she left the hound with him. Fergus thought it a strange thing that this charge should have been put on him,
for everyone knew what a hatred he had of dogs, but he had a great regard for Finn, so he did his best, and
the little hound was so swift and so clever that soon he changed his notions altogether and began to like
hounds as much as he had hated them. In the meantime it became known that Tuiren had disappeared, and
Finn called Iollan to account for it, and Iollan had to say that she was gone and that he could not find her.
At that his sureties pressed him so hard that he begged for time to search for her. When he could not find
her he went to Uchtdealb and told her in what danger he stood, and she consented to free Tuiren if he would
be her sweetheart for ever. She went to Fergus' house and freed Tuiren from her shape, and afterwards Finn
married her to Lugaidh Lamha. But the two whelps were already born, and Finn kept them and they were
always with him. The Highland version is different. In this Bran and Sceolan are monstrous dogs, won by
Finn from a kind of Celtic version of the monster Grendel in BEOWULF, who had been stealing babies
from a young champion's house. There is something monstrous about them - a strange mixture of colours
and great savagery in other versions. # 100

BRAN MAC FEBAL

(bran mock feval)An otherworld woman invited Bran to set sail for the Blessed Islands where he would
find the Land of Women TIR NA MBAN.The hero of this legend is somewhat similar to that of Oisin and
even closer to the story of King Herla. Bran was summoned by Manannan Son of Lir to visit one of his
islands far over the sea, Emhain, the Isle of Women. And this was the way in which he was summoned.

He was walking one day near his own dun when he heard a sound of music so sweet that it lulled him to
sleep, and when he woke he had a silver branch in his hand covered with silver-white apple blossom. He
carried the branch with him into his dun. And when all his people were gathered round him, suddenly there
was a woman in strange clothing standing in front of him, and she began to sing him a song about Emhain,
the Isle of Women, where there was no winter or want or grieving, where the golden horses of Manannan
pranced on the strand and the games and sports went on untiringly. She summoned Bran to seek out that
island, and when her song was over she turned away, and the apple branch jumped from Bran's hand into
hers, and he could not retain it. On the next morning he set out with a fleet of curraghs. They rowed far
across the sea until they met a warrior driving a chariot as if it might be over the land, and he greeted them
and told them that he was Manannan son of Lir, and he sang about the island of Emhain, inviting Bran to
visit it. On the way they passed the Island of Delight and tried to hail the inhabitants, but got nothing but
shouts of laughter and pointing hands. So Bran put one of his men on shore to talk to them, but he at once
burst out laughing and behaved just as the inhabitants had done. So in the end Bran went on, and they soon
got to the Isle of Women, where the Chief Woman was waiting for them and drew them ashore. They
enjoyed every delight on the many-coloured island, but after what seemed a year Bran's companions began
to pine for Ireland, and Nechtan son of Collbrain was urgent to return. The woman who was Bran's lover
warned them that sorrow would come of it, but Bran said he would just visit the land and return to it. At
that she warned him, as Niam had warned Oisin, that he could look at Ireland and talk to his friends, but
that no one of his party could touch it.

So they sailed away and approached the shores of Ireland at a place called Srub Bruin. People on the shore
hailed them, and when Bran told them his name they said that no such man was now alive, though in their
oldest stories there were mentions of how Bran son of Febal had sailed away to look for the Island of
Women. When Nechtan heard this he leapt out of his curragh and waded through the surf; but as he touched
the strand of Ireland his mortal years came on him and he crumbled into a handful of dust. Bran stayed
awhile to tell his countrymen of all that had befallen him; then he turned his fleet of curraghs away from
the shore, and he and his companions were never seen in Ireland again. This story is told in Lady Gregory's
GODS AND FIGHTING MEN, and a comparative study of the legend is to be found in Alfred Nutt's THE
VOYAGE OF BRAN, with beautiful translations of the Irish by Kuno Meyer. # 100 - 267 - 416 - 454

BRAN SON OF FEBAL, THE VOYAGE OF

In romances as THE WOOING OF ETAIN, THE SICK-BED OF CUCHULAIN, and others, we have seen
the visit to the Happy Otherworld appearing incidentally. In this tale it constitutes the main purpose of the
story. Of the chief traditional characters in Irish literature, the only ones referred to in THE VOYAGE OF
BRAN are Manannan mac Lir and Mongan. Its literary importance lies in the fact that it is representative of
a class of Irish stories called Imrama 'voyages,' that seem to have been rather widely known in other parts
of Europe. The voyage literature is also noteworthy in that it frequently appears in ecclesiastical guise; in
fact, some authorities are inclined to place the ecclesiastical form earlier than the secular. THE VOYAGE
OF BRAN belongs to the early period of Irish literature, being ascribed usually to the eighth century.
Though reminding us of the 'Odyssey,' the Irish narrative is probably based in large part on fantastic stories
brought back by sailors who had ventured far out into the Atlantic Ocean long before the discovery of
America. # 166

BRAN THE BLESSED

or BENDIGEID VRAN (brarn) # 562: King of the Isle of the Mighty (Britain). Manawyddan, his brother;
Branwen, his sister; he gives Branwen as wife to Matholwch; makes atonement for Evnissyen's outrage by
giving Matholwch the magic cauldron; invades Ireland to succour Branwen. The wonderful head of Bran
the Blessed buried in the White Mound.
# 156: A hero of Welsh legend, originally a god, who was demoted after the advent of Christianity. Some of
the information we have about him suggests that part of his legend went into the formation of the Arthurian
tales. For example, he had a cauldron of plenty and was wounded in the foot by a poisoned spear,
suggesting connections with the Grail and the Fisher King. Tradition states that his head was buried under
the White Hill in London to protect the country, but Arthur dug it up, as he wanted to be the sole guardian
of Britain. Bran had a son called Caratacus who was identified with the British leader of that name who
opposed the Romans at the time of the Claudian invasion (AD 43). Bran himself - though not, perhaps, in
an early tradition - was thought to have introduced Christianity to Britain. His father was Llyr and his
mother Penardun. In BONEDD YR ARWYR, Bran is made both of paternal and maternal ancestor of
Arthur. (See also: BAN and THIRTEEN TREASURES). # 454: In Welsh: Bendigeid Fran. The Titanic-
sized Bran has become deeply incorporated into British mythology. His story appears in 'Branwen Daughter
of Llyr' where he is the possessor of a life-restoring cauldron. On the marriage of his sister, Branwen to
Matholwch, King of Ireland, he gives up the cauldron to the Irish, in recompense for the insults they have
suffered at the hands of Bran's brother, Efnissien. He subsequently has to rescue Branwen from her
servitude in the Irish kitchen after he has her imprisoned there. He wades across the Irish sea, leading the
British fleet and defeats the Irish who offer to depose Matholwch and make Gwern, Branwen's son, king in
his place. At the feast to celebrate the truce and Gwern's accession, Efnissien throws Gwern into the fire
and hostilities are resumed.

The Irish resusticate their dead in the cauldron, but neither side is triumphant; only seven Britons escape
alive but Bran is mortally wounded in the heel. He requests that his head be cut off and buried at the White
Tower (of London). The seven survivors do so, first bearing the head to Harlech for seven years and then to
Gwales (Grassholm, Pembrokeshire) for eighty years, where the head of Bran converses with them and
where they have no sense of time passing, nor of the happenings they have experienced. They are asked not
to open the door of the hall. Eventually one of the company does so and they become aware of the passing
of time and of their sufferings. Bran's mythos can be traced to that of Cronos, as well as becoming
incorporated into the Grail legends where Brons is the guardian of the Grail - a development of the life-
restoring cauldron. The Triads relate how Arthur dug up Bran's head where it had been set to fend off
enemy invasion, because he alone wished to be his country's bastion. This feature can still be seen in the
legend that if the Ravens leave the Tower of London Britain will be invaded ( for which reason their wings
are kept clipped). Bran's name means 'raven'.

# 100: There are three Brans mentioned in Celtic mythological and legendary matter: Bran, the famous
hound of Finn; Bran Son of Febal, the Irish hero who was allured away to the Isle of Women, the Western
Paradise of Manannan Son of Lir; and Bran the Blessed, the brother of Manawyddan and the son of Llyr,
whose story is told in the MABINOGION. It is clear that the Irish and the Welsh mythologies are closely
connected in these two groups, but Bran the Blessed represents a much earlier and mythological strain of
belief, obviously a primitive god. It has been surmised by Professor Rhys that he was a Goidelic or even
pre-Goidelic divinity who was grafted on to later Celtic tradition. We should remember that Bran was of
monstrous size, so large that no house could contain him, but he was one of the beneficent Giants and had
magical treasures which enriched Britain, and chief among them was the Cauldron of Healing which came
from Ireland and was destined to return to it. # 57 - 100 - 104 -156 - 272 - 346 - 439 - 454 - 562 - 589

BRANDEGORIS

King of Stranggore. One of the kings who rebelled against Arthur at the outset of his reign. It has been
argued that his name means 'Bran of Gore' and that he was originally identical with the god Bran. See:
ELYAN. # 156 - 243

BRANDILES

Knight of the Round Table. His father was Sir Gilbert. He is mentioned in the Second Continuation of
Chrétien's PERCEVAL and the GEST OF SIR GAWAIN in which he fought with Gawain, who had
defeated his father and two brothers, as well as seducing his sister. In the GEST, this fight was stopped to
be resumed later, but the two never met again. In the Second Continuation, there was a second fight
between the two which was haunted by Brandiles's sister. See: BRIAN DES ILLES. # 156

BRANDUBH

He was King of Leinster in the seventh century who lusted after Mongan's wife, Dubh Lacha. He tricked
Mongan into giving her up, but was finally defeated by Mongan's supernatural powers. The name is also of
an Irish boardgame, meaning Black Raven, played between two players. # 454

BRANGIEN

The maidservant of Iseult who, according to Gottfried, was very goodlooking. When Iseult was on her way
to Mark, Iseult's mother gave Brangien and Gouvernail a love potion to administer to the couple.
Unfortunately, owing to a mistake, Tristan and Iseult drank it, thus precipitating their affair. On the night of
her wedding Iseult substituted Brangien for herself so Mark would not guess she had already lain with
Tristan. Subsequently, Iseult tried to have Brangien murdered to ensure her silence, but the attempt was
unsuccessful and Iseult repented of it. Brangien later had an affair with Kaherdin, son of King Hoel of
Brittany. # 64 - 156 - 256

BRANWEN - SISTER OF BRAN

# 562: Given in marriage to Matholwch; mother of Gwern; degraded because of Evnissyen's outrage;
brought to Britain; her death and burial on the banks of the Alaw. - # 454: Daughter of Llyr. She was
married to Matholwch, King of Ireland, and bore him Gwern, but the Irish people had suffered at the hands
of Efnissien, her brother. She was made to serve in the kitchens and was there struck by the cook. She
tamed a starling to bear a message to Bran in Britain who came with a fleet to rescue her. Efnissien threw
Gwern upon the fire and after the ensuing battle between the British and Irish, she died of a broken heart
and was buried in a 'four-sided grave' on the river Alaw, in Anglesey. Her mythos bears a striking
resemblance to that of Cordelia, also a daughter of Lear. Branwen is a type of Sovereignty, as becomes
obvious if this story is investigated thoroughly. As for Ireland, all that were left alive in it were five
pregnant women, And through them Ireland was repeopled,and they founded the Five Kingdoms.# 100 -
272 - 439 - 454 - 562

BRAS-DE-FER

Chamberlain of Antichrist. The poet Huon de Mery in his work LE TORNOIEMANT DE L'ANTECHRIST
tells how he went to the enchanted spring in Broceliande and Bras-de-Fer rode up. They went to a battle
where the forces of Heaven fought against the forces of Hell. Arthur and his knights fought on the side of
Heaven. # 142 - 156

BRASTIAS

# 156: One of Arthur's Knights who was made a warden in the north of England and who fought at
Bedegraine. He had originally been in the service of the Duke of the Tintagel.

# 454: Originally a knight in the service of Gorlois of Cornwall, Brastias became an ally of Merlin in the
episode where Uther is changed into the likeness of his master in order to sleep with Igraine. When Arthur
became King, Brastias was one of his first and most able captains, and became warden of the North. # 156 -
418 - 454

BREA
(bray) When Oisin returned to Ireland from the Otherworld, he was told that Finn mac Cumhal died in the
Battle of Brea, three hundred years ago. # 562

BREAD

# 701: The plea for daily bread incorporated into the Lord's Prayer must have been a plea to the Goddess in
earlier times, for she was always the giver of bread, the Grain Mother, the patron of bakers, mills and
ovens. The English word Lady was derived from Hlaf-dig (hlæfdige - Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, Clark, Hall
& Meritt (ed.rmk.)), the 'giver of daily bread,' while Lord descended from Hlaf-ward (hlafweard), the
guardian (or steward) of her storehouses.

# 100: The prototype of food, and therefore a symbol of life, bread was one of the commonest protections
against fairies. Before going out into a fairy-haunted place, it was customary to put a piece of dry bread into
one's pocket. # 100 - 701 p 482

BREASIL

Was considered to be the King of the World in Irish tradition and although a fortress was supposed to have
been built by him in Leinster, his real dwelling was in the lands to the west, called Hy Breasil, the
otherworldly place whose name was used in the mapping of South America as Brazil. # 454

BREDBEDDLE

A knight who assisted Arthur in the story of KING ARTHUR AND THE KING OF CORNWALL. When
Arthur, Tristan, Gawain and Bredbeddle, went to visit the King of Cornwall's abode, Bredbeddle, with the
aid of a holy book, controlled a friend whom the king had sent to observe them. # 156

BREGIA

Bregia was the great plain lying eastwards of Tara between Boyne and Liffey, which was mentioned in one
of the long list of Conary's geise given to him by Nemglan. 'The bird-reign shall be noble,' said he, 'and
these shall be thy geise: 'Thou shalt not go right-handwise round Tara, nor lefthandwise round Bregia,...' At
CuChulain's first foray his charioteer pointed out to him, while he was looking over the plains of Bregia,
Tara and Teltin, and Brugh na Boyna and the great dun of the sons of Nechtan...

Saint Patrick says to Keelta, he has a boon to crave of him - he wishes to find a well of pure water with
which to baptize the folk of Bregia and of Meath. Bregia is a latinized form of Breg. See: MAG BREG. #
562

BREGON

# 562: Son of Miled, father of Ith. Tower of Breg'on perceived by Ith. # 454: Scythian noble, ancestor of the
Milesians. He was exiled from Egypt and settled in Spain from whence his two sons, Ith and Bile set sail
for Ireland. # 454 - 469 - 562

BREHON

One skilled in the ancient laws and legal institutions of Ireland. # 166

BRENDAN, SAINT
(c.489-583) Born in Kerry, this saint takes his place in Irish legend for his wondrous voyages to the
Promised Land of Saints - a christianized version of the Blessed Isles of the West. He was inspired to take
this voyage by Saint Barrind (see Barinthus) who had just returned from there. Together with seventeen
monks, Brendan set sail in a skin-covered boat and spent many years travelling from island to island,
including a hazardous landing on a whale, where he said mass and his monks attempted to heat a cauldron.
There are many parallels and overlaps with the voyage of Maelduin. # 454 - 507

BRENNIUS

Brother of Belinus, with whom he quarrelled and fought. Both were reconciled by their mother, Tonuuenna,
and together they marched on Gaul which they conquered, and then besieged Rome which Brennius
sacked. # 243 - 454

BRENOS BRIAN

Under this form, was the god to whom the Celts attributed their victories at the Allia and at Delphi. # 562

BRENT KNOLL

This Somerset hill was the site of a battle between Yder and three giants who lived there. Accompanying
Arthur, who sent him on ahead, Yder encountered the giants alone on the hill and, when Arthur and his
followers arrived, the giants were dead, but so was Yder. # 156

BRES MAC ELATHA

# 562: (brés'moc el'ô-ha) 1. Ambassador sent to Firbolgs, by people of Dana; slain in battle of Moytura. 2.
Son of Danaan woman named Eri, chosen as King of Danaan territory in Ireland; his illgovernment and
deposition. 3. Bres Son of Balor (not mac Elatha); learns that the appearance of the sun is the face of Lugh
of the Long Arm.

# 454: The son of Eriu, begotten of her by an otherworld youth, Elatha who was of the Fomorians. Eriu
herself was of the Tuatha de Danaan. Although he was a child of mixed parentage, he was elected king on
the understanding that he would relinquish sovereignty if any misdeed should give cause. But Bres treated
his mother's people poorly, inflicting grave insults upon the Tuatha. He created a monopoly over the food
supplies of Ireland, making the Tuatha obliged to serve him in order to be fed. He was then satirized by the
Tuatha's poet. (A poet's satire could cause personal disfigurement, in the case of Bres the King, he was
considered maimed and therefore unfit to reign.) Eventually the Tuatha rose against him and Bres joined
the Fomorian side during the second Battle of Mag Tuired. Here he bargained with Lugh in a magical
contest which he lost. He was forced to drink 300 buckets of tainted milk and died. # 166 - 454 - 562

BRES, THE BIRTH OF

Of the birth of Bres it is said in 'The Second Battle of Mag Tuired' that Ériu daughter of Delbaeth, a woman
of Tuatha De Danann, was looking out to sea one morning and she saw a silver ship which brought a fair-
haired youth, wearing a gold-adorned mantle, who greeted her with: 'Is this the time that our lying with thee
will be easy?' They lay down together and the youth then told her he was Elatha son of Delbaeth, king of
the Fomoire. He gave her a ring which she should give only to one whose finger it fitted, and he prophesied
the birth of a beautiful boy who should be called Eochaid Bres. The boy was duly born and grew twice as
rapidly as other boys. # 548

BREUNIS SAUNCE PYTÉ - BREUSE SANS PITIE


# 156: One of Arthur's enemies, whom Gareth slew. P. A. Karr's KING ARTHUR COMPANION comments
on his ubiquitousness. He had originally been knighted by Arthur.

# 454: The knight who became a byword in the Arthurian world as the most thoroughly evil-hearted villain
living at that time. He captured and killed many of Arthur's knights, and was responsible for the
discomfiture of many others. He does not seem to have ever been either caught or punished for his crimes -
unusual in the Arthurian world - but simply fades from the scene in the various texts which mention him. #
156 - 418 - 454

BREUNOR

Called the Black, Breunor arrived at Arthur's court wearing a coat that fitted him badly. He was given the
nickname 'La Cote Male Tailée' (The badly-cut coat) by Kay. He would not take off the coat until he had
avenged his father. He rendered assistance to the damsel Maladisant who at first hurled abuse at him, but
eventually married him. He became lord of Pendragon Castle. See: DANIEL, and DINADAN. # 156 - 418

BRI

(bré) A hill. # 166

BRI LEITH

(bré la'ith) Fairy palace of Midir the Proud (otherworld lover of Etain) at Bri Leith in Co. Longford; Etain
carried to Bri Leith. # 166 - 562

BRIAN

(bree an) # 454: With his brothers Iuchar and Iucharba, the sons of Tuirenn, he slew Cian mac Cainte, the
father of Lugh. Lugh discovered the body of Cian, exhumed it and then set out to avenge him. He ordered
that the sons of Tuirenn should pay an impossible compensation for their crime, including the three apples
of the Hesperides and many other otherworldly treasures. They obtained everything asked by Lugh but died
at last in the achieving of the last task. There is an obvious overlay between this story and that of Culhwch,
who performed impossible tasks for Yspaddaden. Lugh's lack of mercy in not sparing the sons of Tuirenn is
like that of Llew to his wife's lover, Gronw Pebr.

# 562: One of the three sons of Turenn. Equivalent, Brenos, Son of Brigit (Dana). # 166 - 267 - 454 - 562

BRIAN BORU

(926- 1014) King of Ireland. He successfully defeated the almost universal scourge of the Danes which
afflicted Ireland and Britain at that time, at the Battle of Clontarf, however, he lost his own life in the
process. Like Alfred the Great, he liked to do his own reconnoitring. On one such foray, he encountered an
Irish woman crying because her Danish husband had bidden her kill her child for food, there being none to
cook due to ravages of war. Brian gave her food and in return she was able to give the password of the
stronghold, which enabled him to overcome his foe. He was said to have introduced the plover into Ireland
because of its facility for warning of enemy attack. # 454 - 469

BRIAN DES ILLES

In PERLESVAUS we are told that, aided by Kay who had slain Arthur's son Loholt, he attacked Arthur's
realm. He laid siege to Carduel but was eventually driven off by Lancelot. He was subsequently defeated
by Arthur and then became his seneschal. He is perhaps identical with Brandiles in origin. It has been
suggested that Brian is based on a historical person, Brian de Insula, illegitimate son of Alan Fergeant
(eleventh century). # 112 - 156

BRIAREUS

According to Plutarch, Briareus was the hundred-handed giant set to guard Cronos in Ogygia, a mystical
island in the Atlantic Ocean. # 256 - 454

BRICRIU NEMTHENGA 'BRICRIU OF THE POISON TONGUE'

(bric'ryoo nev'hyenga) # 562: Ulster Lord; causes strife between CuChulain and Red Branch heroes as to
Championship of Ireland; summons aid of demon named The Terrible. For the sake of the strife which he
loved, he suggested that the warriors of Ulster and Connacht should compare their principal deeds of arms,
and give the carving of the boar of mac Datho to him who seemed to have done best in the border-fighting
which was always going on between the provinces. It was won by neither party.

# 454: Satirist and mischief-maker at Conchobar's court. He incited rivalry between the heroes CuChulain,
Conall and Loegaire by assigning the 'hero's portion' of the feast to the best warrior. The champions' three
wives were driven to contend for the place of honour. The dispute was settled by Cu Roi mac Daire who
offered the heroes a chance of playing the beheading game; only CuChulain would play it and so won the
contest. Bricriu was surnamed Nemthenga or Poison-Tongue. # 166 - 266 - 454 - 562

BRICRIU'S FEAST

# 166: BRICRIU'S FEAST is one of the longest narratives of the Ulster cycle. It exists in several versions,
the oldest of which is based on an original composed probably as early as the eighth century. Though
somewhat marred by repetitions and contradictions, the story, taken as a whole, is one of the best in early
Irish literature. It consists of a series of episodes describing various tests of valor which the three bravest
warriors of Ulster - CuChulain, Conall, and Loegaire undergo in order to determine who is most worthy to
receive the choicest portion of a feast prepared by Bricriu of the Poison Tongue, the Thersites of the cycle.
The antiquity of the motif around which the narrative centers is vouched for by a Greek writer who relates
that at ancient Celtic feasts the choicest titbit, or 'Champion's portion,' was assigned to the bravest warrior
present, whose preeminence was sometimes established by a fight on the spot. Cu Roi, who figures in
several episodes, is a semi-supernatural being who probably belonged originally, not to the Ulster cycle, but
to the legendary history of the south of Ireland. # 236: 'Bricriu's Feast', perhaps the most characteristic
Ulster Cycle story, has just about everything: a mythic subtext, a heroic competition, visits to and from the
otherworld, elements of humour and parody and a rambling, patchwork structure. The mythic subtext
comprises the beheading sequence known to English literature from SIR GAWAIN AND THE GREEN
KNIGHT; but there, even though the tale is of later date, the regeneration theme is clearer because the ritual
slaying takes place at New Year (the English equivalent of Samuin) and because the earth-goddess figure
(the Green Knight's wife) is present. Irish tradition frequently presents otherworld judges as large, ugly
churls in rough, drab clothing; one might also compare Cu Rui's appearance with that of Arawn at the
outset of 'Pwyll Lord of Dyved'. As for the Green Knight's colour, which had led some to identify him as a
vegetation figure, grey and green are not always clearly distinguished in Irish - the word GLASS, for
example, might signify either colour.

The actual text, or theme, of 'Bricriu's Feast' is much simpler: the contest among Loegure Buadach, Conall
Cernach and CuChulain for the champion's portion - that is, for the biggest and best serving at feasts and
for the privilege of sitting at Conchubar's right. The competition takes the folktale form wherein each of the
three brothers attempts a feat (CuChulain, of course, is the youngest). Bricriu, whose sobriquet Nemthenga
means 'poison tongue', is a mischief-maker, an Irish Loki; yet he seldom perpetrates any permanent or
serious damage (such as the death of Baldur). 'Bricriu's Feast' is, in fact, comic as well as heroic. Although
Bricriu threatens to turn the Ulaid against one another, to set father against son and mother against
daughter, it is not until he threatens to set the breasts of each Ulaid women beating against each other that
the chieftains agree to attend his feast. The risibility of Fedelm, Lendabair and Emer racing each other to
the drinking house, their suspicions raised as high as their skirts, cannot have escaped the storyteller;
neither can the spectacle of Bricriu's beautiful house left lopsided, nor that of Bricriu himself thrown down
on to the garbage heap and reappearing at the door so filthy with dirt and mud that the Ulaid do not
recognize him.

The structure of 'Bricriu's Feast' leaves something to be desired. Doubtless the storyteller has stretched his
material (and his host's hospitality), and perhaps he has tried to reconcile conflicting traditions; still, the
resultant repetitions and duplications must have sounded better in a chieftain's banquet hall than they look
in print, and it is also fair to presume some degree of deterioration in both transmission and transcription.
'Bricriu's Feast' is the ultimate source for Yeats's play THE GREEN HELMET. # 166 - 236

BRIDGE OF THE LEAPS

The Bridge of Leaps was very narrow and very high, and it crossed a gorge where far below swung the
tides of a boiling sea, in which ravenous monsters could be seen swimming. 'Not one of us has crossed that
bridge,' said Ferdia to CuChulain, 'for there are two feats that Skatha teaches last, and one is the leap across
that bridge. For if a man step upon one end of the bridge, the middle straightway rises up and flings him
back, and if he leap upon it he may chance to miss his footing and fall into the gulf, where the sea-monsters
are waiting for him.' But CuChulain waited till evening, when he had recovered his strenght from his long
journey, and then essayed the crossing of the bridge. Three times he ran towards it from a distance,
gathering all his powers together, and strove to leap upon the middle, but three times it rose against him and
flung him back, while his companions jeered at him bacause he would not wait for the help of Skatha. But
at the fourth leap he lit fairly on the centre of the bridge, and with one leap more he was across it, and stood
before the strong fortress of Skatha; and she wondered at his courage and vigour, and admitted him to be
her pupil. # 562

BRIGANTIA

Titular goddess of the Brigantes, of the West Riding in Yorkshire. A dedication and bas-relief at Birrens
depicts her with the victorious attributes of Minerva and wearing the mural crown of Cybele, which shows
how the Romans adopted her into their own mythos. Natively, she was a goddess of water and of pastoral
activities. She may be equated with the Irish Brigit. ># 454 - 523

BRIGHID (BRIGIT, BRIGID, BRIDE)

# 562: Irish Goddess identical with Dana and Brigindo, &c; She is daughter of the god Dagda "The Good";
Ecne, grandson of Brigit. (pronouncing: Brigit g as in "get" and Bride (breed))

# 454: In her triple aspect she was patroness of poets, healers and smiths. Her son by Bres, Ruadan, was
slain by Goibnui. For him she made the first keening that was ever heard in Ireland. She was subsumed in
the cult and person of Saint Brigit of Kildare (450-523) who founded the first female religious community
after Christianity had been established in Ireland. The sanctuary of the nunnery at Kildare had a perpetual
fire, tended by the sisterhood, which was not extinguished until the Reformation. Saint Brigit is the
secondary patron saint of Ireland. Within Scottish tradition Brigid (the saint and the goddess) is associated
with the lambing season and the coming of spring, when she ousts the winter reign of the Cailleach Bheur.
The saint is further known as the 'Mary of the Gael' and is credited with being the midwife to the Virgin. A
folk-story tells how she played the fool by lighting a crown of candles and wearing it on her head to distract
Herod's soldiers from the Holy Infant. Traces of Brigit can be discerned in Brigantia.
# 628: LADY OF BRIGHT INSPIRATION. BRIGHID, Gaelic goddess of smithcraft and metalwork,
poetic inspiration and therapy. The ancient FILID or bards were under her direct inspiration, and in folk
tradition she is said to have been the midwife and foster-mother of Jesus. Her primal function is that of fire
and illumination; in Romano-Celtic temples she was frequently amalgamated with the goddess Minerva. It
was she who first made the whistle for calling one to another through the night. And the one side of her
face was ugly, but the other side was very comely. And the meaning of her name was Breosaighit, a fiery
arrow.# 136 - 166 - 267 - 415 - 454 - 562-628 p 66

BRIGINDO

Equivalents, Brigit and "Brigantia". # 562

BRISEN

When King Pelles wanted Lancelot to sleep with his daughter Elaine so that Galahad would be conceived,
Brisen was the one who arranged this on two occasions. (Lancelot was under the misapprehension that
Elaine was Guinevere.) # 156

BRITAIN AND ENGLAND

A surprising number of foreigners use these words interchangeably. This is incorrect and frequently
offensive to the British themselves. England is one of three countries that share the island of Great Britain.
It is the southernmost and largest of the three. Great Britain (frequently just called Britain) is the largest of
the British Isles. It comprises England, Scotland and Wales. The British Isles comprise Great Britain,
Ireland, the Isle of Man, and the Channel Islands. The United Kingdom is the kingdom of the British Isles,
and comprises Great Britain, Northern Ireland, the Isle of Man, and the Channel Islands. Officially the
name is United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. (Between 1801 and 1922 it included all of
Ireland.) Thus English pertains to England and its people. British, on the other hand, pertains to Great
Britain, and by extension to the United Kingdom and the British Commonwealth of Nations. It is easy for
foreigners, especially Americans to forget that the English were relative latecomers to England. Long
before the Angles, Saxons and Jutes invaded what is now England in the fifth century, the Celts and the
Picts (surviving as Scots, Welsh, and Irish) had lived there under Roman rule. Their languages (Gaelic,
Welsh, Manx, etc.) were totally different from those of either their Roman or Germanic conquerors. Their
separate cultural identities and their pride in them are still very real. Many a Scot has no hesitation in
pointing out that England's greatest deeds wer performed by Scots. # 118 p 35

BRITAIN, ANCIENT

See also GREAT BRITAIN. # 562: Carthaginian trade with Britain, broken down by the Greeks. Celtic
element in Britain. Magic indigenous in Britain. Votive inscriptions to Æsus, Teutates, and Taranus found in
Britain; dead carried from Gaul to Britain; Ingsel, son of King of Britain. Visit of Demetrius. Bran, King of
Britain; Caradawc rules over in his father's name. Caswallan conquers Britain. The 'Third Fatal Disclosure'
in Britain.

# 156: The realm ruled by Arthur. The island derives its name from the Priteni, the term the Picts used for
themselves. The Roman province of Britain did not include Scotland (except for the Lowlands) though, in
legend, Arthur, seen as the Romans' successor, ruled the entire island. - Legendary historians claimed the
country was first ruled by Albion, a giant. The career of Albion delineated in Holinshed's CHRONICLES
(1577). Geoffrey does not mention him, but says the giants predated men there. Subsequently, he says, the
island was colonized by Brutus, a descendant of Aeneas, and remained independent until Roman times.
Another tradition is found in the WHITE BOOK OF RHYDDERCH (fourteenth century). This says the
country was first called Myrddin's (Merlin's) Precinct, then the Isle of Honey and finally named Prydein
(Britain) after its conquest by Prydein, son of Aedd. Geoffrey does not mention this tradition, but it may
predate him. Aedd may be identical with the Irish sun god, Aedh. It was also said that Prydein came from
Cornwall and conquered Britain after the death of Porrex, one of the successors of Brutus in Geoffrey.
Geoffrey may have known of traditions concerning Prydein, but may have felt they contradicted his story
about Britain deriving its name from Brutus. Irish tradition said that Britain derived its name from Britain,
son of Nemedius, who settled there.

Ordinary history tells us little about Britain before Roman times. Archaeology informs us that, before 2800
BC, the inhabitants were Neolithic farmers referred to as the Windmill Hill People. Then came the Beaker
People who used copper and gold. These people may have been Celts.

At some stage Celts able to use iron became the foremost people of the island, but it is difficult to say when
they were actually established. The problem is discussed by M. Dillon and N. K. Chadwick. Julius Caesar
landed on the island a couple of times but the Roman conquest actually took place in the reign of Claudius.
Britain was eventually abandoned by the Romans and left to fend for herself against Picts from the north,
Irish from the west and Angles, Saxons and Jutes from beyond the North Sea. The period of the historical
Arthur would have been after this.

# 687:It is typical of the Roman Period that it is the only one which is precisely timed as to its beginning
and ending. They came in 43 and they left in 476. After that we are landed in a sort of no-man's time in
which the Celtic elements in Roman Britain come to the fore again and instead of combining to hold the
forts of the Saxon Shore they follow the old game of local emulation. The P. Celts (Welshspeaking) of the
Forth-Clyde region descend on the Q. Celts (Irishspeaking) who are settled on the western seabord,
including the Isle of Anglesey. While the slaughter is going on between tribe and tribe, which had been
good neighbours under the Roman rule, the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes are making almost unopposed
landings in the Humber, the Wash, the Thames, and on the Isle of Thanet. This period (because it is
temporarily obscure to the archaeologist) is given the name Dark Ages, which is a little unfair to people like
King Arthur and his fellowship of the Round Table, and even more to the many shining lights who were
saints in the Celtic Church. The monuments of this time are principally earthworks and inscribed
monoliths. Among the former perhaps the most typical are Wansdyke and Offa's Dyke. The former lies east
and west and was actually built on top of a good Roman road. Some fine sections of it remain on the downs
near Tan Hill, south-west of Marlborough. The ditch of Wansdyke is on the northern side of the rampart, so
it was presumably built by a tribal group lying southward of it, but who they were and why they needed
such a colossal earthwork, sixty miles long, is one of the mysteries of the Dark Ages. On the other hand,
Offa's Dyke is a comparatively well dokumented affair. It was built by Offa king of Mercia (eighth century)
along the western boundary of his kingdom, which rested on the marches of Wales. It superseded (very
advantageously for the Saxons) an earlier work of exactly similar type called Watt's Dyke, of which large
fragments still remain. Although Offa's Dyke was only built as the western boundary of one of the seven
Saxon kingdoms it remained the official boundary between England and Wales for centuries.

One of the best views that can be had of it is at the little village of Mainstone in Montgomeryshire.
Although the Vikings were destructive in the matter of churh property when they first raided Saxon
England, the Celtic Isle of Man, and Ireland, on conversion to Christianity they took particularly kindly to
the cult of the high cross. They introduced new interlaced patterns in the design of it, and added to the usual
Gospel series picturesque scenes from the old Norse sagas and fairy tales. The best example of this type of
cross is to be seen in the Isle of Man, which was wholly under Viking sway until the thirteenth century. In
the west of Scotland there was a strong and very beautiful development, notably at Iona. But in the east of
that kingdom, in the old land of the Picts, a type of decorated memorial stone is found which is in a class by
itself.

The 'symbol stone,' as it is called, is a plain, undressed monolith like the old inscribed stones of Wales, but,
unlike them, it bears no clue to its date. It is, however, a very early and highly conventionalised and
expertly carved with symbols and it is odd that no more attention has been drawn to this remarkable work
of art. From the Celtic Church, in which monasticism of a certain type (similar to that practised by the
Coptic Church in Egypt) was such a strong feature, nothing monumental has remained to us except what
has been discovered on the headland of Tintagel. Here an ancient religious settlement which may go back
to the sixth or even the fifth century was unearthed back in 1935. Of monasteries of the Roman orders
belonging to the Dark Ages, the best relic is that built by the Venerable Bede at Jarrow. It remains with its
nearly perfect Saxon church in a secluded and peaceful precinct beside the Tyne, in spite of its
neighbourhood of industrialism and industrial depression. The Norman period could have been a 'new
Roman' in Britain, but there was a curious Fait Manqué about the Scandinavians. They had the opportunity
of forming an empire which would have bid fair to replace the fallen one of Rome, but they never seem to
have given such an idea a moment's thought. They conquered parts of Gaul, Italy, Sicily, England, and
secured the whole of Iceland. It is more than likely, too, that they planted a strong colony in Greenland,
from where they went as far as across the North Atlantic to the 'Vineland', the eastern coast of America. Yet
each conquering band kept its own territory, and as there were no ties of confederacy with a mother land,
the claims of kinship were not kept up. But the Normans had learnt one thing from the Roman Empire in
their attacks on its towns, namely that stone buildings withstand fire, and that was an invaluable lesson for
any conqueror to learn, especially if he intended to make and hold his conquest by the church as well as
with the castle. And after the Norman period we are leaving the ancient time of Britain and with that no
more within our purview. # 156 - 187 - 243 - 562 - 687

BRITAIN, STRANGE

The mysteries of Britain are both large and small. In some cases, they are so large as to be almost invisible
to the human eye, and may only be seen to advantage from an aeroplane - as for example in the case of the
huge hill-figures cut through turf into the chalk below, which have become more accessible only since
flight became possible at the beginning of our century. In other cases, the mysteries are so small as to be
easily missed by those who have little time to stand and stare. The Christian fish symbol high on the walls
of Glastonbury Abbey, and where the design suggest that it was incised there in the fourteenth century, may
be passed by unnoticed even by one who has gone to the place to steep himself in the more famous legends
of King Arthur, or the sacred well, or the story of Joseph of Arimathaea. Even if it is not possible to study
them from the air, the larger mysteries must be visited, if only to savour the atmosphere around them.
Stonehenge in Wiltshire is a good example of such a 'must', for something of the occult power of the place
may still be felt among its stones, even though much of its sacred character has been damaged in modern
times by the nearby buildings, sentry posts, and the awful underpass constructed by English Heritage. The
'Carles' circle at Castlerigg in Cumbria is another such site, and here the mysterious forces work more
freely, being less impeded by insensitive officialdom.

But perhaps the most spiritually-charged of all the ancient stone circles is that at Callanish, on the island of
Lewis, which, until comparatively modern times, was protected beneath many feet of boggy peat and has
now been revealed as a stellar computer, on much the same line as Stonehenge to the south. The largest of
the stone circle complexes is at Avebury - a site which contains the vast man-made mound of Silbury Hill,
the largest of such mounds in Europe - and though a village has been built into the middle of the stones
(making use, indeed, of fragments of broken menhirs for house-building), this circle still retains that
distinctive feeling of magic which proclaims it as a living wonder in our age. The ancient circles, and the
complex of stone outliers and mounds which serves them, are not the largest of the mysteries of Britain,
however. By far the biggest (if it is indeed a genuine thing, and not just a figment of the human
imagination) is the so-called Glastonbury Zodiac, which some authorities claim to trace in the landscape
around the village of Butleigh, in a vast circle with a diameter of just over nine miles. Like the white horses
which are found in the most outlandish and surprising places in Britain, such as Kilburn, Uffington and
Westbury, the Glastonbury Zodiac may be seen to advantage only from the air - though of course many
attempts have been made to map out the figures traced within its vast circumference in diagrammatic form.
One wonders, indeed, how the people of ancient times saw these circles, hill-figures and earth-zodiacs
which they built, for it is only occultists, and not historians, who insist that the people of old had access to a
special form of flying machine. Perhaps the smallest British wonder (though it is really a Romano-British
artefact) related to the stone circles and earth-zodiacs, is the Mithraic zodiac now preserved in the Museum
of London. Although size is often one of the factors which play a part in revealing a thing as a wonder, or
even as a mystery, size itself is not always important. There are other mysteries in Britain which are not as
large as Stonehenge, Castlerigg, Callanish or Avebury, and are often small enough to be held in the palm of
the hand, or preserved in display cases or in churches, as a part of the ornamentation.
The simple truth is that the glory of Britain's history is recorded in our churches. Not only does almost
every monument tell a story about some detail of British history, but, more often than not, such memorials
contain symbols which reveal secret and occult notions belonging to the past rather than to the present, and
are therefore mysteries to the modern mind. Such are the curious pigs on a tomb in Hereford Cathedral, the
lovely woman and child lying on a pillow of a lion at Scarcliffe, or the curiously carved chair at
Sprotbrough, which gave respite to criminals in a past age. The charnel case of skulls and bones in the
monument to the wives of Sir Gervase at Clifton is also of a similar mysterious symbolism, even if its
meaning is all too obvious. The carving reminds us that such charnel pits were once part and parcel of the
British heritage, as old prints of crypts reveal. Yet its survival in an English church is perhaps just as
remarkable as the survival of the dozen or so sculptures of skeletal effigies and cadavers intended as
models of those buried below, as, for example, in Worsbrough or Hatfield. Within the churches of Britain
we find emblems of life, as well as of death. What, for example, can be more life-enhancing than the
legends of the Grail, and of that armoured superman of the past, King Arthur, who has done so much to
mould our image of British history and destiny? The round table of Arthur at Mayburgh - perhaps confused
with the old circle at Eamont Bridge nearby - the death-place of the King at Dozmary Pool on Bodmin
Moor, and the secret place of Glastonbury itself, where monkish cunning claimed the King was buried, are
all well-known sites for those interested in Arthurian legends.

Yet perhaps the most impressive of the esoteric collections linked with Arthurian mythology is in the
church of St James, in Kilkhampton, Devon. The dedication to James, the patron saint of pilgrims, is said to
arise from the fact that the village was once on the famous pilgrimage route from St David's in the far east
of Wales to Compostela in Spain. In the stained glass of this lovely church we find what is undoubtedly the
most impressive image in Britain of Joseph of Arimathea. Joseph, who holds the flowering thorn and the
Holy Grail, is supposed to have brought the latter from Jerusalem to England and buried it under the Tor at
Glastonbury. In the same stained glass of the east windows is an image of Arthur himself, in the romantic
guise of a medieval knight. Among the fascinating bench-ends still in use within the church is a carving of
a cup, which some take to represent a chalice and which others maintain is an image of the Holy Grail itself
- as is the one carried by Joseph in the stained glass image. Kilkhampton reminds, perhaps more than any
other church, of the way in which certain places seem to attract secret symbols, almost as though such
symbols need to seek out a home where thay may be preserved. Why have so many symbols of British
mythology and esoteric thought found their way into one single church? It is easy to explain why so many
esoteric symbols - of the ouroboros time-serpent, of the green man, of zodiacal images, and so on - should
be found at Kilpeck church as they are the work of one man. But time and time again one finds certain
places attract many mysteries from different ages and sources. This is indeed one of the mysteries of Britain
itself. The mysteries are found in the strangest of places, in sites as remote as the Hebridean islands, as
accessible as the city of London, in museums, hillsides and in churches - the very places where one might
expect miracles, but not mysteries. Indeed, the very number of British mysteries is almost a wonder in
itself. Why have these islands been singled out as the repository for such a welter of mysterious remains?
Was there something special in the British earth that the ancients should build so many stone circles, of
which almost 500 still survive? Or is it true that Britain is itself a fragmented survival of the fabled
continent of Atlantis, which sank beneath the waves of the Atlantic thousands of years ago? Whatever the
reasons, there are so many centres in Britain where the mind is almost numbed by the weight of mythology
and mystery associated with them that one is hardpressed to visit them all in the space of one lifetime.

The vastly differing histories of the countries which make up Britain have resulted in memorials and
mementoes with almost regional characters. For example, the growth of witchcraft in Scotland - especially
under the reign of James VI (later James I of England) - was far more pervasive than in England. This has
resulted in popular witchcraft stories being linked with many Scottish villages, towns and kirks, and even in
the survival of many Scottish witchcraft stones which mark places where victims of the witch-craze met
their deaths. One of the most famous is the witch-stone at Spott, set into a hillside dominated by a
prehistoric defensive castle which was also associated later with witch-burnings. Another is at Forres, not
far from where Macbeth is supposed to have lived, while an equally well-known memorial stone is in
Dornoch, marking the last place in Scotland where a witch was burned. The author, Charles Walker, wonder
if there is a single stone circle or menhir in Scotland which does not have its own witchcraft story or
diabolical mythology. Where curious Scottish stones are not associated with the Devil or witchcraft, then,
more often than not, they are linked with the ancient giants who (as some claim) swarmed to the
mountainous land from the sinking Atlantis. Such giants are supposed to have built many of the Scottish
stone circles, and, since the hero Fiann was of the gigantic race, they also built the basaltic island of Staffa.
Sir Joseph Banks, who 'discovered' the island for the modern world in 1772, wrote that it is to be 'reckoned
one of the greatest natural curiosities in the world.' There is little of the dark northern witchcraft in Wales,
and the legends are mainly about heroes of battle, of song-making and of magic.

More often than not, the legends and mysteries point to the delicate realm of faery, to the Celtic
underworld, where dragons lived alongside men and sometimes had to be slaughtered in order to rescue
princesses. In Wales, even today, one walks among the archetypes, and the mythological stories are
impressed into the natural landscape of such wonders as Pistyll Rhaeadr, rather than into man-made objects
and buildings. Among the mysterious wonders of Wales are the chambered tombs - now so often stripped of
their earth covering and revealed as so many gaunt bones of stone, petrified in some delicate balancing act,
as at Pentre Ifan. If one spends time studying the British mysteries, one gradually becomes aware of the
exrent to which the calendar plays an important part in the secrets hidden behind their forms and symbols.
In modern times, expert archaeologists have revealed that the huge stone circles of Stonehenge, Avebury
and Callanish were used as complex (if primitive) calendrical machines for determining the cycles of the
years in terms of eclipses, sun-settings, sun-risings, and similar lunar points - all phenomena of great
importance to the rituals practised by the ancients. Additionally, many of the strange and mysterious
customs which have survived, in a more or less garbled form, into modern times are also linked with the
symbolism of the calendar - with the zodiacal points, with the four directions of space, with the solstices
and the equinoxes, and the sequence of the zodiac. For this reason, if we wish to reach a little more deeply
into the mysteries of Britain, it will be as well for us to glance at one or two of the calendrical traditions.
When looked at from the point of view of mythology, the British calendar is revealed as a complex thing;
some of the events it marks are derived from our first Christian civilizers those Romans who came as
soldiers and stayed as monks - and some are distinctly pagan, being even older than the first recorded
history of our land. The moment one begins to relate places, architectural forms and mythologies to the
calendar, one is faced with the lore of astrology, which attempts to relate man to the cosmos and to the
earth. It is the traditions attached to astrology, in regard to the pictorial imagery revealing the passing of the
seasons, or the movement of the sun against the zodiacal belt, and the relationship these were believed to
hold to the human being, which account for many of the secret symbols in the British Isles. It would be
impossible to treat of all these mysteries from this astrological point of view, yet it will be instructive if we
examine just one - the zodiacal font at Hook Norton, which is one of the lesser mysteries of the British
Isles. Why should one find a figure of a horse-man archer on a font? What is the relationship between a
figure of the constellation, or zodiacal sign Sagittarius, and Christianity - what has it to do with baptism, for
which the font is used? In the astrological tradition there is a standard figure called 'the zodiacal man' - an
image which was introduced to the west with the new astrology of the eleventh century. This figure
portrays man with the twelve signs of the zodiac associated with the different part of the body. The
rulership was intended to portray both the inner and outer forms of the connexion between the zodiac and
the human body. For example, Aries the Ram had rule over the human head, but it also had rule over what
went on inside the head - namely, thinking - just as the sign Leo had rule over the heart, and also over the
inner activity of the heart, which was feeling. Sagittarius had rule over the thigh, but its inner activity was
not as obvious as with Aries and Leo. Tradition insisted that it was the movement of the thigh which
permitted man to walk as an erect being: thus, the thigh represented the inner power of movement, and by
extension all movement connected with human aspiration. Since the greatest aspirations were always
ideals, and linked with the wish to learn more - in medieval terms, to move out more closely to God -
Sagittarius was soon linked with education and with the church, or religious life. By this reasoning, when
we find on a medieval font the image of Sagittarius, we can be sure that it is a symbolic reference to the
idea that the child who is to be baptised at this font is being protected by the image, is being vouchsaved a
good education, within the framework of the religious life. It is not surprising that on the same Hook
Norton font we should find images of Adam and Eve next to the horse-archer, for they represent the
innocence of childhood, while the horseman represents the educational guide who will protect the innocent
child and teach him the way of Christ as he grows into the world, away from the Garden of Eden which is
the childhood state.
The symbolism of the Hook Norton font is, indeed, a good example of how easily one may miss the hidden
meaning of a symbol if one is not prepared to consider what the ancient sculptors and symbol-makers
believed themselves. The font should remind us that the mysteries of Britain may not always be grasped at
first glance, yet if one pays enough attention to them they will always speak, and reveal at least something
of their inner content. To hear their voices, however, one must visit them and be prepared to seek, behind
the familiar appearances of their symbols, the hidden meanings which men of old considered a necessary
part of their art, and which contribute so wonderfully to make Britain such a place of mystery. # 702

BRITAIN, THE RIDDLE OF PREHISTORIC

As Iman Wilkens reveal extraordinary theories concerning the classical works THE ILIAD and THE
ODYSSEY by Homer and their origin, so does Comyns Beaumont shake the generally assumptions of the
most 'well-known' works from the antiquity in his book THE RIDDLE OF PREHISTORIC BRITAIN
published in 1945. To bring the reader the optional clues from this book we record here the author's
foreword in full: 'At this philosophical study envisages an entirely new outlook on the past history of the
world in which the British Isles emerge as the predominant influence, I owe it to the reader to afford some
explanation of how I came to venture so ambitious an effort. Over thirty years ago I must confess that I
stumbled rather than deliberately walked into a recognition that the history of remote days as passed down
was based on false premises in regard to the most famous ancient peoples, both in regard to geography and
chronology. I was brought to the conviction that the Atlantic and not the Mediterranean was the focus of
world civilization, and as I pursued my researches I found to my own astonishment that this path led me
ultimately to the direction of the British Isles, and that they, with the Scandinavian Peninsula - originally
itself an island - emerged from obscurity as the true motherland of the Aryan or Nordic Race, the biblical
Adamites, and dominated the ancient world long before the Flood of Noah. My investigations had started
with the puzzle of the drowning of the supposedly lost island of Atlantis, but as the search continued with
an open mind gradually the quest narrowed to one infinitely nearer home, and eventually assumed the
proportions which Plato ascribed to it as an inland-continent from whence the 'continent opposite' - namely
America - was approached by the way of islands. 'Atlantis', in a word, stood revealed as the British Islands,
then of considerably greater size apart from Scandinavia, with her attendant isles, enjoying a delicious
temperate clime, from whence was evolved the first of mankind, signifying the white blond race, the Aryan
peoples, from whom the Greeks and other Celts - who migrated in part to the Mediterranean later - first
arose.

Atlantis was drawn in one way or another into the vortex of the earliest Graeco-Phoenician myths of
Oceanus, of the 'earth-shaker' Poseidon, the Gorgons, the Cyclops and others, all for definite reasons
pointing to the North Atlantic Ocean. This, if correct, rules out the Canaries or Azores (as some have
identified with Atlantis), or the regions of Morocco where the so-called Atlas Mountains are a misnomer
altogether, but advances the British Isles and the Scandinavian mass, formerly at one with Northern Britain
or separated only by a wider river and strait. In short, for a variety of reasons I was impelled to identify
Atlantis with the British Isles. It transpired that the prehistory of the Atlanteans and the race of Adam
possessed peculiar similarities. The supermen of Plato's island were drowned in a flood like the Adamites,
the Giants of the old time, men of renown, the men whose thoughts became wholly evil, destroyed in what
is called the Flood or universal Deluge. The cause advanced for their destruction was in effect the same in
both cases, they being accused of having mastered too many of the secrets of, as we should say, science, or,
as the ancients termed it, the gods. Their attainments, identifiable at least in part from various sources,
gradually revealed a remarkable civilization, one in which flourished many and great walled cities, towns
and villages, these often adorned with majestic temples and palaces; with main highways supported by
multitudinous navigable canals and rivers; with a highly developed agriculture producing the fruits of the
earth, while other tracts were used to rear horses, cattle, and sheep; with many ports and a mercantile
marine which sailed the main to the most distant lands and brought home cargoes of wealth. It was divided
into ten states like the ten tribes of Israel (of whom we really know so little), although one, the direct
descendants of Atlas, hence Atlanteans, dominated the rest, and whose king or chief ruler was, Primus Inter
Pares, an ecclesiastical monarch, a superman, in fact a divinity, regarded by all as a living God, the sole
intermediary between the celestial deities and all human flesh. In his hands was all ecclesiastical and
temporal power, and this theocrat, arch-magus, or, as described, 'His Anointed', was the most absolute
despot the world has ever known, for he controlled not only the bodies but the minds of all from the highest
to the lowest. All knowledge lay in his hands, delegated to those priests who were initiated into the sublime
mysteries, whereby scientific knowledge was completely confined to the few of the highest caste and was
made a profound mystery of mysteries. The day arrived when this civilization collapsed. To a considerable
extent it was prefaced by signs of internal deterioration, the growth of tyranny, ambition, greed, and a
slackening of moral principles. The ruling caste learned too much of nature's secrets and developed them
for the purposes of selfish aims. They had mastered appliances of science to a degree which in several
respects owed little to modern science, or, to avoid exaggeration, of a few decades ago, with the main
difference that today the pursuit of science is open to all, whereas in the distant day an immence gulf lay
between the knowledge of the priestly initiates, which was pronounced divine, and that of their subjects and
slaves.

The day arrived when the closely guarded secrets of their magic arts in the use of fire and even of the air
were betrayed to kings afar off and led to savage wars of invasion, where rival creeds and ambitions fought
one another with bitter hatred. Meanwhile, threatened for some time by untoward meteorological
happenings, such as strange plagues of insects, earthquakes, and volcanoes going into eruption, of a sudden
the most terrible catastrophe afflicted this erstwhile happy land, struggling desperately against its invaders
from the east. It what was we call the Flood of Noah, to the Hellenes the Deluge of Deucalion or Ogyges,
and had other names besides. This prodigious event was by no means local and inundation was only one of
its tremendous legacies to future generations. It approached earth from the celestial north-east and flung
itself upon an unhappy world, shattering civilization at its very core. It mainly afflicted directly the northern
regions of Europe, but with prodigious speed flung outliers in scattered portions of America. Its epicentre
lay in Scandinavia and the British Isles, commemorated since by many an epic and legend placed
geographically altogether wrongly by historians and theologists, and it established among other effects the
region of the Greek and Celtic Hades, the Place of Burning, which can be identified. It caused directly the
greatest havoc over an immense area such as mankind had never experienced before and has been spared
since. It obliterated many landmarks and elevated others. It permanently affected the world's climate
towards greater extremes of cold and damp, lengethened the solar year by enlarging the world's orbit. It
shaped world history by compelling the flight of survivors to other less inhospitable climes and led in
considerable degree to the diversion of the Aryans. It inundated the British Isles for a period to a great
extent except the higher lands. It was the drowning of Atlantis.

The Flood immortalizes the collision of a fallen Planet, later termed Satan, actually a cometary body, with
our Earth. It is a subject of drama such as metaphysicians have rarely dreamed of in their philosophy.
Historians write of the dispersion of the Aryans without the faintest idea of the cause which drove them in
great hordes from their primordial homes to distant regions.

Much of the classic and scripture history as it is interpreted, based on altogether false assumptions and a
totally mistaken conception of the arena of this event, is necessarily at variance with fact. Even today our
astronomers, with a few exceptions, ridicule the possibility that a celestial body, and certainly a comet,
would be able to effect a disaster such as I have outlined, although the evidence of such potentiality is
abundant. I have myself written two books on the subject which were more or less boycotted by the
professional scientists to whom any theory opposed to their own dogma is apparently anathema. I made a
lengthy study of the meteorology of the ancients, namely that of the Chaldeans, Phoenicians, Egyptians,
and Druids, who devoted much attention to this subject, as is not surprising, and it was full recognition of
this vital aspect of celestial science which led me perforce to the study in detail of prehistory. With such a
subject I have naturally employed a variety of classic and sacred records.

The history of pagan religions, based mainly on this Credo of their seers, has proved of considerable value,
for the discarded deities such as Cronus-Saturn, the Tyrian Hercules, and Bacchus-Dionysus, in their
various ways, offer a gold-mine of information related to the religious motives which guided their wise
men in their aims. Other ancient gods of great account were, especially, Hermes, in a category all his own,
Osiris and Apollo, and with these are wrapped up folk-lore, legends, customs, myths, and not least, perhaps,
place-names. The reader will have recognized from these introductory words that if the earliest Aryan
civilization as reflected in the Old Testament, the Greek, and other souces were centred in the north of
Europe, and especially in the Scandinavian and British lands, it follows conversely that the present regions
from whence our forefathers are believed to have derived their origin, that is to say in the Middle and Near
East, Egypt and the Mediterranean countries, are credited with a civilization to which thay are in no sense
entitled, and which they only inherited by migrations from the north.

As a matter of fact, anthropology has proved the correctness of this view again and again, showing that the
white race never originally entered Europe from Asia. In such circumstances we should open our minds to
the facts and realize that the ancient civilization of Ur of the Chaldeans, of the Egyptians, the Phoenicians
and the Greeks in its origins must have emanated from the north, where they can and should be traced to
their true habitats. This is my endeavour, and to throw a new light on the great achievements of our remote
ancestors, and thus to restore Britain to the proud position she may claim as the real motherland of world
civilization, the heart of a once great Celtic Empire which taught the world.' # 59

BRITAN

Nedimean chief who settled in Great Britain and gave name to that country. # 562

BRITANNIA

Whenever the Romans occupied a new colony they were careful to propitiate the genius of the land.
Britannia was the personified genia of Britain and was first depicted on a coin of Antoninus Pius (d. AD
161). Latterly, Britannia, with the attributes and weapons of Minerva, appeared on coins during the reign of
Charles II in 1665, and became the symbol of the British Empire. She is the last remaining personification
of Britain's native Sovereignty. # 454

BRITISH ISLES

Sole relics of Celtic empire, on its downfall; Maev, Grania, Findabair, Deirdre, and Boadicea, women who
figure in myths of British Isles. # 562

BRITISH MYTHOLOGY

As an Introduction to British Mythology, R. J. Stewart writes in his book THE WATERS OF THE GAP:
British Mythology is a vast and complicated subject, as indeed is all mythology. How often have we heard
the phrase... 'well, it's only a myth, after all...' or something similar? Many people, often quite intelligent
people, think that myths are nothing more nor less than the idle fantasies of simple minds, the amusement
of our ignorant ancestors who were not enlightened by technology or television. The word 'myth' is
frequently used to mean 'that which is untrue', but a myth is by no means identical with a lie, and only very
carefully constructed lies can emerge in time as myths by fitting into an existing mythical framework.
What, then is a myth, what is this 'mythical framework'? Firstly, it must be admitted, frankly confessed, that
myths do contain a large proportion of illogical material in their content, and that they should never be
considered as literal truth. A brief look at any ortodox religion will show how difficult it is to take myths
and wrench them into factual reality or history by use of authority or legality.- More important is the fact
that myths in general do not represent superficial ignorance, or lack of perception on the part of their
originators. Myths were not, as has often been suggested, mere rationalisations of phenomena in nature, for
they were symbolic of known processes that occur in the interrelationship of humankind and the
environment. Ancient symbology was not an attempt at explanation, but a suggestion of pattern, of
integration, whereby categorisation or analysis was less than mutual interaction between humans, the
natural world, and the mysterious powers that originated all life and events. The processes shown in myths
still hold good today, though the action is often transferred to slightly less obvious levels.

The reaction with hostile powers of nature, for example, may have become the struggle to exist within an
economic system... but the ways to balance and realisation shown in the old stories about gods, goddesses
and heroes, still apply to the human psyche. Three main branches are derived from the roots of pagan
mythology and its related practices. The first is formal religion, with its various special organisations, sects
and offshoots. The second is mental therapy, which is a modern re-statement of the human inner processes
and patterns once symbolised by myth and magic. This second branch uses the same material as the first,
but with marginally different methods and a formidable technical jargon, neatly sidestepping the existence
or non-existence of 'god'. The third branch is folklore, including at its most complex levels modern
occultism, and mysticism derived from pagan and Christian unorthodox or 'heretical' sources. Folklore is an
amorphous mass of loosely related symbols, in the form of tales, images, plays, song, music and ritual
drama. This third branch has inherited most from the pagan past, for it has been maintained by a strong oral
tradition, where material is handed down through the centuries with remarkable continuity, and is refreshed
by a constant regeneration of the basic mythical themes on a spontaneous or conscious level; the same level
wherein such myths first developed. Folklore is by no means a lost subject, or something that disappeared
with the destruction of widespread rural communities. It exists in many different forms, right in the heart of
the big city, and still lives in many country districts isolated enough to have traditions traceable to the
medieval period or earlier. Furthermore, folklore grows and transmutes often dull subjects into living
symbols which may be recognised as myths.

Perhaps the simplest way to illustrate this continuing process, without overcomplicated arguments and
references is by example, by telling a thoroughly modern folktale. We can see how this tale is actually part
of 'British mythology', as it came from English people in modern London, but can betraced back to typical
pagan imagery and belief from the pre-Christian era.

A few years ago, in the late 1960's and early 1970's, a very popular musician called Jimi Hendrix captured
the imagination of millions of people. He set new standards of profiency and style for electric guitar that
radically changed the music industry. He followed a remarkably successful career; then committed suicide.
Not long after Hendrix's death, I was recording music in a London studio, and the technicians there told me
a tale which was surely untrue. A black musician, who was a Hendrix look-alike, had arrived to record.
During his session, he suddenly broke into a superb guitar solo, as good as the recently dead Hendrix at his
best. He emerged from the sound-stage grey and shaking, asking what had happened...had he passed out?
No, was the reply, he had recorded a brilliant track... but when the tapes were played back... they were
blank!

Now this is a folktale, of the kind that people scoff at yet still tell with conviction about all kinds of
subjects. It is also a folktale in a modern professional context, emerging in a very hard businesslike world.
Like many folktales, it was only transferred to a limited group or family, and did not ever achieve more
than local currency. It was limited to its own professional 'village', in exactly the same way that old rituals,
superstitions or songs were regionally confined in the past. Like these localised sources of folklore, our
sample story uses basic images and patterns which we know were part of actual religious belief and usage.
The elements present are 1. superstitious, 2. magical, and 3. mythical. These three divisions are matters of
degree, or level of awareness, and usually merge into one another in any folktale or drama. The
superstitious element lies in fact that the recording machines could not record the music (assuming that the
studio crew were not idiots who forgot to do their jobs properly). This is typical superstition in modern
context, where the technology of this world cannot register the events of the Otherworld. The magical
element, which is connected to the superstitious, begins where the musician was 'a double' for the dead
Hendrix, and then played 'exactly like him'. This is quite primitive magic, where the spirit of a dead hero or
ancestor takes over the body of a living relative, apprentice, or double in some way or other, usually for the
purposes of prophecy. On a mythical level, the hero in the Otherworld had inspired the mere mortal to
superhuman flights of creativity. Our musician was apparently taking part in a typical pagan experience,
uplifted by the godlike image of the dead star. We even call our most successful and beloved entertainers
'Stars' because the ancients believed that the spirits of dead heroes or heroines became as stars in the night
sky... a star is an elevated or highly placed being. As mentioned earlier, the tale is surely untrue, (although
everyone who told it believed it at the time), yet its blatant untruth does not in any way affect its value as a
myth..particularly in the heightened atmosphere of loss generated by the death of a modern hero.
Furthermore, the story has a real value that reaches out from its shadowy content, for it says "look to the
talent and skill of those who have tried before you, if they can do it, you can do it. Learn from them, be
inspired by them... but don't ever think that real inspiration and magic can ever be tamed... or taped!". Our
explanation of the example is by no means idle or speculative. The ancients were particularly concerned
with 'the Ancestors', 'the Otherworld', and the means of communication between our outer realm and the
inner ones. The system was not similar to modern spiritism (spiritualism) but was based upon more mature
foundations, with deep philosophical aspects which have guided modern religion and science through their
course towards the present era. The Celts were involved in a cult-of-the-dead...and British mythology is
mainly derived from Celtic sources. Actual examples of Celtic myth are numerous, but available
interpretations vary in aim and quality, and are often highly prejudiced by religious belief. One of the most
frequent problems encountered by the reader of any series or collection of British myths is that the material
appears to be confusing, diffuse, and incoherent; unlike Classical myths which can bereferred to a central
pantheon of gods and goddesses.

The Celtic pantheon certainly exists, but not in the regular manner defined by classical studies. The
diffusion referred to exists for several reasons. First, the actual source material is often garbled and obscure,
as much of it derives from fragments set down in the middle ages, when much of the old lore was being
deliberately or accidentally forgotten. Other elements are derived from oral tradition, from tales in which
all but the bare bones have been eroded away by time. Secondly, a great number of the pagan practices and
tales were ruthlessly and bloodily suppressed, so it is rather remarkable that so much has survived, in any
form at all. Early researchers, mainly in the nineteenth century, had very little to work on that was
recognisably 'Celtic', and were limited by the conditioning of their social status and a Christian and
classical education. This educational restriction tended to colour translation and research, editing and
presentation of British myth. It is only in the recent years that the strict new translations of early Welsh,
Irish, Scottish and medieval pagan tales in general have begun to appear for intelligent commentary and
careful re-assessment. Finally, there is another and major problem. British mythology is diffuse! It was not
connected to a central cult, or a major god or goddess with specific worship centres and rules of behaviour
or ritual. This concept may be particularly difficult for us to grasp, for we are used to the centralised
Christian worship and dogma, which was derived from the Roman political state worship that is absorbed.
The British gods and goddesses are numerous, and very colourful, but there was no defined hierarchy, or
even 'religion' in the modern sense of the words. To understand this non-system, we have to remember that
pagan worship was environmental, and that each sacred place had its own god, goddess or power. In Britain
these were very local indeed, hardly moving from their regular sites and habitual homes. To merely make a
list, therefore, of deities in Britain, or even in the wider Celtic realms of Europe, is only to add to the
confusion. Statistical and rational analysis may not hold good throughout, for many deities occur only once,
while others occur frequently, but these are not necessarily the main powers of our hypothetical Celtic
pantheon.

The value of myth is that it offers keys to understanding, often to understanding of many different types or
aspects of knowledge at once. To the ancients the value of such keys was invested in ritual, where magic
was made in accordance with observed signs and seasons and places, and was thought to bring fertility and
benefit from the Otherworld to human and animal recipients. Even the above is something of a
simplification of the purpose of ritual, but it serves as a loose definition for our present context, giving
some of the main 'aims' of the pagan holistic world-view. Nowadays we do not hold such beliefs, but the
keys can still work to unlock areas of awareness long neclected, shadowy and shut, to let the light into them
for our own benefit. Myths can still give meaning and pattern to life, and are not in conflict with a modern
or religious attitude. Most science and religion is upheld by its own mythology in any case. The best way to
come to grips with the slippery British myth is to grasp the root elements of it. These hold good throughout
all myth and folklore, and can be used to define and correlate apparently obscure examples into a system of
reference. The system is not rigid, however, for it is based upon a cycle, or spiral, a pattern which is derived
originally from seasonal worship. We can expect it to go around and around, but be different every time it
recommences... like the flow of the years themselves. To produce a theoretical method for understanding
the connective elements in British mythology is not enough. Such a theory has to be supported by a mass of
literary evidence ranging through numerous special fields of study, which make considerable demands
upon the reader...not the least of which is that of time. Anyone who had read any of the famous works on
folklore or myth will know just how demanding such studies are. There is another way to approach the
problem, a way by which the reader can establish some firm concepts, some essential central keys which
link the ancient world with the myths and tales handed down from various sources. We can use a
model...and there is a very good example of a British site, combined with classical Roman and Greek
elements, which shows the principle areas of native myth and worship in practice. If the evidence from this
site, Aquae Sulis, is combined with lirerary and folklore material relating to its physical remains as
uncovered by archaeology, a model of mythology in practice can be built up. This model may be used, with
care and caution, as a comparative example for study of un-sited British myths, or of other less researched
and less well documented sites.

The use of Aquae Sulis as the model is not random, for it is one of the most striking, most complete and
best documented sites known in Britain, and the visible remains are from a period well suited for evidence
and comparison, that of the Roman development of the West Country of England; when Celtic culture and
Roman civilisation merged together and produced a flowering of symbolic and inscriptive material in the
Temple and baths around the Hot Springs. Myths have a curious habit of standing values upon their heads,
of sudden reversals and rapid changes of fortune for obscure reasons once thought of as the whims of the
gods and goddesses by later mis-interpretors of the pagan viewpoint. Some of these reasons are revealed in
the book THE WATERS OF THE GAP, which like the myths themselves, have an intertwined multiple
value, for they are a study of the mythology of one specific and remarkable place in Britain, yet also offer
keys to the themes of British lore in general, and to the less obvious or transparent secrets of overall
mythology. There are two main characters in the tale: the goddess Sulis-Minerva, in whose Temple burnt an
Eternal Flame, and her "son", or protected hero, Bladud, who was a mythical king of Britain and like the
Sun itself flew through the upper air on wings. So direct and widespread are these two images, that we can
trace their pattern to a parallel from an earlier culture, that of Egypt...but this is not to suggest that the
Egyptian counterparts were in any way the originals, for such myths flower independantly wherever there
are people. The Goddess Neitha, a Weaver, was often identified by the Greeks with their goddess Athena.
Athena became, in time, the Roman Minerva, to whom the Temple of Sulis Minerva (at Bath, England) was
partly dedicated. The main centre of worship for Neitha was at Säis in Lower Egypt, and during her annual
festival, innumerable lamps were kept alight in her honour. The Classical writers Plutarch and Proclus both
state that her temple bore the following inscription: "I AM ALL THAT HAS BEEN, THAT IS, AND THAT
WILL BE: AND NO MAN HATH LIFTED MY VEIL. THE SUN WAS MY CHILD". # 627

BRITOMART

In Spencer's FAERIE QUEENE, a warrior maiden who was the daughter of Arthur's foe, Rience. She
married Artegall. Spencer took her name from that of the Cretan goddess Britomartis. The idea of a female
knight may have been suggested to Spencer by Marfisa in Ariosto's ORLANDO FURIOSO. See:
RADIGUND. # 156 - 614

BRITONS

Geoffrey of Monmouth, like Nennius, affords a fantastic origin for the Britons. # 562

BRITTANY

# 562: Mané-er-H'oeck, remarkable tumulus in Brittany. Tumulus of Locmariaker in Brittany, markings on


similar to those on tumulus at New Grange, Ireland. Symbol of the feet found in Brittany. Book brought
from Brittany, by Walter, Archdeacon of Oxford, formed basis of Geoffrey of Monmouth's which is the
setting for a number of Arthurian adventures. Situated in Brittany, it is now called the Forest of Paimpont.
See: BRAS-de-FER, and ESCLADOS. # 156

BROCHS

A broch is a type of round, stone-walled farmhouse covered with turf to make a smooth hill which is to be
found in the ancient Pictish areas of Scotland. The entrance to a broch is by a single door, and they have no
shaft connecting them with the outer air such as are found in the howes. Inside are winding low passages
leading to several chambers. They are defensive rather than offensive in design. R. W. Feachem considers
that they were constructed not by the Picts but by the Proto-Picts, the heterogeneous tribes which were
finally blended together to produce the Picts of history, that mysterious people who contribute their part to
the theories of the fairy origins. These brochs, like other knolls and howes, were often called Fairy knowes
and play their part in sustaining the theories of David Mac Ritchie. # 100 - 409

BRODGAR, RING OF

The Ring of Brodgar, Orkney, is a large stone circle, originally comprising megaliths with a diameter of
103,7 m (125 megalithic yards), and surrounded by a rock-cut ditch. Thought to be contemporary with
Maeshowe and the Stones of Stenness and to date from approx 2400 BC. Close to Harray Loch.

BRODICK (ARRAN)

No fewer than 10 stone circles remain on the island of Arran, Strathclyde, though it is clear that at one time
there were many others which have not survived the ravages of men and time. Seven of the surviving
circles are in the west, in the area around the Black and Machrie waters, and almost all of them have been
linked with the legendary Fionn. Fionn, better known as Fingal, and linked with the music-making cave of
Staffa, would have found the construction of circles from gigantic stones as relatively light work, for in
earlier times he was credited with the building of Fingal's cave from basaltic blocks, as well as the
construction of the entire island of Staffa and the Giant's Causeway on the northern coast of Ireland. Fionn
of Celtic mythology was the son of a king who was apprenticed to a magician.

In the Celtic legends we learn how when this magician had caught the wily old salmon of knowledge and
had cooked it on his stove, the young Fionn touched it with his thumb, burned it badly and held it to his
mouth in order to suck it. In this way Fionn became possessed of all knowledge, and became conversant
with the magical lore. According to the old stories of Atlantis (of which the Northern Islands are said to be
remnants), the stone circles were built by means of magic, for the ancient priests were supposed to have the
secret of anti-gravitational forces. Precisely why Fionn constructed the circles remains a mystery: two of
the smaller Arran circles (one on Machrie Moor, the other at Aucheleffan) have their stones orientated to
the cardinal points, which has suggested that these circles, like those at Stonehenge, were designed with
calendrical purposes in mind. A convenient centre from which to explore the ancient circles and cairns is
Brodick, from where roads lead to within easy walking distance of the main centres. Seven miles west of
Brodick, on the west side of the island, is the Auchagallon stone circle of 15 standing stones around a
circular cairn. Six miles south-south-west of Brodick is the chambered Cairn Ban, some 900 feet above sea
level, and consisting of a mound of stones 100 feet by 60 feet, with the facade and forecourt at the east end.
The chamber within is divided into three compartments each of 15 feet length, with a slab roof set on
corbelling at a height of about eight feet. Three miles further SSW from Brodick is the chambered cairn of
Torrylin, in which were preserved the skeletal remains of six adults and a child, along with the remains of
otters, birds and fish. Nine miles SW of Brodick at East Bennan, is a chambered cairn roofed with large flat
slabs over the 20foot gallery. Seven miles outside Brodick is the chambered cairn known locally as 'Giant's
Grave'. A number of mysterious 'cup and ring' marks, consisting of double concentrics with gullies issuing
downwards, as well as simple convex cups and triple concentrics, may be seen on the exposed rock face on
the hill above the highest part of nearby Stronach Wood. # 702

BROGAN

Saint Patrick's scribe. # 562

BROLLACHAN
One of the most feared spirits of the Highland, because it was shapeless. Tradition has it that it could only
speak two phrases: 'Myself' and 'Thyself'. It took the shape of whatever it sat upon, but apart from that had
only a mouth and eyes. # 100 - 454

BRONS

Also called Hebron, he was the husband of Enygeus, the sister of Joseph of Arimathea. They had twelve
sons. He was given the Grail by Joseph. According to DIDOT PERCEVAL, Brons became the Rich Fisher.
When he was cured, he was carried off by angels. This source also says he was Perceval's grandfather. He
may be, in origin the god Bran. See:FISHER KING. # 156 - 185 - 604

BROWN BULL

The Brown Bull of Cualgne (Cuailgne) captured at Slievegallion, Co. Armagh, by Medb (Maeve). White-
Horned Bull of Ailill slain by Brown Bull of Cualgne. See: CUALGNE, THE CATTLERAID OF. The
'Táin Bó Cualgne' is the theme of the BROWN BULL. # 166

BROWN MAN OF THE MUIRS

A guardian spirit of wild beasts that inhabits the Border Country. Henderson quotes a story of an encounter
with him sent by Mr Sutees to Sir Walter Scott. Two young men were out hunting on the moors near Elsdon
in 1744, and stopped to eat and rest near a mountain burn. The youngest went down to the burn to drink,
and as he was stooping down he saw the Brown Man of the Muirs on the opposite bank, a square, stout
dwarf dressed in clothes the colour of withered bracken with a head of frizzled red hair and great glowing
eyes like a bull. He fiercely rebuked the lad for trespassing on his land and killing the creatures that were in
his care. For himself he ate only whortleberries, nuts and apples. 'Come home with me and see,' he said.
The lad was just going to jump the burn when his friend called him and the Brown Man vanished. It was
believed that if he had crossed the running stream he would have been torn to pieces. On the way home he
defiantly shot some more game and it was thought that this had cost him his life, for soon after he was
taken ill, and within a year he died. # 100 - 302

BROWNIES

# 454: Domestic spirits in the form of small men wearing brown attire. They do housework in return for a
bowl of milk, but they must never be offered any reward else they are driven away.

# 100: One of the fairy types most easily described and most recognizable. His territory extends over the
Lowlands of Scotland and up into the Highlands and Islands, all over the north and east of England and into
the Midlands. With a natural linguistic variation he becomes the Bwca of Wales, The Highland Bodach and
the Manx Fenodoree. In the West Country, Pixies or Pisgies occasionally perform the offices of a brownie
and show some of the same characteristics, though they are essentially different. In various parts of the
country, friendly Lobs and Hobs behave much like brownies. The Border brownies are the most
characteristic. They are generally described as small men, about three feet in height, very raggedly dressed
in brown clothes, with brown faces and shaggy heads, who come out at night and do the work that has been
left undone by the servants. They make themselves responsible for the farm or house un which they live;
reap, mow, thresh, herd the sheep, prevent the hens from laying away, run errands and give good counsel at
need. A brownie will often become personally attached to one member of the family. In return he has a right
to a bowl of cream or best milk and to a specially good bannock or cake. William Henderson in FOLK
LORE OF THE NORTHERN COUNTIES describes a brownie's portion: He is allowed his little treats,
however, and the chief of these are knuckled cakes made of meal warm from the mill, toasted over the
embers and spread with honey. The housewife will prepare these, and lay them carefully where he may find
them by chance. When a titbit is given to a child, parents will still say to him, 'There's a piece wad please a
Brownie.' # 100 - 302 - 454
BRUGH BRU

(broo) According to J. F. Campbell, the word 'brugh' means the interior of a fairy mound or knowe and is
the same word as 'borough'. It generally means a place where quite a number of fairies live together, and
not just the home for a family. The outside of the brugh is the sithien. # 100 - 131

BRUGH NA BOINNE

(brooh' na bô'i ne) A famous fairy-mound; a group of pre-historic mounds and the surrounding district, on
the River Boyne near Stackallen Bridge, in modern Leinster. It was pointed out to CuChulain. # 166 - 562

BRUIDEN

(broo'yen) A banqueting hall, apparently provided with compartments. # 166

BRUIDEN DA DERGA

(broo'yen dô yar'ga) A famous stronghold on the River Dodder near Dublin. # 166

BRUMART

A nephew of King Claudas who sat on the siege Perilous and was destroyed for his temerity. # 156

BRUNISSEN

The wife of Jaufré. # 156

BRUNO LE NOIR

Also dubbed 'La Cote Male-Taile' by Sir Kay because of his illfitting clothes. He came to Camelot as a poor
man and was made a scullion. After many adventures he married the damsel Maledisant and became the
Overlord of Pendragon Castle. He shares many of the attributes of Gareth and is probably a later shadow of
the Orkney knight. See: BREUNOR. # 454

BRUNOR

One of the best knights of the Old Table. # 156 - 238

BRUTO

The hero of an Italian romance, BRUTO DI BRETTAGNA, in which he obtains a hawk, a scroll and two
brachets (small hounds) at Arthur's court to give to his lover. # 156 - 238

BRUTUS

The great-grandson of Aeneas. He accidently killed his father and fled from Italy to Greece, where he
became the acknowledged leader of the enslaved Trojans. He led them away and, having been instructed by
Diana while sleeping in her temple, sailed to Britain where he founded a second Troy - Troia Nova
(Trinovantum) on the banks of the Thames. He defeated an army of giants and chained their leaders, Gog
and Magog, to be his porters (See GOGMAGOG). Alternatively, according to Geoffrey of Monmouth,
Corineus threw the giant Gogmagog into the sea. He is remembered as the ancestor of the Britons. See also:
TROY. # 243 - 454

BRUYANT

Called the Faithless, he killed Estonne, who was Lord of the Scottish Wilderness and was killed in turn by
Passaleon, Estonne's son, an ancestor of Merlin (# 103). (Estonne is a minor character in the romance of
Perceforest). # 156 - 198

BRYCHAN

An early legendary king, thought to be the father of a great many saints even as many as sixty-three.
However many children there were, they are supposed to have had a reunion on the last day of each year.
The truth behind all this is the fact of a Celtic tribal group, which had adopted the Christian faith, living in
Powys and sending both monks and nuns on the journey south from Wales across the south-west and on to
Brittany. His feast-day is 6 April. See: BRYNACH, and GWLADYS, SAINT and KYNVARCH. # 156 -
216 - 678

BRYNACH

The rocks of Carningli, the rock of the angels, surmounted by the remains of an Iron Age fort, stand at the
western edge of Mynydd Preseli in Pembrokeshire. To the north, the Afon Nyfer joins the sea at Newport
after flowing through the village of Nevern, where the sixth-century Brynach made his settlement. A tall
Celtic cross still stands in the churchyard there. Brynach was an Irishman, who left his native country to
become a colleague of David and soul friend of Brychan (q.v.), who was also to become his father-in-law -
for although the Celtic church made no insistence on celibacy, Brychan is one of the few whose marriage is
recorded. It was indeed one of his wife's kinsmen, Clether, who gave him the land around the banks of the
Nyfer on which to make his settlement. This Clether may well have been related to the fifthcentury Clutar,
who is named in both Irish and Latin ogham inscriptions on the stone preserved inside the church at
Nevern, on a window sill at the eastern end of the nave. Legend has it that Carningli (the rock of the angels)
got its name because it was the place where Brynach chose to spend time as a solitary hermit and was
granted angelic visions. Perhaps he went there because you can sometimes see the Wicklow Hills from that
height, and perhaps he chose to live in a deserted hill fort in order to follow the example of the first
Christian hermit, Antony of Egypt, who lived for twenty years in the deserted hill fort of Pispir. His feast-
day is 7 April. # 678

BRAA, THE BRONZE CAULDRON FROM

In February 1952 the discovery was made at BrAa, near Horsens in East Jutland, of well-preserved bronze
animal figures, iron rings, and a quantity of crumpled bronze sheeting. This heap of metal had originally
formed an immense bronze cauldron with an iron rim, rim handles and an ornamentation of high artistic
merit. It had not been so thoroughly destroyed, however, as to make it impossible to reconstruct its shape,
which recalls that of other Celtic cauldrons found in Denmark, at Rynkeby on Funen and at Sophienborg in
Zealand. Like these it bears bulls' heads, looking outwards from below the rim; but the style of the
decoration is different, fresher and more expressive.

As a summarise of the survey of early Celtic influence in the BrAa Find, Ole Klindt-Jensen writes in THE
BRONZE CAULDRON FROM BRAA (# 373): 'A definite Celtic touch can first be noted towards the end
of Early La Tène, Ic, the very period to which the Braa cauldron belongs. The Plastic style is imitated on
massive Danish bronze fibulae and torques, types which in all other respects trace their ancestry to the
earliest Iron Age or the latest periods of the Bronze Age.
The shield bosses of the Hjortspring hoard are influenced by the earliest Celtic iron-plated bosses from La
Tène Ic. Together with a torque with signet-like terminals, the Braa cauldron (and probably also the
Mellerup beakers) represent the Celtic imports from that period. It is therefore exeedindly probable that the
Braa cauldron was imported towards the end of La Tène I, the period when we see clear evidence of
influences from Celtic culture.

The Jastorf pottery, which in Sprockhoff's opinion imitates Celtic ware from the beginnings of La Tène, has
parallels in Denmark. But, even if his working hypothesis is accepted in full, it is nevertheless probable that
this influence first made itself felt in Denmark towards the end of La Tène I, for example via the
HunsrückEiffel group. As we have seen, the Plastic Style (La Tène Ic) is found directly on objects of
Halstatt tradition, without any influence of the Early Celtic Style or of the Waldalgesheim Style being
discernible. In the course of La Tène II and III the contacts between Denmark and the Celts were
strengthened, and even after the Celts lost their political independence they remained a source of cultural
inspiration to the peoples of the north during the first two centuries AD.

A variety of imported articles such as torques and belt sections from Celtic and Celto-Germanic Middle La
Tène can beseen in Denmark, as well as the results of contemporary influences on native torques, bronze
belts and fibulae. It is possible, however, that the lastnamed are later, from Late La Tène, the period which
par exellence reveals Celtic influence. The rich chariot-burial, Grave A 1 at Kraghede, stands out as a
distinguished example of that period's work. It is perhaps the grave of a chieftain who had especially good
opportunities to obtain the coveted foreign articles. In any case the grave furniture reveals a considerable
Celtic manufacture to objects showing Celtic features, such as an iron fibula of Late La Tène type and the
pottery drinking vessel with a Celtic hunting scene carried out in dotted lines. It is therefore remarkable that
we do not see the beginnings of Celtic art more clearly reflected in the Danish discoveries, which otherwise
have provided some of the most important specimens bearing witness to Celtic culture's distinction and
originality. Now to the magnificent discoveries of a later period - the Gundestrup cauldron, the Dejbjerg
carts and the Rynkeby cauldron - is added the Braa cauldron, the finest example known of Celtic Plastic art,
and at the same time evidence of important early connections between the Celts and Denmark. # 373

BUDICIUS

The name of two kings of Brittany, according to Geoffrey. One brought up the exiled Ambrosius and Uther.
The other married Arthur's sister, Anna, and was the father of Arthur's supporter, Hoel. There may be a
confused memory here of King Budic I of Corouaille (in Brittany) who traditionally reigned before AD
530. # 156

BUDOC, SAINT

His mother, Azenor, was thrown into the English Channel while pregnant, by her step-mother who believed
her to be unfaithful to her husband. The unfortunate woman was sustained by visions of Saint Brigit and
was brought ashore in Waterford, Ireland, where she became a washerwoman at the monastery. Here Budoc
grew up, later becoming the Bishop of Dol in Brittany. He is the patron of Budock in Cornwall. His feast-
day is 8 December. # 454

BUGGANE

Manx goblin which can change its shape, and which is vicious, delighting in undoing the work of human
beings. # 454

BUGS, BUG-A-BOOS, BOGGLE-BOOS, BUGBEARS, ETC.

These are all generally treated as Nursery Bogies, set up to scare children into good behaviour. They are
discussed in some detail by Gillian Edwards in HOBGOBLIN AND SWEET PUCK as an extension from
the early Celtic 'bwg'. Most of these words are applied to imaginary fears along the lines of 'How easy is a
bush supposed a bear'. This use of a bugbear is illustrated in a translation of an Italian play published c.
1565 called THE BUGBEAR. It is about mock conjurors. # 100

BUIC

(boo'ik) Son of Banblai, slain by CuChulain. # 562

BULL

# 701: White sacrificial bulls embodied not only ancestral gods, even the Druidic oak god, killed at the
moment when the sacred mistletoe was cut from the tree. A central shrine of this cult in Britain was Bury
Saint Edmunds, where the 'burial' seems to have been the heads of the annually sacrificed bulls, and the
taurine god himself was incongruously canonized as Saint Edmund. The monastery records show that the
'martyr' was incarnate every year in a white bull, his virile powers adored by women who 'visit the tomb of
the glorious martyr St. Edmund to make oblation to the same white bull.' - The Presbytery of Dingwall
recorded pagan-style bull sacrifices even as late as the seventeenth century on the holy day of Diana in
August, together with adoration of wells and holed stones, and other local shrines listed as 'ruinous chapels'
or 'superstitious monuments.'

# 161: Celtic and pre-Celtic cults gave great importance to the bull, which in its solar aspect, was
associated with horses, stags and swans. Warriors needed to possess the qualities and characteristics of the
bull, and bull-slaying and sacrifice appeared frequently in Celtic rites; the animal was also ritually killed for
divination. There were the Three Bull Protectors of the Island of Britain mentioned in one of the WELSH
TRIADS and there was a three-horned sacred bull. For the Druids the sacrificial white bull was the sun,
with the Cow the earth.

# 454: A primal symbol of strength and potency, the bull is a frequent figure in British mythology. It is
possible that the bull was a special totemic animal of kingly rule and that sacred herds of cattle played a
prominent part in ancient rituals. The 'Tarbh-feis,' or bullfeast was perhaps a remnant of this understanding:
among the Gaelic peoples, a white bull was slaughtered and a druid would drink of its blood and eat of its
flesh in preparation for sleeping wrapped in the flayed hide. His subsequent dreams would determine the
rightful king to be elected. The bull is the central cause of the 'Tain Bo Cuailgne' (Cattle Raid of Cooley).
The Isle of Man is haunted by the Taroo-Ushtey or Water Bull, which, similar to the EACHUISGE is a
beast to be avoided or treated with caution for it can drag mortals into the sea and drown them. The bull is
also the shape into which a knight is enchanted in the folk-story, 'The Black Bull of Norroway.' # 161 - 389
- 423 - 438 - 454 - 701 p 366 ff

BURLETTE DELLA DISERTA

Abductor of Pulzella Gaia, the daughter of Morgan. Lancelot rescued her from him. # 156 - 238

BURY WALLS

Place in Shropshire where a local legend says Arthur held court. # 156

BURY, PROFESSOR

Remarks of Professor Bury, regarding the Celtic world: 'For the purpose of prosecuting that most difficult
of all inquiries, the ethnical problem, the part played by race in the development of peoples and the effects
of race-blendings, it must be remembered that the Celtic world commands one of the chief portals of
ingress into that mysterious pre-Aryan foreworld, from which it may well be that we modern Europeans
have inherited far more than we dream.' # 121 - 562

BUTTERFLY

The Celts believed in fly-souls and butterfly-souls which, like birdsouls, flew about seeking a new mother.
It was thought that women become pregnant by swallowing such creatures. In Irish myth, Etain took the
form of a butterfly for seven years, then entered the drinking cup of Etar (Etarre), who swallowed her, and
so brought her to rebirth. In her second incarnation, Etain married Eochy, the High King of Ireland. In
Cornwall spirits still forms as white butterflies. # 701 p 415

BWBACHOD

(boobachod) The Welsh equivalent of the Brownies, whom they very closely resemble both in their
domestic helpfulness and their capacity for obstreperous and even dangerous behaviour when they are
annoyed. According to Sikes in BRITISH GOBLINS, they have one outstanding characteristic, which is
their dislike of teetotallers and of dissenting ministers. Sikes tells a story of a Cardiganshire bwbach who
took a special spite against a Baptist preacher, jerking away the stool from under his elbows when he was
kneeling, interrupting his prayers by clattering the fire-irons or grinning in at the window. Finally he
frightened the preacher away by appearing as his double, which was considered to be ominous of death.
This was a bogy or bogey-beast prank beyond the range of most brownies, otherwise the Bwbach differed
only linguistically. See also: BWCA. # 100 - 596

BWCA

(booka) A story collected by John Rhys in CELTIC FOLK LORE shows how close the connection can be
between the Brownie and Boggart, or the Bwca and Bugan. Long ago a Monmouthshire farm was haunted
by a spirit of whom everyone was afraid until a young maid came, merry and strong and reputed to be of
the stock of the Bendith y Mamau, and she struck up a great friendship with the creature, who turned out to
be a bwca, who washed, ironed and spun for her and did all manner of household work in return for a
nightly bowl of sweet milk and wheat bread or flummery. This was left at the bottom of the stairs every
night and was gone in the morning; but she never saw him, for all his work was done at night. One evening
for sheer wantonness she put some of the stale urine used for a mordant in his bowl instead of milk. She
had reason to regret it, for when she got up next morning the bwca attacked her and kicked her all over the
house, yelling: 'The idea that the thick-buttocked lass, should give barley-bread and piss, to the bogle!'
After that she never saw him again, but after two years they heard of him at a farm near Hafod ys Ynys,
where he soon made great friends with the servant girl, who fed him most delicately with constant snacks
of bread and milk and played no unseemly pranks on him. She had one fault, however, and that was
curiosity. She kept on asking to be allowed to see him and to be told his name - without succes. One night,
however, she made him believe that she was going out after the men, and shut the door, but stayed inside
herself. Bwca was spinning industriously at the wheel, and as he span he sang: 'How she would laugh, did
she know that Gwarwyn-A-Throt is my name.''Aha!' cried the maid, at the bottom of the stairs, 'now I have
your name, Gwarwyn-a-Throt!' At which he left the wheel standing, and she never saw him again.

He went to a neighbouring farm, where the farm-hand, Moses, became his great friend. All would have
gone well with poor Gwarwyn-a-Throt but that his friend Moses was sent off to fight Richard Crookback
and was killed at Bosworth Field. After the loss of this friend the poor bwca went completely to the bad and
spent all his time in senseless pranks, drawing the ploughing oxen out of the straight and throwing
everything in the house about at night-time. At length he became so destructive that the farmer called in a
Dyn Cynnil (wise man) to lay him. He succeeded in getting the bwca to stick his long nose out of the hole
where he was hiding, and at once transfixed it with an awl. Then he read an incantation sentencing the
bwca to be transported to the Red Sea for fourteen generations. He raised a great whirlwind, and, as it
began to blow, plucked out the awl so that the poor bwca had changed his shape with his nature, for
brownies were generally noseless, and he was nicknamed in this farm 'Bwca'r Trwyn', 'the Bwca with the
Nose'. # 100 - 554

BWLCH Y SAETHU

According to Welsh legend, Arthur was killed with arrows at this pass in Snowdonia whither he had
pursued his enemies after a battle at Tregalen. When he fell, his men went to a cave called Ogof Lanciau
Eryri where they had intended to wait until he came back. A shepherd was once thought to have gained
entrance to the cave and seen them there. He found them armed with guns! # 156 - 554
CABAL

The hound of Arthur. According to Nennius, when Arthur was pursuing the boar Troynt, Cabal's footprint
was left on a stone in Wales, which moved from its resting place at night, always returning in the morning,
and that Arthur erected a cairn over it. Another story makes Cabal take part in the hunt for the boar
Ysgithyrwyn. # 156 - 454

CABYLL-USHTEY

The Manx Water-Horse, pale-greyish in colour, as dangerous and greedy as the Highland Each-Uisge,
pulling men and animals to their deaths. See: KELPIE. # 100

CADBURY

See: CAMELOT.

CADO

In the LIFE OF ST. CARANNOG (a medieval saint's life), he ruled with Arthur in the West Country. He
may be identical with Cadwy, son of Gereint. # 156

CADOC, SAINT

This Welsh saint was supposed to be the son of King Gwynnlym of Glamorgan and Gwladys of Brecon. In
the LIFE OF SAINT CADOC of the saint, Arthur demanded that Cadoc hand over to him a man named
Ligessac who had killed some of his followers and who had been in santuary with Cadoc for ten years.
When the matter was adjudicated upon, Arthur was offered a hundred kine (cattle) as compensation. He
demanded that they be red before and white behind. With God's aid, they were produced, but they turned to
bundles of fern when Arthur's men seized them. # 156

CADOG

One of the Twenty-four Knights of Arthur's Court. # 104 - 156

CADOR

The ruler of Cornwall, variously described as king or duke. He was a supporter of Arthur and helped him
against the Saxons, defeating Baldulf and Cheldric. A Cador, son of the King of Cornwall, friend of
Caradoc Briefbras and brother of Guignier, may be the same character. In origin, Cador may be Cadwy, son
of Gereint (# 243). Cador is also the name of a King of Northumberland who became Kay's father-in-law. #
156 - 243

CADWALLON

(Catwallaun) According to Geoffrey (# 243), the King of the Vendoti who lived in North Wales. # 156 - 243

CADWR

(cadoor)
CADWY

The son of Gereint and, according to the DREAM OF RHONABWY (part of the Mabinogion), a
contemporary of Arthur. See: CADO, and CADOR. # 156

CAEDMON, SAINT

(d.680) He was a herdsman at Whitby, unlettered and simple. He suddenly discovered that he could
compose poetry and songs, and wrote a series of these about the Creation, the early history of the Israelites
and the last things. He came to the attention of Saint Hilda of Whitby, who encouraged him. He became a
monk and was venerated on 11 February. Only nine lines of his poetry survive in Bede. # 454

CAELIA

The fairy queen, lover of Arthur's son, Tom a'Lincoln, to whom she bore a son, the Faerie Knight. She
eventually drowned herself. # 156 - 668

CAER

Daughter of Ethal Anubal, wooed by Angus Og; She lived a dual life; accepts the love of Angus Og. Caer
means also: Wall, Castle, City. See: CAER IBORMEITH. # 562

CAER GAI

A place in Merioneth where, according to bardic tradition, Arthur was raised. # 156

CAER IBORMEITH

Daughter of Ethal Anubal, beloved of Angus. She was called 'a powerful, many-shaped girl', because of her
ability to change her shape. She spent one year in human form and alternate years in the form of a swan. #
416 - 454 - 548

CAERLEON, GWENT

# 562: Arthur's court held at Caerleon at Usk. # 156: A city on the River Usk, one of Arthur's realm,
according to Geoffrey who calls it the City of the Legion. Geoffrey claims it was founded by King Belinus,
perhaps the Beli of the genealogies. Geoffrey says that Dubricius was its archbishop. # 702: This town,
which was the Isca Silurum of the Romans, is claimed by many as the original site of King Arthur's Round
Table, the legendary 'Camelot', which has been confused with Camelford, and may even have been the
prehistoric earthworks known as Cadbury Castle. However, the first literary mention of Arthur's Round
Table is in Wace's French rhymed verse 'Le Roman de Brut', written several centuries after the semi-
mythological Arthur lived. Brut was a mythical King of the Bri-tons, whose ancestry traces back to the
famous Aeneas. He accidental-ly killed his father, and took refuge first in Greece then in Bri-tain. It was in
recognition of the power of ancient Troy that he cal-led the capital he established in Britain 'Troynovant'
(New Troy). This was the mythological name for pre-Roman London. See: TROY. # 156 - 562 - 702

CAERNARVON, GWYNEDD

In Caernarvon Castle is the Eagle Tower, which is supposed by many to be the place where the first Prince
of Wales, Edward II, was born in 1284. This is quite wrong, as documnets exist which show that the tower
was built many years afterwards on the instruction of this same Edward, long after he had become king.
Popular legend has Edward I standing with the new-born child on a balcony, proclaiming to the Welsh that
this would be their future native king. It is said (perhaps jokingly) that Edward I presented the child as one
who could not speak English - implying of course that the king of Wales should speak Welsh, a notion with
which the Welshmen of that time would heartily agree. However, the story is a fabrication, for the castle
itself was not completed until well over thirty years later. # 702

CAESAR, JULIUS

Roman statesman, born 100 BC, made ruler of Rome 49 BC and assassinated 44 BC. In the VULGATE
VERSION he is given the title of emperor (which he never actually held) and is made the contemporary of
Arthur. Merlin visited his court in the form of a stag. Caesar had had a dream and Merlin told him that the
Wild Man of the Woods could divulge its meaning. The latter was captured by Merlin and Grisandole and
told Caesar that the dream was about his wife's adultery. The romance of HUON DE BORDEAUX makes
Caesar the father by Morgan Le Fay of Oberon. # 156 - 604

CAILLAGH NY GROAMAGH, OR 'THE OLD WOMAN OF GLOOMINESS'

The Manx version of the Highland Cailleach Bheur and the Irish Cailleach Bera. The Manx Cailleagh, as
Gill tells us in A MANX SCRAPBOOK, seems to be particularly unlucky, for she fell into the crevise
called after her in trying to step from the top of Barrule to the top of Cronk yn Irree Lhaa. The mark of her
heel is still to be seen. The Manx Cailleagh, like all the rest, is a weather spirit. In Scotland winter and bad
weather belong to her, but in Man she seems to operate all through the year. If St Bride's Day (1 February)
is fine, she comes out to gather sticks to warm her through the summer; if it is wet, she stays in, and has to
make the rest of the year fine in her own interests. A fine St Bride's Day is therefore a bad omen for the rest
of the year. She is said to have been seen on St Bride's Day in the form of a gigantic bird, carrying sticks in
her beak. Cronk yn Irree Lhaa is supposed to be the usual home of the 'OLD WOMAN OF
GLOOMINESS'. # 100 - 249

CAILLEACH BEARE, OR BERA

(kill-ogh vayra) The ancient mountain mother of the south-west of Ireland. South-west Munster was
believed to be the abode of the dead and here the Cailleach had lived for countless ages so that her
successive husbands died of old age while she enjoyed endless youth. She is almost identical with the
Cailleach Bheur of the Highlands except that she is not so closely connected with winter nor with the wild
beasts. She is a great mountain builder, and, like many other gigantic Hags, she carried loads of stone in her
apron and dropped them when the string broke. Eleanor Hull gives interesting information about both the
Irish and the Highland Cailleachs in FOLKLORE OF THE BRITISH ISLES. Mackenzie in SCOTTISH
FOLK LORE AND FOLK LIFE decides that the Highland tradition of the Cailleach is older and more
deeply rooted than the Irish. See also: CAILLEACH BHEUR. # 100 - 328 - 415 - 454 - 548

CAILLEACH BHEUR

(cal'yach vare) The blue-faced lean hag of the Highlands who personifies the season of winter, seems one
of the clearest cases of the supernatural creature who was once a primitive goddess, possibly among the
ancient Britons before the Celts. There are traces of a very wide cult: Black Annis of the Dane Hills in
Leicestershire with her blue face, Gentle Annie of Cromarty Firth, the loathy hag in Chaucer's WIFE OF
BATH'S TALE, Milton's 'blew meager hag', the GyreCarline in the Lowlands of Scotland, Cally Berry in
Ulster, the Caillagh Ny Groamagh in the Isle of Man, and many other scattered references. We learn most
about her, however, in the Highlands of Scotland. The variety of aspects in which she is presented is
indicative of an ancient origin and a widespread cult. There are many mentions of her and folk-tales about
her in the works of J. F. Campbell and J. G. Campbell, Mrs. W. J. Watson, and her father Alexander
Carmichael, Mrs. K. W. Grant and J. G. Mackay, but the most comprehensive survey of the subject is to be
found in Donald Mackenzie's SCOTTISH FOLK LORE AND FOLK LIFE, in which he devotes a chapter,
'A Scottish Artemis', to an examination of the activities of the Cailleach Bheur and the various facets of her
character, in which he finds a striking resemblance to the primitive form of the Greek goddess Artemis. At
first sight she seems the personification of winter. She is called 'the daughter of Grianan', the winter sun.
There were two suns in the old Celtic calendar, 'the big sun' which shines from Beltane (May Day) to
Hallowe'en, and 'the little sun' which shines from All Hallows to Beltane Eve. The Cailleach was reborn
each All Hallows and went about smiting the earth to blight growth and calling down the snow. On May
Eve she threw her staff under a holly tree or a gorse bush - both were her plants - and turned into a grey
stone.

One can guess that many lonely standing stones were once sacred to her. This is the first aspect of the
Cailleach Bheur, but there are others. According to some traditions, she did not turn to stone at the end of
winter, but changed into a beautiful maid. J. F. Campbell in his POPULAR TALES OF THE WEST
HIGHLANDS, VOL. III, tells a tale of a loathsome hag who appeared at the house where the Feens lay and
begged for a place to warm herself at the fire. Fionn and Oisin refused her, but Diarmaid pleaded that she
might be allowed to warm herself at the fire, and when she crept into his bed did not repulse her, only put a
fold of the blanket between them. After a while he gave 'a start of surprise', for she had changed into the
most beautiful woman that men ever saw. There is a striking similarity between this tale and 'The Marriage
of Sir Gawain', or 'The Wife of Bath's Tale'. If this were taken as part of the primitive legend it would seem
that the Cailleach Bheur represented a goddess of both winter and summer, but that must be a matter of
speculation. In another version of the legend, she kept a beautiful maiden prisoner, with whom her son fell
in love. The two escaped, and the Cailleach launched bitter winds against them to keep them apart. This is a
version of the NICHT NOUGHT NOTHING story with the sexes inverted. Presumably the escaping
maiden was the summer. However that may be, it is undoubted that the Cailleach is the guardian spirit of a
number of animals. The deer have the first claim on her. They are her cattle; she herds and milk them and
often gives them protection against the hunter. Swine, wild goats, wild cattle and wolves were also her
creatures.

In another aspect she was a fishing goddess. The Cailleach Bheur was also the guardian of wells and
streams, though sometimes a negligent one, as a tale told by Mrs. Grant in MYTH, TRADITION AND
STORY FROM WESTERN ARGYLL will show. There are many of wells that were allowed to overflow
from the negligence of a human guardian, but it is here more appropriately attached to a supernatural
creature. The Cailleach was in charge of a well on the summit of Ben Cruachan. Every evening she had to
staunch its flow with a slab at sunset and release it at sunrise. But one evening, being aweary after driving
her goats across Connel, she fell asleep by the side of the well. The fountain overflowed, its waters rushed
down the mountain side, the roar of the flood as it broke open an outlet through the Pass of Brander awoke
the Cailleach, but her efforts to stem the torrent were fruitless; it flowed into the plain, where man and beast
were drowned in the flood. Thus was formed Loch Awe... The Cailleach was filled with such horror over
the result of her neglect of duty that she turned into stone. This is one among many legends of the Cailleach
Bheur. Indeed, a whole book rather than a chapter might be written about the Cailleach Bheur and the
crowd of variants that surround her. # 100 - 130 - 131 - 132 - 136 - 415

CAILLECH

(kai-leech) The Celtic name of Caillech (or Hag) meant a Veiled One. See also: VEIL, and CAILLEACH. #
701

CAILTE MAC RONAIN

(cwel'che moc rôn'in) One of Finn's companions; tells the story of Finn's exploits to St Patrick. # 166

CAINTE, SONS OF

(cân'che) Cian, Cu, Cethen. Cian was the father of Lugh Long-Arm. # 166
CAIRBRY

Son of Cormac mac Art, father of Light of Beauty; refuses tribute to Fianna. Clan Bascna makes war upon
Cair'bry. # 562

CAIRD

A smith or artificer. # 166

CAIRENN

(ca'ren) The concubine of Eochu, mother of Niall of the Nine Hostages. She was made to serve at the well
by Mongfind, Eochu's first wife, and there gave birth to Niall whom she feared to nurture because of
Mongfind's jealousy. However, the poet Torna fostered Niall and presented the boy to his father. Cairenn
was then released from menial work and clothed in the royal purple. Niall's recognition of his mother,
before all other considerations, rightly enabled him to encounter Sovereignty with a kiss instead of
abhorrence. Cairenn is herself an earthly representative of Sovereignty. # 166 - 188 - 454

CAIRPRE CUANACH

(câr'bre coo'ân ah) A warrior drowned during the battle between the Ulstermen and the forces of Cu Roi
mac Daire. # 166

CAIRPRE LIFFECHAIR

(câr'bre lif'ê hâr) He exterminated the Fianna at the Battle of Gabhra where he killed Oscar, Fionn's
grandson. He was the son of Cormac mac Art, King of Ireland; became king AD 277. He himself was also
killed at the Battle of Gabhra. # 166 - 188 - 454 - 467

CAIRPRE MAC ETAIN

(câr'bre moc a'din) A poet of Tuatha De Danann, noted as a satirist. # 166

CAIRPRE NIAFER

(câr'bre ne'â fàr) Son of Ross Ruad; king of Tara; enemy of CuChulain, probably because of rivalry over
Fedelm Noichride, daughter of Conchobar.# 166

CAIT SITH

(cait shee) The Highland fairy cat. J. G. Campbell describes it as being as large as a dog, black with a white
spot on its breast, with an arched back and erect bristles. This, probably, would be when it was angry. He
says that many Highlanders believed that these cats were transformed witches, not fairies. An even larger
and more ferocious cat, the demonic god of the cats, appeared in answer to the wicked and ferocious
ceremony of the Taghairm, which consisted in roasting successive cats alive on spits for four days and
nights until Big Ears appeared and granted the wishes of the torturers. The last ceremony of Taghairm was
said to have been performed in Mull and was described in detail in the London Literary Gazette (March
1824). The account is quoted by D. A. Mackenzie in SCOTTISH FOLK LORE AND FOLK LIFE. But Big
Ears was a monstrous demon cat who had only a slight connection with the Cait Sith. # 100 - 131 - 415
CALADVWLCH

See: EXCALIBUR.

CALATIN

CuChulain killed Calatin and his sons at the ford, but Calatin's wife had three daughters, each with one eye,
who avenged their family. They were skilled in enchantment and caused CuChulain to see and hear a
phantom host fighting against his countrymen which spurred him on to his death at the hands of Lugaid,
whom they helped. # 266 - 454

CALIBURN

(Welsh CALADVWLCH) Magic sword of King Arthur. # 562

CALLY BERRY

The Ulster version of the Highland Cailleach Bheur. The Cally Berry is not, as in the Highlands, a nature
spirit, the personification of winter and the guardian of the wild deer, but a malignant supernatural Hag. See
also: CAILLEACH BHEUR. # 100

CAM

A river in Somerset, near Cadbury Castle. In a nearby field, Westwoods, a large number of skeletons bear
grim testimony to a battle and it has been suggested that this was the site of Camlann. See also: ELY, and
TROY. # 156

CAMAL

A suitor of Hermondine, killed by Meliador. # 156

CAMBER

Second son of Brutus, after whom Wales or Cambria is named. # 243 - 454

CAMBRENSIS, GIRALDUS

The true Celts were certainly fair. Giraldus Cambrensis described even the Irish Celts of the twelfth century
as a fair race. See Appendix 1, BIOGRAPHY: GERALD OF WALES. # 562

CAMBRIDGE

The site of one of England's major universities, which, according to Prior Nicholas Cantelupe (died 1441),
received its charter from Arthur (# 476). An even less likely tradition, current in Elizabethan times, was that
the university had been founded by the Spanish Prince Cantaber in Anno Mundi 3588.*
*Since the creation of the world. # 156 - 476

CAMEL

A river, the possible site of Camlann battle. # 156


CAMELIARD

The kingdom of Leodegrance, who was Guinevere's father. It has been suggested that it was in Scotland or
else in south-west England. One of its important cities was Carolhaise. # 156 - 418

CAMELOT

Arthur's capital. According to the romances, it was named after a pagan king called Camaalis. At the time
when Joseph of Arimathea arrived in Britain, it was the chief city of the country. In Joseph's time, King
Agrestes ruled it. He seemed to embrace Christianity but, after Joseph's departure, persecuted the Christians
until God drove him mad. The city is first mentioned by Chrétien in his LANCELOT. Malory tells us the
chief church was St. Stephen's. Attempts have been made to identify Camelot. In Roman times Colchester
was called Camulodunum, which has a not-too-dissimilar sound. In modern times, some have thought it
was Cadbury Castle (Somerset) where, as we know from archaeology, there was a leader's fortified
dwelling during the Arthurian period. A tradition that Camelot was Cadbury Castle also existed in the
sixteenth century. See: WINCHESTER. # 156

CAMILLE

Enamoured of Arthur, this sorceress of Saxon ancestry captured him. Lancelot rescued him and Camille
killed herself. # 156

CAMLANN

The site of Arthur's final battle. Malory has only Arthur, Bedivere and, for a very brief period, Lucan
survive this battle. Arthur was sorely, perhaps mortally, wounded. In CULHWCH, a number of other
survivors are mentioned - Sandav, because he was so beautiful that all mistook him for an angel, and
Morvran, because he was so ugly that all supposed him a devil. We are also told in CULHWCH that the
battle was planned by nine people, one of whom was Gwynn Hyvar, the steward of Cornwall and Devon.
Others thought to have survived the battle were Saint Derfel and Saint Petroc. Welsh tradition spoke of
seven survivors. The date of the battle has caused some debate. The ANNALES CAMBRIAE state it was
twenty-one years after Badon, perhaps intending AD 515, 520 0r 539. Geoffrey claims it was in 542. The
Irish ANNALS OF TIGERNACH place it in 541 and the Spanish ANALES TOLEDANOS much later, in
580. As to the site, Malory favours Salisbury Plain. Slaughter Bridge on the River Camel (Cornwall) is a
traditional site, while Blackett and Wilson identify it with Camlan (Wales). The DIDOT PERCEVAL places
it in Ireland. See also: ODBRICT and TREGALEN. # 72 - 156

CAMPBELL OF ISLAY, JOHN FRANCIS

(1822-85) J. F. Campbell was the author of perhaps the most famous collection of Scottish Folktales,
POPULAR TALES OF THE WEST HIGHLANDS, ORALLY COLLECTED. He was a cousin of the Duke
of Argyll, a grandson of the Earl of Wemyss, was educated at Eton and Edinburgh University, and became a
barrister. He had much practical work to do in the world; as Secretary to the Lighthouse Commision and
Coal Commision he had detailed and voluminous reports to prepare, but as a child he had been brought up
in Islay with a Gaelic-speaking nurse and had made many close friends among the island people. In a time
when Gaelic was despised and suppressed by the village dominies, and often by the ministers as well,
Campbell of Islay upheld it, and searched out the surviving storytellers and the traditions of history, legend
and belief that were still lingering in the Highlands and Islands. His method of collection was an examplar
to all later collectors, for he trained a team of Gaelic speakers and threw a great network over the whole
area. Sometimes he travelled with his collectors and trained them assiduously to accurate and lively oral
transmission. He published only the four volumes of his POPULAR TALES, but left behind him a vast
manuscript collection, much of which has been translated and printed bilingually, according to the standard
which he established. A full and lively account of his life and the impact he made on his contemporaries
can be found in R. M. Dorson's classic work, THE BRITISH FOLKLORISTS. # 100 - 191

CAMPBELL OF TIREE, JOHN GREGORSON

(1836-91) Among the nineteenth century collectors of Highland tales and traditions, two of the name of
Campbell are of outstanding importance: J. F. Campbell and J. G. Campbell. They were members of a band
of collectors, among them J. Mc Dougall and D. McInnes, encouraged and directed by Lord Archibald
Campbell. They pursued the same method of oral collection of Gaelic sources with translations into
English. Campbell of Islay's POPULAR TALES OF THE WEST HIGHLANDS is well known, but
Campbell of Tiree's contribution to folk knowledge is nearly as important. John Gregorson Campbell was
born in Kingairloch, Argyllshire, the son of a sea-captain. His first schooling was in Appin, from which he
went to high school at Glasgow, and later to the university, where he already began to collect oral traditions
and cultivate the aquaintance of good storytellers. He was called to the ministry, and in 1860 the Duke of
Argyll appointed him to the ministry of Tiree and Coll, where he worked for the rest of his life in a very
happy relationship with his parishioners. In the course of his work he provided material for two volumes of
the series WAIFS AND STRAYS OF CELTIC TRADITION, wrote SUPERSTITIONS OF THE
HIGHLANDS AND ISLANDS OF SCOTLAND, and contributed stories to various Celtic journals. He
corresponded with his fellow collectors, and particularly with John Campbell of Islay. It was a time of keen
intellectual activity in the Highlands, not rivalled until the School of Scottish Studies began its researches.
# 100

CAMULOS

Belgic war-god, eponymous deity of Camulodunum (Colchester). Coins bearing his name have the symbol
of the boar upon them. # 454

CANAN

The father of Lac and grandfather of Erec. # 156

CANDACES

The son of King Apollo of Liones; in his day Liones and Cornwall were united. # 156

CANOR

A King of Cornwall who was aided by the Irish king Gonosor. # 156

CANTERBURY

This city was called Durovernum by the ancient Romans. The archiepiscopal see was founded in AD 597.
In Arthurian romance the Archbishop of Canterbury was one of Arthur's advisers; he survived his final
battle but was subsequently murdered by Mark of Cornwall. The inclusion of an archbishop of Canterbury
in Arthurian saga is probably an anacronism, rather than an assertion that there was a bishopric of
Canterbury in pre-Saxon times. According to the Scandinavian BRETA SOGUR, Arthur was buried at
Canterbury. # 156

CAOILTE MAC RONAN


(kwel che moc ronan) One of the Fianna, and their best runner. He released Fionn from imprisonment by
gathering two of every wild beast for his ransom. # 454

CAOINEAG

(konyack) 'Weeper'. One of the names given to the Highland Banshee (Caointeach is another). She
belonged to the class of Fuaths. Unlike the Bean-Nighe, she is not seen and cannot be approached to grant
wishes. She is heard wailing in the darkness at a waterfall before any catastrophe overtakes a clan.
Carmichael in CARMINA GADELICA, says that before the Massacre of Glencoe the Caoineag of the
Macdonalds was heard to wail night after night. # 100 - 136

CAOINTEACH

(kondyuch) A localized form of the Caoineag, the Highland Banshee, which belongs to Argyllshire, Skye
and some of the neighbouring islands, and was attached to the Macmillans, Mathisons, Kellys, Mackays,
Macfarlanes, Shaws and Curries. The name means 'wailer', and she has a peculiarly loud and lamentable
cry, rising at times to a kind of scream. Sometimes she beats clothes on a stone like the BeanNighe. She has
been described as a child or a very little woman in a short green gown and petticoat with a high-crowned
white cap. It is not certain whether she is like a banshee in having no nose and one monstrous tooth, but her
habits seem to be the same. L. Spence gives an account of her, and there is a story about her in MacDougall
and Calder's work. In this tale she wore a green shawl for mourning and served the Mackays. One wet cold
night she was keening softly outside the door, and a member of the family put out a plaid for her. She was
thus laid like a Brownie, and has never come back to the Mackays. # 100 - 414 - 609

CAPELTHWAITE

The name given to a Westmoreland local Bogie of the Black Dog type. He could apparently assume any
form at will, but preferred that of the calf-sized black dog. There used to be a barn near Milnthorpe called
Capelthwaite Barn which was the home of one of these creatures. He was well disposed towards the farm
people, and used to round up their sheep and cattle for them. # 100

CAPTIVES IN FAIRYLAND

From ancient times there have been traditions of mortals carried away into Fairyland (Otherworld), or
detained there if they ventured into a fairy hill and were inveigled into tasting fairy food or drink, and so
partaking of the fairy nature. An early example is the story of Malekin given in the Medieval Cronicle of
Ralph of Coggeshall. Here we have an example of the most common form of captive, a mortal changeling,
stolen from his mother's side while she was working in the fields, and apparently believing that he had a
chance of regaining his freedom every seven years. These little captives, fed from infancy on fairy food and
cosseted by fairy mothers, would presumably be accepted in the end as full fairies. There was, however, a
more sinister reason given for their capture; it was said both in Scotland and Ireland that, once in a seven
years, the fairies had to pay a tribute to Hell, and that they preferred to sacrifice mortals rather than their
own kind. It will be remembered that in the ballad of Thomas the Rhymer, the Queen of Elfland had some
fears that Thomas might be chosen for the Teind.

According to Lady Wilde, young men are often lured away if they are gifted with powers of song and
music, as Thomas the Rhymer was, or especially handsome ones are desired as lovers by fairy princesses.
Women, however, are in much more danger of capture by the fairies than men. Nursing mothers are in great
demand to suckle fairy babies (for the quality of fairy milk seems to be poor), and the time between child-
birth and churching is one of great danger. There are many stories of precautions successfully taken, or of
the attempted rescue of wives from the power of the fairies. Sometimes the fairies were intercepted as they
were carrying off their victim and never got into Fairyland with her. 'The Laird of Balmachie's wife' is an
example of this and an exposure of the fairy method of capture. Sometimes the victim was successfully
rescued, as in Scott's story of MARY NELSON.

But there were tragic stories of failure in the attempt. One among many is the tale of THE LOTHIAN
FARMER'S WIFE which Douglas tells in SCOTTISH FAIRY AND FOLK TALES, when the husband
made an attempt to rescue his wife from the Fairy Rade (an attempt which had succeeded with Young
Tamlane): The wife of a farmer in Lothian had been carried off by the fairies, and, during the year of
probation, repeatedly appeared on Sunday, in the midst of her children, combing their hair. On one of these
occasions she was accosted by her husband; when she related to him the unfortunate event which had
separated them, instructed him by what means he might win her, and exhorted him to exert all his courage,
since her temporal and eternal happiness depended on the success of his attempt. The farmer, who ardently
loved his wife, set out on Hallowe'en, and, in the midst of a plot of furze, waited impatiently for the
procession of the fairies. At the ringing of the fairy bridles, and the wild, unearthly sound which
accompanied the cavalcade, his heart failed him, and he suffered the ghostly train to pass by without
interruption. When the last rode past, the whole troop vanished, with loud shouts of laughter and exultation;
among which he plainly discovered the voice of his wife, lamenting that he had lost her for ever.

The capture of beautiful young women to be brides to fairy kings or princes was almost as common as that
of nursing mothers, and these seem often to have been the patients for whom fairy midwives were called
out. A very clear example of this is J. Rhys' story of Eilian of Garth Dorwen. Here the fairy's bride went
willingly and had always had something uncanny about her. Her Golden Hair made her particularly
attractive to the fairies. There was no need to rescue her. This is the most complete Midwife to the Fairies
Story that we possess. Lady Wilde's ETHNA THE BRIDE is a representative of a Fairy Theft of a young
bride and of her rescue out of Fairyland. The classic Irish story of Midhir and Etain is the epic version of
the tale, and the medieval King Orfeo, in which Hades becomes Fairyland, follows something on the same
lines. The Cornish FAIRY DWELLING ON SELENA MOOR tells of the failure to rescue a human captive,
but here the girl seems kept as a nursemaid rather than a bride. Again the eating of fairy food was her
undoing. One aspect of the fairy captives is of especial interest and that is the friendly warning they often
give to humans who have inadvertently strayed into Fairyland. In THE TACKSMAN OF AUCHRIACHAN
it is a neighbour supposed to have been recently dead who warns him of his danger, hides him and helps
him to escape. Often the midwife is advised by her patient what to do for her safety.

As a rule this patient is a captive bride, and one can presume that it is so in Lady Wilde's story of THE
DOCTOR AND THE FAIRY PRINCESS. In the Irish tales there are many examples of a 'red-haired man'
who intervenes to rescue people enticed into Fairyland, and who is supposed to be a mortal captive there.
One example is perhaps enough, drawn from Lady Wilde's ANCIENT LEGENDS OF IRELAND, VOL. I.
It is about a girl who was enticed into a fairy dance, and, after dancing with the prince, she was led down to
a gorgeous banquet: She took the golden cup the prince handed to her, and raised it to her lips to drink. Just
then a man passed close to her, and whispered, 'Eat no food, and drink no wine, or you will never reach
your home again.' So she laid down the cup, and refused to drink. On this they were angry, and a great
noise arose, and a fierce, dark man stood up, and said - 'Whoever comes to us must drink with us.' And he
seized her arm, and held the wine to her lips, so that she almost died of fright. But at that moment a red-
haired man came up, and he took her by the hand and led her out. 'You are safe for this time,' he said. 'Take
this herb, and hold it in your hand till you reach home, and no one can harm you.' And he gave her a branch
of the plant called Athair-Luis (the ground ivy). This she took, and fled away along the sward in the dark
night: but all the time she heard footsteps behind her in pursuit. At last she reached home and barred the
door, and went to bed, when a great clamour arose outside, and voices were heard crying to her 'The power
we have over you is gone through the magic of the herb; but wait - when you dance again to the music on
the hill, you will stay with us for evermore, and none shall hinder.' However, she kept the magic branch
safely, and the fairies never troubled her more; but it was long and long before the sound of the fairy music
left her ears which she had danced to that November night on the hillside with her fairy lover.

Thomas the Rhymer is the one mortal-born inhabitant of Fairyland who appears again and again as the
leader and counsellor of the fairies, and seems to have no backward looks towards Middle Earth and no
remorse for human mortals. Thomas of Ercildoune actually lived in Scotland in the late Middle Ages, and
the very tree where he met the Fairy Queen is still pointed out.

Robert Kirk, the seventeenthcentury author of THE SECRET COMMONWEALTH, was another who was
believed to have been carried into a fairy hill, the Fairy Knowe at Aberfoyle. He was an unwilling prisoner
and was thought to be held because of his betrayal of fairy secrets. It will be seen that various motives were
ascribed for captures of mortals: the acquisition of bond-slaves, amorousness, the enrichment brought by
musical talent, human milk for fairy babies, but perhaps the chief motive was to inject the dwindling stock
with fresh blood and human vigour. # 100 - 130 - 192 - 201 - 370 - 554 - 728

CAPTURED FAIRIES

The marriage of a human man with a fairy wife seems generally to have been a marriage by capture, except
for the Gwrachs of Wales, who generally yielded to wooing. Like the captured brides, however, they
imposed a taboo, which was in the end always violated. Wild Edric is an early example of a captured fairy
bride, complete with the taboo and the wife's final return to Fairyland. Many other wives are Selkies or Seal
Maidens, captured by the theft of their seal skins. When, after years of married life, they regain their skins,
they hurry down to the sea at once. Ralph of Coggeshall's early tale of the Green Children is an unusual one
of fairies captured, for of the pair, the boy pined and died and the girl never went back to her subterranean
land, but married and lived on like a mortal, keeping still some of the fairy wantonness. There are scattered
tales all over the country of the capture of the small helpless fairies, most of whom escape in the long run.
The most famous of these are the Leprachauns. The man who is bold enough to seize one hopes to threaten
him into surrendering his pot of gold, for the Leprachaun is a hoarder, but there has been no recorded case
of success. The rule first laid down by Kirk that a fairy can only be seen between two blinks of an eye holds
good with him. However fast your grip, you must keep your eye on him through rough and smooth, or he
will slip between your fingers like water. Perhaps the same rule held good for the pixy at the Ovkerry, of
whom William Crossing wrote in his TALES OF DARTMOOR PIXIES. An old woman who lived on the
Moors was going home with an empty basket from the market after selling her goods. When she got near
the bridge which spans Blackabrook at the Ockerry a small figure leapt on to the road and began capering
in front of her. He was about eighteen inches high, and she recognized him as a pixy. She paused for a
moment, wondering if she should turn back for fear of being Pixy-Led; but she remembered that her family
would be waiting for her, and pressed steadily on. When she got to the bridge the pixy turned and hopped
towards her, and she suddenly stooped down, picked him up, popped him into her empty basket and latched
down the lid, for she thought to herself that instead of the pixy leading her she would lead the pixy. The
little fellow was too tall to leap about in the basket, but he began to talk and scold in an unknown gibberish,
while she hurried proudly home, longing to show her catch to the family. After a time the stream of
gabbling stopped, and she thought he might be sullen or asleep. She thought she would take a peep at him,
and lifted a corner of the lid very cautiously, but there was no sight or feel of him, he was gone like a piece
of dried foam. No harm seems to have come to her, and, in spite of losing him, she felt proud of her exploit.

I. Skillywidden and Coleman Gray tell of little fairies who were carried into human houses but got back to
their own family in the end. In the sadder tale of BROTHER MIKE the little captive never escaped, but
pined and died. Ruth Tongue has a story of a rather rare waterspirit, an ASRAI, who pined and melted away
under the heat of the sun like a stranded jelly-fish when a fisherman caught it and tried to bring it home to
sell. Most of these fairies, great or small, seem powerless to avenge the wrong offered to them, though
other fairies avenge much more trifling injuries with Blights and Illnesses, or even death. # 86 - 100 - 167 -
540

CARADAWC

Son of Bran; rules Britain in his father's absence. # 562

CARADOC
King of Vannes and Nantes, who married the unfaithful Ysaive, niece of Arthur. See: CARADOC
BRIEFBRAS. # 156

CARADOC BRIEFBRAS

His epithet 'briefbras' (short arm) is a pseudo-translation into French of Welsh 'freichfras' (strong-armed). In
the romances, he was the son of Eliavres the wizard and Ysaive, wife of King Caradoc of Vannes and
Nantes. When Caradoc Briefbras confronted Eliavres about his parentage, Eliavres and Ysaive caused a
serpent to twine around his arm and it took the combined efforts of his wife, Guignier, and her brother,
Cador, to rid him of it. When King Mangoun of Moraine sent him a horn to expose any infidelity on the
part of the wife of him who drank from it, Caradoc's draught showed his wife to be faithful. In Welsh
tradition Caradoc's wife was Tegau Eurfon, his father Llyr Marini, his son Meuric and his steed Lluagor. He
was the legendary ancestor of the ruling house of Morgannwg and may have founded the kingdom of
Gwent in the fifth century. # 156 - 604

CARADOS

Also called the King of Carados, he was one of those kings who rebelled against Arthur at the outset of his
reign. B. Saklatvala (# 574) identifies him with the Saxon leader Cerdic. # 156 - 574

CARADOS OF THE DOLOROUS TOWER

He had an enchantress for a mother. He captured Gawain and lodged him in a dungeon. Lancelot slew him,
striking off his head with the only sword which could kill him, and Gawain and other prisoners were thus
freed. Carados was the brother of Sir Turquine. # 156 - 418

CARANNOG, SAINT

(Sixth century) He was possibly of Welsh origin. Arthur had taken possession of his floating altar, which
had gone astray, but he returned it when Carannog drove off a serpent at the king's behest. # 26 - 156

CARATACUS

A historical personage, King of the Catuvellani, a tribe of Britons who lived in the vicinity of modern-day
St Albans, at the time of the Roman invasion of Britain in AD 43. He led a hard-fought anti-Roman
campaign, but was eventually handed over to his foes by Cartimandua, Queen of the Brigantes. He was
then pardoned by the Emperor Claudius. E. Ratcliffe (# 542) argues that the stories of Caratacus became
misplaced in folklore and that he was the original of Arthur. A somewhat similar argument is advanced by J.
Whitehead. Both Ratcliffe and I. H. Elder regard Caratacus as identical with Arviragus, while E. R. Capt
avers that he was Arviragus' cousin. # 156 - 542 - 726

CARBONEK

This castle contained the Palace Adventurous, wherein was the Grail. # 156

CARDUINO

A knight who was brought up secretly after his father, Dondinello, had been poisoned. He went to Arthur's
court and then on a quest to succour Beatrice who, with her subjects, had been turned into animals by a
wizard. Carduino slew the wizard and restored Beatrice to her former shape by kissing her. They married. #
156 - 238
CARELL

Reputed father of Tuan. # 562

CARIADO

In Thomas's TRISTAN, a knight in love with Iseult who told her that Tristan had married Iseult of the
White Hands. # 156

CARL OF CARLISLE

A giant who was host to Gawain, Kay and Bishop Baldwin. He had become a giant because of a spell
which was broken when, at his own behest, his head was duly cut off by Gawain. Gawain married his
daughter. Arthur knighted him and made him Lord of Carlisle. He became a Knight of the Round Table. #
156 - 401

CARLACHS

A race or nation. In Irish romance, the King's son, the Black Knight, became one of Arthur's knights and
was killed by the Knight of the Lantern. # 156

CARNAC

At Carnac, Brittany, the Ménec alignment, made after 2500 BC with over a thousand stones, is set with two
other alignments in a crowded landscape of dolmens (burial chambers), menhirs (single stones) and
cromlechs (groups of stones). The stones are regimented, probably for ritual; but each stone is individual,
with an overwhelming personality. At the culmination of the alignments are the presumed stones of
sacrifice. Surveys in the 1970s Professor Thom argued for two important astronomical observatories near
Carmac. He concluded that the Manio and Grand Menhir Brisé menhirs had been erected as foresights
towards the eight major risings and settings of the moon. Several sites, he believed, could have been the
backsights from which observers would have seen these lunar events. Omitted from the gazetteer are some
non-megalithic (or non-existing) sites. There are good reasons for doubting the astronomical function of
many stones in the two 'observatories'. Not to be forgotten in this prehistoric wonderland is the museum at
Carnac-ville. The objects on display, from the flints and the pots to the casts of carved stones, are vividly
revealing of the lives of the people who erected and used the menhirs, the rows and the tombs. # 117 - 342

CARNED ARTHUR

In Welsh folk belief Arthur was buried under the cairn in Snowdonia. # 156

CARNWENNAN

Arthur's dagger. # 156 -346

CARPATHIANS

Earliest home of mountain Celts was ranges of the Carpathians. # 562

CARRAS
King of Recesse, the brother of King Claudas, he waged war against Arthur, until Gawain persuaded him to
stop. # 153 - 156

CARTHAGINIANS

Celts conquered Spain from the Carthaginians. Greeks break monopoly of trade of the Carthaginians, with
Britain and Spain. # 562

CARVILIA

In the works of Torquato Tasso (1544-95) the Italian poet, a daughter of Morgan Le Fay. # 156

CASCORACH

Son of a minstrel of the Danaan Folk; Cas'corach and St. Patrick. # 562

CASTELLORS

Son of Aminabad and ancestor of Arthur according to the pedigree provided by John of Glastonbury. See:
GARCELOS, and MANAEL. # 156 - 344

CASTLE EDEN

A village in Co. Durham, said to be haunted by Arthur's knights in the guise of chickens. Arthur's hall was
once thought to have stood there. # 156 - 753

CASTLE KEY

An earthwork, modern Caynham Camp (Shropshire) which, according to the medieval HISTORY OF
FULK FITZWARIN, was built by Kay. # 156

CASTLE OF MAIDENS

A castle in Arthurian romance said to contain young women, either as inmates or prisoners. Duke Lianour
ruled it, but seven brothers slew him and took it over. They in turn fell at the hands of three of Arthur's
knights and, afterwards, the duke's daughter took charge of it. With regard to its origin, Geoffrey said that
Ebraucus, King of Britain, founded the Castle of Mount Agned which later became known as the Castle of
Maidens. As to its location, it may have been identified with Edinburgh which, in the Middle Ages, was
known as Castellum (or Castra) Puellarum, but some of the tales place it in the vicinity of Gloucester. # 26
- 156

CASTLE OF WONDERS

The lame king, who is identical with the lord of the Castle of Wonders, would have been made whole again,
if Perceval (Peredur) had asked the meaning of what he saw. # 562

CASTLE RUSHEN

Beneath this castle on the Isle of Man are said to be giants, buried in caves by Merlin who defeated them. #
156
CASTLERIGG STONE CIRCLE

On a plateau among the hills to the east of Keswick is one of the most impressive ancient stone circles in
the north of England, the Castlerigg, sometimes called the 'Carles' or 'Druids Circle',

... a dismal cirque Of Druid Stones, upon a forlorn moor.

as Keats wrote in the nineteenth century. The 'cirque' consists of 38 standing stones arranged in an oval
approximately 107 feet maximum diameter, with an inner rectangular setting of 10 stones. About 300 feet
to the south-west is an outlier. Castlerigg, like most of the stone circles of Britain, is a calendrical marker,
though in this respect it is probably unique in that instead of using a large number of specially sited
standing stones outside its circle as markpoints, it makes use of the distinctive shapes of the surrounding
mountains. The line of orientation in such circles is usually fixed by three single points (indicated by
stones, one of which is usually an outlier, or stone free of the outer circumference of the circle) along a
single sighting line.

In Castlerigg, however, there are several orientation points with only two siting points within some of the
orientations, the third (necessary to mark accurately a continuation line) being fixed by distinctive points on
the surrounding hills and mountains: thus, in this remarkable circle, the stones are integrated perfectly into
the surrounding horizon, to mark out the rhythms of the seasons. The most important work done on stone
circles in the present century is that of Professor Thom, who has personally surveyed hundreds of such sites
and has come to some far-reaching conclusions about their calendrical properties. It is therefore interesting
to observe that Thom himself remarks that the curious evidence of the outlier at Castlerigg yielded one of
the lines which, in Thom's words 'convinced the author of the necessity to examine the calendar hypothesis
in detail'. # 702

CASWALLAWN

# 562: Son of Beli; conquers Britain during Bran's absence. # 454: Welsh king. In popular memory,
Cassivellaunos, the Belgic king of Catuvellauni, who had led the tribes against Caesar in 54 BC survived as
Caswallawn. The 'Triads' cite him as being the suitor of Fflur, and remember him as one of the three golden
shoemakers, along with Manawyddan and Llew. In 'Branwen, Daughter of Llyr', he conquers Britain in the
absence of Bran, by means of his magic mantle. See: THIRTEEN TREASURES OF BRITAIN. # 104 - 272
- 439 - 454 - 562

CAT

The cat does not play a large part in Celtic tradition but it was associated with chthonic powers and was
thus funerary, also a prophetic animal. In Roman Gaul and in Irish lore there was a 'Little Cat' as a guardian
of treasure; it turned into a flaming object and burned the thief to ashes. There was an island inhabited by
men with cat-heads. In Celtic saga there were Monster Cats to be fought by the Hero, the cat taking the
place of the Dragon. The Welsh Great Cat was born of the enchanted sow Henwen, originally a human; it
could eat nine score warriors. Monster cats and sea-cats appear in Irish tradition of probably Celtic origin.
In Irish myth the eldest son of a hog had a cat's head and was known as 'Puss of the Corner'. # 454: The cat
is now so domesticated it seems impossible to imagine mythical Britain being ravaged by a giant wild-cat,
but so it was, until Arthur and Cai overcame it, according to an early Welsh text. Indeed the cat has not
been necessarily appreciated for its virtues in British folklore where it often appears as the totem of black
witches. One unpleasant form of divination among the Scottish Gaels was 'taghgairm', by which a live cat
was spitted over a fire until other cats appeared to relieve its distress by answering the question set by the
operator of this method. Among the Gaelic peoples it was a powerful totem of many tribes. Caithness is
named from the clan of the Catti, or cat-people, while in Ireland, Fionn fought against a tribe of CAT-
HEADS, possibly warriors with catskin over their helmets. # 100 - 161 - 225 - 454
CAT COIT CELIDON

The site of one of Arthur's battles in the southern reaches of Scotland, in the area once known as Silva
Caledoniae (Wood of Scotland). # 156 - 494

CATH PALUG

A monstrous member of the cat family which appears in Welsh Arthurian poetry. The adjective Palug
means 'clawing'. In the poem PA GUR, we are told that Kay went to Anglesey with a view to killing lions
and was especially prepared for an encounter with Cath Palug. The poem is incomplete, but it may have
told how Kay slew the beast. Welsh tradition told how the creature was produced by the pig Henwen and
thrown into the sea, only to be raised by the sons of Palug on Anglesey. (Geoffrey Ashe suggests that a
captive leopard, kept by a Welsh king, may have given rise to the tale.) In Continental tales we learn how
Arthur slew a giant cat near Lake Bourget in the French Alps. This combat is commemorated in the local
names Col du Chat (cat's neck), Dent du Chat (cat's tooth) and Mont du Chat (cat's mountain). In French
the animal was called Capalu. In the ROMANEZ DE FRANCEIS (medieval romance) Arthur fought the
cat Capalu in a swamp and it killed him. It then invaded England and became king. It has been suggested
that we may have here an alternative tradition of Arthur's death. In BATAILLE LOQUIFER (medieval
romance with limited Arthurian content) there is a youth called Kapalu, a servant of Morgan. # 104 - 156

CATH SITH

The Cat of the Sidhe: a fairy cat. Highlanders believed that the Cait Sith was really a transformed witch not
a fairy. The King of this otherworldly company of cats was called Big Ears and he would appear to answer
questions set by a dinner engaged in taghairm - the roasting of a cat over fire. See: CAT. # 100 - 454

CATHBAD

(cáh'vah) # 562: Chief Druid of Ulster. Wedded to Maga, wife of Ross the Red; his spell of divination
overheard by CuChulain; draws Deirdre's horoscope; casts evil spells over Naisi and Deirdre. # 454: The
druid of Conchobar mac Nessa and his father. He prophesied that the boy who took arms on a certain day
would outstrip all of Ireland's heroes. CuChulain heard him and 'took valour' as a warrior that day, although
he was but a boy. Cathbad also foretold the sorrow which Deirdriu would cause Conchobar and the whole
of Ulster. # 166 - 266 - 454 - 548 - 562

CATHOLIC CHURCH

All affairs, public and private, were subject to the Druids authority, and the penalties which they could
inflict for any assertion of lay independence, like the medieval interdicts of the Catholic Church, on popular
superstition alone, were enough to quell the proudest spirit. Here lay the real weakness of the Celtic polity.
# 562

CATHUBODUA

This Celtic goddess of war's name means Battle-Crow. Inscriptions have been found to her in Europe, but
she is undoubtedly associated with Badh or Bodh, the Irish battle-goddess. # 389 - 454

CATIGERN

A son of Vortigern. # 156 - 243


CATTLE RAID OF COOLEY, THE

is the central epic of the Ulster cycle. The oldest version goes back probably to the eighth century. The tale
opens with the famous 'Pillow Talk' a racy dialogue between Queen Medb of Connacht and her hen-pecked
husband, Ailill. The queen, on finding that her possessions equal those of her husband, except for one bull,
the White-Horned of Connacht, determines to make up the deficiency by gaining possession of the most
famous bull in Ireland, the Donn of Cooley, which is the property of Daire, a chieftain of Ulster. When
Medb learns that she cannot obtain the Donn as a loan, she determines to take the animal by force and
gathers an army to invade Ulster. Owing to the temporary debility of all the adult warriors of Ulster, the
seventeen-year-old CuChulain undertakes to oppose Medb's host single-handed. When Medb hears of
CuChulain, she inquires about him from the Ulster exiles in her army and learns of his boyish exploits. As
the result of an agreement between Medb and CuChulain, the Ulster champion meets at a ford on the border
of the two provinces a single Connacht warrior each day over a period extending from Samhain (the
beginning of winter) till the beginning of spring. The men of Connacht finally succeed in invading Ulster
and carrying off the Donn of Cooley, but they are later defeated by the Ulstermen, now restored to their
normal strength. The Donn of Cooley, after slaying the WhiteHorned of Connacht, returns to his native
district and utters mad bellowings of triumph till his heart bursts and he dies. In spite of obvious
imperfections, 'The Cattle Raid of Cooley' is a splendid example of an epic in the making. It shows many
evidences of literary artistry and is not without passages of marked power and impressiveness. The combat
between CuChulain and his friend Ferdiad is one of the most famous passages in early Irish literature. #
166

CATTLE RAID OF FROECH, THE

'The Cattle Raid of Froech' has a peculiar title. Froech's 'cattle raid' is nothing more than the recovery of his
own cattle ( and his wife) from beyond the Alps; moreover, this exploit, which has a late look to it, is
tacked on to the main tale, which could better have been called 'The Wooing of Findabair'. And the tale
itself is unusual, for it is a mythological story - and with the personae of the Mythological Cycle - pressed
into the service of the Ulster Cycle, as a preliminary tale to 'The Cattle Raid of Cuailnge'. It begins in the
realm of the Sidhe, with Froech going to ask presents of his aunt, Boand (compare Froech's cattle with the
hounds of Arawn in 'Pwyll Lord of Dyved': white animals with red ears are always from the otherworld);
immediately, the setting shifts to the heroic warrior-world of Connachta, though Froech returns to the Sidhe
for healing after his battle with the water monster.

The theme of 'The Cattle Raid of Froech', that of the young hero who must win his love away from her
unwilling father, appears also in 'The Wooing of Etain' and 'The Dream of Oengus'; it is a degraded form of
the familiar regeneration motif. The mythic - actually folkloric, in this manifestation - pattern imposes an
uncharacteristic degree of villainy on Ailill and Medb. (Also uncharacteristic is the dominance of Ailill -
elsewhere in the Ulster Cycle it is Medb who is the strong partner.) The version in Gantz's 'Early Irish
Myths and Sagas', however, is neither mythic nor heroic so much as literary and psychological. More
attention is paid to motivation here than in any other early Irish story: Medb is guilt-stricken at having
neglected Froech's retinue, Findabair refuses to elope with Froech but admonishes him to bargain for her,
Froech rejects the bride price as excessive even for Medb, Ailill tricks Froech into entering the water
monster's lake and seems to regret the ruse only because Froech survives it, Findabair asserts her
independence of her father after he has accused her of giving her ring (and by implication herself) to
Froech. Even the dialogue is unusually subtle. Oddly, though, Froech's lie about how he received the ring is
never challenged - is this an extraordinarily ironic touch, or did the storyteller simply forget that Findabair
actually does give Froech the ring? - and Findabair, even after producing the ring on the salmon platter, is
not allowed to go away at once with Froech. # 236

CATUVELLANI

A tribe of Britons. See: CARATACUS. # 156


CATWALLAUN LONGHAND

A North Welsh ruler who is said to have driven the Irish (led by Serigi) out of Anglesey about the year AD
500. He may be identical with Cadwallon who, according to Geoffrey, ruled Gwynedd in Arthur's time. #
156

CAULD LAD OF HILTON, THE

One of the domestic spirits which is half brownie, half ghost. It was supposed to be the spirit of a
Northumbrian stable boy killed by one of the past Lords of Hilton in a fit of passion. He was heard working
about the kitchen at nights, but he was a perverse spirit, for he would toss about and disarrange whatever
had been left tidy, but clean and tidy whatever had been left dirty or in disorder. He used to be heard
singing sadly at night. He was unnecessarily pessimistic, however, for the servants put their heads together
and laid out a green cloak and hood for him. At midnight he put them on and frisked about til cock-crow
singing, 'Here's a cloak and here's a hood,the Cauld Lad of Hilton will do nae mair good!', and with the
dawn he vanished for ever. # 100

CAULDRON

# 701: The cauldron was the prime female symbol of the pre-Christian world. Among the Celts, the Three
Matriarchs kept the Magic Cauldron of Regeneration at the bottom of a lake, until it was brought up by
Bran the Blessed to resuscitate men slain in battle. This Celt god moved on into the Grail cycle of myths, as
Bron the Fisher King, and his cauldron became confused with the Christian version of the lifegiving, blood-
filled vessel. - There can be no doubt that the cauldron represented the womb of the Great Goddess, who
was often a trinity. It is certain also that men used to believe their reincarnation and rebirth depended upon
entering such a uterine vessel to be reconstituted by its magic. Celtic cauldrons of regeneration came from
the Land Beneath the Waves because the Sea Goddess was held to be the universal birth-giver. The god
Cernunnos was dismembered and boiled in a cauldron in order to rise again from the dead. A boiling
cauldron gave rebirth and/or magic power to Taliesin.

Cauldrons continued to be worshiped as symbols of the universal womb even into Christian times, as long
as pagans met together to carry on their religion. # 454: In ancient Celtic myth there were several cauldrons
dispensing variously the properties of life, death, inspiration and wisdom. It is generally understood that
these gave way in time to the image of the Holy Grail and became incorporated into the Hallows of Britain.
Arthur went in search of such a cauldron to the very gates of Annwn. Bran possessed a cauldron which re-
animated dead men. In the story of Taliesin, Ceridwen owned a cauldron which gave inspiration. # 287 -
439 - 451 - 454 - 461 - 563 - 701 pp 124-5

CAULDRON BRONZE THE, FROM BRAA

See: BRAA, THE BRONZE CAULDRON FROM.

CAULDRON OF ABUNDANCE

See equivalent, STONE OF ABUNDANCE. See also: GRAIL.

CAULDRON OF CERIDWEN

In their rites the Welsh bards made a decoction of berries and herbs and sea foam in a vessel, which is the
cauldron of the goddess Ceridwen of Celtic mythology. In the Greek mysteries of the goddess Ceres a
decoction of flowers, barley, salt and sea water was used. In both rites, after a little of this had been taken
by the initiates, the residue was regarded as poisonous and accursed having symbolically taken the sins and
pollutions which had been cast out of the candidates. The cauldron was prepared by a ritual in which nine
maidens warmed it with their breath. In the Greek mysteries nine maidens representing the nine muses
(connected with Orpheus) were thought to be imbued with similar special powers. Strabo connects the
Druidesses with the priestesses of Bacchus (Dionysos).

# 455: W. B. Crow: The Mistletoe Sacrement, p 54 ff

CAULDRON, THE GUNDESTRUP

See: GUNDESTRUP CAULDRON, THE.

CAVE

Caves were the great natural womb symbols and Mother Earth images worshiped by primitive peoples. A
cave sacred to the Triple Goddess in the guise of 'three fairy sisters,' was revered up to the eighteenth
century AD in Denbighshire (Clwyd, Cymru), by folk who claimed to see the sister's footprints around the
magic spring. Another sacred cave and spring in

Scotland near Dunskey was still used for healing magic in 1791, when people came to bathe at change of
moon. # 701 p 335 ff

CAVERSHALL

A castle in Staffordshire where, according to local legend, Arthur held court and succoured a lady. The
existing castle dates from the thirteenth century. # 156

CAVES IN WALES THAT HOLD SECRETS

People have throughout the ages held a fascination for caves. A wide variety of traditions associated with
caves occurs in Welsh folklore and the stories may concern smuggling, secret places where heroes are
sleeping or fugitives have hidden, treasure has been concealed or mythical beasts have had their lairs. There
are many caves in Wales where King Arthur and his knights are said to be sleeping, waiting to be called on
when their country has need of their services. Such caves are supposed to exist on Lliwedd near Snowdon
or at Craig y Dinas in the Neath Valley. We are also informed that King Arthur's treasure is buried in a cave
at Llangwyfan on Anglesey and his magical adviser is imprisoned in a cave yet to be discovered on
Myrddin's Hill near Carmarthen.

Another Welsh hero sleeping in a cave is supposed to be Owain Llawgoch (Owain of the Red Hand). Some
stories tell us that he sleeps in a cave in the cliff face below the romantic ruins of Carreg Cennen Castle and
that he awaits the time when he will return to the outer world to become king of Britain. This hero's real
name was Owain ap Thomas ap Rhodri (Owain son of Thomas, grandson of Rhodri), and he lived some six
hundred years ago. It is believed that he was a direct descendant of Llewelyn, the last true Prince of Wales.
"Owain Lawgoch, one of the last chieftains who fought against the English, lies with his men asleep. And
here they will lie until wakened by the sound of a trumpet and a clang of arms on Rhywgoch, when they
will arise and conquer their Saxon foes driving them from the land". Twm Shon Catti was another Welsh
folk hero who made use of a cave in a wild and remote corner of Wales. It is situated on a rocky hillside
overlooking some waterfalls on the River Tywi about 12 miles north of Llandovery. His real name was
Thomas Jones and during the sixteenth century he seemed to achieve a reputation as a sort of Robin Hood
robbing the rich and giving to the poor. He used this small rock shelter as a hiding place when escaping
from the local sheriff. Such caves as Porth yr Ogof near Ystradfellte in the Brecon Beacons National Park
were visited in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries by travellers who made amazing claims with regard
to their lengths. Some even believed that caves led down to the very depths of Hell and wrote such
descriptions as: 'We found this cave very hollow, and so dark... we thought certainly we had come to the
confines of the Infernal Regions, or some such dismal place, and we began to be afraid to visit it for
although we entered in frolicksome and merry, yet we might return out of it sad and pensive and never
more to be seen to laugh whilst we lived in the world, such dreadful apprehension seized upon some of us.'
Exaggerated descriptions of the lengths of the caves were often coupled with accounts of adventurous dogs
who disappeared down dark holes in the ground eventually to emerge many miles away. Other stories may
concern a musician who enters a cave and is never seen again, though for years after his disappearance
people claim to hear his music still playing. Such an example concerns a cave near Llanymynech in North
Wales. A harpist apparently discovered that a local cave led beneath Llanymynech Church. He subsequently
laid a wager with his mates that his harp would be heard in church one Sunday but he would not be there.
According to the story, one Sunday as he foretold, his harp was heard from beneath the church floor but the
underground harpist was never seen again although his music could still be heard on certain occasions. # 49

CAW

According to Welsh tradition, the father of Gildas, Hueil and Cywyllog. Caw himself was regarded as a
saint. # 156 - 320

CEASG

(keeask) The Highland mermaid, also known as Maighdean na Tuinne or 'maiden of the wave'. Her body
was that of a maiden while her tail was that of a young salmon. She was able to grant three wishes, if
captured and could only be overcome by the destruction of her soul, which was normally kept elsewhere, in
an object or land-feature. See: MERROW. # 100 - 454

CEI

(ky) Key.

CEITHLIONN

(ceh'lin) Wife of Balor; fought in the Battle of Moytura, in which she mortally wounded the Dagda. # 166

CELIDOINE

Son of the first Nascien who came to Britain and became king of Scotland. He was an ancestor of Galahad.
His name seems to have been derived from Caledonia, the Latin term for Scotland. # 156 - 434 - 604

CELIDON/CELLYDON/CAT COIT CELIDON

The name of the great forest of Arthurian Britain, site of one of Arthur's battles. Merlin was said to have
wandered there in his madness. # 242 - 454 - 630

CELTAE

One of three peoples inhabiting Gaul when Caesar's conquest began. # 562

CELTCHAR CELTCHAIR

# 562: (kelt-yar) The huge grey warrior, son of Uthecar Hornskin, lay moaning on his bed under the
Debility curse, laid on him and others by Macha.
# 454: Celtchair was a Red Branch warrior who, in the act of slaying his adulterous wife's lover, let fall a
drop of blood upon the fidchell (chess) board which Conchobar mac Nessa and CuChulain were playing at.
This was a breach of hospitality for which Celtchair was ordered to perform three separate feats to rid
Ireland of three plagues. He had to kill Cu Roi mac Daire's brother, Conganchas, who was devastating the
land but who was invulnerable to ordinary weapons. He learned from Conganchas' wife, Niamh, that her
husband could be slain only by having spear-tips thrust into the soles of his feet. The second plague was an
otherworldly dog which he slew. The last plague was another dog who he dispatched but whose venomous
blood trickled from Conganchas' spear on to him, by which he died. # 166 - 454 - 562

CELTDOM, GOLDEN AGE OF

As astronomers have discerned the existence of an unknown planet by the perturbations which it has caused
in the courses of those already under direct observation, so we can discern in the fifth and fourth centuries
BC the presence of a great power and of mighty movements going on behind a veil which will never be
lifted now. This was the Golden Age of Celtdom in Continental Europe. # 562

CELTIC

Diffusion of Celtic power in Mid-Europe. The battle of Rome took place on july 18 AD 390, that ill-
omened Dies Alliensis which long perpetuated in the Roman calendar the memory of the deepest shame the
republic had ever known. For nearly a year the Celts remained masters of the city. A treaty was concluded
and for almost a century there was peace between the Celts and the Romans. Contributing to upbreaking of
the Celtic Empire was evidently, that certain Celtic tribes allied themselves with their old enemy, the
Etruscans, in the third Samnite war. 2. Celtic place names found throughout Europe and in the British Isles.
Among several other examples take the word dunum, so often traceable in Gaelic place names in the
present day (Dundalk, Dunrobin, etc.), and meaning fortress or castle. It occurred very frequently in France
Lug-dunum (Lyon), Viro-dunum (Verdun), and in the Netherlands where the city of Leyden goes back to
Celtic Lug-dunum. 3. Early Celtic Art. Relics of ancient Celtic art-work dating back to 750 to 400 Bc were
discovered in Hallstatt, Austria. These relics betoken in some cases a high standard of civilisation and
considerable commerce. 4. The etymological history of Celtic words are very interesting , but far too
voluminous for this column, and for interested readers we refer to the ancient work: Jubainville's
PREMIERS HABITANTS, ii 355-356. - 5. Weakness of Celtic policy made space for Teutonic
predominance and which became the main political factor in the development of the European nations. 6.
Celtic religion was based entirely on Druidism as the priesthood, but with a huge amounts of local gods,
goddesses and heroes. See also CATHOLIC CHURCH.

7. The Tumulus at New Grange in Ireland are traditionally, besides the dwelling place of fairies, the
burialplace of High Kings of pagan Ireland. 8. The origins of the 'Celtic' immortality occurred first in Gaul
under Roman influence, and derive certainly from Egypt. The carvings in question are pre-Celtic. They are
found where no Celts ever penetrated. 9. Names of Celtic Deities. The Megalithic People did not imagine
their deities under concrete personal form. Stones, rivers, wells, trees, and other natural objects were to
them the adequate symbols. But the imaginative mind of the Aryan Celt was not content with this. And
from there they were mixed up with the gods from the antiquity and classical world. 10. The Celtic
conception of Death, See: OTHERWORLD.

11. Five factors of ancient Celtic culture. The popular superstitions and magical observances. Secondly, a
thoughtful and philosophic creed having its central object of worship the Sun. Thirdly, a worship of
personified deities as Aesus, Teutates, Lugh and others as guardians of social laws. Fourthly, the Romans
were deeply impressed with the existence among the Druids of a body of teaching of a quasi-scientific
nature about natural phenomena and the constitution of the universe. Lastly, the sacerdotal organisation and
the atmosphere of religious awe with which it was surrounded, became the sovereign power, social,
political, and religious, in every Celtic country. 12. It is verified by many scolars that the descendants of the
Megalithic People at the present day are, on the psysical side, deeply impregnated with Celtic blood, and on
the spiritual side with Celtic traditions and ideals. 13. The Celtic Cosmogony. In the early Irish accounts of
the beginnings of things, we find that it is not with the World that the narrators make their start - it is simply
with their own country, with Ireland; but what took the place of the Biblical narrative in pre-Christian days
we do not know, and unfortunately, are now never likely to know. 14. 'Barddas'(i.e) is a work of certain
current of sixteenthcentury Cymric thoughts.

What Europe owes to the Celt.

His contribution to the culture of the Western world was a very notable one. For some four centuries-about
AD 500 to 900-Ireland was the refuge of learning and the source of literature and philosophic culture for
half Europe. The myths and legends of the Gaelic and Cymric peoples kindled the imagination of a host of
Continental poets. True, the Celt did not himself create any great architectural work of literature, just as he
did not create a stable or imposing national polity. His thinking and feeling were essentially lyrical and
concrete. Each object or aspect of life impressed him vividly and stirred him profoundly; he was sensitive,
impressionable to the last degree, but did not see things in their larger and more far-reaching relations. He
had little gift for the establishment of institutions, for the service of principles; but he was, and is, an
indispensable and never-failing assertor of humanity as against the tyranny of principles, the coldness and
barrenness of institutions.The institutions of royalty and of civic patriotism are both very capable of being
fossilised into barren formulae, and thus of fettering instead of inspiring the soul. But the Celt has always
been a rebel against anything that has not in it the breath of life, against any unspiritual and purely external
form of domination. It is too true that he has been overeager to enjoy the fine fruits of life without the long
and patient preparation for the harvest, but he has done and will still do infinite service to the modern world
in insisting that the true fruit of life is a spiritual reality, never witout pain and loss to be obscured or
forgotten amid the vast mechanism of a material civilisation. # 562

CELTIC CROSS

# 701: The symbol that we call the Celtic cross was known to the Hindus as the Kiakra, a sign of sexual
union: the cross (phallus) within the circle (yoni).

# 687: The seventh century saw the introduction of a monument similar in intent to the old inscribed stones,
but wholly different in origin and craftsmanship from them. The cross-shaft in the lonely, picturesque
churchyard atBewcastle on the Cumberland Fells is cited as the first known example and, for all we know,
is the original of the whole series. The two striking differences between this type of memorial and the
earlier sort in the west are (1) that they are the product of Christianity as re-introduced by Augustine among
the Angles and Saxons and not of the Celtic Church, and (2) that they are the work of highly trained
craftsmen. Who these craftsmen were and in what country they learned their art is quite unknown. The
mystery is heightened by the fact that these crosses are confined with one exception to the Northern area,
and (of that date) are not known elsewhere.

From this source, however, they spread to the whole of England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. The
exception mentioned is Reculver, where a similar cross was seen by Leland in the sixteenth century,
standing within the old seventh century Saxon church between the nave and chancel. The fragments of this
same cross are now kept (but not well kept) in the neighbouring church at Hillberough. In Ireland
development came late, but nowhere else is the high cross seen in such magnificence. The principal
examples are at Monasterboice and Kells. In Wales, development was also late. Here crosses were made
elaborate, but were never of first-rate craftsmanship. In the North, the principal example is the Maen
Achwyfan at Whitford (in Flintshire) which is preserved by the Office of Works. # 687 - 701

CELTIC IMMORTALITY

The classical writers felt rightly that the Celtic idea of immortality was something altogether different from
the Egyptian conception. It was both loftier and more realistic; it implied a true persistence of the living
man, as he was at present, in all his human relations. # 562
CELTIC MYTHOLOGY

There is little doubt that Celtic mythology, particularly that of Ireland, tells of the gods of the Celts. The
myths themselves speak of Celtic belief in their deities and, although it is impossible to be certain how
strong was Christian belief at the time they were written down, it is possible that a good proportion of this
mythology is directly derived from the sacred lore of the Druids. In no way do either the references to
Celtic beliefs by Greek and Roman writers or the archaeological evidence conflict with modern
interpretations of the mythology. Provided that too rigid a rapprochement is avoided all three sources may
be made to provide material for the study of the beliefs of the Celts.

All the evidence points to the existence of comparatively localised cults and it is rare to find deities
worshipped over wide areas. The cult of Lug is exceptional. Place and tribal names hint at his cult in Spain,
Switzerland and Gaul as well as in Ireland. The restricted distribution of Romano-Celtic inscriptions and
the existence of eponymous tribal deities suggest local tribal interpretations of chieftain-gods and mother-
goddesses, although the latter frequently enjoyed a wider distribution than those of male gods. The
mythology itself cannot be taken as evidence that there was normally a widespread belief in specific gods.
This is not to say that similar gods were not worshipped under different names among different tribal
groups. The strongly marked aristocratic nature of Celtic society in the days of independence suggests that
the mythology relates to the gods of the aristocracy and it is not certain either how far the ordinary peasant
shared in these beliefs, or how far he was allowed to participate in ritual observances. The sorceress,
Mongfhinn, to whom 'the women and common people adressed their prayers' is the only figure in
mythology who appears to have been definitely worshipped by the ordinary people. The large number of
single inscriptions from RomanoCeltic times may refer to similar popular cults centred on very localised
Genii Loci who were frequently associated with a more primitive worship of minor natural features. Among
the common people, too, there were many of pre-Celtic descent to whom the cult-practices of earlier times
may have proved adequate. To such people the aristocratic gods of the Tuatha de Danann may have been
too unapproachable, even if access had been allowed them. It seems likely that the secret lore of the Druids
would have been denied to such people. Even the Celtic aristocracy seems to have been impressed by the
burial places of earlier inhabitants, so much so that they were brought into their myths. To the peasantry in
close contact with the soil such relics of earlier cults, in which their ancestors perhaps participated, may
have seemed more potent than the gods of their newly arrived overlords. As part of the earliest European
literature after Greek and Latin, Celtic Mythology has a value over and above that of a source for ancient
beliefs. In it is a rich store of priceless evidence for the way of life of the Celtic aristocracy, their hopes and
fears. It is an important part of the record of a people who have made no small contribution to the European
heritage, in no way diminished by its lack of general recognition.

# 428: Although the Celtic myths are relatively familiar to us, we know virtually nothing about Celtic gods
and even less about the cults practised throughout the druidic area. In a passage on the Pharsalia which has
given rise to much comment, Lucan mentions 'cruel Teutates, horrible Esus and Taranis whose altar is as
bloody as that of the Scythian Diana'. Lucan, however, was very much of a sycophant to Julius Caesar, and
it is only to be expected that he should have emphasised the savagery of Gallic cults so as to justify the
massacres ordered by the bald dictator and his successors, and their policy of systematically exterminating
druidism. The manuscript of Lucan's work is covered with notes and comments by a zealous medieval
christian, who also had something to gain from pointing out the barbarity of paganism; and it is from these
that we learn that men were hung from trees and torn into pieces in honour of Esus, that men were
immersed in basins until they asphyxiated in honour of Teutates and that the victims sacrific to Taranis
were burnt in the hollow trunk of trees. The last of these three confirms Caesar's words about certain tribes
who placed their condemned men in huge cane dummies and burnt them (Gallic Wars, VI, 17). Anxious to
demonstrate his knowledgeability, Lucan's commentator identifies Teutates with Mercury, Esus with Mars
and Taranis with Dispater, whereas Gallo-Roman inscriptions identify Teutates with Mars, Esus with
Mercury and Taranis with Jupiter. Obviously this kind of discrepancy is very little help. And then there is
Caesar (VI, 18) who says of the Gauls that 'the god they reverence most is Mercury... next to him they
reverence Apollo, Mars, Jupiter and Minerva.'
Up until now all commentators on Gallic religion have based their arguments on Lucan, Caesar and the
many anthropomorphic images of supposedly 'Gallo-Roman' gods. There is considerable contradiction
between these sources and yet it is they which lie behind recent attempts to classify Celtic divinities in
some rational way. Interesting though such attempts may be, they rest on the false premise that all Roman
or Gallo-Roman sources can be totally relied upon. In fact, the contradictions are evidence that even in
Gallo-Roman days there was confusion about Celtic gods. It would seem that the Romans knew next to
nothing about them but being unwilling to admit as much blithely identified any one god with any other.
More seriously still, it would appear that from Caesar's time onwards, the Romans did not even know about
their own gods any more. # 382 - 428

CELTIC TERRITORY IN 1200 BC

In his book WHERE TROY ONCE STOOD, Iman Wilkens suggests that the combatants in the Trojan War
must have been Celts, and it is not only because of the names of the persons and places involved, but also
because the two territories correspond to a large extent, bearing in mind that not necessarily all Celtic
peoples were involved in the war. As regards the Achaeans from continental Europe, it can be assumed that
they were all Celts, in view of the apparent unity of language and religion, though there were some Celts,
notably the Egyptians and the Libyans (from southwest France), who did not participate. In the Troad,
however, the demographic situation was different. While the inhabitants of southeast England were Celts,
their allies, mainly from Scotland, Wales and Cornwall, were probably pre-Celtic peoples (but already
converted to Celtic religion) who spoke different and mutually incomprehensible languages, as Homer
mentions on several occasions, for example: But for the Trojans, even as ewes stand in throngs past
counting in the court of a man of much substance to be milked of their white milk, and bleat without
ceasing as they hear the voices of their lambs: even so arose the clamour of the Trojans throughout the
wide host; for they had not all like speech or one language, but their tongues were mingled, and they were
a folk summoned from many lands. (Ill. IV, 433-438)

The pre-Celtic peoples are considered to be the builders of the megalithic monuments found all over
northern and western Europe. They are also thought to be the first peoples to have been led by the Druids,
who worshipped the sun at sites such as Stonehenge in England. It would appear that the Celts adopted and
continued the Druidic tradition, which was in fact a much more ancient Indo-European tradition close to
that of the Brahmins. Through displacing or absorbing the neolithic peoples, the Celts established
themselves over the greater part of Europe during the second and first millenium BC. A comparison of two
of several maps in Iman Wilken's book shows their expansion towards Ireland, the Celtiberic peninsula, the
southern half of France, Italy, the Balkans, Greece (which during the Roman Empire was called the
Prefecture of Illyricum after the Celtic Illyrians), and even Turkey, while they lost ground in Scandinavia
and Germany. Not surprisingly, many western European place-names were given to the new places to
which Celts migrated. For example, the Galates, originating in Gaul as their name indicates, who invaded
Turkey, must be at the origin of this country's present name, taken from the village of Turkeije, near the left
bank of the Schelde mouth. The Gauls also gave their name to Galicia in northwest Spain and Galicia in
Poland. The expansion seems to be mainly due to their population growth.

The Celtic alliance dominated Europe in the way the Roman Empire was to do much later, the difference
being that the Celts were united by a kind of confederation based on consensus, while the Romans relied on
centralized political and military power. The Celtic alliance was nevertheless a force to be reckoned with,
as the Romans experienced, for example, when Rome was sacked by the Celts in 387 BC. A few centuries
later, the Druids of Gaul were to conspire against the Romans with the Druids of the Galates in Turkey. In
view of the cohesion of the Celtic peoples and the effiency of the Druids in political and military
coordination, it is not so difficult to understand how it was possible to unite the peoples of western
continental Europe to wage war in England. It was certainly there that the war took place, for according to
Thucydides, as we have seen, Greece at that time was inhabited by a great number of tribes, with little or no
contact with one another, living at mere subsistence level. # 730

CELTIC WEAPONS
Diodorus Siculus has given us a comprehensive description of Celtic armour and weapons: 'For arms they
have man-sized shields decorated in a manner peculiar to them. Some of these have projecting figures in
bronze, skilfully wrought not only for decoration but also for protection. They wear bronze helmets with
large projecting figures which give the wearer the appearance of enormous size. In some cases horns are
attached so as to form one piece, in others the foreparts of birds or quadrupeds worked in relief... Some of
them have iron breastplates, wrought in chain, while others are satisfied with the arms Nature has given
them and fight naked. Instead of the short sword they carry long swords held by a chain of iron or bronze
and hanging along their right flank. Some of them have gold - or silver - plated belts round their tunics.
They brandish spears which are called Lanciae and which have iron heads a cubit in length and even more,
and a little less than two palms in breadth: for their swords are not shorter than the spears of others, and the
heads of their spears are longer than the swords of others. Some of these are forged straight, others are
twisted and have a spiral form for their whole length, so that the blow may not only cut the flesh but also
tear it in pieces and so that the withdrawal of the spear may lacerate the wound.' # 556

CELTIC, PRONOUNCING THE WORD

The initial C of Celtic may be pronounced either soft (s) or hard (k) Inasmuch as the Greeks, whose sources
were oral rather than written, spelt their word for the Celts KELTOI and inasmuch as c in Modern Irish and
Welsh is without exception hard, we can assume that the Celts themselves pronounced this initial consonant
as a k. # 237

CELTICA

Never inhabited by a single pure and homogenous race. - Greek type of civilisation preserved by Celtica. -
Art of enamelling originated in Celtica. - The Druids formed the sovran power in Celtica. - Brigit (Dana)
widely worshiped goddess in Celtica. # 562

CELTS AND GERMANS

The country we call France today, was called Argos by the Celts in Homer's time and subsequently Gallia
by the Celtic Gauls in Roman times. To the Romans, 'Gallia' sounded like 'Land of the Roosters', as Gallus
is Latin for rooster (and, of course, the cock has become the emblem of France). The present name of the
country stems from the Franks, a Teutonic tribe who invaded the territory around 500 AD. As to the people
of central Europe, they never called themselves Germans nor their country Germany, which is probably not
a German word at all. According to the Italo-American linguist Mario Pei, it comes from a Celtic root
meaning 'neighbouring', seemingly akin to the Latin Germanicus meaning 'having the same parents'
(whence the English 'germane'). The Germans themselves call their country Deutschland, meaning 'Land of
the people' from the Gothic root Deudisko, meaning 'people'. The French name for that country, Allemagne,
is a reminder of the Alemani, a tribe living in the Black Forest in Roman times. Germany was often equated
with Prussia, which is a contraction of Borussia, the Russians themselves being of Swedish Viking descent.
They were called Rus for the first time by an Arab diplomat, Ibn Fadlan, who arrived in Russia in 922 AD.
# 730

CELTS AND HINDUS

Countless studies on European pre-history, ancient languages and religions have brought to light a
surprising number of similarities between cultures of the various peoples that lived in the vast area from
Ireland to India and from Scandinavia to North Africa. It also appears that the Druids had much in common
with the Shamans of Eastern Europe and the Brahmins of India. In Iman Wilkens' book Where Troy Once
Stood we find many names that are identical in East and West. Cultural exchange over such great distances
must have taken place both via the Mediterranean and over land via the Russian plains. The first route was
taken by the 'Sea Peoples' who must have been Celts from the Atlantic coastal areas, who arrived in the
countries around the Eastern Mediterranean around 1500 BC. Conversely, peoples from the Levant sailed
west to venture out in the Atlantic in search for tin and amber. The Celts gave new names to existing places
in the East including a name for the newly discovered continent: Asia, after a daughter of Oceanus, while
Persia was named after Perseus and India after Indus. Other Europeans were in contact with India and
Persia via the land routes from the north as evidenced by the origin of the Hindu religion, as described in
the ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, India was invaded around 1500 BC by European peoples living in
Siberia and Russia who called themselves Aryans. They brought with them their language, Vedic Sanskrit
(which is much older than classical Sanskrit), the horse and the Vedic religion. Hinduism then developed
slowly from the synthesis of the sacrificial cults of the invaders with the religions of the various indigenous
peoples. According to the same source, Iran had known even earlier contacts with the northern invaders, as
evidenced by a near-kinship between Sanskrit and the earliest Iranian language. In Europe, Sanskrit
grammar and word roots were also very similar to those of the 'younger' classical languages, such as Greek,
Latin, Gothic and Celtic. Linguists therefore classify virtually all the languages which were spoken
between Ireland and India as 'Indo-European' languages, which include the Semitic languages but exclude
those whose structure, verb conjugations and word roots are of entirely different origin, such as Basque,
Finnish, Hungarian and Turkish. The modern language which is closest to Sanskrit is, according to Mario
Pei (The Story of Language), Lithuanian, spoken on the Baltic coast. Cultural exchanges between West and
East could have taken place here as in Homer's time the influence of the Druids extended as far east as
Poland. West Europeans still use many Sanskrit words today, such as Zodiac, Paradise, Karma, Shakra or
Mandala, while many are familiar with 'oriental' notions such as reincarnation and karma which may well
be of European origin. # 730

CELTS IN BATTLE

Polybius, who lived between about 202 and 120 BC, gives a full account of how the Celts fought at the
battle of Telamon in 225 BC; it is worth quoting at length because it highlights several recurring
characteristics: 'The Celts had drawn up the Gaesatae from the Alps to face their enemies on the rear ... and
behind them the Insubres .... The Insubres and the Boii wore trousers and light cloaks, but the Gaesatae in
their overconfidence had thrown these aside and stood in front of the whole army naked, with nothing but
their arms; for they thought that thus they would be more efficient, since some of the ground was
overgrown with thorns which would catch on their clothes and impede the use of their weapons.' On the
other hand the fine order and the noise of the Celtic host terrified the Romans; for there were countless
trumpeters and horn blowers and since the whole army was shouting its war cries at the same time there
was such a confused sound that the noise seemed to come not only from the trumpeters and the soldiers but
also from the countryside which was joining in the echo. No less terrifying were the appearance and
gestures of the naked warriors in front, all of whom were in the prime of life and of excellent physique. All
the warriors in the front ranks were adorned with gold torcs and armlets. The Romans were particularly
terrified by the sight of these men, but, led on by hope of gain, they were twice as keen to face the danger.
'... to the Celts in the rear their trousers and cloaks afforded good protection, but to the naked men in front
events turned out differently to what they had expected and caused them much discomfiture and distress.
For since the Gallic shield cannot cover the whole body, because they were naked, the bigger they were, the
more chance there was of missiles striking home. At length, unable to ward off the javelin throwers because
of the distance and the number of javelins falling upon them, in despair and distress some rushed upon the
enemy in wild rage and willingly gave up their lives; others, retreating step by step towards their comrades,
threw them into confusion by their manifest show of cowardice.'

The ancient writers dwelt upon the terrifying effect an army of Celts had on their opponents; their great
stature, their wild cries, their gesticulations and prancings, the clashing of arms and blowing of trumpets -
all combined to terrify and confuse the enemy. As long as these demonstrations of enthusiasm and bravado
struck terror into the foe, the Celts would drive all before them. 'For they were always most formidable
while they were fresh.' The whole race is war-mad, says Strabo, high-spirited and quick to fight, but
otherwise straightforward and not at all of evil character. When the two armies were arrayed in line, the
loud voice of the Celtic chief could sometimes be heard. 'For they were accustomed ... to come forward
before the front line and challenge the bravest of the enemy drawn up opposite them to single combat,
brandishing their weapons and terrifying the enemy. Whenever one accepts the challenge, they praise in
song the manly virtues of their ancestors, proclaiming also their own brave deeds. At the same time they
abuse and belittle their opponent, trying by their words to rob him of his boldness of spirit beforehand.' The
story of how Marcus Claudius Marcellus killed a Gallic leader at Clastidium (222 BC) is typical of such
encounters. Advancing with a smallish army, Marcellus met a combined force of Insubrian Gauls and
Gaesatae at Clastidium. The Gallic army advanced with the usual rush and terrifying cries, and their king,
Britomartus, picking out Marcellus by means of his badges of rank, made for him, shouting a challenge and
brandishing his spear. Britomartus was an outstanding figure not only for his size but also for his
adornments; for he was resplendent in bright colours and his armour shone with gold and silver. This
armour, thought Marcellus, would be a fitting offering to the gods. He charged the Gaul, pierced his bright
breastplate and cast him to the ground. It was an easy task to kill Britomartus and strip him of his armour.
These spoils Marcellus offered to Jupiter. This is the only story of its kind in which the name of the Celtic
chief is recorded. In their attempts to throw the enemy into confusion and terror, the Celts made great use
of noise. They yelled their war cries as they advanced, howling and singing and brandishing their spears.

Livy, in two different contexts, distant in time and place, vividly depicts the noise accompanying their mad
rush into battle. Describing the battle of the river Allia, he says: 'they are given to wild outbursts and they
fill the air with hideous songs and varied shouts.' Of the Gauls in Asia he writes: 'their songs as they go into
battle, their yells and leapings, and the dreadful noise of arms as they beat their shields in some ancestral
custom - all this is done with one purpose, to terrify their enemies.' In sharp contrast to the wild onset of the
Celts, which was evident also during their invasion of Greece, was the silent, orderly advance of the Greek
army. When the Gauls defeated the Roman army at the river Allia, they marched on Rome. 'They arrived at
the city and entered at first in fear lest there should be some treachery, but then, when they saw that the city
was deserted, they moved forward with equal noise and impetuosity.'

On another occasion the Romans experienced a new form of noisy warfare: 'for standing up in chariots and
wagons, the armed enemies came at them with the great noise of hooves and wheels so that the unfamiliar
din terrified the horses of the Romans.' There was also the noise of trumpets. At the battle of Telamon the
number of trumpeters and horn blowers was incalculable. Diodorus Siculus says they had trumpets peculiar
to barbarians: 'for when they blow upon them, they produce a harsh sound, suitable to the tumult of war.'
The Gauls also had their shouts of victory and triumph. 'They shouted "Victory, Victory" in their customary
fashion and raised their yell of triumph (Ululatus)', and at Alesia 'they encouraged their men with shouts of
triumph (Clamore et Ululatu)'. There are several representations of Celtic trumpets on classical sculpture,
most notably at Pergamon in Asia Minor, and on the triumphal arch at Orange in southern France, and a
few fragments of actual trumpets have survived. The mouth of a trumpet shaped in the manner of a boar's
head was found in 1816 at Deskford (Banffshire, Grampian); although the trumpet itself no longer survives,
the mouth may be compared with the representations on the cauldron from Gundestrup in Denmark, where
the sectional nature of the trumpet construction is clearly shown. The Deskford trumpet may originally
have had ears and a mane rather like the Gundestrup examples; when first discovered, however, it retained
a movable wooden 'tongue' which may have added vibration to the strident sounds blown from it. The
Deskford piece is usually dated to the middle of the first century AD. Among the earlier representations of
trumpets are those from the temple of Athena Polias Nikephoros at Pergamon in Asia Minor dating to about
181 BC and celebrating the victories of Attalus I over the Galatian tribes in the late third century BC.
Trumpets, shields, standards, indeed all the trophies are set out in a great display of spoils of war on the
triumphal arch at Orange. The large number of trumpets shown at Orange underlines the impression of
great noise during battle given by the classical writers. As already mentioned, Polybius describes a
contingent of Gaesatae (sometimes taken as mercenaries, now more often as spearmen, which took part in
the battle of Telamon; they came from beyond the Alps to help the Gauls already in north Italy (for example
the Boii and the Insubres).

The Celts of north Italy wore trousers and cloaks, but the Gaesatae fought naked. At the battle of Cannae
(216 BC) Polybius describes the naked Celts and the Iberians with their short linen tunics with purple
borders, and Livy speaks of the Gauls naked from the navel up and of the Iberians with dazzlingly white
tunics bordered with purple. The Celts in Asia Minor seem to have preserved this custom, for they too are
described as naked in battle with skin white because they were never exposed except in battle. Camillus,
trying to raise the morale of the Romans after the siege of the Capitol, pointed to some naked Gauls and
said: 'These are the men who rush against you in battle, who raise loud shouts, clash their arms and long
swords, and toss their hair. Look at their lack of hardiness, their soft and flabby bodies, and go to it'.
Dionysus of Halicarnassus expresses the same sentiments: 'Our enemies fight bare-headed, their breasts,
sides thighs, legs are all bare, and they have no protection except from their shields; their weapons of
defence are thin spears and long swords. What injury could their long hair, their fierce looks, the clashing
of their arms and the brandishing of their arms do us? These are mere symbols of barbarian boastfulness.' #
556

CELTS THROUGH ROMAN EYES

To the Romans the Celts presented a terrifying sight because of their tall stature and their strange
appearance. They were in many respects different from Mediterranean peoples. The Celts were by far the
tallest race in the world, noticeable also for their white skin and fair hair. Although the Romans had heard
about the barbarian Celts, they first encountered them as warriors, and it was in battle that their enormous
size and strange appearance first struck them. The Celtic chiefs who advanced to challenge their opposing
Roman leader to single combat were men of great physique, 'of stature greater than human'; the story of the
fight between Britomartus and Marcellus can be compared to that between Goliath and David. The
triumphal procession awarded to Marcellus was said to be most remarkable for the riches of the spoils and
the gigantic size of the prisoners. Diodorus Siculus describes the Celts at some length: 'the Gauls are tall of
body, with skin moist and white; their hair is blond not only by nature but also because they practise to
increase artificially the peculiar nature of their colouring. Some of them shave off their beards but others let
them grow moderately: the nobles shave their cheeks but let their moustaches grow freely so as to cover
their mouths. Therefore, when they are eating, the moustaches become mixed in the food, and when they
are drinking, the drink passes as if through a strainer.' They had unusual styles of hairdressing; they used to
smear their hair with limewater and then pull it back to the top of their head and over the neck to produce
something like a horse's mane. Tacitus tells of other similar treatments of hair found among the Germanic
tribes. Thus the Suebi are distinguished from the other Germans by their particular hairstyle: 'they comb
their hair sideways and tie it in a knot ... often on the very crown.' All this elaborate hairdressing was
intended to give them greater height and to terrify their enemies in battle. Silius Italicus mentions a warrior
who had offered his golden locks and the ruddy top-knot on the crown of his head to Mars if he were
victorious. The colour of the hair is usually referred to as fair, red or flaxencoloured and even ginger.

The men of Britain were taller than those of Gaul, but their hair was not so fair, while the Germans differed
only slightly from other Celts in that they were wilder, taller and had redder hair. There is a story that
Caligula, anxious to make his triumph in Rome more spectacular, in view of the small number of prisoners
for display, picked out some very tall Gauls and made them not only grow their hair longer but also dye it
red. Strabo, quoting an earlier source, makes a curious statement: 'they try to avoid becoming stout and pot-
bellied and any young man whose waist exceeds the measure of the normal girdle is fined.' But such a
weight-watching approach is contradicted by others writers who tell of the Gauls gorging themselves with
food and drinking wine excessively so that their bodies soon become corpulent and flabby. Consequently,
when they exercised their bodies, they suffered quickly from exhaustion and breathlessness. In the minds of
classical writers the women were not only like their men in stature, but they could also rival them in
strength.

Ammianus Marcellinus described how difficult it would be for a band of foreigners to deal with a Celt if he
called in the help of his wife. For she was stronger than he was and could rain blows and kicks upon the
assailants equal in force to the shots of a catapult. Boudicca, queen of the Iceni, was said to be 'very tall and
terrifying in appearance; her voice was very harsh and a great mass of red hair fell over her shoulders.'
According to Diodorus Siculus, the Celts 'wear striking clothing, tunics dyed and embroidered in many
colours, and trousers which they call Bracae; and they wear striped cloaks, fastened by a brooch, thick in
winter and light in summer, worked in a variegated, closely set check pattern.' Strabo says that instead of
the ordinary tunics they wore 'split tunics which have sleeves and reach down to their thighs. Their wool is
rough and thin at the ends and from it they weave thick cloaks (SAGI) which they call Laenae.' The poet
Propertius tells how the huge Celtic chief Virdomarus, skilled in hurling his javelins from his chariot and
'clothed in striped trousers', boasted of his descent from the Rhine God. Three pieces of clothing are thus
mentioned: trousers, tunics and cloaks. The trousers would certainly be noticed by the toga-wearing
Romans. Trousers were worn especially by the cavalrymen, and the Romans themselves adopted them from
the mercenary Gallic cavalry they enlisted. The tunic was probably a simple garment like a shirt, made of
linen and reaching down to the thighs. There was also the slightly different style mentioned by Strabo -
with slits and sleeves.

The Iberians were said to wear short tunics bordered with a purple stripe and dazzlingly white. The tunics
were often dyed and embroidered and worn with a gold-plated or silver-plated belt. The cloaks were made
of wool; they were heavy or light according to the season and were fastened at the shoulder by a brooch. A
defeated Celtic barbarian is shown on a fragment of a monumental bronze statue from Volubilis in Roman
Mauretania in north Africa; his Bracae have what Piggott has described as 'loud and disparate check
patterns' and his cloak hangs loosely from his shoulders. Such an impression of woven designs is also given
in a description of Queen Boudicca, who wore a tunis of many colours over which a thick cloak was
fastened by a brooch.

An outstanding characteristic of the Celtic people was their love of decoration and ornament. 'They collect
a great quantity of gold and use it for decoration, not only the women but also the men. For they wear
bracelets on the wrists and arms, necklaces of solid gold, rings of great worth and even gold corslets' (body
armour for the upper part of the torso). The torc was one of the most important ornaments worn by the
Celts. It was a neck ring made of a rod of metal (sometimes twisted), of bronze or gold according to the
wealth and status of the wearer. The two ends of the torc almost met, but the metal was pliant, for it had to
open sufficiently to let it on or off. (See also: TORQUE). As with clothes, so with adornments, each man
wore what he could afford and what status demanded. It is obvious, however, that the Celts liked to attract
attention with flambuyant clothes and rich, decorative accessories. The Roman soldiers were well aware of
the splendid ornaments worn by their opponents and before one battle they were told by their generals that
soldiers should not be adorned with gold and silver but should rely on their weapons and their courage.
These ornaments were more truly booty than arms, shining brightly before the battle but ugly in the midst
of blood and wounds.

Athenaeus is the main authority on food; quoting Posidonius, he says: 'Their food consists of a small
quantity of bread and a large amount of meat'; and quoting Phylarchus, 'Many loaves of bread are broken
up and served lavishly on tables as well as pieces of meat taken from cauldrons. 'Bread, meat (boiled in a
cauldron or roasted on a spit) and fish were the staple foods. Fish was eaten, sometimes baked with salt,
vinegar and cummin'. By contrast the Caledonians and the Maeatae, according to Dio, never ate fish,
though it was in plentiful supply. Strabo speaks of large quantities of food, milk and all kinds of meat,
especially fresh and salted pork, and of the Britons, who, though they had milk in abundance, did not make
cheese. A certain etiquette and precedence were observed at table, and good eating habits were even noted.
Though they were accustomed to eat voraciously, raising up whole limbs in both hands and biting off the
meat, they did it in a cleanly fashion. No one started to eat without looking first to see if the chief had
touched what was set before him. In extending hospitality to strangers they did not ask them who they were
and what they wanted until they had eaten. At more formal gatherings or celebrations they sat in a circle
with the chief or hero in the centre, his attendants and warriors around and behind him, each with a position
according to his status. Drink was served from earthenware or bronze jugs and the meat on plates of bronze
or in baskets. When the joints of meat were served, the chief or hero took the thigh piece. But if someone
else claimed it, they joined in single combat to the death. Frequently they used some chance circumstance
to start an argument and then a fight during dinner. They indulged in sham fights and practice feints and
they would end up either wounding or even killing their opponent. This love of quarrelling and fighting
even at a table was made all the easier, says Polybius, because they usually ate too much and drank too
much.

The Celtic chiefs were accompanied in war and in piece by 'parasites' (the word means fellow diner and has
no pejorative meaning), who sang their praises before the assembly; these entertainers were called bards.
There are also descriptions of great banquets prepared by rich kings. The gestures of lordly prodigality and
ostentation were typical of the autocratic tribal chief of the period. Louernius, king of the Arverni, in an
attempt to win favour, is said to have ridden his chariot over a plain distributing gold and silver to all who
followed him. He also gave a feast to all who wished to attend, in a vast enclosure, the sides of which were
1½ miles (2,4 km) long. He filled vats with liquor, prepared great quantities of food and ensured service
without interruption for several days. A poet who arrived too late for the festivities composed a poem
praising the king's greatness and lamenting the fact he had arrived too late. So charmed was the king by the
song that he gave the poet a purse of gold and won for himself a further poetic effusion. One feature which
has attracted frequent comment was the ability of the Celts to drink great quantities of liquor, though one
should not take Plutarch seriously when he says that the Celts were so enthralled by the new pleasure of
wine drinking that they seized their arms, took their families and set off for Italy! Athenaeus says: 'the drink
of the wealthy is wine imported from Italy ... This is unmixed, but sometimes a little water is added. The
lower classes drink a beer made from wheat and prepared with honey ... They drink from a common cup, a
little at a time, not more than a mouthful, but they do it rather frequently.' The Cimbri were said to be
demoralised by the delights of wine, but the Nervii, a Gallic tribe famed for their indomitable ferocity,
would not allow wine and other luxuries to be imported because they believed that with them the men
would become too soft and effeminate to endure hardship. To Polybius the Celts were merely a band of
marauders who later became mercenaries ready to join whichever side suited them in the war between the
Romans and the Carthaginians. They were brave and ostentatiously courageous but reckless, impetuous and
easily disheartened. Hannibal was eager to make use of their enthusiasm before it wore off; but the
Carthaginians and the Romans too were apprehensive of the Celts, for they saw in them a lack of fidelity
and a mutual treachery. It is reported that Hannibal so distrusted his new allies that he had a number of wigs
made for himself, suitable for men of all ages. He was sure that by changing his wigs constantly he would
make it difficult for the fickle Celts to recognise and perhaps kill him. Some writers tend to dwell mainly
on their lawlessness and savagery. Cicero, for example, makes great use of this to rail against them. 'They
thought it right to sacrifice human beings to the immortal gods' and 'they find it necessary tp propitiate the
immortal gods and to defile their altars and temples with human victims.' Polybius and Livy concentrate on
the outrages committed by the Gauls and on the barbarous character of the Galatians. There was always a
tendency for Greek or Roman writers to emphasize characteristics which did not conform to their code of
morality and perhaps give too much credence to the more dramatic traveller's tales. Strabo and Diodorus
Siculus, while not ignoring the savagery of some Celtic practices, also describe some of the more pleasing
traits of their character. # 556

CELTS, THE

# 562: Terms first found in Hecatæus, about 500 BC, he speaks of 'Nyrax, a Celtic city', and 'Massalia
(Marseilles), a city of Liguria in the land of the Celts'. Equivalent, Hyperboreans. Herodutos speaks of the
'dwelling places of Celts beyond the pillars of Hercules'. Aristotle knew that the Celts had captured Rome,
and that they set great store by warlike power. - Hellanicus of Lesbos describes the Celts as practising
justice and righteousness. Plato disagrees and classes the Celts 'as drunken and combative'. - Their attack
on Rome, a history landmark of ancient times. - Dominion of Celts over MidEurope, Gaul, Spain and the
British Isles. - Among these races the true Celts formed an aristocratic and ruling caste. Spain conquered
from the Carthaginians by the Celts. Northern Italy conquered from the Etruscans. Conquer the Illyrians
and make alliance with the Greeks. Conquests in the valley of Danube and Po. Alexander the Great makes
compact with the Celts. - Celtic decorative motives derived from Greek art, and art of enamelling learnt by
classical nations from the Celts. - The influence on European literature and philosophy from the Celts were
significant. - True worship of the Celts, paid to elemental forces represented by actual natural phenomena.
Reincarnation in the modern western sense, were for the Celts a reality incorporated in their daily life and
religious rituals.

# 48: CREATION AND IMAGINATION: Before the end of the Bronze Age a class system had begun to
operate in western Europe. Rich chieftains were buried with golden ornaments and their earthen fortresses
appeared on many hilltops. The people were separating into frequently warring tribes and by 1400 BC the
noble common purpose which had created Avebury and Stonehenge, when men and women dedicated
themselves to great communal tasks, appears to have evaporated. Most of the causewayed camps were
turned into hillforts and the bigger ones, such as Maiden Castle, grew into packed cities within their great
walls and ditches. A complicated political system seems to have existed of warlike tribal chieftains whose
realms were fairly extensive. In Britain particularly, where the hillforts jostle each other around the great
causewayed power centres, it seems likely that barons and lesser nobles fortified themselves with earthen
walls and defended homesteads, while the kings or chiefs dwelt in grander style in minor fortified cities.

The nature of the people was undergoing inevitable change. Instead of a peaceable community, strongly
attuned to the cosmic laws of being and the magnetic forces of the earth, the hillforts seem to tell us of a
newly insecure and fractious society in which individual greed and ego were becoming dominant. We can
know quite a bit about what the people looked like and what they wore and ate from the preserved bodies
recovered from Danish bogs. We know that a number of cereals were used to make bread and that it and
meat were the staple foods. The men wore woollen tunics and capes, with close caps, while the women
wore decorated woolen tunics, bonnets, girdles and tassels, and hairnets. This uneasy society came to be
joined - as early perhaps as 2000 BC - by new waves of settlers, the Celts; or one should say, by
Celticspeaking immigrants, for the Celts were never a very unified nation but rather were a collection of
volatile tribes with a taste for trade and art. 'Since the Celts were always in a minority and did not, strictly
speaking, constitute a single Celtic race, the Celtic world was primarily a conglomeration of different
nations under a Celtic elite, the indigenous peoples being first enslaved and then fused together by a
common Celtic language, civilisation and religion. They brought with them the knowledge of the wheel and
the design of the war chariot, and were later attributed with the discovery of how to smelt iron, thus giving
rise to the 'Iron Age'. Descriptions have come down to us from the pen of a Greek writer, Poseidonius. He
says: The Celts are terrifying in appearance, with deep-sounding and very harsh voices... they wear a
striking kind of clothing - tunics dyed and stained in various colours, and trousers, which they call Bracae
and they wear striped cloaks... picked out with a variegated small check pattern. Their armour includes
man-sized shields, decorated in individual fashion... on their heads they wear bronze helmets .... To the
frankness and high-spiritedness of their temperament must be added the traits of childish boastfulness and
love of decoration. They wear ornaments of gold, torcs on their necks, and bracelets on their arms and
wrists, while people of high rank wear dyed garments besprinkled with gold.

The Celts seem to have originated from an area around the Caspian Sea,(See also a theory displayed by #
730 below). Their eruption into the west came at much the same time as a similar migration into India and
Persia. It is thought that the Celts and the Hindus shared a common ancestry in a race known as the Battle-
Axe People, whose mark was a perforated stone battle-axe and whose home was in southern Russia; the
language spoken by the Celts came from the same source as Sanskrit, the classical language of the Hindus.
Thus the Celtic language is called Indo-European and it is not too far-fetched to see correspondences
between the Indian deities and those of the Celts; and likenesses between the brahmins, the priest-
astrologers of India, and the druids, the priest-astronomers of Europe - in fact, much has been written about
the links between the two races. It is noticeable, for instance, that Celtic gods are depicted seated in a
similar meditation posture to the Hindu deities, and that giant figures are carved on the hillsides of India as
well as of Europe. It might even be that the woad which was painted on the bodies of Britons facing the
Romans signified their allegiance to a particular god or goddess, just as the white paint on a Hindu forehead
indicates a follower of Vishnu. Physically and emotionally, however, the two peoples drifted far apart. The
Hindus intermarried with older Indian races and developed a dark skin and eyes, while the Celts became
renowned for their fair, reddish hair and piercing blue eyes. They were formidable warriors and were
known for their boasting and threats and also for their selfdramatisation. But with great rapidity their
moods would change to a dreamy sadness. Plato thought them highly intelligent, although much given to
drinking. They divided society into three groups. The druids, who were learned priests, shamans and
judges; the military aristocracy, who were the power-holders and the heroes; and the free men, who were
farmers and owned cattle. Both men and women were thought to be immensely brave in battle.

Diodorus Siculus wrote that the Celtic women were not only like their men in their great stature (the Celts
were exceptionally tall and well-built), but that they were also their equals in courage. Women were
honoured in Celtic society and lived in an equal way with men. A strict legal code ensured that women
could inherit property, and name and title were taken from the mother rather than the father. They could
marry whom they pleased and could claim damages if molested. They took their place in battle beside the
men. There were two major waves of Celtic immigration and by 700-500 BC they had emerged as one of
the most important peoples of Europe. By 387 BC they had conquered Rome (it fell, according to the
Roman historian Livy, because of the terror inspired by the 'magic' war-cry of the Celts, who went into
battle naked) and by 279 BC Delphi had fallen too, although both it and Rome were retaken later. France
(known as Gaul) was entirely Celtic and Britain too became one of the Celtic strongholds as Rome
advanced through Gaul. England was a centre for culture and education and the sons of Gaulish chiefs were
sent there for instruction by the druids, the priests of the Celts.

And from Iman Wilkens: WHERE TROY ONCE STOOD we can read this point of view about the origin
of the Celts: # 730: ...It is very difficult to obtain a clear picture of the preChristian Celts from the
transmitted texts, not only because of the typical mixture of myth and reality, but above all because of the
very great lapse of time between events and their eventual recording in writing. This greatly hampers any
rigorous and systematic analysis of the type that I have tried to apply to Homer's work, which itself
certainly combines myth and reality, but has the very great advantage of being an eye-witness account
transmitted orally for a relatively short period and written down as early as the eighth century BC, the
original text being preserved practically intact until our own time, as I shall demonstrate below. Caesar
recounts that the Celts were using the Greek alphabet when the Romans arrived in Gaul, in the first century
BC: In the camp of the Helvetii were found, and brought to Caesar, records written out in Greek letters...
However, the knowledge possessed by the initiates was transmitted entirely orally, often in the form of
verse or a kind of limerick. In the case of Homer's works, this technique has helped considerably to
preserve the original text without too many modifications. One has the impression that the powerful rhythm
of Homeric verse also reflects the movements of the Ocean waves, but this effect is unfortunately lost in
prose translations. The impression one gets of the Celts is that of a dynamic, but somewhat undisciplined
people, proud, full of imagination, loving freedom, adventure, feats of arms, tournaments and fêtes. The
Celts were renowned for their eloquence and their poetry, to such an extent that a poet was held in much
greater esteem than a common priest. The bards accompanied their ballads on a type of lyre. Despite their
individualism, the Celts often acted together, while remaining suspicious of any centralized authority. Their
lack of discipline finally brought about their downfall, but for a long period they dominated Europe
militarily and even sacked Rome in 387 BC. There is uncertainty about the origin of the Celts. According to
the more generally accepted theory, they spread outwards from Central Europe, where many Celtic objects
have been found, notably in excavations at Hallstatt (Austria) and La Tène (French-speaking Switzerland),
to establish themselves on the Atlantic Coast, in the British Isles, the north of Italy and Yogoslavia.
However, according to another theory, the movement was in the other direction, from the Atlantic coast and
islands to the interior of Europe.

The second theory would appear to be confirmed by tha analysis in this book of the origin of the peoples
engaged in the Trojan War, for they were already well-established on the Atlantic coast before the dates
generally put forward. Excavations have confirmed that the Celts were also well-established in Denmark
during the Bronze Age (from about 1500 to 500 BC) and it was there that the famous Gundestrup silver
cauldron was found. The Celtic tribe that has moved the least is that of the Helvetii, who have been in
Switzerland for a very long time. The Italo-Celts lived in the north of Italy and the Illyrians on the Adriatic
coast. In Germany, the frontier between Celts and Germans was ill-defined and in some cases we do not
know whether a certain tribe were Celts, Germans, Celticized Germans (i.e. converted to Celtic rites) or
Germanized Celts. It should not be forgotten that at that period peoples of sometimes very different origins
and cultures could be scattered throughout the same region. Examples are the Germans and the Celts in
Central Europe (as shown by archaelogical evidence), and the nonGreeks and autochthons in Greece, (as
mentioned by Thucydides). Thanks to the Roman historians we have a good picture of where the various
Celtic peoples, from Scotland to the Balkans and from Spain to the Baltic, were living at the beginning of
our own era. That Celts were living for a long time in the region of Cadiz in the extreme southwest of Spain
(Celtiberia) and in the north of Morocco is clear not only from archaeological evidence, but also from the
writings of historians such as Ephorus, who demonstrated Celtic greatness in his UNIVERSAL HISTORY.
There was a certain unity of language, religion and culture among the Celts throughout Europe. Although
they never formed a great national or political entity they were prepared to help one another against a
common enemy, even though they also fought among themselves. There was also another very important
link between them, at any rate for those who lived in coastal regions - the sea routes. The Celts of the
Atlantic regions were sea-faring peoples, 'friends of the oar', as Homer calls them, who often undertook
long voyages, as we shall discover below. During their voyages or migrations, communication between the
different Celtic tribes must have been linguistically easier than it would be today, because the different
languages of the Indo-European family were more homogeneous 3,000 years ago. Many words had the
same root from one end of Europe to the other; for example, 'horse' was Epo in Celtic and Hippos in Greek.
Wilken's book shows many more examples, and from the grammatical standpoint, too, the languages of
Europe more closely resembled one another, for example, the conjugation of Gothic verbs contained
elements close to Latin. What is more, according to Louis Kervran: 'When Rome conquered Gaul, the latter
had been in contact with Greek civilization whose bridgehead, since 600 BC, had been Marseille, at the
mouth of the Rhône ... After the arrival of the Romans, as a sign of resistance against the occupiers, Greek
continued to be the language of the intellectual élite.'

Under these circumstances it must not have been very difficult to translate Homer's works from a Celtic
language into Ionian Greek, at the same time commiting them to writing, since the Greeks had no taboo on
writing. Translation was certainly necessary, for despite a certain number of words in common, Greek is far
from being a Celtic language. But was it possible to make a translation in hexameters (lines of six feet)
without losing too many details of the original text? The answer is affirmative, since there are examples of
translations into Dutch, one in hexameters and one in pentameters, the former, in particular, being very
close to the original. It is thus perfectly possible that the epic history of the Trojan War was transmitted by
Celts living in central Europe to find its way to Greece, where it was translated and preserved entirely
intact, especially, as Henri Hubert assures us, when talking about the period before 800 BC, that: 'If it can
be taken as proven that the Greeks came from the north, i.e. from central Europe, it is not unreasonable to
assume that they had contacts not only with the Illyrians (thus confirming Thucydides), but also with the
Italo-Celts and even the Celts.' On the other hand, it is unlikely that a Greek author would have composed
the work himself on the basis of echoes he had heard of a war that had taken place in some distant part of
Europe several centuries before his time, as the hundreds of coherent details in the text are so many
indications that the original poem was composed by an eyewitness. However, these details correspond so
little to the Greece of the period, or of today, that certain commentators have concluded that the poet did
not have a precise idea of the places he was describing. We shall see below that the truth is quite the reverse
- the poet knew exactly what he was describing, but it had nothing to do with Greece. Wilkens write in his
book of 'Celts', although it would perhaps have been more correct to call them 'proto-Celts' for their culture
had not yet come to match entirely what the traditional archaeologists call 'Celtic', which dates only from
800 BC. However, Homer mentions the legendary mother of the Celts - 'glorious Galatea' - and describes
the Celtic custom of cremation. Wilkens therefore adopted the general rule of the archaeologist Bosch-
Guimpéra, who always speaks of Celts where funeral urns are found, and Homer mentions such urns
several times. Furthermore, when he is writing about Celts and their migrations in Europe, he is not always
referring to the time of Homer, but possibly to any time in the thousand years before Christ, because as yet
we have no precise chronology of the development of their culture.

Wilkens continue: 'Let us hope that further research will enable us to establish such a chronology. In the
meantime, I have sometimes had to work back from elements known about the Celts in the Roman era'. In
part III in his book, he returns to Galatea, who turns out to be a major key for the research as she will be
proof that the Celts were already around in the Bronze Age - much earlier than assumed hitherto. The
dynamic and inventive Celtic culture brought a certain civilization to Europe before the Greeks and the
Romans. They were the first to construct harvesting implements and war chariots. They invented tools still
used today, such as pincers; they had keys; they forged iron rims for their chariot wheels; they produced
coats of mail. They shod their horses. These shoes, at first in bronze, were not nailed, but had rings round
the edge through which a thong was passed to tie them in place. This explains the use of such expressions
as horses 'with flashing feet' or 'single-hooved horses' in Homer. The Celts taught the Greeks and Romans
the use of soap - Sapo in Celtic. They have left us some very beautiful ornaments, in gold, such as fibulae
(decorated clasps) and torques (collars), and in bronze, such as phalerae (decorative bosses for horses'
harness), oenochoe (wine pitchers - it should not be forgotten that the Celts had vineyards even in the north
of Europe), situlae (square-shouldered vessels in bronze or glass) and pans for evaporating seawater for
salt. Other finds include numerous decorated bronze swords and axes and chiefs' helmets covered with gold
or decorated with a bird of prey and, of course, a great deal of pottery. But the Celts exelled above all in the
nonplastic arts, such as eloquence, poetry and music. Certain Celtic practices have persisted down to our
own day, such as that of starting the new day as from midnight, and certain feast days have been adopted
and adapted by the Christian religion. An example of the latter is the 1 November, which was the feast of
Samhain, which marked the beginning of the new year for the Celts. They lit fires in the night, not only to
celebrate the new year, but also to communicate with their dead, for if the barriers between the natural and
supernatural were already narrow, they believed them to be absent during Samhain night. All Saints, the
day the dead are specially remembered, is now celebrated on the 1 November, and on Halloween fires are
still lit. The beginning of spring was 1 May, the day of Beltaine (or Apollo) when fires were lit and fertility
rites were celebrated, with dancing clockwise in circles. The flocks were let out and the sailors went to sea
after sacrificing the first vessel they had built during the winter to the gods of the sea. # 25 - 48 - 327 - 366
- 380 - 428 - 562 - 730

CENCHOS

Otherwise The Footless; related to Vitra, the God of Evil in Vedantic mythology. # 562

CERDIC

Traditionally, a Saxon leader who fought against the Britons in the Arthurian period. A. G. Brodeur argues
that he was entirely fictitious, his name being taken from place names. He says that the West Saxons, of
whom he was supposedly the leader, only began their campaign by conquering the Isle of Wight about AD
530. However, many authorities regard him as historical. He was the supposed founder of the kingdom of
Wessex. A problem is caused by his name, however, which is Celtic, not Teutonic. This has led J. P. Clansy
(Pendragon) to suggest he may have been a rebellious British king. Perhaps, speculates S. G. Wilsman (#
106), he was a one-time ally of Arthur's who changed sides. However, Saklatvala (# 574) claims he was the
King Carados of Arthurian romance. G. Ashe (# 31) has produced the most interesting surmise of all, that
Cerdic was possibly a son of Arthur (whom he identifies as Riothamus) who has gathered a mixed
CeltoGermanic following on the Continent. J. Morris maintains that the pedigree which makes him an
ancestor of the ruling house of Wessex is a fabrication. Asser's LIFE OF ALFRED THE GREAT (ninth
century unless, as has been contended, it is a forgery) claims that Cerdic and his son Cynric were Jutes. #
31 - 103 - 106 - 156 - 484 - 574

CERNUNNOS

(KER noon os) The Lord of the Animals, 'Horned One', whose images are found in Romano-Celtic worship
sites, and whose role as hunter and animal god is preserved in Celtic legend and folk lore. He ruled the
active forces of life and death, giving and taking, in nature; in Romano-Celtic culture he was associated
with wealth and prosperity, due to his role as Guardian of the Gateway to the Underworld where all
potential forces and events originated. It should be stated emphatically that this deity has far to less to do
with 'fertility' and sexuality than is assumed in popular fantasy, for he is a god of hunting, culling and
taking.

His purpose is to purify through selection or sacrifice, in order that powers of growth and fertility may
progress without stagnation. In this context of purification and de-pollution, he should be an especially
interesting figure to us today, for he represents certain truthts known to our ancestors which have been
neglected by us at our peril. The figure of Cernunnos from the Gundestrup Cauldron (second century AD)
is probably the best-known representation of the Celtic Horned God (See plate next page).His very name is
really the title, 'Horned One.' Holding a torc and a serpent, wearing an antlered cap, he sits in a yoga pose
with his right heel against his genitals. Nearly all seated statues of Hindu deities show the same
conventional pose. The torc and serpent are also genital symbols, female and male respectively.

Cernunnos is the spirit of the sacrificed stag-god, a nature deity to whom sacrifices were dedicated in order
to maintain the wild creatures and the cycles of nature with his holy blood. There has been considerable
speculation about Cernunnos' costume, which appears to be a form-fitting suit of ribbed knitted fabric, with
knee-length pants. It is one of the pieces of evidence cited for the antiquity of the art of knitting among
Celtic peoples.
# 156: The name of a Celtic horned god. The name is only known from a single inscription and it is
possible the horned god went by a number of names. As Merlin was associated with stags, it is possible he
was connected with the Cernunnos cult. # 454: His name means 'Horned One', and he is the Lord of the
Beasts. He is frequently depicted with one or more ram-headed serpents, and has a torc of chieftainship
about his neck. Some reliefs show him with coin-filled purses. Since both metal and snakes are chthonic
symbols, it follows that Cernunnos was associated with the Underworld as well as with earthly fertility.
See: WILD HERDSMAN and BELATUCADOS. # 156 - 454 - 455 p 66, 110 - # 563 - 701 p 199

CERRIDWEN

# 628: (Ker ID wen) The Welsh crone, or goddess of dark prophetic powers, is represented by Cerridwen.
Her totem animal is the sow, representing the fecundity of the Underworld, and the terrible strenght of the
Mother. Like many Celtic goddesses, she had two children representing dark and light aspects emerging
from the One Goddess her daughter Crearwy being light and beautiful, and her son Afagddu being dark and
ugly. Cerridwen is keeper of the Cauldron of the Underworld, in which inspiration and divine knowledge
are brewed. She brews for her son, and sets little Gwion to guard the cauldron; but three drops fall out upon
his finger, and he absorbs the potency of the brew. The goddess then pursues Gwion through a cycle of
changing shapes, which correspond both to totem animals and to the turning of the seasons; this theme is
related to that of Mabon and Merlin, in which a divine youth is associated with the orders and creatures of
Creation. The Welsh legend, however, has a significant ending, for Cerridwen, in the guise of a hen,
swallows Gwion, in the guise of an ear of corn. Nine months pass, and she gives birth to a radiant child,
known as Taliesin, a title attached to the greatest of Welsh poets. # 156: This story seems far older than the
period of the historical Taliesin. It is similar to a tale told about the Irish hero, Finn mac Cumhal, and may
enshrine a Celtic divinatory practice involving thumb chewing. This practice was known in early Ireland as
Imbas Forosnai and seems to have rested on the notion that chewing the raw flesh of the thumb imparted
sagacity. # 156 - 272 - 628 p 88 ff

CESSAIR

She was the first settler in Ireland before the Flood. She came with fifty women and three men. When her
father Fintan, disappeared and her husband died she herself died of grief. She was followed by all her
women. Forty days after their arrival in Ireland the Flood came. Only Fintan escaped, hiding in a cave. #
454 - 469

CET MAC MATACH

(cet' moc má'tah) A distinguished Connacht warrior; shames the Ulsterman at Mac Datho's feast; wounds
Conchobar with the calcified brain of Mesgegra; according to one tradition brother of Ailill, king of
Connacht. # 166

CETHAN

(ke han)

CETHERN MAC FINNTAIN

(ce'hern moc fin'tan) 1. An Ulster warrior, son of Fintan mac Neill; 2. One of Finn's teachers. # 166

CEUGANT

(Infinity) The outermost of the three concentric circles representing the totality of being in the Cymric
cosmonogy, inhabited by God alone. # 562
CHAILLU, DU

Given in his 'Viking Age', a rude rock-carving showing a number of ships with men on board, and the circle
quartered by a crossunmistakably a solar emblem, like a number of Irish examples. # 562

CHAMPION OF IRELAND

Test at feast of Briccriu, to decide who is the Champion of Ireland. CuChulain proclaimed such by demon
The Terrible. # 562

CHANGELINGS

The eagerness of fairies to possess themselves of human children is one of the oldest parts of the fairy
beliefs and is a specific form of fairy theft. Mentions of the thefts of babies are to be found in the
MEDIEVAL CHRONICLES of Ralph of Coggeshall and GERVASE OF TILBURY among others, through
the Elizabethan and Jacobean times, and right down to the beginning of the present century. The fairies'
normal method was to steal an unchristened child, who had not been given proper protection, out of the
cradle and to leave a substitute in its place. This 'changeling' was of various kinds. Sometimes it was a
stock of wood roughly shaped into the likeness of a child and endowed by glamour with a temporary
appearance of life, which soon faded, when the baby would appear to die and the stock would be duly
buried. More often a fairy child who did not thrive would be left behind, while the coveted, beautiful
human baby was taken. More often still the changeling would be an ancient, withered fairy, of no more use
to the fairy tribe and willing to lead an easy life being cherished, fed and carried about by its anxious foster-
mother, wawling and crying for food and attention in an apparent state of paralysis. The 'stock' method was
most usually employed when the fairies had designs against the mother as well as the child. A good
example of a frustrated attempt at such a theft is the Shetland tale 'Mind (Remember) da Crooked Finger'.
The wife of a Shetland crofter had just given birth to her first child, and as her husband was folding his
lambs he heard three loud knocks coming from underground. He closed the folds and walked up through
the cornyard. As he came through the stacks he heard a loud voice say three times, 'Mind da crooked
finger.' His wife had a crooked finger and he had a shrewd notion that the Grey Neighbours were planning
an attack on his wife and his little bairn. But the goodman knew what to do. He went quickly to the house,
lighted a candle, took down a clasp-knife and a bible and opened them. As he did so a great clamour and
wailing broke out in the byre, which was built against the house. He stuck the knife in his mouth with the
blade pointing forward, held the lighted candle in one hand and the opened bible in the other, and made for
the byre, followed by most of the neighbours who were visiting his wife. He opened the byre door and
threw the bible inside, and as he did so the wailing redoubled, and with a great rush the fairies sped past
him. They left behind them a wooden stock, carved feature by feature and joint by joint in the form of his
wife. He lifted it up and carried it into the house. 'I've won this from the Grey Neighbours,' he said, 'and I'll
make it serve my turn.' And for years afterwards he used the image as a chopping-block, and the wife was
never molested by the fairies again.

Children were supposed to be stolen into Fairyland either to pay a Teind to the Devil, to reinforce the fairy
stock or for love of their beauty. Where older people were stolen it was for specific qualities and they were
replaced by some form of the 'stock' and generally seemed to be suffering from a 'stroke', which is indeed
'the fairy stroke', generally given by Elf-Shot. The true changelings are those fairy creatures that replace the
stolen human babies. See also: CAPTIVES IN FAIRYLAND. # 100 - 540 - 700 - 728

CHARLEMAGNE

Tree- and stone-worship denounced by Charlemagne. # 562

CHARLES I
(1600-49) King of Britain and Ireland. The grandson of Mary Queen of Scots, Charles was well steeped in
the misfortunes of the Stuarts. He upheld the Divine Right of Kings, by which the mystical destiny of the
king under God gave him sovereign power in governing his country. He was deposed by Oliver Cromwell
and the Parliamentarians and executed. His was one of the latest in the role of kingly sacrifices, whose cult
was popularly acclaimed and liturgically approved. His remembrance, on 30 January, was ordered by his
son Charles II and appears in the Book of Common Prayer as a day of fasting and humiliation. Five
churches are named after him. # 454

CHASTEL MARTE

In PERLESVAUS, the king of this castle was Perceval's uncle. He seized the Grail Castle but Perceval
besieged him and he killed himself. # 112 - 156

CHASTIEFOL

One of Arthur's swords. # 156

CHEERFULNESS

A cheerful wayfarer, a cheerful giver and a cheerful worker are all likely to gain the patronage of the
fairies, who dislike nothing so much as grumbling and moaning. See also: VIRTUES ESTEEMED BY
THE FAIRIES. # 100

CHELDRIC

In Geoffrey, a Saxon leader who brought reinforcements from Germany to Colgrin and took part in the
battles of Lincoln, Caledon Wood and Bath (Badon), after which he fled. He was finally defeated and killed
by Cador.

# 156 - 243

CHELINDE

The wife of Sador, who was the son of Brons. # 156 - 712

CHERRY OF ZENNOR

A version of the story of the Fairy Widower, which appears in Hunt's POPULAR ROMANCES OF THE
WEST OF ENGLAND. It is very closely allied to 'Jenny Permuen', also to be found in Hunt. 'Cherry of
Zennor' is a curious story, and throws a number of side-lights on fairy beliefs. Sometimes one is tempted to
believe that the story had a naturalistic foundation, and that it is an unsophisticated girl's interpretation of a
human experience. On the other hand, it gives one quite a picture of the real traditions of underground
Fairyland, such as that which was entered by True Thomas. Cherry was one of a large family living in
Zennor, a small village in Cornwall, and when she got to the age of fourteen it was time for her to go out
into the world. She set out to be hired at the local fair, but her courage failed her, and on the Lady Downs
she sat down and cried. Whilst she was still weeping a handsome, well-dressed gentleman stood beside her,
and asked what was troubling her. After some conversation he said that he was going out to hire a neat, tidy
girl to look after his little son, because he had recently been left a widower. He praised Cherry's neatly-
mended clothes and tidy looks, and hired her to go along with him. They went an immense way, down and
down twisting lanes with high hedges closing above them. The gentleman lifted Cherry over several
streams and at lenght they came to a gate into a garden where flowers of all seasons grew and flowered
together. Birds were singing all round them, and Cherry thought she had never seen so lovely a place. A
little sharp-eyed boy ran out to greet them, followed by an old, cross-looking woman. 'That's my wife's
mother,' said the gentleman, 'but she will only stay a few days to put you in the ways of the place, and then
she shall go.' The old woman looked crossly at Cherry and took her in, muttering that she knew Robin
would choose a fool. It was a strange place, with long passages and a big room locked up, into which the
old woman led Cherry. It was full of what Cherry thought of as dead people - presumably statues - and
there was a coffin-like box in the middle of the room which Cherry was set to polish. When she rubbed it
hard it made a strange, groaning sound, and Cherry fell down in a faint. Her master ran in, picked her up
and took her out, kissed and comforted her, and sent the old woman away. Cherry's duties were very light
and pleasant; she had to play with the little boy, milk a cow who appeared mysteriously when she was
called, and anoint the little boy's eyes every morning with green ointment. The pleasantest of her duties was
to help her master work in the garden. At the end of every row he gave Cherry a kiss, and she would have
been very happy there if it had not been that her master disappeared for many hours together, and when he
came back went into the locked room from which strange sounds proceeded. Her little charge would
answer none of her questions, but only said 'I'll tell Grannie' if she asked him anything; but she fancied that
he saw much more than she did, and his eyes were very bright; so one morning she sent him off to pick
some flowers and slyly put a crumb of the ointment in her own eye. This produced a transformation: the
garden was swarming with little creatures. Her eyes smarted and she ran to the well to wash out the
ointment. At the bottom of the well she saw numbers of tiny people dancing, and to her fury she saw her
master among them, as tiny as they were, and on very familiar terms with the little fairy ladies. Soon she
saw her master coming back as his normal size. He went up to the locked room and went inside. Cherry
followed him and peeped through the keyhole. He lifted the lid of the coffin and a lady came out, sat down,
and began to play upon the coffin,and all the statues began to dance. Cherry ran away weeping, and when
her master called her to weed the garden with him, she was very sulky. At the end of the first row he tried to
kiss her, but she pushed him away saying: 'Go and kiss your little midgets at the bottom of the well.' Her
master looked very sad. 'Cherry, you have been using the ointment that you were told not to use. I am sorry,
but you must go home, and old Grace must come back again.' Cherry cried and besought, but he made her
pack her clothes, and led her back the long uphill way on to the Lady Downs. She never saw him again, and
like many people who have visited Fairyland, she did no good in the mortal world, but hung about the Lady
Downs hoping Robin her master would come back and see her. This is one occasion on which the seeing
eye was not blinded. Cherry's master had shown great restraint. An interesting feature of this story is that
old Grace kept the village school. She was evidently a mortal, and therefore Robin's first wife must have
been mortal too. The Fairy Ointment would have been necessary to give the little half-fairy fairy sight. It is
as yet uncertain if this needed to be used by whole fairies. # 100 - 331

CHESS

The ancient oriental game of chess came into Celtic Britain at a very early date, and was much esteemed as
the Game of Kings, who learned tactics and strategy from it, and the art of hiding their thoughts when they
were in conflicts. It was a game at which the aristocratic fairies, the Daoine Sidhe of Ireland and the Sidh of
Scotland, had great skill, and it was the habit of wandering members of the sidhe to win great contests
against mortals by challenging them to three games, at each of which the winner was to choose his stake.
Invariably the mortal won the first two games and chose rich prizes, but the supernatural stranger won the
third, and imposed some almost fatal task or asked for some next-to-impossible gift. It was by such a game
that Midhir won Etain from Eochaid. This motif is also common in Highland folktales, as, for instance, in
one of McKay's MORE WEST HIGHLAND TALES, 'How the Great Tuairisgeal was Put to Death', in
which the Young Tuairisgeal, winning the third game of chess, puts the Young King of Erin under binding
spells to find out how the Great Tuairisgeal was put to death and to bring back with him the Sword of Light
by which he was slain. The young king succeeds in the quest by the help of the woman and the horse which
he won in the first two games. This is a standard pattern in both Highland and Irish tales.

Chess as a sport of kings is illustrated in the tale of Finn, in the episode when Young Finn, serving his
stepfather, the King of Carraighe, incognito, displayed both his ingenuousness and his royal blood by
winning seven games in succession against the king, who guessed his paternity and sent him quickly away.
# 100 - 464
CHESSMEN OF LEWIS

In 1831 a high tide on the coast near Uig in the Isle of Lewis washed away a sand-bank and exposed a cave
in which there was a small beehive-shaped building rather like the little domestic grinding querns to be
found in the Highlands. A labourer working near found it, and, thinking it might contain some treasure,
broke into it. He found a cache of eighty-four carved chessmen ranged together. They had an uncanny look,
and he flung down his spade and ran, convinced that he had come on a sleeping company of fairies. His
wife was of sterner stuff and made him go back and fetch them. The greater part of them are now in the
British Museum. Replicas have been made of them, but the originals, all mustered together, are much more
impressive. A tradition has arisen about them. It is said that the guards who take the guard-dogs round at
night cannot get them to pass the Celtic chessmen. They bristle and drag back on their haunches. So
perhaps the Highlander's superstition can be excused. # 100

CHESTER

This city was named Deva in classical times but it was also known as the City of the Legion, as was
Caerleon-upon-Usk. R. B. Stoker, in his THE LEGACY OF ARTHUR'S CHESTER (1965), argues that
Chester, rather than Caerleon, was Arthur's chief city. Geoffrey Ashe (#75) suggests that Arthur's battle at
the City of the Legion was fought there. ># 33 - 100

CHILDE ROLAND

He rescued his sister, Burd Ellen, who was trapped in the Underworld by its king, with the help of Merlin. #
68 - 76 - 454

CHILDREN OF LIR

Lir and his son Manannan were gods of the sea. The story of The Children of Lir is not as old as the story
of the Children of Tuirenn but its theme connects it with the earliest stories of Irish mythology. It is set in
the time after the conquest of the Gaels, when Tuatha De Danaan had taken to the Sidh mounds of their
underground kingdom. Lir, is the same character used by Shakespeare in his play 'King Lear'. Once, at an
election for kingship where Lir was disregarded, he left his sidh at Fionnachaidh in northern Ireland, and
retired to the north in a rage. The two of Lir's wives died, and the third, Aoife, was so jealous of Lir's
children, that she turned them into swans by her druidic wand. Sadly, the swan maiden Fionnguala called
out to Aoife, accusing her and prophesying her destruction. Aoife replied triumphantly, 'that for at least
three times three hundred years, and until a man from Connacht in the north shall be united with a woman
from Munster in the south, will you were bound by the spell'. A lot of events occurred to the four gifted and
enchanted swans during these nine hundred years, but eventually the prophesy was fulfilled: violence broke
the long enchantment and instead of singing swans, the king of Connacht and his new-wedded wife, the
daughter of the king of Munster, whose name was Deoca, saw before them, not, indeed, the radiant forms
of the Danaan divinities, but four withered, snow-haired, and miserable human beings, shrunken in the
decrepitude of their vast old age. Lairken, the King, flies from the place in horror, but the friend of the
swans, the hermit prepares to administer baptism at once, as death is rapily approaching them. And so it
was done, and they went to heaven; but the hermit, it is said, sorrowed for them to the end of his earthly
days. # 565 p 29 ff

CHILDREN OF LLYR

The British equivalents of the Irish Children of Lir. # 562

CHILDREN OF TUIRENN, THE FATE OF


'The Fate of the Children of Tuirenn' is one of a group of narratives known in Irish tradition as 'The Three
Sorrows of Story-Telling,' the others being 'The Exile of the Sons of Usnech', and 'The Fate of the Children
of Lir.' The first part of the story, telling how Nuada got his silver arm and how the Fomorians came to
invade Ireland, merely serves as an introduction and has only a superficial connection with the main plot,
which is concerned with the tragically desperate attempts of the sons of Tuirenn to carry out the impossible
tasks imposed upon them by Lugh as the blood-price for his father, Cian, who, like the other major
personages, is of the Tuatha De Danann. The narrative contains numerous references to the BOOK OF
INVASIONS, and 'The Second Battle of Mag Tured'. The tale, although it deals with events of the remote
past, is comparatively late in date. Contrasted with the earlier and sterner pieces that compose the Ulster
cycle, it may appear somewhat overwrought and unduly burdened with romantic incident; yet it builds up
to a conclusion full of tragic pathos. # 166

CHLODOMER

According to the eccentric R. W. Morgan (HISTORY OF BRITAIN), this King of Orleans (reigned AD
511-24) died fighting against Arthur. Actually, he perished in battle fighting against the Burgundians. # 156

CHOUGH

The Cornish chough is believed to be the form in which Arthur exists, prior to his coming again. # 454

CHRAMM

According to J. Morris (# 484), he led a rebellion against Clothair, King of the Francs, who was aided by
Cunomorus (see MARK). Morris claims both fell in the battle. # 156 - 484

CHRÉTIEN DE TROYES

French poet, influential in bringing the Arthurian saga into the poetic literature of Europe; Gautier de
Denain the earliest continuator of him. Variation of his 'Le Chevalier au lion' seen in 'The Lady of the
Fountain'. - The 'Tale of Enid and Geraint' based on Erec of Chrétien de Troyes. - Peredur corresponds to
the Perceval of Troyes; his 'Conte del Graal' or 'Perceval le Gallois'. Manessier a continuator of Chrétien de
Troyes (sometimes called Chréstien de Troyes). # 562

CHRISTIAN

Symbolism, the hand as emblem of power in Christian faith, which is heard of by King Cormac and ere
preached by St Patrick. Christian influences in Ireland and the Milesian myth; Christian ideas, gathered
around CuChulain and his lord King Conor of Ulster; pagan ideals contrasted with Christian in Oisin
dialogues. Myrddin dwindles under influences. # 562

CHRISTIAN CELTS IN WALES

The popular images of Wales between the Roman occupation and the arrival of the Normans are of heroic
warrior kingdoms and travelling saints, of Celtic revival and of tradition of mythical history. The period has
been referred to by many terms, some accompanied by a confusion of definitions, such as the Dark Ages,
the Early Medieval period, the Early Middle Ages, the Early Christian period, the Age of Saints, the Age of
Arthur and the Later Celtic period. While recent surveys have usefully employed terms equivalent to those
for Saxon England, such as 'Sub-Roman' (AD 350-450), Early Christian (AD 450-650), 'Middle Phase' (AD
650-850) and 'Cambro-Norse' (AD 850-1066).
Over the last 40 years, considerable progress has been made in historical and archaeological research into
the period, with studies of charters and with excavations at fortified sites such as Dinas Emrys (Gwynedd),
Dinas Powys (South Glamorgan) and Llangorse crannog (Powys), and at Early Christian cemeteries such as
Caer Bayvil (Dyfed), Caerwent (Gwent) and Capel Maelog (Powys). The inscribed stones of various kinds
are the most numerous visible relics of the Christian Celts in Wales, and they form the backbone of the
book THE CHRISTIAN CELTS as National Museum of Wales published in 1991. They span a period from
the 5th to the 12th centuries, illustrate the Christianity and artistic styles of Wales and provide evidence of
its early society.

CELTS AND KINGDOMS

Until the end of the 4th century AD Wales was part of a Roman Empire united to a varying degree by
language, law and a sophisticated system of government. From the 5th century a number of small
independent tribal kingdoms or territories developed in Wales, with root in Celtic Iron Age and Roman
traditions. The pattern of political developments is complex, with few continuously dominant kingdoms
and little sense of 'Celtic' unity. Some early kingdoms may have maintained a semblance of late Roman
authority but the evidence for the 5th century is sparse. Latin terms are used to describe official positions as
if to suggest the inheritance of Roman power (for example, St Patrick's father was a Decurio) and some
personal and place names derive from Roman antecedents. Gwent, for example, preserves the name of the
Civitas capital Venta Silurum (now Caerwent), where the post-Roman use of an extra-mural cemetery
outside the East Gate suggests that it may have continued as the focus of a small successor state. However,
there was considerable political dislocation and change in the 5th and 6th centuries, and the precise
circumstances of the decline and abandonment of late Roman sites are unclear. Irish raids and inter-regional
hostilities resulted in the refortification of some hillforts. Gradually smaller territories were absorbed into
the larger kingdoms. Dynastic change in Dyfed and Gwynedd led eventually to political change. Following
the death in AD 854 of Cyngen, last king of Powys (named as patron in the inscription on the 'Pillar of
Eliseg'), the kingdom was absorbed into the larger kingdom of Gwynedd. The growing ambition of
Gwynedd in the late 9th century resulted in the southern Welsh kings seeking protection from the Saxon
king Alfred of Wessex. Viking raids on the Welsh coast began in the mid 9th century, and the 10th century
was characterised by dynastic instability. New ruling families established themselves in the south-east by c.
AD 950, and by the 11th century further intrusive dynasties had moved into the south-west of Wales. A long
period of wide-ranging conflict between rulers ended with the arrival of the Normans and the development
of new conflicts. Christian communities existed in parts of Wales under the later Roman Empire. While
there may still have been unconverted Britons in the 5th century, the history attributed to Nennius
(HISTORIA BRITTONUM) suggests that Christianity survived in some form into the Early Middle Ages.
It is significant that the earliest carved stones with Christian associations are particularly numerous in
Wales. The artistic, religious and political development of the Principality during this period is reflected in
its Early Christian monuments and distinctive artefacts. # 547

CHRISTIANITY

Conversion of Ireland to Christianity. People of Dana in their fall, and attitude of Christendom. CucCulain
summoned from Hel by St Patrick to prove truths of Christianity to High King Laery. - The effect of
Christianity on Irish literature, are but for the early manuscripts in which the tales are fortunately enshrined
such a work as the TAIN BO CUAILGNÉ, the greatest thing undoubtedly which the Celtic genius ever
produced in literature - would now be lost. # 562

CHRISTIANITY, LOST CELTIC

In the so-called Dark Ages a religion flourished in the islands of Britain which had more in common with
Buddhism than with the institutional Christianity of the West. It was based on a church founded without
martyrs, and one that neither inflicted suffering nor encouraged bitter theological disputes. It was marked
by compassion and moderation in all its dealings. Above all, it was a religion of country people, for after
the legions withdrew from the Roman garrisons there were no towns in Britain, and it was practised in
tribal groups, by people who had previously worshipped their own local deities through the rituals
prescribed by the druids, who formed their priestly caste. When news of Christianity first came to Ireland
and mainland Britain, the new faith was smoothly grafted onto the old. But the Roman Church never
accepted the Celtic belief, that man was born free of original sin, and the final confrontation occured at
Whitby (Streaneshalch) AD 664.

'That which is called the Christian religion existed among the Ancients, and never did not exist, from the
beginning of the Human Race until Christ came in the flesh, at which time true religion, which already
existed began to be called Christianity.' St Augustine.

'Without going back to the 'beginning of the Human Race', I would like to introduce this celebration of the
Celtic Christian year by looking at its distant origins in the Bronze Age, among the peoples who inhabited
there islands before the coming of the iron-forging Celts.' With these words leads the author Shirley
Toulson up to her introduction in her latest book THE CELTIC YEAR, and she continues: 'They were the
people who left the great stone monuments and ritual henges all along the Atlantic seaboard; and who
buried their honoured dead in complex, majestic barrows, now mostly grassed over. These barrows, and the
artefacts found in the excavated graves within them, are almost all we know of these early farmers whose
ritual monuments make it clear that they had a highly organized society and were capable of astounding
feats of technology. It is our loss that they seem to have had no written language; and that although their
stone and wooden circles, so carefully aligned on aspects of sunrise and sunset, were obviously of great
religious significance, we can only guess at the ritual they enshrined.' Shirley Toulson ends her inspiring
introduction by saying that 'in the Celtic blessings and prayers, we find a constant echo of the Essene
advocacy of constant worship formulated by the Egyptian Therapeutae, who affirmed 'At the beginning of
each of my daily tasks, when I leave or enter the house, when I rise, when I stretch out on my couch, Him
do I wish to celebrate'. The Therapeutae were an Egyptian sect, described by the first-century Jewish
scholar Philo, and believed to have been formed from the remnants of the Essene community who headed
west from the Dead Sea after their dispersal following the fall of Jerusalem. Their attitude of constant
prayerful attention is familiar to us today through the teaching of an even older tradition, Buddhism, and
the practice of constant mindfulness that is at the root of Buddhist practice. It is this attitude which infused
the saints of the Celtic church, who were teaching six hundred years after the Incarnation, and whose way
of life, if not their doctrines, so closely resemble the precepts formulated by the Buddha six hundred years
before the birth at Bethlehem. I am not suggesting that there was any direct historical link between
Buddhism and the beliefs of the Celtic saints, but I am sure that if we want to understand the depths of
Celtic spirituality we shall find the nearest parallels in the Buddhist teaching of today as well as in the
creation spirituality of such Christian teachers as Matthew Fox*. Above all we will come close to Celtic
thinking as, inspired by the obvious threats to the survival of our planet, we learn to be constantly mindful
of the part we have to play in the divinity of the universe.'

CORMAC MAC AIRT PRESIDING AT TARA

Beautiful was the appearance of Cormac in that assembly, flowing and slightly curling was his golden hair.
A red buckler with stars and animals of gold and fastenings of silver upon him. A crimson cloak in wide
descending folds around him, fastened at his neck with precious stones. A torque of gold around his neck. A
white shirt with a full collar, and intertwined with red gold thread upon him. A girdle of gold, inlaid with
precious stones, was around him. Two wonderful shoes of gold, with golden loops upon his feet. Two
spears with golden sockets in his hands, with many rivets of red bronze. And he was himself, besides,
symmetrical and beautiful of form, without blemish or reproach. Version - Douglas Hyde.

*See also: Martinus: THE THIRD TESTAMENT (# 431). # 676 - 678

CHRYSOSTOM, DION

Testimony of Dion Chrysostom, to power of the Druids. # 562


CHURCH GRIM

There is a widespread tradition that the churchyards were guarded from the Devil and witches by a spirit
that usually took the form of a Black Dog. Those who saw it generally took it as a death warning. Mrs
Gutch mentions it in COUNTY FOLK LORE II, and William Henderson discusses it in FolkLore of the
Northern Counties. He attributes it to a foundation sacrifice and points out that the Kyrkogrim of Sweden
appears in the form of a lamb because, in the early days of Christianity in Sweden, a lamb was buried under
the altar, while in Denmark the Kirkegrim took the form of a 'grave-sow'. Thomas Wright in his ESSAYS
says that the Yorkshire church grim can be seen about the churc in dark stormy weather by day and night. It
sometimes took the bell at midnight before a death, and at a funeral the clergyman would see it looking out
from the tower, and could tell by its aspect whether the soul of the corpse was destined for Heaven or Hell.
In her COUNTY FOLK LORE collection VIII, Ruth Tongue says that when a new churchyard was opened
it was believed that the first man buried there had to guard it against the Devil. To save a human soul from
such a duty a pure black dog was buried in the north part of the churchyard as a substitute. In the
Highlands, according to J. G. Campbell in his SUPERSTITIONS OF THE HIGHLANDS AND ISLANDS
OF SCOTLAND a similar belief was held. It was the duty of the lastburied corpse to guard the graveyard
till the next funeral. # 100 - 131 - 274 - 302 - 674 - 754

CHURCHYARD MOULD

Mould which came from an ancient churchyard, where all the soil consisted of mouldering bodies, was
valuable in spells, but was also considered protective as a counter-charm against fairies or spirits. See also:
PROTECTION AGAINST FAIRIES. # 100

CHURNMILK PEG

The unripe nut thickets in West Yorkshire are guarded by Churnmilk Peg. According to Mrs Wright, who
mentions her among the cautionary goblins in RUSTIC SPEECH AND FOLK LORE, she beguiles her
leisure by smoking a pipe. In the North Country generally, Melch Dick performs the same function. # 100 -
752

CIAN MAC CAINTE

(KEE an moc kiin't) Father of Lugh. When he encountered the sons of Tuirenn - Brian, Iuchar and Iucharba
- his enemies approaching, he turned himself into a pig. Brian noticed that it was a magical beast and turned
himself and his brothers into hounds and gave chase to it. They eventually resumed their own forms, but
refused Cian quarter, stoning him to death. They attempted to bury him six times, but only managed to
cover him with a mound on the seventh attempt. Lugh found his father's body with the help of the men of
the Sidhe, and vowed vengeance on his killers. Later legend saw him as an evil druid who enjoyed
changing his pupils into hares, while he followed as a hound. The children of Tuirenn struck him with his
own staff and turned him into a boar, whence the earthwork dividing North and South Ireland is called the
Blavk Pig's Dyke, after his tremendous career from coast to coast. This legend corresponds to that of
TWRCH TRWYTH. # 267 - 439 - 454 - 548

CIARRAIGE LUACHRA

(cer'i yi loo'ah ra) A hilly district between co. Limerick and co. Kerry. # 166

CIGFA
Wife of Pryderi, daughter of Gwyn Gohoyw, of the royal line of Casnar Wledig. After her husband and
mother-in-law, Rhiannon, were spirited away into the Otherworld, she was left alone with her father-in-law,
Manawyddan with whom she lived until the enchantments lying upon Dyfed were lifted. # 272 - 439 - 454

CIMBRI

In 113 BC, a Roman army sent to support the Celtic kingdom of Noricum in the Eastern Alps, against
northern invaders, suffered defeat. The invaders were known by the name of Cimbri, and later evidence
suggests that the bearers of this name came from Himmerland County, Jutland, although their ranks had
probably been considerably augmented on their way southwards. It is important to forego any hasty
ethnological deductions about the Cimbri on the basis of their geographical starting-point. The personal
names of their leaders, such as are known, are all purely Celtic, and passages from Diodorus, Strabo, and
Pliny could all be taken as showing that the Cimbri spoke a Celtic language. The name Teutones itself is a
Latin form of the Celtic word meaning 'people', as already met in the Irish Tuath, and in the Gaulish deity
name Teutates. J. Aaten suggests that there might be some connection between the Cimbri expedition, the
Borremose Castle and the Gundestrup Cauldron. # 53 - 114 - 220

CIRCE

A sorceress in classical mythology. She is found in Homer's ODYSSEY and Apollonius Rhodius'
ARGONAUTICA. In PERCEFOREST she married Bethides and brought the Romans into Britain.

See also I. Wilkens: WHERE TROY ONCE STOOD p 185 ff. # 156 - 198 - 730

CISSA

A son of Aelle, he accompanied his father when he defeated the Britons. # 156

CITY OF SOULS

A spirit-haunted, otherworldly city visited by Lancelot in PERLESVAUS. # 112 - 156

CITY OF THE LEGION

The scene of one of Arthur's battles, according to Nennius. K. H. Jackson (# 401) identifies it
unhesitatingly as Chester, called Urbs Legionis in Latin; but there is the possibility that it was Castleford
which the Romans called Legiolium. Geoffrey calls Caerleon the City of Legion. This city is also referred
to as Isca Legionis and Isca Legionum in early times. # 156 - 218 - 401

CIUTHACH

(kew-uch) This Highland character, latterly a cave-haunting monster, was a noble cave-dwelling giant in
earlier romances. W. J. Watson in the CELTIC REVIEW IX says: In view of the fact that traces of Ciuthach
are found, one may say, from Clyde to the Butt of Lewis, it is clear that at one time he played a great role in
the tradition of the West. Among all the confusion of the traditions as they have come down to us, there
may be, and probably is, an ultimate historical basis... Throughout the references to him there runs the
feeling that Ciuthach was a hero, or the hero of a race different from the Gael. Watson suggested that he
might be a Pict; Professor Mac Ritchie, in the next number of the CELTIC REVIEW, put forward the
theory that he was a Finn. Gill, in his SECOND MANX SCRAPBOOK, points out that it was Ciuthach
whose cave was visited by Diarmuid and Grania on their flight. # 100 - 249
CLAIRE

Sister of Sagremor, who was saved from two giants by Guinglain. # 156

CLAMADEUS

A king who laid siege to Blanchefleur's castle but was then slain by Perceval in single combat. # 153 - 156

CLANN BASCNA

One of the divisions of the Fianna of Erin; Cumhal, father of Finn, chief of Clan Bascna; Cairbry causes
feud between Clan Morna and Clan Bascna. # 562

CLANN CALATIN

Sent by men of Erin against CuChulain. Fiacha, son of Firaba cuts off the eight-and-twenty hands of Clan
Calatin. CuChulain slays Clan Calatin, and the widow gives birth to six children whom Maev has instructed
in magic and then looses against CuChulain. - Cause CuChulain to break his GEISE. # 562

CLANN CONAILL

(clôn' con'al) The inhabitants of the district later known as Tir Connell in Ulster. # 166

CLANN DEDAD

(clön' da'gha) The subjects or followers of Cu Roi mac Dairi. # 166

CLANN EOGAIN

(clôn' yo'wan) The residents of the district roughly corresponding with modern Tyrone, earlier Tir Eogain. #
166

CLANN MORNA

One of the divisions of the Fianna of Erin. - Lia becomes treasurer to Clann Morna. - Cairbry causes feud
between Clann Bascna and Clann Morna. # 562

CLARINE

The mother of Lancelot in a German version of his story. She was the wife of King Pant of Gennewis. #
156 - 686

CLARIS

A Knight of the Round Table and a hero of the romance CLARIS ET LARIS. Laris was his companion
whom he rescued from Tallas, King of Denmark. He married Laris's sister, Lidoine. # 30 - 156

CLARISSE
Sister of Gawain. # 156

CLARRISANT

# 156: A daughter of Lot and Morgause who married Guiromelant. She was the mother of Guigenor.

# 454: According to a single Arthurian romance she was the sister of Gawain, who lived in a magic castle.
Perceval overcomes her lover Guireomelant in the same text, 'Sir Percevelle'. Nowhere else is Gawain said
to have a sister, but this is interesting as it brings the number of the Orkney clan up to five - the others
being Gaheris, Gareth and Agravaine. As a Goddess-figure, their mother, Morgause of Orkney, should by
rights have given birth to this number of children. # 112 - 156 - 454 - 610

CLAS MYRDDYN

Merlin's enclosure. The ancient British tradition that Britain itself was watched over by Merlin as its
guardian. Esoterically, Merlin's imprisonment by Nimue has its basis in Clas Myrddyn - the place where
Merlin is willingly confined in order to watch over its fortunes. # 104 - 439 - 454

CLASTIDIUM

A characteristic scene from the battle of Clastidium (222 BC) is recorded by Polybius. 'The Gaesati, who
were in forefront of the Celtic army, stripped naked for the fight, and the sight of these warriors, on which
glittered the collars and bracelets of gold, filled the Romans with awe. Yet when the day was over those
golden ornaments went in cartloads to deck the Capitol of Rome'. # 562

CLAUDAS

King of the Desert Land, the opponent of King Bors, whose kingdom he seized on the latter's death. After
Bor's death, his sons fell into the hands of Pharien whose wife was Claudas's lover. Claudas had them
brought to him but they escaped in the guise of greyhounds, killing his son, Dorin. A war took place
between Britain and Claudas when the latter imprisoned Guinevere, after insulting one of her damsels.
Claudas was supported by the Romans but they were defeated. The realm of Claudas was identified with
Berry, as in old French Berrie signifies a desert. Clovis I, King of the Franks AD 481-511, is a possible
prototype of Claudas. See: BRUMART, and PHARIANCE. # 156 - 418 - 604

CLEAN HEARTH

The first recipe in old days for encouraging fairy visits and gaining fairy favours was to leave the hearth
swept and the fire clear. This seems some indication of the contention that domestic fairies were of the type
of the LARES, the ancestral spirits who were the ghosts of those who had been buried under the hearth
according to the primitive custom in pre-classical times. See also: VIRTUES ESTEEMED BY THE
FAIRIES. # 100

CLEAR WATER

A bowl of clear, fair water had to be left in any place where the fairy ladies were supposed to resort with
their babies to wash them by the fire. Dirty water or empty pails were commonly punished by pinching or
lameness. See also: FAULTS CONDEMNED BY THE FAIRIES and VIRTUES ESTEEMED BY THE
FARIES. # 100

CLEENA
A Danaan maiden once living in Mananan's country. - One of the most notable landmarks of Ireland was
the Tonn Cliodhna, or 'Wave of Cleena,' on the seashore at Glandore Bay in Co. Cork. The story about
Cleena exists in several versions, which do not agree with each other except in so far as she seems to have
been a Danaan maiden once living in Mananan's country, the Land of Youth beyond the sea. Escaping
thence with a mortal lover, as one of the versions tells, she landed on the southern coast of Ireland, and her
lover, Keevan of the Curling Locks, went off to hunt in the woods. Cleena, who remained on the beach,
was lulled to sleep by fairy music played by a minstrel of Mananan, when a great wave of the sea swept up
and carried her back to Fairyland, leaving her lover desolate. Hence the place was called the Strand of
Cleena's Wave. # 562

CLERIADUS

The husband of Meliadice, one of Arthur's descendants. He succeeded Philippon, Meliadice's father, as
King of England. # 156 - 198

CLIDNA

See: CLEENA, and TONN CLIDNA.

CLIGÉS

Son of Alexander, son of the Emperor of Constantinople and his wife Soredamor, daughter of Lot. When
Cligés's uncle Alis (Alexius) was emperor he married Fenice with whom Cligés fell in love. Unable to court
her in the circumstances, he went to Arthur's court. In due course, Alis died and Cligés married Fenice. His
story is told in Crétien's romance CLIGÉS, perhaps a different person, in YDER. # 30 - 156

CLIM OF THE CLOUGH

(Kläm of the klaaff)

CLITON

A sister of Morgan. # 156 - 242

CLODION

A son of Pharamond, killed in combat by Tristan. # 21 - 156

CLOG CALENDAR

The calendar was marked on a long piece of thick wood in the earliest times, but was by the late medieval
period also drawn on strips of paper in a form closely resembling that reproduced by Moses Cotsworth of
Acomb.

# 730: It may be pointed out in passing that the twelve signs of the zodiac were not used for astrology in the
Bronze Age (about 1200 BC). The Celts had designated thirty-six other constellations for this purpose, for
their year was not divided into twelve months, but into thirty-six periods of approximately ten days each.
Each of these periods was also associated with a specific type of tree. # 137 - 702 - 730

CLOTHAIR
King of soissons, later King of all the Franks. J. Morris (# 484) claims that Cunomorus (see MARK) fell in
a rebellion against him in AD 560. # 156 - 484

CLOVER

Shamrock. The national symbol of Ireland. CLURICAUNE CLURACAN

(kloor-a-cawn) One of the solitary fairies of Ireland. Thomas Crofton Croker has several stories of him as a
kind of buttery spirit, feasting himself in the cellars of drunkards, or scaring dishonest servants who steal
the wine. Sometimes he makes himself so objectionable that the owner decides to move, but the Cluricaune
pops into a cask to move with him, as the boggart did in Lancashire. The Cluricaune described by Crofton
Croker wore a red nightcap, a leather apron, pale-blue long stockings and silver-buckled, high-heeled
shoes. Presumably his coat was red, for solitary fairies were generally supposed to be distinguished from
trooping fairies by wearing red instead of green coats. # 100 - 165

CLUSIUM

Siege of Clusium, Romans play Celts false. Vengeance exacted by Celts. # 562

CLYDNO

One of Arthur's warriors, father of Cynon in Welsh tradition. # 156

CLYDNO EIDDYN

The cauldron of Clydno Eiddyn was one of the Thirteen Treasures of Britain. ># 104 - 156

CO-WALKER

Kirk, in his SECRET COMMONWEALTH, names a double, such as the Germans call a
DOPPELGÄNGER, a 'Co-walker'. In the North it is called a Waff and is said to be a death token. Kirk,
however, considers it to be one of the fairies, and says: They are clearly seen by these Men of the Second
Sight to eat at Funeralls (and) Banquets; hence many of the Scottish-Irish will not teast Meat at these
Meittings, lest they have Communion with, or be poysoned by, them. So are they seen to carrie the Beer or
Coffin with the Corps among the middle-earth Men to the Grave. Some men of that exalted Sight (whither
by Art or Nature) have told me they have seen at these Meittings a Doubleman, or the Shape of some Man
in two places; that is, a superterranean and a subterranean Inhabitant, perfectly resembling one another in
all Points, whom he notwithstanding could easily distinguish one from another, by some secret Tockens and
Operations, and so go speak to the Man his Neighbour and Familiar, passing by the Apparition or
Resemblance of him.

On the next page he continues:

They call this Reflex-man a Co-walker, every way like the Man, as a Twin-brother and Companion,
haunting him as his shadow, as is oft seen and known among Men (resembling the Originall), both before
and after the Originall is dead; and wes also often seen of old to enter a Hous, by which the People knew
that the Person of that Liknes wes to Visite them within a few days. This Copy, Echo, or living Picture,
goes att last to his own Herd. # 100 -370

COCIDIUS
A Northern war-god often associated by the Romans with Mars. He is depicted as a stylized Celtic warrior
with spear and shield. # 454 - 563 - 709

COCK

# 161: In Celtic tradition the Cock has chthonic associations as a bird of the underworld. Sacred in early
Britain, the cock had the chthonic aspect of the Gallo-Roman Mercury, was an attribute of the gods of the
underworld and of the Celtic Mother Goddess; the cock was sacrificed on Bride's Day. # 454: The cock has
ever been the bird of dawning whose call dispels the horrors of the night. Numerous folk-songs and stories
attest to this understanding, and in many night-visiting songs where by a dead lover comes to his woman's
bed by night, his ghost is dispelled by the cock crowing. # 161 - 454

COEL

According to a sixteenth-century manuscript, an ancestor of Arthur through his mother. Stuart-Knill also
claims he was one of Arthur's ancestors. He was possibly a historical figure who flourished in the North
Country in the early fifth century. Tradition gives him a wife named Stradwawl (road-well) and a daughter
called Gwawl (wall), which tends to reinforce this. Gwawl may have been the wife of Cunedda. J. Morris
suggests that he was the last Dux Brittaniarum. A great body of legend grew up about him. He was thought
to have been the founder and ruler - king (Henry of Huntingdon), duke of Colchester (Geoffrey of
Monmouth), - tradition pushing him back some centuries. His city, according to legend, was besieged by
the Roman emperor Constantius Chlorus (ruled AD 305-306) for three years, after which Constantine
married Helena, Coel's daughter. Their son was Constantine the Great (born AD 265). A fourteenth-century
manuscript says Coel became king of all Britain and died in AD 267. The adjective HEN (old) was applied
to him. There can be little doubt he was the Old King Cole of nursery rhyme. # 156 - 484 - 648

COFFEY, GEORGE

Keeper of the collection of Celtic antiquities in the National Museum, Dublin. He explored and described
the Tumulus of New Grange thoroughly, and the facts about it is recorded in: Transactions of the Royal
Irish Academy, Vol. XXX, pt. i. (1892), and 'NEW GRANGE' from 1912. # 562

COINCHEND

The wife of Morgan, king of the Land of Wonders. She was the mother of Delbchaem, whom she kept
guarded because of a prophecy that said on the marriage of her daughter, she herself would die. She kept
the girl in a fortress palisaded with stakes upon each of which was the head of an unsuccessful suitor. She
fought Art but was beheaded by him. This story corresponds to Gereint's adventure in Joy of the Court
episode. # 188 - 454 - 548

COLCHESTER

This was Camulodunum in Roman times. See: CAMELOT. # 156

COLEMAN GRAY

A Cornish example of the Captured Fairies, this is the name of a little Pisky boy who was adopted by a
human. It is given by Hunt in POPULAR ROMANCES OF THE WEST OF ENGLAND, from T. Quiller
Couch in NOTES AND QUERIES: 'There is a farmhouse of some antiquity with which my family have a
close connection; and it is this circumstance, more than any other, that has rendered this tradition
concerning it more interesting to us, and better remembered than many other equally romantic and
authentic. Close to this house, one day, a little miserable-looking bantling was discovered alone, unknown,
and incapable of making its wants understood. It was instantly remembered by the finder, that this was the
way in which the piskies were accustomed to deal with those infants of their race for whom they sought
human protection; and it would have been an awful circumstance if such a one were not received by the
individual so visited. The anger of the piskies would be certain, and some direful calamity must be the
result; whereas, a kind of welcome would probably be attended with great good fortune. The miserable
plight of this stranger therefore attracted attention and sympathy. The little unconscious one was admitted
as of the family. Its health was speedily restored, and its renewed strength, activity, intelligence and good-
humour caused it to become a general favourite. It is true the stranger was often found to indulge in odd
freaks; but this was accounted for by a recollection of its pedigree, which was not doubted to be of the
piskie order. So the family prospered, and had banished the thought that the foundling would ever leave
them. There was to the front door of this house a hatch, meaning a half-door that is kept closed when the
whole door behind it is open, and which then serves as a guard against the intrusion of dogs, hogs, and
ducks, while air and light are freely admitted. This little being was one day leaning over the top of this
hatch, looking wistfully outward, when a clear voice was heard to proceed from a neighbouring part of the
townplace, calling, 'Coleman Gray, Coleman Gray!' The piskie immediately started up, and with a sudden
laugh, clapped its hands, exclaiming, 'Aha! my daddy is come!' It was gone in a moment, never to be seen
again. # 100 - 331

COLGREVANCE

# 156: A Knight of the Round Table who hailed from Gore. There are different accounts of his death. In one
version he was killed by Lionel, but in another he was one of those who surprised Lancelot and Guinevere
together and was slain by the escaping Lancelot. # 454: Before becoming a Knight of the Round Table he
first encountered the Adventure of the magic fountain in Broceliande. When water was poured from a basin
over an emerald stone at its brim, a black knight appeared with a challenge. Colgrevance was defeated,
though he managed to escape and it was his story which awakened the interest of Owain, who was
successful and himself became guardian of the fountain for a time. # 156 - 418 - 454

COLGRIN

According to Geoffrey, he became leader of the Saxons when Uther died. Arthur defeated him at the River
Douglas, so he fled to York where he was besieged by Arthur. His brother Baldulf joined him there.
Reinforced by Cheldric, who brought Saxons with him from overseas, they fought Arthur unsuccessfully at
Lincoln and Caledon Wood. They left for Germany but came back and landed in Britain again. They were
defeated by Arthur at Bath (Badon) where Colgrin fell. # 156 - 243

COLLEN, SAINT

(kothlen) Saint Collen was a Welsh saint of the seventh century. Like many of the Celtic saints, he was of a
pugnacious and restless disposition, and during his career he spent some time in Somerset. It was here that
he encountered the fairy king. S. Baring-Gould, in his LIVES OF THE SAINTS, summarizes his story
from a Welsh Life of Saint Collen, not translated into English at the time when Baring-Gould was writing.
This accounts for the confusing statement that the king of the fairies on Glastonbury Tor was called Gwyn
ap Nudd and his dominion was over Annwn. # 54 - 100

COLLOQUY OF THE ANCIENTS

A collection of tales mentioning St Patrick and Cascorach. The interest of 'Colloquy' lies in the tales of
Keelta. Of the tales there are about a hundred, telling of Fian raids and battles, but the great number of them
have to do with the intercourse between the Fairy Folk and the Fianna. With these folk the Fianna have
constant relations, both of love and war. One of the best is that of the fairy Brugh, or mansion of
Slievenamon, which Keelta tells a story of. # 562
COLLOQUY OF THE OLD MEN, THE

Chief among the earlier tales dealing with Finn and his companions is the famous COLLOQUY OF THE
OLD MEN. This long and elaborate piece, composed not far from AD 1200, is a framework story in which
are embedded a large number of heroic tales and place-name legends.

At the beginning of the narrative Oisin (Ossian) son of Finn, and Cailte son of Crunnchu mac Ronain,
accompanied by a small band, are represented as the only survivors of Finn mac Cumaill's great fian. A
century and a half have elapsed since the death of Finn and the battles in which the fian met with
destruction. After visiting Finn's old nurse, Oisin and Cailte separate, one going north to seek Oisin's
mother, who is one of the Tuatha De Danann; the other moving south toward Tara. On the way Cailte and
his companions meet with St Patrick and accept Christianity. St Patrick's interest in the traditions of Ireland
elicits from Cailte many stories of the pagan heroic age. On arriving at Tara, Cailte and St Patrick find
Oisin installed in the court of King Diarmuid mac Cerbaill. There the ancient heroes entertain the guests
with tales of pagan Ireland. Whether the piece as a whole emanates from ecclesiastical or secular sources, it
is both surprising and pleasant to find at such an early period a representation of friendly and sympathetic
relations between pagan and Christian. # 166 - 562

COLOMBE

The lover of Lanceor, the son of the King of Ireland. When Lanceor was slain by Balin, she killed herself. #
156 - 418

COLOUR

Colour was important in Celtic representations of the underworld, and the White Bull was the chief
sacrifice of the Druids at the cutting of the mistletoe. White doves are an almost universal symbol of peace
and are particularly associated with the Mother Goddesses and Queens of Heaven and were sacrificed to
them; they were emblems of feminity and maternity. # 161

COLOUR OF FAIRY CLOTHES

See: DRESS AND APPEARANCE OF THE FAIRIES.

COLUMBA, SAINT

# 562: Symbol of the feet and St Columba in rockcarvings in Ireland.

# 454: (c.521-97) He was born in Donegal of the royal Ui Neill line and was trained as a monk under Saint
Finnian of Moville. He borrowed a copy of Jerome's new translations of the Psalms from the Magh Bile
monastery in order to copy it. The original owners judged that the copy should remain with them since
'every cow has its calf'. The resulting battle at Coodrebhne saw Columba as an opponent in arms, rather
than in Christian temperance, and he sent himself into exile from Ireland, in remorse. He converted many
of the Irish settlers in Scotland, as well as King Brude of the Picts. He founded his monastery on Iona
which became in time the burial place and assembly of Scottish kings. Many monastic settlements sprang
from the influence of Iona. Columba, although he swore never to see Ireland again, returned to champion
the social obligations of the Irish in Scotland to the Irish High Kings. He also arbitrated between the
Church and the bards, whose position was seriously endangered: Irish poets had become feared and hated
due to their practice of satirizing ungenerous patrons (considered in its magical light, since satires could
cause physical effects) and because of their extortionate retainers. Columba was himself a poet and his
arbitration ensured that Irish poets should be allowed to exercise their ancient function. He is remembered
on 9 June. # 454 - 562
COMPOSITE ANIMALS

Celtic cult animals have horns, symbols of supernatural power or divinity, and are depicted as birds, horses,
and serpents. Among northern nomadic people several heads may be portrayed as a single body. # 161

COMYN, MICHAEL

'Lay of Oisin in the Land of Youth,' by Michael Comyn, was composed about 1750 and ended the long
history of Gaelic literature. It has been estimated that if all the tales and poems of the Ossianic Cycle which
still remain could be printed they would fill some twenty-five volumes of about 500 pages each. Moreover,
it could have been recovered from the lips of what have been called an 'illiterate' peasantry in the Gaelic-
speaking parts of Ireland and the Highlands. # 562

CONAIRE MOR

# 166: (con'á re mor') King of Ireland near the beginning of the Christian era, grandson of Etain and
Cormac, king of Ulster and son of Mess Buachalla. Sometimes referred to as son of Eterscel, king of
Ireland, who was the husband of his mother.

# 454: He was proclaimed King of Tara after he had been prophesied by a druid. He was given a great
many geasa (prohibitions) by his otherworldly father such as not sleeping in a house from which firelight
could be seen after sunset. His foster brothers, jealous of his success, conspired to bring him to Da Derga's
hostel, where Conaire was compelled to break each of his geasa. He was there attacked and betrayed and
although his champion, Mac Cecht fought valiantly to defend him, he died. Only Conall Cernach escaped.

# 562: Conaire Mor was in possesion of the singing sword. He descended from Etain Oig, daughter of
Etain. His mother was Mess Buachalla, and his foster-father was Desa. His foster-brothers were Ferlee,
Fergar, and Ferrogan. Nemglan commands him go to Tara, where he is proclaimed King of Erin. Nemglan
declares his geise, and Conaire is lured into breaking his geise. The three Reds and Conaire at Da Derga's
Hostel, where they are visited by the Morrigan. # 166 - 188 - 454 - 562

CONAIRE MOR, THE BIRTH OF

According to the REVUE CELTIQUE there are a number of conflicting traditions about the parentage of
Mes Buachella and her son Conaire Mor, King of Ireland. 'The Destruction of Da Derga's Hostel' has that
she was the daughter of Cormac mac Art and his wife Etain. Etain had proved barren until she conceived
this daughter after being given a pottage by her mother, a woman from the sid-mounds. Cormach married
again and ordered his daughter to be abandoned in a pit. Two servants were entrusted with the task, but they
lost heart when the child laughed as they were putting her in the pit and they left her instead in the calf-shed
of the cowherds of Eterscel, great-grandson of Iar, King of Tara. The cowherds reared her and she was
named Mes Buachalla, 'the cowherd's foster-child'. According to other sources Mes Buachalla was the
daughter of Ess, who conceived her either through incest with her father, Eochaid Airem, King of Tara, or
through intercourse with the sid-folk of Bri Leith. Eochaid ordered the destruction of the child, but she was
left in a kennel, with a bitch and her whelps, at the house of a herdsman. We now revert to 'The Destruction
of Da Derga's Hostel'. The cowherds kept the girl concealed in a house of wicker-work which had only a
roof-opening, but King Eterscel's folk discovered her and told him of their find. It had been prophesied that
a woman of unknown race would bear Eterscel a child, so he sent people to break into the wicker house and
bring her to him. Before this was done, a bird came through the skylight and told the girl what was being
planned. He shed his bird-plumage on the floor and she gave her love to him. He told her that she would
have by him a son, whose name would be Conaire, and that he should not kill birds. She was then betrothed
to Eterscel. Others say, however, that Eterscel was Mes Buachalla's father. # 548

CONALL ANGLONNACH
(con'al ân'glôn ah) Son of Iriel Glunma; one of the twelve great chariot fighters of Ulster. # 166

CONALL CERNACH, THE BIRTH OF

Conall Cernach's mother was Findchoem, daughter of Cathbad and wife of Amairgen. She suffered from
'hesitation of offspring', and when a druid told her that she should bear a noble son if she paid him a good
fee, she accompanied him to a well over which he sang spells and prophecies. He then told her to wash in
the water, and 'you will bring forth a son, and no child will be less pious than he to his mother's kin, that is
to the Connachtmen'. Findchoem then drank a draught from the well and swallowed a worm. That worm
was in the boy's hand in his mother's womb and it pierced the hand and consumed it. Druids baptized the
child into heathenism, prophesying as they did so the havoc he would eventually wreak upon the men of
Connacht. Cet, the mother's brother, who, although he knew of the prophecies, had protected his sister until
her delivery, now drew the child towards him and put it under his heel and bruised its neck. Thereupon the
mother exclaimed: 'Wolfish (conda) is the treachery (fell) you work, O Brother.' 'True,' said Cet, 'let Conall
(Con-feall) be his name henceforward.' Whence he was called wry-necked Conall. See also: CONALL OF
THE VICTORIES. ># 548-642

CONALL OF THE VICTORIES - CONALL CERNACH

# 166:(con'al cârn'ah) # 562: Member of Conary's retinue at Red Hostel. Amorgin, his father, found by him
at Teltin. Shrinks from test (re) the Championship of Ireland. - Under the Debility curse. Avenges
CuChulain's death by slaying Lewy. - His 'brain ball' causes death of Conor mac Nessa. - Conall slays Ket.

# 454: Conall the Victorious preceded CuChulain as the great hero of the Red Branch Warriors in Ulster. He
was the only survivor of the destruction of Da Derga's hostel, where Conaire (Conary) was killed. With
Loegaire, he appears as CuChulain's rival in the story of Bricriu's Feast where the three heroes contended
for the hero's portion of the feast and were challenged by Cu Roi mac Daire to the beheading game. # 166 -
454 - 562

CONAN

Conan Meriadoc became the first ruler of Brittany, according to Geoffrey of Monmouth (# 243). Gallet
claims that he is one of Arthur's ancestors. ># 55 - 156 - 243

CONAN MAC LIA

Son of Lia, lord of Luachar; Finn makes a covenant with Conan mac Lia.# 562

CONAN MAOL

One of the Fianna. Like Bricriu of the Red Branch Knights and Kay (Cai) of the Round Table Knights,
Conan was the thorn in the side of his fellows, yet he performed many reckless deeds in their honour. He
mounted the horse of the Giolla Deacair, and went to Tir na Tairngire until he was rescued by Fionn. # 267
- 454 - 467 - 504

CONANN

Fomorian king. # 562

CONARE
(kon AR ee)

CONCHOBAR MAC NESSA

(con ho'var or con'th har) Conor mac Nessa. Son of Nessa and Cathbad. He was born on the same day as
Christ. Nessa won for him the right to be King of Ulster from Fergus mac Roigh. He was uncle of
CuChulain. He wished to marry his ward, Deirdriu, but when she fled with Naoisi and his brothers to Alba
he gave chase. Although he promised to forgive them, he killed Deirdriu's abductors and slept with her. A
sling-shot was lodged in his brain which surgeons could not remove lest he die. On hearing of the
crucifixion of Christ he over-exerted himself trying to avenge him, the sling-shot then fell out of his head
and he died. See also: CONOR MAC NESSA. # 166 - 188 - 352 - 454

CONCHOBAR, THE BIRTH OF

If we attempt to arrange the material of the Ulster cycle in its traditional order, we come first upon a group
of narratives dealing with the births of several of the leading personages. There are certain facts in the life
of every hero that the folk feel they are entitled to know. Among these are his birth, his marriage, and his
death. Birth stories, though naturally coming first in traditional chronology, are usually later in date of
composition than stories dealing with the hero's mature achievements. 'The Birth of Conchobar' exist in two
versions, of which at least one was composed as early as the eighth century. According to the oldest
account, Conchobar, who figures as king of Ulster in the most ancient Irish tales, was the son of Nessa,
princess of Ulster, by Cathbad, the official druid of the Ulster court. Both in the sagas and in the annals
Conchobar is represented as having been born on the same day as Christ and as having died upon receiving
the news of his crucifixion. Through the strategem of his mother he displaced Fergus mac Roig, the rightful
king of Ulster, and reigned in his stead. Though he appears at times cruel and unscrupulous, he is generally
represented as a brave warrior and a just ruler. # 166

CONDWIRAMUR

# 156: In Wolfram, the wife of Perceval and Queen of Brobarz. # 562: A maiden wedded by Parzival. # 156
- 562 - 748

CONGANCHAS MAC DAIRE

The brother of Cu Roi. He was one of three plagues which Celtchair was obligated to overcome, for
Conganchas ravaged the land and was invulnerable to ordinary weapons. Celtchair made his daughter,
Niamh, marry this man so that she might discover how to overcome him. She learned that he was
vulnerable in the soles of his feet and calves of his legs, into which sharp spears could be stuck, and so
Celtchair killed him. This tale is clearly related to the British Grail story of Peredur. # 208 - 454

CONN CET CATHACH

Conn of the Hundred Battles. King of Ireland beginning AD 177, son of Rechtmar, husband of Becuma. He
agreed to the banishment of Art, his son by a former marriage. The year of his union with Becuma caused
Ireland to become a wasteland , without corn or milk. His druids said that the land could only be healed
through the bloodshed of a boy of sinless parents. He went on a quest for such a boy, leaving the kingdom
to Art in his absence. Conn travelled to the Otherworld, and begged that the beautiful youth called Segda
Saerlabraid be allowed to come to Ireland and be bathed in waters which would heal the land.

Segda realized what was intended but he was willing to die. Just then a lowing cow and a wailing woman
appeared (see RIGRU ROISCLETHAN). She asked the druids what was in the bags on the cow's back.
They could not tell her. She judged that the cow should be killed in place of the youth and that the bags be
opened. They revealed a bird with one leg and a bird with twelve legs. The birds contended, and the woman
revealed that the druids were the twelvelegged one who lost the combat, and Segda was the one-legged one.
She then called on Conn to execute his druids for false judgement and to put away Becuma. Conn also
discovered, by accident, the Stone of Fal (See HALLOWS) which screamed under the feet of a rightful
king, the same number of times as he would have reigning heirs. When the druid would not tell him who
they would be, Conn had a vision of Sovereignty with her cup of gold and Lugh who told him the number
of kings to succeed him. Some scholars disagree about Conn's reigning years. Tom Peete Cross and Clark
Harris Slover have him start his reign in the first half of the second century after Christ, while Rolleston
and others argues that he died AD 157. # 166 - 188 - 352 - 438 - 454 - 548

CONN MAC LIR

One of the children of Lir, son of Aobh. His stepmother turned him into a swan. See: CHILDREN OF LIR.
# 562

CONNACHT

Ethal Anubal, prince of the Danaans of Connacht. - Ailell and Maev, mortal King and Queen of Connacht,
Angus Og seeks their help in efforts to win Caer. - Origin of the name of the province, Leinster is
traditionally derived from the invasions of the Gauls armed with spear-heads called Laighne, and as they
were allotted lands in Leinster, the province was called in Irish Laighin after them - the Province of
Spearmen. - CuChulain makes a foray upon Connacht, and descends upon host of the province under Maev.
Ket a champion. Queen Maev reigned in Connacht for eighty-eight years. Connacht was 'the land of the
children of Conn' he who was called Conn of the Hundred Battles, and who died AD 157. See: CONN
CET-CATHACH. # 562

CONNLA CONLAOCH

Son of CuChulain and Aifa. - Before CuChulain left the Land of Shadows he gave Aifa a golden ring,
saying that if she should bear him a son he was to be sent to seek his father in Erin so soon as he should
have grown so that his finger would fit the ring. And CuChulain said, 'Charge him under Geise that he shall
not make himself known, that he never turn out of the way for any man, nor ever refuse a combat. And be
his name called Connla.' Aifa sends him to Erin. When he landed in Ireland he met and was challenged by
CuChulain. Although he knew his father and could have killed him easely, Connla missed the mortal blow
and was killed by his father. CuChulain then saw the ring and realized whom he had slain. # 266 - 454 -
562

CONNLA THE FAIR, THE ADVENTURES OF

This story is one of the most ancient in Cross' and Slover's ANCIENT IRISH TALES, dating probably from
the eighth century. Its directness and restraint are in distinct contrast to the more florid narrative method of
THE DEATH OF FINN and THE SECOND BATTLE OF MOYTURA. The observant reader is in no
danger of mistaking the economy and terseness of this story for barrenness of imagination. The struggle of
the father for possession of his son is told in almost as few words as Goethe's famous 'Erl-King,' and
although artistic comparison between the old Irish tale and the great modern ballad would be unprofitable,
we cannot fail to recognize a strong emotional kinship between them. It will be noted that the story is
thrown into the form of the 'Dinnsenchas'. Of course this is only a mechanical trick. The widespread theme
of the mortal who follows a supernatural woman to Fairyland is here artificially linked to the explanation of
the name. Having the prediction of St Patrick come from the lips of one of the pagan fairy folk is an
engaging touch. Conn the Hundred-Fighter, the father of Art and Connla, was one of the earliest high-kings
of Ireland. According to the annals he flourished during the first half of the second century after Christ. #
166
CONNLA'S WELL

Equivalent, Well of Knowledge. Sinend's fatal visit to Connla's Well. # 562

CONNLA, THE TRAGIC DEATH OF

Connla is the son whom, according to THE WOOING OF EMER, the warlike Aife was destined to bear to
CuChulain. The story of how the boy followed CuChulain to Ireland and was there slain by his own father
reminds us of the famous epic tale of Sohrab and Rustem, best known to English readers through Matthew
Arnold's poem of that name. The story of Connla probably existed in tradition before it was first recorded
in the eighth century, and it is one of the few tales of the Ulster cycle that has maintained its popularity
among the folk in more recent times. Numerous versions of a ballad on the death of Connla have been
taken down from popular recitation during the last century. The title is sometimes given as 'The Tragic
Death of the Only Son of Aife (Oenfer Aife)'. Tom Peete Cross and Clark Harris Slover have the tale in
their ANCIENT IRISH TALES. # 166

CONOR MAC NESSA

Son of Fachtna and Nessa; proclaimed King of Ulster in preference to Fergus. CuChulain brought up at
court of Conor mac Nessa. Grants arms of manhood to CuChulain. While at a feast on Strand of the
Footprints he describes Connla. His ruse to put CuChulain under restraint. - His guards seize Naisi and
Deirdre. Suffers pangs of the Debility curse. The curse lifted, and he summons Ulster to arms. Christian
ideas have gathered about end of Conor. His death caused by Conall's 'brain ball'. He figures in tale entitled
THE CARVING OF MAC DATHO'S BOAR; he sends to mac Datho for his hound. See also:
CONCHOBAR MAC NESSA. # 562

CONRAD

A bishop who unsuccessfully charged Merlin with heresy. # 156 - 238

CONSTANCE

The wife of King Ban and mother of Lancelot in Italian romance. # 156 - 238

CONSTANS

In Geoffrey of Monmouth, he was the son of King Constantine of Britain and brother of Aurelius
Ambrosius and Uther. This makes him Arthur's uncle. When Constantine died, Vortigern persuaded
Constans to become king. He had first to leave the monastery in which he had immured himself. He was
only a puppet king and eventually Vortigern brought about his assassination by Picts. In French romance he
is called Moine but this word merely signifies a monk. See: IVOINE. # 156

CONSTANTINE

# 156: 1. Arthur's grandfather. The brother of Aldroenus, King of Brittany, he was made King of Britain and
had three sons, Constans, Aurelius Ambrosius and Uther. He was stabbed to death by a Pict. In Welsh
genealogies Constantine is given a father called Kynnvor while, according to Gallet, his father was King
Solomon of Brittany. It has been suggested that the original of Constantine was the Roman emperor
Constantine III (ruled AD 407-11). He was an ordinary soldier who was made emperor by the Roman
troops in Britain, despite the fact that there was a Roman Emperor of the West, called Honorius, ruling at
the time. Constantine landed in Gaul and established himself at Arles, his son Constans leaving a monastery
to join him, just as, according to Geoffrey 'Constans, son of Constantine, left his monastery to become King
of Britain' (See CONSTANS). One of Constantine's subordinates, Gerontius, then rebelled and threw off
Constantine's rule. Gerontius defeated and killed Constans. Constantine, however, like Maximus, was led
on to intervene unsuccessfully and fatally in Italy itself, and he was compelled to surrender with another of
his sons to the forces of Honorius, and both suffered execution in the summer of AD 411. If Arthur indeed
died in AD 542, this Constantine lived too early to be the grandfather of the historical Arthur; but, if he
lived earlier, the relationship is not impossible. - 2. Historically, a sixth-century King of Dumnonia. In
Arthurian romance, he was Arthur's cousin, son of Cador of Cornwall who succeeded him as King of
Britain. The sons of Mordred rebelled against him, but Constantine defeated them. He killed them
separately, each before an altar where he was seeking santuary. See: ALDROENUS. # 562: Arthur confers
his kingdom on Constantine. # 156 - 232 - 243 - 562

CONSTANTINOPLE

Formerly called Byzantium, this city was renamed after Constantine the Great. At the time when the
Roman Empire was divided into two, Constantinople became the capital of the Eastern or Byzantine
Empire. Emperors who ruled there in the traditional Arthurian period were Honorius (AD 395-423),
Marcian (AD 450-57), Leo I (AD 457-74), Leo II (AD 474), Zeno (AD 474-75 and again 476- 91),
Basilicus (AD 475-76), Anastasius I (AD 491-518), Justus I (AD 518-27) and Justinian I (AD 527-67).
Geoffrey says that the Byzantine emperor contemporary with Arthur was Leo, and G. Ashe identifies him
with Leo I. In CLIGÉS, the imperial family of Constantinople is showing its kinship with Lot of Lothian. In
PEREDUR (see MABINOGION) the Empress of Constantinople was the paramour of Peredur (Perceval)
with whom she was said to have dwelt for fourteen years. She had previously aided him by giving him a
stone which rendered him invisible to the afanc. In FLORIANT ET FLORETE the Emperor is Filimenis. #
156 - 237 - 272 - 346

CONTE DEL GRAAL

See: GRAIL.

CORANIANS

A demoniac race called Coranians, harass land of Britain. # 562

CORBENIC

The castle of the Grail Kings. The name possibly derives from the words 'Corps Benit' (Blessed Body), and
has been seen as one of the riddles of the Grail. # 454 - 461

CORBON

Son of Renoart and Morgan (consequently Arthur's nephew) in BATAILLE LOQUIFER (an obscure
medieval romance which also contains a few Arthurian references). # 156

CORC

He was born Conall mac Luigthig and was fostered by a witch, Fedelm. During a ritual, his ear became
magically singed and so he was called Corc or red. He was fostered by Crimthann, his cousin, who sent
Corc to the King of the Picts with a secret ogham message on his shield, implying that the King kill the
bearer. However, a scolar, whom Corc had rescued from slavery, altered the characters so that they bore a
favourable meaning. Corc was welcomed and married the Pictish king's daughter. He returned home after
his cousin's death and founded a dynasty of his own at Femhen. Shortly afterwards he discovered the site of
his descendant's royal fortress, Cashel. Beleaguered in a snowstorm, he beheld a vision of a yew-bush
growing over a stone and angels going up and down before it. His druids told him that whoever kindled a
fire on that stone should be king of Munster forever. So Corc founded the dynasty of the Munster
Eoghanacht or People of the Yew. See also: CRIMTHANN. # 454

CORCADYNA

Landing of Ith and his ninety warriors at Corcadyna in Ireland. # 562

CORDELIA

Youngest daughter of King Lear. She refused to flatter her father and was wed to Aganipus, King of the
Franks, without a dowry. She later received her father when he had been beggared and outcast by her elder
sisters Goneril and Regan. She became Queen of Britain after his death. In earliest Celtic legend she is
Creuddylad, daughter of Llyr. Her sisters' husbands captured her and she committed suicide in prison. Her
story is similar to the folk-heroine, Cap-O-Rushes. Shakespeare reworked the legend in KING LEAR. #
243 - 454

CORINEUS

He accompanied Brutus as leader of the second group of Trojans. He was given Cornwall as his province
and wrestled with the giant GogMagog. # 243 - 454

CORMAC

(côr'moc ul'fa da) 1. Cormac Ulfada, son of Art, grandson of Conn CetCathach. High King of Ireland; King
Cormac was supposed to have heard of Christian faith long before it was preached in Ireland by St Patrick
ordered that he should not be buried at the royal cemetery by the Boyne, on account of its pagan
associations. Finn and Cormac feasted at Rath Grania; See also: CORMAC MAC ART. 2. Son of Lactighe.
King of Ulster, 48 BC; grandfather of Conaire Mor; marries Etain Oig; puts her away owing to her
barrenness; 3. Cormac Connlonges (con'lung yes) Son of (Conchobar) Conor mac Nessa who went into
voluntary exile in Connacht after the killing of the sons of Usnech, for whom he was one of the sureties;
rallies to Maev's foray against Ulster. See also: CORMAC COND LONGES. # 166 - 562

CORMAC COND LONGES

The son of Conchobar mac Nessa. He was exiled because his championship of Fergus mac Roigh at the
treachery of Conchobar's slaying of the sons of Usna. As Conchobar lay dying, he asked his son to return
and become king. Despite a prophecy warning of the possible outcome, Cormac went. During his stay at a
hostel, Craiftine played his harp so soothingly that Cormac slept and was overpowered by soldiers. # 208 -
454

CORMAC MAC ART

Son of Art and grandson of Conn Cet Chathach. He was stolen by a shewolf and raised as one of her cubs.
He was recognized as Art's son because of his perceptive judgements in a case of litigation. He restored
Tara to its former greatness. He visited Tir Tairngire where he was given the silver branch of Manannan.
While there he encountered the cup of truth. If three falsehoods were said over it it broke, but if three truths
were said over it it reunited. He was the father of Grainne, wife of Finn mac Cumhail, whom he appointed
chief of his warband or Fianna. He died choking on a salmon-bone. He is credited with being an early
Christian, refusing burial at the usual cemetery of Bruig na Boinne (the river Boyne), but being buried
upright with his face to the East. His great wisdom caused him to be called the Irish Solomon. # 166 - 188 -
454

CORMAC MAC ART, THE BIRTH OF

Many strange births appear in the Cycles of the Kings. According to O' Grady's SILVA GADELICA, this is
how Cormac mac Art was born. Before the battle against Lugaid Mac Con, in which he was slain, Art son
of Conn of the Hundred Victories spent the night as guest of a smith named Olc Acha. It had been
prophesied that a great honour would derive from the smith and he asked Art to lie with his daughter Étain
that night. This he did and Cormac was conceived. Before departing to the battle in which he knew he
would die, Art instructed Étain to take the child to be fostered by his friend Lugna in Connacht. When her
time drew near Étain set out for Lugna's house so that the child might be born there, but as soon as she
arrived in that country her pain took her and she gave birth to her son on a bed of brushwood collected by
her maid. Thunder boomed, and Lugna on hearing it exclaimed: 'Noise - thunder - birth of king', and
realizing that it was Cormac that was born he set forth to seek him. Meanwhile, Étain went to sleep, leaving
the child in the care of her maid. But the maid also fell asleep and a she-wolf came and carried the child
away and thereafter brought him up with her whelps in a cave. Lugna found the distraught mother, took her
home, and offered a reward for a clue to the infant's whereabouts. One day a man named Grec chanced
upon the cave, and in front of it he saw a child on all fours amidst gambolling wolf-cubs. The child,
together with the cubs, was brought to Lugna's house and Lugna hailed him as Conn's victorious
representative. He named him Cormac, which was in accordance with Art's instructions. # 504 - 548

CORMAC'S ADVENTURES IN THE LAND OF PROMISE

King Cormac, the hero of the narrative with the title 'Cormac's adventures in the Land of Promise,' which is
brought in Cross' and Slover's ANCIENT IRISH TALES, was the son of Art. The piece is not a single
unified story; it is a collection of narratives based on an ancient account of various legal ordeals, and later
expanded into a story of a visit to the fairy world. Here, as in other stories from the same selection, we see
illustrated the strong tendency toward moralizing and social criticism exhibited by Irish literature of the
middle period. These stories, of course, are not told entirely for the purpose of expounding the legal or
social ideas to which they refer; they merely capitalize upon an already established interest and follow the
usual Irish literary habit of furnishing a narrative to explain every well-known fact. # 166

CORNWALL

The realm of King Mark. Actually, in Arthurian times, part of the kingdom of Dumnonia, though it is not
impossible that someone called Mark ruled territory within this kingdom. # 156

CORONATION STONE

Now at Westminster Abbey, is the famous Stone of Scone; The LIA FAIL and Coronation Stone. # 562

CORPRE

Poet at court of King Bres. # 562

COSMOGONY

The Cymric Cosmogony. God and Cythrawl, standing for life and destruction in Cymric cosmogony. See
also: BARDDAS. # 562
COTSWORTH, MOSES

(1859-1943) Advocate of calendar reform; originator and director of International Fixed Calendar League.
He lived in the village of Acomb in Northumberland. His work was instrumental in forming many of the
notions connected with the modern view of stone circles and related lore. Cotsworth's main interest was
calendrical form, attempting to persuade people to move from the complex modern calendrical system of
12 months per year to one of 13 months of 28 days each, plus the last day of June in each year as the
yearday. (He was appointed expert to League of Nations committee on calendar reform (1922-31). In the
course of researching the background to these reforms in such places as Egypt and the Middle East, he
began to conceive of the hidden purpose of the stone circles and standing stones as calendrical markers and
regulators of a particular kind, and almost incidentally offered some useful insights into the design of the
mysterious 'Clog Calendar', which was widely used in ancient times for measuring the passage of the days
and relating these to the festivals. Many of Cotsworth's notions are widely accepted today, but when he first
published his findings, in his remarkable book THE RATIONAL ALMANAC, he was laughed to scorn.
Among his more interesting proposals was the recognition that the degree of 360 divisions of a circle was
derived from the lunarwidth measurement of a sunrise/sunset arc at the latitude of the pyramids. He took
the moon's vertical diameter of 31', and divided this into the tropical arc (the variation between solstice
points) of 46 minutes and 54 seconds to obtain 90 links or lunar (31') repetitions, which he proposed was
the earliest method of measuring sky curves and angles and from which eventually developed the notion of
there being 4 x 90' divisions in the entire circle of the sky. He showed that the central tower of the Minster
at York was orientated in such a way as to reflect the sunrise/sunset on the longest and shortest days thus,
for example, the shortest day sunrise (December 22nd) is on the SE corner of the tower, while the sunset is
on the SW corner. He developed notions of Silbury Hill as a sighting point for calendrical measurements,
and saw the construction of this extraordinary mound as being done for much the same purposes as the
pyramids. For more on Cotsworth, see also: CLOG CALENDAR and STONEHENGE. # 702

COUDEL

An early king of Northgalis who fell fighting against the Christians as described in the ESTOIRE. # 156

COURECHOUSE

The sword of King Ban. # 156

COVENTINA

A river-goddess whose cult was centred upon the temple at Carrawburgh, Northumberland. A relief depicts
the triple goddess, each aspect holding up a jar of water in one hand and pouring out water with the other.
Local springs were held in reverence as natural foci of divine energy.# 264 - 454

COW

# 454: So central to the economy of Britain and Ireland was the cow in early times that it was considered a
unit of currency. In Ireland, for instance, a slave-woman was worth three cows. Lords were called 'bo-aire'
or cow-lord. Until the last two hundred years, drovers' roads were the main routes across country and ,
anciently, the two halves of the Celtic year were determined by the movement of cattle: Beltaine marking
their coming into summer pasture and Samhain being the time when winter-slaughter of cattle was
undertaken, to lay down stocks of meat against the long cold time and to conserve the strength of the herd.
The cow was considered to be under the special protection of Saint Brigit, who was invoked to keep the
beasts in good health and to promote their milk-yield and fertility. The bleached hide of cows made the
vellum upon which the very stories in this present book were originally recorded by clerics. The cow is also
under the protection of Saint Colomba who would, however, not allow any on Iona because 'where a cow
is, there a woman is also, and where a woman is, trouble follows.'
# 161: The cow appears frequently in Celtic mythology as a provider of nourishment for entire
communities, like the magic cows of Manannan, one speckled, one dun, with twisted horns, who were
always in milk. The chthonic cow is depicted as red with white ears, and there are otherworld cows which
emerge from under the waters of a lake and numerous cows connected with otherworld beings, with magic
and supernatural powers. The WELSH TRIADS refer to sacred otherworld cows and to the Three
Prominent Cows of the Island of Britain. # 161 - 225 - 454

CRADELMENT

# 156: A king of Northgalis, one of those who rebelled against Arthur at the outset of his reign. # 454: King
of Norgalles (North Wales) in Arthur's time, he was one of the rebel kings whom Arthur defeated at the
beginning of his reign. As the grandson of King Ryons, it is perhaps not surprising that he is an unpleasant
character. # 156 - 454

CRAEB RUAD

(crav' roo'a) See: RED BRANCH.

CRAFTINY CRAIFTINE

# 562: King Scoriath's harper; sings Moriath's lovelay before Maon; discovers Maon's secret deformity. #
454: He was harper to Labraid Longseach. He gained his harp due to a peculiarity of his master's, for
Labraid had horse-ears. This blemish was kept secret from everyone lest Labraid be deposed, but his barber
knew and he was sworn to secrecy. However, he could not restrain himself from telling a tree. This was cut
down and made into a harp for Craiftine but when it was played, it revealed the truth about the King.
Craiftine also harped the parents of Moriath to sleep so that Labraid could love her. Cormac Cond Longes
slept with Craiftine's wife, to revenge which, Craiftine was a party to Comac's death, again by lulling him
asleep. 08 - 454 - 562

CRAIG-Y-DINAS

A rock in Wales which featured in a story told by Iolo Morgannwg. Iolo Morgannwg was the bardic name
of Edward Williams (1747-1826). He collected a great deal of early Welsh lore but, as a bard, felt he could
augment it. Consequently he is not regarded as a reliable source. In Iolo's story a Welshman, led by a
magician, found Arthur and warriors sleeping in a cave there, guarding treasure. A similar tale, narrated by
J. Rhys, has a Monmouthshire farmer as its protagonist. For tales of a similar nature set in England, see
ALDERLEY EDGE, and THOMPSON. A cave called O'gor Dinas near to Llandebie was also thought to
house the sleeping Arthur. # 156 - 554

CRAMPS

These were often the penalty for annoying the fairies. Scolding and ill-temper were specially punished in
this way. See also: BLIGHTS AND ILLNESSES ATTRIBUTED TO FAIRIES. # 100

CRANE

# 161: Celtic mythology has both solar and underworld symbolism for the crane. It is associated with the
solar deities, especially in their healing aspect; it is also depicted with weapons and battle objects. It is a
supernatural creature and appears riding on the bags of human-headed horses and in connection with magic
cauldrons. On an ancient altar in France three cranes are depicted standing on the back of a bull. But the
crane is also a form of Pwyll, King of the Underworld, and as such a herald of death. A completely contrary
symbolism obtains in Gallic lore where the crane is a bad omen, depicting meanness, parsimony and evil
women. It is an attribute of the Gaulish Mercury and Mars, and as such is connected with war and death. #
454: The crane is no longer native to Britain, but there is a strong Celtic tradition that cranes are people
transmogrified into bird-shape, possibly for a penance. Saint Columba turned a queen and his handmaid
into cranes as a punishment. One of the wonders of Ireland was supposed to be a crane which lived on the
island of InisKea, Co. Mayo; it has been there since the beginning of the world and will live there until the
day of judgement. The imperturbable patience of the crane was associated with the Cailleach, and was a
secret, magical bird. Its skin went to make Manannan's Cranebag. # 161 - 225 - 454 - 563

CRANE BAG

This receptacle for the ancient Hallows of Ireland was owned by Manannan mac Lir. It was formed from
the skin of Aoife, Manannan's son's mistress, who had been changed into a crane because of her jealous
behaviour. In it were kept Manannan's house, shirt, knife, the belt and smith's hook of Goibniu, the shears
of the King of Alba, the helmet of the King of Lochlann, the belt of fish-skin, and the bones of Asal's pig
which the son of Tuirenn had been sent to fetch by Lugh. The treasures were only visible at high-tide, at the
ebbtide they would vanish. The bag was passed from Manannan to Lugh, then to Cumhal and finally to
Fionn. The contents of the crane's bag correspond to the Hallows of Annwn and to the treasures guarded by
Twrch Trwyth. # 267 - 454

CREDNE

# 562: The artificer of the Danaans. # 454: He helped forge the weapons for the Tuatha de Danaan. He was
a worker in bronze. He assisted Diancecht in making Nuadu's silver hand and arm. # 166 - 454 - 562

CREIDDYLEDD

# 156: A maiden over whom Gwyn, son of Nudd, and his followers fought the followers of Gwythr, the son
of Greidawl, at each May Kalends (or May Day) and were fated to do so until Doomsday. The episode is
taken from Celtic mythology and the protagonists were probably originally divine figures. # 562: Daughter
of Lludd; combat for possession of her every May-day, between Gwythur ap Greidawl and Gwyn ap Nudd.
# 454: She eloped with Gwythyr ap Greidawl, but was abducted by Gwynn ap Nudd before he could sleep
with her. Arthur judged that neither man should have her and that each should fight for her every May Day
until Judgement Day: whoever won on that occasion would be the winner. This ancient motif recalls the
mystery drama of the Winter and Summer combat for the hand of the Flower Maiden, or Spring. This
theme is also preserved within the story of Tristan, Isolt and King Mark. And suggestion has been made (#
346) that Creiddyledd is the original of Shakespeare's CORDELIA. # 104 - 156 - 272 - 346 - 439 - 454 -
562

CREIDNE

She was a woman warrior within the Fianna, having fled from where her father had begotten three sons
upon her. # 454

CREIRWY

Daughter of Cerridwen and Tegid Foel. The Triads cite her as one of the three fair maidens of Britain. # 272
- 439 - 454

CRICH

(creh) A territory or a boundary. # 166


CRICH CUALANN

(creh' coo'â lan) The District of Cuala, in what is now co. Wicklow, near Dublin. # 166

CRIMBIL

The Welsh for a changeling; quoted in BENDITH Y MAMAU. # 100

CRIMMAL

Rescued by his nephew, Finn. # 562

CRIMTHANN

(crif'han) Griffin, son of Fidach. High King of Ireland, cousin of Corc and also his foster-father, brother of
Mongfind. After Crimthann's wife complained, unjustly, of Corc's attentions to her, he sent his cousin to the
King of the Picts with ogham inscriptions on his shield which only the Pictish King could read - they
indicated that the bearer should be slain. However, Crimthann soon died and Corc returned home to the
kingship. See also: CORC. # 166 - 454

CRIMTHANN NIA NAIR

(crif'han ne'a na'ir) Son of Lugaid of the Red Stripes; King of Ireland; killed in an attempt to slay
CuChulain. # 166

CRODHMARA

These are fairy cattle which give three times the amount of milk of an ordinary beast. # 454

CROKER, THOMAS CRAFTON

(1798-1854) The first field-collector of folk-tales in Ireland, and indeed the first in the British Isles if we
except Walter Scott. The first volume of FAIRY LEGENDS AND TRADITIONS OF THE SOUTH OF
IRELAND appeared in 1823 when Crofton Crooker was working in London as clerk to the Admiralty. It
was an immediate and immense success; Jacob Grimm translated it into German and Scott wrote a lengthy
and eugolistic letter which Croker printed in the second volume of 1828. Croker met Sir Walter Scott,
corresponded with Grimm, and indeed with most of the leading folklorists of his time, and maintained a
high reputation as an authority on fairy-lore which has long outlasted his life. # 100 - 165

CROM CRUACH

# 562: (crom croo'ach) Gold idol (equivalent, the Bloody Crescent) referred to in 'Book of Leinster;'
worship introduced by King Tiernmas. # 454: The gold and silver image to which the Irish offered their
first fruits and first-born in pagan times. It stood on the plain of Mag Slecht in Ulster. It bent down to Saint
Patrick and was overcome, sinking back into the earth. # 454 - 562

CROMLECH

See: DOLMENS.
CRONOS

Greek Cronos ate his children by Rhea - all except Zeus who escaped this fate and caused Cronos to
regurgitate his siblings. He then punished his father by chaining him whilst asleep and imprisoning him on
the island of Ogygia. Cronos is the ruler of the Golden Age - a period of everlasting joy. This legend has
been amalgamated with those concerning British traditions of the Blessed Islands of the West, wherein the
Golden Age and the earthly paradise combine to make a place of otherworldly peace. Cronos' legend runs
as an undercurrent through the career of Bran who rules over a similar otherworldly realm. # 25 - 258 - 439
- 454

CROP-EARED DOG

This earless, tailless creature who, despite his dogginess, was fully able to converse in human speech, was
one of the heroes of the Irish romance EACHTRA AN MHADRA MHAOIL. He was an enchanted prince
named Alexander, son of the King of India. His step-mother, Libearn, had turned him and his brothers into
dogs to ensure that her son, the Knight of the Lantern, would obtain a handsome inheritance. When this
knight humiliated Arthur and his court, the Crop-eared Dog and Gawain went to track him down. When
their quarry had at lenght been captured, he changed Alexander back to his own shape. Alexander
eventually became ruler of India. # 156

CROSS

From the earliest days of Christianity the cross was believed to be a most potent protective symbol against
fairies and all evil spirits. It is even possible that cross-roads had a pre-Christian significance, as sacred to
the god of limits and a place of sacrifice. The cross in all its forms was protective - the 'saining' or crossing
of one's own body or that of another, a cross scratched on the ground or formed by four roads meeting, a
cross of wood, stone or metal set up by roadside, a cross worn as a trinket round the neck, all these were
believed to give substantial protection against devils, ghosts or fairies. Sometimes this protection was
reinforced by carrying a cross of a particular material - of rowan wood, for instance, for this wood was a
protection of itself - or for trinkets crosses of coral or amber, both of some potency. # 100 - 661

CROW

# 701: 'Crow' really means a family of closely related carrion-eating birds including the rook, raven, and
carrion crow. One of the Goddess's archaic forms, the crone Coronis, was a 'crow' who was transformed
into the virgin mother of the physician-god Asclepius; but other, similar forms appeared in myths as
harbingers of the hero's death. The Goddess Badb transformed herself into a crow, Badb Catha, to confront
the Celtic hero CuChulain and thereby announce his doom. # 161: The white crow appears in Celtic lore as
Branwen, sister of Bran. Crows can be a form adopted by fairies, usually with ill intent, and are therefore
dreaded.

# 454: Like the raven, crow is primaily associated with battle and death. The Irish for 'crow' is 'badh', a
name given to one of the battle-goddesses associated with the Morrighan. The crow exemplifies the
function of assimilation and reintegration within the mythic structure.# 161-389 - 454 - 701

CRUACHAN AI

(croo'â han) Rath Cruachan. Royal seat of Ailill and Medb, now Rathcroghan between Belanagare and
Elphin in co. Roscommon. # 166

CRUDEL
Pagan king of Britain who threw Joseph of Arimathea and his followers into prison, where they were
sustained by the power of the Grail. The captives were ultimately released by Mordrains and Seraphe, who
had converted to Christianity and become followers of the Grail. # 454

CRUNDCHU CRUNNCHU MAC AGNOMAN

# 166: (crun'hoo) Son of Agnoman; # 562: Macha comes to dwell with Crundchu. # 454: The husband of
Macha who foolishly boasted his wife's prowess and speed in the hearing of the king. She expired after
having beaten the king's race-horse, cursing Ulster with her last breath.# 166-367-454-562

CRYSTABELL

Daughter of Sir Prinsamour in the romance of 'Sir Eglamour of Artoys'. Her complex story includes a series
of escapes and misunderstandings in which she first loses her lover Eglamour, then her son, who is stolen
by a griffin. Later she accidently marries her own offspring, only to discover her mistake in time to find
Eglamour and marry him! # 454

CRYSTAL BALL

A crystal ball two and a half inches in diameter surmounts the Scottish scepter. The use of such balls has
been traced back to the Druids. They were still known as 'stones of power' in Sir Walter Scott's days.
Another sphere of smoky quartz, which the Scots called CAIRNGORM, is now in the possession of the
British Museum and is reputed to be the famous 'shew-stone' of Dr. Dee, the court diviner to Queen
Elizabeth I of England. See also: DEE, JOHN. # 701

CU CHULAINN

(koo chul-inn or koo hoo lin) See: CUCHULAIN.

CU ROI MAC DAIRE

(coo' rô e moc da'i re) A powerful chieftain in Munster with great otherworldly powers. He appropiated
many otherworldly Hallows which the Ulsterman had captured, including his wife, Blanaid, loved by
CuChulain. She deceived him and enabled CuChulain to kill him. Cu Roi disguised himself as the Wild
Herdsman and challenged the heroes of Ulster to play the Beheading Game with him. He is the Celtic
prototype of the Green Knight. His death was avenged by Lugaid, his son. See also: CU ROI MAC DAIRI,
THE TRAGIC DEATH OF. # 166 - 266 - 399 - 439 - 454

CU ROI MAC DAIRI, THE TRAGIC DEATH OF

The saga 'The tragic death of Cu Roi mac Dairi' is one of a group which belong to the oldest parts of the
Ulster cycle and which center around Cu Roi mac Dairi, a half demonic personage with magic powers,
who, according to tradition, resided in the south of Ireland. He is associated especially with Kerry, where
the remains of a prehistoric fortification in the Slemish Mountains are still known as Caher Conree, 'Cu
Roi's City.' It is not surprising that the composers of the Ulster cycle should conceive the idea of
representing their beloved hero, CuChulain, as victorious over this great southern champion. CuChulain,
being only a beardless youth, usually wins by startegem rather than by open warfare. The story told in 'The
Tragic Death of Cu Roi mac Dairi' must have been widespread; there are numerous versions of it in early
Irish and its fame even spread across the channel into Wales. # 166

CU SITH
(coo-shee) This, the Fairy Dog of the Highlands, was different from other Celtic fairy hounds in being dark
green in colour. It is described by J. G. Campbell in SUPERSTITIONS OF THE SCOTTISH
HIGHLANDS. It was the size of a two-year-old stirk (yearling bullock). It was shaggy, with a long tail
coiled up on its back, or plaited in a flat plait. Its feet were enormous and as broad as a man's; its great
footmarks were often seen in mud or snow, but it glided along silently, moving in a straight line. It did not
bark continuously when hunting, but gave three tremendous bays which could be heard by ships far out at
sea. As a rule the fairy dogs were kept tied up inside the Brugh to be loosed on intruders, but sometimes
they went with women looking for human cattle to milk or to drive into the sithein, and sometimes a cu sith
would be allowed to roam about alone, taking shelter in the clefts of the rocks. This cu sith would be
terribly formidable to mortal men or dogs, but those loosed in the Brugh in J. F. Campbell's tale of the 'Isle
of Sanntragh' were driven back by the mortal dogs when they approached human habitations. Bran, Finn's
elfin dog, was different in appearance. Other fairy dogs are generally white with red ears, and the
commonest supernatural dogs in England are Black Dogs. # 100 - 130 - 131

CUACHAG

(cooachack) According to Mackenzie in SCOTTISH FOLK LORE AND FOLK LIFE, and also to Professor
W. J. Watson in HISTORY OF CELTIC PLACENAMES IN SCOTLAND, the Cuachag was a Fuath. It was
a river sprite, which haunted Glen Cuaich in Inverness-shire, which is connected to it by name. Like all the
Fuathan, it is a dangerous spirit. # 100 - 415 - 707

CUALGNE, CATTLERAID OF - QUALGNY - COOLEY

(koo ile nyeh) Táin Bó Cualgne. 'The Cattle-Raid of Cooley' is the central epic of the Ulster cycle. It exists
in several versions, the oldest of which goes back probably to the eight century. The tale opens with the
famous 'Pillow-Talk' - a racy dialogue between Queen Medb (Maeve) of Connacht and her hen-pecked
husband, Ailill. The queen, on finding that her possessions equal those of her husband, except for one bull,
the White-Horned of Connacht, determines to make up the deficiency by gaining possession of the most
famous bull in Ireland, the Donn of Cooley, which is the property of Daire, a chieftain of Ulster. When
Medb learns that she cannot obtain the Donn as a loan, she determines to take the animal by force and
gathers an army to invade Ulster. Owing to the temporary debility of all the adult warriors of Ulster, the
seventeen-year-old CuChulain undertakes to oppose Medb's host single-handed. When Medb hears of
CuChulain, she inquires about him from the Ulster exiles in her army and learns of his boyish exploits.

As the result of an agreement between Medb and CuChulain, the Ulster champion meets at a ford on the
border of the two provinces a single Connacht warrior each day over a period extending from Samhain (the
beginning of winter 1 November) till the day of spring. The men of Connacht finally succeed in invading
Ulster and carrying off the Donn of Cooley, but they are later defeated by the Ulstermen, now restored to
their normal strenght. The Donn of Cooley, after slaying the WhiteHorned of Connacht, returns to his
native district and utters mad bellowings of triumph till his heart bursts and he dies. In spite of obvious
imperfections, THE CATTLE-RAID OF COOLEY is a splendid example of an epic in the making. It shows
many evidences of literary artistry and is not without passages of marked power and impressiveness. The
combat between CuChulain and his friend Ferdiad is one of the most famous passages in early Irish
literature. Cualgne corresponding roughly to the modern parish of Cooley in co. Louth. # 166 - 562

CUCHULAIN

# 166: ( koo hoo lin or koo chul-inn ) # 562: Ulster Hero in Irish saga; duel with Ferdia; son of Lugh and
Dectera; loved and befriended by goddess Morrigan; his strange birth; earliest name Setanta; 'his praise will
be in the mouths of all men' said Druid Morann. His name derived from the hound of Cullan; claims arms
of manhood from Conor; wooes Emer; Laeg, his charoteer; Skatha instructs, in Land of Shadows;
overcomes Aifa; father of Connla by Aifa; slays Connla; returns to Erin; slays Foill and his brothers; met by
women of Emania; leaps 'the hero's salmon leap'; the winning of Emer; proclaimed the Champion of
Ireland by The Terrible; places Maev's host under GEISE; slays Orlam; battle-frenzy and RIASTRADH of
CuChulain; compact with Fergus; The Morrigan offers him love; threatens to be about his feet in bottom of
Ford; attacked by the Morrigan while engaged with Loch; slays Loch; Ferdia consents to go out against
him; Ferdia reproached by CuChulain; their struggle; slays Ferdia; severely wounded by Ferdia; roused
from stupor by sword-play of Fergus; rushes into battle of Garach; CuChulain in Fairyland; loved by Fand;
vengeance of Maev upon CuChulain; Blanid, Curoi's wife, sets her love on him; Bave personates Niam
before; the Morrigan croaks of war before him in his madness; Dectera and Cathbad urge him wait for
Conall of the Victories ere setting forth to battle; the Washer at the Ford seen by CuChulain; Clan Calatin
cause him to break his GEISE; he finds his foes at Slieve Fuad; the Grey of Macha mortally wounded takes
farewell of CuChulain; he is mortally wounded by Lewy (Lugaid); his remaining horse, Black Sainglend,
breaks away from him; Lewy slays outright; his death avenged by Conall of the Victories; reappears in later
legend of Christian origin found in BOOK OF THE DUN COW; St Patrick's summons from Hell to prove
the truths of Christianity to the pagan king.

The Hero. CuChulain son of Sualtam, but really the son of Lugh. The great Ulster hero, guardian of the
Sacred Land. Like many heroes in ancient myth, he bridges the human and divine, with parents in both
worlds. His entire life is set about with magical obligations and portents, and his sole function is to defend
his people and their land, even at the expence of his own life.

# 454: Hero of the Red Branch Knights of Ulster. He was the son of Dechtire and Lugh. His birth name was
Setanta but he gained his adult name after killing the fierce hound of Conchobar's smith Culainn. In
recompence for the loss, Setanta agreed to guard Culainn's forge until a suitable dog could be found, and so
he became Cu Chulainn (Hound of Culainn). He was fostered and trained by the best men in Ulster. He
wooed Emer, but her father would not accept him until he had trained with Scathach of Alba. He fought her
rival, Aoife and lay with her engendering his only son, Conlaoch, whom he later killed unknowingly. He
was famed for his great skills: the salmon-leap, which enabled him to leap over obstacles, and his use of the
gaebolg, the great spear which inflicted the death-blow. (This weapon corresponds to the spear of Lugh, his
father, whom he represents in mortal realms.) He accepted the challenge of the club-carrying giant (Cu Roi
mac Daire, in disguise) to the Beheading Game at Bricriu's Feast at which he was proclaimed supreme
champion of Ulster. He later killed Cu Roi mac Daire who had humiliated him by shaving his
(CuChulain's) head, with the help of Blanaid. He defended Ulster single-handed at the ford when Maeve of
Connacht came against them: Ulster's warriors were prostrate and enfeebled by the curse of Macha. Only
CuChulain (who was not a native Ulsterman) was able to fight on their behalf. He accepted many single-
combats, slaying all comers until Maeve sent his old friend and fellow-pupil, Ferdiad, whom he reluctantly
killed.

He was finally overcome by Lugaid, son of Cu Roi mac Daire, with the help of the daughters of Calatin. He
bound himself upright to a pillar-stone in order to face the imaginary host which had been conjured up by
his opponents. His death was avenged by Conall Cernach. CuChulain's battle-frenzy was renowned: his
body contorted itself horribly, blood spurted from his head in a great gush and his anger was unquenchable
unless a host of women were sent out naked to meet his chariot. His sword was Cruaidin Cailidcheann
(Hard-Headed). His two horses which yoked his chariot were called Liath Macha and Dubh Sanglainn.
CuChulain loved many women apart from his wife, but he refused the love of the Morrighan who became
his implacable enemy, causing him to forsake his geasa. His adventures and exploits can only be suggested
in this entry. He corresponds to Conchobar as Gawain does to Arthur.

# 100: The unusual features of his appearance were that he had seven pupils in each eye, seven fingers on
each hand and even seven toes on each foot. His cheeks were streaked yellow, green, blue and red. His hair
was dark at the roots, red as it grew out and fair at the tips. He was bedizened with ornaments, a hundred
strings of jewels on his head and a hundred golden brooches on his chest. Such was his appearance in times
of peace, and it was apparently admired. When he was seized by war frenzy he was completely changed.
He turned round inside his own skin, so that his feet and knees were to the rear and his calves and buttocks
were to the front. His long hair stood on end and each hair burned with a spark of fire, a jet of flame came
out of his mouth and a great arch of black blood spouted from the top of his head. One eye shot out on to
his cheek and the other retreated back into his skull; on his forehead shone 'the hero's moon'. His frenzy
was so great that he had to be plunged into three vats of icy water to bring him down to normal
temperature. These strange transformations seem to have been characteristic of heroes, for something
similar is reported of Lancelot of the Lake in LANCELET, the German translation of a twelft-century
romance. Eleanor Hull's book THE CUCHULLIN SAGA gives a scolarly account of the whole legend.

# 62: The pagan Iron-Age Celtic world of Ulster (ancient Ulaid) is graphically preserved, albeit as a
mythological fantasy, in the Ulster cycle of early Irish storytelling. The young hero of the tales was
CuChulain, who bears some resemblance to the Welsh Pryderi: both births are associated with colts which
the heroes later own, and both are renamed later in life. These stories served as an education for young
Celtic noblemen, the vivid heroic characters providing them with models of youthful warrior behaviour.
Details such as the miniature weapons and sports equipment reflect the military and athletic training of
them. # 62 - 100 - 166 - 266 - 329 - 454 - 507 - 562 - 628 p 70 -653

CUCHULAIN, THE BIRTH OF

# 166: Cuchulain is the greatest figure in ancient Irish heroic literature. He has been appropriately
compared to Achilles in Greek and to Siegfried in Germanic tradition. The story-tellers of ancient Ireland
never tired of recounting his deeds and attributing to him new exploits. His original name, Setanta, appears
to go back to remote times, and it is possible that he may be a personage adopted by the Gaels from a still
older population. The story of his birth, composed originally in the eighth or ninth century, exists in two
versions, one of which is a combination of several conflicting accounts. According to what seems the oldest
tradition, CuChulain was the son of the Tuatha De Danann prince Lugh and Dechtire (or Dechtine), the
sister of King Conchobar of Ulster. Later accounts represent him as son of Conchobar by his own sister, or
of the princess and Sualtam (or Sualtach), a petty chieftain of Ulster, who is generally regarded as her
mortal husband. The version here mentioned, though probably later than that found in the oldest
manuscripts, is less obviously a patchwork of several accounts. Throughout his short but brilliant career
CuChulain reveals his supernatural origin. Even as a child of five years he possesses remarkable strength
and skill; when only six he slays the terrible watchdog of Culann the Smith, thereby winning the name
'Hound of Culann' (CuChulain); at seven he becomes a full-fledged warrior; at seventeen he holds at bay
the entire army of Connacht and her allies; and he is only twenty-seven when he meets his death, fighting
against overpowering odds.

# 236: 'The Birth of CuChulain' exists in two quite different versions, one going back, in written form, to
the (now lost) Book of Druimm Snechtai, the other being somewhat later; it is the earlier version that
Jeffrey Gantz present in his book 'Early Irish Myths and Sagas'. CuChulain, like Conare Mar, has two
fathers, but the story of his birth is clearly corrupt. In the original version, Lug must have come to
Deichtine (perhaps as a bird) in the strange house and slept with her and left her pregnant; in this version,
Deichtine's visit to the Bruig accomplishes nothing, and there is no connection between Lug and the tiny
creature in the copper vessel. Lug himself was one of the most important Irish deities.

His continental counterpart, who was probably named Lugos, is identified by Caesar as the Celtic Mercury
and the most important of the Celtic gods, and he gave his name to a number of European towns, including
Lyon, Leiden and Liegnitz (Legnica). In Irish literature, Lug is the most prominent of the Tuatha De
Danann in 'The Second Battle of Mag Tured'; while it is thus appropriate that CuChulain, the greatest Irish
hero, should be his son, the tradition that makes him so may not be very old. The last section of the story
represents a not very refined attempt to explain why CuChulain was known as the son of Sualtaim when his
real father was Lug. Like the birth of the Welsh hero Pryderi, the birth of CuChulain is contemporaneous
with the birth of a horse; and each hero subsequently receives the animal as a gift. CuChulain's birth,
however, is marked by other portents: the appearance and guidance of the flock of birds, which clearly is
from the otherworld, and the great snowfall. The event takes place, oddly, at Bruig na Boinde (New
Grange), a site associated with the mythological tales and not with those about the Ulaid, but it may have
been chosen to underline the assertion that he is of divine origin. That CuChulain is the son of Conchobar's
sister suggests a system of matrilinear descent in Ireland.
CuChulain is also like Pryderi in that the name by which he is best known is not the one he is given at birth.
His original name, Setanta, means 'one who has knowledge of roads and ways' and would have been
suitable for a divinity whose influence was widespread. # 166 - 236

CUCHULAIN, THE BOYHOOD DEEDS OF

# 166: Among the most striking of the many narratives dealing with CuChulain is a group of episodes from
his childhood. The incidents in the selection brought in Cross and Slover's ANCIENT IRISH TALES not
only serve to illustrate his precocity, a trait which is widespread among heroes of the folk, but also to
exemplify the conditions of child-fosterage among the ancient Irish. This and other tales of CuChu-lain's
youth are incorporated in the great Ulster epic 'The Cattle-Raid of Cooley', where they are represented as
told to King Ailill and Queen Medb of Connacht by several of the Ulster exiles enlisted in the Connacht
army. They form a body of tradition which was probably old at the time when the epic was composed.

# 236: In Jeffrey Gantz's 'Early Irish Myths and Sagas' is 'The Boyhood Deeds of CuChulain' presented in
the earlier, less refined Lebor na huidre version. Fergus and a number of other Ulaid(the Irish name for
Ulster) chieftains have transferred their allegiance to Connachta in protest at Conchobar's treacherous
slaying of the sons of Uisliu; and now, with the Connachta about to attack Ulaid, the exiles are describing
to Ailill and Medb the boyhood feats of the great hero of the north. The first exploit recalls the opening
episode of the Welsh tale 'Peredur': a naive, callow youth leaves his unwilling mother (he does not have a
father, possibly because his real father is understood to be either royal or divine) and goes forth to find his
proper companions (the boy troop of Emuin Machae in the one case, the knights of King Arthur's court in
the other). CuChulain's feats with his ball and hurley and toy javelin and his complete dominance over the
boy troop are superhuman and at the same time pure play; Peredur, though merely precocious, is yet more
mature, for, as well as outrunning deer, he dispatches enemy knights and even kisses women. The second
extract explains how CuChulain once saved Conchobar in battle. Even at this early stage of the Ulster
Cycle, Conchobar's role has deteriorated; and already CuChulain, as his sister's son, appears as his natural
heir. The third extract explains how Setanta came to be known as CuChulain. Such stories are common in
Irish saga, but this explanation is unusually convincing - why else would a young hero be called the 'Hound
of Culand'? The mystery is rather in why the central character of the Ulster Cycle, a figure whose divine
origin is manifest, should have been given a name so much more appropriate to a mortal hero, especially
when his original name suits him so well.

In the case of both Pryderi and CuChulain, there are objections to the new name: Rhiannon asks whether
her son's own name does not suit him better, while CuChulain himself expresses a preference for his
original name; but, in each case, the advice of a wise elder (the Chieftain of Dyved in the Welsh tale,
Cathub in the Irish one) prevails. The fourth extract seems modelled on the tradition that Achilles chose a
short life in order to win great fame. The episode at the end, where CuChulain is seized by his riastarthae,
or battle fury, and has to be cooled off in vats of water, is entirely typical of him, as is his shyness in the
presence of bare-brested women. The antiquity of these extracts is open to doubt: the mythic element is
slight, and there is considerable humour. # 166 - 236

CUCHULAIN, THE DEATH OF

Near to Slieve Fuad, south of Armagh, CuChulain found the host of his enemies, and drove furiously
against them, plying the champion's 'thunder-feat' upon them until the plain was strewn with their dead.
Then a satirist, urged on by Lewy, came near him and demanded his spear (it was a point of honour to
refuse nothing to a bard; one king is said to have given his eye when it was demanded of him). 'Have it,
then,' said CuChulain, and flung it at him with such force that it went clean through him and killed nine
men beyond. 'A king will fall by that spear,' said the Children of Calatin to Lewy, and Lewy seized it and
flung it at CuChulain, but it smote Laeg, the king of charioteers, so that his bowels fell out on the cushions
of the chariot, and he bade farewell to his master and he died.
Then another satirist demanded the spear, and CuChulain said: 'I am not bound to grant more than one
request on one day.' But the satirist said: 'Then I will revile Ulster for thy default,' and CuChulain flung him
the spear as before, and Erc now got it, and this time in flying back it struck the Grey of Macha with a
mortal wound. CuChulain drew out the spear from the horse's side, and they bade each other farewell, and
the Grey galloped away with half the yoke hanging to its neck.

And a third time CuChulain flung the spear to a satirist, and Lewy took it again and flung it back, and it
struck CuChulain, and his bowels fell out in the chariot, and the remaining horse, Black Sainglend, broke
away and left him. 'I would fain go as far as to that loch-side to drink,' said CuChulain, knowing the end
was come, and they suffered him to go when he had promised to return to them again. So he gathered up
his bowels into his breast and went to the loch-side, and drank, and bathed himself, and came forth again to
die. Now there was close by a tall pillar-stone that stood westwards of the loch, and he went up to it and
slung his girdle over it and round his breast, so that he might die in his standing and not in his lying down;
and his blood ran down in a little stream into the loch, and an otter came out of the loch and lapped it. And
the host gathered round, but feared to approach him while the life was still in him, and the hero-light shone
above his brow. Then came the Grey of Macha to protect him, scattering his foes with biting and kicking.
And then came a crow and settled on his shoulder. Lewy, when he saw this, drew near and pulled the hair
of CuChulain to one side over his shoulder, and with his sword he smote off his head; and the sword fell
from CuChulain's hand and smote off the hand of Lewy as it fell. They took the hand of CuChulain in
revenge for this, and bore the head and hand south to Tara, and there buried them, and over them raised a
mound. But Conall of the Victories, hastening to CuChulain's side on the news of the war, met the Grey of
Macha streaming with blood, and together they went to the loch-side and saw him head-less and bound to
the pillar-stone, and the horse came and laid its head on his breast. Conall drove southwards to avenge
CuChulain, and he came on Lewy by the river Liffey, and because Lewy had but one hand Conall tied one
of his behind his back, and for half the day they fought, but neither could prevail. Then came Conall's
horse, the Dewy-Red, and tore a piece out of Lewy's side, and Conall slew him, and took his head, and
returned to Emain Macha. But they made no show of triumph in entering the city, for CuChulain the Hound
of Ulster was no more. # 562

CUCHULAIN, THE PHANTOM CHARIOT OF

The Christian writers of early Ireland were more kindly disposed toward their native pagan traditions than
were the other newly converted peoples of medieval Europe. Holy men associate freely with fairy beings,
St Patrick listens with delight to the exploits of Finn and Oisin, and he even uses his divine power to call
back CuChulain from the grave that the stiff-necked Loegaire, pagan high-king of Ireland, may be led to
accept the new faith. Whoever conceived the idea of bringing together the most distinguished ancient pagan
champion and the most beloved of Christian saints had a truly poetic imagination. # 166

CUCHULAIN, THE SICK BED OF

This, like numerous other early Irish sagas, is a compilation based on several versions of the same story.
The tale in its earliest form probably told how a mortal hero, having fallen under a fairy spell, was lured by
the fairy people to the Happy Otherworld, where he was healed of his malady or assisted the supernatural
folk in their tribal feuds. In Cross' and Slover's ANCIENT IRISH TALES, the present form of the story the
double visits of the fairy messengers to the ailing CuChulain, the double account of Loeg's experiences in
the fairy realm, as well as other repetitions and inconsistencies are the result of the unskilled work of the
compiler and interpolater to whom the oldest extant versions are due. Noteworthy also is the fact that in this
tale, as in THE WOOING OF EMER, CuChulain's wife Emer plays a prominent part. # 236: 'The Wasting
Sickness of CuChulain & The Only Jealousy of Emer' is one of the more remarkable Irish tales: part myth,
part history, part soap opera. Even the text is unusual, for it is a conflation of two different versions. After
the first quarter of the tale, there appears an interpolation (which is omitted in the translation brought in J.
Gantz: 'Early Irish Myths and Sagas') detailing CuChulain's advice to Lugaid Reoderg after the latter has
been made king of Temuir; when the story proper resumes, CuChulain is married to Emer instead of to
Eithne Ingubai, and Loeg is making a second trip to the otherworld with Li Ban. The two versions have not
been well integrated, and much evidence of confusion and duplication remains; but it is hard to say which
tradition is older. Throughout the rest of the Ulster Cycle CuChulain's wife is named Emer, just as
Conchobar's is named Mugain and not Eithne Attenchaithrech. The story opens on a historical note, with a
description of how the Ulaid celebrated Samuin (Samhain), the annual end-of-the-year assembly; but the
arrival of beautiful, red-gold-chained, otherworld birds on the lake at Mag Muirthemni and the appearance
of the women, one in green and one in crimson, who beat CuChulain with horsewhips testify to the story's
mythic origin. The central idea is also that of the first section of the Welsh 'Pwyll Lord of Dyved': the
shadowy rulers of the otherworld have need of mortal strength; the pursuit of the hero by the otherworld
beauty, moreover, is common to the second section of 'Pwyll'. Much of the tale is related in verse, and,
while the poetry is neither particularly old nor particularly dense, it is clear and brilliant and affecting:

At the doorway to the east,


three trees of brilliant crystal,
whence a gentle flock of birds calls
to the children of the royal fort.

Near the end of the tale, the tone shifts towards the psychological an unusual circumstance in these stories -
as Fand and Emer fight over CuChulain; the writing, which seems very literary at this point, is emotional
but never sentimental. Even the poetry assumes a gnomic quality: Emer complains that 'what's new is
bright ... what's familiar is stale', while Fand merely points out that 'every rule is good until broken'.
Although Fand ultimately yields - after CuChulain has been moved by Emer's plea - she admits that she
still prefers CuChulain to her own husband; CuChulain, seeing her leave, wanders madly into the
mountains of Ulaid (Ulster), and it requires the spell of Conchobar's druids and Manandan's magic cloak to
make him forget.

The story is the original source for Yeats's play THE ONLY JEALOUSY OF EMER. # 166 - 236

CUGHTAGH

(cootah) A cave-dwelling spirit, but, according to Gill in A SECOND MANX SCRAPBOOK, the Cughtagh
is seldom mentioned now, though the creature is merged into the class of cave-haunting Bugganes. Gill
thinks that the Highland Ciuthach, now a disagreeable cave spirit, but earlier a more noble character, a
chivalrous giant, is closely related to it. # 100 - 249

CUIMHNE

She was a cailleach who assisted Mongan to retrieve his wife, Dub Lacha from Brandubh. She magically
changed into a beautiful woman so that Brandubh was willing to exchange Dubh Lacha for her. After
Mongan and his wife has gone, she resumed her normal hag-like appearance. This is one of the only
instances when the transformatory hag after having become beautiful resumes her former shape, although
this is threatened by Ragnell in the Gawain and Ragnell story. # 208 - 454

CUIRITHIR

He was a poet who loved Liadin. When she refused to marry him and became a nun, he became a monk. He
was exiled from Ireland after which Liadin died of grief. # 454

CULHWCH

# 454: Son of Celyddon Wledig, nephew of Arthur. His mother, Goleuddydd, bore him after having been
terrified by the sight of pigs, so that he was called Culhwch or Pig-Sty. His father remarried on the death of
Goleuddydd. Culhwch's stepmother laid a gease upon Culhwch that he should marry none other than
Olwen, the daughter of Yspaddaden Pencawr, the giant. He went to Arthur's court and there demanded, in
the names of all present, that his uncle help him procure Olwen. At the court of Yspaddaden, Culhwch was
given thirty-nine 'anoethu' or impossible tasks, which must be fulfilled before he can marry Olwen, all of
which are performed with the help of Arthur's court. The chief task was to hunt the Twrch Trwyth, a giant
boar, for which are required many particular horses, hounds and men, including Mabon, the wondrous
youth, whose finding is narrated in this story. Other tasks include the voyage of Arthur to the Underworld
in order to obtain some of the Hallows or Thirteen Treasures of Britain - a feat which is likewise related in
a ninth-century Welsh poem, the Preiddu Annwn. Yspaddaden's power is overthrown and Culhwch marries
Olwen. See: HALLOWS.

# 156: With the aid of Arthur's men, Culhwch performed some of these tasks and married Olwen. The
question arises as to why Culhwch did not perform all the tasks on the list. Commentators are not sure
whether this was due to mere carelessness on the part of the composer of the romance or whether a portion
of the story became lost in transmission. See: WRNACH. ># 104 - 156 - 272 - 346 - 378 - 399 - 439 - 454

CULLAN

His feast to King Conor in Quelgny; CuChulain slays his hound; CuChulain named the 'Hound of Cullan';
his daughter declared responsible for Finn's enchantment. # 562

CUMAL

(coo'val) A female slave; also a designation of value equal to three cows. # 166

CUMHAL

(coo'al) Chief of the Clan Morna, son of Trenmôr, husband of Murna of the White Neck, the father of Finn;
slain at battle of Knock. # 562

CUNDRIE KUNDRIE

# 156: The name of two women in Wolfram: 1. A Grail damsel learned in star lore. She told Perceval that
his wife and sons had been summoned to the Grail Castle and that the Grail Question would now free
Anfortas and his family. 2. Daughter of Arthur's sister Sangive and Lot. She married Lischois. # 454: The
name, in Parzival, of the Loathly Lady who also mocks and helps the Grail Knight on his quest. She is
analogous to Sovereignty in her hag-like aspect. # 156 - 451 - 454 - 461 - 748

CUNEDDA

A ruler of the Votadini in North Britain who migrated with a number of his subjects to Wales round about
AD 430. He rid a large part of Wales of Irish settlers. His pedigree suggests that his was a Roman family in
origin, running as follows: Tacitus - Paternus - Aeternus Cunedda. According to BRUT Y BRENHINEDD,
a medieval Welsh history, Cunedda's daughter, Gwen, was the mother of Eigyr (Igraine), Arthur's mother,
thus making Cunedda Arthur's great-grandfather (# 35). Cunedda may have married Gwawl, daughter of
Coel. # 57 - 156

CUNOBELINUS

King of the Catuvellani who, in the first century, made himself ruler of a considerable part of south Britain.
He is the king called Cymbeline by Shakespeare. In Welsh tradition he is a relation of Arthur. # 156
CUP

# 701: Symbolism of the cup is complex, beginning with matriarchal images of the womb vessel and
passing on to its patriarchal replacement, another kind of blood-filled chalice of resurrection. To medieval
pagans, witches, and alchemical mystics the cup was a universal symbol of the mother element, water -
especially the waters of the sea womb that was supposed to have given birth to the earth and all that lived
on it. In Celtic tradition the magic cup from the sea meant Truth. It would break in three pieces if three lies
were spoken over it, but if three truths were spoken over it, it would recover. # 399 - 701 p 132

CUP OF THE LAST SUPPER

Identical with the Grail. Equivalent, the Magic Cauldron. # 562

CUP-AND-RING-MARKINGS

# 562: No light on the meaning of Cup-and Ring-Markings in connection with Megalithic monuments;
Example in Dupaix' 'Monuments of New Spain;' reproduction in Lord Kingsborough's 'Antiquities of
Mexico.' # 82: Strange carved stones, globe- or drum-shaped, have been found at various sites in Britain,
and have remained one of the mysteries of archaeology, but these artefacts could well be earlier forms of
cursing stones or psychic generators.

This idea could also be extended to include such enigmas as cup and ring marks and other prehistoric rock
carvings. Pavlita* has found that his generators can release their energy and cause small wheels to turn, or
are able to charge a rod which can then be used to pick up non-ferrous metals and minerals. They have also
been used to increase plant growth and slightly alter the molecular structure of water. Such experiments,
and others being conducted today, indicate the feasibility of a belief in the ability of one mind to influence
another at a distance. If we relate this knowledge to the cursing stones, it seems possible that wishes,
prayers, and curses were able to be placed into stones and the beneficent or maleficent energy released later
to have its effect upon the intended recipient.

Alternatively, the effect on concentrating on the 'staring pattern' on the cursing stones, bringing the full
force of the sender's malice into play, could have resulted in the malice being transmitted telepathically and
instantaneously to the unfortunate recipient. If we extend this idea and suggest that cup and ring marks and
other prehistoric rock carvings were also intended to work as 'staring patterns', perhaps they could have
been used to help produce or distribute the earth current, by concentration as already described.

The widespread distribution of such enigmatic carvings throughout the British Isles, as described by Evan
Hadingham in his ANCIENT CARVINGS IN BRITAIN, gives strength to this possibility.

* (from Ostrander and Schroeder's: PSYCHIC DISCOVERIES BEHIND THE IRON CURTAIN). # 47 - 82
- 462 - 562

CURETANA

The sword of Holger. See: OGIER. # 156

CUROI

(cur REE) Father of Lewy, husband of Blanid; slain by CuChulain. # 562

CUSCRAID
(coos'cri) The 'Stammerer'. Son of Conor mac Nessa (Conchobar); wounded through the throat by Cet mac
Matach; under Debility curse. # 166 - 562

CUSTENNIN

# 562: Brother of Yspaddaden; assists Culhwch (Kilhwch) in his quest for Olwen. # 454: The giant
herdsman who guards the flocks of Yspaddaden Pencawr, who deprived him of his living and inhabited his
lands. His twenty-four sons were all destroyed by the giant, except Goreu, whom his mother hid in a
cupboard. He aids Culhwch and his companions to defeat Yspaddaden, although it is Goreu who eventually
avenges his father. # 272 - 439 - 454 - 562

CUTHBERT, SAINT

(634-87) He became a monk of the Celtic Church after receiving a vision of Saint Aidan's spirit ascending
to heaven. After the synod of Whitby (see Saint Hilda), when Celtic customs were brought into line with
the universal church of Rome, he accepted the reformations and became Prior of Lindisfarne. He was a life-
long misogynist. A legend tells that he had been falsely accused of fathering a child and he swore never to
allow a woman to approach him again. There is still in Durham Cathedral, where he is buried, a line
supposedly demarking the portion of the church forbidden to women. His love of animals offsets this
attitude. His long hours of prayer standing upright in the sea were relieved by the breath of seals who dried
him after his labours. His feast-day is 20 March. # 454

CWN ANNWN

(koon anoon) The Welsh hell hounds, something of the same kind as the Gabriel Ratchets, the Wish Hounds
and the Seven Whistlers. Like these they are death portents, but they do not, like the Devil's Dandy Dogs,
do actual destruction. Sikes in BRITISH GOBLINS describes their howl, which grows softer as they draw
closer. Near at hand they sound like a cry of small beagles, but in the distance their voice is full of
lamentation. Sometimes a voice sounds among the pack like the cry of an enormous bloodhound, deep and
hollow. To hear them is taken as a certain prognostication of death. They are usually white with redtipped
ears. Pwyll encountered them when he met Arawn's hunt. # 100 - 596

CYCLE OF FINN, OSSIAN, AND THEIR COMPANIONS, THE

The third of the great cycles of Irish heroic literature is known as the Finn, or Ossianic cycle. According to
the Irish annals, Finn flourished during the third century after Christ, but the earliest references to him in
literature do not appear until several hundred years later, and the vast majority of the tales about him are
found in manuscripts dating from the twelfth and later centuries. These accounts, composed at various
times from the Middle Ages down to the nineteenth century, differ greatly in their conceptions of Finn.
Though all regard him as the chief of a Fián, or warrior band, among whom the most distinguished heroes
are his son Oisin (Ossian) and his grandson Oscar, one group of tales represents him as the head of a sort of
national militia in the employ of one of the high-kings of Ireland, usually Conn the Hundred-Fighter;
another, as powerful enough to oppose the high-king; while a third, perhaps the latest, elevates him to a
position superior to all opponents, portraying him as a slayer of monsters, a general benefactor of his
country, and above all, a national defender of Ireland against foreign invaders, especially the dreaded
Vikings. The Finn cycle differs markedly from that of Ulster. The tales are much more numerous and were
in general written down at a much later date than those of Ulster. Moreover, few of them furnish linguistic
evidence of having been composed before the twelfth century, nor do they as a rule contain references to
ancient manners and customs such as those that give the Ulster epics their value as pictures of preChristian
culture. Whereas the Ulster tales, as we have seen, are usually written in prose interspersed with semi-lyric
passages in verse, the Finn material contains not only narratives in prose but also many poems of the ballad
type. Though few tales of the Ulster cycle have been preserved in modern Irish folk-lore, the exploits of
Finn and his companions have formed a part of the popular literature of Gaelic-speaking Ireland and
Scotland from the Middle Ages to the present day. In other words, the Ulster epic appears to have been
from the eighth or ninth century the literary property of the aristocracy, while the Finn material was perhaps
from the beginning the literature of the folk and consequently was more or less modernized by each
succeeding generation of folk poets and popular story-tellers. As to the origin of the Finn epic, much
remains yet to be learned. It appears from early references in the annals and other sources that Finn's
company was only one of many Fiána, or bands of warriors which existed in ancient Ireland and were a
recognized feature of the social system. Since the oldest traditions represent Finn as having his chief
stronghold on the hill of Almu, the modern Allen, near Kildare, it has been inferred that his Fián belonged
to Leinster. Opposed to Finn are other Fiána, especially the Fián of Goll mac Morna, which is identified
with Connacht. According to one view, the Fiána of Finn and his opponents were bands of soldiers levied
by the ruling Milesian high-kings upon the older subject peoples of Ireland. These bands were forced to be
ready to take up arms at any time and consequently were prevented from earning a livelihood by
continuous application to the occupations of peace. Hence they lived in war times by depredation and in
peace by hunting. Professor Eoin MacNeill calls the Finn epic the 'epic of a subject race' and thus explains
the scarcity of Finn material in the earliest Irish manuscripts as well as the continued popularity of the Finn
ballads and stories among the folk. # 166

CYCLES THE, OF IRISH LEGEND

The Mythological; the Ultonian; Ossianic; Certain stories of Ultonian, not centred on Cuchulain; the
Ossianic and Ultonian contrasted. The Mythological Cycle comprises the following: 1. The coming of
Partholan into Ireland. 2. The coming of Nemed into Ireland. 3. The coming of the Firbolgs into Ireland. 4.
The invasion of the TUATHA DE DANANN, or People of the god Dana. 5.The invasion of the Milesians
(Sons of Miled) from Spain, and their conquest of the People of Dana. # 562

CYFARWYDDION

(Ki-Varud-jion) The traditional story-teller in Wales. They preserved genres of story, each with its own
magical spell. The oral memory of the Celts was impressive even by the standards of non-literate societies.
The memorization of 250 prime stories and 100 secondary stories was part of the curriculum of a Celtic
poet in her twelveyear training period. After the conquest of the Celtic realms, these stories were zealously
retained and passed down to worthy recipients. See also: SEANACHIES. # 437 p 12 ff

CYHYRAETH

(kerher'righth) The Welsh form of the Highland Caoineag (the Weeper). Unlike the Gwrach Rhibyn, it is
seldom seen, but is heard groaning before a death, particularly multiple deaths caused by an epidemic or
disaster. Sikes in BRITISH GOBLINS gives several oral accounts of the Cyhyraeth. Prophet Jones
describes the noise it made as 'a doleful, dreadful noise in the night, before a burying'. Joseph Coslet of
Carmarthenshire was more explicit. He said that the sound was common in the neighbourhood of the river
Towy, 'a doleful, disagreeable sound heard before the deaths of many, and most apt to be heard before foul
weather. The voice resembles the groaning of sick persons who are to die; heard at first at a distance, then
comes nearer, and the last near at hand; so that it is a threefold warning of death. It begins strong, and
louder than a sick man can make; the second cry is lower, but not less doleful, but rather more so; the third
yet lower, and soft, like the groaning of a sick man almost spent and dying'.

This reminds one of the three approaching cries of the Cwn Annwn. Like the Irish Banshee, the Cyhyraeth
wailed for the death of natives who died away from home. On the Glamorganshire coast, Cyhyraeth passes
along the sea before a wreck, and here it is accompanied by a kind of corpse-light. Like corpse candles (see
under WILL O' THE WISP), this foretells the path a corpse is to take on the way to the churchyard. In a
story about St Mellon's churchyard a ghost is reported as having been seen, but, as a rule, Cyhyraeth is an
invisible and bodiless voice. # 100 - 596
CYLEDYR THE WILD

One of the followers of Arthur in CULHWCH, he obtained the shears from between the ears of the boar
Twrch Trwyth. # 100 - 346

CYMBELINE

(See also: CUNOBELINUS) King of Britain, trained in the household of Augustus Caesar. He handed over
his kingdom to his son, Guidarius, who refused to pay tribute to the Romans. Behind the legend stands the
historical Cunobeline, a minor British king. Shakespea re, drawing upon Holinshed's 'Cronicles', wrote a
play, 'Cymbeline', in which many minor traditions of British mythology are incorporated. # 243 - 454

CYMEN

A son of Aelle, he accompanied his father when he defeated the Britons. # 156

CYMFARCH

The father of Urien. # 104 - 156

CYMRIC MYTHS AND TALES

In Wales there has existed for a considerable time a body of teaching purporting to contain a portion, at any
rate, of that ancient Druidic thought which, as Caesar tells us, was communicated only to the initiated, and
never written down.

This teaching is principally to be found in two volumes entitled 'Barddas' (q.v.), a compilation made from
materials in his possession by a Welsh bard and scholar named Llewellyn Sion of Glamorgan, towards the
end of the sixteenth century, and edited with a translation, by J. A. Williams ap Ithel for the Welsh MS.
Society. Modern Celtic scholars pour contempt on the pretensions of works like this to enshrine any really
antique thought. Thus Mr. Ivor B. John: 'All idea of a bardic esoteric doctrine involving pre-Christian
mythic philosophy must be utterly discarded.' And again: 'The nonsense talked upon the subject is largely
due to the uncritical invention of pseydo-antiquaries of the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries.'

Still the bardic Order was certainly at one time in possession of such a doctrine, and had a fairly continuous
existence in Wales. Comparison between Gaelic and Cymric myths. The Welsh material is nothing like as
full as the Gaelic, nor so early. The tales of the MABINOGION are mainly drawn from the fourteenth-
century manuscript entitled THE RED BOOK OF HERGEST. One of them, the romance of TALIESIN,
came from another source, a manuscript of the seventeenth century.

The four oldest tales in the MABINOGION are supposed by scolars to have taken their present shape in the
tenth or eleventh century, while several Irish tales go back to the seventh or eight. The influence of the
Continental romances of chivalry is clearly perceptible in the Welsh tales; and, in fact, comes eventually to
govern them completely. # 562

CYNON

(ku non) The lover of Morfudd, Owain's twin sister, in Welsh tradition. # 156
D'AULNOY, MADAME

(c. 1650-1705) The wife of Francois de la Motte, Comte d'Aulnoy, Madama d'Aulnoy followed closely on
the heels of the fashion for fairy stories initiated by Charles Perrault, but while Perrault's stories were true
folk-tales only adorned by the admirable style in which they were told, her fairy stories were the
undisciplined product of her own lively imagination. She indeed knew something of folk traditions, but
used them in an arbitrary way. For instance, the theme of the bartered bed and the magic nuts is used in
'The Blue Bird', but the fairies are entirely unconvincing, a piece of arbitrary machinery. The stories have
the quality of engaging attention, but the style is purely literary. They are forerunners of the CABINET
DES FÉES, that monstrous collection in which the voice of tradition grows fainter almost with each
successive tale, and the style increasingly flatulent. # 100

DA DERGA

A Leinster lord at whose hostel Conary seeks hospitality. Conary's retinue at Da Derga. Ingcel and his own
sons attack the hostel. # 562

DA DERGA'S HOSTEL, THE DESTRUCTION OF

One of the longest and most pathetic Irish sagas. It is among the few complete narratives of any great
extent preserved from ancient Irish literature. The oldest manuscript was copied about the year 1100, but
the saga existed in written form as early as the eighth or ninth century. According to the annals, Conaire
was high-king of Ireland about the beginning of the Christian era.

Da Derga's Hostel was situated among the hills overlooking the village of Bray near Dublin, and was built
over the Dodder, a little stream that flows through Donnybrook and empties into Dublin Bay. The story,
though rambling and disconnected in spots, is told with real power and contains some of the finest
descriptive passages in early Irish literature. After giving an account of Conaire's antecedents and birth, the
story goes on to tell how the youthful king met his tragic and untimely death. He is represented as the
grandson of the beautiful and unfortunate Etain, whose life history is recorded in 'The Wooing of Etain'.
Like numerous other characters in early Irish fiction, he is subject to certain gesa, or taboos, which he
violates only at the peril of his life. The fairy folk, in revenge for the injury which Conaire's grandfather
had done them in destroying their mound, bring it about that Conaire breaks his taboos and so falls a victim
to the perfidy of his own foster-brothers and of the British pirates who act as their allies. Though dealing
primarily with one of the traditional kings of Ireland, the story is being mentioned here because of its
connection with 'The Wooing of Etain,' to which it forms a natural sequel. (The story in full is brought in
Cross and Slover's ANCIENT IRISH TALES, and in Jeffrey Gantz's EARLY IRISH MYTHS AND
SAGAS). # 236: 'The Destruction of Da Derga's Hostel' is part impacted myth, part heroic saga and part
literary tour de force. The name of the hosteller in the title is uncertain: some texts give Da Dergae (the
nephew of the red goddess) instead of Da Derga (the red god). In either case, the red deity is chthonic; and
the mythic subtext deals with the slaying of a king, in a house of death, at Samuin (Samhain). Although
there is no mention of an iron house, the raiders' attempts to burn the hostel suggests that it is related to the
iron houses in 'The Intoxication of the Ulaid' and 'The Destruction of Dind Rig'. Curiously, although
Conare is slain - and that is the point of the tale- the hostel is never actually destroyed. The opening
episode, which describes the wooing of Etain by Echu Feidlech, expands upon the story in the second
section of 'The Wooing of Etain'. At the point where Echu dies, however, something appears to be missing,
even though there is no evidence of a lacuna. What follows in the manuscripts is very confused, even as to
syntax, but it appears to be a garbled version of the incest episode at the end of 'The Wooing of Etain', and
we can probably assume that, originally, the child is abandoned because it is the offspring of the king's
inadvertent union with his own daughter. The conception of Conare Mar, like that of the Ulaid hero
CuChulain, is duple, the storyteller in both cases attempting to reconcile traditions of divine paternity with
those of ordinary mortal fatherhood. Once Conare has been installed as king, the tale begins to edge into a
kind of history - perhaps it recalls a significant battle or raid in Irish tribal warfare.

Throughout 'The Destruction of Da Derga's Hostel', Conare appears doomed: doomed to break his gessa
(taboos), doomed to die for being the offspring of incest. Yet he is not entirely guiltless: the story suggests
that he has shown poor judgement in excusing his foster-brothers from hanging and in interfering in the
quarrel between his two clients. The structure of the tale is idiosyncratic; some may find the catalogue
section tedious and the climax disappointingly perfunctory. Irish stories, in manuscript, do tend to become
'unbalanced': descriptive passages flower into luxuriant growths out of all proportion to their narrative
importance (perhaps owing to the storyteller's showing off), while conclusions seem casually, even
indifferently, thrown away (perhaps owing to the storyteller's or scribe's growing tired). But it is also true
that descriptive catalogues of this sort were important to the Celts - both as literary set-pieces and as a
matter of record - and that, in this case at least, the lack of attention given to the dénouement underlines its
inevitability. # 166 - 236

DAGDA

# 562 (dôh-da) Dagda 'The Good' or possibly = DOCTUS, 'The Wise.' God and supreme head of the People
of Dana, father of Brigit (Dana); the Cauldron of the Dagda, one of the treasures of the Danaans; father and
chief of the People of Dana; Kings MacCuill, MacCehct, and MacGrené grandsons of Dagda; portions out
spiritual Ireland between the Danaans. Dagda Samildanac means: The Goodly-Wise Many-Gifted One.

# 628: The greatest of the Irish gods seems to have been the Dagda. His name meant the 'Good God', and he
was also known as the 'Great Father' and the 'Mighty One of Knowledge'. He seems to have been
specifically associated with Druidism as the god of Wisdom, a primal father deity of tremendous power.
Two of the potent Celtic magical and spiritual symbols were the special attributes of the Dagda; the
cauldron and the club or staff; in Irish Druidic tradition they were primal and pagan magical implements.

# 166: A powerful chieftain of the TUATHA DE DANAAN. Son of Ethliu; father of Angus Og. # 454: Bres
ordered him to build forts but would give him little food. Together with Lugh and Ogma, he planned to
attack the Fomorians. He mated with the Morrigan over a river and she prophesied his success. Attired as a
rustic fool, he entered the enemy strong-hold where he discovered the disposition of the Fomorians. His
harp was called 'the Oak of Two Greens' and the 'Four-Angled Music'. With it he was able to play three
kinds of music: the sorrow-strain, the laugh-strain and the sleep-strain. It was with the latter that he was
able to subdue those Fomorians who had abducted his harper. He was the guardian of the cauldron which
satisfied all hunger, brought from Murias. (See HALLOWS) His name means 'Good God', but his other
names or titles are Eochaid Ollathair (All-Father) and Ruad Rofessa (Lord of Great Knowledge) indicating
his similarity to the Wild Herdsman. He resembles the earlier Greek conception of Hercules.

# 100: Dagda was the High King of the Tuatha Da Danann, the immortal fairy people of Ireland, who were
conquered by the Milesians, the human invaders who forced the Danaans to take refuge under the hollow
hills. Though in hiding, they were still powerful over the growth of the land, and they destroyed all the
wheat and milk of the Milesians, for whom neither grass nor grain grew until they had concluded a treaty
with Dagda. Dagda had four great palaces in the depths of the earth and under the hollow hills, and he
made a distribution of them to his sons. To Lug son of Ethne he gave one and Ogme another, and he kept
two for himself, and the chief of these was Brugh na Boinne, which was very great and full of wonders, but
Angus Mac Og got this from him by the help of Manannan son of Lir. For Angus had been away when
Dagda distributed his palaces, and he was angry to find himself left out. But Manannan advised him to ask
for Brugh na Boinne for a day and a night, and he would work a magic so that Dagda could not refuse it.
Dagda gave him the Brugh for a day and a night, but when the time was over Angus said that it had been
given him for ever, for all time consisted of a day and a night following each other for ever. Dagda rendered
it up to him, for though he was High King of the great race of Danu, he could be conquered by cunning.
Dagda had another and greater sorrow to bear, for he had another son Aedh, who had the same mother as
Angus; and this son went with his father to his other palace near Tara. It happened that a great man of
Connacht, Corrgenn, came to visit him and brought his wife with him. It seemed to Corrgenn that there was
more between Aedh and his wife than there should have been, and he struck Aedh down and killed him
before his father's eyes. Everyone accepted that Dagda would kill Corrgenn for this, but Dagda said that if
Corrgenn was not mistaken he had reason for what he did, so he would not kill him; but he put a geasa on
him that was worse than death. He had to carry the body of Aedh with him until he found a stone exact size
to cover him, and then he must dig a grave on the nearest hill and bury Aedh and put the stone over him. It
was many a long mile that Corrgenn walked until he found a stone on the shore of Loch Feabhail. On the
hill nearby he dug the grave, and laid Dagda's son there and carried the stone to cover him. The great labour
was too much for him and his heart burst and he died. Dagda had a wall built round the tomb and the hill
has been called the Hill of Aileac, that is, the Hill of Sighs, ever since. It is not certain whether Corrgenn
was a mortal man, but it is certain that Aedh was an immortal and the son of immortals, but he could be
killed in battle, and this is true of all the Tuatha Da Danann unless they have some special magic that
revives them. # 100 - 166 - 410 - 454 - 548 - 562 - 628 p 125

DAGONET

Arthur's fool or jester, whom Arthur himself made a knight as a joke, but who later shows his bravery in
several tournaments. His wit and unorthodox behaviour enliven the more tedious passages of Malory's
Book of TRISTAN. # 156 - 418 - 454

DAHUT

See: MORGAN.

DAIRE

A Pictish king, father of the Otherworld woman Ailleann. # 156

DAIRE MAC FIACHNA

(da'i re moc fee'àh na) An Ulster chieftain; owner of the Dun Bull of Cooley over which the Cattle-Raid of
Cooley was fought. # 166

DAIREANN

Daughter of Bobh Dearg who desired Fionn to become her husband with her as sole wife for one year.
When he refused, she gave him poison so that in his madness the Fianna deserted him. It was Daireann's
sister, Sadbh who became the mother of Oisin. # 454

DALAN

A Druid who discovers to Eochy that Etain has been carried to mound of Bri-Leith. # 562

DALNY

Queen of Partholan. # 562

DAMAN

The Firbolg, father of Ferdia. # 562


DAMART

A magician killed by Betis. After this feat, Beti's name was changed to Perceforest. # 156

DAMAS

A proud knight who used to trap other knights and make his brother, Sir Ontzlake, fight them. Arthur put a
stop to this practice. # 156 - 418

DAMAYANTI AND MALA

Hindu legend, compared with story of Etain. # 562

DANA DANU

# 562: (thana) The People of Dana are Nemedian survivors who return to Ireland; These People are by far
the most interesting and important of the mythical invaders and colonisers of Ireland. The name, Tuatha De
Danaan q.v. (or Danann), means literally 'the folk of the god whose mother is Dana', equivalent Brigit;
name of 'gods' given to the People of Dana by Tuan mac Carell; Milesians conquer the People of Dana.
Origin of People of Dana according to Tuan mac Carell; cities of Falias, Gorias, Finias and Murias;
treasures of the People of Dana; the gift of Faëry (i.e. skill in music) the prerogative of Dana; daughter of
the Dagda and the greatest of Danaan goddesses; Brian (ancient form Brenos), Iuchar, and Iucharba, her
sons; equivalent Dôn, Cymric mother-goddess.

# 100: She is one of the Mother Goddesses of early Ireland, the ancestress of the Tuatha De Danann, who
later dwindled to the Daoine Sidhe, the fairies of Ireland. Lady Gregory begins her book GODS AND
FIGHTING MEN with an account of how the Tuatha De Danann came to Ireland, led by Nuada, and fought
with the Firbolgs under their king Eochaid. Among the goddesses who fought under Nuada she mentions
Badb and Macha and the Morrigu, Eire and Fodla and Banba, the daughters of Dagda, and Eadon and
Brigit, the two goddesses of the poets, and she adds, 'And among the other women there were many
shadow-forms and great queens; but Dana, that was called the Mother of the Gods, was beyond them all.' #
100 - 267 - 562

DANAAN'S

Send to Balor refusing tribute; the Fomorians bring on their champion, Balor, before the glance of whose
terrible eye Nuada of the Silver Hand and others of the Danaans go down But Lugh, seizing an opportunity
when the eyelid drooped through weariness, approached close to Balor, and as it began to lift once more he
hurled into the eye a great stone which sank into the brain, and Balor lay dead, as the prophecy had
foretold, at the hand of his grandson. The Fomorians were then totally routed, and it is not recorded that
they ever again gained any authority or committed any extensive depredations in Ireland; power of
Danaan's, exercised by spell of music; account of principal gods and attributes of Danaan's; reference to
their displacement in Ireland by Milesians; Ireland ruled by three kings, MacCuill, MacCecht, and
MacGrené; and all three of them welcomed Ith to Ireland. A great battle between the Danaans and the
Milesians at Telltown follows. The three kings and three queens of the Danaans, with many of their people,
are slain. But the People of Dana do not withdraw. By their magic art they cast over themselves a veil of
invisibility, which they can put on or off as they choose. There are two Irelands henceforward, the spiritual
and the earthly. The Danaans dwell in the spiritual Ireland; the Danaans represents the power of light;
relation of the Church with Dana very cordial. See also: DANA and TUATHA DE DANANN, and DANAI
DE DANAAN. # 562

DANAI DE DANAAN
It is somewhat strange that antiquarians have failed to recognize how nearly intertwined are the legends of
the Danai and the De Danaan, in such a form as leads to the logical deduction that the hero Perseus, under
the name Lugh (Light), may be acclaimed the true founder of the Erse nation, indeed that his name Perseus
explains the origin of the word Erse, omitting the first letter 'P', which, as Rolleston shows, was not used in
the ancient Erse tongue. Analogies relating to Perseus and Lugh are appended here with parallel numbers [1
and 1A, and so forth, as 1 will show the Danai (Greek) and 1 A the De Danaan (Erse)]. 1. Acrisius, king of
Argos, warned by an oracle that his grandson would destroy him, determined that his daughter Danaë
should never know a man. He placed her in a fortress in the care of priestesses where she grew up innocent
of the fact that males existed. 1 A. Balor, king of the FoMori, warned by a Druid prophecy that his daughter
Danu would give birth to a son who would slay him, confined the princess in a convent on Tory Island,
attended by Druidesses, and unaware of man's existence. 2. Zeus visited Danaë as a ray of sunshine and she
duly gave birth to the hero Perseus. 2 A. A god or hero, Kian, (Cian, the Mighty) disguised as a Druidess,
obtained access to Danu, who gave birth to the Erse hero Lugh or Lug. 3. Acrisius ordered Danaë and her
babe to be placed in a boat and cast adrift in the sea. She was rescued at the island of Seriphus and Perseus
was duly brought up by Polydectes. 3 A. Balor caused Danu and her infant to be put in a coracle and left to
the mercy of the waves. They were rescued, and Lugh was reared by Goban, the Smith. 4. Polydectes sent
Perseus on a desparate mission to obtain the Medusa's Head which turned everything into a stone with a
glance. He reached the Gorgon's island at farthest extreme of Ocean, by the aid of Hermes and Athene,
rescued Andromeda, married her, and captured Meru, the capital of the Ethiopians. 4 A. Lugh was
instructed in magic arts by Goban, the Smith. He eventually returned to Ireland or the Hebrides, taking with
him his magic sword, the Sword of Light, a 'tathlum', and other magical possessions. 5. Acrisius, on
Perseus return, fled to Larissa (or Argos), to escape his grandson, who followed him and slew his
grandparent with a discus at a gymnastic meeting, hence fulfilling the oracle. He established the dynasty of
the Perseids, called the Danai, from whom descended the Heracleids. 5 A. Lugh, on his return, found his
grandfather, Balor, who opposed his entry. A great battle was fought with magic used by both parties, but
Lugh finally slew Balor with his magic tathlum, freed his people from the FoMori and established the De
Danaan or Erse as ruling race. See also: BRITAIN, THE RIDDLE OF PREHISTORIC. # 59 - 562

DANAIN THE RED

The Lord of Malehaut. # 156

DANES

# 562: Irish monuments plundered by Danes. # 100: There is a certain amont of confusion in Somerset
between the Danes, whose incursions are still remembered, and the fairies. The name 'Danes' may be
connected, in this Celtic pocket of England, with the Daoine Sidhe, the children of Dana. The
Leicestershire Dane Hills may have the same origin. Ruth Tongue in COUNTY FOLK LORE VIII quotes
an informant at Ashridge in 1907 who was convinced that the traditional buried treasure on Dolbury Camp
was put there by the fairies, not by the Danes. There be a bit of verse as do go:

If Dolbury digged were


Of gold should be the share,
but nobody hasn't found the treasure yet.
And for why?

Well, to start up with it don't belong to they, and so they won't never meet up with it. 'Twill go on sinking
down below never mind how deep they do dig. I tell 'ee 'tis the gold of they Redshanks as used to be seed
on Dolbury top. To be sure there's clever, book-read gentlemen as tell as they was Danes, and another say
'twere all on account of their bare legs being red with the wind, but don't mind they. My granny she did tell
they was fairies, ah, and all dressed in red, and if so the treasure med be theirs. If they was Danes how do
'ee explain all they little clay pipes as 'ee can find on Dolbury Camp. They did call 'em 'fairy pipes', old
miners did. An' if there be fairy pipes then there was fairies, and nobody need doubt thay was the
Redshanks.' # 100 - 562 - 675
DANIEL

In the TAVOLA RITONDA, a knight, brother of Dinadan, leader of the knights who discovered Lancelot
and Guinevere together in compromising circumstances. Daniel was also the name of an Arthurian knight
in a thirteenth-century German poem by Der Stricker. See: BREUNOR. # 156 - 238

DANU DANA

The ancestress of the Tuatha de Danaan. So antique is her legend that no stories have survived. She is
analogous with Anu, and may survive in BLACK ANNIS. See: DANA DANU. # 454 - 548

DANUBE

Sources of Danube, place of origin of Celts. # 562

DAOINE SIDHE

(theena shee) # 454: The people of the Sidhe or hollow hills. The inhabitants of the Otherworld who, like
the Fairies, live behind the world of men but sometimes co-exist peacefully with them. There is a long
tradition that the ancient gods and heroes entered the sidhe and lived there. See AES SIDHE.

# 100: The Daoine Sidhe are the fairy people of Ireland, generally supposed to be the dwindled gods of the
early inhabitants of Ireland, the Tuatha Da Danann, who became first the Fenian heroes and then the fairies.
Other names are however given them for safety's sake, the 'Wee folks', 'the People of That Town', 'the
Gentry', 'the Good People, or other euphemistic names. A good account of these Irish fairies is given by
Yeats in the first few pages of his IRISH FAIRY AND FOLK TALES.

They are the typical heroic fairies, enjoying the pleasures and occupations of the medieval chivalry. Even in
modern times their small size is not invariable; they are occasionally of human or more than human stature.
Their habitations are generally underground or underwater, in the green raths or under the loughs or in the
sea. These underwater fairies are well described by Lady Wilde in ANCIENT LEGENDS OF IRELAND
VOL.I. They are supposed to be those of the Fallen Angels, too good for Hell: 'Some fell to earth, and
dwelt there, long before man was created, as the first gods of the earth. Others fell into the sea.' # 100 - 454
- 711 - 728 - 756

DARA

Son of Fachtna, owner of Brown Bull of Quelgny; # 562

DARERCA

The sister of St Patrick in Jocelyn's LIFE OF ST PATRICK. She was said to have been Patrick's youngest
sister and to have had seventeen sons. Gallet makes her an ancestor of Arthur in the following fashion:
Darerca married to Conan their son Urbien had a son, Solomon, which had a son, Constantine, grandfather
of Arthur. Gallet makes Darerca's sister Tigridia marry Grallo, Conan's grandson, thus connecting her with
Arthur. # 156

DARK DRUID, THE

Changes Sadbh into a fawn; When Finn and his two enchanted dogs, Bran and Sceolawn, was on a chase,a
beautiful fawn started up on their path, and the chase swept after her. At last, as the chase went on down a
valley-side, Finn saw the fawn stop and lie down, while the two hounds began to play around her, and to
lick her face and limbs. So he gave commandment that none should hurt her, and she followed them to the
Dun of Allen, playing with the hounds as she went. - The same night Finn awoke and saw standing by his
bed the fairest woman his eyes had ever beheld. 'I am Sadbh, O Finn,' she said, 'and I was the fawn ye
chased to-day. Because I would not give my love to the Druid of the Fairy Folk, who is named the Dark, he
put that shape upon me by his sorceries, and I have borne it these three years. But a slave of his, pitying me,
once revealed to me that if I could win to thy great Dun of Allen, O Finn, I should be safe from all
enchantments, and my natural shape would come to me again.' - So Sadbh dwelt with Finn, and he made
her his wife; But later, when Finn was out on warfare, the Dark Druid came to the castle, and in the
phantom-shape of Finn, he succeeded in smitten Sadbh with his hazel wand, and lo, there was no woman
there any more, but a deer. Finn and the Fianna was then searching for seven years for Sadbh throughout
the whole of Ireland, but didn't find a trace of her. See also: FINN and FINN MAC CUMHAL and OISIN.
# 562

DARTMOOR, DEVON

Dartmoor is infamous for the so-called 'Whist Hounds', the 'Hounds of Hell', said to be a pack of spectral
dogs which haunt the locality and inspired Sir Arthur Conan Doyle to write THE HOUND OF
BASKERVILLES. The Whist Hounds are associated with the demonic Wild Hunt, which has the devil as
the night huntsman; in particular, legends tell how the pack chases benighted travellers to the edge of
Dewerstone Rock on Dartmoor to drive them over the edge to their doom. The notion of 'spectral' or
'ghostly' dogs, whether single or in packs, is found throughout the British Isles even today, and may be
demoted versions of the ancient 'Ride of the Valkyries' of Norse mythology. The tendency to introduce
historical personages as an outer guise for the forgotten gods may be seen in the fact that some locals claim
the Whist Hounds are led by none other than Sir Francis Drake. In the north of England the hell hounds are
sometimes called 'Gabriel Hounds', but the name has nothing to do with the Archangel of the Annunciation
for the word comes from the ancient term 'gabbara', which was the equivalent of a 'dead body'. In Cornwall
the Whist Hounds are called Dandy Dogs. Whatever their names, it is widely believed that when the baying
of the hounds is heard then disaster bodes for the one who is listening, and those who see them, with their
slavering jaws and red-coal eyes, is bound for a sudden death. Ralph Whitlock's IN SEARCH OF LOST
GODS suggests that the prevalence of black-dog ghosts might be a result of the ancient practice by which
dogs were sacrificed and buried under the doorposts or walls of new buildings, that their spirits or souls
might act as guardians of the place. Very many stories are told of black-dog hauntings, but the 'spectral
hound' weather-vane on the parish church at Bungay must be unique. The demon hound of East Anglia is
called Black Shuck. # 702

DAUGHTER OF THE KING OF LOGRES

In the romance of TYOLET, it was she who required a knight to cut off the white foot of a stag. This
challenge was taken up successfully by Tyolet who became her husband. # 156

DAVID

In Welsh: Dewi. The Patron of Wales, who died in 601. Born in Dyfed, and founded twelve monasteries
from Croyland to Pembrokeshire, where the regime was particularly austere, after the Celtic fashion. His
habit of only drinking water supplied him with the nickname 'Aquaticus'. Even though he in Wales is
remembered on March 1st with leeks, his actual emblem is the dove. # 454 - 506

DAVID'S SWORD

A sword belonging to the biblical King David. It was used by King Varlan to kill King Lambor in one
version of the Dolorous Stroke. # 156
DAVID, SAINT

A record of the life of David (Dewi), the patron saint of Wales, was written by Rhigyfarch, the eldest son of
Sulien, Bishop of St David's in about AD 1090. The manuscript was written at Llanbadarn Fawr, near
Aberystwyth. The birth of David was foretold by Gildas when he was preaching at Cae Morfa. A young
woman called Non came into his church and he suddenly lost the power of speech. But later he was able to
predict the important event that was about to take place. 'One Nonnita, a pious woman now present is great
with child and will shortly be delivered of a son with a greater portion of the divine spirit than has ever yet
fallen to the share of any preacher in this country. To him I resign my situation as better able to fill it, and
this an angel of the Lord has delivered to me.' King Sant heard that a very important child was about to be
born and he ordered his men to kill every new child in the area. However, a wild storm blew up and his
men took shelter. St Non fought her way through the violent thunderstorm to collapse on the ground beside
a huge stone. 'The place shone with so severe a light that it glistened as though the sun was visible and had
brought it in front of the clouds.' In her pains of labour, St Non pressed her fingers into the stone which
consequently bore their impression. The stone later became an altar table in the chapel built on this spot. At
the moment of St David's birth the huge stone split into two. One part remained behind St Non's head and
the other stood upright at her feet. (It is possible that she was sheltering under a cromlech.) It is believed
that St Non retired to Brittany after David grew up and she is buried at Dirinian, Finisterre. A very fine
sixteenthcentury shrine and effigy can be seen there in the chapel of St Non; close by is a holy well bearing
her name and another, a mile away, is dedicated to St Patrick. Some writers have claimed that St David was
related to King Arthur. It has been suggested that he was Arthur's uncle. It is also written that St David's
father was a Prince of Ceredigion and that Non was the daughter of a chieftain in Mynyw, now Dewisland
Peninsula. At the child's baptism by Elwin the Bishop of Munster a spring (Ffynnon Ddewi), suddenly
appeared and Mafi, a blind monk, who was standing nearby, had his sight miraculously restored. David was
raised at Henfynyw near Aberaeron and he became a priest at the small monastery of Ty Gwyn.

His tutor Paulinus was told by an angel to persuade David to travel widely. Consequently he visited many
parts of Wales and founded monasteries at Llangyfelach and Raglan and also ventured into England to
establish churches at Leominster and Glastonbury. On his return an angel told him to build a monastery at
Glyn Rhosyn. An Irish chieftain called Boia tried to kill David and his followers but was struck by fever
and his cattle were destroyed (this was attributed to the saint's powers). Boia later begged David's
forgiveness and the cattle were brought back to life. However, Boia's wife still tried to make problems for
David and eventually she became mad. Boia was killed by an Irish pirate, Liski. An inlet near St David's
bears his name indicating the point were he landed. David founded his monastery in the most secluded and
isolated spot that he could find. He led a very strict and spartan life consisting mainly of very simple food,
hard work and devotion. His example had to be followed by all who joined him. They called him Dewi
Ddyfrwr David the Water Drinker. He would drink no wine, eat no meat and did not use oxen to till the
ground, but yoked his fellow monks to the plough. All work had to be carried out in silence and all property
was held in common. No monk could call anything his own. St David sent his missionaries from here on
many journeys to convert the pagans. His influence went out to people all over South and West Wales,
Ireland, Scotland, Cornwall and Brittany. Villages named Llanddewi, which were originally churches
founded by St David or his disciples, are to be found in many parts of South Wales. St David travelled to
Jerusalem and also to Rome, where he was made a bishop. He was accompanied on this journey by Padarn
and Teilo. Living to a great age, he eventually died on 1 March in the year 588 AD and it is claimed that his
final words to his followers were: 'Preserve in these things which you have learned from me and have seen
in me.' His bones were laid to rest behind the high altar in the cathedral (or they were hidden there at the
time of the Reformation). Some of his remains were taken to Glastonbury for burial in 946. In 1120 he was
canonized and over fifty medieval churches in Wales were dedicated to him. # 49

DEAD, LAND OF

The Irish Fairyland. Equivalent 'Spain'. # 562

DEALGNAID
(DAL na)

DEATH

# 562: The Celtic conception of Death contents an Otherworld which is not a place of gloom and suffering,
but of light and liberation; the Sun was as much the god of that world as he was of this. Names of Balor and
Bilé occur as god of death.

# 548: The circumstances of the hero's death have been foretold by druids or seers and in many cases he
goes through life knowing precisely what his end will be. So fully are the incidents which culminate in the
Destruction of Da Derga's Hostel and the death of Conaire prefigured by the wizards of the attackers that
relatively few words are necessary to tell the story of the actual battle. This is no more than a repetition or a
materialization of a story which has its origin and being in a world outside the limitations of here and now.
One is reminded of the relationship between a sentence of death and an execution. The sentence has
prescribed the form of death and nothing remains but to carry it out. CuChulain's journey to his last battle is
a veritable 'death ride'. Before he sets forth, a number of omens warn him of impending doom. Weapons
fall from their racks, and as he throws on his mantle the brooch falls and pierces his foot, and so on. He also
encounters three crones, blind in the left eye, who with poisons and spells have cooked a dog on spits of
rowan. The hero is thereby placed in a quandary: it is geis (a prohibition) for him to eat his namesake, the
dog, and it is geis for him to pass a cooking-hearth without partaking of the fare. At first he refuses the
invitation extended by one of the crones, but when she reproaches him for disdaining their humble meal he
submits, and he eats it out of his hand and places it under his left thigh. Immediately the hand and the thigh
lose their strength. The violation of geisa (or gessa) is a sure omen of approaching death.

The myths have a bearing on the meaning of death itself. They proclaim that death, however peaceful it
may appear to be, is a work of violence, a cutting down. The myths do not mitigate the impact of death with
soothing words; they present it in its grimmest brutality. And yet, the declamation of such stories at
Samhain (31 october - beginning of winter), perhaps, and at wakes for the dead, had its proper function.
They elevated death to the plane of the tragic and the heroic. From a human standpoint deaths may be
dismissed as due to natural causes: accidents, diseases, and so on; some are expected, others are
'premature'. But mythologically speaking no death is natural, nothing is ever premature and there is no such
thing as accident. Deaths are preordained; and the contingent causes are but the agents of pre-existent and
precognizable destinies. It is noteworthy that folk-belief is in agreement with the myths. However 'sudden'
the death, there will have been omens. An apple-tree will have blossomed out of season, a hen will have
crowed like a cock, or a dog will have howled at night. Someone will have seen a corpse-candle or a
phantomfuneral or there will have been a premonitory dream or an inexplicable uneasiness. These portents
accentuate the eeriness and mystery of death; they enhance its meaning. It is a reality of whose imminence
the natural and supernatural worlds are aware and of which they take cognisance. Unlike such
contemporary banalities as 'Well, he had a happy life' or 'He did not suffer much' or 'He is better out of his
misery', myth and folk-belief do not strip death of its significance and so do not depreciate the nobility of
human beings. # 548 - 562

DEATH RITUAL

The Celtic Death-Ritual as everybody can use in modern time, according to Dolores Ashcroft Nowicki, is
fully described in her latest book THE NEW BOOK OF THE DEAD (1992). # 23 pp 143-152

DEATH TALES OF THE ULSTER HEROES

In spite of the embarrassment attendant upon representing the unconquerable champion of Ulster as falling
in battle, the ancient Irish saga writers could not resist the temptation to depict his death. The result was
'The Great Rout of Muirthemne' (BRISLECH MÓR MAIGE MUIRTHEMNE), generally known as 'The
Death of CuChulain', which was composed , probably as early as the eighth century, by a writer of unusual
ability. It is one of the most striking pieces of early Irish literature. The closing passage describing
CuChulain's death is genuinely heroic in conception and in style. Fully conscious that his end is near,
CuChulain goes forth to battle despite the omens that warn him; like Conaire in 'The Destruction of Da
Derga's Hostel', he is forced to break the taboos upon which his life depends, and at length he falls fighting
single-handed against a band of vengeful but cowardly enemies. The other two death tales, which Cross and
Slover gives in their ANCIENT IRISH TALES, although written more or less to order, contain some
interesting motifs, among the most instructive of them being the attachment of the pagan king Conchobar to
Christian tradition. This particular phase of the story is obviously an afterthought added at a fairly late date
to a narrative of undoubtedly primitive content. Because of CuChulain's position as the central figure of the
Ulster cycle, the account of his death is placed first, though the death of Celtchar is represented by the
author as preceding it. # 166

DEBILITY THE, OF THE ULTONIANS

Caused by Macha's curse; manifested on occasion of Maev's famous cattleraid of Quelgny (Tain Bo
Cuailgné). # 562

DECHTINE

(DET een eh)

DECHTIRE

(deh'ti re) Mother of CuChulain; sister of Conchobar. See also: DECTERA. # 166

DECIES

Son of King of the Decies wooes Light of Beauty (Sgeimh Solais). # 562

DECTERA

# 562: Mother of Cuchulain by Lugh; daughter of Druid Cathbad; her appearance to Conor mac Nessa after
three years absence; her gift of a son to Ulster, Cuchulain by Lugh. # 454: Sister of Conchobar. She and her
fifty attendant maidens disappeared for three years. She was discovered, in bird-form, in a house of the
Sidhe by Bricriu who concealed this from Conchobar - he merely told the king that he had been royally
entertained in that place. Conchobar sent a message to the sidhe demanding that the woman of the house be
sent to him, in order that he might sleep with her, according to the kingly rights. She was sent but was in
labour on arrival. In the morning she bore a son and Bricriu at last revealed that the woman was Dectera.
The father was Lugh, and the child was called Setanta until he killed the hound of Culann the Smith when
he was afterwards called CuChulain. ># 454 - 562

DEE, JOHN

John Dee (1527-1608) was Renaissance England's first Hermetic magus, a philosopher-magician in the
Continental tradition of Marsilio Ficino, Pico della Mirandola and Henry Cornelius Agrippa and as one of
the greatest mathematicians of his age, Dr Dee was a man of great and wide learning with that
extraordinary capacity for concentrated study which seemed to characterize the men of the Renaissance. He
was astronomer and astrologer to Queen Elizabeth I, with a subtle and profound intellect, fascinated by
mysticism and entangled in it, and yet so innocent and guileless that he was an easy dupe to an impostor. It
was Edward Kelly who introduced him to the dubious company of spirits who beguiled him for so long. He
had already been attracted towards intercourse with angels by means of a mirror or crystal and through the
intervention of 'a scryer' or medium, but in 1582 Kelly presented himself at Mortlake, and a partnership
was established which lasted for over six years, all the initiative being in Kelly's hands, since he alone
could obtain any response from the crystal. Dee was already much hated by the common people as a
wizard, though he was still supported by the Queen. In 1583, Dee, Kelly and their wives left Mortlake and
travelled to Holland, and the house was no sooner empty than a mob attacked it and sacked Dee's
magnificent library of over 4,000 volumes. For six years they travelled over Europe, one patron after
another wearying of Kelly's impostures, but Dee remaining blindly loyal. The first converse on the crystal
had been through angels, but these deteriorated to spirits who seemed nearer to fairies than anything else,
though they were intolerable prattlers. Sometimes the angels returned, and on one occasion they went too
far, for they advised that the two philosophers should hold everything in common, including their wives.
Jane Dee was much betterlooking than Mrs. Kelly. Dee regretfully agreed, but the wives objected, quarrels
broke out and the two associates parted, though a correspondence was maintained between them. Dee's
journal of the intercourse with the spirits was published by Méric Casaubon under the title of A TRUE
AND FAITHFUL RELATION OF WHAT PASSED FOR MANY YEARS BETWEEN DR J. DEE AND
SOME SPIRITS. It did no good to Dee's reputation, which has, however, been largely vindicated by the
writings of Dr Frances A. Yates. # 100 - 231

DEE, THE RIVER

Now the Ford of Ferdia. # 562

DEER

# 701: Deer were always considered magical creatures. The extrusion of horn from their heads was a
symbol of powerful life force. Horned deer were the animal prototypes of the Horned God. Medieval
wizards expressly preferred parchment made of deer skin for the writing of their letter amulets. Durham
cathedral was founded on the site of an ancient deer shrine. Its name was originally Duirholm, the Meadow
of the Deer. It was a pagan pilgrimage center for at least four centuries. - # 161: In Celtic tradition deer are
frequently the means of taking souls to the otherworld. There are Celtic, Irish and Gaelic goddesses
associated with them, such as Flidass, Goddess of Venery, who has a chariot drawn by deer. They are
supernatural animals of the fairy world and are fairy cattle and messengers. Stag hunts often end in some
supernatural situation. Deer skin and antlers were used as ritual ornaments and vestments.

# 454: The Deer is one of the foremost transformatory beasts in British mythology, especially in its form of
the White Doe or White Stag, which is frequently an otherworldly messenger which hunters encounter,
leading them ever deeper into the forest to unknown wonders. From the WhiteStag encountered by Pwyll to
the White Hart which Galahad sees, betokening Christ, pagan and folklore traditions have asserted the
beauty and mystical grace of this creature. Sadbh was enchanted into the form of a doe. Gilfaethwy, while
Gwydion was changed into a stag. The human antlered figure has been a potent image from primeval times
onwards, from the shaman-hunter and the Wild Huntsman in his form of Cernunnos, to the Abbots Bromley
Horn Dance which is still danced every September - the time when the deer are in rut. # 161 - 439 - 441 -
454 - 701

DEFECTS OF THE FAIRIES

Among the many beliefs held about the fairies, there is one strand which describes them as beautiful in
appearance, but with a deformity which they cannot always hide. The Scandinavian ellewomen, for
instance, have beautiful faces, but if looked at from behind are seen to be hollow. The evil but beautiful
Glaistigs of the Highlands wear trailing green dresses to conceal their goat's hoofs. The Shetland Henkies
were given that name because they limped in their dancing. J. G. Campbell, in his SUPERSTITIONS OF
THE HIGHLANDS AND ISLANDS OF SCOTLAND, says: 'Generally some personal defect is ascribed to
them by which they become known to be of no mortal race. In Mull and the neighbourhood they are said to
have only one nostril, the other being imperforate.' The physical defects of the Bean Sidhe as described by
him are such that she could never under any circumstance be called beautiful: 'The Bean Sith was detected
by her extraordinary voracity (a cow at a meal), a frightful front tooth, the entire want of a nostril, a web
foot, preternaturally long breasts, etc. According to George MacDonald, The Aberdeenshire Brownies had a
thumb with the rest of the fingers joined together. It seems likely that these characteristics were given to the
fairies by people who believed them to be fallen angels, or yet more closely related to the Devil. The
Devil's cloven hoof is perhaps one of the most common articles of folk belief. As Alexander Roberts put it
in his TREATISE OF WITCHCRAFT, 'Yet he cannot so perfectly represent the fashion of a man's body but
that there is some sensible deformity by which he bewrayeth himself.' # 100 - 131

DEIRDRE DEIRDRIU

# 166: (dâr'dre or dâr'dryu) # 562: Daughter of Felim; Druid Cathbad draws her horoscope; Conor decides
to wed her when of age; nursed by Levarcam; she loves Naisi (Naoisi) and put a gease on him to carry her
off; returns with Naisi to Ireland; forced to wed Conor, she dashes herself against a rock and is killed; the
tales of Grania and Deirdre compared; Pronoun Deirdre: deer'dree.

# 454: Daughter of Fedlimid mac Daill, harper and chief-storyteller of Conchobar. Cathbad prophesied that
she would bring death and sorrow to Ulster and, though the Ulstermen demanded her death, Conchobar
fostered her secretly with Lebharcham until Deirdre was old enough to be his wife. Deirdre saw some
ravens feasting on blood in the snow and wished for a man whose skin was white as the snow, whose hair
was black as the raven's, and whose cheek would be as red as the blood. With Naoisi and his brothers, she
wandered throughout Ireland, pursued by Conchobar, until they fled to Alba at last. Fergus mac Roigh was
sent to fetch them back, promising Conchobar's friendship, but they were betrayed on their return. The sons
of Usnach were slain and Deirdre was bound to Conchobar as his wife. He eventually gave her to Eoghan, a
client king, who had dealt the death blow to Naoisi. Between these twin evils she flung herself from
Eoghan's chariot and dashed her brains out on a stone. Her laments for the life she had lived in Alba contain
the purest strain of poetic lament in Irish literature. Like Helen of Troy, Deirdriu ushers in the decline of
Ulster's greatness.# 166 - 266 - 454 - 562 - 656

DEITIES, CREATIVE & FERTILITY DEITIES

1. Titles: Illuminating Intelligence


2. Deities: Lugh, Bran, Brigit, the Dagda, Diancecht, Go Ibniu, Manannan mac Lir, Nuada,
Cernunnos, Bel, Mab, Ma cha, Nantosuelta, Ogma, Rhiannon.
3. Color: pure blue.
4. Incense/Oil: lily of the valley.
5. Animals: dolphin, whale, mermaid.
6. Stones: azurite, turquoise.
7. Metal: aluminum.
8. Plants: carnation, honeysuckle, vervain.
9. Wood: bramble.
10. Planet: Neptune.
11. Tarot: four Kings & four Twos.
12. Magical Tools: cauldron, wand.
13. Direction: South. Rituals involving: achieving equilibrium; spiritual manifestations; creative force;
divine inspiration.

# 160 p 186 ff

DEITIES, CREATOR DEITIES

Creator Deities (Rituals involving: divine consciousness; illumination; enlightenment; spiritual


development and attainment; finding the karmic purpose in life) -
1. Titles: Ancient of Ancients; First Cause.
2. Deities: Anu Danu, the Dagda, Llyr.
3. Color: brilliant pure white.
4. Incense/Oil: wisteria, angelica.
5. Animals: Hawk, winged dragon.
6. Stones: diamond, zircon.
7. Metal: electrum (gold & silver alloy), or piece each of gold and silver.
8. Plants: shamrock, clover, woad, male fern, aspen.
9. Wood: aspen
10. Planet: Uranus
11. Tarot Cards: four Aces
12. Magical Tools: cauldron
13. Direction: East

# 160 p 186

DEITIES, DEITIES OF JUSTICE

1. Titles: The Great Helper; Scale-Balancer.


2. Deities: the Dagda, Danu, Lugh, Macha, Sucellus.
3. Color: deep purple, dark blue.
4. Incense/Oil: cedar, carnation.
5. Animals: unicorn, eagle.
6. Stones: amethyst, sapphire, lapis lazuli.
7. Metal: tin.
8. Plants: shamrock, clover, oak, verbena, cedar, betony, dandelion, fir, meadowsweet.
9. Wood: cedar.
10. Planet: Jupiter.
11. Tarot: 4 Fours.
12. Magical Tools: wand, cauldron.
13. Direction: North.
14. Rituals Involving: honor, riches, health, friendship, the heart's desires, luck, accomplishment,
religion, trade and employment, treasure, legal matters.

# 160 p 188

DEITIES, DEITIES OF LOVE

1. Titles: The Great Mother.


2. Deities: Arianrhod, Brigit, Danu, Anu, Blodeuwedd, Branwen, Angus mac Og.
3. Color: pink, green.
4. Incense/Oil: apple blossom, mugwort, elder, mint, rose, sandalwood.
5. Animals: cat, dove, sparrow.
6. Stones: emerald, amber, malachite, jade, peridot, coral.
7. Metal: copper.
8. Plants: birch, catnip, blackberry, coltsfoot, foxglove, mugwort, thyme, yarrow, fewerfew, burdock,
elder, pennyroyal, plantain, briar, verbena.
9. Wood: birch, elder.
10. Planet: Venus.
11. Tarot Cards: four Sevens.
12. Magical Tools: cauldron, wand.
13. Direction: West.
14. Rituals Involving: love, pleasure, the arts, music, writing, creativity, inspiration, expanding the
intellect, marriage, friendship, beauty, fertility, compassion, children, spiritual harmony.
# 160 p 189 ff

DEITIES, DEITIES OF THE SUN, HEALING & ILLUMINATION

1. Titles: The Great God.


2. Deities: Bel, Badb, the Dagda, Brigit, Diancecht, Ogma.
3. Color: gold or pale yellow.
4. Incense/Oil: chamomile, marigold, mistletoe, frankincense, cinnamon, bay.
5. Animals: phoenix, snake.
6. Stones: topaz, yellow diamond, yellow jacinth, chrysolite, goldstone, zircon, pyrite.
7. Metal: gold.
8. Plants: laurel, vine, ash, chamomile, centaury, marigold, rue, mistletoe, St. Johnswort.
9. Wood: laurel.
10. Planet: Sun.
11. Tarot: four Knights and four Sixes.
12. Magical Tools: wand.
13. Direction: East
14. Rituals Involving: honor, power, life, growth, money, healing, understanding the Deep Mysteries,
building intuition, energy, favor, promotion, success, friendship, hope, prosperity, confidence,
personal fulfillment.

# 160 p 189

DEITIES, DEITIES OF WAR, REVENGE & SMITHING

1. Titles: The Warrior God.


2. Deities: the Morrigu, Arawn, Cerridwen, the Dagda, Lugh, Macha, Nuada, Pwyll, Scathach.
3. Color: red.
4. Incense/Oil: basil, pine, dragon's blood.
5. Animals: wolf, horse, bear, ram.
6. Stones: ruby, garnet, bloodstone, red topaz, red agate.
7. Metal: iron, steel.
8. Plants: oak, nettles, basil, broom, woodruff, holy thistle, pine, wormwood, hops.
9. Wood: hawthorn, furze.
10. Planet: Mars.
11. Tarot: four Fives.
12. Magical Tools: sword, cauldron.
13. Direction: South.
14. Rituals Involving: energy, courage, defense, will power, selfdiscipline, ridding yourself of garbage
in order to attain higher aspirations, bringing rhythm and stability into life.

# 160 p 188 ff

DEITIES, EARTH & GRAIN DEITIES

1. Titles: The Sphere of Form.


2. Deities: gnomes, fairies and folk, Anu, Branwen, Brigit, Cernunnos, Don.
3. Color: yellow, brown.
4. Incense/Oil: birch, cherry, cloves, lilac rosemary.
5. Animals: toad, fairies, elves, gnomes.
6. Stones: rock crystal.
7. Metal: nickel.
8. Plants: ivy, corn, willow, lily, grains.
9. Wood: fir.
10. Planet: Earth.
11. Tarot Cards: four Pages and four Tens.
12. Magical Tools: wand, goblet.
13. Direction: North.
14. Rituals Involving: organized material manifestations; healing mental and physical illnesses;
inspiration for improving life on material basis; centering oneself; healing plants and animals;
trance; any psychic work that calls for direct contact with spirits.

# 160 p 192

DEITIES, GREAT MOTHER GODDESSES; DEITIES OF THE UNDERWORLD

1. Titles: The Great Taskmaster; Womb of Time.


2. Deities: Anu, Arianrhod, Badb, Danu, Brigit, Cerridwen, the Morrigu, the Dagda, Diancecht, Don,
Gwyn ap Nudd.
3. Color: indigo, black.
4. Incense/Oil: holly, juniper, yew, myrrh, cypress.
5. animals: dragon, goat.
6. Stones: onyx, jet.
7. Metals: lead.
8. Plants: oak, yew, beech, comfrey, elm, holly, ivy, horsetail, juniper, mullein, reeds, Solomon's seal.
9. Wood: oak.
10. Planet: Saturn.
11. Tarot Cards: four Queens & four Threes.
12. Magical Tools: sword or wand.
13. Direction: West.
14. Rituals Involving: stabilization of thought and life; help with groups; comfort when in sorrow;
contact with the Goddess power; developing power of faith.

# 160 p 187

DEITIES, MESSENGER & TEACHER DEITIES

1. Titles: Messenger of the Gods.


2. Deities: Taliesin, Merlin, Angus mac Og, Branwen, Cerridwen, the Dagda, Diancecht, Gwydion,
Math Mathonwy, the Morrigu, Nuada, Ogma, Scathach.
3. Color: orange.
4. ncense/Oil: lily of the valley, dill, savory, honeysuckle.
5. Animals: swallow, butterfly.
6. Stones: agate, carnelian, alexandrite.
7. Metal: quicksilver, alloys.
8. Plants: fern, lily of the valley, marjoram, savory, valerian, vervain.
9. Wood: hazel.
10. Planet: Mercury.
11. Tarot Cards: four eights.
12. Magical Tools: goblet, wand.
13. Direction: East.
14. .Rituals Involving: business, legal problems, travel, information, logic, writing, controlling
runaway emotions, organization, learning, locating the proper teachers, memory, science,
creativity, divination, prediction, eloquence, speech, healing nervous disorders.

# 160 p 190 ff
DEITIES, MOON DEITIES

1. Titles: The Silver Huntress, Maiden of the Mysteries, Queen of Heaven.


2. Deities: Arianrhod, Blodeuwedd, Bran, Brigit, Cerridwen, the Dagda, Danu, Lugh.
3. Color: silver, lavender, pale blue, pearl blue, pearl white.
4. Incense/ Oil: mugwort, lily of the valley, jasmine, lotus.
5. Animals: dog, hare, hart, boar, horse.
6. Stones: quarts crystal, moonstone, beryl, pearl.
7. Metal: silver.
8. Plants: mandrake, lily of the valley, moonwort, mugwort, waterlily, willow.
9. Wood: willow.
10. Planet: Moon.
11. Tarot Cards: four Nines.
12. Magical Tools: goblet, wand.
13. Direction: West.
14. Rituals Involving: change, divination, fertility, intuition, crystal ball, tarot cards, runes or other
divination aids; dreams, magic, love, plants, medicine, luck, birth, visions.

# 160 p 191

DEITIES, THE CELTIC

Cæsar and the Gauls themselves tried to fit the Celtic deities or the Gallic religion into the Roman
mythology. It mustn't be overlooked that the popular and bardic conception of Danaan was probably at all
times something different from each other. # 562

DELBCHAEM

The daughter of Morgan, king of the land of wonders and of Coinchend. Fairy mistress of Art son of Conn
of the Hundred Victories. She could not be won by any man because of a prophecy that when she married,
her mother would die. She was kept secluded and guarded by monsters, hags and hostile terrain - all of
which Art surmounted in order to win her. # 166 - 188 - 454

DEMETIA

(In Welsh: Dyfed) A kingdom in south Wales. Geoffrey of Monmouth states that it was ruled in Arthur's
time by Stater. Ordinary history knows nothing of this ruler and tells us of a king named Agricola who
ruled there in about AD 500, and of another ruler, Vortipor, who was an old man in AD 540. Before
Agricola's time an Irish dynasty, the Ui Liatháin, ruled there. # 156 - 243 - 484

DEMETRIUS

Visit to Britain of Demetrius; mentions island where 'Kronos' was imprisoned in sleep while Briareus kept
watch over him. # 562

DEMETRUS

According to Heywood, Merlin's maternal grandfather. The name seems to be a corruption of the place
name Demetia from where Merlin's mother came. # 156

DEMNA
# 454: The childhood name which Fionn took when he was tutored by Finneces. # 562: When Demna grew
up to be a lad, he was called 'Finn', or the Fair One, on account of the whiteness of his skin and his golden
hair, and by this name he was always known thereafter. He had a partly Danaan ancestry. His mother,
Murna of the White Neck, was grand-daughter of Nuada of the Silver Hand, who had wedded that Ethlinn,
daughter of Balor the Fomorian, who bore the Sun-god Lugh to Kian. Cumhal, son of Trenmor was Finns
father, and was slain by the Clan Morna. # 454 - 562 - 583

DEMOGORG0N

In classical mythology, the being who was thought to have resolved primeval chaos into order. According
to Conrad Celtis (1459-1508), Renaissance historian, he was the father of a nation in the Arctic northlands,
the Germans. In Erasmo de Valvasone's LA CACCIA, Arthur entered the cave of Demogorgon on his route
through a mountain to Morgan's palace. # 156 - 238

DENMARK, KINGS OF

In Anderson's Royal Genealogies, kings of Denmark in the 'Arthurian period', were Harald IV (AD 481-
527) and Eschyllus (AD 527-43). Geoffrey says that Aschil, King of Denmark, supported Arthur in his last
battle, but the MORTE ARTHURE says Mordred made the Danes his allies. Geoffrey Gaimar (a twelfth-
century Welsh writer) says in Arthurian times, it was ruled by King Gunter. # 156

DEOCA

A princess of Munster, Deoca, (the 'woman of the South'). See: CHILDREN OF LIR. # 562

DEOSIL

Deosil means Sunwise circles, the oldest ritual of all, and its representing the motion of the sun at an
Otherworld threshold. At the proper time and under the proper circumstances, it is a very potent ritual to
open the 'gate.' # 383 p 84

DERFEL

# 454: Derfel Cadarn (the Strong). Very little is known about him, except that his legend calls him a warrior
who distinguished himself at the Battle of Camlan. He was the founder and patron of Llanderfel in
Gwynedd, where a wooden statue of him on a horse, holding a staff, was shown. During the Reformation
this image was burned at Smithfield along with Katherine of Aragon's confessor, Friar John Forest, because
there was a prophecy saying that the image would one day set a forest on fire. Derfel is remembered on 5
April. # 156: A saint, founder of Llanderfel in Gwynedd. In Welsh tradition it was said he had taken part in,
and survived, the Battle of Camlann. # 156 - 216 - 454

DERMOT MACKERVAL

Dermot MacKerval (Diarmuid mac Cearbhaill) was High King in Ireland about 600 AD. He arrest and tries
Hugh Guairy, who was hidden in a church by his brother the bishop, for murder. Immediately the
ecclesiastics of Ireland made common cause against the lay ruler who had dared to execute justice on a
criminal under clerical protection. They assembled at Tara, and laid their solemn malediction upon him and
the seat of his government. # 562
DERMOT OF THE LOVE SPOT

(Dermot O'Dyna or Diarmuid) Follower of Finn mac Cumhal, lover of Grania, bred up with Angus at
palace on Boyne; the typical lover of Irish legend; slain by wild Boar of Ben Bulben; friend of Finn's;
described as a Gaelic Adonis; Donn, his father; His mother, who was unfaithful to Donn, bore another child
to Roc, the steward of Angus. Donn, one day, when the steward's child ran between his knees to escape
from some hounds that were fighting on the floor of the hall, gave him a squeeze with his two knees that
killed him on the spot, and he then flung the body among the hounds on the floor. When the steward found
his son dead, and discovered (with Finn's aid) the cause of it, he brought a Druid rod and smote the body
with it, whereupon, in place of the dead child, there arose a huge boar, without ears or tail; and to it he
spake: 'I charge you to bring Dermot O'Dyna to his death'; and the boar rushed out from the hall and
roamed in the forests of Ben Bulben in Co. Sligo till the time when his destiny should be fulfilled.

But Dermot grew up into a splendid youth, beloved by all his comrades of the Fianna. He was called
Dermot on the Love Spot, and here is a resume of how he got this appellation. 'With three comrades, he
was out hunting and late at night they sought a resting-place. They soon found a hut, in which were an old
man, a young girl, a wether sheep, and a cat. Here they asked for hospitality, and it was granted to them.
But, as usual in these tales, it was a house of mystery. When they sat down to dinner the wether got up and
mounted on the table. One after another the Fianna strove to throw it off, but it shook them down on the
floor. At last Goll succeeded in flinging it off the table, but him too it vanquished in the end, and put them
all under its feet. Then the old man bade the cat lead the wether back and fasten it up, and it did so easily.
The four champions, overcome with shame, were for leaving the house at once; but the old man explained
that they had suffered no discredit - the wether they had been fighting with was the World, and the cat was
the power that would destroy the world itself, namely, Death. - At night the four heroes went to rest in a
large chamber, and the young maid came to sleep in the same room; and it is said that her beauty made a
light on the walls of the room like a candle. One after another the Fianna went over to her couch, but she
repelled them all. 'I belonged to you once,' she said to each, 'and I never will again'. Last of all Dermot
went. 'O Dermot', she said, 'you also, I belonged to once, and I never can again, for I am Youth; but come
here and I will put a mark on you so that no woman can ever see you without loving you'. Then she touched
his forehead, and left the Love Spot there; and that drew the love of women to him as long as he lived #
334 - 562

DERRICKS

The derricks of Devon are described by E. M. Wright in RUSTIC SPEECH AND FOLK-LORE as
'dwarfish fairies, of somewhat evil nature', but they may have a better reputation in Hampshire. In 1962 a
visitor from Hampshire suggested to Ruth Tongue that a little green-dressed, good humoured fairy who
directed a stranger lost on the Berkshire downs might be a derrick. The Devonshire derricks would be more
likely to lead travellers astray. ># 100 - 752

DERRYVARAGH LAKE

Aoife's cruelty to her step-children at Derryvar'agh Lake, where she in CHILDREN OF LIR enchanted
them into swans for three times three hundred years. # 562

DERVOGIL

(dâr vôr'gli) Daughter of Ruad, king of the Isles; rescued from the Fomorians by CuChulain; married
Lugaid of the Red Stripes. # 166

DESA

Foster-father of Conary Môr. # 562


DESCENT FROM ANIMALS

The seal occurs in Celtic and Gaelic lore and fairy tale as an ancestor; the wolf founded an Irish tribe and
the 'Son of a Bear' occurs frequently in Irish and Welsh names. # 161

DETORS

A King of Northumberland. # 156

DEVIL IN WALES, THE

Until the nineteenth century many country folk actually believed that the Devil lived in the mountains of
Mid Wales. He was sometimes known as Andreas or Y Fall and was always described as black or very dark,
appearing sometimes in the shape of a man with horns and cloven hooves or even taking animal form.
Often he was said to resemble a hegoat and in witch-lore he appeared as a very black male goat with fiery
eyes. In some old stories of Wales he took the form of a raven, a black dog, a black cock, a horse or a black
pig. In fact it was believed that he could assume any form but that of a white sheep. However, he could
easily appear as a black sheep or lamb. Sometimes he appeared in the shape of a fish or as a ball of fire or a
huge stone rolling downhill, or as a mysterious and terrifying presence without form. - To prevent the
Prince of Darkness from entering their homes, people used to whitewash their doorsteps. This habit still
continues in some parts of Wales although the original reason may have been long forgotten. At one time,
whenever the Devil's name was mentioned in church, people would spit for several seconds in contempt.
There are many strange superstitions connected with the Devil in Welsh folklore.

The dragonfly is supposed to be the Devil's messenger; the caterpillar is the Devil's cat; the iris is the
Devil's posy; the wild clematis is the Devil's yarn or thread; the lycopodium (clubmoss) is the Devil's claw;
the euphorbia (spurge) is the Devil's milk; the palmatum is his hand; the Scabiosa Succisa is his bile and the
wild orchid his basket. - If it rains while the sun is shining they say that the Devil is beating his wife. But if
thunder is heard while the moon is shining he is beating his mother. - Sometimes the Devil would assume
the form of a blacksmith busy at the anvil or stoking the fire. He has been described as the maker of
horseshoes, bolts, bars and ploughshares. He was supposed to frequent moorlands, marshes, lonely
mountainsides, crossroads, forges, narrow passes and ravines. Nightmares, bad dreams and delirium due to
fever or drink were said to be the Devil's means by which he sought to get possession of people's souls. At
one time people would not bury their dead on the north side of a churchyard because they believed that area
belonged to the Devil and he claimed all places that lay due north. It was also thought that on Judgement
Day all buildings would fall to the north and then the Devil could take his share.

There are various lonely places in Wales where he was supposed to keep his apprentices. Often they
numbered nine, seven or five. The conditions of their employment were that when they learned their trade,
the last to finish and go away had to be caught by the Devil before he had a chance to escape. A story is told
of three apprentices who were about to leave. One was ordered to remain and he pointed to his shadow and
said, 'There is the last of all!' The Devil had to be satisfied with the shadow and the apprentice became a
man 'without a shadow' for the rest of his life. We may also hear that the Devil was once shut up in a tower
in Mid Wales. He was given permission to get out at the top, but only by mounting one step a day. There
were 365 steps so the ascent took him a whole year. There are legendary claims of people who managed to
outwit Satan or even on some occasions cause him actual 'bodily harm'. In Glamorgan, St Quinton is said to
have lamed the Devil on the hillside above Llanblethian and put him in misery for three days. The marks
called the Devil's Right Knee Cap and Left Foot are to be seen on the slope concerned to this day. A
Cardiganshire story describes Satan as a good-looking stranger appearing at a village inn where he offered
to play a round of cards. But when the name of Christ was mentioned the Devil vanished up the chimney
like 'a ball of fire'. It was a North Wales blacksmith who is claimed to have enticed the Devil one day into
his forge and there hammered his right foot upon the anvil after which he was 'lamed for ever'. Similarly, in
Powys and Glamorgan, there are stories of village blacksmiths who threw a noose of iron over the Devil's
head, which he was unable to break. He was then dragged to the anvil and his leg hammered until he was
lame. The Devil used to appear frequently in the village of Llanfor in Clwydd in the form of a pig and
sometimes as a gentle man in a threecornered hat. Two local wizards were successful in capturing him and
he turned into a cock. They threw him into Llyn y Geulan Goch, a deep pool in the River Dee, and he was
told to stay there until he had counted every grain of sand on the bottom. At Llanarth Church in Dyfed the
Devil once tried to steal a bell. However, he was noisy and awoke the vicar who frightened him away with
a bell, book and candle. The Evil One climbed to the top of the tower and jumped and you can still see a
mark on a stone in the graveyard where he landed. Throughout Britain and particularly in Wales there are
many strange natural features of the landscape that are associated through legend with the Devil. At
Bosherton Mere, Gower, can be seen the Devil's Blowhole. This is a small aperture which funnels out into a
cavern. The sea, driven in by the wind, is ejected through the upper hole in jets of foam and spray 40-50
feet high. The Devil's kitchen at the head of Cwm Idwal is so called because at times during storms there
are weird noises and steaming, dripping fogs in the cleft. It was seriously believed at one time that the
Devil lived in a cave somewhere in the depths of Wales. One old story claims that he used to live in a cave
on Pen y Cefn Mountain in North Wales. One day he was exorcized by the local people who held a service
at the cave entrance. During the service he fell into a deep murky pool and it is said that he has been black
ever since! # 49

DEVIL'S DANDY DOGS

This is a Cornish version of the Wild Hunt, closely attached to Dando and His Dogs, to the Gabriel
Ratchets and the Wish Hounds, the Welsh Cwn Annwn and, more loosely, to Herla's Rade. This last is the
legend that has the closest fairy connection; most of the other spirits are more nearly allied to beliefs about
the Devil than about fairies. The Devil and his dandy dogs are the most dangerous of all the diabolical
packs. Hunt, in POPULAR ROMANCES OF THE WEST OF ENGLAND, quotes a story of T. Quiller
Couch's in which a herdsman is only saved from being torn to pieces by the dandy dogs by kneeling and
praying:

A poor herdsman was journeying homeward across the moors one windy night, when he heard at a distance
among the Tors the baying of hounds, which he soon recognized as the dismal chorus of the dandydogs. It
was three or four miles to his house; and very much alarmed, he hurried onward as fast as the treacherous
nature of the soil and the uncertainty of the path would allow; but, alas! the melancholy yelping of the
hounds, and the dismal holloa of the hunter came nearer and nearer. After a considerable run, they had so
gained upon him, that on looking back, - oh horror! he could distinctly see hunter and dogs. The former was
terrible to look at, and had the usual complement of SAUCER-EYES, horns, and tail, accorded by common
consent to the legendary devil. He was black, of course, and carried in his hand a long hunting-pole. The
dogs, a numerous pack, blackened the small patch of moor that was visible; each snorting fire, and uttering
a yelp of indescriably frightful tone. No cottage, rock, or tree was near to give the herdsman shelter, and
nothing apparently remained to him but to abandon himself to their fury, when a happy thought suddenly
flashed upon him and suggested a resource. Just as they were about to rush upon him, he fell on his knees
in prayer. There was strange power in the holy words he uttered; for immediately, as if resistance had been
offered, the hell hounds stood at bay, howling more dismally than ever, and the hunter shouted, 'Bo Shrove,'
which (says my informant) means in the old language, 'THE BOY PRAYS,' at which they all drew off some
other pursuit and disappeared.

The Cornish devil hunts human souls. The prey of many devils are witches; but in the Scandinavian legend
it is Odin, lately become like Dando a demi-devil, who leads the hunt, and it is the elf-women whom he
pursues. One can see in all these varying hunts how close the connection between devils, fairies and the
dead can be. # 100 - 331

DEVIL'S HORNS THE SIGN AGAINST EVIL

To make the devil's horns, or the Horns of Cernunnos (the two midfingers bent inward and held by the
tumb), as a hand gesture, is one of the oldest prophylactic signs supposed to avert the evil eye and placate
harmful powers.
In some parts of Europe it is still considered more efficacious than making the sign of the cross. In antiquity
it must have represented an appeal to the Horned God; then in the Middle ages, an appeal to the devil, who
was often considered more influential in the earthly realm than God. The hand in the devil's horns position
does bear a striking resemblance to the head of a horned animal. Perhaps even more pertinent to the
diabolization of the gesture, however, is the fact that it was once intimately associated with the Goddess.
But the Sign against Evil was also, however, by holding the Fist of Thor, the very potent Norse god. # 701
p 308

DEVORGILLA

She was to be given in tribute to the Fomorians but was rescued by CuChulain who offered her in marriage
to Lugaid. Angry at this slight she attempted to kill CuChulain. He wounded and then healed her by
sucking her blood. By this action they became blood brother and sister. # 454

DEWI, SANT

See: DAVID, SAINT.

DEWY-RED

Horse of Conall of the Victories. # 562

DIANA

Dedications to Diana occur throughout Britain, including one temple which was re-dedicated on an old
Iron-age site at Maiden Castle denoting perhaps a native cult of a similar, unnamed goddess. She was the
goddess of venery and it is in this aspect that she is natively recognized. The site of St Pauls Cathedral,
London, was anciently sacred to her and there is a tradition that live bucks were processed up its steps until
medieval times. # 265 - 454 - 709

DIANCECHT

(de'ân häht - or - JAN kett) The great physician of the Tuatha De Danann. Grandfather of Lugh. Assisted by
Credne, he made the silver hand to replace the one lost by Nuadu in battle. The mortally wounded Tuatha
de Danaan were bathed in the well, Slane, which he had specially blessed by him, recovering to fight on.
Killed his son Miach because of professional jealousy. See: CAULDRON. # 166 - 454 - 562

DIANE

The goddess of the wood, mother of Dyonas and grandmother of Vivienne in the VULGATE VERSION.
See: DIONES. # 156

DIARMUID

(de ar moo id) Hero of the Fianna. Nephew of Fionn. He was fostered in the Sidhe of Bruig na Boinne by
Angus Og. His father, Donn, accidently(?) killed the Stewards son in that place. The Steward struck his son
with a wand and turned him into a wild boar, charging him to kill Donns son when the time came, on which
account Diarmuid was forbidden to hunt that boar. He had a love-spot, making him irresistible to women.
Grainne put a gease on him to run away with her when she saw the ageing Fionn who had come to woo her.
They run away together but had no rest, since Fionn swore that they should not sleep under one roof on two
consecutive nights, nor eat a meal in the same place twice. After a long pursuit, Fionn made peace with
them, but he sent Diarmuid to hunt the boar which wounded him. He begged a healing drink from Fionn's
hands, but such was Fionn's jealousy and anger that the water dripped from his fingers to the ground and
Diarmuid died. Equivalent to 'Tristan and Iseult', or Lancelot and Guinevere. See: DIARMUID AND
GRAINNE, THE PURSUIT OF, and DERMOT OF THE LOVE SPOT. ># 267 - 454 - 654

DIARMUID AND GRAINNE, THE PURSUIT OF

This tale is beyond doubt the most striking and tragic of the Finn cycle. It relates the trials and sufferings of
Diarmuid, one of Finn's warriors whom Grainne, Finn's affianced wife, forced to elope with her. The
narrative is somewhat prolix, but because of its comparative inaccessibility, Cross and Slover reproduce the
entire tale, except for one or two episodes not directly related to the main narrative. This story, which has
often been compared with the tragic romance of 'Tristan and Iseult,' differs markedly in manner from the
stories of the earlier tradition. It is more discursive, more delineative, and less restrained in style than the
tales of Ulster cycle or even than the earlier tales of Finn. And yet, its realistic treatment of human motive
and its objective analysis of character, devoid of editorial comment, place it definitely in the most
honorable line of Irish literary tradition. The episodic digressions contain a considerable amount of material
that belongs to the fairy tradition of the folk in later generations rather than to the epic literature of earlier
times, but they are none the less interesting and they illustrate the tendency, found even in the oldest
recorded Irish literature, to combine such material with what we may call the 'classical' tradition of the
heroic age. The main plot of the story and the general conception of the characters are certainly ancient.
The earliest reference to the love of Diarmuid and Grainne dates from the tenth century. But the version to
be found in Cross' and Slover's ANCIENT IRISH TALES, however, represents accretions through many
generations. # 166

DILLUS

An enemy of Arthur. One of the tasks set Culhwch by Yspadadden was to obtain this man's beard to make a
leash. To do this, Kay flung him into a pit and yanked out the hairs of his beard with tweezers. # 156 - 346

DINABUTIUS

The boy who taunted the young Merlin for not knowing the name of his father. This drew the attention of
one of Vortigern's counsellors to him as Vortigern was seeking a fatherless child. # 156

DINADAN

# 156: A Knight of the Round Table who saw no purpose in fighting for fighting's sake. He was the brother
of Breunor the Black.He was killed by Mordred and Agravain. # 454: Apart from Dagonet, he is about the
only figure in the Arthurian sagas who has a genuine sense of humour and no little satirical talent. He wrote
a lampoon against King Mark, and in a tournament in which Lancelot took part played all kinds of pranks
on the other knights. # 156 - 418 - 454

DINAS

The senechal of Mark and a Knight of the Round Table. He sympathized with Tristan, whom he had felt
had been mistreatet, and became his companion. When Lancelot ran off with Guinevere Dinas went with
him and became Duke of Anjou. According to the TAVOLA RITONDA, after Mark's death Dinas became
the King of Cornwall. # 156 - 238 - 418

DINAS EMRYS
Just below Llyn Dinas in Nant Gwynant, 2 miles north-east of Beddgelert, Gwynedd is an isolated
woodedhill called Dinas Emrys.The mountainous place in Snowdonia where Merlin had his confrontation
with Vortigern. Merlin claimed that the tower which Vortigern could not make stay up was falling over
because of a subterranean pool containing dragons, one red and the other white, who were fighting in an
underground lake beneath the rock. Myrddin (Merlin) subsequently dealth with them and built his own
fortress on the hill top.

Excavation has revealed the pool, and some Iron Age relics, which back up the legend. As to how the
dragons became confined there, the story of LLUD AND LLEFELYS in the MABINOGION gives details.
When Llud ruled Britain, a scream, whose origin could not be determined, was heard each May Eve.
Llefelys, King of France, furnished the information that it was caused by battling dragons. The scream
would be uttered by the dragon of the British nation when it was about to be defeated. The dragons were
captured and buried at Dinas Emrys. The main entrance to the fort is on the northern side of the hill and
traces of a ruined tower 36 feet by 24 feet have been found on the summit. Nearby is a circle of tumbled
stones about 30 feet in diameter which is said to be a mystic circle in which the dragons were hidden. At
one time the fort was known as Dinas Fforan - The Fort with High Powers. Myrddin apparently hid his
treasure in a cave at Dinas Emrys. He placed it in a golden vessel and that was placed with his golden chair
inside a cave. He then rolled a huge stone over the entrance and covered it with earth and green turf. We are
told that the discoverer of the treasure will be 'golden-haired and blue-eyed'. When that lucky person is near
to Dinas Emrys a bell will ring to invite him or her into the cave, which will open of its own accord as soon
as that person's foot touches it. A young man who lived near Beddgelert once searched for the treasure,
hoping to give himself a good start in life. He took a pickaxe and climbed to the top of the hill. When he
began to dig in earnest on the site of the tower, some terrible unearthly noises began to rumble under his
feet. The Dinas began to rock like a cradle and the sun clouded over so it became pitch dark. Lightning
flashed in the sky and thunder clapped over his head. He dropped the pickaxe and ran home. When he
arrived, everything was calm again but he never returned to collect his pickaxe. Not far from Dinas Emrys
is Cell-y-Dewiniaid - The Grove of the Magicians. There is a field here that once had a thick grove of oak
trees at its northern end. Vortigern's wise men used to meet here to discuss the great events of their times.
An adjacent field is where they were buried and at one time a stone actually marked the site of each grave.
A white thorn tree annually decorated each resting place with falling white blossoms. # 49 - 156 - 308

DINDRANE

The sister of Perceval, she went on the Grail Quest. The questers came to a castle where it was the custom
to demand the blood of passing women to cure the leprous chatelaine. Hearing of this, Dindrane voluntarily
donated her blood and died in so doing. In Italian romance, Perceval's sister is called Agrestizia. According
to # 454, Dindranes body accompanied the Grail Knights on the Ship of Solomon to Sarras. # 112 - 156 -
454 - 748

DINDSHENCHAS

(deen han hus)

DINEEN'S IRISH DICTIONARY

Reference to Dineen's Irish Dictionary. See : GEIS. # 562

DINNSENCHUS

(din-shen'cus) Ancient tract, preserved in the 'Book of Leinster.'# 562

DINODIG
Cantrev of Din'odig, over which Llew and Blodeuwedd reigned. # 562

DINRIGH

(din'ree) Maon slays Covac at Dinrigh. # 562

DIODURUS SICULUS

A contemporary of Julius Caesar; describes Gauls, and note in particular the Gallic love of gold. Even
cuirasses were made of it. This is also a very notable trait in Celtic Ireland. Diodorus about transmigration
or reincarnation: 'Among them the doctrine of Pythagoras prevails, according to which the souls of men are
immortal, and after a fixed term recommence to live, taking upon themselves a new body'. # 562

DIONES

The father of Nimue. His godmother was said to be the goddess Diana. # 156

DIONETA

The name of two persons mentioned in the fourteenth-century Welsh BIRTH OF ARTHUR. 1. A daughter
of Gorlois and Igraine, half-sister to Arthur. 2. A daughter of Gwyar and Lleu (Lot), sister to Mordred and
Gwalchmai. # 156

DIONISE

An enchanted chatelaine, liberated by Gawain, who refused to marry her. # 156

DIRAC

The brother of Lac and uncle of Erec. # 156

DIS

Pluto, equivalent. # 562

DITHORBA

Brother of Red Hugh and Kimbay, slain by Macha; five sons of Dithorba taken captive by Macha. # 562

DIURAN THE RHYMER

German and Diuran the Rhymer companions of Maeldun on his wonderful voyage; returns with piece of
silver net. # 562

DIVINATION

Animals and birds were closely involved with the ancient and universal practice of divination, which
assumes that deities, or powers other than human, can and will communicate with humanity and express
their desires. Divination also sought to reveal hidden secrets, to foretell future events or discover the
probable succes or failure of undertakings. It was largely the province of priests, shamans and magicians
but also affected everyday life in the occurence of personal omens. Innumerable methods were employed
but the use of sacrificial animals was one of the most usual. This was called 'exispicy' and was the means of
augury from the entrails of the sacrifice. Augury involved the flight of birds, or a bird; the posture when
settled or any movement while settled; if they are scattered it means ill-luck and enmity, if together it
signifies good luck and peace. The croak of a raven repeated three times when flying over a house is an
omen of death; a crow settling on a roof and cawing is the same. The laugh of a woodpecker denotes
intrigue, if against one, will fail, or that one could succeed in intrigue oneself; the laugh to the left has the
opposite significance. Numbers are also important: one or two croaks of a crow or raven are favourable,
three means death. Magpies are well-known for number symbolism. A crowing hen is 'neither good for God
nor men'. The Roman College of Augurs distinguised between bird prophets as either OSCENES, or
'talkers', and ALITES, or 'flyers'; among the talkers were ravens, crows, owls and magpies; the flyers were
eagles, vultures and migratory birds, although the latter could come into both categories as some talked as
they flew, such as geese and swans. Patterns of migration were also of great significance. The way a cat
faces when washing itself shows which way the wind may be expected to blow. The howling of a dog at
night portends death and was associated with Hecate. # 161

DIWRNACH

# 156: (DUR nach) An Irishman who refused to give Arthur his cauldron for Culhwch. Arthur led an
expedition to Ireland, Diwrnach was slain and the cauldron appropriated. See: THIRTEEN TREASURES. #
454: The possessor of a magical cauldron which would not boil the food of a coward. Is variously described
as the steward of the King of Ireland and also as a giant. Finding of the cauldron is the subject of the early
Welsh poem, the 'Preiddeu Annwn'. Also described in 'Culhwch and Olwen'. # 104 - 156 - 272 - 439 - 454

DO

A forester of Uther and the father of Griflet and Lorete. His own father was called Ares. # 156

DOBIE

One type of brownie, but, according to William Henderson in FOLK-LORE OF THE NORTHERN
COUNTIES, he is not nearly so acute as a brownie, and people are often heard saying, 'She's but a Dobie,'
or, 'Ye stupid Dobie!' It used to be the custom in unsettled times on the Border to bury one's valuables and
commit them to the charge of a brownie. If no brownie was to be had, people used to fall back on a dobie,
which was always willing, but very gullible. There was, however, another use of the name as a tutelary
family ghost. It will be remembered that the Cauld Lad of Hilton, who behaved like a brownie and was laid
in the traditional way by a gift of clothes, was supposed to be the ghost of a stableboy killed by one of the
Lords of Hilton. In the same way the silkie is often described as a ghost, and Lady Wilde describes the Irish
Banshee as the spirit of some beautiful girl of the family, dead long ago but still concerned with its
fortunes. In something the same way, the Dobie of Morthan Tower, Rokeby, is said to be the ghost of a
long-past wife of the Lord of Rokeby, who was murdered by her jealous husband in the glen below. It is
said that the blood which dripped from his dagger left indelible stains on the stairs. This dobie was more of
a ghost than a hobgoblin, for it seemed to haunt the house in a ghostly way, and neither keened nor
undertook domestic duties. In the end it was laid, not by a gift of clothes but by exorcism. # 100 - 302

DODINEL

A Knight of the Round Table, called 'the Savage', perhaps originally identical with Perceval. He used to
hunt game in wild forests, hence his sobriquet. He was the son of Belinant and Eglante (# 44). Another
version of the story made the Lady of Malehant his mother. # 156 - 418

DOG
# 701: Dogs were the usual attendants of the Celtic Mother Goddesses. When a god accompanied the
Mother, he often took the form of a dog. The Celtic healer god Nodens took on his zoomorphic aspect as a
dog. # 161: The dog is important in Celtic myth and appears frequently with hunter-gods, such as Sucellos,
the 'Good Striker', and with the Horse-goddess Epona. Dogs are associated with the healing waters and
Nodens, God of Healing, could manifest a dog. Dogs are also psychic animals and connected with
divination and they are frequently metamorphosed people in Celtic lore. There are endless accounts of
ghost, supernatural or enchanted dogs who could be either helpful or malevolent. # 454: The dog or hound
has ever been a faithful servant of humanity and this is reflected in British myth and folklore where the dog
is frequently one of the helping animals of the hero's search. Arthur's Cabal is one such dog, and Fionn's
Bran and Sceolan are others.

The hounds of the Otherworld or Underworld are always white with redtipped ears, and these are the pack
which ride with the Wild Hunt. CuChulain was named after he overcame Culainn's hound and it was geise
for him to eat dog's flesh - a proscription he broke just before his death, since it was also his geise never to
refuse hospitality offered to him: the Morrighan invited him to eat of a roasted dog. # 454 - 701

DOGSHEADS

There is a theory that they were related to the Conchind (Dogheads), a legendary people who ruled Ireland.
There may be some connection with the Cunesioi, a tribe whom Herodotus places beyond the Celts in the
Iberian Peninsula, and the Concani who, according to Horace, lived in Spain. # 156

DOLLALLOLLA

The wife of Arthur in Fielding's TRAGEDY OF TRAGEDIES (1730). This was a parody and consequently
Arthur's queen had a ridiculous name. # 156

DOLMENS

Dolmens, Cromlechs and Tumuli. A dolmen is a kind of chamber composed of upright unhewn stones, and
roofed generally with a single huge stone. They are usually wedge-shaped in plan, and traces of a porch can
often be noticed. The primary intention of the dolmen was to represent a dwelling-place for the dead. A
cromlech is properly a circular arrangement of standing stones, often with a dolmen in their midst. The
dolmens proper gave place in the end to great chambered mounds or tumuli, as at New Grange, which we
also reckon as belonging to the Megalithic People. They are a natural development of the dolmen. The
early dolmen-builders were in the neolithic stage of culture, there weapons were of polished stone. But in
the tumuli not only stone, but also bronze, and even iron, instruments are found at first evidently
importations, but afterwards of local manufacture. See also: MOUNDS. # 562

DOLOROUS BLOW (OR DOLOROUS STROKE)

# 454: The Blow accidentally struck by Balin which wounded the Grail King, Pelles, and caused the
Wasteland. # 59: The ESTOIRE places it earlier when King Varlan (or Brulens) killed King Lambor with
David's Sword. # 156: The stroke which caused the Waste Land to be rendered barren making the Grail
Quest necessary. In Malory it occured when Balin stabbed Pellam with the Lance of Longinus, destroying
three countries as a result. # 156 - 418 - 454 - 604

DON

# 562: Don, or Dôn (o as in 'bone'). A Cymric mother-goddess, representing the Gaelic Dana; Penardun, a
daughter of Don; Gwydion, son of Don, genealogy set forth. # 454: The mother of the Welsh pantheon as
projected within the four branches of the MABINOGION. She has been associated with the Irish Danu. Her
life and deeds are unrecorded, so antique is her origin. She represents the Celtic Magna Mater as the mother
of the sacred tribe, the genetrix of all peoples. In star-lore she is remembered in the constellation, as Llys
Don, or Casseopeia.

# 100: The Welsh goddess Don was the equivalent of the Irish goddess Dana, and it seems likely that she
was an immigrant from Ireland, for the Children of Don correspond closely in character and functions to
the Children of Dana. Govannan the smith was the British equivalent of the Irish Gobniu, Ludd or Nudd of
Nuada, for both had silver hands and Gwydion was a many-skilled god like Lugh. The Children of Don
were in frequent conflict with the Children of Llyr, who were the British equivalents of the Irish Children
of Lir. # 100 - 272 - 454 - 548 - 562

DONDINELLO

The father of Carduino, he was killed by poisoning. # 156

DONN

# 562: 1. Mac Midir, son of Midir the Proud. 2. Father of Dermot; gives his son to be nurtured by Angus
Oge (Angus Og). # 454: Donn was the Lord of the Dead. His house, Tech Duinn, was located on one of the
islands off south-west Munster. It is here that the dead gather prior to their Otherworld journey to the isles
of the Blest. # 454 - 562

DONN CUAILGNE (QUELGNY)

(down koo ile nyeh) The Brown Bull of Cuailgne was owned by Daire and became the object of much
strife. He was the eternal enemy of a swineherd; both of them went through time in different shapes
animals, dragons, demons and birds - until the Cattle Raid of Cooley, when his rival was the White Bull of
Connacht. The two bulls killed each other in combat. See also: QUELGNY. # 454

DONNYBROOK

Da Derga's hostel at Donnybrook. # 562

DOOCLOONE

Ailill slain in church of Doocloone; Maeldun (Maeldûn) at Doocloone. # 562

DOOINNEY-OIE

(dunya-oi) or the 'Night-Man'. A kindly spirit who gave warnings of storm, sometimes by a voice shouting,
sometimes by a misty appearance of a man who spoke and gave warning, and sometimes by the blowing of
a horn, which must have sounded rather like a Swiss alpen-horn. Gill mentions the Dooinney-Oie in A
SECOND MANX SCRAPBOOK, and gives a longer account of various warnings received in A MANX
SCRAPBOOK without mentioning the Dooinney-Oie by name. An amusing story of a Dooinney-Oie who
got too fond of playing his horn is told in Dora Broome's FAIRY TALES FROM THE ISLE OF MAN.
Howlaa seems almost indistinguishable from Dooinney-Oie, except that he never speaks, but only howls
before storms. # 100 - 105 - 250

DOONIE
A Scottish variant of the Northumberland Dunnie. Like the Dunnie, the Doonie appeared in the form of a
pony, but often as an old man or woman. It was far more benevolent than the Dunnie; the stories about it
are of guidance or rescue. Hannah Aitken quotes one published in the GALLOVIDIAN ANNUAL (V
1903) in which a school-boy, climbing the steep rock that overhangs Crichope Linn in Dumfriesshire to
take young rock-doves, slipped and fell right down the precipice. He caught hold of a hazel bush, but it
only gave him a few moments' grace. He looked down to see if he would be drowned in the Linn or dashed
to pieces on the rocks - there seemed no other choice - when he saw a strange old woman standing on a
ledge some way beneath him, who held out her apron and told him to jump into it. He jumped, for he had
no choice. The apron gave way and he fell into the Linn, but as he rose to the surface the old woman pulled
him out by the scruff of his neck, and led him to safety by a hidden path which he never found again. Then
she told him to get home and never to harry the doves again, 'Or mayby,' she said, 'the Doonie'll no be here
tae keep ye.' With that she was gone. # 100

DORIN

The son of Claudas who was killed in a fight with Lionel and Bors. # 156

DORNAR

A son of King Pellinore and a Knight of the Round Table. # 156

DOUBLE OR DOPPELGÄNGER

See: CO-WALKER.

DOUGLAS

The name of a river in Linnuis (Lindsay?) where four of Arthur's battles were fought. # 156 - 494

DOVER

A history of Dover Castle in Kent could be a history of England, if not of Britain. It is not without
significance that in a 20-mile compass of coastline are still found four of the most marvellous fortifications
from periods as far apart as the ancient British, the Roman, the Norman and the Tudor, for the coastline
which hinges on Dover has been the subject of constant invasion threats throughout the history of Britain.
The oldest of these fortifications is from the Iron Age, being the Belgic fortifications at Bigbury to the west
of Canterbury, the earthworks contouring some 25 acres of land. Among the many interesting finds from
this site is a virtually intact slave chain of iron, with a fascinating barrel padlock, a reminder of the slave-
centred communities which existed in Britain even before the Romans brought their own extensive slavery
system to this country. In the first century the Romans of Claudius landed at Richborough, where the
smooth green walls of the fortification ramparts are still curled like some enormous serpent among the few
remains of the enormous marble monumental building set up to honour Domitian and his general Agricola
for their conquest of Britain. The Normans built Dover Castle mainly on Roman foundations, but the
Romans appear to have used the earlier fortifications of the ancient Britons for their own guidelines.

Deal Castle was more free in its construction, for when Henry III decided on his break with the Pope he
constructed a number of artillery forts along the coastline, the most famous surviving (and, indeed,
originally the best) being that at Deal, which has a ground-plan of six conjoined lunettes or 'petal' bastions
as symbolic of the Tudor Rose. Something of the Iron Age fort is still visible in the wide swing of the
Dover Castle enclosures, while considerable remains from Roman times are eclipsed by the justified fame
of the Roman 'pharos' or lighthouse in the grounds of the Castle, next to the Saxon church of St Mary-in-
Castro. Substantial remains of Anglo-Saxon, Norman, Plantagenet and other dynasties, right through to
remains eloquent of the tragedies of the First and Second World Wars, are found in and around the Castle or
City. It is not surprising that with such a long and complex history beneath its belt, Dover Castle should be
able to claim its ghosts. The oldest of its ghosts is the Roman soldier who is said to be seen near the Pharos,
while another ghost is a thousand years nearer our own time, belonging to the period in which Peverell's
Tower was constructed. It is said that the ghost of an old woman and her dog appear outside the walls;
presumably this is the couple supposedly immured within these great walls for magical purposes, because
the stones would not stay in place during construction. A much later ghost - yet almost two hundred years
from our own time is the drummer boy, whose headless spirit is seen wandering the grounds of the castle
and who is said to have been murdered in a brawl during the Napoleonic wars. Whether the material is
historical or mythological, Dover really consists of a series of stratifications, built one upon the other, often
with only little destruction of what went before.

When a trench was being dug in Market Street in 1955, a hoard of coins, presumed to have been buried in
1295 when Dover was sacked by 10,000 Frenchmen, was revealed; what was significant about this
collection was that the money came from seven different nations in the medieval world. These coins, so
symbolic of Dover's place in history, are now on display in the local museum (Dover Town Hall). The walls
of Dover Castle are in parts 20 feet thick and attained their full girth under Henry II, though it is known that
the Castle has had continuous military occupation from Saxon times until the present century; they were
nominally handed over to the Ministry of Works in 1958, but still used for military ceremonial functions.
Nowhere in Britain is it possible to find so substantial a building which is so redolent with history and so
intimately woven into British mythology. When in the days of the bad King John the rebellious barons
invited the Dauphin of France to England, he first besieged Dover Castle, demanding that the Constable in
charge, Hugh de Burgh, hand over the keys to this guest of the barons. Defiantly, and with some prescience,
de Burgh shouted back that he would never hand over the key to aliens, for 'it is the very key of England'.
Perhaps the story is a nice piece of mythology, though it has the ring of truth about it and is undoubtedly
spiritually true; for sure, it is a tale which could be told only of Dover Castle, for no other place is the key
to England. The Dauphin failed to gain entry, and eventually his troops were defeated, but years later, in
1295, the French, tired of English raids on their own northern ports, arrived in full strength and completely
destroyed Dover itself, though they obviously regarded the castle as beyond their military purchase. # 702

DOWTH

In the tumulus at Dowth, which is close to that of New Grange, Ireland, is entirely of the same character
and period as the ship symbols found in Egypt with rayed figures and quartered circles, obviously solar
emblems, occur abundantly, as also at Loughcrew and other places in Ireland, and one other ship figure has
been identified at Dowth. # 562

DRAGON

# 701: The European dragon was often synonymous with the Ouroboros or Earth Serpent. In Brittany he
was 'the dragon of the Bretons.' Each May Day, it was said, he uttered a terrible scream that could be heard
underneath every hearth fire, demanding burial of a tub of mead as an offering to him. The official emblem
of Wales is still the red dragon, derived from the Great Red Serpent that once represented the old Welsh god
Dewi. # 161: The Celtic dragon represents sovereignty, power or a chief, such as Pendragon, the Celtic
word meaning 'chief'. The Red Dragon of Cadwallader or Cadwaller is the emblem of Wales - 'upon a
mount vert, a dragon passant, wings expanded and endorsed gules - the Red Dragon Dreadful'. It was
blazed on King Arthur's helmet in battle, later it was associated with Geoffrey of Monmouth and Owen
Glendower. The Saxons had the white dragon as a royal standard. In early Britain it depicted supreme
power.

The Heraldic dragon varies greatly, especially in the shape of its ears, but the wings are always those of a
bat; the tongue and tail can be barbed; it breathes out fire and is a symbol of power, wisdom and one who
has overcome an adversary or fortress. The Tudor Red Dragon indicates Welsh origins. Dragon Tygre and
Dragon-Wolf are composite creatures and support the arms of the City of London. # 454: The Dragon
appears in much more than its classical forms within British mythology. It is sometimes a worm and is
derived from northern European prototypes (Lindorm). It is sometimes a waterserpent or monster. In all
instances, the dragon exemplifies elemental power, especially of the earth. The dragon which Saint George
overcomes is symbolic of paganism, but such obvious symbolism overlays a great deal more subtle
imagery. The two dragons which Merlin Emrys releases from under Vortigern's tower are emblematic of the
vitality of the land which is chaotic unless tamed or wielded by a true ruler. In a story about the origin of
Samhain Eve we read that the dragon is symbolic of the Cailleach who holds the power of winter over
Brigit's lamb, symbolic of spring. See also: DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS.

# 100: The Dragon slain by St George was an heraldic dragon, wit bat's wings, a sting in its tail and fiery
breath. We find it in some of the English fairy-tales, and it is to be seen in church carvings and in many of
the Italian pictures of St George, such as the Carpaccio painting, where the dragon is pathetically small.
Most of the British dragons, however, are Worms after the Scandinavian pattern, wingless, generally very
long, with a poisonous rather than a fiery breath and self-joining. Nearly all the Celtic dragons are worms.
Worms and dragons have some traits in common. Both are scaly, both haunt wells or pools, both are avid
for maidens and particularly princesses, both are treasure-hoarders and are extremely hard to kill. It seems
as if the model on which both are founded is the fossilized remains on prehistoric monsters. In England
there are legends of a few winged, fiery dragons, the Dragon of Kingston for instance, who 'cooked his
meat to a turn' according to the tradition picked up by Ruth Tongue in 1911 from Cothelstone harvesters
and recorded in COUNTY FOLK-LORE, VOL.VIII. He was choked by a great boulder rolled down the
ridge into his mouth as he opened it to belch out flames. The Dragon of Wantley was a true dragon, typical
in his attributes, behaviour and the method of killing him, though this was also used against worms. A
condensed version of the rhymed account given by Harland and Wilkinson in LEGENDS AND
TRADITIONS OF LANCASHIRE is representative. One item worth noting is the anointing of the
champion by a black-haired maiden, for maidens played a large part in the dragon legends: This dragon was
the terror of all the countryside. He had fourty-four iron teeth, and a long sting in his tail, besides his strong
rough hide and fearful wings. He ate trees and cattle, and once he ate three young children at one meal. Fire
breathed from his nostrils, and for long no man dared come near him. Near to the dragon's den lived a
strange knight named More of More Hall, of whom it was said that so great was his strenght that he had
once seized a horse by its mane and tail, and swung it round and round till it was dead, because it had
angered him. Then, said the tale, he had eaten the horse, all except its head. At last the people of the place
came to More Hall in a body, and with tears implored the knight to free them from the fearful monster,
which was devouring all their food, and making them go in terror of their lives. They offered him all their
remaining goods if he would do them this service. But the knight said he wanted nothing except one black-
haired maid of sixteen, to anoint him for the battle at night, and array him in his armour in the morning.
When this was promised, he went to Sheffield, and found a smith who made him a suit of armour set all
over with iron spikes, each five or six inches in length. Then he hid in a well, where the dragon used to
drink, and as it stooped to the water, the knight put up his head with a shout and struck it a great blow full
in the face. But the dragon was upon him, hardly checked by the blow, and for two days and a night they
fought without either inflicting a wound upon the other. At last, as the dragon flung himself at More with
the intention of tossing him high into the air, More succeeded in planting a kick in the middle of its back.
This was the vital spot: the iron spike drove into the monster's flesh so far, that it spun round and round in
agony groaning and roaring fearfully, but in a few minutes all was over, it collapsed into a helpless heap,
and died.

The Serpent of Handale in Yorkshire seems to have been half-way between a serpent and a dragon, for it
had fiery breath and a venomous sting. It was a devourer of maidens, and a young man called Scaw killed it
to rescue an earl's daughter. The dragon, who haunted Winlatter Rock in Derbyshire was said to be the
Devil himself, taking that form, and was driven off by a monk who planted himself on the rock with his
arms outstretched in the shape of a cross. So great was his concentration that his feet sank deep into the
rock and left the impression of two holes there. In the second part of the tale, a concerted effort of the
neighbouring villagers drove off the dragon. He sought refuge down Blue John Mine and the Derbyshire
springs have tasted sulphurous and warm ever since.
# 725: Aldrovandus gives fifty-nine folio pages to dragons, and turns up much interesting material in the
process. He deals with humans of the name of Draco, with sea-serpents, tarantulas, plants, trees, stars,
devils, quicksilver, mountains, traps, fistulae, sirens, Hydras, anacondas, whales, leviathan, fossils,
heiroglyphs and even with an early form of aircraft called a Dragon, though not manufactured by De
Havilland, which flew. He adds that it is possible for unscrupulous people to forge a dragon, by plastic
surgery on the cadaver of a Giant Ray. But his main point is that the words 'dragon' and 'serpent' are
interchangeable. He points out that the reptile which attacked Laocoon is called by Virgil a serpent in one
place and a dragon in another. 'Why', wrote Kingsley in 1849, 'should not these dragons have been simply
what the Greek word dragon means-what ...the superstitions of the peasantry in many parts of England to
this day assert them to have been- "mighty worms", huge snakes?' This is the proper way to regard them.
'Dragon' was simply the medieval word for a large reptile, and the more one regards it as not being a joke
from the fairy stories, the more interesting the tales about the Dragons may prove to be.

# 49: Welsh Dragon Lore: Dragon stories can be found in many parts of Wales and it would seem that they
played a large part in the folklore of the Middle Ages. Many of the stories seem to have some connection
with the origin of ancient sites of worship. Church paintings and carvings traditionally interpret the dragon
killings as a symbolic battle between the forces of good and evil. The Christian heroes were generally
knights in shining armour such as St George and St Michael, and they always managed to slay their
dragons after long and dangerous battles. The mythical dragons were often given the responsibility of
guarding treasure secretly hidden in deep caverns in wildest Wales. Even up to the end of the nineteenth
century there were country folk who firmly believed in their existence. In the Vale of Neath there was a
story of a dragon or winged serpent that was thought to frequent the area near the waterfalls of the Pyrrdin,
Mellte, and Hepste Rivers. It concealed itself in the rocky gorges around Pont Nedd Fechan and apparently
made a general nuisance of itself in the neighbourhood. Trelech at Bettws in Dyfed was once the home of a
winged serpent. It was usually seen on or near a tumulus known as Crug Ederyn. When this was excavated
a stone-lined grave covered with rough slabs was found. It was reputed to be the grave of Ederyn, an early
prince or chieftain of Wales. - Dragons and winged serpents were also reported around Lleyn and
Penmaenmawr in Gwynedd, the ravines of the Berwyn Mountains, Cadair Idris, the wilds of Cardigan
(Dyfed), Radnor Forest (Powys), the Brecon Beacons, the marches of Carmarthen and Worm's Head,
Gower. In South Glamorgan, Llancarfan was haunted by several winged serpents and reptiles. The woods
near Penllyne Castle concealed winged serpents which terrorized the neighbourhood. An eye witness
described them as very beautiful, saying: 'Some of them had crests sparkling with all the colours of the
rainbow. When disturbed they glided swiftly, sparkling all over, to their hiding places. When angry they
flew over people's heads with outspread wings like feathers in a peacock's tail.' He denied that it was an old
story to frighten children but insisted that it was fact. His father and uncles had actually killed some of
them for they were 'as bad as foxes for poultry'. - Stories of winged serpents were told in the
neighbourhood of Radnor Forest and several parts of North Wales; they were exterminated by local
farmers. It is of interest that the Griffin, like the dragon, once had a prominent place in the folklore of
Wales. The strange beasts is often depicted on inn signs and such names as The Griffin or even Three
Griffins were popular for wayside pubs in the nineteenth century.

We end this chapter of dragons, with a briefing from Janet Hoult's DEFINITION OF THE DRAGON. #
323: The dragon is a well known symbol all over the world, and although there are slight variations in its
usual depiction (i.e. basically that of a large lizard with ears and wings), several main features are constant
throughout. As the symbol is so widespread, I wondered when I first started to research the subject whether
dragons could have actually existed on the earth at some time in the past, but had now become extinct.
However, several years further on, I have found that there is no evidence for a theory of that kind at all.
Dragons are not even a race memory dating back to the days of the cavemen and their encounters with
dinosaurs, as over 60 million years separate the end of the dinosaur age with the beginning of mankind. In
previous centuries the case for dragons, as with many other mythical beasts, was more plausible, for nature
was accepted unquestioningly as the work of God, existing solely for the use of teaching of man, and
stories of fabulous foreign beasts, although only dubious hearsay, were taken as truth. Early discoveries of
fossilised dinosaur bones, and travellers' tales of Komodo dragons would have added further proof.
Medieval bestiary writers such as Topsell, Gesner and Aldrovandi knew people who knew other people
who had seen a dragon, and there was a thriving trade in fake baby dragons. These 'Jenny Hanivers' as they
were called were lizards with bats' wings attached to them, and were imported from several countries, those
from Japan being considered the best. The Anglo-Saxon word 'drakan' is probably a Greek derivative, either
from 'draco' meaning a dragon or large snake, or from the verb 'derkein', which means to see clearly.
Dragons were credited with clear sight, wisdom and the ability to foretell the future. # 49 - 52 - 100 - 161 -
286 - 323 - 438 - 454 - 640 - 675 -701 p 243 - 725

DRAGON'S HILL, OXFORDSHIRE

The curious natural formation below the white horse of Uffington is said to mark the site where St George
killed the dragon. The top of the hill is said to have been so poisoned by the blood of the dragon that it will
no longer grow vegetation - in fact the top soil has long been eroded, to leave the chalk surface open to the
skies. From historically-based mythologies we learn that the founder of the West Saxon kingdom, Cerdic,
slew Natanleod at this spot, along with 5,000 of his soldiers. Natanleod was called the 'Pendragon'. # 702

DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS

(1540-96) The first circumnavigator of the world who fought against the Spanish Armada, he has passed
into legend as a hero possessed of supernatural powers. The Spanish called him El Draco (The Dragon),
and the luck which attended his daring exploits certainly pointed to special guidance. The drum which
accompanied him on his circumnavigation is kept at Buckland Abbey; it can be heard beating when
England is endangered. Moreover, Drake is supposed to be only sleeping like Arthur, and will rise at his
country's need. # 454

DRAYTON, MICHAEL

(1563-1631) See: DIMINUTIVE FAIRIES.

DREAMWALKER TO FAIRY HILLS

In the Andaman Islands, the Oku-Jumu ('dreamers'), who functioned as medicine men, came into
possession of their spiritual powers by consorting with spirits in the jungle, by dreaming , or by dying and
returning to life. Similarly, in the early Celtic epics of the British Isles, those heroes who, when riding
through a forest, allow themselves to be led into the pursuit of some visionary beast, presently find
themselves inside the fairy hills, engaged in adventures of a timeless, dreamlike surreality. For the forest
speaks to deeper centers than do city streets. And for those people in our time who have never been quite
convinced of the high importance of the deeds and gossip of the marketplace or village compound, the
exitement of the imagination that a forest fastness or a wild seacoast can awaken may become an
irresistible fascination, leading in the end to a transformed life. # 133

DRESS AND APPEARANCE OF THE FAIRIES

The fairies of Britain vary as much in dress as they do in appearance and size. Most people, asked off-hand
about the colour of the fairies' clothes, would answer 'green' without hesitation, and they would not be far
astray. Green is generally acknowledged to be the fairy colour, particularly in Celtic countries, and for this
reason is so unlucky that many Scotswomen refuse to wear green at all. Red runs green very close, and in
Ireland the small trooping fairies, the Daoine Sidh and the Shefro, wear green coats and red caps while the
solitary fairies, such as the Leprachauns, the Cluricaun and the Fear Dearg, generally wear red. William
Allingham describes: 'Wee folk, good folk, trooping all together,green jacket, red cap and white owl's
feather.' This seems to be the typical costume of the small trooping fairies.

The Lil' Fellas of Man, about three feet in height, are described by Sophia Morrison as wearing green coats
and red caps,or occasionally leather ones on hunting expeditions.Their hunting dogs were of all fancy
colours, green, blue, red. Red caps were very common for all kinds of the homelier fairies. Even the
Merrow in Crofton Croker's story wore a red cap to enable him to go through the sea to a dry land under it,
and gave a similar one to his human friend, which had to be thrown back when he returned to land. Red,
blue and white caps were used in various stories of fairy levitation. Grigs, little South Country fairies, wore
red caps. A Cluricaune of the Abbey Lubber type is described by Crofton Croker as wearing a red nightcap,
a leather apron, long light-blue stockings and high-heeled, buckled shoes. Even the mourners at the Fairy
Funeral in Bowker's GOBLIN TALES OF LANCASHIRE, though they were sombrely clad otherwise,
wore bright red caps. The green-clad fairy ladies enjoyed a touch of red as much as the fairy men, but they
introduced it in their slippers, like the little lady in 'The Fairies of Merlin's crag' from Gibbing's
FOLKLORE AND LEGENDS, SCOTLAND, who was eighteen inches high, with long golden hair
hanging to her waist, a long green dress and slippers. The tiny fairy gentleman who wooed Anne Jefferies
was too much of a dandy to wear a red cap, but he brightened his green clothing by a red feather in his hat.
In Somerset the fairies are said to wear red, and the rougher Pixies green. This is the opposite way round to
the Irish colour scheme. Elves wear green. Many of the Green Ladies of Scotland were connected with the
dead, and so naturally wore green, for green is the Celtic colour of death. The Silkies of the North of
England generally wore glistening white silk, the White Ladies of Man wore white satin, and the Tylwyth
Teg of Wales wore white. Isobel Gowdie, the self-confessed witch who gave a vivid account of her Traffic
With The Fairies, described the Fairy Queen rather prosaically: 'The Qwein of Fearrie is brawlie clothed in
whyt linens, and in whyt and browne cloathes.'

A Fairy Queen whose visit to a Galloway cottage is described in J. F. Campbell's POPULAR TALES OF
THE WEST HIGHLANDS, VOL.II, was more glamorous: She was very magnificently attired; her dress
was of the richest green, embroidered round with spangles of gold, and on her head was a small coronet of
pearls... One of the children put out her hand to get hold of the grand lady's spangles, but told her mother
afterwards that she felt nothing. This magnificent vision came on a prosaic errand; she wanted to borrow a
bowl of oatmeal. In the Celtic legend of ST COLLEN AND THE FAIRY KING, blue is introduced with
red; the king's pages wear liveries of scarlet and blue, impolitely denounced by the saint as, 'Blue for the
eternal cold and red for the flames of hell.' Manx fairies sometimes wore blue. In Gill's SECOND MANX
SCRAPBOOK we are told of a little gnomish man seen between Ramsey and Milntown, about two feet
high, - 'wearing a red cap and a long blue coat with bright buttons, white hair and bushy whiskers. Face
very wrinckled. Very bright, very kind eyes, carrying a small but very bright lantern.' In Jenkinson's
GUIDE TO THE ISLE OF MAN, 1876, he reports being told by a farmer's wife that her mother always
maintained that she had actually seen the fairies, and described them as young girls with 'scaly, fish-like
hands and blue dresses'. The little mouse-sized fairies in the Suffolk story of Brother Mike wore blue coats,
yellow breeches and little red caps. The fairies described by a friend to Walter Gill as seen in Glen Aldyn
were greyish all over, something the colour of a fungus, a foot to eighteen inches high. The earthbound
Trow in Shetland was also grey. A sombre note is struck too in Hugh Miller's account in THE OLD RED
SANDSTONE of the departure of the fairies: the horses 'shaggy diminutive things, speckled dun and grey,
the riders stunted, misgrown, ugly creatures, attired in antique jerkins of plaid, long grey cloaks, and little
red caps, from which their wild, uncombed locks shot out over their cheeks and foreheads'. This confirms
Kirk's much earlier statement that the fairies wore the costume of their country, as tartan in the Highlands.
John Beaumont's fairies, whose visits to him he describes in A TREATISE OF SPIRITS (1705), were
dressed in a most unusual fashion:

They had both black, loose Network Gowns, tied with a black sash about their Middles, and within the
Network appear'd a Gown of a Golden Colour, with somewhat of a Light striking through it; their Heads
were not dressed with Topknots, but they had white Linnen Caps on, with lace about three Fingers breadth,
and over it they had a Black loose Network Hood.

A rather engaging dress on little people of three feet high, but not at all the kind of costume one would
expect to see on a fairy. There were other eccentric costumes. The Gunna, a Highland fairy boy who had
been banished from the court, wore fox skins; the kind, solitary Ghillie Dhu dressed in leaves and green
moss; the sinister Northumbrian Duergar wore a coat made of lambskin, trousers and shoes of moleskins
and a hat of green moss decorated with a pheasant's feather. The BROWN MAN OF THE MUIRS wore
clothes of withered bracken. In the more literary descriptions of fairies from the 16th century onwards, they
are said to wear clothes made of flowers, of gossamer spangled with dew and of silvery gauze, but these
clothes are not so often found in the traditional accounts, though we can quote the foxglove caps of the
Shefro. Beyond these there are a number of fairies of all kinds who were naked. The Asrai, the water-
spirits, were beautiful, slender and naked, only covered by their long hair.

Many of the nymph-like fairies danced naked in their rounds, as the witches were said to do, a fashion
imitated by the modern witches. Many of the Hobgoblins were naked. Brownies generally wore ragged
clothes, but other hobgoblins were often hairy and naked. The Fenoderee is one of these hairy monsters.
There is Lob-Lie-By-TheFire, Hob, or Hobthrust, the Bogan, and the Urisg who was like a satyr in shape.
The Shetland Broonie 'King of the Trows' was presumably naked, since he was laid by a gift of clothing.
One naked little hobgoblin, however, was not shaggy, if we may trust his own pathetic description of
himself:

'Little pixie, fair and slim,


Not a rag to cover him.'
It is no wonder that the lament called forth the gift of clothing that laid him, but he did not go weeping
away like the Grogach of Man, but ran away merrily, as Mrs Bray tells us, chanting:
'Pixy fine, Pixy gay!
Pixy now will run away.'

Some fairies wore clothes indistinguishable from those of mortals, fine and fashionable like those of
Cherry's Master in the tale Cherry of Zennor, or homely and old-fashioned; or sometimes archaic, like the
costume of the market people seen at the fairy market at Blackdown: Those that had occasion to travel that
way, have frequently seen them there, appearing like Men and Women of a stature generally near the
smaller size of Men; their habits used to be of red, blew or green, according to the old way of Country
Garb, with high crown'd hats.

The descriptions given by Katharine Briggs in AN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF FAIRIES of fairy clothing and
appearance have not dealt with those skilled in shape-shifting, who can change their size and appearance at
will, nor do they make allowance for the power of glamour possessed by most of the fairies, which can only
be penetrated by the use of the fairy ointment, or a four-leafed clover. # 60 - 86 - 100 - 130 - 165 - 247 -
474 - 485

DRIANT

A son of King Pellinore and a Knight of the Round Table who received his death wound from Gawain. #
156

DROLL

or Droll-teller. See: WANDERING DROLL-TELLER.

DRUID PRIESTHOOD

Undoubtedly the single aspect of Celtic life and culture which springs most readily to mind when the
subject is discussed is the existence of the mysterious priesthood known as the Druids. Little or nothing is
known about them beyond the descriptions found in the writings of Julius Caesar, who founded most of his
knowledge on the Gaulish Celts rather than the native Britons. Beyond this we know that the word 'Druid'
probably stems from the word Duir, 'oak', which has given rise to the assumption that the Druids were
priests of the sacred oak groves believed to have once proliferated in Britain and Ireland. Other fragments
of informations suggests that there were a number of Druid Schools which taught the precepts of their
religion, and trained their formidable memories (they were required to momorize vast genealogies for the
scattered tribes of the island). Beyond this, all is speculation - or nearly all. While we still do not possess
any valid documentation on the Druids, there are hints and clues scattered throughout Celtic literature and
archaeology which enable us to piece together a sketchy picture*.

*See: # 386: Anne Ross and Don Robins: Life and Death of a Druid Prince, Rider, 1989, for the very latest
speculations, in which the author's convey evidence that one of the well known finds in a bog in the
northern part of Jutland, Denmark, were the remains of a famous Druid Prince). # 455 p 13 ff

DRUIDAN

A dwarf on whom Gawain bestowed his mistress Ydain who had tried to leave him. # 153 - 156

DRUIDIC FESTIVALS

That the Druids regulated all religious ceremonies and festivals goes without saying. Like other ancient
priesthoods they studied the movement of the sun, moon and stars and regulated the calendar accordingly.
As with many other nations they had festivals at the equinoxes and solstices. The year was personified at
these festivals at the spring by a youth, at the summer by a middle aged man, at the autumn by an elderly
man and at the winter by an old man. It is probable that the lighting of bonfires at certain times, which is a
very ancient British costum and has continued until recent times, is of Druidic origin. Besides lighting these
at the solstices and probably also at the equinoxes there were two other festivals which were of especial
importance. These are Beltaine on the 1st May, and Samhaine on the 1st November. The Druids, however,
attached even more importance to the moon, and there were festivals on the day of the new moon on the
sixth day of the moon and on the day of the full moon.

It is not believed, however, that they celebrated any nocturnal ceremonies; all their services are said to have
taken place in daylight.

All the ancient religions were sacrificial in nature, and it has been alluded to the allegation that the Druids
offered human sacrifices. A recent exponent of Druidism, however,(# 207) repudiates the idea that human
victims were ever sacrificed, but admits that sheep, oxen, deer and goats were burnt, their charred remains
having been found at Avebury, Stonehenge and even under St Paul's, which was built over a Druidical place
of worship. Professor Canney says, 'It is doubtful whether human sacrifice was common. It would seem to
have sufficed to take a few drops of blood from the victim and to burn only the wickerwork dummy.' White
bulls were, however, offered, according to Welsh bards. This reminds one of Ancient Egypt.

# 455 ( W. B. Crow: The Mistletoe Sacrement, p 51 ff) - # 207

DRUIDRY

In THE BOOK OF DRUIDRY by Ross Nichols, the foreword is written by a Chosen Chief of the Order of
Bards, Ovates & Druids, Philip CarrGomm. These words describe the Druidry from a very knowing point
of this Order, and the following is a briefing from that.

'Many people these days are turning to the native traditions of various cultures in an attempt not only to
reconnect with their roots and their heritage, but also in an attempt to find a living spirituality that can lead
them out of the psychological wasteland that has been created by industrial society. Great attention has
been paid to the native American tradition, and to the shamanistic practices of such diverse cultures as the
Siberian, Tibetan and Australian Aborigine. Less attention, however, has been given to a tradition which
lies closer to the ancestral roots of most European, and hence many North American, people - the Celtic
tradition, whose spirituality is epitomized in the path of the Druid. The reason for this lack of attention has
almost certainly been the belief that the Druid path has been lost. In reality, although the Druid path has
often disappeared from the historian's view, it has never been lost as a tradition - only hidden from the
public gaze. But often that which we think of as lost is only in fact hidden from us for a time, in order that
we may discover or rediscover it at the right moment.

For nine years after Ross Nichols' death the manuscript of THE BOOK OF DRUIDRY appeared to be lost,
until in 1984 a strange series of events led to its rediscovery and preparation for publication. During the last
two years of his life, Ross Nichols, the Chosen Chief of the Order of Bards, Ovates & Druids, had been
working on a book that he hoped would be able to convey most of what he knew of Druidry to those who
were not initiated into its inner workings. Having just completed the final pages of the book, he died
unexpectedly in 1975. The Order that he had led with such competence and enthusiasm soon became
dormant, and his successor closed the Order in 'the apparent world'. During the confusion that ensued after
his death - from the inadequacy of his Will and the fact that his study and flat remained unlocked for a
considerable time - the manuscript, the Order teachings and papers passed into a number of different hands
rather than to his successor. Nine years later, these scattered documents were assembled again to revive the
Order in its modern form and to bring THE BOOK OF DRUIDRY to publication in the form that it is
today. It is important for readers of this book to remember that this book was written back in 1973-74, and
to know that since that time a number of writers - such as John and Caitlín Matthews, Bob Stewart, John
Michell and Gareth Knight amongst others - have explored the areas of research covered by Ross in great
detail from both a scholastic and an esoteric viewpoint, and a study of their work will add a depth and
richness to the understanding gained from reading this book. Ross clearly came to a decision in writing this
that he wanted to reveal much of the nature of Druidic teaching, and yet he was still bound by his position
within the Order to be discreet and cautious.'

Philip Carr-Gomm, London, 1989. From the Introductory Ross writes this: 'Druidry is the Western form of
an ancient universal philosophy, culture or religion, dating from the days of early man when the three were
one. It is of the stone circle culture, the groves of sacred trees, the circular dance. It has been traced by
some as far as India in the cult of Siva; its oak tree burials are not infrequent in the West. With the
numerology, orientations and magical square calculations recently made, it is seen to link with the near-
universal surveying system, with its meaningful number and mystical geometry, that lends colour to the
ideas of a race of highly-developed beings originating from an Atlantis somewhere, or coming in flying
chariots from another world or dimension. At no time has Druidry agreed with the idea of evolution from
the animal as the main human origin, but has always conceived of a supernal, giant or deific basis to its
universal shape. Druidry has never been tied to the cult of any god-focus; its members, earlier and later,
seem always to have been experimenters and explorers in various lines of learning. Pythagoras, sometimes
considered as a founder, in such a perspective was a collector and developer of much earlier geometrical
ideas.

William Blake was an intuitive teacher, often by hyperbole, of the highest truth: 'Ancient man contained in
his mighty limbs all things in heaven and earth.' Always profoundly conscious of a great supernal design,
such thinkers linked with the mystical sides of many religions, but found Druidry itself something larger
than any of them. The Sufi, the Arhat, the higher Christian mystic, even Augustine of Hippo or the German
stigmatist, Theresa Neumann, share certain concepts of Druidry. Meanwhile, the Romans attempted to
exterminate, the Roman Church excommunicated, and the seventeenth and even the earlier eighteenth-
century Christians decided that on the whole Druidry had been, and was, intolerable. Only an antiquarian
vicar who was also an alchemist dared, from his own entrenched position, to break the general rule: The
Revd William Stukeley was head of the Order in England from 1722 to 1765. The intolerant intellectual
atmosphere meant that Druidry has largely developed underground in recent centuries, and Druids became
as cagey as Freemasons in admitting their connection. So successful were they in laying false trails that one
recent professor, writing in full ignorance of modern Druidry, dismisses as laughable the idea that the
eighteenth-century movement could possibly have begun its assembly of groves from many quarters under
the aegis of John Toland (HISTORY OF THE DRUIDS, 1719), although he had written papers, later edited
as a book, on Druid culture and antiquities. Lord Bulwer Lytton's family in times past furiously denied that
he was a Druid, whereas we know the grove of which he was Chief. William Blake, although frequently
using Druids as horrifying semi-mythological figures in his writings, managed to keep secret his connection
with them so deftly that the chief authority on Blake today, Kathleen Raine, did not know of the link. Yet
Blake had told no lies about it, and at least once had announced his Druidry, on the one occasion he came
publicly into conflict with authorithy, at Chichester in 1802. Blake was indeed a Druid; he was Chief for 28
years, and through him, jointly with Stukeley, appear to come the main inner ideas of Druidry today. At no
time, it now appears, have reasonable records of the Order been kept or, if so, they have been destroyed
through the various schisms and quarrels over succession that have occurred from time to time. Mainly,
however, it has been the early Druidic prohibition of writing and the insistence upon the learning by heart
of long wisdom-poems that have handed on the learning, mouth-to-ear, through the centuries. A sense of
secretive power and a great poetic metaphorical ability have indeed characterized the Welsh side of
Druidry, so that even when written it has been difficult to interpret the meaning and teaching hidden in the
ENGLYNS. To give any account of the development of Druidry is therefore impossible in the documentary
historical sense. Whilst one may be fairly sure of the general outline, the gaps are larger than the areas
covered by what is known. # 497

DRUIDS, DOCTRINES OF

Regarded as intermediaries between God and man; the sovereign power in Celtica; suppressed by Emperor
Tiberius; Aryan root for the word discovered; testimony of Dion Chrysostom to the power of the Doctrines
of Druids; religious, philosophic and scientific culture superintended by the Doctrines; record of Caesar
regarding the Doctrines of Druids; cosmogonic teaching died with their order. # 562

DRUIDS, MAGIC OF THE

Magic among the Celtic peoples in ancient times was so closely identified with Druidism that its origin
may be said to have been Druidic. That Druidism was of Celtic origin, however, is a question upon which
much discussion has been lavished, some authorities, among them Rhys, believing it to have been of non-
Celtic and even non-Aryan origin. This is to say that the earliest non-Aryan or so-called 'Iberian' or
Megalithic people of Britain introduced the immigrant Celts to the Druidic religion. An argument in favour
of this theory is that the continental Celts sent their neophyte Druid priests to Britain to undergo a special
training at the hands of the Druids there, and there is little doubt that this island was regarded as the
headquarters of the cult. The people of Cisalpine Gaul, for instance, had no Druidic priesthood. Caesar has
told us that in Gaul Druidic seminaries were very numerous, and that in them severe study and dicipline
were entailed upon the neophytes, the principal business of whom was to commit to memory countless
verses enshrining Druidic knowledge and tradition. That this instruction was astrological and magical we
have the fullest proof, and it is with these aspects of the Celtic religion alone that we have to deal in this
place. The Druids were magi as they were hierophants in the same sense that the American-Indian
medicine-man is both magus and priest. That is, they were medicine-men on a higher scale, and possessed a
larger share of transcendental knowledge than the shamans of more barbarous races. Thus they may be said
to be a link between the shaman and the magus of medieval times. Many of their practices were purely
shamanistic, whilst others were more closely connected with medieval magical rite. But they were not the
only magicians among the Celts, for we find that magic power is frequently the possession of women and
the poetic craft. The art magic of Druidism had many points of comparison with most magical systems, and
may be said to have approximated more to that black magic which desires power to render oneself
invisible, to change the bodily shape, to produce an enchanted sleep, to induce lunacy, and the utterance of
spells and charms which caused death. The art of rain-making, bringing down fire from the sky, and
causing mists, snow-storms and floods was also claimed by the Druids. Many of the spells probably in use
among the Druids survived until a comparatively late period, and are still in use in some remote Celtic
localities - the names of Saints being substituted for those of Celtic deities, - as in Well-worship a possibly
Druidic cultus, and certain ritual practices which are still carried out in the vicinity of megalithic structures.
In pronouncing incantations, the usual method employed was to stand upon one leg, to point to the person
or object on which the spell was to be laid on the fore-finger, at the same time closing an eye, as if to
concentrate the force of the entire personality upon that which was to be placed under ban.

A manuscript preserved in the Monastery of St Gall and dating from the eight or ninth century, has
preserved magical formulae for the preservation of butter and the healing of certain diseases in the name of
the Irish god Diancecht. These and others bear a close resemblance to Babylonian and Etruscan spells, and
this goes to strengthen the hypothesis often put forward with more or less ability that Druidism had an
eastern origin. All magical rites were accompanied by spells. Druids often accompanied an army to assist
by their magical art in confounding the enemy. There is little doubt that the conception of a Druidic
priesthood has descended down to our time in a more or less debased condition in British Celtic areas. Thus
the existence of guardians and keepers of wells said to possess magical properties, and the fact that certain
familiar magical spells and formulae are handed down from one generation to another, is a proof of the
survival of Drudic tradition, however feeble. Female are generally the conservators of these mysteries, but
that there were Druid priestesses is fairly certain. There are also indications that to some extent Scottish
witchcraft was a survival of Celtic religio-magical practice. # 612 - 613

DRUIDS, THE

The visitor to the ancient monument of Stonehenge, on Salisbury Plain in southern England, may well
encounter a remarkable spectacle at the time of the Summer Solstice. If he is there around sunrise on June
21st or at noon on that day, he may find a grave body of white-robed men and women engaged in
ceremonies and processions among the stones, and if he enquires, will be told that they are The Druids. If
he gives the matter further thought he may well ask himself the question 'Who are these Ancient People,
and are they in their rightful Ancient Place?' The answer is not a simple one. It involves archaeology and
ancient history; literary souces in classical and Celtic languages; the history of ideas and of literary and
artistic fashions from the last few centuries up to yesterday. It is also bedevilled with almost unbelievably
fatuous speculations and fantasies, and shot through and through with (in Leacock's famous phrase)
Moonbeams from the Larger Lunacy. With these words begin Professor of Archaelogy in the University of
Edinburgh, Stuart Piggott his Introductory to his book THE DRUIDS from 1968. And he continues, 'This
Book tries to present a sober account of a subject all too often given a cosy place among the Comforts of
Unreason. Perhaps it may be asked why an uncertainty should present itself at this point. The Druids have
in fact achieved a place in the average Englishman's mind as part of his heritage, set with Magna Carta or
Cavaliers and Roundheads in a misty perspective where Hampton Court, Stonehenge or Chatsworth can act
as a back-cloth as required. The more knowledgeable may remember that Julius Caesar wrote about them;
the less critical may accept the unbroken survival of the priesthood until today. Like the past, they are felt
to be only marginally interesting, and are accepted without more thought than is allotted to the rest of what
passes for history in most persons' minds. But the Druids do, in fact, have a remarkable interest as a
phenomenon, for in the form they are seen today they are the endproduct of a long story which illuminates
in the most fascinating way, how a consistent and recurrent pattern of thought, emotion and belief about
some of mankind's eternal problems can persist to worry thinkers from Hesiod in Greece of the eighth
century BC to modern writers of science fiction on both sides of the Atlantic. Quite apart from the
archaeology of Early Iron Age Europe and the nature of pagan Celtic religion, we shall have in this book to
consider the Golden Age and News from Nowhere; the Noble Savage and the Fall from Grace; natural
wisdom and remotely-dwelling superior intelligences. ... We shall see how the ideas of Primitivism and the
Noble Savage were taken up again from their classical origins by scholars whose training in thought and
unconscious apprehensions in feeling came in fact from the same Greek and Roman sources. To this were
soon to be added elements of increasing fantasy, as the Druids, now standing charismatically within the
Stonehenge horseshoe, became a compelling magnet for many a psychological misfit and lonely crank, and
we find ourselves in a world of books which all too frequently, are like that on witchcraft written by the
sinister Mr Karswell in M. R. James' ghost story, who 'seemed to put the GOLDEN LEGEND and the
GOLDEN BOUGH exactly on a par, and believe both: a pitiable exhibition, in short'. As we can see from
this brief notes from Stuart Piggott, his book THE DRUIDS promise to be a critical but sober investigation
of the whole phenomenon called Druids. For many years another scholar, Lewis Spence, waited for a book
to be published on the subject of Celtic-British magic. Many essays and articles appeared, but no
comprehensive single volume. Finally Mr Spence could wait no longer. He decided to write that book
himself. THE MAGIC ARTS IN CELTIC BRITAIN became that book, and a considerable part of it is
about the Druids, a subject which Lewis Spence through his profounding research aquired a formidable
knowledge of.

# 612: The very name of "Druid" has been the subject of obstinate contention. Generally, and probably
because of a statement of Pliny the Elder, it has been interpreted as referring to the Greek word Drus, "an
oak". Rhys criticizing this, remarks that no recourse need be had to Hellenic sources, and finds the genesis
of the term in the ancient Gaulish Celtic name for that tree. Other examples are presented like "dru-vid"
'very wise', "druid" from the British dar 'superior' and Gwydd, a 'priest'. Drud in old British, signified 'a
discreet or learned person'. In Scottish Gaelic Druidh means "a magician, or sorcerer". Spence's own
impression is that it is scarcely possible to divorce the word "druid" from the Old Celtic Derw 'an oak'.
Still, he feels that the derivation of the word from Drud or Druidh, "wise" or "learned", has much to
commend it, although it may well have been accepted from the name of the practitioners of an oak-cult. In
any case does he believe that the etymological study of the term does not appear to have arrived at that
stage where conclusive statement regarding it may be indulged in. We know rather more about Druidism
than we do of the beginnings of the Christian faith in this island, yet we are invited to regard the whole
question of the existence of Druidism as a hypothetical one! 'One thing at any rate is clear,' remarked the
late Professor Edward Anwyl, 'that the Druids and their doctrines, or supposed doctrines, had made a deep
impression on the writers of the ancient world. There is a reference to them in a fragment of Aristotle
(which may not, however, be genuine) that is of interest as assigning them a place in express terms both
among the Celts and the Galatae.

In his HISTORY OF THE DRUIDS John Toland suggests that when Druidism was banished from what is
now England it took refuge in Scotland and Ireland. So far as Scotland is concerned, precise record fails us
for the earlier centuries. One of the first allusions to Druidism in that region tells us that Drostan, the Druid
of the Irish Picts, designed in war-time a magic bath of milk which healed the wounded. But these Irish-
Pictish Druids, we are informed, were driven into Scotland. 'From them are every spell, and every charm,
and every sreod (sneeze), and voices of birds, and every omen' - in short, all Magic in Scotland proceeded
from them. A similar magic bath of milk was resorted to by the Druid of Criomhthan, Chief of Leinster, in a
war waged by the Irish and their Pictish allies with the British. The latter had poisoned their weapons,
Keating informs us, but Trosdane, the Druid in question, advised the Irish leader to dig a large pit, in which
the milk of 150 white-faced cows was to be poured. In this the wounded Irish and Pictish warriors were
immersed, with the result that a perfect cure was effected in every case and the invading Britons were
vanquished.

That Druidism, or the indwelling spirit thereof, survived in Ireland for generations is merely the plain
unvarnished fact, and those writers who make question of this survival delude not only their readers but
themselves. That the Irish Druids were in some manner associated with the tradition of the mystical Tuatha
De Danann appears probable. 'They [the Druids] are represented,' says Miss Eleanor Hull, an authority of
standing, 'as having come to Ireland with the Tuatha De Danann, the early magicians and kings, and to have
been in the service of the Irish Cruithnigh' (or Picts). 'According to tradition they must have been in Alba
(Scotland) long before, for we hear that King Cormac of Tara in the third century sent for Druids from Alba
to practise magic for him against the King of Munster.' She adds that every Irish king had his personal
Druid, as had every queen, that these priests took rank next to the king, that Druids were themselves
occasionally kings, that they received large territorial grants for their services, that they married and were
succeeded in office by their sons (as in the case of the early Christian priests in Scotland, up to the eleventh
century), that they were genealogists, annalists and physicians. But upon Druidism was to be imposed a cult
which was to have the most powerful repercussions upon its general religious and magical texture. This
was the cult of the divine king. It may or may not have been an idea extraneous to Druidism. The
likelihood-nay, the certainty-is that it took on a various semblance in every country to which it penetrated,
mingling in all probability with the older and primitive faiths of each. But, Egyptian as it was in its remoter
origin, it certainly did not supersede the Celtic element in Druidism, which absorbed it and transfused it
with the Celtic spirit.

# 572: Generosity has emerged as aprized virtue. In the ACCALLAM na SENORECH or Colloquy of the
Elders, the aged Cailte, last of the Fenians, finds himself in the monastery of Drogheda where he engages in
a somewhat testy debate with St Patrick, making unfavourable references to the saint's God whom he
regards as vengeful, pettyminded and parsimonious. He tells him that if the leaves of the autumn trees were
true gold or 'the white wave silver', Finn would have given it all away. No less important a virtue was a
robust self-reliance and integrity. Asked by St Patrick what maintained them through life, Cailte answers,
'The truth in our hearts, the strength in our arms and the fulfilment in our tongues'. The tripartite form of
this indicates it may have a genuinely Druidic origin and a somewhat similar tripartite list is given by
DiogenesLaertius who tells us the Druids taught that 'the gods must be worshipped, no evil done and manly
behaviour maintained'. We are also told that the Otherworld was a place where truth reigned. Manly
behaviour was obviously important. Alexander the Great, who asked a Celt what he most feared, was told,
nothing 'so long as the sky does not fall or the sea burst its bounds'. The phrase is peculiar insistent.
Sualdam Setanta, trying to rally the Ulstermen to the support of his son, CuChulain, shouts, 'Are the
heavens rent? Is the sea bursting its bounds? Is the end of the world upon us?' Later in the same epic, the
warriors of Conchobar assure him they will continue to fight until overcome by these cataclysms. In 1282,
when news reached his fellow countrymen that Llewelyn, the last Prince of Wales, had been killed by the
English, the bard Gruffydd ab yr Ynad Coch, lamented:

' Oh, God, why does not the sea cover the land? Why are we left to linger?'

# 412: The religion of the ancient Celtic peoples has been one of the most misunderstood of the pre-
Christian European religions. The priesthood of this religion has been the object of more speculative
fantasies than any other European priesthood. Since the rediscovery of the 'barbarian' past of ancient
Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, each generation has made the druids representatives of the irrational
ideals of the times. This is mainly because at the time the druids were rediscovered from classical sources,
the philosophies then current in Britain had developed the ideal of the 'noble savage' and the concept of
'natural religion' - both of which played a large role in the rise of the antiquarians' fascination with the
druids, megalithic monuments and the origins of the British people. The 'Age of Enlightenment' had seen
the rise of scientific thinking, but also following it came the rise of Romanticism and many fringe areas of
speculation. British and Anglo-Irish antiquarians such as William Stukeley, John Toland and Edward
Davies, to name a few, started publishing a great deal of this sort of work. To many of these writers and to
their followers in later times, the idea that the Celtic people and their druids were polytheists and made
sacrifices to their gods and goddesses was abominable. Many tended to project their Christian religious
ideas onto the druids and created a smokescreen of fantasy around them. Others, despising the 'barbarism'
of their ancestors, took a very grim view, thought of them as nasty savages and made up horror stories
about them in much the same way as they had done with the American Indians or Polynesian peoples.
There have been countless other fantasies created about the Celtic peoples and their druids since the 19th
century. Mainly each group has tried to project something of its own ideals of the 'noble savage' into the
Celtic tradition, whether it be 'British-Israelism,' matriarchy, pan-shamanism, UFOlogy and megaliths or a
kind of sword and sorcery fantasy. However, there is another version of the Celtic traditions which is
grounded in solid scolarship and the scientific methods. This is the view grounded in comparative studies
of linguistics, history, folklore and the mythologies of Indo-Europeanspeaking cultures. With these methods
and tools we can truly discover what the Celts believed in by asking the Celts themselves what their old
religion was about instead of telling them what their religion was about. This means not to allow oneself to
create an old Celtic religion or druidism from one's own aspirations and beliefs, but instead to reconstruct
the religion based on the oldest documents that preserve the authentic elder faith. This is what Tadhg
MacCrossan has done in his book THE SACRED CAULDRON. He has asked the old Irish storytellers,
brehons, filidh, druidh, ollamhs and so on what they believed and did and he got the answers through
careful study of the native traditions. The author continues: 'I have used the best critical materials and
primary sources available in the relevant fields. I have diligently compared the Celtic traditions with other
Indo-European traditions with which they are closely related. (Although the term 'IndoEuropean' is
normally considered to be a linguistic designation, it is used in my book, for the sake of convenience and in
accordance with modern scholarly practice, to refer to peoples and cultures which historically have used
Indo-European languages.)

Whenever Celtic tradition was silent on a particular matter, I have reverted to the traditions of the Indo-
Europeans - the ancestors of the Celts - as reconstructed by great comparative mythologists such as
Georges Dumézil, Emil Benveniste, Bruce Lincoln, C. Scott Littleton, Jarich Oosten and many others
referred to in the bibliography of the book. But the important thing to remember is that I have endeavoured
to keep the Celtic tradition as authentic as possible. My book is not intended to provide a simple do-it-
yourself religion, but as a true guide for those who want to follows the ways of their ancient Celtic
forebearers or those who are fascinated by the ancient Celtic religion and want to understand something of
its metaphysics.' THE SACRED CAULDRON is the result of a decade of study and research. Not only has
the author studied the old Celtic materials but has even put many of the ideas into practice and
experimented with the system as a whole in practical ways, and more or less written the book as a
guidebook for becoming part of a new 'Celtic Renaissance'. It is a fact, says MacCrossan, that the ancient
Celtic peoples had a male-dominated society. The ancient Celtic way of life was rugged and rough, and we
must take this into account when we consider what they were doing in the elder days. To fail to take these
differences between our modern society and their ancient culture into account is to be not only ethnocentric
but also chronocentric. # 177 - 214 - 301 - 328 - 412 - 526 - 554 - 572 - 612

DRUMADOON

The cave at Drumadoon, on Arran Island, Strathclyde, which is now called 'the King's Cave' after Robert
Bruce but in earlier times was identified with the legendary Fionn (as were the many stone circles on the
island - see: BRODICK, ARRAN), has several Viking carvings on the central pillar, the most interesting of
which appears to represent a man holding what might be a bow over the top of his head; what the
'instrument' really represents is anybody's guess, however. Other carvings include the image of a horse, and
what might be a twohanded sword or cross, suggesting that the cave might once have been used for
religious purposes. The notion that Robert Bruce was associated with the cave appears to rest on the
fourteenth-century Scottish-verse chronicle 'The Bruce', written by John Barbour, The Archdeacon of
Aberdeen, which makes no mention of Bruce or his men even visiting the cave. It was during his stay in
Arran, presumably at Whiting Bay, that Bruce met the Arran woman with 'second sight', who predicted that
he would eventually free Scotland from the enemy. In order to show her own faith in the prophecy she had
made, she sent her two sons in his service. # 702

DRUSWAS

The son of King Tryffin of Denmark. While he is listed as a follower of Arthur, one story (#92) tells how he
was to meet Arthur in a single combat. He craftily told his three pet griffins to go ahead and kill the first
man who came to the field, expecting it to be Arthur. However, Drudwas's sister was Arthur's mistress and
she delayed her lover. Drudwas himself arrived first and the griffins, not recognizing him, killed him. See:
TWENTY-FOUR KNIGHTS. # 30 - 156

DUBH

(doov) (means Black) She was a druidess who, on discovering that her husband had another wife, drowned
her rival. Her husband then cast at her with his sling and she fell into a pool which was called Dubhlinn or
Dublin. The Romans called it Nigratherma - literally Black Pool, but perhaps a more ancient name for
Dublin is Baile Atha Cliath or the Town of the Ford of Hurdles. Michael Scott in his IRISH FOLK AND
FAIRY TALES, 'The Dawn', claims that it was the 'savage northern Vikings who discovered the small,
almost circular valley surrounded by the mountains on the east coast of the fresh green land they sought to
conquer, and there they would build the city they would call Dubh Linn.' # 166 - 454 - 579

DUBH LACHA

She was the wife of Mongan, born on the same night as he. She was loved by Brandubh, to whom Mongan
was tricked into giving her up. However, with the help of Cuimhne, the hag, she was regained. # 454

DUBHLAING

He loved Aoibhell who prophesied that he would die in battle unless he put on her cloak of invisibility. #
454
DUBLIN

Conary goes toward Dublin; Conary's foster-brothers land at Dublin, for raiding purposes. Possibly origin
of the name, Dublin, see: DUBH, and PLACE NAME STORIES. # 562

DUBRICIUS, SAINT

(also Dubric; in Welsh: Dyfrig) An important Celtic saint, who died about the year AD 550. He was a
bishop and possibly also abbot of Caldey. According to Geoffrey, he was Archbishop of Caerleon and
crowned Arthur. In her recent book MERLIN (1988) N. L. Goodrich has sought to identify the saint with
Merlin. # 156

DUBTACH DOELTENGA

(doov'tah däl'cheng a) 'Duffy Chafer-Tongue.' Son of Lugaid; an Ulster warrior noted for his evil
disposition; shares with Bricriu the role of the Thersites of the Ulster cycle. # 166

DUIBHNE

(die nyeh)

DUMNONIA

A considerable British kingdom in post-Roman times. It covered Devon, Cornwall and other areas of the
south-west of England. Constantine, whom legend makes Arthur's successor, was King of Dumnonia. # 156

DUN

(doon) A stronghold, a royal residence surrounded by an earthen wall. # 166

DUN DELGAN

(doon dal'gan) CuChulain's chief stronghold; now an ancient mound near Dundalk, co. Louth. # 166

DUN STALLION

A horse of Arthur's said to haunt the Co. Durham village of Castle Eden. ># 156 - 753

DUNSTAN, SAINT

(909-88) Abbot of Glastonbury and Archbishop of Canterbury. Patron of goldsmiths, jewellers and
blacksmiths. Dunstan regularized monastic procedures and codified the present Coronation Rite. He was
extremely talented, being able to embroider, paint and play the harp, as well as being a goldsmith and
working with other metals. During his making of a golden chalice, he was said to have been assaulted by
the devil whom he held fast by the nose with his red-hot tongs. His emblem is still that of a pair of pincers.
A treatise on alchemy entitled 'On the Philosopher's Stone' is attributed to him. His feast-day is 19 May. #
454

DUNTERS
These Border spirits, also called Powries, like the more sinister Redcaps inhabit old peel-towers and Border
keeps. They make a constant noise, like beating flax or grinding barley in a hollow stone quern. William
Henderson mentions them in FOLK-LORE OF THE NORTHERN COUNTIES and says that if the sound
gets louder it is an omen of death or misfortune. He mentions that the foundation of these towers, supposed
to have been built by the Picts, were according to tradition sprinkled with blood as a foundation sacrifice.
The suggestion is that dunters and redcaps were the spirits of the original foundation sacrifices, whether
human or animal. # 100 - 302

DUPAIX

Reference to cup-and-ring markings in book 'Monuments of New Spain'. # 562

DWARFS

Germany is the great home of dwarfs, and the Isle of Rügen has dwarfs both black and white. The Swiss
mountains are also the homes of dwarfs, but though there are many stunted and grotesque figures in
English fairy-lore, it is doubtful if they were ever explicitly called 'dwarfs'. The best candidates for the
name would be the pygmy king and his followers who accosted King Herla in Walter Map's story in his DE
NUGIS CURIALIUM; but he is described as more like a satyr; the spriggans of Cornwall are small and
grotesque and travel in troops like some of the German dwarfs, but they are never so called. There are more
solitary fairies of the dwarfish kind, such as the 'wee, wee man' of one of the Child ballads (No.38), who is
stunted and grotesque and of great strength. His description is anticipated in a 14th-century poem quoted in
the Appendix to No. 38. The nearest approach to a black dwarf is the North Country Duergar, and the
Brown Man of the Muirs is like him. Dwarfs are often mentioned as attendants on ladies in Arthurian
legends, but these ladies hover so much between a fairy and a mortal estate that their attendants are equally
nebulous. On the whole it is best, as Kirk would say, to 'leave it to conjecture as we found it'. # 100 - 424

DWYN, SAINT OR DONWENNA DWYNWEN

(fifth or sixth century). The daughter of King Brychan. Acertain Maelon wished to marry her but she
rejected him; she dreamt that she was given a drink which delivered her from him but turned Maelon to ice.
She then prayed that he be unfrozen, that all lovers should find happiness in each other, or else be cured of
love, and that she herself should never marry. She is accordingly the patron of lovers in Wales. Fish were
kept at her holy well where she became a nun. They were believed to reveal the destiny of querents at her
shrine. She was invoked for the curing of animals. Her feast-day is 25 January. # 454

DYFED

(duv it) Pryderi and Manawyddan at Dyfed; Gwydion and Gilvaethwy at Dyfed.

See also: DEMETIA. # 562

DYFRIG

See: DUBRICIUS.

DYLAN

# 562: ('Son of the Wave'). Son of Arianrhod. His deathgroan the roar of the tide at mouth of the river
Conway. # 454: He was the brother of Llew. He was nicknamed Son of the Wave because he swam off into
the sea after being baptized. One of the Triads relates to a lost story concerning his death at the hands of his
uncle, Gofannon, where it is called one of the Three Unfortunate Blows. # 104 - 272 - 439 - 562
DYMPNA, SAINT

(seventh century) The daughter of an Irish king. She looked so like her dead mother that her father
conceived an adulterous passion for her, to escape from which she fled with her confessor to Holland. She
is patron of the mentally afflicted and is remembered on 15 May. # 454

DYN DYTHRI

Mortal visitors to the Otherworld. # 384 p 32

DYONAS

The father of Vivienne, according to the VULGATE VERSION. # 156

DYWEL

Brother of Gereint. # 156 - 346


EACH UISCE

(agh-iski) See: AUGHISKY.

EACH UISGE

(ech-ooshkya) This, the Highland Water-Horse, is perhaps the fiercest and most dangerous of all water-
horses, although the Cabyll Ushtey runs it close. It differs from the Kelpie in haunting the sea and lochs,
while the Kelpie belongs to running water. It seems also to transform itself more readily. Its most usual
form is that of a sleek and handsome horse, which almost offers itself to be ridden, but if anyone is so rash
as to mount it, he is carried at headlong speed into the lake and devoured. Only his liver is rejected, and
floats to shore. It is said that its skin is adhesive, and the rider cannot tear himself off it. It also appears
sometimes as a gigantic bird and sometimes as a handsome young man. J. F. Campbell has a long passage
devoted to the Eash Uisge in POPULAR TALES OF THE WEST HIGHLANDS, VOL.IV. When we come
to Each Uisge in his horse form, it is hard to select among the stories about him. A wide-spread tale which
is possibly cautionary in origin is of several little girls being carried away by him. A good version is told of
a small lochan near Aberfeldy. Seven little girls and a little boy were going for a walk on a Sunday
afternoon when they saw a pretty little pony grazing beside the loch. One of the little girls mounted him,
and then another and another until all seven were seated on his back. The little boy was more canny, and he
noticed that the pony grew longer to accomodate each new rider. So he took refuge among the high rough
rocks at the end of the loch. Suddenly the pony turned its head and noticed him. 'Come on little scabby-
head,' it cried, 'get on my back!' The boy stayed in shelter and the pony rushed towards him, the little girls
screaming, but unable to pull their hands from its back. To and fro they dodged among the rocks, but the
pony could not reach the boy, and at lenght it tired of trying, and plunged into the loch with its sevenfold
prey on its back. Next morning the livers of the seven children were washed up on the shore.

The tale of the killing of a water-horse is told in McKay's MORE WEST HIGHLAND TALES, VOL.II.
There was a smith in Raasay. He had a herd of cattle and his own family herded it. One night his daughter
did not return, and in the morning they found her heart and lungs on the loch side known to be haunted by
the Each Uisge. The smith was heartbroken, and determined to destroy the monster. He set up a forge by
the loch and he and his boy forged great iron hooks and made them redhot in the fire. They roasted a sheep
on the fire and the scent ot it went out over the water. A steaming mist arose, and the water-horse, like an
ugly, shaggy yearling, rose out of the loch. It seized the sheep and they grappled it with the hooks and
killed it there. But in the morning there were no bones nor hide, only a heap of what looked like star-shine.
(Star-shine is a jelly-like substance found on the shore, probably the remnants of stranded jellyfish, but
supposed by the Highlanders to be all that is left of a fallen star.) # 100 - 130 - 464

EAGLE

When surmounting a pillar the eagle is an emblem of the Sky Gods as the sun dissipating the powers of
darkness. The double-headed eagles are attributes of twin gods and can depict dual power or omniscience.
The symbol is of Oriental origin, although the eagles appears in Irish and Welsh traditions, but less often in
the Celtic. # 161

EAGLE OF GWERNABWY

The world's oldest creature which assisted Culhwch and his companions to find Mabon by introducing
them to the Salmon of Llyn Llw. # 156 - 346 - 562

EARTH MAGIC
It is an unfortunate fact that many orthodox archaeologists still persist in the outdated belief that early
humankind was primitive, savage and brutish. However, it is also tatally wrong to project our own modern
wish-fulfilments of utopia back into the past and claim that in prehistory a perfect society or Golden Age
existed which represented a paradise on Earth. The truth most ultimately lies between these two extreme
views, although it seems that the concept of a Golden Age, a period when humanity lived in harmony with
each other and the natural world, is found in the recurring pattern of creation myths belonging to the oldest
cultures on Earth. The idea that this era of peaceful co-existence came to a sudden end when humanity 'fell'
from grace and was separated from the natural world can also be found in world religious traditions and
ancient mythologies. The field of Earth Mysteries is a wide and universal one, embracing such diverse
subjects as ecology and environmental protection, planetary healing, quantum physics, ancient religion,
folklore and mythology. These different areas of research and experience combine to produce a holistic
vision of the cosmos, with humanity and the plant as one unit operating in universal harmony. Visits to all
ancient sites should be seen in terms of the medieval pilgrimages to religious places. If you visit the sites
wearing the mask of a tourist, their natural Earth Magic will mean nothing to you. Suspend belief in the
normal and the rational which we are falsely taught to believe are the tools used to study tha natural world.
Approach them instead in the manner in which the ancients viewed them, and a whole new experience of
enchantment, mystery and magic will open up to you.

Those pilgrims in search of ancient wisdom who visit our sacred centres to contact the dragon energy
which flows along the lines of power know the meaning of the words of the Irish poet and mystic W. B.
Yeats, who said, 'The borders of the mind are ever shifting, and many minds can flow into one another, and
create or reveal a single mind, a single energy.' # 325

EASAL

He was the King of the Golden Pillars whose seven magical pigs were endlessly renewed after having been
eaten. The finding of these was one of the tasks set by Lugh for the Sons of Tuirenn. # 454

EBER DONN

(Brown Eber) Milesian Lord; his brutal exultation and its sequel; In # 562 p 148: reference to Eber Donn as
one of Milesian leaders. See: AMERGIN. # 562

EBER FINN

(Fair Eber). One of the Milesian leaders, slain by Eremon. # 562

EBRAUCUS

Founder of the Castle of Mount Agned, later known as the Castle of Maidens. # 156 - 243

ECNE

(ec'nay) The god whose grandmother was Dana. # 562

ECTOR

Arthur's foster-father and the father of Kay. Ector is the Welsh form of the name Hector. # 156 - 418

ECTOR DE MARIS
Son of Ban whom he succeeded as King of Benwick. The brother of Lancelot, he loved Perse whom he
rescued from Zelotes to whom she had been promised by her father. # 156 - 418

EDA ELYN MAWR

The British Museum Harleian MS 4181 (entry 42) says that this was the name of the killer of Arthur. # 156

EDDAS

The name given to two Norse compositions, the POETIC EDDA and the PROSE EDDA. An eccentric
writer, L. A. Waddell, maintained that the former was not an epic of the Norse gods, as is generally
supposed, but a recording of the doings of an early Sumerian hero whose exploits formed the basis of the
Arthurian saga. This contention has not met with approbation from mainstream scholars. # 156 - 698

EDEN

A river. See: UTHER. # 156

EDINBURGH

This city was known in the Middle Ages as Castellum Puellarum. See: CASTLE OF MAIDENS. # 156

EDMUND, SAINT

(841-69) King of East Anglia. He led his army against the Danes and was defeated and captured. He was
martyred either by being shot full of arrows, or by being spread-eagled after the Viking fashion and offered
to their gods. His body was enshrined at Bury St Edmunds where a popular cult grew up about him. His
emblem is the arrow and he is remembered on 20 November.# 454

EDOR

An ancestor of Lot. # 156 - 344

EDWARD, SAINT

(962-79) Called 'the Martyr', he was King of England and was assassinated at Corfe Castle by his brother,
Ethelred's retainers. Miracles soon alerted churchmen that his unjust death, though not in defence of the
faith, merited greater attention. His youth may well have contributed to his veneration, as did the unholy
spilling of royal blood of an anointed sovereign.# 454

EFFLAM, SAINT

# 156: An Irish saint mentioned by Le Grand, a hagiologist whose work is not deemed wholly dependable
as he may have altered some of his source material. Efflam came to Brittany to find himself facing an
unfriend-ly dragon. Arthur, equipped with a club and lionskin shield, came to his aid but could not prevail
against the monster. Efflam, after blessing Arthur, put the dragon to flight. # 454: He lived in the sixth
century. After an unsuccessful attempt to subdue a serpent, Arthur was thirsty. Saint Efflam not only caused
a spring to rise but he also defeated the serpent himself.# 156 - 378 - 454

EFNISSIEN EVNISSYEN
(ave nees eye yen) Son of Eurosswyd and Penardun; mutilates horses of Matholwch; atonement made by
Bran for his outrage; slays the warriors hidden in the meal bags; dies in the magic cauldron. # 562

EFRAWG

Father of Perceval in PEREDUR (see MABINOGION). This seems to be a title ('York') rather than a name,
indicating that this was the place he ruled. # 156 - 346

EFRDDF

The twin sister of Urien of Rheged. # 104 - 156

EGLAMOUR

A poor knight at the court of Sir Prinsamour who made his castle a centre of Chivalric excellence.
Eglamour loved his daughter Chrystabell and was told that he could only win her if he achieves three
adventures. First he must slay the giant Marrock, then a huge boar who has been ravaging the lands of
Prinsamour. His third adventure is to kill a dragon which has been threatening Rome. Eglamour is
successful in all his endeavours but meanwhile Chrystabell gives birth to a son and both she and her lover
are banished. Her son is stolen by a griffin and Chrystabell herself wanders for years until she again meets
up with her lover and their son and all ends happily after many adventures. # 454

EGLANTE

The mother of Dodinel the Savage. # 156

EGWIN, SAINT

The legend says that St Egwin, the third bishop of Worchester, a Saxon who founded an abbey there in the
eight century, was the victim of false accusations, and went to Rome to vindicate himself. He put fetters on
his feet, locked them, and threw away the key into a pool of the Avon before setting out. While he was at
Rome a salmon caught in the Tiber was being cooked by his attendants, when they found in the fish's maw
the identical key, wherewith Egwin promptly unlocked his fetters. This miracle was naturally regarded by
the Pope as a complete vindication, and the saint was sent home to England in honour. This is the story as it
is told in the CHRONICLE of the abbey. William of Malmesbury says that the fish leapt on board the ship
on the saint's voyage. After Egwin's return the shepherd Eoves came to him and of a vision of the Virgin,
who had shown him the spot on which a new sanctuary was to be built in her honour. So the abbey was
founded, and called Eovesham, or Evesham. # 68

EGYPTIAN

The ship symbol in the sepulchral art of Egyptian. Feet of Osiris, symbol of visitation. Ideas of immortality.
Human sacrifices; abolished by Amasis I. # 562

EHANGWEN

Arthur's hall, built by Gwlyddyn the carpenter. # 156 - 346

EIDDILIG
According to the Welsh PEDWAR MARCHOG AR HUGAN LLYS ARTHUR, he was one of the Twenty-
four Knights of Arthur's Court. # 104 - 156

EIGYR

See: IGRAINE.

EILIAN OF GARTH DORWEN

Eilian was the name of the golden-haired maidservant who used to spin with the Tylwyth Teg on moonlight
nights and at last went to live with them. The tale - from CELTIC FOLKLORE by John Rhys - is told in
full in MIDWIFE TO THE FAIRIES. It is a tale of particular interest, for not only does it widen the scope
of the fairy midwife tale by showing that the patient to be attended was a human CAPTIVE IN
FAIRYLAND and that the child to be anointed was half-human, but is also a variation of the story of the
fairies as spinners and shows the importance they assigned to Golden Hair. It is of interest also that the field
where Eilian was last seen was long called 'Eilian's Field' or 'The Maid's Meadow'. # 100 - 554

EINHERIER

The dead warriors who feasted with Odin in Valhalla. They were fed by a boar which endlessly replenished
itself, and though they fought daily, if killed they were restored to life at the end of the day. In English
mythology they are considered to be similar to the Wild Hunt. # 454

EISIRT

Bard to King of Wee folk who allows himself to hint a little about a giant race oversea in a land called
Ulster, to the Wee-king, Iubdan. He is immediately clapped into prison for his audacity, and gets free only
by promising to go to the land of the mighty men, and bring evidence back. The story of his adventures in
Fairyland is to be read in # 562 p 247 ff. # 562

ELAINE

This name, a form of Helen, is borne by a number of people in Arthurian romance. 1. The daughter of
Pelles. He tricked Lancelot into sleeping with her and, on another occasion, Lancelot slept with her
thinking that she was Guinevere. She and Lancelot were the parents of Galahad. 2. The daughter of Bernard
of Astolat, she was Elaine the White and fell in love with Lancelot who wore her sleeve as a token during
joust. She died of love for him and was brought by boat up the Thames to Arthur's court with a letter saying
why she had died. She is, of course, the famous Lady of Shalott. 3. Daughter of Pellinore. She killed herself
after the death of her lover, Sir Miles of the Laundes. 4. Daughter of Igraine, sister of Morgan and
Morgause, half-sister of Arthur. She married King Nentres of Garlot. 5. Lancelot's mother, wife of King
Ban. 6. A niece of Arthur, variously described as a daughter of Lot or Nentres. She fell in love with
Perceval. # 156

ELCMAR

Husband of Boann. Tradition suggests that he was the original inhabitant and owner of Brugh na Boinne,
which was subsequently given to Angus in perpetuity, because of his magical power over day and night. #
96 - 416 - 454

ELDER
Often confused with the alder, the elder tree had a separate letter in the druidic alphabet, RUIS (R), sacred
to the Elder Goddess or Crone, the Caillech, who was Hel, queen of the underworld. Naturally, the elder
became known as a witch tree. Spirits of the pagan dead, once called Helleder, were said to be imprisoned
in elder wood. They would be transformed into avenging demons and would haunt and persecute anyone
who cut down an elder tree to make furniture. Moreover, a man who fell asleep under an elder tree would
have visions of Hel's underworld, which Christians converted into hell. Elder made witches' 'travel-
broomsticks.' Yet the healing magic of Hel's tree was not entirely forgotten. Medieval folk believed that a
wreath of elder leaves worn as a collar would cure every pain in the neck. See also: OLD LADY OF THE
ELDER TREE.

# 489: Folklore holds that it is unlucky to use Elder wood for a child's cradle, which should always be made
out of Birch for a new start and inception. In the Ogham calendar, the Elder rules the thirteenth month. This
is, in fact, a short three-day period, a 'make-up' month, ending in Samhain, the last night of the year and
known as Hallowe'en. The new year, on the1st November, and the month of the Birch follow on after. The
Elder, with its distinctive, easily hollowed, pithy stems, is a tree of regeneration.It regrows damaged
branches readily and it will root and grow rapidly from any part. # 489 - 701

ELERGIA

In the TAVOLA RITONDA, a witch who imprisoned Arthur. Tristan rescued him. # 156 - 238

ELF BULL, THE

Jamieson's Northern Antiquities gives the story of the most famous of the Crodh Mara, the cow bred by the
visit of a water-bull and of the farmer too mean for gratitude: The elf-bull is small, compared with earthly
bulls, of a mousecolour; Mosted [crop-eared], with short corky horns; short in the legs; long, round, and
slamp [supple] in the body, like a wild animal; with short, sleek, and glittering hair, like an otter; and
supernaturally active and strong. They most frequently appear near the banks of rivers; eat much green corn
in the night-time; and are only to be got rid of by, etc. etc. (certain spells which I have forgot). A certain
farmer who lived by the banks of a river, had a cow that was never known to admit an earthly bull; but
every year, in a certain day in the month of May, she regularly quitted her pasture, walked slowly along the
banks of the river, till she came opposite to a small holm covered with bushes; then entered the river, and
waded or swam to the holm, where she continued for a certain time, after which she again returned to her
pasture. This went on for several years, and every year, after the usual time of gestation, she had a calf.
They were all alike, mouse-coloured, mosted, with corky horns, round and long-bodied, grew to a good
rise, and were remarkably docile, strong, and useful, and all ridgels. At last, one forenoon, about
Martinmass, when the corn was all 'under thack and raip', as the farmer sat with his family by the ingleside,
they began to talk about killing their Yule-Mart. 'Hawkie,' said the gudeman, 'is fat and sleek; she has had
an easy life, and a good goe of it all her days, and has been a good cow to us; for she has filled the plough
and all the stalls in the byre with the finest steers in this country side; and now I think we may afford to
pick her old bones, and so she shall be the Mart.'

The words were scarcely uttered, when Hawkie, who was in the byre beyond the hallan, with her whole
bairn-time, tyed by their thrammels to their stalls, walked out through the side of the byre with as much
ease as if it had been made of brown paper; turned round on the midding-head; lowed once upon each of
her calves; then set out, they following her in order, each according to his age, along the banks of the river;
entered it; reached the holm; disappeared among the bushes; and neither she nor they were ever after seen
or heard of. The farmer and his sons, who had with wonder and terror viewed this phenomenon from a
distance, returned with heavy hearts to their house, and had little thought of Marts or merriments for that
year. # 100

ELIABEL
(Eliabella) The mother of Tristan in Italian romance, presumably identical with Malory's Elisabeth. # 156

ELIABELLA

In Italian romance, Tristan's mother and a cousin of Arthur. The latter had been at war with King Meliodas
of Liones and Eliabella married Meliodas to cement peace between the two. See: MARK. # 156

ELIAVRES

A knight with magical powers. He fell in love with Ysaive, a niece of Arthur. She was the wife of King
Caradoc of Vannes and Nantes. He bewitched Caradoc into sleeping with a bitch, a sow and a mare, while
he himself slept with Ysaive on whom he begot Caradoc Briefbras. The latter, discovering what had
happened, informed King Caradoc of the truth. The enraged cuckold made Eliavres copulate with a bitch
(by which he became the father of Guinalot), a sow (by which he became the father of Tortain) and a mare
(by which he became the father of Lorigal). # 156 - 272

ELIAZAR

A son of Pelles and an uncle of Galahad. # 156

ELIDOR AND THE GOLDEN BALL

Giraldus Cambrensis in ITINERARIUM CAMBRIAE, the account of his journey through Wales in 1188,
gives a remarkable narrative of a boy's visit to Fairyland, the translation of which by R.C.Hoare is included
by Thomas Keightley in his FAIRY MYTHOLOGY. It contains so mush information in so short a space
that it deserves to be included in full. It is one of the best of the early fairy anecdotes:

A short time before our days, a circumstance worthy of note occurred in these parts, which Elidurus, a
priest, most strenuously affirmed had befallen himself. When he was a youth of twelve years, - since, as
Solomon says, 'The root of learning is bitter, although the fruit is sweet,' - and was following his literary
pursuits, in order to avoid the disipline and frequent stripes inflicted on him by his preceptor, he ran away,
and concealed himself under the hollow bank of a river; and, after fasting in that situation for two days, two
little men of pygmy stature appeared to him, saying, 'if you will come with us, we will lead you into a
country full of delights and sports.' Assenting, and rising up, he followed his guides through a path, at first
subterraneous and dark, into a most beautiful country, adorned with rivers and meadows, woods and plains,
but obscure, and not illuminated with the full light of the sun. All the days were cloudy, and the nights
extremely dark, on account of the abscence of the moon and stars. The boy was brought before the king,
and introduced to him in the presence of the court: when, having examined him for a long time, he
delivered him to his son, who was then a boy. These men were of the smallest stature, but very well
proportioned for their size. They were all fair-haired, with luxuriant hair falling over their shoulders, like
that of women. They had horses proportioned to themselves, of the size of greyhounds. They neither ate
flesh nor fish, but lived on milk diet, made up into messes with saffron. They never took an oath, for they
detested nothing so much as lies. As often as they returned from our upper hemisphere, they reprobated our
ambition, infidelities, and inconstancies. They had no religious worship, being only, as it seems, strict
lovers and reverers of truth. The boy frequently returned to our hemisphere, sometimes by the way he had
first gone, sometimes by another; at first in company with others, and afterwards alone, and confided his
secret only to his mother, declaring to her the manners, nature, and state of that people. Being desired by
her to bring a present of gold, with which that region abounded, he stole, while at play with the king's son
the golden ball with which he used to divert himself, and brought it to his mother in great haste; and when
he reached the door of his father's house, but not unpursued, and was entering it in a great hurry, his foot
stumbled on the treshold, and, falling down into the room where his mother was sitting, the two Pygmies
seized the ball, which had dropped from his hand, and departed, spitting at and deriding the boy. On
recovering from his fall, confounded with shame, and execrating the evil counsel of his mother, he returned
by the usual track to the subterraneous road, but found no appearance of any passage, though he searched
for it on the banks of the river for nearly the space of a year. Having been brought back by his friends and
mother, and restored to his right way of thinking and his literary pursuits, he attained in process of time the
rank of priesthood. Whenever David the Second, bishop of St David's, talked to him in his advanced state
of life concerning this event, he could never relate the particulars without shedding tears. He had also a
knowledge of the language of that nation, and used to recite words of it he had readily acquired in his
younger days. These words, which the bishop often repeated to me, were very conformable to the Greek
idiom. When they asked for water, they said, udor udorum, which signifies 'Bring water;' for Udor, in their
language, as well as in the Greek, signifies water. When they want salt, they say, halgein udorum, 'Bring
salt.' Salt is called a'ç in Greek, and Halen in British; for that language, from the lenght of time which the
Britons (then called Trojans, and afterwards Britons from Brito, their leader) remained in Greece after the
destruction of Troy, became, in many instances, similar to Greek. # 100 - 250

ELIDURUS

See: ELIDOR AND THE GOLDEN BALL.

ELIDUS

A King of Ireland. # 156

ELIEZER

The son of Evelake. # 156

ELIS

The son of a duke who was Arthur's uncle. Readers of some editions of Malory may think that Elis was the
duke's name also, but this is due to a misprint in Caxton's original edition. # 156 - 418

ELISABETH

The wife of Meliodas. When heavily pregnant she went into the woods to look for her husband and gave
birth to Tristan, but died in doing so. She was the sister of Mark of Cornwall. # 156 - 418

ELIVRI

Arthur's head groom. # 156 - 346

ELIWLOD

Arthur's nephew, the son of Madog, son of Uther. After his death he appeared to Arthur in the guise of an
eagle in early Welsh poem YMDDIDDAN ARTHUR A'R ERYR. It has been suggested that he was the
original of Lancelot. See: TWENTY-FOUR KNIGHTS. # 156

ELIZABETHAN FAIRIES

The fairies of the Medieval Romances grew out of the Celtic tradition of the Heroic Fairies, the knights and
ladies of the MABINOGION, the Daoine Sidh who encountered the Milesians in love or battle; but the
poets and dramatists of the Elizabethan age brought a different strand of fairy tradition into prominence.
This was partly because the rise of the yeoman class, as the 16th century went on, had brought a spread of
literacy and produced a new class of writers, drawn from the country up to town as Shakespeare was
drawn, and bringing with them their own country traditions, The fairy ladies of the romances had become
more humanized and sophisticated as time went on, and though Spencer clung to them still, they were
perhaps slightly out of date. Classical mythology was a perennial source of allusions familiar to every
lettered man, even if he only came from a small-town grammar school. Still, there had been a good deal
said and sung about Mars and Venus and naiads and dryads and nymphs; a new source of reference would
be a welcome change, and it was at hand in the English countryside. There are two main types of fairies
which were novelties in literature: the hobgoblins, with which we may rate the brownie and the puck, and
the small, flower-loving fairies such as we find pre-eminently in MIDSUMMER NIGHT'S DREAM and
which became all the fashion for the Jacobean Fairies. These fairy writings came in towards the end of the
century, in the hey-day of the drama. Among the prose writers, Nashe in his TERRORS OF THE NIGHT
gives us a characteristic picture of the hobgoblin type: The Robin-good-fellowes, Elfes, Fairies, Hobgoblins
of our latter age, which idolatrous former daies and the fantastic all world of Greece ycleaped FAWNES,
SATYRES, DRYADES, & Hamadryades, did most of their merry prankes in the Night. Then ground they
malt, and had hempen shirts for their labours, daunst in rounds greene meadowes, pincht maids in their
sleep that swept not their houses cleane, and led poore Travellers out of their way notoriously. Here Nashe,
with a journalist's eye, lights on most of the things which became most noteworthy in his period, the
brownie labours and the gift of a shirt that brought them to an end, the Dancing in fairy rings, the love of
order and neatness and the punishment for untidy ways and the misleading of night wanderers. Shakespeare
puts in all of these, except the pinching, which is being forever mentioned in the masques and poems , but
he adds the fairy smallness and their love of flowers, which were to become so characteristic of the
Jacobean fairies. The Elizabethans struck a new note in literature there, though it was not new in tradition.
It is to be found in Gervase of Tilbury and Giraldus Cambrensis. # 100-246-247-493

ELLEN

The daughter of Arthur in the Scots ballad of CHILDE ROWLAND - She is referred to in the ballad as
Burd Ellen, 'burd' signifying 'lady'. # 156

ELLYLLDAN

(ethlerthldan) The Welsh form of Will O' The Wisp, or Jacky Lantern, or Spunkie, with a variety of names
all over the country but only one activity: that of misleading night travellers into fens and bogs. They have
not a monopoly of this sport, for Puck, Pwca, and the Somerset Pixies play exactly the same trick, though
they are much more complex characters. # 100

ELLYLLON

(ethlerthlon) This is the name given to the Welsh elves. According to Wirt Sikes in BRITISH GOBLINS
these are tiny, diaphanous fairies whose food is toadstools and 'fairy butter', a fungoid substance found in
the roots of old trees and in limestone crevices. Their queen is MAB, and they are smaller than the Tylwyth
Teg. In a story which Sikes collected orally at Peterstone, near Cardiff, they appear less ethereal and more
like Somerset pixies. This is the tale of an unfortunate farmer named Rowli Pugh who seemed to be the butt
of misfortune. If blight came anywhere, it fell on his crops; when all other cattle were flourishing, his were
ailing. His wife was an invalid with no strength to do anything about the house or farm, and he was
thinking sadly one day that he must sell up the farm and leave, when he was accosted by an ellyl who told
him not to be troubled any longer, to tell his wife to leave a lighted candle and sweep the fire clean, and the
Ellyllon would do the rest. The ellyl was as good as his word. Every night Rowli and Catti went early to
bed leaving the coast clear, every night they heard laughter, merriment and bustle below them, and every
morning farm stock and farmhouse were in apple-pie order. Rowli and Catti grew strong and sleek crops
and stock prospered. This went on for three years till Catti grew avid for a glimpse of the little people. One
night she left her husband sound asleep, tiptoed downstairs and peeped through a crack of the door. There
was the merry throng laughing, gambolling, working at top speed. Their merriment was so infectious that
Catti burst out laughing too. At once the candle was blown out, there was a cry and a scamper, and all was
quiet. The Ellyllon never came back to work at Pugh's farm, but he had got into the way of prosperity and
his ill-fortune did not return. A very similar story is told about the Somerset pixies. It is one of many stories
about the infringement of fairy privacy. # 100 - 596

ELMET

A Celtic kingdom, centred on Leeds, which was in existence in the Arthurian period. Its exact extent cannot
be determined. # 156

ELPHIN

# 562: Son of Gwyddno; finds Taliesin; his boast of wife and bard at Arthur's court. # 156: The son of
Gwyddno Garanhir, he rescued Taliesin when Ceridwen had placed him in a leather bag in the sea. Taliesin
repaid Elphin's kindness by rescuing him when he was a prisoner of Maelgwyn. # 156 - 272 - 562

ELSA

Daughter of the Duke of Brabant, she was championed by Lohengrin against Telramund. Lohengrin then
married her but cautioned her not to ask his name. She bore him two children but, at lenght, she asked the
forbidden question, so he left her. # 156

ELVES

Already in Scandinavian mythology the fairy people were elves, like the Scottish Seelie Court and
Unseelie Court. The name came over into Britain, and in the Anglo-Saxon Leechdoms we find remedies
against Elf-shot and other sinister elvish activities. The mythological light elves were not unlike the small
Trooping fairies of England as we find them in Shakespeare's MIDSUMMER NIGHT'S DREAM and
many common traditions. In Christian times the Scandinavians continued to believe in the elves, or huldre
folk, who showed many of the same characteristics as the Scottish fairies, both Highland and Lowland.
They stole humans away, destroyed their cattle and avenged any injuries done to them. The huldre girls
were beautiful and alluring, wearing grey dresses and white veils, but the defect of the fairies by which they
could be recognized was their long cows' tails. A man who was dancing with a huldre girl saw her tail and
realized what she was. He did not betray her, but only said, 'Pretty maid, you are losing your garter.' His
tact was rewarded by perpetual prosperity. The defect of the Danish elves or ellewomen is that though they
appeared beautiful and engaging from the front, they were hollow behind. The Danish elves were great
thieves of dough and other human foods. In Lowland Scotland and in England the usage differed. In
Scotland the fairy people of human size were often called elves and Fairyland was Elfame; in England it
was the smaller trooping fairies who were called elves, and the name was particularly applied to small fairy
boys. TITANIA'S 'To make my small elves coats' is a typical example of the later use. 'Elf', however, was
as unpopular with the fairies themselves as the tactless name of 'fairy', if we may judge from the rhyme
given by Chambers: 'Gin ye ca' me imp or elf, I rede ye look weel to yourself; Gin ye ca' me fairy, I'll work
ye muckle tarrie; Gin guid neibour ye ca' me, Then guid neibour I will be; But gin ye ca' me seelie wicht,
I'll be your freend baith day and nicht.' # 100 - 146

ELY

The definite history of Ely began in AD 673 though the early histories refer to a church at Ely which was
consecrated by St Augustine and later destroyed by Penda, King of Mercia. It was in 673 that St Etheldreda,
Queen of Northumbria, came to Ely to found a religious community. The great Saxon historian Bede
describes it as a nunnery, but almost certainly this was a double monastery of monks and nuns, and, as first
Abbess St Etheldreda ruled over both houses. The life of worship and service to God has continued ever
since, thousands of visitors come to the Cathedral in a manner reminiscent of the great medieval
pilgrimages, the Cathedral plays its part in the life of the City and the Diocese of Ely. In WHERE TROY
ONCE STOOD, Iman Wilkens tells us that Homer in the Iliad, XI, 166, refer to the Tomb of Ilos, which is,
according to Wilkens, the foundation of what we now know as the city Ely and its surroundings. As for one
of Homer's other clues - oysters, eels, vineyards and springs - all are present in the region. The excavations
have revealed oyster shells, and even today visitors are offered oysters, especially in Colchester, near the
North Sea oyster beds. As for eels, there are so many in the river Cam that the inhabitants of Ely, a small
town on this river, think that the name probably comes from eel. They cannot know that their town is more
likely to owe its name to Ilos, the ancestor of Priam, whose barrow, according to Homer, was precisely
there, half way between Troy and the sea. The magnificent Ely Cathedral is thus built on what must have
been an important pagan cult before the Christian era. There is still an old street called Vineyards in Ely,
indication of a tradition of viticulture and even today there are some local wines available. # 61 - 730

ELYAN

The son of Sir Bors by the daughter of King Brandegoris. He later became Emperor of Constantinople. #
156 - 418

ELYZABEL

Cousin of Guinevere, she was imprisoned by Claudas for suspected espionage. He refused to release her
and this led to war with Arthur. # 156

EMAIN MACHA

(ev'in ma'ha) The capital of ancient Ulster; now the Navan Fort near Armagh. The Morrigan passes through
Emain Macha to warn CuChulain; founding of E. M. with reign of Kimbay; equivalent, the Brooch of
Macha; Macha compels five sons of Dithorba to construct ramparts and trenches of E. M.; appearance of
Dectera in fields of E. M.; CuChulain drives back to E. M.; news of CuChulain's battle-fury brought to E.
M.; Fergus returns to E. M.; boy corps at E. M. go forth to help CuChulain; Ulster men return with great
glory; Conall's 'brain ball' laid up. See also: MACHA. # 166 - 562

EMANIA

Women of Emania meet CuChulain; sacrifice of boy corps of Emania avenged by CuChulain; CuChulain
takes farewell of womenfolk of Emania. See also: EMAIN MACHA. # 562

EMER

(ev'er) Daughter of Forgall Monach; wooed by CuChulain; CuChulain seeks and carries off Emer; She
becomes CuChulain's wife; learns of the tryst between CuChulain and Fand; CuChulain sees her corpse in
his madness. # 562

EMER, THE WOOING OF

# 166: According to the most ancient tradition, CuChulain, it seems, was unmarried, but stories of
tochmarca, or 'wooings,' were popular in early Irish literature, and we are not surprised to find that ere long
the greatest of all the Ulster heroes, though still a boy, was supplied with a wife. 'The Wooing of Emer'
exists in several versions, the oldest of which was composed as early as the eighth century. The wandering
and incoherent character of the narrative is probably due in large part to the fact that the author has added to
the simple tale of CuChulain's wooing numerous themes derived from older sagas, notably the account of
how CuChulain went to learn feats of arms from the amazonian Scathach. CuChulain's dialogue with Emer
is couched in a veiled and highly poetical language which was comprehensible only to the initiated and
hence means little when rendered into modern English. It can be found in full in Cross' and Slover's
ANCIENT IRISH TALES.

# 548: CuChulain's perilous adventure in the land of Scathach was contrived by Forgall Monach, the hostile
father of his future bride Emer, when he discovered that the young hero had been to his fort to woo the
maiden. Forgall was a nephew of Tethra, King of the Fomoire, and his fortress in Brega was called
Luglochta Loga, 'The Gardens of Lugh'. Before CuChulain drove to it in his chariot, nine men had been
searching every province in Ireland for a whole year in the hope of finding in some stronghold a maiden it
might please CuChulain to woo, but their search had been of no avail. Though Forgall's fortress was in
Ireland, the journey there was a metaphorical adventure into a mysterious world. Conversing in riddles with
Emer, CuChulain says that he passed the night in 'the house of a man who calls the cattle of the plain of
Tethra', and he has come 'between the Two Props of the Woodland, from the Darkness of the Sea, over the
Great Secret of the Men of the Gods, over the Foam of the Two Steeds of Emain, over the Field of the
Morrigan, over the Back of the Sea Pig, over the Valley of the Great Ox, between the God and his Prophet,
over the Marrow of the Woman Fedelm, between the Boar and his Dam, over the Washingplace of the
Horses of the Gods, between the King of Ana and his Servant, to the Food Storehouse of the Four Corners
of the World, over Great Ruin and the Remnants of the Great Feast, between the Vat and the Little Vat, to
the Daughters of the Champion of Tethra, King of the Fomoire, to the Gardens of Lugh.' When the hero
goes a-wooing, the drive from Ulster to Brega becomes a ceremonial progress into the world beyond. On
returning from the land of Scathach, CuChulain set out again in his scythe chariot for Forgall's fortress,
leaped over the three ramparts of the fort and 'dealt three blows in the fort, so that eight men fell from each
blow, and one escaped in each group of nine, namely Scibur, Ibur, and Cat, the three brtothers of Emer.'
Forgall fell to his death from a rampart as he fled from CuChulain, and the triumphant hero carried off
Emer and her foster-sister with their weight in gold and silver. Escaping towards Ulster, they were pursued
by Forgall's men, and CuChulain had to pause at various historic places on the way to do battle with them.
But the incidents of the struggle were no mere contingencies. During the punning conversation of the lovers
at their first encounter, CuChulain had seen the breasts of the maiden over the bosom of her smock. And he
said: 'Fair is the plain, the plain of the noble yoke.' 'No one comes to this plain,' said she, 'without leaping
the hero's salmon-leap, bringing out two women with their weight in gold and silver, and at one blow
slaying three times nine men but saving one man in each group of nine.' In the event, CuChulain and his
adversaries were simply going through the motions of a drama, the course of which had been preordained
before the action began. # 166 - 548

EMMELINE

In Dryden's KING ARTHUR, a blind girl, daughter of Duke Conon of Cornwall, was promised to Arthur
but was carried off by Oswald, the Saxon King of Kent. Merlin restored her sight when she was still a
prisoner and Arthur eventually defeated Oswald and rescued her. # 156

ENAMELLING

Enamelling was unknown to the classical nations till they learned it from the Celts. One beautiful feature in
the decoration of metal-work seems to have entirely originated in Celtica. # 562

ENDELLION, SAINT (ENDELIENT)

(sixth century) Daughter of the legendary King Brychan. Arthur was her god-father and he killed the lord of
Trenteny who had killed her cow, the milk of which was her only sustenance. She revived the malefactor.
At her death she bade her friends lay her upon a cart whose resting place should be determined by the oxen
which drew it: there she was buried. She is the patron of Saint Endellion in Cornwall and her feast-day is
29 April. # 156-454-615

ENDIMION
(LYLY) See: DIMINUTIVE FAIRIES.

ENEUAVC

The daughter of Bedivere. # 156

ENGRES

In the Icelandic SAGA OF TRISTRAM a king, brother of Iseult. He offered Iseult's hand to whomsoever
would kill a dragon. # 156 - 355

ENID

# 156: The heroine of Crétien's EREC ET ENIDE and the Welsh GEREINT AND ENID. In each of these
tales she is the wife of the hero. According to EREC, her father was Liconaus, whereas in GEREINT he
was named Ynwyl. EREC tells us that her mother was called Tarsenesyde. The origin of her name is
uncertain and it was perhaps at first a territorial designation. # 562: The tale of Enid and Gereint. In this
tale, according to Rolleston, which appears to be based on the 'EREC' of Chrestien de Troyes, the main
interest is neither mythological nor adventorous, but purely sentimental. # 152 - 156 - 346 - 562

ENYGEUS

Sister of Joseph of Arimathea, wife of Brons and mother of Alan. # 156

EOCHAID

(ughy) King of the Firbolgs when the Tuatha De Danann invaded Ireland. Firbolgs were a rougher, less
magical people than the Tuatha De Danaan, but the two races spoke the same language and were able to
agree on the same conventions of warfare. The Firbolgs were as The Titans to the Olympians, and, like the
Titans, they were overthrown. # 100

EOCHAID AIREM

(yo'he ar'em) Son of Finn, brother of Eochaid Fedlech, with whom he is sometimes confused; husband of
Etain. # 166

EOCHAID BUIDE

(yo'he boo'ye) Eochaid Salbuide, father of Nessa and grandfather of Conchobar. # 166

EOCHAID FEDLECH

(yo'he fed'leh) Brother of Eochaid Airem; king of Ireland beginning 3 BC; father of Medb and others. # 166

EOCHAID MUGMEDON

(yo'he mûg'me hon) King of Ireland about AD 358. # 166

EOCHY
(yeo'hee) Equivalent to Eochaid 1. Son of Erc, Firbolg king, husband of Taltiu or Telta. 2. King of Ireland;
reference to appearance of Midir the Proud to Eochy on the Hill of Tara; High King of Ireland wooes and
marries Etain; Midir appears to Eochy, and challenges to play chess. # 562

EOGAN MAC DURTHACHT

(yo'gan moc door'haht) King of Farney; a dependent of Conchobar, but often at odds with him. # 166

EOGHAN MOR

He was nicknamed Mug Nuadat, or Slave (devotee) of Nuada. He married Beare. He made a division of
Ireland between himself and Conn, who had the northern portion, himself retaining 'the slave's half'. # 454

EOPA

The Saxon who, at the instigation of Paschent, son of Vortigern, poisoned Ambrosius Aurelius. He
subsequently fell in battle against Uther. # 156-243

EOSTRE

Anglo-Saxon goddess of Spring, worshipped at festivals all over Britain. She gave her name to Easter and
some of the present folkcustoms performed at that time may be traced to her cult. # 454

EPHORUS

Ephorus, about 350 BC, has three lines of verse about the Celts in which they are described as using 'the
same customs as the Greeks' whatever that may mean - and being on the friendliest terms with that people,
who established guest friendships among them. # 562

EPONA

# 628: Queen of Horses and Fruitfullness. Epona in Celtic inscriptions from Gaul, and Rhiannon in Welsh
legend. She is the goddess of horses (the name 'Epona' derives from the Celtic word for 'Horse'), and
therefore of great power in a horse-based culture such as that of the Celts. In Romano-Celtic images she is
associated with corn, fruits and serpents, and as Mare-Goddess she would have been concerned with forces
of fertility and nourishment.

# 769: Many of her representations depict the goddess with baskets of fruit or corn. The Burgundian
imagery of mare and foal is especially evocative: the foal gains nourishment from Epona's PATERA or
suckles its mother. The fact that Epona's mount is a mare is important: the lands of the Aedui and Lingones
of Burgundy were famed for horse breeding, and Epona presided over this aspect of fertility. The
symbolism of Epona is complex and multifaceted. Mediterranian commentators speak of her purely as a
goddess of horse and stable. Epona may have been perceived as a protectress of horsemen and their
mounts. After all, the intelligence and speed of horses were crucial to the safety of the cavalryman; and it
should be remembered, too, that the pre-Roman Celtic society was based on a hierarchy of chiefs and
knights, on whom the society and prestige of the tribe depended. But Epona's cult possessed a greater
profundity than her equine symbolism alone would suggest. The femininity of her imagery and that of her
horse are significant, as is her overt fertility symbolism. But her key, her MAPPA and her association with
the dead suggest that here was a goddess who guarded her devotees throughout this life and into the next
world. She was a patroness of horses, cavalrymen and the craft of horse breeding at one level; at another,
she reflected the deep mysteries of life, death and rebirth. # 628 - 769
ERBIN

The father or, according to the LIFE OF ST. CYBY, the son of Gereint. # 156

ERC

King of Ireland, CuChulain's foe; mortally wounds the Grey of Macha. # 562

EREC

# 156: The husband of Enid who succeeded his father as King of Nantes. He first encountered Enid when
he gave chase to someone who had insulted Guinevere. After he married Enid she scolded him for giving
up knightly adventures so he undertook some more. C. Luttrell holds that the romance of EREC was
entirely the invention of Chrétien (# 403). Erec is usually regarded the son of Lac, but the Norse EREX
SAGA calls his father Ilax (# 152 - # 355). A Norse version of the story of Erec. # 152 - 156 - 355 - 403

EREMON

(ay-rev-on) First Milesian king of all Ireland. # 562

ERI

Mother of King Bres; reveals father of Bres as Elatha. # 562

ERIC

That's eric. A compensation exacted by the kinsmen of a slain man from his slayers. # 166

ERIES

A son of Lot who became one of Arthur's knights. He may have been the same as Gaheris and became a
separate character due to manuscript miscopying.# 156

ERIN

See also: ERIU. Reference to High-Kingship of Erin, (Erinn). It is said, Ireland was ruled by three Danaan
kings, grandsons of the Dagda. Their names were MacCuill, MacCecht, and MacGrené, and their wives
were named respectively Banba, Fohla, and Eriu. The Celtic habit of conceiving divine persons in triads
(q.v.) is here illustrated. These triads represent one person each, and the mythical character of that
personage is evident from the name of one of them, MacGrené, Son of the Sun. The names of the three
goddesses have each at different times been applied to Ireland, but that of the third, Eriu, has alone
persisted, and in the dative form, Erinn, is a poetic name for the country to this day. That Eriu is the wife of
MacGrené means, as de Jubainville observes, that the Sun-god, the god of Day, Life, and Science, has
wedded the land and is reigning over it. # 562

ERIU

(ä'ryu) Wife of Danaan king MacGrené; dative form, Erinn, poetic name applied to Ireland. There is some
evidence that Eriu was a solar divinity: the sun was perceived as a golden cup filled with red wine which
Eriu, as goddess of the land, hands to successive mortal kings of Ireland, to signify their marriage and the
fertility of the country. See: ERIN.# 562 - 769

ERLAN

An ancestor of Lot. # 156 - 344

ERMALEUS

In BEAUDOUS, Gawain's cousin whom Biausdous defeated and sent as a captive to Arthur. He was the
son of the King of Orkney. # 156

ERMID

Brother of Gereint. # 156 - 346

ERRIS BAY

The sea on the Atlantic by Erris and Inishglory where the Children of Lir should spend the last period of the
three times three hundred years as swans, which enchantment their step-mother Aoife had laid upon them. #
562

ERTHAL

Chieftain of the 'Goddoddin', the great heroic epic of post-Arthurian Britain. He is described thus: 'In the
van was, loud as thunder, the din of shields - when the tale shall be told of the battle of Catraeth (Catterick),
the people will utter sighs, long has been their grief because of the warrior's absence, there will be a
dominion without a sovereign and a smoking land.' # 454 - 610

ESCANOR

The name of a number of knights in Arthurian romance. In L'ATRE PERILLEUX Escanor was a knight
whose strenght grew at noon, then lessened. He abducted Arthur's female cupbearer but was eventually
killed by Gawain. The romance ESCANOR features two persons of that name: Escanor Le Beau who
fought a duel with Gawain, though they became friends; and Escanor Le Grand who was the son of a giant
and a witch and the uncle of Escanor Le Beau. He made Griflet a prisoner. # 30 - 156

ESCLABOR

The father of Palamedes. He was a nobleman of Babylon who was sent to Rome as part of a tribute. While
there, he saved the emperor's life. In due course he came to Logres where he saved the life of King
Pellinore and then hied himself to Camelot. # 30 - 156

ESCLADOS

A knight who defended a wondrous fountain in the Forest of Broceliande. Owain slew him and then
subsequently married his widow, Laudine (# 152). By marrying the widow of his victim Owain may well
have enshrined a pagan custom whereby whoever defeated a king was ritually married to his territory. #
152 - 156
ESCLARMONDE

The wife of Huon. In LE CHANSON D'ESCLARMONDE (a sequel to HUON DE BORDEAUX), Huon


discovered that, as he was married to Esclarmonde, a mortal, his right to inherit the kingdom of Faerie was
disputed by Arthur who had resorted thither after his reign in Britain. The fairies refused to obey Huon but
Morgan took Esclarmonde to the Terrestrial Paradise, where she was bathed in the fountain of Youth and
changed by Jesus into a fairy. # 156

ESCOL

A follower of Arthur. His father was King Aelens of Iceland. # 156 - 697

ESCORDUCARLA

The lady of Vallone, she planned to make Merlin, of whom she was enamoured, a prisoner; but he made her
a prisoner instead. # 156

ESRAS

The master of wisdom who gave into Lugh's keeping the spear which gave victory in battle. He dwelt in
Gorias, one of the four cities from which the Tuatha de Danaan had come. The Book of Invasions suggests
that this was in the northern Isles of Greece. # 454

ESTMERE

Hero of a late medieval Scottish romance. Something of an adventurer, he journeys to the court of King
Asland to ask for his daughter's hand. This is refused but not before the two have fallen in love. Shortly
afterwards, Estmere learns that a Spanish prince is threatening King Asland and his daughter, and
disguising himself as a Moorish harper he infiltrates the castle, slays the Spaniard and wins the hand of the
lady. Witty and lighthearted romance full of magic and colorful adventures. # 454

ESTONNE

The Lord of the Scottish Wilderness, father of Passaleon. He was killed by Bruyant the Faithless. # 156 -
198

ESTORAUSE

The pagan king of Sarras who imprisoned Galahad, Perceval and Bors, but who, when he was dying, asked
their forgiveness which was granted.# 156-418

ESTRANGOT

ILLE ESTRANGE, where Lionel was kept prisoner by Vagor. # 156

ETAIN

# 562: (aideen or EET-an) Second bride of Midir the Proud; transformed by Fuamnach into a butterfly;
driven by a magic tempest into the fairy palace of Angus; swallowed by Etar's wife, and reappears as a
mortal child; visited by Eochy (Eochaid), the High King, who wooes and makes her his wife; the desperate
love of Ailill for Etain; Midir the Proud comes to claim Etain, as his Danaan wife; recovered by Eochy. #
166: 1. A woman of the fairy folk, wife of Eochaid Airem and loved of Midir; heroine of 'The Wooing of
Etain', 2. daughter of the above, wife of Cormac, king of Leinster. # 100: Etain of the Tuatha De Danann
was the heroine of the great fairy love story, MIDHIR AND ETAIN. It has inspired much poetry and
drama, and is perhaps best known to English people through Fiona Macleod's fairy play, THE IMMORTAL
HOUR. The original story is well told by Lady Gregory in GODS AND FIGHTING MEN. Etain was the
second wife of Midhir, the king of the Fairy Hill of Bri Leith. His first wife Fuamach was bitterly jealous,
and with the help of the Druid Bresal Etarlaim, she finally contrived to turn Etain into a small fly and blew
her away with a bitter blast into the mortal land of Ireland, where she was blown about in great misery for
seven long years. But as for Fuamach, when her evil doings were known, Angus mac Og, son of Dagda,
smote her head from her body. After seven years of wretchedness, Etain was blown into the hall where Etar,
of Inver Cechmaine, was feasting, and she fell down from the roof into the golden cup of Etar's wife, who
swallowed her with the wine, and after nine months she was born as Etar's daughter, and was again named
Etain, and she grew into the most beautiful woman in the length and breadth of Ireland. When she was
grown Eochaid saw her and courted her, and took her back with him to Teamhair (Tara). But all this time
Midhir knew where she was, and had once appeared to her though she did not remember him. At the
wedding feast Eochaid's younger brother Ailell was suddenly smitten with a desperate love and longing for
Etain. He suppressed it, but he pined and a deadly sickness fell on him. The king's doctor said it was love-
longing, but he denied it. Eochaid became very anxious about him. The time came when Eochaid had to
ride on his circuit over the whole of Ireland receiving homage from the tributory kings, and he committed
Ailell to the care of Etain while he was away. Etain did all she could for Ailell, and she tried all she could to
persuade him to tell her what it was bringing him down to the gates of death. At last she made out that it
was unsatisfied love for her that ailed him. Then she was very sad, but she continued to do all that she
could for him, but he only grew worse, until in the end it seemed to her that the only way was for her to
yield to his longing, and she appointed to meet him very early next morning at a dun outside the town.
Ailell was filled with rapture, and all night he lay sleepless, but at dawn a deep sleep fell on him and he did
not go. But Etain rose early and went out to the dun. And at the time when she had appointed to meet Ailell
she saw a man that looked like him walking up to her with pain and weakness, but when he came close she
saw that it was not Ailell. They looked at each other in silence, and the man went away.

Etain waited a little and then went back and found Ailell newly awakened and full of anger at himself. He
told her how it had been, and she appointed to meet him next morning, but the same thing happened. And
on the third morning she spoke to the strange man. 'You are not the man I have appointed to meet,' she said.
'And I have not come out for wantonness but to heal a man who is laid under sickness for my sake.' 'You
would be better to come with me, for I was your first husband in the days that were long ago.' 'Why,' said
she, 'what is thy name at all, if it were to be demanded of thee?' It is not hard to answer thee,' he said,
'Mider of Bri Leith is my name.' 'And what made thee to part from me, if we were as thou sayest?' said
Etain. 'Easy again is the answer,' said Mider (Midhir); 'it was the sorcery of Fuamnach and the spells of
Bressal Etarlam that put us apart.' And Mider said to Etain: 'Wilt thou come with me?' 'Nay,' answered
Etain, 'I will not exchange the king of all Ireland for thee; for a man whose kindred and whose lineage is
unknown.' 'It was I myself indeed,' said Mider, 'who filled all the mind of Ailill with love for thee; it was I
also who prevented his coming to the tryst with thee, and allowed him not to spoil thy honor.' After all this
the lady went back to her house, and she came to speech with Ailill, and she greeted him. 'It hath happened
well for us both,' said Ailill, 'that the man met thee there: for I am cured forever from my illness, thou also
art unhurt in thine honor, and may a blessing rest upon thee!' 'Thanks be to our gods,' said Etain, 'that both
of us do indeed deem that all this hath chanced so well.'

And after that, Eochaid came back from his royal progress, and he asked at once for his brother; and the
tale was told to him from the beginning to the end, and the king was grateful to Etain, in that she had been
gracious to Ailill; and 'What hath been related in this tale,' said Eochaid, 'is well-pleasing to ourselves.'
Mider appeared once again to Etain in the likeness of the stranger she had seen when she was a girl. No one
saw him or heard the song he sang praising the beauties of Tir Nan Og and begging her to come with him.
She refused to leave Eochaid. 'If he renders thee to me, wilt thou come?' he said. 'If my lord does that I will
come,' she answered, and he left her. Soon after this a stranger appeared to Eochaid and challenged him to
three games of chess. They played for stakes, but, according to custom, the stakes were named by the
winner after the game was won. Twice Eochaid won, and he set high stakes, the first a great tribute of
horses and the second three tasks which it took all Mider's fairy hosts to accomplish. The third time Mider
won and he asked for Eochaid's wife. Eochaid refused, and Mider modified the demand for the right to put
his arms round her and kiss her. Eochaid granted that and set the time of granting at the end of a month. At
the end of that time Mider appeared. Eochaid had drawn all his forces round him and secured the doors as
soon as Mider entered so that he should not carry her away. Mider drew his sword with his left hand, put
his right arm round her and kissed her. Then they rose together through the roof and the warriors rushing
out saw two white swans flying over the Palace of Tara linked with a golden chain. That was not the end of
the story, for Eochaid could not rest without Etain, and after years of searching he tracked her to Bri Leith,
and made war on the whole realm of fairy, and made great havoc there until at lenght Etain was restored to
him. But the wrath of the Tuatha De Danann rested on Eochaid and all his descendants because of the great
harm they had wreaked upon the land of Tir Nan Og. This tale has been retold here at some lenght and from
two different sources alternating each other, namely from, as mentioned, Lady Gregory, and from Cross and
Slover's ANCIENT IRISH TALES, as an example of the subtle and poetic treatment of the heroic fairy
themes in the Irish legends. The challenge to games of chess occurs in many Celtic legends and fairy tales.
The theme of metempsychosis or reincarnation occurs often in the early legends.

# 236: Apart from being a remarkable tale, THE WOOING OF ETAIN has a remarkable history. Although
it is preserved in lebor na huidre, the beginning of the first section and the ending of the third are missing,
and only the short second section is complete. This situation persisted until this century, when a complete
version of the story was discovered lying innocently among a part of the Yellow Book of Lecan housed in
Cheltenham; and in 1937 the complete text of THE WOOING OF ETAIN finally appeared in print. The
three sections are virtually independent tales. The first comprises a set of variations upon the regeneration
theme of the rival lovers; thus, in the opening episode, Boand goes from her husband Elcmar to the Dagdae
and then back to Elcmar. Oengus' efforts to win Etain away from her father represent a variant of the type
found in the Welsh 'How Culhwch Won Olwen', while his concealing her from Mider suggests that the two
gods were originally rivals. In the second section, Echu and Ailill are the rival claimants, Ailill's
lovesickness recalling that of Gilvaethwy in 'Math Son of Mathonwy'; Etain goes from Echu to Ailill and
back to Echu. In the final section, it is Mider and Echu who contest Etain, and the tasks assigned Mider
recall those imposed upon the Dagdae in the first section and those imposed upon Culhwch; Etain goes
from Echu to Mider, back to Echu (in the person of her daughter), back to Mider and, in some traditions,
back to Echu - the uncertain conclusion underlines the seasonal motif. 'The Wooing of Etain' is also a kind
of legal primer. The first section, wherein Oengus gains possession of Bruig na Boinde (at Samuin,
naturally), demonstrates that the Irish had a poetic sense of law. Frank O'Connor in THE BACKWARD
LOOK says that 'The trick - borrowing the use of New Grange for a day and a night and then claiming
successfully that this means for all time - has some esoteric meaning which I cannot grasp'; but there is
nothing esoteric here. Oengus' argument that 'it is in days and nights that the world passes' explains
everything. Mider uses the same trick in the third section, for, in claiming that Echu has 'sold' Etain, he is
clearly arguing that 'My arms round Etain and a kiss from her' entitle him to permanent possession of her,
that it is in embraces and kisses that love is spent. (Actually, since the last fidchell game is played for an
open stake, Mider could simply have asked for Etain outright; but perhaps then Echu would not have kept
the bargain). Since Echu does not accept this argument - he claims that he has not sold Etain - Mider is
forced to trick him a second time; thinking that he has picked out Etain from among the fifty women, Echu
pledges himself content, but actually he has chosen his own (and Etain's) daughter. Mider's name
appropriately, seems to derive from a Celtic root meaning 'to judge'. # 769: Etain is closely associated with
the super-natural: she is linked to two gods, Midhir and Oenghus. She is reborn with the same identity as
her original self. Most important of all, it is clear that in her marriage to Eochiadh, she is fulfilling the role
of goddess and sovereignty, legitimizing his rule by her union with the king. # 100-166 - 236 - 267 - 562 -
769

ETAIN OIG

Daughter of Etain; King Conary Môr (Mor) descended from Etain Oig married Cormac, King of Ulster; put
away owing to barrenness; cowherd of Eterskel cares for her one daughter. # 562
ETAIN, THE WOOING OF

'The Wooing of Etain', composed in its oldest form as early as the eight century, is one of the most
charming pieces of romantic fiction preserved from the vernacular literature of medieval Europe. Though,
unfortunately, the story exists only in a series of disconnected and mutilated fragments, enough remains to
illustrate admirably the highly developed style and delicate treatment of sentiment which characterize
ancient Irish literature. In her earlier career, Etain is associated not only with Mider but also with Angus
Oc, a well-known supernatural personage who figures in the Mythological cycle. According to the annals,
her mortal husband, Eochaid Airem, became high king of Ireland about 134 BC. 'The Wooing of Etain' is
connected with 'The Destruction of Da Derga's Hostel' by the fact that Etain's grandson, King Conaire Mor,
meets his death as the result of Eochaid's having destroyed the fairy-mound of Bri Leith, whither Etain had
been abducted by Mider. # 166

ETAR

Mother of Etain. # 562

ETERSCEL

(ed'er scyal) King of Ireland (Tara), and foster-father of Conaire Mor husband of Mess Buachalla, daughter
of the second Etain; his cowherd cares for Mess Buachalla; on his death he is succeeded by Conaire
(Conary) Mor. # 166 - 562

ETHAL ANUBAL

Prince of Danaans of Connacht, father of Caer. # 562

ETHELDREDA, SAINT

(d. 679) Aethelthryth/Ediltrudis/Audrey, Abess of Ely. This formidable daughter of King Anna of the East
Angles became something of a professional virgin. She was married to Tondberht, and elderman, who died
leaving her virgin. She was then married to King Egfrith of Northumbria who had agreed to her remaining
a virgin but after twelve years requested that she sleep with him. She then founded the double monastery of
Ely, leaving her husband. Fairs held in her honour led to the expression 'tawdry' after the cheap fairings
sold there. She is depicted with two does who were said to have sustained the Ely community with their
milk during a famine. Her feast-day is 23 June. # 454

ETHLINN

or Ethnea. Daughter of Balor; gives her love to Kian (Cian); gives birth to three sons; one son, Lugh;
belongs to Finn's ancestry. # 562

ETHNA THE BRIDE

Finvarra, or Fin Bheara, the Irish fairy king who was also king of the dead, though he had a beautiful queen
of his own, was amorous of mortal women, and any woman who was renowned for her beauty stood in
special danger from him. Lady Wilde in her ANCIENT LEGENDS OF IRELAND tells of one Ethna the
Bride who was said to be the most beautiful woman then in Ireland and who was not stolen by Finvarra.
Ethna was newly married, and the young lord her husband was so proud of her beauty that he held
festivities day after day. His castle was near the fairy hill which covered Finvarra's palace, but they had
been long friends, and from time to time he set out offerings of wine to the fairy king, so he had no fear of
him. Nevertheless one evening, as Ethna was floating through the dance, shining like moonlight in her
silver dress, her hand slipped from her partner's and she fell to the ground in a swoon. Nothing would
revive her, and they carried her to bed where she lay motionless. In the morning she seemed to revive, but
would speak of nothing but a beautiful country which she had visited, and to which she longed to return. At
night she sank deep again into sleep. Her old nurse was set to guard her, but in the silence of the night she
too fell asleep, and when she woke at sunrise Ethna had gone. The whole castle was roused, and they
searched high and low, but no sight, sound nor trace of her was to be found. It was clear that the fairies had
some part in her disappearance, and the young lord rode off at top speed to Knock-Ma under which his
friend Finvarra lived, to seek his counsel as to how to find her. When he reached the Rath he dismounted,
and had begun to climb its slope when he heard voices above him in the air. 'Finvarra is happy now,' said
one, 'when he has carried Ethna the Bride into his palace. Her husband will never see her again.' 'Yet he
could win her back,' said another, 'if he could dig a deep hole down into the heart of the Rath and let the
light of day into it; but he will never win his way down, for Finvarra is more powerful than any mortal
man.' 'Yet I will conquer him,' thought the young lord; and he sent for workmen far and wide and they dug
down into the hill, a deep, wide trench, so that when darkness fell they thought that their task was more
than half done, and that they would reach Finvarra's palace by the next day. So they went to rest in high
hopes. But next morning the trench was gone, and the grass grew over the hill as if it had never been
disturbed. Then most men despaired, but the young lord had a brave heart, and he added more diggers to
the many who were working, and that day they got even deeper than the day before, but the next morning
all trace of their labour had disappeared. And the third morning it was the same again. Then the young lord
was ready to die for grief, when he heard a voice in the air above him saying 'Sprinkle the earth with salt
and your work will be safe.' Hope sprang up again in his heart, and he sent round and gathered salt from all
his people, and that night they covered all the piles of earth with salt before they left them. Next morning
their work had been untouched, and they set to work with a good heart, and before the day was over they
were so near to Fairyland that when they put their ears to the clay they could hear fairy music, and voices
speaking. And one voice said: 'Finvarra is sad now, for he knows that if one human spade cuts into his
palace wall it will crumble into dust.' Another answered: 'But if the king sends Ethna back to her lord, we
shall all be saved.' Then the voice of Finvarra rang out: 'Lay down your spades, men of earth, and at sunset
Ethna shall return to her lord.' At that the lord told his men to stop digging, and at sunset he rode up to the
mouth of the Glen, and Ethna came walking up the deep cleft, shining like silver, and he snatched her up to
his horse's back and rode with her to his catle; but Finvarra had played him false, for when he carried her in
she lay in his arms without speech or movement, and when they laid her on the bed she lay there like a
waxen image and nothing would rouse her, so that they began to fear that she had eaten Fairy Food and that
her soul had remained in Fairyland. One night as the lord was riding sadly home he heard the friendly
voices in the air. And one said: 'It is a year and a day since Ethna came home to her lord, and still she lies
motionless, for Finvarra has her soul with him still in his palace under Knock-Ma.' And the other answered:
'Yet her husband could win her back to mortal life if he undid the girdle round her waist and took out the
fairy pin with which it is fastened. If he burned the girdle and sprinkled the ashes outside her door, and
buried the pin in the earth, then her human soul would come back to her.' The young lord turned his horse,
and rode back like lightning. With great difficulty he untangled the girdle and disengaged the fairy pin. He
burnt the girdle and scattered the ashes outside the door. Still she never moved. Then he took the pin and
buried it under a fairy thorn where no one would disturb it. When he came back, Ethna sat up in bed and
stretched out her arms to him. She knew and remembered everything, except that the year she had spent in
Fairyland was like the dream of a single night. Finvarra never troubled them again, and they lived out their
mortal lives in great happiness.

They have long gone, but the deep cleft is still left in Knock-Ma, and is still called the Fairy Glen. Though
Finvarra behaved with such treachery it is clear that there were more scupulous spirits among his people.
Since Finvarra rules over the dead his story is very near to King Orfeo, the medieval version of ORPHEUS
AND EURYDICE in which Pluto is called the King of the Fairies. # 100 - 728

ETHNE
The tale of Ethné in full can be read in # 562 pp 142-145. (At the time of the coming of St. Patrick, Ethné
would have been about fifteen hundred years of age. The Danaan folk grow up from childhood to maturity,
but then they abide unaffected by the lapse of time). # 562

ETHNE INGUBA

(ah'ne in'goo va) Wife of CuChulain. # 166

ETHNE TAEBFADA

(ah'ne tav'fâda) Wife of Conn Cet Cathach. # 166

ETRUSCANS

Celts conquer Northern Italy from the Etruscans. # 562

ETTARD

She was loved by Pelleas but did not reciprocate his feelings. Nimue made her fall in love with Pelleas by
magic but also made Pelleas transfer his affections to her (Nimue). Ettard, now hated by Pelleas, died of
love. # 156 - 418

EUDAF

A variant form of the name Evdaf found in Mostyn MS 117. # 156

EUGENIUS

According to Boece in his SCOTORUM HISTORIAE, a King of Scotland, ally of Mordred. He captured
Guinevere who remained a prisoner of the Picts. # 156 - 221

EUPHEMISTIC NAMES FOR THE FAIRIES

Just as the Furies were called 'The Eumenides', the 'Kindly Ones', so were the fairies called laudatory
names be the country people. As Kirk says, 'These SITHS, or Fairies, they call SLEAGH MAITH, or the
Good People, it would seem, to prevent the Dint of their ill Attempts, (for the Irish use to bless all they fear
Harme of;)' E. B. Simpson in FOLK LORE IN LOWLAND SCOTLAND gives a list of some of these
euphemisms. The invisible and alert fairies for the same reason were always mentioned with a heneyed
tongue. The wily, knowing not where they might be lurking, were careful to call them 'the Good
Neighbours', 'the honest folk', the little folk', the Gentry', 'the hill folk', and 'the forgetful people', the 'men
of peace'. The folk-rhyme given by Chambers, quoted under ELVES, contains the fairies' own caution on
the subject. # 100 - 370 - 599

EURIC

King of the Visigoths, AD 466-84. He was opposed by the Emperor Anthemius who counted Riothamus
amongst his allies. # 156

EUROPE
Seeds of freedom and culture in Europe kept alive by Celtica; diffusion of Celtic power in Mid-Europe.
Celtic place-names in Europe; what it owes to Celts; western lands of Europe; dolmens found in Europe.
See CELTIC. # 562

EUSTACE

The Duke of Cambenet who took part in the rebellion against Arthur at the beginning of his reign. # 156 -
418

EVADEAM

He was transformed into a dwarf by magic. Gawain had been told he would assume the shape of the next
man he met. He met Evadeam and became a dwarf, while Evadeam regained his original shape. Eventually
Gawain was turned back into his true form and Evadeam became a Knight of the Round Table. # 156 - 604

EVAINE

The wife of the elder Bors. She was the mother of Lionel and the younger Bors. After her husband's death,
she left her children to the care of Pharien and became a nun. She was the sister of Elaine, wife of Ban. #
156-604

EVANDER

A King. See: SYRIA. # 156

EVDAF

Son of Kradoc and father of Kynan in the Welsh maternal pedigree of Arthur found in BONEDD YR
ARWR. Geoffrey calls him Octavius, Duke of Gwent; he subsequently became King of Britain. He was the
uncle of Conan Meriadoc. # 156

EVELAKE

A king born in France in early times. He was sent to Rome as part of a tribute and afterwards went to Syria.
He slew the governor's son and fled to Babylon where he aided King Tholomer and was rewarded with
land. He became King of Sarras, and Joseph of Arimathea helped him to fight against Tholomer. Joseph
then baptized him, giving him the name Mordrain. He remained alive with unhealed wounds, living only on
the Sacred Host, until the knight who would obtain the Grail should come. He had two sons, Eliezer and
Grimal. Evelake in origin may be Avalloch, father of Modron, mentioned in the TRIADS. Avalloch may
have been a god with some association with apples. # 156 - 418 - 434 - 604

EVGEN

In the maternal pedigree of Arthur provided by Gruffudd Hiraethog (sixteenth century), he is numbered
amongst Arthur's ancestors. # 156

EVRAIN

One of the wizards who changed Blonde Esmerée into a serpent. # 156
EVRAWC

(eff-ROWG) Father of Peredur. # 562

EVRIC

Farmer who befriends Fionuala and her brothers. # 562

EXCALIBUR

# 156: The sword given to Arthur by the Lady of the Lake. Some sources suggest that Arthur gave it to
Gawain. After Arthur's last battle he made Bedivere return it to the water where it was grasped by a hand
and drawn under. Its scabbard prevented the wearer from loosing blood. When Gawain fought the magician
Mabon over the fairy Marsique, she obtained the scabbard for him but it subsequently disappeared. The
Welsh name for Excalibur was Caladvwlch, equating linguistically with Irish Caladbolg, the name of a
sword borne by heroes in Irish legend, derived from CALAD (hard) and BOLG (lightning). See
CALIBURN, (and # 562: note p 224). # 156 - 508 - 562

EXTERNAL SOUL

See: SEPARABLE SOUL.

EYE

The name of the Gaelic Sun-Goddess Sulis was related to SUIL, an eye. The same word meant a hole, like
the 'eye' in a strap, or a whirlwind. SUILEATH meant 'wise, all-seeing, farsighted,' describing the Goddess
whose eye saw every-where. Romans identified this wise Goddess with their own Minerva, the all-seeing
Crone aspect of the Capitoline Triad Altars were set up in Roman Britain to 'Sul Minerva.' # 701
FABII

Romans elect Fabii as military tribunes. # 562

FABIUS AMBUSTUS

Treachery of three sons of Fabius Ambustus against Celts. # 562

FACHTNA

(faht'na) The giant, King of Ulster. Nessa, his wife; father of Conor; succeeded at death by his half-brother,
Fergus. Chief physician of Eochaid Airem. # 166 - 562

FAERIE KNIGHT

Arthur's grandson, son of Arthur's illegitimate son, Tom a' Lincoln. # 156

FAERIE QUEENE, THE

The sixteenth-century poet Edmund Spencer used Fairyland, as many lesser writers were afterwards to do,
for the material of moral allegory. His fairyland adjoined Arthurian Britain, and the elfin and Arthurian
knights moved to and fro across the borders. By a double symbolism, Fairyland was also contemporary
Britain. Poor Spencer, in his unhappy exile in Ireland, might well feel that England was a fairyland. The
moral pattern of the allegory is firmly and clearly traced. Its object is to illustrate the Twelve Vitues of Man,
as laid down by Aristotle. There were to have been twelve books, each consisting of twelve cantos. Only
six of these were completed, of which the first three were separately published in 1590. Even so, it is a
monumental work. Each book has a hero, with his lady, engaged on a quest in the course of which he will
perfect one virtue. The hero of the whole is Prince Arthur, who brings help to the heroes in each episode.
He is destined to be himself the hero of the last tale and illustrates the crowning quality of magnanimity, in
which all other virtues are contained. In the end he will gain the hand of Gloriana, the Fairie Queene. The
first book is about Holiness; its hero is St George, the Red Cross Knight, his companion and lady is Una, or
Truth, and his quest is to slay the Dragon Error and save Una's land from devastation. The hero of the
second book is Guyon, who stands for Temperance, Alma is his lady. Guyon's quest is to defeat Acrasie, or
Lust, and destroy her. The third book is about Chastity, and the warrior princess Britomart represents that
virtue, with her irresistible spear. The subject of the fourth book is Friendship, represented by the two
young knights, Campbell and Triamond, with their two ladies, Canacee and Cambina, sisters to the two
knights respectively and both skilled in magic. It is by a magic draught given by Cambina that the two
knights are knit in friendship. The fifth book is about Justice, with Artegall as its hero and an iron man,
Talus or Punishment, as his page. His lady is Britomart. He has been sent to free Irene from Grantorto. The
virtue of the sixth book is Courtesy, with Sir Calidore as its hero, whose quest is to defeat the Blatant Beast
(False Report) and whose lady is Pastorella. The political application of the allegory is less clear. Queen
Elizabeth is both Gloriana and Belphoebe, possibly also Britomart. Prince Arthur is probably Leicester,
Artegall Lord Grey, under whom Spencer served in Ireland, Timias Sir Walter Raleigh and Calidore Sir
Philip Sidney. The good characters in the allegory are perpetually deceived, waylaid and persecuted by a
wicked magician, Archimago, a false witch, Duessa, and a variety of giants, hags, dragons and malevolent
ladies. Both good and bad characters have a variety of magical instruments at their disposal: a magic
mirror, an irresistible spear, a shield of adamant, a magic draught, a ring which saves the wearer from loss
of blood, the Water of Life and the Tree of Life. We hear of fairy changelings, of shape-shifting and
glamour of all sorts, and at least one English fairy tale, the story of Mr Fox (which may be found in Jacob's
ENGLISH FAIRY TALES) is referred to. There is a profuse mixture of fairy types, for we have a number
of references to Arthurian legend, particularly to Merlin, but there are even more classical references, and
much of the machinery is drawn from Ovid and Homer. It is something of a feat to read the book straight
through, though there is a compulsiveness about it which leads one on, and it is full of passages of
particular beauty.# 100-338-614

FAFNIR

Son of the Dwarf King, Hreidmar. Loki killed his brother Otr and had to cover him with gold in
recompence. This caused dissension between Fafnir and another brother, Regin. Fafnir turned himself into a
dragon in order to keep the gold. He was later slain by the hero Sigurd. # 166 - 664

FAIERY DANCES , AUBREY, JOHN

John Aubrey was one of the most loveable of antiquarians. If it wasn't for him many old customs and fairy
anecdotes would have been lost to the world. The passage below, probably from the now lost volume of
HYPOMNEMATA ANTIQUARIA, is brought in: Briggs, THE ANATOMY OF PUCK. In the year 1633-4,
soone after I had entered into my grammar at the Latin Schoole at Yatton Keynel, (near Chippenham,
Wilts), our curate Mr Hart, was annoy'd one night by these elves or fayries. Comming over the downes, it
being neere darke, and approaching one of the fairy dances, as the common people call them in these parts,
viz, the greene circles made by those sprites on the grasse, he all at once sawe an innumerable quantitie of
pigmies or very small people, dancing rounde and rounde, and singing, and making all maner of small odd
noyses. He, being very greatly amaz'd, and yet not being able, as he sayes, to run away from them, being,
as he supposes, kept there in a kind of enchantment, they no sooner perceave him but they surround him on
all sides, and what betwixt feare and amazement, he fell down scarcely knowing what he did; and
thereupon these little creatures pinch'd him all over, and made a sorte of quick humming noyse all the time;
but at lenght they left him, and when the sun rose, he found himself exactly in the midst of one of these
faiery dances. This relation I had from him myselfe, a few days after he was so tormented; but when I and
my bedfellow Stump wente soon afterwards, at night time to the dances on the downes, we saw none of the
elves or fairies. But indeede it is saide they seldom appeare to any persons who go to seeke for them. This
passage is very characteristic of Aubrey's style and contains much that is characteristic of the fairies of that
period, their love of dancing, their habit of pinching those that displeased them and their curious, indistinct
manner of speech. # 41 - 100

FAIR FAMILY, THE

See: TYLWYTH TEG.

FAIR MANE

Woman who nurtured many of the Fianna. # 562

FAIRIES

This word derives from 'Fays' meaning Fates, and thought to be a broken form of Fatae. The classical three
Fates were later multiplied into supernatural ladies who directed the destiny of men and attended
childbirths. 'Fay-erie' was first a state of enchantment or glamour, and was only later used for the fays who
wielded those powers of illusion. Although latterly fairies have been understood as diminutive beings
inhabiting flowers etc., their true stature, both actual and mythical, is considerably greater. The term 'fairy'
now cover a large area, from the Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian elves to the British version of the Irish
SIDHE dwellers, and the TYLWYTH TEG of Wales, are they bestowing gifts of prophecy and music,
living in bliss in their own fairy hills. According to oral tradition, they originate from the angels of the Fall
or are children of Adam by Lilith, the elder brethren of humanity who are neither divine nor human, but
none the less immortal. # 100 - 166 - 370 - 441 - 711
FAIRIES OF MEDIEVAL ROMANCES

The earliest of the medieval romances clearly mark their characters as fairy people. Sir Launfal is a Fairy
Bride story, with the Taboo enforced by Tryamour, though to a less fatal issue than usual; King Orfeo
makes the connection between the fairies and the dead as explicit as it is in many later accounts of the
origin of the fairies. The German LANZELET is equally explicit about the fairy nature of the LADY OF
THE LAKE and the Tir Nan Og fairyland which she inhabits. As the French sophisticated writers with their
chivalric subtleties took over the primitive matter of Celtic legends, the fairy ladies became more of
enchantresses and the magically-endowed knights lost their god-like powers. One true fairy-tale, SIR
GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT, appears, late in time and treated with great subtlety but with full
supernatural quality. Here we have the Celtic story of the beheading match, with the supernatural wizard
appearing as challenger. Here we have Morgan Le Fay as a full evil fairy, able even to assume a dual form
as the old hag and the tempting lady simultaneously. This story too shows a primitive form in giving a full
heroic stature to Sir Gawain. But if the shape of the story is primitive, the style of the poetry is most
accomplished. The northwest had a poet of quality in the anonymous author of SIR GAWAIN and THE
PEARL. # 100

FAIRIES, DEPARTURE OF THE

From the time of Chaucer onwards, the fairies have been said to have departured or to be in decline, but
still they linger. Some 200 years later, Bishop Richard Corbet pursues the same theme:

Farewell rewards and fairies,


Good housewives now may say;
For now foul sluts in dairies
Do fare as well as they.
And though they sweep their hearths no less
Than maids were wont to do,
Yet who of late for cleanliness
Finds sixpence in her shoe?

A little later Aubrey has a story of a fairy driven away when Bells were hung in Inkberrow Church. He was
heard lamenting:

'Neither sleep, neither lie,


Inkberrow's ting-tang hangs so high.'

Some two centuries later, Ruth Tongue picked up a similar story in Somerset, to be found in COUNTY
FOLK-LORE VOL.VIII. It was about the farmer of Knighton Farm on Exmoor, who was on very friendly
terms with the Pixies. They used to tresh his corn for him and do all manner of odd jobs, until his wife, full
of good-will, left suits of clothes for them, and of course, like Brownies, they had to leave. But they did not
lose their kindly feeling for the farmer, and one day, after the Withypool bells were hung, the pixy father
met him. 'Wilt gie us the lend of thy plough and tackle?' he said. The farmer was cautious - he'd heard how
the pixies used horses. 'What vor do 'ee want'n? he asked. 'I d'want to take my good wife and littlings out of
the noise of they ding-dongs.' The farmer trusted the pixies, and they moved, lock, stock and barrel over to
Windsford Hill, and when the old pack horses trotted home they looked like beautiful two-year-olds.

Those were only partial moves, not total evacuations, but they illustrate one of the factors that were said to
drive the fairies out of the country. Kipling's 'Dymchurch Flit' in PUCK OF POOK'S HILL is probably
founded on an actual Sussex folk tradition. Somewhere at the beginning of the 19th century, Hugh Miller
recorded what was supposed to be the final departure of the fairies from Scotland at Burn of Eathie. It is to
be found in THE OLD RED SANDSTONE as a footnote in Chapter ii.
On a Sabbath morning... the inmates of this little hamlet had all gone to church, all except a herd-boy, and a
little girl, his sister, who were lounging beside one of the cottages; when, just as the shadow of the garden-
dial had fallen on the line of noon, they saw a long cavalcade ascending out of the ravine through the
wooded hollow. It winded among the knolls and bushes; and, turning round the northern gable of the
cottage beside which the sole spectators of the scene were stationed, began to ascend the eminence toward
the south. The horses were shaggy, diminutive things, speckled dun and grey; the riders, stunted, misgrown,
ugly creatures, attired in antique jerkins of plaid, long grey cloaks, and little red caps, from under which
their wild uncombed locks shot out over their cheeks and foreheads. The boy and his sister stood gazing in
utter dismay and astonishment, as rider after rider, each one more uncouth and dwarfish than the one that
had preceded it, passed the cottage, and disappeared among the brushwood which at that period covered the
hill, until at length the entire rout, except the last rider, who lingered a few yards behind the others, had
gone by. 'What are ye, little mannie? and where are ye going?' inquired the boy, his curiosity getting the
better of his fears and his prudence. 'Not of the race of Adam,' said the creature, turning for a moment in his
saddle: 'the People of Peace shall never more be seen in Scotland.' Aberdeenshire in the Northern
Lowlands; the Highlanders would not so easily bid the fairies farewell. Indeed, in all the Celtic parts of
Britain living traditions still linger. Even in the Midlands, in Oxfordshire, A. J. Evans, writing about the
Rollright Stones in the FOLK-LORE JOURNAL of 1895, gives the last recorded tradition of the fairies. An
old man, Will Hughes, recently dead when Evans wrote, claimed to have seen them dancing round the King
Stone. They came out of a hole in the ground near it. Betsy Hughes, his widow, knew the hole: she and her
playmates used to put a stone over it, to keep the fairies from coming out when they were playing there.

Yet, however often they may be reported as gone, the fairies still linger. In Ireland the fairy beliefs are still
part of the normal texture of life; in the Highlands and Islands the traditions continue. Not only in the Celtic
areas, but all over England scattered fairy anecdotes are always turning up. Like the chorus of policemen in
THE PIRATES OF PENZANCE, they say, 'We go, we go,' but they don't go. # 39 - 100 - 164 - 368

FAIRIES DEPENDENCE OF, UPON MORTALS

The fairies appear to have an independent existence of their own, to lead their lives in subterranean or
subaqueous countries, or on enchanted islands across the sea. They ride, revel, dance and hold their fairy
markets, they pursue their own crafts, spin weave, make shoes and labour in the mines; and yet from time
to time we come across extraordinary examples of their dependence upon humanity. The commonest stories
about them are of their thefts of human babies and their periodic need of a human midwife to the fairies. It
is possible that these last may be for the human brides stolen, but here again we see the fairy independence.
Mortal blood seems needed to replendish the fairy stock. Sometimes it is needed literally: in the Isle of Man
it was believed that if water was not left out for the fairies to drink, they would suck the blood of the
sleepers in the house. This was reported by Evans Wentz in THE FAIRY-FAITH IN CELTIC COUNTRIES.
The other most obvious example of dependence was on human food. Again and again we are told of fairy
thefts of grain, milk or butter, or of them carrying away the Foyson or goodness of food or cattle and
leaving only a simulacrum behind. In some of the stories, such as the medieval tale of Malekin, the
explanation might be that it was a human changeling who wished to return to the world again and so
refrained from fairy food, but the instance are too frequent to allow of that as the sole explanation. In the
friendly intercourse of fairy borrowing, they sometimes beg for a suck of milk from a human breast for a
fairy baby, or a loan of human skill to mend a broken tool such as a broken ped. In Ireland in particular
human strength is needed to give power to the fairy arms in faction fights or in hurling matches. Evans
Wentz gives a report of this. Kirk suggests that many of the spectacles seen among the fairies are imitations
or foreshadowings of human happenings, as some of the fairy funerals are supposed to be. Indeed however
much the fairies may seem to resent human prying and infringements of fairy privacy, it would appear that
the affairs of humanity are of more importance to them than they would wish us to suppose. # 100 - 370 -
711

FAIRIES, DIMINUTIVE
The first very small traditional fairies that we know are the portunes recorded by Gervase of Tilbury. They
were probably carried on in the stream of tradition by the fairies' connection with the dead, for the soul is
often thought of as a tiny creature which comes out of a sleeping man and wanders about. Its adventures are
the sleeper's dreams. By this means or others the tradition continued, and came up into literature in the 16th
century. The first poet to introduce these small fairies into drama was John Lyly in ENDIMION. They are
brought in for a short time, to do justice on the villain by the pinching traditional to the fairies. They punish
not only the wrong done to Endimion, but the infringement of fairy privacy. Corsites has been trying to
move the sleeping Endimion when the fairies enter, and pinch him so that he falls asleep. They dance, sing
and kiss Endimion:

'Pinch him, pinch him, blacke and blue,


Sawcie mortalls must not view
What the Queene of Stars is doing,
Nor pry into our Fairy woing.'

The Maides Metamorphosis, published the same year as A MIDSUMMER NIGHT'S DREAM, has a scene
reminiscent of Bottom's introduction to Titania's elves, and their song makes their tiny size apparent:

1 Fay: 'I do come about the coppes


Leaping upon flowers toppes;
Then I get upon a Flie,
Shee carries me abouve the skie,
And trip and goe.'

2 Fay: 'When a deaw drop falleth downe


And doth light upon my crowne,
Then I shake my head and skip
And about I trip.'

Drayton's Nimphidia is quite a long narrative poem, a parody of a courtly intrigue in miniature. The fairies
in it are among the tiniest in the poetry of the period, but not strictly to scale. The Queen, Pigwiggen and all
her ladies of honour take refuge in a cowslip bell, but the ladies ride a cricket, about ten times the size of
their room, and the Queen's coach is a snail's shell. Neither the King nor the Queen has the powers that
belong to Shakespeare's OBERON and TITANIA, not even the power of swift motion; the witch-fairy
Nimphidia is the only potent one among them, and she relies on herbs and charms which might be used by
mortal witches. The chief charm of the poem is in the littleness of the actors, the stampede of tiny ladies-in-
waiting, the preparation of Pigwiggen for the tourney:

'When like an uprore in a Towne,


Before them every thing went downe,
Some tore a Ruffe, and some a Gowne,
Gainst one another justling:
They flewe about like Chaff i' th' winde,
For hast some left their Maskes behinde;
Some could not stay their Gloves to finde,
There never was such bustling...
And quickly Armes him for the Field,
A little Cockle-shell his Shield,
Which he could very bravely wield:
Yet could it not be pierced:
His Speare a Bent both stiffe and strong,
And well-neere of two Inches long;
The Pyle was of a Horse-flyes tongue,
Whose sharpnesse naught reversed.'
With PUCK we get back on to the plain road of folklore, Hobgoblin with his shape-shifting tricks:

'This Puck seemes but a dreaming dolt,


Still walking like a ragged Colt,
And oft out of a Bush doth bolt,
Of purpose to deceive us. And leading us makes us to stray, Long Winters nights out of the way, And when
we stick in mire and clay, Hob doth with laughter leave us.'

William Browne of Tavistock belonged to the same set as Drayton and was one of the group who called
themselves the 'Sons of Ben Jonson'. He and Drayton were both lovers of antiquities and both wrote long
poems on the beauties of England, Drayton Polyolbion and Browne the delightful, unfinished Britannia's
Pastorals, which incorporates a rambling narrative in his topography. The fairies play an important part in
it. They are a little larger than Drayton's fairies, riding mice instead of insects, and a little more of folk
fairies, having their fairy palace underground and to be seen through a self-bored stone as the Selkirkshire
lassie saw Habetrot and her spinners. Like Habetrot, they too were great spinners and weavers, but do not
seem to have been deformed by it. Robert Herrick's fairy writings may be sampled in an extract from
Oberon's Feast and in The Fairies. The first is full of fanciful turns, and the second is straightforward
folklore. # 100 - 109 - 193 - 246

FAIRY

Like elves, the fairies were originally the souls of the pagan dead, in particular those matriarchal spirits
who lived in the preChristian realm of the Goddess. Sometimes the fairies were called Goddesses
themselves. In several folk ballads the Fairy Queen is adressed as 'Queen of Heaven.' Welsh fairies were
known as 'the Mother's Blessing.' Breton peasants called the fairies Godmothers, or Fates, from which
comes Fay (la fée), from the Latin Fata. # 701 p 245

FAIRY ANIMALS

The very numerous fairy animals, of which there are many traditions in the British Isles, may be divided
into two main classes. There are wild ones, that exist for their own purposes and in their own right, and the
domesticated ones bred and used by the fairies. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between these two
types, because the fairies occasionally allow their creatures to roam freely, as, for instance, the Cu Sith of
the Highlands, which is generally kept as a watch dog in the Brughs, but is at times free to roam as its
pleasure, and the Crodh Mara, which sometimes visit human herds. But the distinction is generally clear.
The two kinds of fairy creatures occur very early in our traditions and are mentioned in the medieval
chronicles. Examples are the Grant, a medieval Bogey-Beast mentioned by Gervase of Tilbury, and the
small dogs and horses to be found in Giraldus Cambrensis' story of Elidor. Examples of the free Fairy
Horses are the dangerous Each Uisge of the Highlands, the hardly less dangerous Kelpies, the Cabyll
Ushtey of the Isle of Man, and such Bogies as the Brag, the Trash and the Shock. All these have some
power of shape-shifting. The horses used by the fairies occur everywhere in the Heroic Fairy legends,
whereever there is the Fairy Rade in which they are to be found. They have been taken over by the Devil
where he haunts with the Yeth Hounds of the Devil's Dandy Dogs, and even with the Cwn Annwn, which
once explicitly belonged to Gwyn ap Nudd. The fairy horses of the Tuatha De Danann are the most
explicitly remembered. The Black Dogs are the most common of the wild dogs in England, but there are
many bogey-beast dogs, the Barguest, the Gally-Trot, the Mauthe Doog of Man, and the Shock. The
domestic Fairy Dogs most vividly remembered are Bran and Sceolan, the hunting dogs of Finn, and in the
Cu Sith; but traditions of the Hounds of the Hills still linger in Somerset.

The fairy cattle were less fierce than the wild fairy horses. Occasionally these were independent, like the
Dun Cow of Kirkham, and they were beneficent, not dangerous. The Elf-Bull was a lucky visitor to any
herd, and so were the Gwartheg Y Llyn of Wales. There were, however, ferocious ghost bulls like the Great
Bull of Bagbury. Of miscellaneous creatures, the most famous were the seal people, the Selkies and Roane.
Cats were almost fairies in themselves, but there was a fairy cat in the Highlands, the Cait Sith, and a
demon-god-cat, Big Ears, which appeared after horrible invocations. Afanc was a river monster of Wales,
something like a giant beaver, and the Boobrie was a monstrous water-bird. Goats and deer may be said to
have been fairies in their own proper shape, and many birds, the owl, the wren, the eagle and the raven had
strong fairy associations. The salmon were a fairy creature, and even insects had their part. In fact the
whole of these islands is rich in fairy zoology. # 100

FAIRY BORROWING

One proof of the dependence upon mortals of the fairies is their eagerness to borrow from their human
neighbours. This is particularly frequent in Scotland. They borrow grain and occasionally implements.
They borrow the use of mills and of human fires. The story of the Isle of Sanntraigh is one which was used
by Mac Ritchie to enforce his contribution to the theories of fairy origins. Indeed, all these examples of
fairy borrowing fit in well with the suggestion that the first fairies were the remnants of a conquered people
gone into hiding and yet creeping nervously around their conqerors for what pickings they could find, and
the subject overlaps with fairy thefts. # 100

FAIRY CRAFTS

The fairies have a great reputation for various skills. They are seen and heard working on their own
account, they teach skills to mortals and they do work for them. A vivid account of their activities is given
by J. G. Campbell in SUPERSTITIONS OF THE HIGHLANDS AND ISLANDS OF SCOTLAND: The
Fairies, as has been already said, are counterparts of mankind. There are children and old people among
them; they practise all kinds of trades and handicrafts; they possess cattle, dogs arms; they require food,
clothing, sleep; they are liable to disease, and can be killed. So entire is the resemblance that they have
even been betrayed into intoxication. People entering their brughs, have found the inmates engaged in
similar occupations to mankind, the women spinning, weaving, grinding meal, baking, cooking, churning,
etc., and the men sleeping, dancing, and making merry, or sitting round a fire in the middle of the floor (as
a Perthshire informant described it) 'like tinkers'. Sometimes the inmates were absent on foraging
expeditions or pleasure excursions. The women sing at their work, a common practice in former times with
Highland women, and use distaff, spindle, handmills, and such like primitive implements.

Their skill in spinning and weaving is famous, as is shown in such tales as Habetrot and Tom Tit Tot, but
there is some qualification to this. In the Isle of Man the looms and spinning-wheels are guarded from the
Lil'Fellas at night because they are likely to spoil the webs. This opinion is illustrated in a passage from
Sophia Morrison's MANX FAIRY TALES about a fairy visit to a Manx house, a memorat taken down from
James Moore:

I'm not much of a believer in most of the stories some ones is telling, but after all a body can't help
believing a thing they happen to see for themselves.

I remember one winter's night - we were living in a house at the time that was pulled down for the building
of the Big Wheel. It was a thatched house with two rooms, and a wall about six foot high dividing them,
and from that it was open to the scrabs, or turfs, that were laid across the rafters. My Mother was sitting at
the fire busy spinning, and my Father was sitting in the big chair at the end of the table taking a chapter for
us out of the Manx Bible. My brother was busy winding a spool and I was working with a bunch of thing,
trying to make two or three pegs.

'There's a terrible glisther on to-night,' my Mother said, looking at the fire. 'An' the rain comin' peltin' down
the chimley.'

'Yes,' said my Father, shutting the Bible; 'an' we better get to bed middlin' soon and let the Lil'Ones in to a
bit of shelter.'
So we all got ready and went to bed.

Some time in the night my brother wakened me with a: 'Shish! Listen boy, and look at the big light tha's in
the kitchen!' Then he rubbed his eyes a bit and whispered: 'What's Mother doin' now at all?'

'Listen!' I said, 'An' you'll hear Mother in bed; it's not her at all; it must be the Little Ones that's agate the
wheel!'

And both of us got frightened, and down with our heads under the clothes and fell asleep. In the morning
when we got up we told them what we had seen, first thing.

'Aw, like enough, like enough,' my Father said, looking at the wheel. 'It seems your mother forgot to take
the band off last night, a thing people should be careful about, for it's givin' Themselves power over the
wheel, an' though their meanin's well enough, the spinnin' they're doin' is nothin' to brag about. The weaver
is always shoutin' about their work, an' the bad joinin' they're makin' in the rolls.'

I remember it as well as yesterday - the big light that was at them, and the whirring that was going on. And
let anybody say what they like, that's a thing I've heard and seen for myself.

Of the crafts in which fairies are distinguished, the most curious and contradictory is smithy work, when we
consider the fairies' fear of cold iron. Gnomes were, from of old, reputed metal-workers, and many famous
swords and breastplates were wrought by them, but in the tale of 'The Isle of Sanntraigh' the fairies, who
were governed by the dirk stuck into the hillside, taught their captives unusual skill in metal-work, from
which the rescued boy afterwords profited. As is common in folk-lore, there is no explanation of this
anomaly. A notable literary use of this theme is made by Rudyard Kipling in REWARDS AND FAIRIES
the sequel to PUCK OF POOK'S HILL.

Lepracauns were reputed to be highly skilled at their trade, but since there is no record that they made
shoes for other than fairy feet, there is no means of testing this.

Goblins labouring in the mines were proverbial in the 17th century for producing no results by their deedy
labours. Boat-building, on the other hand, was a work on which they nightly laboured and which they could
transfer to human protégés. Ewan Wentz, in the FAIRY-FAITH IN CELTIC COUNTRIES, collected a story
from a Barra piper about how an apprentice boat-builder, who had picked up a fairy's girdle, was given the
gift of a master's skill when he returned it to her. The gift remained even after he had told how he acquired
it. One undoubted gift of the fairies was that of skill in music, and there are many stories of how the
MacCrimmons, the most famous family of Scottish pipers, were given their skill by the gift of a black
chanter to a despised younger son of the family. The gift was accompanied by tuition. Many songs and airs
have come out of fairy hills and have survived the change into the human world. # 100 - 131 - 249 - 368 -
485 - 711

FAIRY FOLK

Equivalent, sidh (shee). The tumulus at New Grange, Ireland regarded as dwelling-place of Fairy-Folk.
Some of the most beautiful of the antique Irish folk-melodies, the Coulin, are traditionally supposed to have
been overheard by mortal harpers at the revels of the Fairy Folk. Conary Môr (Mor) lured by the Fairy Folk
into breaking his geise; they seal all sources of water against mac Cecht; besides these events describes
Rolleston Fergus mac Leda, Conan mac Morna, and Keelta and the Fairy Folk, and furthermore Gwyn ap
Nudd, King of Welsh Fairy Folk (Tylwyth Teg). # 562

FAIRY FUNERALS
Allan Cunningham in his LIVES OF EMINENT BRITISH PAINTERS records that William Blake claimed
to have seen a fairy funeral. 'Did you ever see a fairy's funeral, madam? said Blake to a lady who happened
to sit next to him. 'Never, Sir!' said the lady. 'I have,' said Blake, 'but not before last night.' And he went on
to tell how, in his garden, he had seen 'a procession of creatures of the size and colour of green and grey
grashoppers, bearing a body laid out on a rose-leaf, which they buried with songs, and then disappeared'.

Most people would deny the possibility of a fairy funeral, believing the fairies to have lives co-terminous
with this earthly world, or else that they dwindle and disappear in the course of ages, like the Small People
of Cornwall. Yet, here and there, people claim, like Blake, to have seen fairy funerals. One of these is
preserved in the archives of the School of Scottish Studies among the fairy experiences of Walter
Johnstone, one of the travelling people of Perthshire. He found a ruined house near Tom na Toul with a well
near it. He was just going to dip his can into the well when he saw a light coming out of the bushes. Two
wee men came out, about six inches tall, carrying a coffin between them. They were wearing bowler hats,
not the 'lum hats' usually worn at Scottish funerals. Dr. T. F. G. Paterson of Armagh Museum collected a
similar account from one of the old people:

A man once followed a fairy funeral. He was up late at night an' heard the convoy comin'. He slipped out
an' followed them an' they disappeared into Lisletrim Fort (a triple-ringed fort near Cullyhanna). He heard
the noise of them walking plain, but saw none of them.

Kirk in his incomparable work puts a period to fairy lives and also mentions funerals:

There Men travell much abroad, either presaging or aping the dismall and tragicall Actions of some
amongst us; and have also many disastorous Doings of their own, as Convocations, Fighting, Gashes,
Wounds, and Burialls, both in the Earth and Air. They live much longer than wee; yet die at last, or at least
vanish from that State.

A little later he says: 'They are not subject to sore Sicknesses, but dwindle and decay at a certain Period, all
about ane Age.'

Some people are not certain that their funerals are not part of this 'presaging or aping the dismall and
tragicall Actions' of men; at least it is so in Bowker's 'Fairy Funeral', in his GOBLIN TALES OF
LANCASHIRE. Two men were once walking home towards Langton village on a clear moonlight night.
One was the old cow-doctor, Adam, and the other was a lively young fellow called Robin. As they came up
to the church the first stroke of twelve sounded and they passed it as the chimes pealed out. A moment later
they stopped, for the peal of the passing-bell began to ring. They counted the strokes, and after twenty-six
they stopped - Robin was twenty-six years old. They wondered who it could be among his companions, but
decided that they would know in the morning, and hurried on towards home. But as they reached the drive
and lodge of the ancient abbey, the gate swung open and a little dark figure came out with a red cap on his
head. He was waving his arms and singing a sweet but mournful dirge, and he was followed by a
procession dressed like him which bore in the midst of it a tiny coffin with the lid pushed back so that the
face was visible. The two men drew back into the hedge, but as the coffin passed old Adam leant forward,
and in the moonlight saw the face of the corpse. 'Robin, mi lad,' he said, 'it's the picter o'thee as they hev i'
the coffin!' Robin started forward, and saw it was indeed the miniature of his own face. The bell still tolled
and the funeral cortége passed on towards the church. Robin took it for a death warning and determined to
know the appointed time. Adam tried to restrain him, but he hurried after the Feeorin, and, touching the
leader, he asked, trembling, 'Winnot yo' tell mi heaw lung I've to live?' At once, with a flash of lightning
and a spatter of rain, the whole procession vanished, and the two men made their way homeward as best
they could through wind and rain.

From that time Robin was a changed man. There was no more riot and merriment for him. His only comfort
was to sit with old Adam at night and talk over what they had seen and heard. In a month's time he fell from
a stack and was fatally injured.
This is the fullest account of a warning funeral, but there are reports of them in Galloway and Wales. The
Welsh corpse-candles are among the Will O' The Wisp phenomena discussed by Aubrey and Sikes, but
these are ascribed to the spirits of the dead rather than to the fairies. # 86 - 100 - 172 - 331 - 370

FAIRY HORSES OF THE TUATHA DE DANANN, THE

All the Heroic Fairies spent a great part of their time in solemn rides, and their horses, large or small
according to the riders, were often described. The fairies described by Elidor were small, but noble, and
they had horses and hounds proportioned to their size, the Welsh Gwragedd Annwyn rode on milk-white
horses and the Fairy Rade described in the Scottish ballads was on horses of varying colours richly
caparisoned with tinkling bells. The Tuatha De Danann, who were conquered and driven underground by
the Milesians and who afterwards dwindled down into the Daoine Sidhe, were the very cream of the heroic
fairies, and their horses were eloquently described by Lady Wilde in her ANCIENT LEGENDS OF
IRELAND:

And the breed of horses they reared could not be surpassed in the world - fleet as the wind, with the arched
neck and the broad chest and the quivering nostril, and the large eye that showed they were made of fire
and flame, and not of dull, heavy earth. And the Tuatha made stables for them in the great caves of the hills,
and they were shod with silver and golden bridles, and never a slave was allowed to ride them. A splendid
sight was the cavalcade of the Tuatha-de-Danann knights. Seven-score steeds, each with a jewel on his
forehead like a star, and seven-score horsemen, all the sons of kings, in their green mantles fringed with
gold, and golden helmets on their head, and golden greaves on their limbs, and each knight having in his
hand a golden spear.

And so they lived for a hundred years and more, for by their enchantments they could resist the power of
death.

A few pages later she tells of the last of these royal steeds:

Of the great breed of splendid horses, some remained for several centuries, and were at once known by
their noble shape and qualities. The last of them belonged to a great lord in Connaught, and when he died,
all his effects being sold by auction, the royal steed came to the hammer, and was bought up by an emissary
of the English Government, who wanted to get possession of a specimen of the magnificent ancient Irish
breed, in order to have it transported to England.

But when the groom attempted to mount the high-spirited animal, it reared, and threw the base-born churl
violently to the ground, killing him on the spot.

Then, fleet as the wind, the horse galloped away, and finally plunged into the lake and was seen no more.
So ended the great race of the mighty Tuatha-de-Danann horses in Ireland, the like of which has never been
seen since in all the world for majesty and beauty. # 100 - 728

FAIRY MORALITY

The fairies have a code of morality of their own and are strict in enforcing it. We can deduce something of
their nature from the degree of severity with which they punish infringements of their code. In the first
place, they are a secret people and punish any attempts at spying or infringements of fairy privacy, often to
the utmost of their power. In the various Fairy Ointment stories, there are varying degrees of culpability.
Sometimes the midwife to the fairies touches her own eye inadvertently with a finger still smeared with the
ointment, and often she is allowed the benefit of the doubt and only the fairy sight is taken from her. In the
tale of CHERRY OF ZENNOR, Cherry had wilfully offended to spy on her master from jealousy and she
was left the sight of her human eye and only banished from Fairyland. In the parallel story of JENNY
PERMUEN, Jenny made no mention of the fairy ointment and reported herself as sent back from Fairyland
when the year and a day for which she was hired was over.

No penalty except that of inability to return was imposed on them for reporting their adventures. The most
severe punishment was rightly inflicted on Joan, Squire Lovell's housekeeper, in Hunt's story in POPULAR
ROMANCES OF THE WEST OF ENGLAND of 'How Joan Lost the Sight of her Eye'. This was inflicted
for sheer meddling. Joan was on no legitimate business, but was merely paying a friendly call on Betty
Trenance, reputed to be a witch but actually a fairy. Peeping through the latch-hole before she knocked, she
saw Betty anointing her children's eyes with a green ointment, which she hit carefully away before
answering the door. Joan, however, contrived to get hold of the ointment, and touched her eye with it with
the usual result. When she betrayed her fairy sight to Betty's husband, he not only blinded her right eye but
tricked her into a ride on a devilish horse who nearly carried her into Toldava fowling pool in the company
of the Devil and all his rout.

People who spied on the fairy revels or boasted of fairy favours were generally punished, sometimes with
blights and illnesses, and those who stole fairy treasures did so in danger of their lives. Spies were often
punished only by pinching, like Richard of Lelant, the old fisherman who saw Lelant Church lit up and
climbed up to peep in at a window. Inside the church he saw the funeral procession of a fairy queen, and
foolishly betrayed himself by an exclamation of surprise. At once the fairies flew past him, pricking him
with sharp weapons. He only saved his life by flight (Hunt). The 'old Miser on the Fairy Gump' in Hunt's
story, who tried to capture the royal dais and table at the revels on the Gump, deserved a severer
punishment. Just as he raised his hat to cover the high table, a whistle rang out, a thousand cobwebs were
thrown over him and he was bound to the earth, pinched, pricked and tormented till cockcrow. In the
morning he hobbled down to the town, no richer than he had been, and permanently tormented by
rheumatism. It must be acknowledged that he deserved it. Lack of generosity, rudeness and selfishness are
all unpopular with fairies, as many traditional fairy-tales show. Gloomy fellows are disliked, and a merry
heart is popular. - One of the most notable traits of the fairies is their strong interest in neatness and orderly
ways. They expect to find the hearths that they visit swept clean, with fresh water set out for their use. A
breach of this habit is often punished, as in the tale of the milkmaid who forgot to leave out clean water for
the fairy babies and refused to get up when reminded of it. Her companion dragged herself out of bed to set
the water and was rewarded with a silver sixpence, but the milkmaid was punished by seven years' painful
lameness. Scols and wife-beating husbands are both likely to be punished. In short, the faults chiefly
condemned by them are undue curiosity, meanness, sluttishness, illtemper and bad manners. # 100 - 331 -
675

FAIRY OINTMENT

The salve, sometimes an oil and sometimes an oinment, by which human eyesight penetrates the Glamour
which fairies can cast over it, and see things as they really are. It also penetrates the spells which cause
invisibility. We are told most about it in stories of the Midwife to the Fairies. The first version of the tale is
told in the 13th century writings of Gervase of Tilbury in the account of the Dracae of Brittany. Early as it
is, it is the complete story: the fetching of a human midwife at night to an unknown house, the ointment
given her to anoint the eyes of the newborn child and the strange enlightenment that follows her casual use
of it on one of her own eyes; and as it followed, as in all the later stories, by the innocent betrayal of her
forbidden vision and the blinding of the seeing eye. There are dozens of such stories with slight
modifications, but Professor John Rhys in CELTIC FOLKLORE VOL. I, gives what may well be the
complete story, the tale of Eilean. The fairy ointment occurs in another, slightly different story, Cherry of
Zennor (q.v.). In this story in Hunt's collection a country girl seeking service is engaged by a Fairy
Widower as nursemaid to his little boy, and one of her duties is to anoint the eyes of her charge every
morning. Her master is amorous and friendly and she is very happy with him, until curiosity about the
strange things that happen in her new home leads her to use the ointment on her own eyes, when she sees
all sorts of things going on around her, her master as amorous with the midget fairies at the bottom of the
spring as he ever was with her. Jealousy leads her to betray herself, and her master regretfully dismisses her
though he does not injure her sight. It is clear from the story that the fairy master's first wife was a mortal,
which suggests that the ointment was needed only for hybrid fairies, for whole fairies by their own nature
could see through the glamour. # 100 - 331 - 554

FAIRY ORIGINS

See: ORIGINS OF THE FAIRIES.

FAIRY SPELLS

Several seventeenth-century magical manuscripts contain spells to obtain power over fairies. Some were to
call them up, some to dismiss them from places were treasure was to be found, and some to gain their help
and advice. The one that follow are from the Bodleian Library (MS. Ashmole 1406): An excellent way to
gett a Fayrie, but for my selfe I call margarett Barrance but this will obtaine any one that is not allready
bound. First gett a broad square christall or Venus glasse in length and breadth 3 inches, then lay that glasse
or christall in the bloud of a white henne 3 wednesdayes or 3 fridayes: then take it out and wash it with holy
aqua and fumigate it: then take 3 hazle stickes or wands of an yeare groth, pill them fayre and white, and
make soe longe as you write the spiritts name, or fayries name, which you call 3 times, on every sticke
being made flatt one side, then bury them under some hill whereas you suppose fayries haunt, the
wednesday before you call her, and the friday followinge take them uppe and call hir at 8 or 3 or 10 of the
clocke which be good plannets and howres for that turne: but when you call, be in cleane Life and turne thy
face towards the east, and when you have her bind her to that stone or Glasse. An Ungt. to annoynt under
the Eyelids and upon the Eyelidds evninge and morninge, but especially when you call, or finde your sight
not perfect. (That is, an ointment to give sight of the fairies) pt. (precipitate?) sallet oyle and put it into a
Viall glasse but first wash it with rose water, and marygold flower water, the flowers be gathered towards
the east, wash it til the oyle come white, then put it into the glasse, ut supra. and thou put thereto the budds
of holyhocke, the flowers of mary gold; the flowers or toppes of wild time the budds of younge hazle, and
the time must be gatherred neare the side of a hill where fayries use to go oft, and the grasse of a fayrie
throne, there, all these putt into the oyle, into the glasse, and sett it to dissolve 3 dayes in the sonne, and
thou keep it for thy use; ut supra. # 100

FAIRYLAND

# 562: Land of the Dead; Cleena, a Danaan maiden once living in Mananan's country, the Land of Youth
beyon the sea. Escaping thence with a mortal lover, she landed on the southern coast of Ireland, but was
lulled to sleep on the beach by fairy music played by a minstrel of Mananan, when a great wave of the sea
swept up and carried her back to Fairyland. Connla's Well is under the sea, in the Land of Youth in
Fairyland, and in which are the hazels of wisdom and inspirations; war carried on against Fairyland by
Eochy, who at last recovers his wife, Etain. CuChulain in, and Laeg's visit to Fairyland; Fergus mac Leda
and Fairyland (q.v.); tales of the Fianna concerned with Fairyland; Oisin's (Usheen) journey to Fairyland in
Tales of the Ossianic cycle (q.v.); Finn and the Fianna rescue the Fairyland from a rival Fairy king; rescue
of FairyLand by Pwyll, in the tale: PWYLL, PRINCE OF DYFED.

# 156: In Spenser's FAERIE QUEENE, the realm in which Arthur had adventures before becoming king.
The poem is an allegory, with Fairyland standing for England of Spenser's day. The inhabitants claimed
descent from Elf (who was created from Prometheus) and a fay from the gardens of Adonis. Early kings
included Elfin, son of Elf, who ruled England and America; Elfinan, who founded the city of Cleopolis;
Elfiline, who built a golden wall around it; Elfinell, who defeated the goblins in battle; Elfant; Elfar, who
killed two giants, one with two heads, the other with three; and Elfinor, who built a brazen bridge upon the
sea. The immediate family of Gloriana, queen of Fairyland, of whom Arthur became enamoured, was:
ELFICLEOS, King of Faerie, his sons: Elferon (King of Faerie) and Oberon (King of Faerie), and Oberon's
daughter, Gloriana (Queen of Faerie). See: CAPTIVES IN FAIRYLAND, and TIME IN FAIRYLAND. #
156 - 562
FAL

(fôl) The Stone of Fal cried out under every legitimate king of Ireland who stepped upon it. See: INIS
FAIL. # 166

FALIAS

# 562: The city of Falias. See: Dana. # 454: It was one of four cities from whence the Tuatha de Danaan
came to Ireland. Its master of wisdom was called Morfessa, and it was from here that the Stone of Fal
derived. See: HALLOWS. # 454 - 562

FAND

# 562: The pearl of Beauty, wife of Mananan; sets her love on CuChulain; returns to her home with
Mananan. # 454: The sister of Labraid. She was given to CuChulain after he had helped Labraid. Emer
taunted CuChulain about this new love and he relinquished her. She returned to Mananan, who shook his
cloak between the lovers that they might never again meet. # 266 - 454 - 548 - 562

FARAMOND

See: PHARAMOND.

FASHIONS IN FAIRY LORE

Even the most flaccid and degenerate of the literary fairies have some point in common with the fairies in
folk tradition, but as a rule, the poets and story-tellers pick out one aspect from the varied and intricate
world of fairy tradition, and the aspect chosen differs not only from poet to poet but from one period to
another. The fairies of medieval romances are among the heroic fairies in type, of human size and often
amorous of mortals, expert in enchantment and glamour, generally beautiful but occasionally hideous hags.
Many of them are half-forgotten gods and goddesses, euhemerized into mortals with magical powers. The
goddesses are more frequent than the gods. It was literary fashion which chose out this type because the
romances derived from Celtic hero tales founded on the Celtic Pantheon; scattered references in the
medieval chronicles show that very different types of fairies were available to the medieval poets if they
had chosen to use them.

A different type of spirit, though no less true tradition, appears among the Elizabethan and Jacobean
Fairies. It is true that Spencer uses the fairies, enchanters and witches of the Arthurian legends in the
machinery of his FAERIE QUEENE, but on the whole the spotlight is turned upon the diminutive fairies.
They appear in John Lyly's ENDIMION, in the anonymous MAIDES METAMORPHOSIS and the
WISDOME OF DR DODYPOL, and above all in a MIDSUMMER NIGHT'S DREAM. Queen Mab in
ROMEO AND JULIET is even more minute than the elves who waited on Titania. The Jacobean poets
followed hard on the fashion. The diminutive fairies in Drayton, HERRICK, ET AL., made an extravaganza
of Shakespeare's little fairies until, with the DUCHESS OF NEWCASTLE, they became miracles of
littleness. Even Milton in PARADISE LOST used the elves to illustrate diminution and small size. The
exception to these dainty and miniature fairies is the rougher, homely Hobgoblin, by whatever name he is
called - Robin Goodfellow, Puck or the Lubbard Fiend. Since that period, the tiny fairies have constantly
haunted literature. The 18th century was the first period in which books were written expressly for the
edification of children. Educational text books had been written before - one of the first books printed was
Caxton's BABEES BOOK to train pages in etiquette, and there were Latin and French conversation books,
but works of fiction were first written expressly for children in the 18th century. At the end of the 17th
century the sophisticated French fairy-stories of Perrault and Madame d'Aulnoy were translated into
English. They began as real traditional tales, polished to meet the taste of the French court, and they were
equally popular in England. Half the court seem to have tried their hands at them, and as time went on they
moved farther away from their original. The Fairy Godmothers, already at one remove from folk fairies,
became relentless moralists, driving their protégés along the path to virtue. The trend persisted into the 19th
century, and it was not until a quarter of it had passed that the researches of the folklorists began to have
some effect on children's literature. The Romantic Revival, however, had begun before this to affect the
writings of the poets. Collins, Scott, Hogg and Keats wrote in the folk-fairy tradition, and as the century
went on writers of children's stories followed them; Jean Ingelow and J. H. Ewing are among the best. At
the beginning of the 20th century, an extreme tenderness and sensibility about children almost
overwhelmed the folk fairies and turned them into airy, tenuous, pretty creatures without meat or muscles,
made up of froth and whimsy. Rudyard Kipling fought against this tendency in PUCK OF POOK'S HILL,
and now in Tolkien, his predecessors and successors, we enjoy a world in which imagination has
superseded fancy; but whimsy is still with us in the works of the weaker writers. # 100

FATA MORGANA

Fata Morgana is the Latin name for Morgan le Fay, the Arthurian version of the old Celtic Death-goddess,
Morrigan or Mara. The term Fata Morgana is now applied to a certain kind of mirage, often seen in the
Strait of Messina, said to represent Morgan's secret palace beneath the waves. It was Morgan who ruled the
Fortunate Isles of the honoured dead, and who carried away the corpse of King Arthur to this western
paradise. # 701 p 247

FATE

Three triangles created the emblem of the Fate Goddesses: Weird Sisters (from the Saxon wyrd, meaning
'fate'). Three of anything arranged in triads suggested a total of nine, so in some traditions the Fate
goddesses became nine, like the Nine Morgans of the Fortunate Isles in Celtic myth. - In Scandinavia, the
sign of fate was called the valknut, Knot of the Vala. A Vala was either a female spirit ruling the fates of
men-a Valkyrie-or her representative on earth. # 701

FAUSTUS

A son of Vortigern. # 156

FAWN

The Fawn or Deer is a favourite form adopted by nymphs and fairies to allow them to escape. It was the
shape taken by the fairy-mother to the Gaelic bard Ossian (Little Fawn), and she bore him while in this
guise; for this reason he could never eat venison. # 161

FAYLINN

The Land of the Wee Folk; Iubdan, King of Faylinn. # 562

FAYS

'Fay' was the earliest form in which the word 'fairy' appears. It is generally supposed to be a broken-down
form of 'Fatae', the Fates, which in Romance tradition became less formidable and multiplied in number.
The word 'fairy' was originally 'fayerie', the enchantment of the fays, and only later became applied to the
people working the enchantment rather than to the estate of illusion. # 100

FEDELM NOICHRIDE
(fäd'elm nôy'hre) 'Fresh-Heart.' Daughter of Conchobar; wife of Cairpre Niafer. # 166

FEDELMA

# 562: Prophetess from Fairy Mound of Croghan, questioned by Maev: 'How seest thou our host?' asked
Maev. 'I see them all be-crimsoned, red,' replied the prophetess. 'Yet the Ulster heroes are all in their pangs
- there is none that can lift a spear against us,' said Maev. 'I see the host all be-crimsoned,' said Fedelma. 'I
see a man of small stature, but the hero's light is on his brow - a stripling young and modest, but in battle a
dragon; he is like unto CuChulain of Murthemney; he both wondrous feats with his weapons; by him your
slain shall lie thickly.' (CuChulain, as the son of the god Lugh, was not subject to the curse of Macha which
afflicted the other Ultonians.) At this the vision of the weaving maiden vanished, and Maev drove
homewards to Rathcroghan wondering at what she had seen and heard.

# 454: She was the witch who had the fostering of Corc. It was while he was in her care that he gained his
name for one night, when her sister witches were assembling, one of them called out 'I bless everything,
except what is under the cauldron.' Corc was singed by the blast of the fire on one ear, thus earning the
name 'Red'. # 454 - 562

FEDLIMID

(fäl'e mid) (also Felim) Son of Dall; Conchobar's story-teller. # 166

FEENS, OR FIANS

Finn and his Fianna Fin were in the Scottish Gaelic tradition translated into Finn and the Feinne, and the
Fenian Brochs were said to be built by them. According to David Mac Ritchie, in his TESTIMONY OF
TRADITION and other writings, the Feens were a dwarfish Ugrian people who were spread over Finland,
Lapland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, northern Germany, England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales, and who
were conquered and driven underground by the Milesians or Scots. This follows the old Irish traditional
history (see TUATHA DE DANANN) and is plausibly presented by Mac Ritchie with a wealth of evidence,
though with more attention to that which confirms his theory than to that which tends to disprove it. He
also makes the Silkies and Roane a part of the same pattern, Finmen and Finwomen in their sealskin
kayaks. If we subscribe to his theory, we have to abandon the great figure of Ossian, towering on his white
horse above the puny modern men, for a stunted, cunning Magician with almost superhuman strength of
muscle, but we may leave them their music, tale-telling and wealth of golden treasure. # 100 - 409

FEET SYMBOL

The Two Feet Symbol. There is reason to think that this symbol were earlier than any known mythology.
The symbol of the feet or footprint is very widespread. It is found in the ancient Egypt, India, and occurs in
rock-carvings in Scandinavia, and is found sculptured on dolmens in Brittany. In Ireland it passes for the
footprints of St Patrick or St Columba. # 562

FEIMURGAN

See: MORGAN LE FAY.

FEIREFIZ

In Wolfram's PARZIFAL, son of Gahmuret and Belcane. He and Perceval, his half-brother, went to Arthur's
court after they met. He fell in love with the Grail damsel, Repanse de Schoie. He became a Christian and
they went to India where they became the parents of Prester John. Because his parents were of different
colours, Feirefiz was piebald. # 156

FELIM

Son of Dall, father of Deirdre; his feast to Conor and Red Branch heroes, where he bade Cathbad, the
Druid, perform divination for Felim's newborn infant, Deirdre. 'The infant shall be fairest among the
women of Erin, and shall wed a king, but because of her shall death and ruin come upon the Province of
Ulster.' # 562

FELIX

Tristan's grandfather, father of Meliodas and Mark, according to TRISTANO RICCARDIANO. In the
TAVOLA RITONDA, Felix was King of Cornwall and Liones. In Malory, Meliodas and Mark were
brothers-inlaw. # 156

FENICE

1. Wife of Alis, who was Emperor of Constantinople. See: CLIGÉS.


2. 2. Queen of Ireland in DURMART LE GALLOIS.

# 156

FER

(fâr), plur. fir (fîr) A man. # 166

FER ROGAIN

(fâr rô'gin) Great-grandson of Donn Desa; foster-brother of Conaire Mor.

# 166

FERAMORC

The kingdom of Feramorc over which Scoriath is king. Maon taken to Feramorc. # 562

FERCETRNIU

# 166: (Fercartna) # 454: He was the poet of Cu Roi. When he discovered that Blanaid had been
responsible for his master's death, he seized her and together they plunged off the cliffs of the Beare
Peninsula to their deaths. # 562: Ferchertne (fâr'hârt ne) Chief poet and entertainer of Conchobar. # 166 -
454 - 562

FERDIA

# 562: (fâr de'a) (Ferdiad or Fer Diad) Duel between CuChulain and Ferdia; son of the Firbolg, Daman,
friend of CuChulain; rallies to Maev's foray against Ulster; consents to Maev's entreaty that he should meet
and fight his friend CuChulain; the struggle; CuChulain slays Ferdia; buried by Maev. # 454: The oldest
friend and companion-in-arms of CuChulain, with whom he was taught at the court of Scathach in Alba. He
was of Connact and found himself forced to combat CuChulain at the ford, when Ulster was being attacked
by Maev for the possession of the Brown Bull of Daire. They fought for three days; at the end of each day
thay bathed each other's wounds and slept in the same blanket. But at the last CuChulain used his great
spear, the Cae Bolg, against which no man could stand. CuChulain had asked his charioteer, Loegaire, to
incite his anger with insults and gibes and it was so that Ferdiad died at his friend's hand. # 166 - 266 - 367
- 454 - 562

FERGUS

# 156: A ploughboy who aspired to knighthood, having seen Arthur and his knights. After various
adventures he married Galiene, the Lady of Lothian. His horse was called Arondiel. A Knight of the Round
Table of Cornish provenance, a follower of Tristan, was also so called, but this is probably a different
character. See: BLACK KNIGHT. # 562: Nemedian chief who slays Connan. # 156 - 562

FERGUS MAC LEDA (OR LEIDE)

# 562: (fâr'gus moc lä'de) The Wee Folk and Fergus mac Leda; visited by Eisirt, King of Wee Folk's bard;
visited by Iubdan, King of Wee Folk. The blemish of Fergus: Fergus was never tired of exploring the depths
of the lakes and rivers of Ireland; but one day, in Loch Rury, he met with a hideous monster, the Muirdris,
or riverhorse, which inhabited that lake, and from which he barely saved himself by flying to the shore.
With the terror of this encounter his face was twisted awry; but since a blemished man could not hold rule
in Ireland, his queen and nobles took pains, on some pretext, to banish all mirrors from the palace, and kept
the knowledge of his condition from him. One day, however, he smote a bondmaid with a switch, for some
negligence, and the maid, indignant, cried out: 'It were better for thee, Fergus, to avenge thyself on the
river-horse that hath twisted thy face than to do brave deeds on women!' Fergus bade fetch him a mirror,
and looked in it. 'It is true,' he said; 'the river-horse of Loch Rury has done this thing.' The conclusion may
be given in the words of Sir Samuel Ferguson's fine poem on this theme. Fergus donned the magic shoes,
took sword in hand, and went to Loch Rury:

"For a day and a night


Beneath the waves he rested out of sight,
But all the Ultonians on the bank who stood
Saw the loch boil and redden with his blood.

When next at sunrise skies grew also red


He rose, and in his hand - the Muirdris’ head.
Gone was the blemish!
On his goodly face
Each trait symmetric had resumed its place:
And they who saw him marked in all his mien

A king's composure, ample and serene.


He smiled; he cast his trophy to the bank,
Said, 'I, survivor, Ulstermen!' and sank."

This fine tale has been published in full from an Egerton MS., by Standish Hayes O'Grady, in his SILVA
GADELICA. The humorous treatment of the fairy element in the story would mark it as belonging to a late
period of Irish legend, but the tragic and noble conclusion unmistakably signs it as belonging to the Ulster
bardic literature, and it falls within the same order of ideas, if it were not composed within the same period,
as the tales of CuChulain. # 166: A Red-Branch warrior. Not to be confused with Fergus mac Roich.

See also: FERGUS MAC LEIDE, THE DEATH OF. # 166 - 562
FERGUS MAC LEIDE, THE DEATH OF

The title of this story, like many other titles in early Irish literature, is not precisely indicative of the main
interest of the narrative. Though most of the tale is devoted to the visit of the king of the Lepracauns to the
court of Ulster, the story belongs essentially to the Tom Thumb tradition, and many of the amusing
incidents remind us of the adventures, later recounted by Swift, of Gulliver in the Country of Brobdingnag.
The setting is ostensibly that of the old Ulster cycle, for Fergus mac Leide was one of the Red Branch
warriors, although he is seldom mentioned in the stories of the Ulster group. He gains a certain prestige in
Irish narrative literature, perhaps, through being confused with the famous Fergus mac Roig. The strange
narrative of his death as related in Cross' and Slover's ANCIENT IRISH TALES is not mentioned in the
early stories dealing with the heroes of Emain Macha. Their account is usually regarded as having been
composed about 1100, and the reader of this story will recall that in modern Irish folk-lore the lepracaun's
are diminutive fairy shoemakers. # 166

FERGUS MAC ROIGH

# 166: (moc rô'eh) # 562: Son of Roy, Facthna's half-brother; succeeds to kingship of Ulster; loves Nessa;
sent to invite return of Naisi and Deirdre to Ireland; the rebellion of Fergus mac Roi; compact with
CuChulain; reputed author of the 'Tain'; slain by Ailell.

# 454: King of Ulster before Nessa begged him to relinquish his reign for one year, in favour of her son
Conchobar who thereafter ruled and Fergus was permanently dethroned. For this insult, Fergus helped
Maeve and the forces of Connact. Because he was one of CuChulain's fosterers and teachers, he refused to
engage in combat with him at the ford, making an agreement to spare CuChulain if CuChulain agreed to let
him run away on a later occasion. He was the messenger of Conchobar to persuade Deirdriu and the sons of
Usnach to return to Ulster. Later he became a voluntary exile in Connacht in protest against the killing of
the sons of Usnech. He was slain at the instigation of Ailill who found him swimming with Maeve in a
lake. # 166 - 188 - 454 - 562

FERGUS THE GREAT

Son of Erc; stone of Scone used for crowning; ancestor of British Royal Family. # 562

FERGUS TRUELIPS

Rescued from enchanted cave by Goll. # 562

FERGUSON, SIR SAMUEL

Quoted; his description of King Fergus mac Leda's death. See: FERGUS MAC LEDA. # 562

FERRAGUNZE

A knight who made various assertions to Arthur and Meliodas, among them that he was never jealous of his
beauteous wife, Verseria. They tested him in this but, although they arranged for him to find Verseria in the
embraces of Gawain, he did not become jealous. # 156

FERRISHYN

The Manx name for the Fairy host. Their hearing was omniscient and for this reason, people would speak
very carefully or quietly about them. # 454
FERTILITY DEITIES

See: CREATIVE DEITIES.

FERYLLT FFERYLLT

# 454: Often translated as the Fairies, Fferyllt is probably derived from the Welsh for Virgil 'Fferyll', who
had a reputation in medieval times for being a magician and alchemist. Ceridwen is said to have consulted
the books of the Fferyllt in preparing her cauldron of inspiration which Gwion drank. 'Fferyllt' means
chemist in modern Welsh. # 439 - 454 - 562 - 711

FETCH

A name common all over England for a double or Co-Walker, very similar to the North Country Waff.
When seen at night, it is said to be a death portent, and is at all times ominous. Aubrey in his
MISCELLANIES records that: The beautiful Lady Diana Rich, daughter to the Earl of Holland, as she was
walking in her father's garden at Kensington, to take the fresh air before dinner, about eleven o'clock, being
then very well, met with her own apparition, habit, and every thing, as in a lookingglass. About a month
after, she died of the small-pox. And it is said that her sister, the Lady Isabella Thynne, saw the like of
herself also, before she died. This account I had from a person of honour. # 38 - 100

FFLUR

(Fler) Nearly all traces of Fflur's legend have been lost. Her name, meaning Flower, establishes her as one
with the other Flower Maidens of British mythology - Blanaid, Guinevere, Blodeuwedd. She was beloved
as Caswallawn, but was carried off by Julius Caesar, according to the meagre evidence of the TRIADS.
Caswallawn's quest in search of her, even to the gates of Rome, suggests that Fflur may indeed be one of
the many faces of Sovereignty. # 104 - 439 - 454

FFRWDWR

An ancestor of Arthur in the maternal pedigree in BONEDD YR ARWR. # 156

FFYNNON CEGIN ARTHUR

A well in Caernarvon with oily-looking water which was said to have acquired this appearance from animal
fat in Arthur's kitchen. # 156

FIACAL MAC CONCHINN

(fe'âc al moc con'hin) Husband of Finn's aunt and one of Finn's fosterers. # 166

FIACHA

(fe'âh a) 1. Son of Firaba; cuts off eight-and-twenty hands of the Clan Calatin; gives spear to Finn. 2. Son
of Conchobar. # 166 - 562

FIACHA BROAD CROWN, THE BIRTH OF


The story of the birth of King Fiacha Broad-crown begins, according to O'Grady in SILVA GADELICA, in
the same way as that of Cormac and ends like that of Conchobar. The night before the battle in which he (as
well as Art) was killed, Eogan, King of Munster, cohabited with the daughter of a druid at her father's
request. The girl conceived and when her time came her father said it was an ill thing she was not brought
to bed the following morning, for had it been then, the child would have overtopped all Ireland. She replied
that the child would not be born before then unless it came through one of her sides. She sat astride a stone
in the mid ford, appealing to the rock to maintain her. When she was loosened next day she died, and the
child's head had been flattened against the stone - hence he was called Fiacha Broad-crown. # 504 - 548

FIACHRA FIACHNA

(Fe-ah-ra) One of the Children of Lir. He was turned into a swan by his step-mother, Aoife. # 454 - 562

FIACHRA MAC FERGUSA

(fe'âh ra moc fâr'gu sa) Fiachra Caech, son of Fergus mac Roich. # 166

FIALL

(fe'al) Daughter of Forgall Monach; sister of Emer; rejected by CuChulain on account of her relations with
Cairpre Niafer. # 166

FIANCHUIVE

(Fee-an-KHEEV-eh)

FIANNA OF ERIN FENIANS

# 166: Fian (fe'ân), plur. Fianna (feen-a). The Fianna of Erin was a kind of military Order composed mainly
of the members of Clan Bascna and Clan Morna, and who were supposed to be devoted to the service of the
High King and to the repelling of foreign invaders; almost all the Fianna of Erin slain in battle of Gowra.

# 454: The warband of Ireland, composed of 150 chiefs, each having under them twenty-seven men. The
requirements for joining the Fianna were vigorous. Each man had to know by heart the poet's repertoire,
submit to an initiatory test of his skills and courage, including having spears thrown at him, and being able
to withdrawn a thorn from his foot while stooping under a low branch and running. Besides warriors, they
had druids, physicians and musicians amongst their number. As it was a warband which upheld the country,
each man was free of tribal retribution if he killed a member of any family, nor might his own family
avenge him if he was killed on active service. The most famous leader of the Fianna was Fionn mac
Cumhal - they are analogous to the Round Table Knights and King Arthur. The modern English equivalent
is Fenians.

# 100: The account of the Fianna and of the career of Finn Mac Cumhal, drawn from the Ancient
Manuscripts of Ireland, is to be found in Lady Gregory's GODS AND FIGHTING MEN and also in
O'Grady's SILVA GADELICA. An account of the manuscript sources of these tales is given in Professor
O'Curry's LECTURES ON THE MS. MATERIALS OF ANCIENT IRISH HISTORY. James Stephen's
IRISH FAIRY TALES, illustrated by Arthur Rackham, gives a delightfully humorous turn to some of the
stories. The Fianna were an order of chivalry whose qualifications were even more rigid than those of King
Arthur's Round Table. They are given in detail in GODS AND FIGHTING MEN: And the number of the
Fianna of Ireland at that time was seven score and ten chief men, every one of them having three times nine
fighting men under him. And every man of them was bound to three things, to take no cattle by oppression,
not to refuse any man, as to cattle or riches; no one of them to fall back before nine fighting men. And there
was no man taken into the Fianna until his tribe and his kindred would give securities for him, that even if
they themselves were all killed he would not look for satisfaction for their death. But if he himself would
harm others, that harm was not to be avenged on his people. And there was no man taken into the Fianna
till he knew the twelve books of poetry. And before any man was taken, he would be put into a deep hole in
the ground up to his middle, and he having his shield and a hazel rod in his hand. And nine men would go
the length of ten furrows from him and would cast their spears at him at the one time. And if he got a
wound from one of them, he was not thought fit to join with the Fianna. And after that again, his hair would
be fastened up, and he put to run through the woods of Ireland, and the Fianna following after him to try
could they wound him, and only the length of a branch between themselves and himself when they started.
And if they came up with him and wounded him, he was not let join them; or if his spears had trembled in
his hand, or if a branch of a tree had undone the plaiting of his hair, or if he had cracked a dry stick under
his foot, and he running. And they would not take him among them till he had made a leap over a stick the
height of himself, and till he had stooped under one of the height of his knee, and till he had taken a thorn
out from his foot with his nail, and he running his fastest. But if he had done all these things, he was of
Finn's people. It was good wages Finn and the Fianna got at that time; in every district a townland, in every
house the fostering of a pup or a whelp from Samhain (sov'an) to Beltaine (baalt'an), and a great many
things along with that. But good as they pay was, the hardships and the dangers they went through for it
were greater. For they had to hinder the strangers and robbers from beyond the seas, and every bad thing,
from coming into Ireland. And they had hard work enough in doing that. This royal band were served by a
great retinue of Druids, physicians, minstrels and musicians, messengers, door-keepers, cup-bearers and
huntsmen, besides fifty of the best serving-women in Ireland, who worked all the year round making
clothes for the Fianna in a rath on Magh Femen. There was constant intercourse with the Tuatha De
Danann; many of the men had fairy mistresses and fairy brides; Finn's chief musician was the fairy Cnu
Deireoil, the 'little Nut', a little man with golden hair, about four feet high, said to be a son of Lugh of the
Long Hand; a fairy helper would suddenly join them, and they would be constantly assailed by hideous
supernatural Hags, Giants and Wizards. It was an active life, full of delights and dangers, and it went on
until old age overtook Finn, and his Fianna went down under dissensions, jealousies and deaths. # 100 -
166 - 267 - 454 - 467 - 503 - 504 - 562 - 619

FIANS

See: FEENS.

FIBULAE

Decorated clasps. # 730

FIDCHELL

(fi'hel) A game played with pieces on a board, probably similar to chess. # 166

FILIMENIS

See: CONSTANTINOPLE.

FINBEUS

A knight who lent Guinevere a stone which he had obtained from his fairy mistress. Guinevere coveted the
stone which made the wearer beautiful, wise and invincible. When she had returned it, she sent Gawain to
retrieve it which he did by fighting Finbeus. # 156

FINCHOOM
Dectera's sister, foster-mother to CuChulain; mother of Conall. # 562

FINCHORY

Island of Finchory. # 562

FINDABAIR

# 562: Findabair of the Fair Eyebrows. Daughter of Maev; offered to Ferdia if he will meet and fight
CuChulain. # 454: Daughter of Ailill mac Matach of Connacht and Medb. She loved Fraoch but he would
not pay her dowry, until bribed by Medb (sometimes called Maeve), he agreed to take her in return for his
help in battle against Ulster. Secretly Maeve offered Findabair to every champion who would fulfil this
task, but all refused, save Fraoch, because they knew they would face the invincible CuChulain. When that
hero killed Fraoch, Findabair died of a broken heart. # 166 - 367 - 454 - 562

FINDBENNACH

(Feen-ban-ah)

FINDIAS

It was one of the four cities from which the Tuatha de Danaan came to Ireland. Its master of wisdom,
Uscias, gave Nuadu his sword. See: HALLOWS. # 166 - 454

FINEGAS FINNECES

# 562: Druid, of whom Finn learns poetry and science. # 454: A poet who lived by the Boyne. He guarded
the Salmon of Knowledge for seven years, knowing that whoever ate of it would have all knowledge. His
pupil, Demne (Fionn mac Cumhal in disguise) helped him roast it and sucked his thumb where the hot
juices spurted out upon him. And so Fionn gained all knowledge. # 267 - 454 - 562 - 583

FINGAL

Fionn mac Cumhal is sometimes called this in Gaelic Scotland. The name also derived some popularity
from the bogus epic, OSSIAN, written by MacPherson in the late eighteenth century; drawing on oral
stories about the Fianna. James MacPherson fabricated a set of romantic Celtic poems which impressed and
fired Europe to a reconsideration of Celtic culture, though his work was soon discovered to be a fake. See
also: BRODICK, ARRAN and STAFFA and LOCH ASHIE, HIGHLAND. # 454

FINGEN

Conor mav Nessa's physician; his pronouncement (re) Conall's 'brain ball' by which Ket has wounded the
king. # 562

FINIAS

The city of Finias. See: DANA, and FINDIAS. # 562

FINN MAC CUMHAL


(finn mac coo'al) (FIONN MAC CUMHAL or FINN MAC COOL) # 100: Finn, find (fen), or fionn (f-
yoon) Means: White, beautiful, a fair-haired person. The last and greatest leader of the Fianna. He was the
son of Cumhal (coo-al) Mac Baiscne, who had been head of the Fianna of Ireland and had been killed by
the sons of Morna who were contending against him for the headship. Finn's mother was Muirne,
granddaughter of Nuada of the Tuatha De Danann, and of Ethlinn, the mother of Lugh of the Long Hand,
so he was godlike and fairy race. After Cumhal was killed, Finn's mother sent him away to the care of a
female Druid, for the sons of Morna were looking for him to kill him too. There he was trained, strenuously
and in secret, and sent from place to place for safety and further education. He was trained in poetry, and he
aquired two magical skills; whilst he was in training to the poet Finegas he accidentally tasted the salmon
of knowledge and gained his magic tooth, and he drank a mouthful of water of the well of the moon which
gave him the power of prophecy. At last his training was complete, and he went up at the time of Samhain
(sow-in) to the High King's palace at Teamhair (Tara). The High King recognized him by his likeness to his
father, and putting the smooth horn into his hand, which gave him immunity from attack, he asked him who
he was. Finn told him his whole story and asked to be admitted to the Fianna; and the king granted it to
him, for he was the son of a man whom he had trusted. Now every year at Samhain for the past nine years
the Hall of Teamhair had been burned down by a fairy musician called Aillen Mac Midhna, who played so
sweet an air that no one who heard it could help falling asleep, and while they slept he loosed a burst of
flame against the place so that it was consumed. That night the king asked the Fianna if anay man among
them would attempt the watch, and Finn offered to do so. While he was going the round an old follower of
his father offered him a magic spear of bitterness, which smelt so sharply that it would keep any man
awake. By the use of this spear, Finn killed Aillen and rescued the Hall for ever. He was made leader of the
Fianna, and Goll Mac Morna, his chief and most bitter enemy, made willing submission to him, and was
ever after his true follower and friend, though he still picked quarrels with all his kinsmen.

Many stories of his adventures were told, of his hounds and cousins, Bran and Sceolan, of the birth of his
son Oisin, the poet and warrior, of his old age, and the last sad moment when he let the saving water trickle
through his fingers, leaving Diarmuid (Dermot with the Love Spot) to die in revenge for his unwilling
abduction of Grania, Finn's young queen.

# 562: Fothad slain in a battle with FmC; Dermot of the Love Spot a follower of FmC; Osianic Cycle
clusters round FmC; Oisin, son of FmC; the coming of FmC, his Danaan ancestry, Murna of the White
Neck his mother, Cumhal his father; Demna his original name, but account of the whiteness of his skin and
his golden hair the name Finn (Fair One) was his hereafter; he slays Lia; taught poetry and science by
Druid Finegas; eats of the Salmon of Knowledge; slays goblin at Slieve Fuad; made captain of the Fianna
of Erin; makes a covenant with Conan; Dermot of the Love Spot, friend of FmC; He weds Grania; Oisin,
son of FmC; Geena mac Luga, one of his men; teaches the maxims of the Fianna to mac Luga; Murna, his
mother; His hounds, Bran and Skolawn (Sceolan); He weds Sadbh; she is taken from him by enchantment;
Niam of the Golden Hair comes to him; experience in the enchanted cave; He is rescued by Goll; 'The
chase of Slievegallion' and Finn mac Cumhal; 'The Masque of Finn mac Cumhal' by Standish O'Grady, the
Hard Gilly (Gilla Dacar and FmC; bewails Oscar's death; in all Ossianic literature no complete narrative of
death of Finn mac Cumhal; tradition says he lies in trance in an enchanted cave, like Kaiser Barbarossa.

# 454: Son of Cumhal and Muirne. He was fostered by a druidess, Bodhmall, and a woman-warrior, Liath
Luachra, who taught him battleskills and the Arts. Calling himself Demne, he went to learn poetry of
Finneces and obtained the thumb of knowledge; aquired by sucking his thumb when the salmon of
knowledge was roasting for Finneces to consume. In following years, he had only to chew his thumb to
have foreknowledge of events. His two hounds, Bran and Sceolan, were really his nephews in dog-form,
because they had human knowledge they were wiser than all other dogs. He became head of the Fianna,
fighting all the enemies of Ireland. He was father of Oisin by Sadbh. His attempt to marry Grainne failed
because he was ageing and she eloped with Diarmuid. He pursued them both and brought about Diarmuid's
death. He outlived his grandson Oscar and saw the slaughter of his Fianna at the Battle of Gabhra. He did
not die but wasted away into the Otherworld where, like Arthur, he is said to sleep. He is credited with
building the causeway between Ireland and Scotland, where he appears in many folk-stories as the ever-
living and cunning hero. Mongan is said to be a later reincarnation of Fionn. His many adventures can be
found in selective works. # 100 - 166 - 267 - 454 - 467 - 504 - 562 - 583 - 654
FINN, THE BIRTH OF (FINN MAC CUMHAL)

A folktale version of the birth of Finn has a great deal in common with that of Lugh. It was prophesied that
Cumhal mac Airt would be killed in the first battle he fought after he married, so he knew no woman for a
long time. Eventually he secretly married the king's daughter, who was closely guarded from men because
of a prophesy that her son would deprive the king of his kingdom. Before going to his fatal battle Cumhal
told his mother that if a son were born she should hide him. A son was born and, at the king's command, he
was thrown into the loch, but he came up holding a live salmon in his hand. His grandmother then
disappeared with him and despite the king's orders that all male infants be killed she succeeded in rearing
him in a chamber in a tree. When he was fifteen, the boy defeated the king's people at a game of hurley.
Whereupon the king asked, 'Who is that Finn Cumhal (white cap)?' 'Finn will be his name, and Finn mac
Cumhail he is,' exclaimed the grandmother. The king pursued them but succeeded only in slaying the
grandmother. # 270 - 548

FINN, THE BOYHOOD DEEDS OF (FINN MAC CUMHAL)

This story gives the reasons for the long enmity between Finn and the sons of Urgriu, the tragic outcome of
which is related in THE DEATH OF FINN. Stories of the boyhood of traditional characters, in Irish as well
as in other heroic literature, are the natural result of the public demand for more material concerning
favorite national heroes. THE BOYHOOD DEEDS OF FINN, unfortunately, comes down to us incomple-
te. It contains a number of striking passages of nature poetry, done in the best bardic tradition of the second
period (about 1200 to 1350), as yet unmarred by the exaggerated piling up of epithets that characterizes
much later Irish poetry. The reader will notice some similarity between this story and THE BOYHOOD
DEEDS OF CUCHULAIN. He will also observe that THE BOYHOOD DEEDS OF FINN differs in certain
respects from the parallel account given in THE CAUSE OF THE BATTLE OF CNUCHA. The two
represent two different streams of tradition, one older than the other. # 166

FINN, THE DEATH OF

(FINN MAC CUMHAL) No cycle of heroic tales in any country is regarded as complete with-out the story
of the death of the central hero. All readers of epic literature recall the death of Beowulf, of Siegfried, and
of Roland. In medieval Ireland the desire for harmony and system called into existence the death tales of
not only the central heroes CuChulain and Finn, but also of other famous warriors and kings. The story of
Finn's death no doubt belongs to an early and authentically Irish tradition. The date of composition of the
piece in its present form has not been established, but it is comparatively late, probably of about the same
period as THE COLLOQUY OF THE OLD MEN. The rhetoric is flamboyant and, at times, over-
conventionalized, yet the narrative is direct, and proceeds inevitably to its conclusion without interruption.
The final scene in which the fierce old warrior faces his lifelong enemies in his last battle is one of
memorable tragic dignity. The story begins with a great boar-hunt held by Finn and his companions. During
a pause in the activities there is told the story of the origin of Finn's magic horn, which bears a mysterious
curse. Then the boar-hunt itself is resumed. Oscar kills a terrible boar that has long been feared by the
people of Erin. Right there starts the selection brought by Cross and Slover in their ANCIENT IRISH
TALES, but the actual death of Finn is not included, since the end of the story is lacking in the manuscript.
# 166

FINNABAIR

(Finn-AV-eer)

FINNBHENACH

The arch-enemy of Donn Cuailgne. Finnbhenach had been through many incarnations, in many shapes,
before he became a white bull. Together they were the cause of strife between Maeve and Ailill. # 454
FINNECES

(Fin-ayk-us)

FINTAN

# 562: The Salmon of Knowledge, of which Finn eats. # 454: Survivor of the Flood, father of Cessair. He
hid in a cave in the form of a salmon. He passed through countless transformations, remembering all that
had passed in Ireland. He appeared to later Irishmen who were disputing the ordering of Ireland and told
them her entire history and the associations each place had had. # 454 - 469 - 548 - 562

FINTAN MAC NEILL

(fin'tan moc nâ'll) In 'The Intoxication of the Ulstermen,' the ruler over a third of Ulster along with
CuChulain and Conchobar. # 166

FIONN

See: FINN.

FIONNACHAIDH

(Fin-ah-hi)

FIONUALA

(fee-un-oo'la) Daughter of Lir and step-daughter of Aoife; Aoife's transformation into swans of Fionuala
and her brothers. See: CHILDREN OF LIR. # 562

FIR BHOLG

(fir vulag) See: FIRBOLGS.

FIR CHLIS

The Nimble Men or Merry Dancers were the names given by Highlanders to the Aurora Borealis. In
SCOTTISH FOLK LORE AND FOLK LIFE, by Mackenzie, gives a good account of the tradition about
the Fir Chlis, distinguishing their 'everlasting battle' from the more hurtful activities of the Sluagh. He
himself was told of the 'Nimble Men' engaging in fights between the clans of two chiefs, rivals for the
possession of a fairy lady. The bright red sky sometimes seen beneath the moving lights of the aurora is
sometimes called 'the pool of blood'. J. G. Campbell, in his SUPERSTITIONS OF THE HIGHLANDS,
says that the blood of the wounded, falling to the earth and becoming congealed, forms the coloured stones
called 'blood stones', known in the Hebrides also by the name of FUIL SIOCHAIRE 'fairy blood'. In
Ireland, according to William Allingham's poem 'The Fairies', the spirits composing the aurora are more
truly 'Merry Dancers', for the old fairy king is decribed as: Going up with music on cold starry nights, to
feast with the Queen of the gay Northern Lights.

According to Lewis Spence in THE FAIRY TRADITION, the Fir Chlis were supposed to be those fallen
angels whose fall was arrested before they reached the earth. This Christian theory of the Origin of Fairies
was particularly prevalent in the Highlands, for almost every Highlander was a theologian. The Suffolk
name for the Northern Lights is Perry Dancers. # 12 - 100 - 131 - 415 - 609
FIR DHEARGA

(fir yaraga) (FIR DARRIG) In his IRISH FAIRY AND FOLK TALES, Yeats says about the Fir Darrig:

The FAR DARRIG (fear dearg), which means the Red Man, for he wears a red cap and coat, busies himself
with practical joking, especially with gruesome joking. This he does and nothing else.

The example he gives is 'The Far Darrig in Donegal', which is a version of 'The Story-Teller at a Loss', in
which a man who fails to produce a story on request suffers a succession of macabre experiences which
prove to be illusions designed to provide him with material for a story. The Far Darrig in this story is
described as the big man, 'a gigantic fellow, the tallest of the four'. The Fear Dearg of Munster was,
according to Crofton Croker, a little old man, about two and a half feet in height, wearing a scarlet sugar-
loaf hat and a long scarlet coat, with long grey hair and a wrinkled face. He would come in and ask to warm
himself by the fire. It was very unlucky to refuse him. The Cluricaune in his account was only six inches
high, thus rather devaluated. There is, however, another Fir Darrig, a red-headed man, who occurs in stories
of humans trapped in Fairyland. He is generally taken to be a human captive in Fairyland, and it is his
advice and help which enables the human visitor to escape. Examples are to be found in Lady Wilde's
ANCIENT LEGENDS OF IRELAND, VOL. I, 'Fairy Music' and 'Fairy Justice', and the same character
occurs in many Scottish stories. # 100 - 165 - 728 - 756

FIR FALGAE

(fir fôl'ga) Probably the Manxmen. # 166

FIRBOLGS

# 562: (fir vulag) Nemedian survivors who return to Ireland; name signifies 'Men of the Bags'; the FirBolg,
FirDomnan, and Galionin races general-ly designated as the Firbolgs; the Danaan's and the Firbolgs. # 100:
The first inhabitants of Ireland, according to ancient traditions, were the Firbolgs, who were conquered and
driven into the Western Islands by the Tuatha De Danann. The Firbolgs became the first Fairies of Ireland,
Giant-like, grotesque creatures. They and the Tuatha De Danann may be compared with the Titans and the
Olynpic gods of Greece. # 454: They settled in Ireland, fleeing Greece where they had been enslaved and
made to carry earth in bags. They afterwards made ships out of these bags and sailed to Spain. They held
Ireland after the death of Nemed until the coming of the Tuatha de Danaan. # 100 - 454 - 469 - 562

FIRDOMNAN

See: FIRBOLGS.

FIRE

Whereas Tara is the seat of kingship, several considerations associate Uisnech with the druids. It was at
Uisnech that Mide (eponym of Meath), chief druid of the people of Nemed, lit the first fire. The fire blazed
for seven years, 'so that he shed the fierceness of the fire for a time over the four quarters of Ireland'. From
that fire were kindled every chief fire and every chief hearth in Ireland. 'Wherefore Mide's successor is
entitled to a sack (of corn) with a pig from every house-top in Ireland.' And the indigenous druids said: 'Evil
(MI-DÉ, a pun) to us is the fire that has been kindled in the land.' On Mide's instructions, these druids were
marshalled into a house and their tongues were cut out. He buried the tongues in the ground of Uisnech and
sat upon them. Another story of the lightning of a symbolical fire is linked with the neighbourhood of
Uisnech. It is told to explain how Delbaeth got his name. Banished with his five sons from Munster 'he
went to the cairn of Fiachu and kindled there a druidical fire, out of which burst five streams of flame. And
he set him a son to each stream. From these descend the five Delbnas. Hence the name Delbaed, "shape-
fire", clung to him.' The lightning of a fire as a ritual proclamation of the ascendancy of the one who lights
it occurs in several other Celtic stories. For example, St David on taking possession of the land which bears
his name lit a fire, to the dismay of the local chieftain - 'the kindler of that fire shall excel all in powers and
renown in every part that the smoke of his sacrifice has covered, even to the end of the world'. Similarly St
Patrick, through lighting the Pashcal fire, usurped the privileges of the druids who were preparing a fire at
Tara. The story of the founding of the monastery of Loch Ree by St Ciarán recalls Nemed's company of
eight. 'With eight upon the Loch Ciarán travelled but with twelve hundred on land....A fire was lit by the
clergy.... Said his wizards to Diarmait: "The purpose for which yon fire is kindled tonight is such that it will
never be put out." ' According to the Welsh laws, the right to enter and occupy land which one's father
occupied until his death was the right to uncover the fire Datanhud. Mention may also be made of the firm
tradition that a humble squatter who builds a house on the waste during the course of one night, and has
smoke rising from the chimney by the dawn of a new day, gains possession of the site and the land around
to the distance to which he can throw an axe from his cabin door. In Irish tradition, Partholon, Tuatha De
Danann, and the Sons of Mil are all said to have struck the land of Ireland at Beltaine, the beginning of a
new summer, the time of year when it is the custom to rise early to see dawn breaking - and when 'ship-
processions' used to form a part of the folk-ritual in several of the coastal districts of Britain. It is said that
the Great Assembly of Uisnech used to be held at Beltaine, and though we are not told at what time of the
year the people of Nemed landed, it is a safe presumption that Mide's fire is the archetypal Beltaine fire.
Cormac's Glossary, as well as Keating's History, states that Beltaine fires served to preserve cattle from
disease throughout the following year, and the Glossary also says that the druids chanted spells over the
fires. The custom of kindling them with a fire-drill survived in some districts until modern times, and
Beltaine continued to be THE occasion when the lighting of the fire on the hearth of every home was
charged with danger and significance. # 548

FISH-KNIGHT

A strange fish monster which looked like a mounted knight. Arthur fought it in order to release a fairy
called the Lady of the Fair Hair. # 156

FISHER KING

# 156: A king encountered during the Grail Quest. He is sometimes, but not always, identified with the
Maimed King. He is called Pelles in the VULGATE VERSION, in which the Maimed King is named
Parlan or Pellam. In Manessier's Continuation we are told he was wounded by fragments of a sword which
had killed his brother, Goon Desert. By Chrétien we are told he could not ride as a result of his infirmity, so
he took to fishing as a pastime. Robert de Boron gives his name as Bron and tells us he earned his title by
providing fish for Joseph of Arima-thea. In SONE DE NAUSAY he is identified with Joseph of Arimathea
himself. By Wolfram he is called Anfortas. # 454: The name given to the Grail King after he fed a
multitude of followers from a single fish. The name may have arisen from a play on the French terms
'pêcheur' (fisherman) and 'pécheur' (sinner), since the Wasteland is caused by the king's sin or blemish. See:
WOUNDED KING. # 30-156-451-454-461

FLAITHEAS

This name is what the Goddess of Sovereignty calls herself when she meets Niall. It means 'lordship' or
'sovereignty'. Frequently, in Irish tradition, candidate kings are offered a cup to drink from which is called
the dergflaith or 'cup of red lordship', which denotes their acceptability to the goddess. # 438 - 454

FLAMBOROUGH

Historians tell us that the names for Flamborough, Humberside, and for Scarborough (north of
Flamborough) are derived from the personal names of two brothers who are mentioned in the 'Kormak's
Saga' of the Old Norsemen. Kormak Fleinn (the javelin) and Thorgils Skarthi (the hare-lipped) are
traditionally named as the founders (respectively) of these two northern towns. They were great warriors,
and by the time their epics had been told and retold up to the fourteenth century (the time-home of so much
British legend), Skarthi had been turned into a mighty giant, perhaps through confusion with the nordic
giantess Skadi, the mother of Freya, said to dwell in the zodiacal region of Taurus. The better known giant
Grim gave us the more recognisable Grimsby, and is respectably portrayed on the town's seal. The remains
of Fleinn are more in evidence however, for although he is reputed to have arrived shipwrecked among the
white cliffs of Flamborough, he gave up sea-roving and built the first house there from the wreckage of his
boat. One wonders why the myth-makers did not have him living in Robin Lythe's Cave (replete with
smuggler legends as it is) which has a height of at least 50 feet in the central part. However, there is some
hidden meaning in the giant not exactly burning his boats, but certainly settling down. There is some truth
in the story, for as a popular guide to Flamborough village rightly said, 'The people come of a Viking stock,
as not only eyes and hair and thick-set frames, but many of the words in everyday use attest.' In former
times it was a commonplace to derive the name 'Flamborough' from other sources - as 'the place of the
flame' - forgetful for the fact that the Anglo-Saxon 'flaen' is one of several words for 'sword or arrow', and
that in Doomesday Book the name is written 'Flaynburg.

Arrow and name seem to meet in one curious old custom (now discontinued, but noted until well into the
nineteenth century) when the Lord of the Manor would annually stand upon Flamborough Head and shoot
an arrow tipped with a coin towards the North Sea, shouting, 'If there be a King of Denmarks, this is our
sign of loyalty' - a strange way to offer danegeld. Perhaps there is some throw-back to pagan customs in the
old ritual by which the coffins of women were usually carried to their graves by women. In 1894, Colonel
Armytage recorded that, 'If a fisherman on his way to the boats should meet a woman, a parson or a hare,
he will turn back, for he will have no luck that day...' # 702

FLEET STREET, LONDON

The so-called 'griffin' which is recognized as the 'Beast' of the City of London, and stands at the western
end of Fleet Street, is really a dragon. The true griffin is an eagle in the top half, and a lion in the bottom
half. This 'Beast' is one of the supporters of the shield of the City of London and, as Wilfrid Scott-Giles
points out, had an unnatural origin. It seems that originally the City shield was supported by lions but, by
the sixteenth century, over the shield in the city seal was a helmet with a curious fan-shaped crest. This was
later interpreted as being the wing of a monster, and it was this misinterpretation which prompted the
designers at a later stage to adopt a winged dragon as a supporter for the City shield. Thus, as ScottGiles
confirms, the City dragons have no heraldic ancestry. For other mention of the London dragon, see
BATTLE, EAST SUSSEX. # 702

FLEGETANIS

A heathen writer, whose Arabic book formed a source for poet Kyot. # 562

FLEUR-DE-LIS

The original pagan Lily Maid reappeared in medieval legends in many different guises including that of the
Arthurian Elaine. The threelobed lily seems to have represented the Triple Goddess from a remote era, like
the shamroch in pagan Ireland. Because the people knew it as a sacred symbol, it was placed on many
banners and coats of arms, and eventually came to represent French royalty in general. # 701 p 426

FLORENCE

# 156: A son of Gawain who was amongst the party that surprised Lancelot and Guinevere together. He was
killed by the escaping Lancelot. # 454: One of Gawain's various illegitimate sons. In this instance, one of
the two such sons by the unnamed sister of a Round Table Knight called Brandiles. He is supposed to have
joined the attempt to entrap Lancelot in the Queen's chamber, and was killed by Lancelot during his escape.
# 156 - 454

FLORETE

Wife of Floriant and daughter of the Emperor of Constantinople. # 156

FLORIANT

The hero of the romance FLORIANT ET FLORETE. He was the son of Elyadus, King of Sicily, and the
fosterling of Morgan le Fay. He was member of Arthur's court and Arthur supported him against the
Emperor of Constantinople who made war on him. Floriant fell in love with Florete, the Emperor's
daughter and married her. See: WHITE STAG. # 156

FLORIE

1. The niece of King Joram whom Gawain married and who bore him Wigalois. Elsewhere she is called
Floree, daughter of the King of Escavalon. 2. The Queen of Kanadic who raised Arthur's son Ilinot, but
later caused his death from love-sickness by sending him away. # 156

FLORISDELFA

An enchantress who learned her arts from Merlin. She sent him a herd of magic horses and a crystal tower
on a chariot drawn by firebreathing elephants. She killed herself when she perceived the beauty of Iseult.#
156

FLOWER MAIDEN, THE

Blodeuwedd, the Welsh Flower-Bride, formed of blossoms by the magicians Gwydion and Math. She
betrayed her intended husband, Llew, and caused him to undergo the Threefold Death at the hands of her
lover, the hunter Gronw Pebr. Gwydion later transformed her into an owl, the night bird with a 'flower
face'. See: BLODEUWEDD. # 628 p 66

FLURENT

The mother of Iseult in the Icelandic SAGA OF TRISTAN. # 156

FLY

The Celtic hero CuChulain was conceived when his mother-to-be swallowed him in the form of a fly.
Perhaps the 'Old Woman Who Swallowed a Fly' in the traditional folk song was one of these pre-Christian
mothers. # 701 p 416

FLYING HORSE

This was made by Merlin and is found in the French romance THE FAIR MAGALONA AND PETER,
SON OF THE COUNT OF PROVENCE. # 156

FOAWR
The Foawr (fooar). The Manx equivalent of the Highland Fomorians. Like them, the Foawr are stone-
throwing Giants. They are great ravishers of cattle, but do not seem to be Ogres. Dora Broome in FAIRY
TALES FROM THE ISLE OF MAN has a story, 'Chalse and the Foawr', of a light-hearted young fiddler
caught and carried home by a Foawr. One would expect it to end like the Polyphemus incident, but Chalse
escapes by climbing up the giant's chimney. Nothing much is told of the giant who rode Jimmy Squarefoot,
except that he threw stones at his wife, but in one of Sophia Morrison's MANX FAIRY TALES we have a
complete Tom Tit Tot story in which the spinning is done by a giant whose name is Mollyndroat. The prize
of the guessing contest in this tale is the possession of the woolen thread spun. Mollyndroat was the least
grasping of all the Goblin spinners. # 100 - 105 - 485

FOHLA FODLA

One of the three goddesses of Sovereignty to whom Amergin promised the honour of naming Ireland. See:
BANBA, and ERIU. # 454 - 562

FOIDIN SEACHRAIN

(fodeen shaughrawin) see: STRAY SOD.

FOILL

A son of Necthan, slain by CuChulain. # 562

FOLLAMAN

Conor's youngest son; leads boy corps against Maev. # 562

FOMORIANS

# 166: (Fo-vor-ee-an) # 562: A misshapen, violent people representing the powers of evil in their battle with
the Partholanians; Nemedians in constant warfare with Fomorians and their tyranny over country of
Ireland; encounter between the Danaans and Fomorians. # 454: The original inhabitants of Ireland who
lived beyond the sea or under it, according to legend. Various of the invading peoples were attacked by
them, particularly the Tuatha de Danaan with whom they came to pitch battle. Their king was Balor. They
were probably a remembrance of the earliest native peoples, of non-Celtic stock; they accumulated every
possible association with evil and darkness in legend.

# 100: A race of demons, hideous and evil, against whom most of the successive invaders of Ireland had to
fight. There is no record of their arrival, so presumably they had been there from the beginning, surviving
the various hazards that exterminated the successive waves of colonizers. According to the BOOK OF
CONQUESTS, the first unnamed inhabitants had perished in the Great Flood. Then came the children of
Partholon, who waged war against the Fomorians and were finally destroyed by a great pestilence. After
them came the people of Nemed, who fared even worse aginst the Fomorians than their predecessors, for
they were enslaved by them and had to pay every November a yearly tribute of two thirds of their children
and two thirds of their cattle. At length in a great battle they conquered the Fomorians and killed Conann,
their king; but they themselves were so cruelly disminished in numbers that they left the country. Then
came the Firbolgs, who had no trouble with the Fomorians, but were defeated by another wave of invaders,
the Tuatha De Danann. The Tuatha conquered the Fir Bolgs, but allowed them to retain the province of
Connacht. They also came into conflict with the Fomorians, but compromised with them to a certain extent,
even to intermarriage. However, the war broke out again in the end, and the Fomorians were finally
conquered at the second battle of Moytura. It has been suggested among the theories of Fairy Origins that
these successive waves of invasion describe the conflicts of religious cults and practices. If this is so, the
Fomorians would represent a primitive religion that entailed barbaric human and animal sacrifices. They
were a race of sea-pirates with semi-supernatural characteristics who opposed the earliest settlers in Ireland.
Later claiments identified them with the Scandinavians, who invaded the island during the eigth century.
The Highland Fomorians were a race of giants, less evil than the Irish demons. # 100 - 166 - 267 - 454 -
562

FORBAY

Son of Conor mac Nessa; slays Maev. # 562

FORD OF FERDIA

Place on the river Dee where one champion at a time would meet CuChulain and where the struggle at the
ford between CuChulain and Ferdia took place. # 562

FORGALL THE WILY

1. Forgall Monach (fôr'gal môn'ah) A powerful chieftain with semisupernatural powers, the Lord of Lusca,
father of Emer; He sent CuChulain to learn arms of Scathach, confident that he would not return alive. But
the hero returned, and when Forgall tried to escape he was killed by CuChulain who then married Emer. 2.
The poet of Mongan. # 166 - 266 - 454 - 562

FORT OF GLASS

See: AVALON.

FORTUNATE ISLANDS

Like the Blessed Islands: the earthly paradise located variously to the west of Ireland or applied to the
Canary or Madeira Islands. According to the VITA MERLINI, it is ruled over by Morgan and her nine
attendant muses. Analogous to Avalon. # 242 - 454 - 632

FORTUNE

In the MORTE ARTHURE, Arthur dreamt that he beheld Fortune spinning her wheel on which he was
placed. The wheel was then twirled about until he was smashed to fragments. He was told that this presaged
his downfall. # 156

FOTHAD

King, slain in battle with Finn mac Cumhal; wager as to place of death made by Mongan. # 562

FOUNTAIN

The Celtic fairyland-paradise was a country of eternal youth with a wonderful fountain at its center,
dispensing the waters of life. The fountain was also identified with the Cauldron of Regeneration. Several
stories told of heroes reaching the fountain by entering a dragon-mouth - a mythic metaphor for the
dangerous vagina dentata or menstrual taboo. # 701 p 341

FOUNTAIN OF THE TRUE LOVE


This was created by Merlin according to ASTRÉE, a seventeenth-century novel begun by Honoré d'Urfé
(1567-1625) and concluded by his secretary, Baro. It is in the section by Baro that the fountain is
mentioned. It was guarded by lions which would not eat a pure and honest person. # 156

FOUNTAIN OF YOUTH

The fountain in which Esclarmonde bathed in the Terrestrial Paradise.# 156

FRAGARACH

( 'The Answerer'). Terrible sword brought by Lugh from the Land of the Living. # 562

FRANCE

In Arthurian romance, this country is sometimes called by the older name of Gaul. In the Arthurian period
the Franks, from whom its present name derived, had established themselves there by about AD 457.
Childeric I ruled them until about AD 481 when he was succeeded by Clovis I, possibly the King Claudas
of Arthurian tales. From AD 511 Clovis's sons divided the kingdom. Pharamond, who perhaps comes
originally from Frankish tradition, is the King of France in some Arthurian sources. CULHWCH mentions
two French kings, Paris and Iona, at Arthur's court. # 156

FRANCHISE TRISTAN

A country, formerly called Servage, conquered by Tristan. # 156

FRAOCH

He was loved by Findabair, daughter of Ailill and Maeve. He refused to pay a bride-price for her but agreed
to accept her if he helped Maeve beat the Ulstermen. He was killed by CuChulain. # 367 - 454

FRIAR BACON

An historical figure who became the subject of romance in which he was accredited with various magical
activities and abilities, including the creation of a Bronze Head which uttered prophecies. The suggestion
that this was initially to help protect England suggests a memory of the Celtic god Bran, whose head was
buried under White Mount at the Tower of London to protect the land. Bacon, who was in reality a scolar
and alchemist, lived in the thirteenth century. He finally retired to a life of seclusion. # 454

FRIMUTEL

In Wolfram, the father of the Grail King Amfortas. # 156

FRISIANS

A Germanic people who gave their name to islands off the coast of the Netherlands and Germany. The
Byzantine historian Procopius, who was writing in the traditional Arthurian period, numbers the Frisians
among the barbarian invaders of Britain. Layamon says that King Calin of Friesland was subject to Arthur.
In the ALLITERATIVE MORTE ARTHURE, King Frederick of Friesland was an ally of Mordred. # 156

FROCIN
A dwarf who betrayed King Mark's secret that he had horses' ears. Mark had his head cut off. # 156

FROG

Celtic tradition has the frog as Lord of the Earth; it also represents the healing waters. # 161

FROLLO

A Roman tribune who ruled Gaul for the Emperor Leo. When Arthur invaded Gaul, he defeated Frollo in
battle. Frollo retreated to Paris, outside which city he was slain by Arthur in single combat. The Vulgate
LANCELOT makes him an ally of King Claudas and a claimant to the throne of Gaul. Elsewhere he is said
to have been a German who became King of Gaul. In the PROSE TRISTAN he had a son called Samaliel
who eventually became a knight of great renown. Is sometimes confused with Rollo, the first of the
Norman dukes of Danish origin, who reigned 911 - 931. # 156 - 181

FUAMNACH

(foo'am-nach). Wife of Midir the Proud of the Sidhe; her jealousy of a second bride, Etain, made her
transform Etain into a butterfly by magic art; Midir beheaded Fuamnach when he discovered her treachery.
# 267 - 562

FUATH

These malicious spirits were found near water, both inland and seawater. Fuaths were thought to be the
parents of Brollachans. # 454

FULGENTIUS

Geoffrey lists him as an early King of Britain, and John of Fordun (a Scottish historian) claims he was an
ancestor of Lot. # 156

FULK FITZWARIN

Actual historical character who lived at the time of King John Lackland and was one of the barons who
opposed his greedy rule. He later became the subject of a lengthy romance in which his adventures with
dragons and witches, monsters and beautiful maidens dressed his life with a border of myth and legend. He
has many parallels with Robin Hood and seems for a time to have lived the real life of an outlaw. He is one
of the few characters who really deserve the description Norman rather than English or Saxon. # 454

FURBAIDE FERBENN

(foor'bi he fâr'ben) A son of Conchobar; slayer of Medb; a protégé of CuChulain. # 166


GABAN

In the POLISTOIRE DEL EGLISE DE CHRIST DE CAUNTERBYRE, we are told that he made the sword
later wielded by Gawain, back in the days when Christ was fourteen years old. Gaban may represent a
survival of the ancient Celtic smith god Gobniu/Gofannon. # 156

GABRA

(GOW-ra)

GABRIEL HOUNDS RATCHETS

The hounds of the Wild Hunt which are heard yelping in the sky, sometimes believed to be the cries of
migrating geese. These hounds are like those hunted by Arawn, King of Annwn, having red-tipped ears.
See GWYNN AP NUDD.

# 454

GADDIFER

The King of Scotland. He was made king when his brother Betis became King of England in the time of
Alexander the Great. See: PERCEFOREST. # 156

GAE BULGA

(GAE BOLG) (ga bool'ga) The thrust of Gae Bolg taught by Skatha to CuChulain; CuChulain slays his son
Connla by Gae Bolg; CuChulain slays Loch by Gae Bolg; Ferdia slain by Cuchulain with Gae Bolg. A
spear furnished with barbs running in opposite directions and manipulated under water with the toes.
CuChulain, who alone knew the use of this weapon, learned it from Scathach. # 166 - 562

GAELIC

Cymric language and Gaelic; Irish is probably an older form of Celtic speech than Welsh. This is shown by
many philological pecularities of the Irish language, of which one of the most interesting may be briefly
referred to. The Goidelic or Gaelic Celts, who, according to the usual theory, first colonised the British
Islands, and who were forced by successive waves of invasion by their Continental kindred to the extreme
west, had a peculiar dislike to the pronounciation of the letter P. Thus the Indo-European particle PARE,
beside or close to, becomes in early Celtic Are, as in the name Are-morici (the Amoricans, those who dwell
armuir, by the sea); Are-dunum (Ardin, in France); Are-cluta, the place beside the Clota (Clyde), now
Dumbarton; Are-taunon, in Germany (near the Taunus Mountains) etc. When this letter was not simply
dropped it was usually changed into C (K, G). But about the sixth century BC a remarkable change passed
over the language of the Continental Celts. They gained in some unexplained way the faculty for
pronouncing P, and even substituted it for existing C sounds; thus the original Cretanis became Pretanis,
Britain, the numeral qetuares (four) became petuares, and so forth. Celtic place-names in Spain show that
this change must have taken place before the Celtic conquest of that country, 500 BC. Now a comparison of
many Irish and Welsh words shows distinctly this avoidance of P on the Irish side and lack of any objection
to it on the Welsh. The following are a few illustrations:

IRISH WELSH ENGLISH


crann prenn tree
mac map son
cenn pen head
clumh (cluv) pluv feather
cúig pimp five

The conclusion that Irish must represent the older form of the language seems obvious. It is remarkable that
even to a comparatively late date the Irish preserved their dislike to P. Thus they turned the Latin Pascha
(Easter) to Casg; purpur, purple, to corcair, pulsatio (through French pouls) to cuisle. It must be noted,
however, that Nicholson in his "Keltic Researches" endeavours to show that the so-called Indo-European P
- that is, P standing alone and uncombined with another consonant - was pronounced by the Goidelic Celts
at an early period. The subject can hardly be said to be cleared up yet. See also: IRISH LANGUAGE, THE,
and CELTS, THE. # 562

GAELS

Sacrifices of children by Gaels to idol Crom Cruach. # 562

GAESATI

Celtic warriors, in battle of Clastidium. # 562

GAHERIS

One of the sons of Lot and Morgause. At first he was the squire of his brother Gawain. He surprised
Lamorak and Morgause in bed together and killed Morgause, for which Arthur banished him. With another
brother, Agravain, he killed Lamorak. Gaheris was married to Lynette. He was killed by Lancelot during
the rescue of Guinevere. Both he and another Gaheris were Knights of the Round Table. See: ERIES. # 156

GAHMURET

In Wolfram, the father of Perceval. He went to the Orient and took service with the Baruc of Baghdad. He
rescued the dark-skinned Belacane, Queen of Zazamanc, from a Scottish army and married her. He returned
to Europe and married Herzeloyde, Queen of Wales and Northgalis. He returned to aid the Baruc and was
killed. His sons were Perceval by Herzeloyde and the piebald Feirefiz by Belacane. # 156

GAILHOM

See: GORE.

GALAGANDREIZ

One of Lancelot's fathers-in-law. # 156

GALAHAD
1. The natural son of Lancelot. His name may be of Welsh origin or come from the place name Gilead in
Palestine. His mother is variously called Elaine, Amite and Perevida. He was placed as a child in a nunnery,
the abess there being his paternal great-aunt, and he was later knighted there by Lancelot. One day a sword
in a stone was seen in a river by Arthur's knights. It was said in an inscription that only the world's best
knight could pull out the sword. Galahad was led into Arthur's court where he sat in the Siege Perilous and
then drew the sword out. When the Grail appeared in a vision at Arthur's court, Galahad was one of the
knights sent on the Grail Quest. He was given a white shield, made by Evelake, with a red cross which
Joseph of Arimathea had drawn in blood. In the course of the quest he joined up with Perceval, Bors and
Perceval's sister. On Board Solomon's ship, Galahad obtained the sword of David. After the death of
Perceval's sister, the remaining trio split up and, for a while, Perceval travelled with his father, Lancelot. He
visited Evelake who then died. When he rejoined Bors and Perceval, they came to Carbonek and achieved
the Grail. Galahad mended the broken sword, which the other two had failed to do, and Joseph of
Arimathea appeared and celebrated Mass. Jesus appeared to the questers and told Galahad he would see the
Grail more openly in Sarras. Galahad used the blood from the Grail Spear to anoint the Maimed King, so he
was cured. With his companions he left and came to a ship with the Grail on board. On this they sailed to
Sarras where the pagan king, Estorause, had them cast into prison where they were fed by the Grail.

They forgave Estorause before they died, and Gala had became the next King of Sarras. A year later he
came upon Joseph of Arimathea saying Mass. He then beheld the Grail and requested that he should now
die and this he was allowed to do. Galahad may quite possibly have been the creation of the author of the
QUESTE, as it is there he first appears, but he may be taken from a Welsh character, Gwalhafed, mentioned
in CULHWCH. The historical Saint Illtyd has also been suggested as his prototype. 2. A son of Arimathea,
born in Britain. He became King of Wales, then called Hocelice. He was an ancestor of Urien. 3. Galahad
was the original name of Lancelot himself. See: TWENTY-FOUR KNIGHTS. # 156

GALAHAUT, THE HAUTE PRINCE

He was Arthur's enemy but after his defeat at the hands of Lancelot, he became a devoted follower of that
knight. He arranged the first secret meeting of the lovers and eventually died of grief when he heard a false
report of Lancelot's death. # 418 - 454 - 517

GALATIA

About the year 300 BC one detachment of the wandering Celtic tribes penetrated into Asia Minor, and
founded the Celtic State of Galatia, where, as St Jerome attests, a Celtic dialect was still spoken in the
fourth century AD. # 562

GALEGANTIS

The name of Lancelot's maternal grandfather; also the name of one of Arthur's knights. # 156

GALEHAUT

He was called 'the high prince', and was the ruler of the District Isles, Surluse and other kingdoms. His
father was called Brunor and his mother was a giantess called Bagota. He invaded Britain but became a
firm friend of Lancelot and, through him, a friend of Arthur. He was made a Knight of the Round Table.
When he thought Lancelot was dead, he himself died from sickness and fasting. # 156

GALENTIVET

Galentivet was once involved in an attack on Escanor, which was regarded as treacherous and for which
Gawain received the blame. He was the brother of Griflet. # 156
GALESCHIN

He aided Arthur while the latter was fighting the Saxons who were attacking the city of Clarence. When
they were beaten, he was made Duke of Clarence. This is an anachronism: the duchy of Clarence was
created in 1362 and the place name to which it related was Clare (Suffolk). He was the son of Arthur's sister
Belisent and King Nentres of Garlot. # 156

GALIOIN

See: FIRBOLGS.

GALLES, M. RENÉ

The remarkable tumulus of Mané-er-H'oeck in Brittany was explored in 1864 by René Galles, who
describes it as absolutely intact - the surface of the earth unbroken, and everything as the builders left it.
(Source: 'Revue Archéologique' t. xii., 1865, 'Fouilles de René Galles.') # 562

GAMELYN

A famous medieval outlaw whose adventures rivalled those of the better known Robin Hood. Youngest son
of a baron, Gamelyn is disinherited by a grasping older brother and is thereafter at war with all his siblings
save one, Sir Ote, who befriends him. But Gamelyn is a man of great strength and short temper and was
soon in trouble with the law. At the instigation of one of his brothers he is thrown into prison, escapes and
is declared an outlaw. Soon made King of the Outlaws, he lives a life of adventure until he finally wins
justice for himself and Ote, regaining his lands but retaining a friendly relationsship with the old outlaw
band which he had once led. # 454

GAN-CEANN

Gan-Ceann (without a head) is called the Love-Talker in some parts of Ireland. He appears in lovely places
to single women and courts them, before leaving them as swiftly as he came, to pine away. # 100 - 454

GANDIN

According to Wolfram, the name of Perceval's grandfather. # 156

GANIEDA

The twin sister of Merlin, she is found in both the VITA MERLINI and the Welsh poems where she is
called Gwendydd. In the VITA she is the wife of Rhydderch and her adultery is spotted by Merlin. The idea
of her being an adulteress may have stemmed from Jocelyn's LIFE OF ST KENTIGERN in which
Rhydderch's wife, Languoreth, becomes enamoured of a soldier. The Welsh poems do not say definitely
that Ganieda was married to Rhydderch. # 156

GARACH, THE BATTLE OF

The battle was joined on the Plain of Garach, in Meath. Fergus, wielding a two-handed sword, the sword
which, it was said, when swung in battle made circles like the arch of a rainbow, swept down whole ranks
of the Ulster men at each blow*, and the fierce Maeve charged thrice into the heart of the enemy. * [The
sword of Fergus was a fairy weapon called the CALADCHOLG (hard dinter), a name of which Arthur's
more famous 'Excalibur' is a Latinised corruption.] Fergus met Conor the King, and smote him on his
golden-bordered shield, but Cormac, the king's son, begged for his father's life. Fergus then turned on
Conall of the Victories. 'Too hot art thou,' said Conall, 'against thy people and thy race for a wanton,' [the
reference is to Deirdre]. Fergus then turned from slaying the Ulstermen, but in his battle-fury he smote
among the hills with his rainbow-sword, and struck off the tops of the three maela of Meath, so that they
are flat-topped (mael) to this day. CuChulain in his stupor heard the crash of Fergus' blows, and coming
slowly to himself he asked of Laeg what it meant. 'It is the swordplay of Fergus,' said Laeg. Then he sprang
up, and his body dilated so that the wrappings and swathings that had been bound on him flew off, and he
armed himself and rushed into the battle. Here he met Fergus. 'Turn hither, Fergus,' he shouted; 'I will wash
thee as foam in a pool, I will go over thee as the tail goes over a cat, I will smite thee as a mother smites her
infant.' 'Who speaks thus to me?' cried Fergus. 'CuChulain mac Sualtam; and now do thou avoid me as thou
art pledged.' 'I have promised even that,' said Fergus [see: FERGUS, and CUCHULAIN], and then went out
of the battle, and with him the men of Leinster and the men of Munster, leaving Maeve with her seven sons
and the hosting of Connacht alone. It was midday when CuChulain came into the fight; when the evening
sun was shining through the leaves of the trees his war-chariot was but two wheels and a handful of
shattered ribs, and the host of Connacht was in full flight towards the border. CuChulain overtook Maeve,
who crouched under her chariot and entreated grace. 'I am not wont to slay women,' said CuChulain, and he
protected her till she had crossed the Shannon at Athlone. # 562

GARANWYN

In Welsh tradition, a son of Kay. # 156

GARCELOS

An ancestor of Arthur in a maternal pedigree by Gruffudd Hiraethog, a Welsh writer of the sixteenth
century. The name Garcelos may be a corruption of Castellors, found in the pedigree provided by John of
Glastonbury. # 156

GAREL

An Arthurian knight who conquered the land of Kanedic whose king, Ecunaver, had announced his
intention of attacking Arthur. Garel married Queen Laudame of Anfere. His exploits are recounted in the
romance GAREL VON DEM BLÜENDEN TAL by Der Pleier. # 156

GARETH

Son of Lot, King of Lothian and Orkney, by Arthur's sister, Morgause. He came to Arthur's court in disguise
and was put to work in the kitchens where Kay gave him the contemptuous nickname 'Beaumains' ('Fair
Hands' - indicating that they were unsullied by work). When Lynette came to Arthur looking for someone
to help her sister Lyonors against the Red Knight of the Red Lands, Gareth went with her, accompanied by
a dwarf who knew his identity. On the way he overcame Black, Green and Red Knights and finally the Red
Knight of the Red Lands - despite the fact that he had to put up with Lynette's caustic tongue for she had no
wish for her cause to be championed by a scullion, or kitchen drudge. Gareth eventually married Lyonors.
His story, told by Malory, may have been based on a lost French romance. During Arthur's war against the
Roman Emperor Thereus, Gareth killed King Datis of Tuscany. He himself was killed by Lancelot while
the latter was rescuing Guinevere. # 156 - 418

GARGANTUA

A giant, the son of Grandgousier who was made by Merlin from a bull whale's bones and a phial of
Lancelot's blood, and Gargamelle whom Merlin made from the bones of a cow whale and ten pounds of
Guinevere's nail clippings. Gargantua served Arthur who supplied him with a sixty-foot club. The giant
once had an encounter with Tom Thumb who placed him under an enchantment. # 156
GARWEN

One of Arthur's three mistresses, according to TRIAD 57 (q.v.). She was the daughter of Henin the Old. #
156

GASOZEIN

This character appeared in DIU CRONE and claimed that Guinevere was his wife and that she should leave
Arthur and go with him. The choice being left with Guinevere, she refused, but her brother Gotegrim
believed her refusal to be wrong so, in anger, he carried her off, intending to kill her. She was rescued by
Gasozein who then fought Gawain over her but eventually admitted that his claim had been false. # 156

GAULOIS, LA RELIGION DES

In his valuable work, LA RELIGION DES GAULOIS, A. Bertrand distinguishes two elements among the
Celts themselves. There are, besides the Megalithic People, the two groups of lowland Celts and mountain
Celts. The lowland Celts, according to his view, started from the Danube and entered Gaul probably about
1200 BC. Unlike the Megalithic People, they spoke a Celtic tongue, though Bertrand seems to doubt their
genuine racial affinity with the true Celts. They were perhaps Celticised rather than actually Celtic. They
were not warlike, but a quiet folk of herdsmen, tilliers, and artificers. They did not bury, but burned their
dead. At a great settlement of theirs, Golasecca, in Cisalpine Gaul, 6000 interments were found. In each
case the body had been burned; there was not a single burial without previous burning. Bertrand, in his
most interesting chapter on 'L'Irlande Celtique,' points out that very soon after the conversion of Ireland to
Christianity, we find the country covered with monasteries, whose complete organisation seems to indicate
that they were really Druidic colleges transformed 'en masse'. Caesar has told us that these colleges were
like in Gaul.# 65 - 562

GAULS

Caesar's account of Gauls: 'They who are thus interdicted [for refusing to obey a Druidical sentence] are
reckoned in the number of the vile and wicked; all persons avoid and fly their company and discourse, lest
they should receive any infection by contagion; they are not permitted to commence a suit; neither is any
post entrusted to them...The Druids are generally freed from military service, and for paying taxes...
Encouraged by such rewards, many of their own accord come to their schools, and are sent by their friends
and relations. They are said there to get by heart a great number of verses. Some continue twenty years in
their education.' Gauls also described by Diodorus Siculus, and by Ammianus Marcellinus, and by Dr. Rice
Holmes; commerce on Mediterranean, Bay of Biscay, &c., of Gauls; religious beliefs and rites described by
Julius Caesar; human sacrifices in Gaul; votive inscriptions to Aesus, Teutates, and Taranus found in Gaul;
Dis, or Pluto, a most notable god of Gaul; dead carries from Gaul to Britain; Maon taken to Gaul.
Ammianus Marcellinus described the Gauls thus: 'Nearly all the Gauls are of a lofty stature, fair and ruddy
complexion: terrible from the sternness of their eyes, very quarrelsome, and of great pride and insolence. A
whole troup of foreigners would not be able to withstand a single Gaul if he called his wife to his assistance
who is usually very strong and with blue eyes; especially when, swelling her neck, gnashing her teeth, and
brandishing her sallow arms of enormous size, she begins to strike blows mingled with kicks, as if they
were so many missiles sent from the string of a catapult.' # 143 - 562

GAURIEL

A warrior who married the ruler of Fluratrone, who abandoned him, but said she would return to him if he
would capture three knights of Arthur for her. He did so. Afterwards, he spent a year with Arthur. He had a
pet ram which he had trained to fight. The romance featuring him was German, written by Konrad von
Stoffeln. # 156
GAUVAIN

(Sir Gawain). Fellowknight with Perceval. See also: GAWAIN. # 562

GAVRINIS, CHIROMANCY AT

In connexion with the great sepulcral monument of Gavrinis a very curious observation was made by M.
Albert Maitre, an inspector of the Musée des Antiquités Nationales. There were found here - as commonly
in other megalithic monuments in Ireland and Scotland - a number of stones sculptured with a singular and
characteristic design in waving and concentric lines. Now if the curious lines traced upon the human hand
at the roots and tips of the fingers be examined under a lens, it will be found that they bear an exact
resemblance to these designs of megalithic sculpture.

One seems almost like a cast of the other. These lines on the human hand are so distinct and peculiar that,
as is well known, they have been adopted as a method of identification of criminals. Can this resemblance
be the result of chance? Nothing like these peculiar assemblages of sculptured lines has ever been found
exept in connexion with these monuments. Have we not here a reference to chiromancy - a magical art
much practised in ancient and even in modern times? The hand as a symbol of power was a well-known
magical emblem, and has entered largely even into Christian symbolism- note, for instance, the great hand
sculptured on the under side of one of the arms of the Cross of Muiredach at Monasterboice. # 562

GAWAIN

1. The eldest son of King Lot and Morgause and one of Arthur's most prominent knights. In Welsh tradition
his father is sometimes given as Gwyar, but sometimes Gwyar is said to be his mother. In French he is
called variously Gauvain, Gauwain, Gayain etc. In Latin he is Walganus, in Dutch Walewein and in Irish
Balbhuaidh. In Welsh his name is Gwalchmai (hawk of May or hawk of the plain). R. S. Loomis argues that
Gawain and Gwalchmai were originally different characters and that the Welsh identified their hero
Gwalchmai with the Continental Gawain. He suggests that Gawain is in origin the MABINOGION
character Gwrvan Gwallt-avwy and that his name may have arisen from Welsh gwallt-avwyn (hair like
rain) or gwallt-advwyn (fair hair). R. Bromwich disagrees and argues that Gawain and Gwalchmai were
always identical. - The father of Gawain was King Lot who, in his early days, was a page to Arthur's sister,
Morgause, on whom he fathered Gawain, who was baptized and set adrift in a cask.

(In DE ORTU WALUUANII his mother is called Anna rather than Morgause). He was rescued by
fishermen and eventually found his way to Rome where he was knighted by Pope Sulpicius. Arriving at
Arthur's court, he became one of the king's most important knights. In early romance he is depicted as a
mighty champion, though in later stories, for example, French tales, and Malory whom they influenced, he
is less likeable. He married in various tales Ragnell, Amurfine, the daughter of the Carl of Carlisle and the
daughter of the king of Sorcha. In WALWEIN he became the husband or lover of Ysabele, while in Italian
romance he was said to be the lover of Morgan's daughter, Pulzella Gaia. He had sons called Florence,
Lovel and Guinglain. After Arthur's rift with Lancelot, he became violently opposed to that knight. He was
killed with a club when Arthur was landing in Britain to oppose Mordred. Gawain had a peculiar gift that
he grew stronger towards noon and this led to speculation about his being a solar hero in origin.
Surprisingly, the same gift is attributed to Escanor, one of his opponents. Gawain's death did not mark his
last appearance in the Arthurian saga for his ghost subsequently appeared to the king. According to Breton
tradition, he actually survived Arthur's last battle and Arthur abdicated in his favour. Gawain's horse was
called Gringalet. William of Malmesbury says his grave was dicovered at Ros, a place which cannot be
identified with certainty, in the reign of King William II (1087-1100). His skull was supposed to be in
Dover Castle. - The story of the beheading contest which features in the tales of Gawain and the Green
Knight (see GREEN KNIGHT), the Carl of Carlisle (see CARL OF CARLISLE) and Gawain and the Turk
(see GROMER) has a parallel in Irish mythology where Cu Roi, King of Munster, proclaimed CuChulain
champion of Ireland. The decision was rejected by two other champions, so Cu Roi arrived in the guise of a
giant at Emhain Macha (modern Navan Fort) where the King of Ulster had his court, and challenged each
of the three to behead him, on condition that he could afterwards do the same to them. Each of CuChulain's
rivals tried but, when the head was sliced off, Cu Roi replaced it and neither of them would let him have his
turn. When CuChulain cut off Cu Roi's head and once again the latter replaced it on his shoulders,
CuChulain was prepared to let him strike him as agreed, whereupon Cu Roi disclosed who he was and
declared CuChulain unrivalled champion.

The similarity of these tales may indicate a common source, or even that Gawain is identical in origin with
CuChulain as the tales about him may be indigenous to the north of England; in ancient times, the north-
west of England contained a tribe called the Setantii, while the original name of CuChulain was Setanta. It
may well have been that CuChulain was a Setantii hero with a reputation on both sides of the Irish sea,
whose memory was kept alive under the name of Gawain by the medieval descendants of the Setantii in
England. J. Matthews points out that the story of Gawain's birth and his being set adrift in a cask parallels
that of his brother Mordred and suggests that originally Gawain was Arthur's son, who fathered him
incestuously on his sister who, in the original story was Morgan. The adult Gawain became Morgan's
knight and his story is predated by the mythical tale of the Celtic god Mabon whose mother, Modron
(earlier Matrona), is the prototype of Morgan. He also suggests that Galahad replaced Gawain as a Grail
quester because of Gawain's pagan associations. That Perceval similarly replaced Gawain was suggested
earlier by J. L. Weston. 2. A knight called 'the Brown', who had the baby Gawain baptized. See: GREEN
KNIGHT, and ULLABH. # 104 - 156 - 398 - 450 - 716

GEASA

A kind of Taboo. See: GEIS.

GEENA MAC LUGA

Son of Luga, one of Finn's men; Finn teaches the maxims of the Fianna to Geena mac Luga. # 562

GEIS GEAS GEASE GES GEISSI

# 548: The violation of Gease (or Gessa, plur. for Geis) is such a sure omen of approaching death that it
might almost be inferred that a hero is safe from harm while his gease remain inviolate. Then, as his time
approaches its end, he finds himself in situations where he cannot avoid breaking them, just as Greek
heroes unwittingly work their own undoing when their fated hour has come and their divine guardians have
forsaken them. Nowhere is this process so dramatically depicted as in 'The Destruction of Da Derga's
Hostel, where in the course of the events which lead up to his death Conaire violates one after another the
gease laid upon him, by the King of the Birds, before he was installed King of Ireland. These gease were:

1. Thou shalt not go right-handwise round Tara and left-handwise round Brega.
2. The crooked beasts of Cerna must not be hunted by thee.
3. Thou shalt not be away from Tara for nine nights in succession.
4. Thou shalt not stay a night in a house from which firelight can be seen after sunset and into which
one can see from outside.
5. Three Reds shall not go before thee to the house of Red.
6. No plunder shall be taken in thy reign.
7. After sunset a company of one woman or one man shall not enter the house in which thou art.
8. Thou shalt not settle the quarrel of two of thy serfs.

# 562: Singular: Geas(gaysh), plural: Gease(gaysha). The law of the geas(or geis): The tale of Conary
introduces us for the first time to the law or institution of the geis, which plays henceforward a very
important part in Irish legend, the violation or observance of a geis being frequently the turning-point in a
tragic narrative. We must therefore delay a moment to explain exactly what this peculiar institution was.
Dineen's 'Irish Dictionary' explains the word geis as meaning 'a bond, a spell, a prohibition, a taboo, a
magical injunction, the violation of which led to misfortune and death,' (The meaning quoted will be found
in the Dictionary under the alternative form geas). Every Irish chieftain or personage of note had certain
geise peculiar to himself which he must not transgress. These geise had sometimes reference to a code of
chivalry - thus Dermot of the Love-spot, when appealed to by Grania to take her away from Finn, is under
geise not to refuse protection to a woman. Or they may be merely superstitious or fantastic - thus Conary,
as one of his geise, is forbidden to follow three red horse-men on a road, nor must he kill birds (this is
because his totem was a bird). It is a geis to the Ulster champion, Fergus mac Roy, that he must not refuse
an invitation to a feast; on this turns the Tragedy of the Sons of Usnach. It is not at all clear who imposed
these geise or how any one found out what his personal geise were - all that was doubtless an affair of the
Druids. But they were regarded as sacred obligations, and the worst misfortunes were to be apprehended
from breaking them. Originally, no doubt, they were regarded as a means of keeping oneself in proper
relations with the other world - the world of Faery - and were akin to the well-known Polynesian practice of
the 'tabu.' Rolleston prefer, however, to retain the Irish word as the only fitting one for the Irish practice. #
189 - 377 - 383 p 315 ff - 548 - 562 - 769

GELON

Defeat of Hamilcar by Gelon at Himera. # 562

GELORWYDD

A warrior in the GODDODDIN, the great Celtic epic of battle and bravery. He is called 'the Gem of
Baptism' because he gave extreme unction to the dying on the field of battle with his own blood. # 454 -
610

GENEIR

Knight of Arthur's court. # 562

GENERON

In Thomas Heywood's LIFE OF MERLIN, a castle of Vortigern which takes the place of the tower that
keeps falling down in other versions of the story. # 156

GENII CUCULLATI

On the Continent, Genius Cucullatus ( a name given to certain distinctive cult images in Celtic Europe
during the Roman period) appear as single images, often in the form of giants or dwarves, but in Britain,
the deities are idiosyncratic in being frequently depicted as triple dwarfs. Continental representations
display very overt fertility symbolism; the figures often carry eggs, for instance on a wooden image at
Geneva. On occasions, the cucullus itself could be removed to expose a phallus. British Genii Cucullati (a
CUCULLUS is a hood fastened to a cloak or coat) are destinctive in their triplistic imagery. They appear in
two main distributional clusters: in the region of Hadrian's Wall and among the Dobunni of the Cotswolds.
At Housesteads in Northumberland, a triple image from a small shrine, of perhaps third century AD, in the
Vicus (the civil settlement) attached to the Roman fort, displays the trio swathed in heavy hooded capes
reaching to their feet.

The interest in this particular group is that the face of the central divinity is clearly masculine, whilst his
companions have softer, rounded facial contours, suggestive rather of female physiognomy. An alternative
is that the faces instead reflect differing ages, an older deity flanked by two youths. This imagery may thus
reflect either the presence of both male and female aspects of a given divine concept or the span of life,
from youth to maturity. This latter pattern occurs among the Germanic Mother-goddesses. # 94 - 666 - 769
GENTLE ANNIS (ANNIE)

The weather spirit responsible for the south-westerly gales on the Firth of Cromarty. The Firth is well
protected from the north and east, but a gap in the hills allows the entry of spasmodic squally gales. These
gives Gentle Annis a bad reputation for treachery. A day will start fine and lure the fisher out, then, in a
momemt, the storm sweeps round and his boat is imperilled. D. A. Mackenzie suggests that Gentle Annis is
one aspect of the Cailleach Bheur. 'Annis' may come from the Celtic goddess Anu, which has been
suggested, as the origins of Black Annis of the Dane Hills. It may be, however, that these half-jocular
personifications have no connection with mythology. # 100 - 415

GENTRY, THE

One of the many euphemistic names for the fairies, used in Ireland. As Kirk says, 'the Irish use to bless all
they fear Harme of'. # 100 - 370

GENVISSA

Geoffrey maintains she was a daughter of the Roman Emperor Claudius. She married Arviragus and, when
Arviragus revolted against Claudius, she arranged peace between them. # 156

GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH

# 562: (1100?-1154) Bishop of St Asaph; his 'Historia Regum Britaniae' (The History of the Kings of
Britain) written to commemorate Arthur's exploits. He also wrote Vita Merlini or Life of Merlin. # 100:
Supposititious author (though the supposition is well supported) of the VITA MERLINI, who must be
recorded as the first inspiration of the Arthurian Romances. His HISTORIA BRITONUM gives the history
of Arthur from the intrigues which led to his birth, from his discovery and through his career to the time of
his death. Arthur, who had been almost certainly a patriot and cavalry leader who led the defence of the
Britons against the Saxons in post-Romans days, was already a legendary figure entwined with mythology
and fairy-lore in Wales and Brittany, but it was the works of Geoffrey of Monmouth which introduced him
to literature both in France and England. Geoffrey was a man versed in all the learning of his time and of
considerable charm of manner, a member of the pleasant circle of the 12th-century scolars. Some people
denounced HISTORIA as 'a lying book' and told jocular stories about how favourably it was received by
possessing devils, but it had a considerable influence, and played a valuable part in welding the Saxons,
Britons and Normans together into a nationality, as well as providing the Matter of Britain with a source
upon which poets and romancers could draw from that time till the present day. # 100 - 243 - 562

GEORGE, SAINT

(third-fourth century) Patron of England. He was martyred at Lydda in Palestine by being shod in red-hot
shoes, broken on a spiked wheel and immersed in quick-lime. The legend of his having slain a dragon was
very popular: he rescued a king's daughter from becoming the dragon's tribute and so managed to convert
her people. Richard I (the Lionheart) was said to have had a vision of him and was able to restore the saint's
tomb at Lydda. Edward III inaugurated the Order of the Garter under his patronage, and in 1415, Saint
George was proclaimed chief patron of England when English soldiers, under Henry V, won the battle of
Agincourt. Many mumming plays portray him in their dramas personae as the hero-king who fights for
England, overcoming the invading Saracen. His feast-day is 23 April. # 454

GERALD, EARL

Son of Goddess Ainé. # 562


GEREINT

The King of Dumnonia who married Enid and whose adventures are recounted in the Welsh romance of
GEREINT AND ENID. In French romance the hero of this tale is Erec but, as Erec was not generally
known amongst the Welsh, they substituted Gereint, one of their own heroes, for him. Gereint may be a
historical figure, a cousin of Arthur, though J. Gantz denies his historicity. Although he is listed as Arthur's
contemporary, he may have belonged to an older generation, as the DREAM OF RHONABWY says his
son Cadwy was Arthur's contemporary. Gereint's father's name is given as Erbin but, in the LIFE OF ST
CYBY, Erbin is called his son. CULHWCH supplies the names of two of his brothers, Ermid and Dywel.
See also: ENID. # 156 - 346

GERENTON

An ancestor of Arthur and father of Conan, he was mentioned in Gallet's pedigree. # 156

GERMAN

(ghermawn - g as in get) Diuran and German, companions of Maeldun on his wonderful voyage. # 562

GERMANIC WORDS

Many important Germanic words traceable to Celtic origin. # 562

GERMANS

Menace to classical civilisation of Germans, under names of Cimbri and Teutones; de Jubainville's
explanation regarding Germans as a subject people; overthrow of Celtic supremacy by Germans; burial
rites practised by Germans. # 562

GERMANY

Celtic elements in place-names of Germany. In Arthurian times, this country was the domain of various
tribes, but the romance CLARIS ET LARIS has it ruled by Emperor Henry, father of Laris. # 156 - 562

GERONTIUS

A Roman leader who overthrew the rule of the historical Roman emperor, Constantine III, in Britain. # 156

GERVASE OF TILBURY

(1150?-1235?) An Englishman, born at Tilbury in the second half of the 12th century and brought up in
Rome, who became a teacher of law in Bologna. While still a young man he was clerk in the household of
the Archbishop of Rheims, but after a time he returned to England and became a close friend of young King
Henry, the son of Henry II, who died before his father in 1183. After his death, he returned to the Continent
and was appointed Marshal of the Kingdom of Arles by Otto IV, to whom he dedicated his great work,
OTIA IMPERIALIA. the last years of his life were spent in England. One of his chief friends there was
Ralph of Coggesshall, another writer of the Medieval Chronicles, to whom he communicated a good deal
of information. The OTIA IMPERIALIA (finished in 1211) is in three parts, of which the third is of special
interest for our knowledge of the folklore of the period, for it is a record of marvels, though Part One
contains matter of some importance. From these too we obtain the story of the Portunes, the earliest record
of diminutive fairies, and the Dracae of Brittany, about whom a Fairy Ointment story is told; also a version
of the well-known story, 'The Hour has come but not the Man'. In the first part of the books he mentions the
werewolves of England, and the Fairies, with the legend of the fairy horn, an example of thefts from the
fairies. # 100 - 246

GIANT OF ST MICHEL'S MOUNT

This giant, who resided at Mont. St. Michel in Brittany, seized Helena, the niece of Hoel, the King of
Brittany. Arthur, accompanied by Kay and Bedivere, set off after him. He found that Helene was already
dead, but he slew the giant. # 156

GIANTS

# 701: Myths of every nation preserve the archetypal idea of a primordial race of giants, ruling the world
before the present gods. England still has a portrait of one of the archaic giants, 180 feet tall, cut in the
chalk of a Dorset hillside. He is the ithyphallic(!) Cerne Abbas giant, said to represent either the Saxon god
Heill whose name meant 'virility' - or the Celtic Cernunnos, after whom the nearby town was named, and
whose shrine was taken over by Christian monks for the local abbey. The enclosure for Maypole
ceremonies was placed above this giant's head. Since the Maypole rituals anciently commemorated the
god's sexual union with his Goddess, the position of both the giant and the Beltaine shrine in close
association clearly points to preservation of the old religion. It was also widely believed that the Fairy
Queen's name was Titania, which would have been a title of Mother Earth as the source of all Titans.
Fairies, however, shrank in size over the centuries and went ever smaller and smaller than human.

# 100: Almost the only trait that giants have in common is their enormous size and strength. Some of them,
such as Bran the Blessed, have obviously once been gods. Bran was so large that no house could contain
him, so large indeed that he looked like an approaching mountain as he waded the channel between Wales
and Ireland. His strength was tremendous, but he was essentially benevolent and his decapitated head
brought a blessing wherever it was carried, and protected Britain from invaders so long as it was safely
lodged in London. The two great hill figures that still remain in England, the Cerne Abbas Giant and the
Long Man of Wilmington, represent god-like figures of the same kind. The Cerne Abbas giant is plainly a
fertility god as well as a protective figure. Some kind and protective giants continue down to comparatively
modern times. An example is the Giant of Grabbist, whose character and exploits are described by Ruth
Tongue in COUNTY FOLKLORE VOL. VIII. He was one of the stone-throwing giants, of which many are
reported, good and bad, and spent a good deal of his time in contests with the Devil. He was full, too, of
active benevolence, and once lifted a fishing-boat that was in difficulties and set it down safely in harbour.
There is a touch of comedy, even farce, in the tales about the Giant of Grabbist, and it is noticeable that as
time went on the giants became gradually more foolish. The kind old Cornish giant of Carn Galva, whose
sad story is told by Botrell in TRADITIONS AND HEARTHSIDE STORIES OF WEST CORNWALL,
VOL. I, is an example: The giant of Carn Galva was more playful than warlike. Though the old works of
the giant now stand desolate, we may still see, or get up and rock ourselves upon, the logan-stone which
this dear old giant placed on the most westerly carn of the range, that he might log himself to sleep when he
saw the sun dip into the waves and the seabirds fly to their homes in the cleaves.

Near the giant's rocking-seat, one may still see a pile of cubical rocks, which are almost as regular and
shapely now as when the giant used to amuse himself in building them up, and kicking them down again,
for exercise or play, when alone and when he had nothing else to do. The people of the northern hills have
always had a loving regard for the memory of this giant, because he appears to have passed all his life at
the carn in single blessedness, merely to protect his beloved people of Morvah and Zennor from the
depredations of the less honest Titans who then dwelt on Lelant hills. Carn Galva giant never killed but one
of the Morvah people in his life, and that happened all through loving play. The giant was very fond of a
fine young fellow, of Choon, who used to take a turn over the carn, every now and then, just to see how the
old giant was getting on, to cheer him up a bit, play a game of bob, or anything else to help him pass his
lonely time away. One afternoon the giant was so well pleased with the good play they had together that,
when the young fellow of Choon threw down his quoit to go away home, the giant, in a good-natured way,
tapped his playfellow on the head with the tips of his fingers. At the same time he said, 'Be sure to come
again tomorrow, my son, and we will have a capital game of bob.' Before the word 'bob' was well out of the
giant's mouth, the young man dropped at his feet; - the giant's fingers had gone right through his playmate's
skull. When, at last, the giant became sensible of the damage he had done to the brain-pan of the young
man, he did his best to put inside workings of his mate's head to rights and plugged up his finger-holes, but
all to no purpose; for the young man was stone dead, long before the giant ceased doctoring his head. When
the poor giant found it was all over with his playmate, he took the body in his arms, and sitting down on the
large square rock at the foot of the carn, he rocked himself to and fro; pressing the lifeless body to his
bosom, he wailed and moaned over him, bellowing and crying louder than the booming billows braking on
the rocks in Permoina. 'Oh, my son, my son, why didn't they make the shell of thy noddle stronger? A es as
plum (soft) as a pie-crust, doughbaked, and made too thin by the half! How shall I ever pass the time
without thee to play bob and mop-and-heede (hide-and-seek)?' The giant of Carn Galva never rejoiced any
more, but, in seven years or so, he pined away and died of a broken heart. It seems as if these giants were
half-playfully invented to account for scattered boulders or other natural features, or for prehistoric
monuments. In contrast to these gentle, foolish giants, we have the cruel, bloodthirsty giants or Ogres, such
as those which Jack the Giant-Killer conquered. Some of these were Monsters with several heads, most of
them not overburdened with sense, all man-eaters. The Highland giants were much more astute, some of
them Magicians, like that in 'The Battle of the Birds', the Highland version of Nicht Nought Nothing. The
grim giant of 'A King of Albainn' in WAIFS AND STRAYS OF CELTIC TRADITION, VOL. II, collected
by D. MacInnes, may be a magician as well as a giant, for a magical hare enticed his victims into the cave
where the giant and his twelve sons were waiting for them and the giant gave them the choice of deadly
games: 'the venomous apple' or 'the hot gridiron'. In the end they had to play both. There is another giant in
the story, who has carried off the old king's daughter, an activity to which giants are very prone. Both giants
are conquered by a supernatural helper called 'The Big Lad'. This may either be an incomplete version of 'a
grateful dead' type of story, or more probably the ghost of the young king's father, for whom he has been
mourning inordinately. Another dangerous and evil giant, 'The Bare-Stripping Hangman', also occurs in
WAIFS AND STRAYS OF CELTIC TRADITION, VOL. III. This giant is a magician, for he has a
Separable Soul which has to be destroyed before he can be killed. There is a series of giants to be
destroyed, one-headed, two-headed and three-headed.

In the same volume is a story of a guileless giant who does not know how formidable his strength is, a
human giant after the type of Tom Hickathrift, whose story Joseph Jacobs tells in MORE ENGLISH FAIRY
STORIES. He was suckled by his mother for twenty years and so gained supernatural strength. His
frightened master sets him a succession of tests in order to destroy him, but he succeeds in them all, and in
the end settles down happily with his old mother in the house he has won for himself. It will be seen that
there is a great variety of giants in British tradition. # 84 - 100 - 339 - 381 - 675 - 701 p 252-3

GILAN

The Duke of Swales, he was the original owner of the dog Petitcrieu which he gave to Tristan. # 156

GILDAS JUNIOR

Alternative name for Tremeur, son of Trephina. See: CUNOMORUS. # 156

GILDAS, SAINT

Saint Gildas was a British writer of the original Arthurian period. His work, DE EXCIDIO ET
CONQUESTU BRITANNIAE, does not mention Arthur by name, though it does mention the Battle of
Badon. According to story, he was the son of Caw and, when he was in Ireland, he learned that Arthur, his
friend, has killed his brother Hueil, but this did not cause discord between himself and Arthur. T. D.
O'Sullivan opines that Gildas wrote DE EXCIDIO as quite a young man. # 156 - 510
GILFAETHWY

(ghil-VATH-ee) Son of Don. He desired his uncle Math's footholder, Goewin. His brother, Gwydion, helped
him obtain her by raising war between Gwynedd and Dyfed. For his punishment, Gilfaethwy was changed,
successively, into a hind, a boar, and a wolf-bitch and bore young to Gwydion who had been similarly
enchanted. # 272 - 439 - 454

GILIERCHINS

See: HOEL.

GILLA DACAR

Story of Gilla Dacar (The Hard Gilly): The Chase of the Gilla Dacar is another Fian tale in which Dermot
of the Love Spot plays a leading part. The Fianna, the story goes, were hunting one day on the hills and
through the woods of Munster, and as Finn and his captains stood on a hillside listening to the baying of the
hounds, and the notes of the Fian hunting-horn from the dark wood below, they saw coming towards them a
huge, ugly, misshapen churl dragging along by a halter a great raw-boned mare. He announced himself as
wishful to take service with Finn. The name he was called by, he said, was the Gilla Dacar, because he was
the hardest servant ever a lord had to get service or obedience from. In spite of this unpromising beginning,
Finn, whose principle it was never to refuse any suitor, took him into service; and the Fianna now began to
make their uncouth comrade the butt of all sorts of rough jokes, which ended in thirteen of them, including
Conan the Bald, all mounting up on Gilla Dacar's steed. On this the newcomer complained that he was
being mocked, and he shambled away in great discontent till he was over the ridge of the hill, when he
tucked up his skirts and ran westwards, faster than any March wind, toward the sea-shore in Co. Kerry.
Thereupon at once the steed, which had stood still with drooping ears while the thirteen riders in vain
belaboured it to make it move, suddenly threw up its head and started off in a furious gallop after its master.
The Fianna ran alongside, as well as they could for laughter, while Conan, in terror and rage, reviled them
for not rescuing him and his comrades. At last the thing became serious. The Gilla Dacar plunged into the
sea, and the mare followed him with her thirteen riders, and one more who managed to cling to her tail just
as she left the shore; and all of them soon disappeared towards the fabled region of the West. Dermot at the
Well Finn and the remaining Fianna now took counsel together as to what should be done, and finally
decided to fit out a ship and go in search of their comrades. After many days of voyaging they reached an
island guarded by precipitous cliffs. Dermot O'Dyna, as the most agile of the party, was sent to climb them
and to discover, if he could, some means of helping up the rest of the party. When he arrived at the top he
found himself in a delightful land, full of the song of birds and the humming of bees and the murmur of
streams, but with no sign of habitation. Going into a dark forest, he soon came to a well, by which hung a
curiously wrought drinking-horn. As he filled it to drink, a low, threatening murmur came from the well,
but his thirst was too keen to let him heed it and he drank his fill. In no long time there came through the
wood an armed warrior, who violently upbraided him for drinking from his well.

The Knight of the Well and Dermot then fought all the afternoon without either of them prevailing over the
other, when, as evening drew on, the knight suddenly leaped into the well and disappeared. Next day the
same thing happened; on the third, however, Dermot, as the knight was about to take his leap, flung his
arms around him, and both went down together. The Rescue of Fairyland Dermot, after a moment of
darkness and trance, now found himself in Fairyland. A man of noble appearance roused him and led him
away to the castle of a great king, where he was hospitably entertained. It was explained to him that the
services of a champion like himself were needed to do combat against a rival monarch of Faery. It is the
same motive which we find in the adventures of CuChulain with Fand, and which so frequently turns up in
Celtic fairy lore. Finn and his companions, finding that Dermot did not return to them, found their way up
the cliffs, and, having traversed the forest, entered a great cavern which ultimately led them out to the same
land as that in which Dermot had arrived. There too, they are informed, are the fourteen Fianna who had
been carried off on the mare of the Hard Gilly. He, of course, was the king who needed their services, and
who had taken this method of decoying some thirty of the flower of Irish fighting men to his side. Finn and
his men go into the battle with the best of goodwill and scatter the enemy like chaff; Oscar slays the son of
the rival king (who is called the King of "Greece"). Finn wins the love of his daughter, Tasha of the White
Arms, and the story closes with a delightful mixture of gaiety and mystery. 'What reward wilt thou have for
thy good services?' asks the fairy king of Finn. 'Thou wert once in service with me,' replies Finn, 'and I
mind not that I gave thee any recompense. Let one service stand against the other.' 'Never shall I agree to
that,' cries Conan the Bald. 'Shall I have nought for being carried off on thy wild mare and haled oversea?'
'What wilt thou have?' asks the fairy king. 'None of thy gold or goods,' replies Conan, 'but mine honour
hath suffered, and let mine honour be appeased. Set thirteen of thy fairest womenfolk on the wild mare, O
King, and thine own wife clinging to her tail, and let them be transported to Erin in like manner as we were
dragged here, and I shall deem the indignity we have suffered fitly atoned fore.' On this the king smiled
and, turning to Finn, said: 'O Finn, behold thy men.' Finn turned to look at them, but when he looked round
again the scene had changed - the fairy king and his host and all the world of Faery had disappeared, and he
found himself with his companions and the fair-armed Tasha standing on the beach of the little bay in Kerry
whence the Hard Gilly and the mare had taken the water and carried off his men. And then all started with
cheerful hearts for the great standing camp of the Fianna on the Hill of Allen to celebrate the wedding feast
of Finn and Tasha. # 562

GILLOMANIUS

A King of Ireland who aided Paschent when he invaded Britain. # 156

GILVAETHWY

(ghil-VATH-ee) Son of Dôn (Don), nephew of Math; his love for Goewin, and its sequel. See:
GILFAETHWY. # 562

GIOLLA DEACAIR

He was an otherworld champion whose horse was unridable. Only Conan was able to mount it, with the
intention of riding it to death. It carried him to Tir Tairngire where Fionn had to come and rescue him. See:
GILLA DACAR. # 267 - 454 - 504

GIRALDUS CAMBRENSIS

# 562:Testimony to the fairness of the Irish Celts. See: BLEHERIS. # 100: (1146?-1220?) Giraldus de
Barri, called Cambrensis, belonged to one of the ancient families of Wales and was remarkable from
childhood for his love of learning. It is therefore not surprising that he became one of the compilers of the
Medieval Chronicles. Because of his high connections in Wales he was handicapped in his career in the
Welsh Church by the Norman policy of appointing only Normans to the episcopacy, but he was made
Chaplain to Henry II and sent to accompany Henry's son on his expedition to Ireland. He wrote
TYPOGRAPHICA HIBERNICA on returning from his tour. He picked up some interesting pieces of folk
tradition in Ireland, notably a sympathetic account of a pair of werewolves and a tradition of a disappearing
island which was made visible by firing a fairy arrow at it, but the most interesting piece of fairy-lore is to
be found in the ITINERARY THROUGH WALES the story of ELIDOR, our earliest account of fairies'
social life.# 100-251-562

GLAIN

In a Cornish poem, a magic snake's egg for which Merlin was searching.# 156

GLAISTYN
A Manx form of the each-uisge. The Glaistyn had the ability to appear in human form which, though
handsome, was betrayed by the horse-like ears. See: KELPIE. # 100 - 454

GLASTONBURY

# 156: A small town in Somerset, the site of a medieval abbey, which was variously said to have been
founded by Deruvian and Phagan, missionaries sent by the Pope to the British king, Lucius, and by Saint
Patrick before his mission to the Irish. There is in fact no real evidence for an abbey there before the
seventh century. In the romance PERLESVAUS, Glastonbury is identified with Avalon. Saint Joseph of
Arimathea was thought to have founded the old Church there. In the Middle Ages, bones, which were
identified by their discoverers as those of Arthur and Guinevere, were discovered there. Although most
authorities regard the find as a hoax, this is not necessarily the case. According to a story found in the LIFE
OF GILDAS, Melvas (Meleagaunce) abducted Guinevere and took her to Glastonbury, but Gildas mediated
between him and Arthur. See: GILDAS, SAINT.

# 456: Glastonbury continues to attract pilgrims and visitors from all over the world and its unique aura of
sanctity and mystery persists with undimmed potency. It has been so for centuries, as the wide-ranging
anthology reveals. Scholars, mystics, occultists, antiquarians and seekers of all persuasions have been
drawn to 'England's Ancient Avalon' in search of historical facts or spiritual enlightenment, and as John
Matthews says in the introduction to A GLASTONBURY READER, 'The one word that can never be
applied to Glastonbury is "ordinary"... What is undoubtedly true is the curious aura of "oddness" that
surrounds the place...from the moment one enters Glastonbury one knows one is entering a sacred
enclosure. "Welcome to England's Ancient Avalon" announces the sign as one approaches, showing that
even the local authorities recognize the mystery of the place. In the nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries, antiquarian and mystical interests came together in the works of such people as Frederick Bligh
Bond and Katherine Maltwood. Bond discovered, through psychic archaeology, the location of the lost
Lady Chapel in Glastonbury's great abbey, while Maltwood claimed a vast terrestial zodiac impressed into
landscape around the sacred site.

Early in this century the esotericist Dion Fortune resided in Glastonbury and found inspiration for much of
her magical work there'. And John Michell add these words: 'There are many mysteries at Glastonbury, but
they are all rooted in one great mystery: how is it that this small place, isolated among the Somerset
marches, plays such a leading part in the spiritual history of Britain? Other religious centres, Canterbury,
Westminster, Winchester, have had their periods of glory, but the fame of Glastonbury is unique and has
endured longer than that of any other English sanctuary. In medieval Christendom the site of the first
English church, at the west end of Glastonbury Abbey, was called the "holiest earth of England", and its
precincts were sanctified as a model of earthly paradise, where the souls of the dead found their easiest
passage to heaven. No traces have been found of any buildings from that period, but the great prehistoric
earthwork, known as Ponter's Ball, which runs across high ground about two miles east of Glastonbury, is
thought to have marked one of the boundaries of the sacred precinct. It is likely, therefore, that
Glastonbury's special status as a heavenly sanctuary, beyond the ordinary laws of the land, was
acknowledged long before the introduction of Christianity.' # 24 - 25 - 100 - 248 - 261 - 456 - 469 - 563

GLASTONBURY CROSS

A cross unearthed at the excavation of Arthur's supposed grave at Glastonbury in 1191. The inscription on
the cross read HIC IACET SEPULTUS INCLITUS REX ARTURIUS IN INSULA AVALONIA. The cross
was lost but, in recent times, a pattern-maker named Derek Mahoney claimed to have found it and reburied
it.

# 156

GLASTONBURY THORN
A thorn which was said to have come from a staff, planted by Joseph of Arimathea on Wearyall Hill, and
which became a thorn tree, flowering every year at Christmas. The thorn is first mentioned in the LYFE OF
JOSEPH OF ARIMATHEA (c.1502).

The trunk of the tree was cut down by a Puritan zealot. The tree has a number of descendants alive today,
notably in front of the Church of Saint John the Baptist, Glastonbury. They bloom in late December or early
January. # 156

GLASTONBURY TOR

An ancient sacred hill with many legendary attributes. In Celtic tradition it is the home of Gwyn ap Nudd,
Lord of the Underworld and Master of the Wild Hunt. Like many hilltop sacred sites, the Christian
dedication is to Saint Michael, (the Archangel Michael), who replaced the old Celtic god of Light, known
as Bel or Belenos.

However one personally understands the Tor - as a magnetic centre, as a cosmic power point, as a point for
predicting eclipses, as a fairytale castle - the evidence unavoidably indicates the existence of a prehistoric
culture deeply concerned with the forces of the earth and sky, forces which were depended upon, utilised,
celebrated and understood in a way which has yet to be fully re-discovered. # 628 p 103 - 326 p 9.

GLASTONBURY ZODIAC

# 421: In recent years detailed archaeological study has shown that in many parts of the world prehistoric
man had a far deeper understanding of astronomy than traditional historians were willing to accept.

"The Round Table was constructed, not without great significance, upon the advice of Merlin. By its name
the Round Table is meant to signify the round world and round canopy of the planets and the elements in
the firmament, where are to be seen the stars and many other things." LA QUESTE DEL SAINT GRAAL.
Time and opportunity are given to few to quest Merlin's Round Table of the Grail in the Valleys of Avalon.
Glastonbury, the heart of legends of chivalry and sanctity dating back far beyond written records, has long
excited the interest of scholars and seers. It was, however, not until the advent of aerial photography that its
most dramatic secret was revealed. From studying these photographs and comparing them with the
evidence of myth and detailed maps, Katherine Maltwood discovered a vast and complex pattern of figures
in the contours and landmarks of the area. They form, in fact, a huge land of chart of the Zodiac. # 156:
According to a theory which was advanced by K. Maltwood in A GUIDE TO GLASTONBURY'S
TEMPLE OF THE STARS, carved in the landscape around Glastonbury are giant figures, delineated by
various markings which correspond to the signs of the Zodiac in the sky above them. She related these
figures to episodes in the Grail Quest. The existence of the Zodiac has not won scolarly recognition, though
the idea has a number of adherents. # 126 - 156 - 326 - 420 - 421

GLEN ETIVE

Dwelling-place of Naisi and Deirdre. # 562

GLEWLWYD GAFAELFAWR

# 156: Arthur's porter in CULHWCH, to whom the epithet Gafaelfawr (great grasp) is applied. In the poem
PA GUR, he figures as the gatekeeper who will not admit Arthur unless he identifies himself and his
followers. See: TWENTY-FOUR KNIGHTS. # 454: He is the porter 'at the calends of January' - a task
which he shared with four other men, according to CULHWCH AND OLWEN, wherein he has a riddling
dialogue with Culhwch. There is a direct parallel between this exchange and that which Lugh is submitted
to when he seeks to gain entrance to the hall of Nuadu. # 156 - 272 - 439 - 453 - 454
GLIGLOIS

Gawain's squire, son of a German noble. Both he and Gawain fell in love with Beauté, Guinevere's maid,
but she preferred Gliglois. # 156

GLORIANA

The Queene of Faerie in Edmund Spenser's poem. In Spenser's allegory, he painted a portrait of Queen
Elisabeth I of England. # 614

GLOUCESTER

# 562: The second task in CULHWCH AND OLWEN is fulfilled when Mabon is released from prison in
Gloucester. The 'nine sorceresses of Gloucester' was said to have been those who worked evils on the
relatives of Peredur and he had been shown these evils things to incite him to avenge the wrong, and to
prove his fitness for the task. On learning these matters Peredur, with the help of Arthur, attacked the
sorceresses, who were slain every one, and the vengeance was accomplished.

# 702: In the Cathedral of Gloucester is a beautifully preserved lifesize effigy of Edward II, built by his son
Edward III. The face of the effigy is said to have been copied from a death mask which had been made
almost as soon as the King had died under the red-hot spit used by his torturers; this explains the grimace
and sense of pain within the immobile features. The story of this effigy, resting in its exquisitely sculpted
canopy, is one of the strangest in history, for it merges into mythology and magic in a unique way. The
story begins with the murder of the ineffectual Edward II at Berkeley Castle in 1327 on the orders of Queen
Isabella and Roger Mortimer. The abbeys nearest to Berkeley - Bristol and Malmesbury - refused to bury
the body, mainly for fear of the two powerful murderers, and by the time the Abbot of Gloucester, 'moved
by pity', allowed it to be interred in the cathedral, the corpse was already far decayed. It was soon rumoured
that the tomb was a miracle-worker, and that sick people could be cured magically by being placed near to
it, with the result that the dead Edward, who had been ineffectual in life, became effectual in death as a
Saint. His son, Edward III, who had been born at Windsor in 1312, was more adroit in political and military
matters and introduced order into the chaos which his father had left behind. It was he who commisioned
and paid for the tomb of his father in Gloucester, to mark the place of pilgrimage of the sick to the 'martyr
Edward', leaving behind one of the most impressive alabaster effigies in Britain. It is said that pilgrims to
this tomb were so numerous that the small charges made were sufficient to enable the Abbot to reconstruct
the east end, the clerestory, and parts of the nave of the Cathedral itself. The castle at Berkeley, where the
foul murder of Edward II was committed, is said still to be haunted by the spirit of the troubled king.
Edward had not been one of the wisest of rulers, preferring the companionship of low-born men to that of
his peers (for example, he appears to have befriended Robin Hood) - nor was he one of the most competent
of fighting men. When he led an army of conquest against Scotland in 1314, he managed to have 28,000
men defeated by about a third of that number under Robert the Bruce at the English disaster of
Bannockburn. # 562 - 702

GLOWER

The strong man of the Wee Folk. # 562

GLWYDYN

The builder of Ehangwen, the hall used by Arthur for feasting. T. F. O'Rahilly suggests his name may be a
form of Gwydion, that of a Celtic god, the son of Nodens. # 156

GLYN CUCH
One of Pwyll's hunt went by in the woods of Glyn Cuch. # 562

GOBAN THE SMITH GOBHAN SAOR

Brother of Kian and Sawan; corresponds to Wayland Smith in Germanic legend; Ollav Fôla compared with
Goban The Smith. Analogous to Goibniu and Gofannon. He lives on as Gobhan Saor, a crafty smith or
mason whose skill outwits the unwary. He is favourite character in Irish folk-stories.

# 173 - 454 - 562

GOBHNET, SAINT

(fifth century) To escape a family feud, the young Gobnet left her home in County Clare to live on one of
the Aran islands. There she had a vision in which she learnt that this was not to be her final home, but that
she must settle in the place where she found nine white deer grazing. So she came back to the mainland and
journeyed to the south-east, until she saw such a herd near Dungarvan. There she founded a nunnery,
overlooking the sea from the slopes of the Monavillagh Mountains, at the place which now bears her name,
Kilgobnet. She was to become renowned for her skill as a bee-keeper. # 678

GOBNIU GOIBHNIU

# 156: An Irish smith god who may have been identical in origin with Gwydion. See: TREBUCHET, and
GOBAN THE SMITH.

# 678: Goibhniu, Luchta, Creidhne. There was a triad of Irish craftgods who belonged to the Tuatha De
Danann: these were Goibhniu the smith, the most important of the three, Luchta the wright and Creidhne
the metalworker. The three gods are called upon to forge weapons for Lugh and the Tuatha in the Second
Battle of Magh Tuiredh, fought against the Fomorians. Each god makes a different part of the weapons:
Goibhniu the head or blade, Luchta the shaft and Creidhne the rivets. Goibhniu's weapons are guaranteed
always to fly true and always to inflict a fatal wound. Goighniu had another role, that of host of the
Otherworld Feast: at this meal, the god provides a special ale, and those who drink it become immortal. #
156 - 678

GOD AND CYTHRAWL

God and Cythrawl, two primary existences in the Cymric cosmogony. They stand respectively for the
principle of energy tending towards life, and the principle of destruction tending towards nothingness.
Cythrawl is realised in Annwn (annoon - It was the word used in the early literature for Hades or
Fairyland), which may be rendered, the Abyss, or Chaos. In the beginning there was nothing but God and
Annwn. Organised life began by the Word-God pronounced His ineffable Name and the 'Manred' was
formed. The Manred was the primal substance of the universe. It was conceived as a multitude of minute
indivisible particles-atoms, in fact-each being a microcosm, for God is complete in each of them, while at
the same time each is a part of God, the Whole.

The totality of being as it now exists is represented by three concentric circles. The innermost of them,
where life sprang from Annwn, is called 'Abred', and is the stage of struggle and evolution - the contest of
life with Cythrawl. The next is the circle of 'Gwynfyd,' or Purity, in which life is manifested as a pure,
rejoicing force, having attained its triumph over evil. The last and outermost circle is called 'Ceugant,' or
Infinity. Here all predicates fail us, and this circle, represented graphically not by a bounding line, but by
divergent rays, is inhabited by God alone. The following extract from BARDDAS in which the alleged
bardic teaching is conveyed in catechism form, will serve to show the order of ideas in which the writer's
mind moved:
Q: Whence didst thou proceed? A: I came from the Great World, having my beginning in Annwn. Q: Where
art thou now? and how camest thou to what thou art? A: I am in the Little World, whither I came having
traversed the circle of Abred, and now I am a Man, at its termination and extreme limits. Q: What wert thou
before thou didst become a man, in the circle of Abred? A: I was in Annwn the least possible that was
capable of life and the nearest possible to absolute death; and I came in every form and through every form
capable of a body and life to the state of man along the circle of Abred, where my condition was severe and
grievous during the age of ages, ever since I was parted in Annwn from the dead, by the gift of God, and
His great generosity, and His unlimited and endless love. Q: Through how many different forms didst thou
come, and what happened unto thee? A: Through every form capable of life, in water, in earth, in air. And
there happened unto me every severity, every hardship, every evil, and every suffering, and but little was
the goodness or Gwynfyd before I became a man.... Gwynfyd cannot be obtained without seeing and
knowing everything, but it is not possible to see or to know everything without suffering everything.... And
there can be no full and perfect love that does not produce those things which are necessary to lead to the
knowledge that causes Gwynfyd.

Every being, we are told, shall attain to the circle of Gwynfyd at last.

There is much here that reminds us of Gnostic or Oriental thought. It is certainly very unlike Christian
orthodoxy of the sixteenth century. As a product of the Cymric mind of that period the reader may take it
for what it is worth, without troubling himself either with antiquarian theories or with their refutations. But
where 'Barddas' is mentioning Annwn as the state where life begins, the original Gnosticism doesn't operate
with a beginning (because, if there is a beginning there also has to be an end) but with an eternal spiral
which is life (i.e. God) and within this spiral are all the lesser (pulmonary) circulations or spirals, which
contains evolutionary, individually but still indivisible lifes, who develop through the stages of mineral,
vegetable and animal kingdoms and again as pure spirit, ending each lesser spiral being 'One with God'.
This stage may last for eons of 'time' but will automatically leads to another lesser spiral where it starts all
over again, but always in a higher degree, and so on in eternity. Micro- Middle- and Macrocosm has and
will always exist inside eachother). These thoughts can be read in the Danish writer Martinus'(1890-1981)
work THE THIRD TESTAMENT (# 431) and may complete the Cymric (i.e. Celtic) cosmogony, and thus
include Cythrawl as a part of Gods being, which some interpretations of Druidism also contains. # 111 -
431 - 562 - 612

GODIVA, LADY

Godgifu, wife of Leofric of Mercia. Her husband tyrannized the church and extracted heavy taxes from the
people of Coventry. Godgifu begged him to relent and he agreed to do so if she would ride naked through
Coventry on market-day. Clothed only in her hair, she did so and the citizens of Coventry averted their
eyes, all except Peeping Tom who was stricken blind. # 282 - 454 - 717

GODS, THE PRINCIPAL

# 562: The Megalithic People did not imagine their deities under concrete personal form. Gods of Aryan
Celts, equated by Caesar with Mercury, Apollo, Mars, &c.; triad of gods, Aesus, Teutates, and Taranus,
mentioned by Lucan; Lugh, or Lugus, the god of Light.

# 730: The following list gives, in the first column, the Homeric (Celtic/Greek) names of the gods, with the
Latin equivalent in brackets. The second column gives any alternative Celtic names and the third column
the specific functions. It should be noted, however, that the equivalence is often only approximate. For
example, Zeus was of a different nature from the Roman Jupiter, while the Celtologists are not certain of
the attribution of some of the alternative Celtic names. There is indeed a definite confusion in the functions
and origins of some of the gods that will never be resolved.

Zeus was worshipped under this name in Gaul and gave his name to Jeudi (Thursday), while his alternative
Celtic name, Lug, has survived in the names of certain towns, such as Lyon, Laon and Leyden, which are
all derived from Lugdunum, as is well attested. Athene's alternative name Okke was used by both the Celts
and the Greeks, but the name Athene was itself definitely pre-Greek according to explanatory Greek
dictionaries. Athene had no mother, as she emerged from the forehead of Zeus: the goddess of wisdom
symbolized the 'third eye'. The identification of Borvon with Apollo is confirmed by the Latin inscription
on a votive altar dating from the Gallo-Roman era: Deo Apollini Borvoni et Damonea C Daminius Ferox,
Civis Lingonis, ex Voto. The name is preserved in many place-names in France, such as
Bourbonl'Archembault, Bourbon-Lancy, La Bourboule, and by the Bourbon dynasty. Hermes gave his
name to Mercredi (Wednesday) through his Latin equivalent, Mercury. Aphrodite gave her name to
Vendredi (Friday) through her Latin equivalent Venus (Veneris Dies = day of Venus). The name of the
Nordic gods live on in the names of the days of the week in the Germanic languages, for example in
English:

Tuesday Tyr's day


Wednesday Woden's day or Odin
Thursday Thor's day or Donar (German Donnerstag)
Friday Frigg's day or Freyja (wife of Odin)
Saturday Sæter's day or day of Saturn
Sunday Sun day
Monday Moon day

The Indo-European origin of these gods, like those of the Celts, is well-established. For example Tyr
corresponds to the Vedic god Diauh and to Zeus and his latinized version Jupiter (= Zeus-pater, ['Zeus the
father'], via Zejup > Jup). - Galatea is called 'very famous' by Homer as she is the legendary mother of the
Celtic peoples. The Celts, Gauls and Illyrians settled throughout Europe including western Greece, where
Homer's orally transmitted epics would be put in writing. # 562 - 730

GOEWIN

(go-ay'win) Daughter of Pebin. The virgin footholder of Math who was raped by Gilfaethwy. In order to
compensate her for her disgrace, Math married her. # 272 - 439 - 454 - 562

GOFANNON

# 384: The Searcher of Secrets, the Delver of Ore, the Digger of Treasure, the Refiner, the Shaper of Metal
and the Master of the Forge. # 454: Son of Don. His story has become displaced from all but the meagre
information of the TRIADS wherein he is described as the accidental slayer of his nephew, Dylan.
Gofannon is the Welsh equivalent of Goibniu, and was a god of smithcraft. # 384 p 106 ff - # 272 - 439 -
454

GOG AND MAGOG GOGMAGOG

In the Middle Ages it was believed that Gog and Magog were nations that had been confined behind
mountains by Alexander the Great, who had used 6000 bronze- and iron-workers to build a gate to hold
them back. They attacked Arthur but the giant Gargantua helped him to overcome them. - The above is only
one of several legends about Gog and Magog. See also: Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable p. 350
(sixteenth edition 1885). A giant who broke in upon the festivities of the newly landed Brutus and attacked
his company. Corineus wrestled with him and cast him into the sea. In addition to the biblical references to
Gog and Magog, there is, according to the ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, 'an independent legend of
Gog Magog (which) surrounds the two colossal wooden effigies in the Guildhall in London. They are
thought to represent survivors of a race of giants destroyed by Brutus the Trojan, legendary founder of
London (Troianova, or New Troy) who brought these to act as porters at the gate of the royal palace.
Effigies of Gog and Magog are known to have existed in London from the time of Henry V. The earlier
figures were destroyed in the Great Fire (1666) and were replaced in 1708. The second pair was destroyed
in an air raid in 1940 and replaced in 1953'. # 156 - 243 - 454 - 730

GOIBNIU

(gwiv'ni û) The smith of the Tuatha de Danaan; brewer of the ale that kept the Tuatha De Danann
perpetually young. He forged the weapons by which the Fomorians were overcome. He killed Ruadan, the
son of Brigit and of Bres, who had been sent to spy on his armoury and to kill him. Goibniu was healed of
his wounds in the well of Slane. He is analogous to Welsh Gofannon. See also: GOBNIU. # 166 - 454 - 548

GOLASECCA

A great settlement of the Lowland Celts, in Cisalpine Gaul. # 562

GOLEUDDYDD

Wife of Kilydd; mother of Culhwch (Kilhwch). In Welsh lore, Arthur's aunt and sister of Igraine. She gave
birth to Culhwch after running mad in the forest and being frightened by pigs. Her mythos bears a marked
resemblance to the mother of Tristan. # 156 - 272 - 439 - 454 - 562

GOLL MAC MORNA

(gûl' moc mor'na) Son of Daire Derc, also called Morna, captain of the Fianna of Erin; swears service to
Finn; Finn recalls the great saying of Goll mac Morna; rescues Finn from the enchanted cave; Keva of the
White Skin given as wife to Goll mac Morna; adventure with the wether. Slayer of Cumhal, Fionn's father,
in the Battle of Cnucha; previously named Aed, but after he lost one of his eyes at Cumhal's hand, he was
named Gol (One-Eyed, lit. blind). He later willingly relinquished his position in favour of Fionn whom he
befriended without rancour. But at the last the feud between the two men caused the ending of the Fianna. #
166 - 267 - 454 - 504 - 562

GOLWG HAFDDYDD

The maid of Iseult in the YSTORIA TRYSTAN. This work is a Welsh version of the Tristan legend. # 156

GONEMANS

Knight who trains Perceval (Peredur). # 562

GONOSOR

A king of Ireland converted by Joseph of Arimathea. Because of the help he gave King Canor of Cornwall,
Cornwall afterwards paid tribute to Ireland until Tristan killed Marhaus. # 156

GOOD PEOPLE, THE

Another example of euphemistic names for the fairies. # 100

GOON DESERT
# 156: The brother of the Fisher King, he was killed by Partinal. The sword broke in the commision of this
act and rejoining it was one of the feats involved in achieving the Grail.

# 454: According to the CONTE DEL GRAAL of Chrétien de Troyes, Goon Desert was the father of the
Grail maiden. However, his behaviour hardly matches up to that of a Grail guardian as he was responsible
for the murder of a knight named Espinogee, whose nephew later took revenge upon him. When his body
was brought home his daughter prophesied that the sword which had slain him, which was broken, would
only be mended when the Grail was achieved. Her uncle, hastily picking up the pieces of broken blade, is
wounded in the thigh by them. His wound, along with the sword, is only mended when Perceval comes to
the castle of Quiguagrant, which had been Goon Desert's home. # 153 - 156 - 454

GOOSE

# 701: Caesar said the goose was sacred to Celtic tribes and was not considered edible, because of her
connection with the Sun-Egg. For similar reasons, medieval superstition forbade the killing of a goose in
midwinter, when the sun was thought to be in need of maternal care to gain strenght for the new seasons.
Like other formerly sacred creatures, geese were said to contain souls of the unbaptized (pagans).

# 161: In the GALLIC WARS Caesar says the goose was taboo as food for the Britons, being a sacred bird.
It was associated with both Celtic and Teutonic war gods, who were accompanied by a horse and a goose.
In Gallic iconography epona, The Divine Horse, is depicted riding on a horned goose. The Norse did not
eat the goose. # 769: Celtic war-deities were accompanied by geese in the iconography: a bronze figurine of
a warrior-goddess at Dinéault in Brittany depicts her wearing a helmet with a goose crest. The Celtic Mars
was associated with geese: he appears thus at Risingham in North Britain; and a goose was the companion
of MARS THINCSUS (a Germanic deity) at Housesteads. The birs accompanies the peaceful healergod
Mars Lenus at Caerwent, presumably being present here as a guardian against disease. # 161 - 701 p 402 -
769

GORBODUC

'Historia Regum Britaniae' furnished subject for Gorboduc. # 562

GORE

A kingdom bordering on Scotland from which it was separated by the River Tember. Its capital city was
Gailhom. If one of Arthur's knights entered it, only Lancelot could rescue him. It was accessible only by
crossing one of two bridges, one like a sword, the other subaqueous. It is variously described as the realm
of Urien or Bagdemagus. Although it has otherworldly features, it may preserve a memory of the Celtic
kingdom of Rheged. See: SORHAUT. # 156

GOREU

# 156: A cousin of Arthur who, on three occasions, is said to have rescued him from imprisonment. He was
the son of Constantine by an unnamed daughter of Amlawdd Wledig. His name, meaning 'best', was earned
by him for managing to gain entrance with his followers to Wrnach's stronghold. See: YSPADADDEN. #
454: Son of Custennin and an unnamed woman who was sister to Igraine. Goreu was one of twenty-four
sons, all of whom were killed by Yspaddaden Pencawr, he alone escaping because his mother hid him in a
cupboard. In CULHWCH AND OLWEN is he unnamed at the outset. He goes as a champion to Cei (Kay)
who promises to guard the boy. During the fulfilment of one of Culhwch's tasks, the boy achieves a great
feat of fighting through three courtyards of men to reach his companions who acclaim him 'The Best' or
Goreu. This feat may once have been associated with the winning of the Sword or Glaive of Light, one of
the HALLOWS. He finally beheads Yspaddaden, avenging Custennin. # 156 - 272 - 439 - 454
GORIAS

The City of Gorias. See Dana. One of the cities from which the Tuatha de Danaan came before coming to
Ireland. Its master of wisdom was Esras, who provided the spear of Lugh. See: HALLOWS. # 166 - 454 -
562

GORLAGON

Arthur's pet wolf who turned out to be a man enchanted by his faithless wife with the aid of his magic
wand. Arthur obtained the wand and turned him back into a human. Gorlagon's tale is found in the Latin
romance ARTHUR AND GORLAGON (fourteenth century). # 156

GORLOIS OF CORNWALL

First husband of Igraine whose semblance Uther took when he first copulated with that lady. Gorlois was
slain in battle against Uther. The building called Carhules near Castle Dore in Cornwall may have been
called after a person named Gourles, perhaps the original of Gorlois. See: DIONETA. Duke of Cornwall
and husband of Igerna (Igraine) on whom Uther Pendragon doted. With the help of Merlin, Uther was
disguised in Gorlois likeness and lay with Igerna. Her child was Arthur. Gorlois was slain at the moment of
the child's conception. He was father of Morgan, Morgause and Elaine of Garlot. # 156 - 418 - 454

GORMANT

According to CULHWCH, Gormant was Arthur's brother on his mother's side. Gormant's father is called
Rica, chief elder of Cornwall. The latter appears to occupy the position of Gorlois in the Welsh tradition. #
156

GORMES

(pl. gormesiad;) Plagues, enchantments. # 438

GORNEMANT DE GOORT

Prince of Graherz and a Knight of the Round Table. His three sons, Schenteflurs, Lascoyt and Gurzgi, all
met violent ends. He trained Perceval, hoping he would marry his daughter Liaze, but it was not to be. #
156

GORONWY

(gor-On-wee)

GORSEDD

Assembly of Bards. # 383 p 221 ff

GORVENAL

Born in Gaul, Gorvenal became the tutor and later the servant of Tristan. He married Brangien, Iseult's
maidservant. When Tristan left Liones, Gorvenal became its king. See: PHARAMOND. # 156
GOSWHIT

Arthur's helmet, high of steel and thereon was many gemstone, all encompassed with gold, which,
according to Layamon, was made by Wygar, the witty wright. # 697

GOTEGRIM

Brother of Guinevere, he carried her off when she refused to go with Gasozein who claimed to be her
husband. # 156

GOWRA

(Gabhra). References to Oscar's death at Gowra; battle of Gowra between Clan Bascna and Clan Morna;
King of Ireland's death at Gowra. Version of the Battle of Gowra in J. G. Campbell's THE FIANS, from
WAIFS AND STRAYS OF CELTIC TRADITION, Argyllshire Series. The tale was taken down in verse,
word for word, from the dectation of Roderick mac Fadyen in Tiree, 1868. See also: CAMPBELL OF
TIREE, JOHN GREGORSON. # 562

GOWTHER

Hero of a little known Arthurian romance in which he is the son of a fiendish knight and a gently born lady.
The boy proves to be of a savage disposition until the devilish tendencies are driven out of him by means of
a self-inflicted penance. A rather pious story, but an interesting reflection of the way in which the chivalric
romances were used as teaching aids by the Church. # 454 - 610

GRAIL

# 156: The Holy Grail was a vessel sought by the Knights of the Round Table. The word is derived from
Old French GREAL, meaning a kind of dish. The earliest story of the Grail is that of Chrétien, in which
Perceval is the hero. It is called 'a grail', a common noun, later becoming THE Grail. Perceval's failure to
achieve the Grail at first is due to his not asking the Grail question (What is the grail? Whom does it
serve?), thereby restoring the Maimed King to health and the land round about to fertility. The question that
arises is, what sort of tradition lay behind the Grail story? In its final forms, the Grail was the cup used by
Jesus at the Last Supper, the dish on the table at that event, or (in Wolfram) a stone. F. Anderson has argued
that the Grail was, in origin, the holy object of a nearly worldwide mystery cult which showed the Trinity
symbolically. J. L. Weston thought it part of a pagan fertility rite, involving a story similar to that of
Adonis. Certainly, the idea of a sickly king and a correspondingly sickly land seems to indicate some kind
of fertility story but, while Miss Weston felt it must be of oriental provenance, it may be of local Celtic
origin. It was thought to serve people with food and this calls to mind the notion of a cauldron of plenty,
which is found in Celtic mythology, and reminds one of the THIRTEEN TREASURES OF BRITAIN.

The recorded expedition of Arthur to the Otherworld, apparently to obtain a cauldron in PREIDDEU
ANNWFN and, what is probably its variant, the story of Arthur's expedition to Ireland to obtain a cauldron
in CULHWCH may be early forms of the story of a Grail quest. However, it has been suggested that the
story may originally have been built around a vengeance motif, as indicated by the Welsh PEREDUR. D.
D. R. Owen thinks that the original tale had to do with the naming of a hero who had a cup preferred to him
and was asked whom it should serve. The idea of the Grail as a metaphor for the human body containing
the Holy Spirit would seem to be a late development. In recent times the Holy Blood/Holy Grail theory has
become widely known because of its appearance in popular books. These argue that the Grail was a
bloodline descending from Christ and they postulate that the Cathars or Albigensians, a heretical body of
the Middle Ages, were much involved. However, as the Cathars regarded sexual reproduction as evil, they
would hardly have cherished a line of descent. Elaborations of this theory have involved beings from outer
space and pre-Columbian contact with America. The Christian element in the story is widely thought to be
a later overlay and is highlighted in works such as the QUESTE. P. Matarasso suggests that the Grail
experience in the QUESTE may well have involved some form of perception of God by Galahad. - The
hero who achieves the Grail is Perceval in the Chrétien continuations, in Wolfram and in PERLESVAUS;
Galahad in the QUESTE and its derivatives; Gawain in DIU CRôNE; and, in Malory, Galahad, Perceval
and Bors achieve it together, Bors alone now returning to Arthur's court. J. L. Weston has argued that
Gawain was the original hero, later replaced by Perceval, while J. Matthews takes the view that Gawain
was replaced by Galahad. According to the QUESTE, the Grail was carried to Heaven by a hand after
Galahad's death.

# 562: Legends of the Grail; the tale of Peredur and the Grail; Crétien de Troyes story of the Grail; identical
with the Cup of the Last Supper; Wolfram von Eschenbach's conception of the story; preserved in Castle of
Munsalväsche; the Grail, a talisman of abundance; false derivation of the word grail, from gréable; true
derivation; combination of Celtic poetry, German mysticism, Christian chivalry, and ancient sun-myths
contained in the Grail.

# 730: The Grail is probably the most ancient, abstract and elusive symbol in European civilization. In the
Christian version, the Grail was a very popular theme for medieval authors like Chrétien de Troyes and
Wolfram von Eschenbach. In the Middle Ages, the Holy Grail was believed to contain the blood of Christ,
thus symbolizing the Divine Grace given to His disciples. But it is well known that the theme of the Grail is
much older than Christianity, its origin being lost in the mists of time. For the Celts, the Grail was a vase
with magic powers, such as the cauldron of the god Dagda in Ireland. If ever there was a Grail in the
physical sense, it might have looked like the Danish vase of Gundestrup, dating from the second century
BC, which was used for initiation ceremonies, judging by its decorations. But ever since C. G. Jung, the
father of the psychology of the subconscious, the Grail is considered to be the symbol of interiorization
leading to communication with the divinity which is simultaneously in ourselves and in Heaven. The vase,
which is open at the top, perfectly symbolizes both interiorization and communication. However, the most
important aspect of the Grail is not the unattainable object itself, but the QUEST for it, which requires a
very difficult spiritual voyage of the initiates. We may therefore assimilate the quest of the Grail with an
initiation experience as Jean Markale confirms: 'it is certain that all versions of the quest are initiation
stories. Converseley, the Odyssey, being an initiation story, is clearly a quest for the Grail, thus explaining
the vase on the arms of Vlissingen. The ODYSSEY is therefore the oldest epic about the Grail, which was
to be found exactly where, in the Bronze Age, the initiation rites were performed: on the Nolle beach
between Dishoek and Vlissingen, the latter name meaning: 'the Rebirth of Ulysses', after its founder, the
archetypal initiate of Homer's time. It is not surprising to find the Grail also in nearby Middelburg as this
town was the centre of Hades' island. The city was originally built in a perfect circle, which is still evident
today from the layout of the streets. In the eleventh century, a large abbey was built in the town centre
around a sculpture of the Grail standing in the large inner courtyard. The present sculpture is modern, as the
abbey was destroyed by air raids in the Second World War, but since rebuilt.

The Grail's transition from a Gnostic to a Christian symbol is described by Paul Le Cour, according to
whom the first and last patrons of the Grail were Poseidon and St John, who were considered as the patrons
of the initiates. This provides us not only with the explanation of why, of all Olympians, it is precisely
Poseidon, god of the Ocean and the subconscious whose golden statue is maintained on top of the town hall
of Zierikzee, once the site of Circe's Mystery school, but also why the tallest church tower of Middelburg,
which was built close to the Grail, is called Sint Jan (St John). See also: GRAIL, HOLY. # 44-87-100-106-
112-153-156-185-287-300-318-346-354-358-388-400-429-434-451-454-458-461-492-562-604-715-726-
730-748-749

GRAIL CASTLE

The Castle, known as Carbonek, in which the Grail was housed. # 156

GRAIL KING
The Grail's manifestation in and relationship to the earthly realms is dependent upon its guardian, or Grail
King. This function was fulfilled by a line of Grail guardians, drawn from one family usually that of Joseph
of Arimathea. It succeeds to Arthur's knights who are successful Grail Knights, Perceval and Galahad. It
follows that those who find the Grail become its guardians. The early Grail Kings include Bran the Blessed,
Pellam, Anfortas and Brons. In Welsh tradition, this role is assigned to Manawyddan and Pryderi. Each
guardian or king is wounded: his mortality sits heavy upon him since he has tasted immortal things. When
he passes on the role to his successor, he himself passes within to the Blessed Realms. # 441 - 454 - 461

GRAIL KNIGHTS QUESTERS

In the later Grail cycles Galahad is the Grail-winner, with Perceval and Bors as his companions, but in the
earlier tales it is Perceval who is the sole successful Grail-winner. There were many other unsuccessful
knights on the quest, including Gawain and Lancelot. # 434 - 454 - 461

GRAIL LANCE

The weapon with which the Roman centurion, Longinus, pierced the side of Christ on the Cross. It
subsequently became one of the Hallows of the Grail, and was sought together with that object in Arthur's
time. Fragment of a spear, said to be that of Longinus, were housed in the Vatican museum. The lance is
related, natively, to the shining spear of Lugh or Llew, which came from Findias with the Tuatha de
Danaan. See: LANCE OF LONGINUS. # 451 - 454 - 461

GRAIL PROCESSION

The procession observed by Perceval at the Grail Castle when the Grail was carried, according to Chrétien
by a squire with a bleeding lance, two squires carrying ten-branched candlesticks, a damsel with the Grail
and a damsel with a plate. In the DIDOT PERCEVAL, there was a squire with a lance, a damsel with two
silver plates and cloths, and a squire with a vessel containing the blood of Jesus. The Welsh PEREDUR has
two youths with a large spear from which blood flowed, followed by a maiden with a salver on which there
was a head swimming with blood. See: LANCE OF LONGINUS. # 153 - 156 - 185 - 346

GRAIL QUESTION

The Wasteland and the Wounded King can only be healed when someone asks the Grail question. Usually
the Grail-seeker is seated at a banquet when the Hallows of the Grail are processed to the accompaniment
of much mourning. The unworthy candidate usually remains silent, but the successful one is supposed to
ask 'what does this mean?' This question is a perennial one since it should be applied to all material and
spiritual problems, in order that they be solved and come to terms with. Both Perceval and Galahad
successfully discovered the answer. # 454

GRAIL SWORD

# 156: This sword, fashioned by Trebuchet, was shattered when it struck down Goon Desert, brother of the
Fisher King. Making it whole was part of the Grail quest. # 454: One of the Grail Hallows, sought by the
Knights of the Round Table in their quest for the Grail. It was eventually found by Gawain, broken in two
pieces; his quest subsequently was to mend the sword, which he did by taking it to its place of origin, the
forge of Wayland. Perceval had a similar quest to mend the sword. It is natively associated with the sword
of Light, or the sword of Nuadu, the original Celtic Wounded King. # 30 - 156 - 454 - 461

GRAIL TREE, THE


The Cabbalistic Tree of Life can be used with any magical or philosophical system. Here it relates to the
Arthurian ethos. # 230 june - 92, pp 8-9.

GRAIL, HOLY

Although the paganism of the Grail romances was concealed under a thin coating of Christian
reinterpretation, scolars now have little doubt that there was no authentic tradition of the lost Last Supper
chalice that Christians called the Holy Grail. The vessel was entirely pagan and feminine, another
transformation of the Celt's Cauldron of Regeneration, the female body-symbolic bowl of lifegiving blood,
often appearing in conjunction with a male symbol just as the Grail appeared in conjunction with the Holy
Lance. The Grail shows its paganism and feminine orientation at every turn in the romances. Its sacred
procession appeared in a fairy queen's castle, not in a church. All Europe was feverishly interested in the
stories of the Grail cycle for several centuries, until the feminine connotations of the holy vessel began to
show through in various ways. Almost overnight, the stories stopped coming. In fifteenth-century
Brunswick there was an important popular festival called the Grail, held every seven years. It was outlawed
in 1481. See also: GRAIL. # 701 p 90 ff

GRAINNE

or Grania (grân'nye) # 454: Daughter of Cormac mac Art. She was promised in marriage to Fionn mac
Cumhal, but when she saw his greying hair she wondered whether it was more fitting for her to marry his
son, Oisin. She saw Diarmuid in the wedding party and, having given the company a sleeping draught, she
laid a geasa upon him to run away with her. Their long flight from Fionn was aided by Angus mac Og,
Diarmuid's foster-father. There are numerous cairns and stone-circles in Ireland which bear the name: 'the
Bed of Diarmuid and Grainne', attesting to the prohibition set on them by Fionn, that they might not sleep
in the same place on two consecutive nights.

# 769: Diarmaid and Gráinne flee all over Ireland, aided by Oenghus who gives them many pieces of
advice, including a warning never to sleep two nights in one place. The couple arrive in the Forest of
Duvnos, an enchanted wood guarded by a giant, Sharvan the Surly. There is a particular tree in the forest, a
tree of immortality whose berries Sharvan is particularly anxious to guard. Gráinne desires some of the
berries and presses Diarmaid to defy Sharvan and obtain some of the fruit for her. Diarmaid kills Sharvan,
and both he and Gráinne eat some of the berries. Finn discovers the forest and the couple's hidingplace;
Oenghus intervenes once again and spirits Gráinne away to safety. Eventually, Finn pardons Diarmaid after
Oenghus intercedes on their behalf; the pair settle in Kerry and produce five children. The story of Gráinne
and Diarmaid is one of a number of instances in Irish mythology of the eternal triangle of young man,
young girl and ageing suitor. The situation is very similar to the tale of Naoise, Deirdre and Conchobar.
There are many supernatural elements in the story: Gráinne herself is powerful and superhuman, though not
herself divine. The intervention of the god Oenghus is important; and the presence of a tree of immortality,
whose fruit is eaten by the lovers, raises the couple above human status. As seen in numerous cases, we
also here have different versions of the same tale. Where the Matthews mention that Diarmuid and Grainne
should not sleep two following nights in the same place as a prohibition from Finn, Miranda Green, Cross
and Slover and Michael Scott has it, that it was one of the many advices to the couple from the god of love
Oenghus (Angus mac Og). See also: DERMOT OF THE LOVE SPOT, and ALTERNATE SPELLING. #
166 - 267 - 454 - 582 - 654 - 769

GRANNUS

This name may be associated with the Irish GRIAN or GRIANAINECH, a title for the god Oghma,
meaning 'Sun-face'. Grannus was invoked by the Emperor Caracalla in 215 AD in association with
Aesculapius and Serapis, both gods of the cult of the Therapeutae. Grannus is often found in association
with Sirona, a goddess whose name means 'star'. This connection is reminiscent of the concept of Three
Worlds (Star, Sun and Moon) which underpins Celtic mythology. # 628 p 108 ff
GREAT BRITAIN

According to an unknown writer cited by Plutarch, who died about the year 120 of the present era, and also
by Procopius, who wrote in the sixth century AD, 'the Land of the Dead' is the western extremity of Great
Britain, separated from the eastern by an impassable wall. On the northern coast of Gaul, says the legend, is
a populace of mariners whose business is to carry the dead across from the continent to their last abode in
the island of Britain. The mariners, awakened in the night by the whisperings of some mysterious voice,
arise and go down to the shore, where they find ships awaiting them which are not their own,* and in these
invisible beings, under whose weight the vessels sink almost to the gunwales. They go on board, and with a
single stroke of the oar, says one text, in one hour, says another, they arrive at their destination, though with
their own vessels, aided by sails, it would have taken them at least a day and a night to reach the coast of
Britain. When they come to the other shore the invisible passengers land, and at the same time the unloaded
ships are seen to rise above the waves, and a voice is heard announcing the names of the new arrivals, who
have just been added to the inhabitants of the Land of the Dead. 'One stroke of the oar, one hour's voyage at
most, suffices for the midnight journey which transfers the Dead from the Gaulish continent to their final
abode. Some mysterious law, indeed, brings together in the night the great spaces which divide the domain
of the living from that of the dead in daytime. It was the same law which enabled Ith one fine winter
evening to perceive from the Tower of Bregon, in the Land of the Dead, the shores of Ireland, or the Land
of the Living. The phenomenon took place in winter; for winter is a sort of night; winter, like night, lowers
the barriers between the regions of Death and those of Life; like night winter gives to life the semblance of
death, and suppresses, as it were, the dread abyss that lies between the two.' The solar vessels found in
dolmen carvings. Note that the Celtic spirits, though invisible, are material and have weight; not so those in
Vergil and Dante. # 562

GREAT FOOL

A nephew of Arthur and the hero of the Irish romance EACHTRA AN AMADAN MOR. Because his
brothers were killed for plotting against Arthur, he was raised in obscurity in the woods. When he grew up
he became a mighty warrior, defeating Gawain, the Purple Knight, the Red Knight, and the Speckled
Knight. # 156

GREAT GIANT OF HENLLYS, THE

Like the Roaring Bull of Bagbury, the Great Giant of Henllys, whose story appeared in the ATHENAEUM
in 1847, is the ghost of the dead man who turns into a demon, as the ghost of Glam did in the Icelandic
saga, GRETTIR THE STRONG. It incidentally gives a typical account of how a ghost or a devil was
traditionally laid. Some time in the eighteenth century there lived on the banks of the Wye a man so rich,
wicked and tyrannous that he was called 'The Great Giant of Henllys'. All the countryside rejoiced when he
died, but they did not rejoice long, for he came again in a form so terrible that no one dared to be out of
doors after dark, and even the horses and cattle huddled round the farms. At length it was determined that
he must be laid, and three clergymen went at dead of night to the church of Henllys to exorcize him. They
drew a circle before the altar, and took their stand within it. Each man had a lighted candle in his hand, and
together they began their prayers. Suddenly a terrible monster appeared in the church and came roaring up
towards them, but when it came to the circle it stopped as if it had hit against a stone wall. They went on
with their prayers, but so terrible were the roarings and so close did the monster come that one man's heart
failed him, and the candle that he held went out. But they continued with their exorcism. Then the giant
reappeared as a roaring lion, and then as a raging bull; then it seemed as if a wave of the sea was flooding
the church, and then as if the west wall was falling down. The second man wavered in his faith, and the
second candle went out. Still the third went on, though his candle was faint. At last the Great Giant
appeared in his mortal form, and they questioned him, and asked him why he had come in such dreadful
shapes. 'I was bad as a man,' he said, 'and I am worse now as a devil.' And he vanished in a flash of fire.
Then their candles all burned up again and they prayed steadily, and the Great Giant appeared in smaller
and smaller forms,until at last he was only a fly, and they conjured him into a tobacco box, and threw him
into Llynwyn Pool, to lie there for ninety-nine years. Some say that it was for nine hundred and ninety-
nine; but at any rate they are very careful not to disturb the tobacco box when they are dredging Llynwyn
Pool. # 100

GREEKS

Greek wars in alliance with Celts; Greeks breaks monopoly of Carthaginian trade with Britain and Spain;
secure overland route across France to Britain; type of civilisation, Greeks Celtica preserved. # 562

GREEN CHILDREN

In the Medieval Chronicles, Ralph of Coggeshall tells of how a boy and a girl with green skin were found
near a pit in Saint Mary of the Wolf-Pit. They would eat nothing but green food and spoke a foreign
language. The boy died quite soon but the girl learned to talk and eat ordinary food, so that she became as
an ordinary person and spoke of a land very like that described by ELIDOR in his adventures in Faery. #
100 - 424 - 454

GREEN KNIGHT

1. A character featured in the classic poem SIR GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT (fourteenth
century) and its derivative THE GREEN KNIGHT (c.1500). This knight came into Arthur's hall and asked
any one of his knights to trade blows. Gawain accepted this challenge and he was allowed to strike first. He
cut off the Green Knight's head. The latter calmly picked it up and told Gawain to meet him on New Year's
Morning for his turn. On his way to this meeting, Gawain lodged with a lord and each agreed to give the
other what he had obtained during each day of Gawain's stay. On the first day, when the lord was out
hunting, Gawain received a kiss from his wife which was duly passed on. On the second day, he received a
brace of kisses which were also passed on. On the third day he was given three kisses and some green lace
which would magically protect him, but only the three kisses were passed on. Having left the lord's
residence, Gawain arrived at the Green Chapel where he was to meet the Green Knight. He knelt for the
blow. The Green Knight aimed three blows at Gawain, but the first two did not make contact and the third
but lightly cut his neck. The Green Knight turned out to be the lord with whom he had been staying and he
said he would not have cut Gawain at all had the latter told him about the lace. The Green Knight was
called Bertilak and he lived at Castle Hutton. The tale bears a striking resemblance to an Irish narrative in
which Cu Roi takes the part of the Green Knight and CuChulain that of Gawain. The Green Knight may
have been the Green Man, a wild man featured on inn signboards whose effigy was carried in civic
processions.

2. Sir Pertolepe, a knight defeated by Gareth.

#454: Gawain won the game but, because he had shamefully accepted Lady Bertilak's help, had to wear on
his arms for ever, the Green Garter (the endless knot or five-pointed star). The Green Knight revealed that
he been enchanted by Morgan Le Fay. # 156 - 418 - 454 - 672

GREEN MAN

(The Hidden One - The Cylenchar) The next stage of the ecological revolution begins with the reawakening
of the male counterpart of the Goddess, the Green Man, an archetype found in folklore and religious art
from the earliest times, and especially linked with the Christian origins of modern science. Long
suppressed, the archetype emerges now to challenge us to heal our relationship with nature. - It is likely that
Green Man pillars were erected originally on the sites of sacred trees. The Green Man signifies irrepressible
life. He is an image from the depths of prehistory: he appears and seems to die and then comes again after
long forgettings at many periods in the past two thousand years. In his origins he is much elder than our
Christian era. In all his appearances he is an image of renewal and rebirth. See also: JACK IN THE
GREEN. # 20
GREEN SLEEVES

The story of Green Sleeves, published in Peter Buchan's ANCIENT SCOTTISH TALES, is an exellent
example of the supernatural wizard such as we find in the tales of Nicht Naught Nothing and the Battle of
the Birds. These are all Celtic tales which have survived in Full, but of which fragments are to be found in
England. 'Green Sleeves' is a story of the 'supernatural bride' type and is rich in motifs which seem peculiar
to the Celtic genius, though it also contains many universal motifs.

To begin with, Green Sleeves procures the presence of the prince-hero by winning a game of skill against
him. In most of the Celtic tales the game is chess, but in this it is skittles. Then we have the travels in search
of the challenger, where the hero is helped successively by three very aged, almost immortal brothers. Then
we come to the Swan Maiden theme with the three daughters of the wizard. The help of one of them is
secured by taking her swan garment and returning it to her. We next move on to the miraculous tasks
demanded by the wizard and performed for the hero by his daughter, the selection of the bride among a
number of maidens who appear identical with her, the marriage and escape by means of an object which
magically answers for the lovers. The flight and the pursuer delayed by magical objects, the separable soul
and the death of the wizard are all a common sequence of motifs in this type of story. It is almost inevitably
followed by the separation of the lovers because of the violation of a taboo, the theme of the bartered bed,
the awakening of the husband's memory, and the final reunion of the lovers.

The theme of the would-be lovers magically delayed is treated as a complete story in 'The Three Feathers'
included by Jacobs in his ENGLISH FAIRY TALES. The Aarne-Thompson Types 400, 'The Search for the
Lost Bride' and 425, 'The Search for the Lost Husband' are combined in this tale. Its subject is plainly a
journey into a supernatural world and the winning of a supernatural bride. The wizard enjoys a conditional
and magical immortality which is paralleled by many of the Tuatha De Danann. Age and disease cannot kill
them, but they can be killed by violence, as Aed the son of Dagda was killed by a blow from a jealous
husband. Green Sleeves is typical of many supernatural wizards whose life is butressed by magic.

The summary which follows is taken from A DICTIONARY OF BRITISH FOLK TALES, PART A VOL.
I.: A King of Scotland had a son who was devoted to gambling and excelled at the game of skittles, so that
no one dared compete with him in that game. A strange old man suddenly appeared and challenged him to
play, on condition that the winner might ask of the loser whatever he wished, and the loser must comply on
pain of death. The old man won, and charged the prince to tell him his name and place of abode before that
day twelve months. The prince took to his bed in despair, but was at last persuaded by his father, first to tell
him the cause of his distress, and then to go and seek the answers to the old man's questions. After a long
days travel an old man, sitting outside his cottage, told him the rogue was named Green Sleeves. He was
200 years old, and sent the Prince 200 miles on to his brother, 400 years older, with the aid of magic
slippers and a ball to guide him. The slippers and ball would return of themselves on being kicked. Eight
hundred miles on, the third brother, thousand years older, sent him to the river Ugie to intercept the three
daughters of Green Sleeves, who would come to bathe, disguised as swans. He stole the swan-skin of the
youngest, which had one blue wing, and so induced her to tell him the way to Green Sleeves' castle. Being
unwillingly admitted by Green Sleeves, the prince found endless difficulties - a bed of broken glass
fragments, fish-skins and mouldy bread to eat - and three impossible tasks were imposed on him by Green
Sleeves, but Blue Wing secretly helped him through all, with the aid of a magic box containing thousands
of fairies. The tasks were, first, to build a castle 1,000 miles in length, breadth and height, including a stone
from every quarry in the world, and covered with feathers of every kind of bird. The next task was to sow,
reap and replace in the cask from which it came, a quantity of lint seed, as before in the space of a single
day.

Third and last was to clear a stable where 200 horses had stood for 200 years, and recover from it a golden
needle lost by Green Sleeves' grandmother 1,000 years before. Green Sleeves now offered the prince one of
his daughters in marriage. They would have murdered him, but Blue Wing, by a trick, again saved him and
they fled. Magic cakes hung on their bed delayed the pursuit, but finally Green Sleeves in seven-leagued
boots followed them. Magic obstacles, a forest, a great rock, and a rushing river, enabled the prince,
directed by Blue Wing, to procure an egg from a certain bird's nest on top of a high hill. With this egg,
aimed at a special point of his breast, Green Sleeves was slain, and the prince rode home to procure a fitting
escort for his bride before making her known to his parents. Blue Wing warned him against being kissed,
but a lap-dog sprang up and licked him, and he forgot her. Blue Wing hid in a tree above a pool, and two
servants of a neighbouring goldsmith, mistaking her reflection for their own, refused, through pride in their
supposed beauty, to serve him any more. Blue Wing took their place, and served the goldsmith, until two of
his customers, a prince's groom first, and then the Duke of Marlborough himself, fell in love with her. She
tricked them both, by magic, having promised to sleep with each of them for one night, and then kept them
spell-bound to some menial task, and so made her way, as the duke's partner, to a ball at court. Here, when
the dancing was over, and tales were told and songs sung. Blue Wing produced a golden cock and hen,
which talked, and reminded the prince of all that had happened. The new bride to whom he had been
promised was dismissed, and Blue Wing and the prince were married, with all honour and joy, and lived to
see their large family grow up to take their place in due time. # 100 - 115 - 338

GREENAN CASTLE

Situated about three miles from Ayr, this castle is built on the site of an Iron Age hill fort. N. L. Goodrich
argues that this was the site of the original Camelot, though she also states that 'Camelot' was the name
given to whatever stronghold Arthur was occupying at the time. She further identifies the site of Greenan
Castle with Badon. # 156 - 255

GREENLAND

This island, called Kalaallit Nunaat in Greenlandic, was conquered by Arthur, according to William
Lambard in his ARCHAIONOMIA (1568). Hakluyt, the travel writer of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, is of the opinion that Grocland was Greenland. Greenland may be meant by Granland, the
territory ruled by Amangons in LE CHEVALIER AS DEUS ESPÉES (Old French). # 156

GREY LADY

A ghost said to haunt Moel Arthur in Llanwist, Clwyd. R. Holland in his book, SUPERNATURAL
CLWYD, Llanwist (1989), suggests she was thought to be the protectress of Arthur's treasure which is said
to be buried there.# 156

GREY OF MACHA

CuChulain's horse, ridden by Sualtam to rouse men of Ulster; resists being harnessed by Laeg; mortally
wounded by Erc; defends CuChulain. # 562

GRIFFITH

A king of Wales who gained his throne by murder, but was ousted by Meriadoc, the true heir to the throne.
# 30 - 156

GRIFLET

An Arthurian knight, the son of Do. His name is also rendered GIRFLET. He may be identical with Jaufré,
the hero of a Provencal romance. In one version he, not Bedivere, was given the task of flinging Excalibur
into the waters after Arthur's last battle. When he saw Arthur's tomb he became a hermit but he died shortly
afterwards. Griflet's origins are Celtic: he is derived from Gilfaethwy, son of Don, in the MABINOGION
story of MATH, SON OF MATHONWY, where he is the brother of Gwydion. As Gwydion seems to have
been a British smith-god, Gilfaethwy was presumeably also a deity. Griflet's father, Don, seems to come
from Don, the goddess who was Gilfaethwy's mother in British tradition. See: ESCANOR, and LORETE. #
156 - 418

GRINGALET

(In Welsh: Kincaled) Gawain's horse. Accounts vary as to how it came into Gawain's possession. He was
thought either to have won it in a duel with Escanor Le Grand, though it was Escanor's nephew's
possession, given him by the fairy, Esclarimonde; or else to have taken it from the Saxon King Clarion. #
156 - 398 - 604

GRISANDOLE

See: AVENABLE.

GROMER

A knight who, by magic, was made to resemble a Turk. He and Gawain went to the Isle of Man where, after
some adventures, they slew the king and Gromer, restored to his original shape by decapitation, became
king in his place. Gromer's story is told in the poem of THE TURK AND GAWAIN (c.1500). Another
bearer of this name was Gromer Somer Joure (q.v.) who once captured Arthur. # 156

GROMER SOMER JOURE

Powerful, magical shape-shifter who captured Arthur in the story of GAWAIN AND DAME RAGNELL.
He demanded that Arthur discovered what it was that women most desired. Arthur was told by the Loathly
Lady, Ragnell, who demanded marriage with Gawain as her reward. Gromer's name means 'Lord of the
Summer's Day'. He is analogous to Hafgan in the story of Pwyll, and bears many similarities with Gawain's
other adversary, the Green Knight. Gromer was under enchantment by Morgan. # 439 - 454 - 507

GRONW PEBYR

(gron'oo payber). Loved by Blodeuwedd; slain by Llew. When Llew was resuscitated by Gwydion, he
begged mercy and was allowed to hold a large stone between himself and Llew's spear, but the weapon
passed through both the stone and man. # 272 - 439 - 454 - 562

GROVE

# 701: The sacred grove was the characteristic shrine of the Great Goddess Diana throughout the Roman
empire. In Ireland her oak groves were called NEMED. Her consorts among the Celtic gods were known to
the Romans as Silvanus, King of the Grove.

# 769: Whilst the Celts sometimes worshipped in built temples, their cult foci were frequently natural
features in the landscape, like trees, forests or groves. The term 'nemeton' refers to a sacred place and, in
particular, a sacred grove. In addition to the evidence for sacred groves themselves, goddesses with
'grovenames' were venerated. Thus we know of Arnemetia of Buxton and Nemetona, who was worshipped,
for example, at Altripp near Speyer and at Bath. The Celto-German tribe of the Nemetes (in whose territory
Nemetona was venerated) suggests that the tribe adopted this sacred name. At Grenoble, a group of female
divinities was known as the Nemetiales (goddesses of the grove). See also: TREES. # 563 - 701 p 464 -
#769

GRUAGACHS
In the Highlands there is the fairy lady dressed in green with long golden hair, sometimes beautiful and
sometimes wan and haggard, who is the guardian of the cattle. Mackenzie is inclined to think that she is
truly 'the hairy one' which might be an epithet attached to a Glaistig, a fairy lady. The Gruagach appears in
Scottish folklore as a kind of brownie or sometimes as a clever, green- or red-dressed male or female. They
appears to be otherworldly beings of great magical power, able to enchant the unwary but also to aid
mortals. They sometimes appears as the challenger and teacher of the boy-hero of folk-story, whom they
provokes and is eventually outwitted by. In southern Ireland they occasionally appears as giants.

# 100 - 415 - 454

GUAIRY, HUGH

(gwai'ry). Arrested for murder, and tried at Tara by Dermot. # 562

GUARY

(gwar'y). High King; taunts Sanchan Torpest about the 'Tain'. # 562

GUENDOLENA

Daughter of Corineus. She was deserted by her husband, Locrinus, in favour of his mistress, Estrildis.
Guendolena drowned her and killed Locrinus in battle. She ruled briefly before giving her realm to the
hands of her son. # 243 - 454

GUENDOLOENA GWENDOLENA

The wife of Merlin in VITA MERLINI. She may be identical with Chwimleian, mentioned in
AFOLLONAU, one of the Welsh Myrddin (Merlin) poems. She married Rhydderch Hael after Merlin ran
mad. # 156 - 242 - 632

GUEST, LADY CHARLOTTE

Her collections of tales. See: MABINOGION.

GUIDERIUS

A king of Britain who, according to Geoffrey, was killed during the Claudian invasion and was succeeded
by his brother, Arviragus. # 156 - 243

GUIGNIER

The chaste wife of Caradoc Briefbras whose fidelity was shown by the mantle test. A boy brought a mantle
to Arthur's court and asserted that it would fit only faithful wives. Various ladies tried it on but it fitted only
Guignier. Guignier lost one of her breasts in dealing with a serpent magically wrapped around Caradoc's
arm, but this was replaced by one made of gold with the aid of the knight Aarlardin who had once been
enamoured of her. See: TEGAU. # 156

GUINEBAUT
The brother of Ban and the elder Bors. Something of a wizard, he made a magic chessboard and caused a
dance to continue perpetually. # 156

GUINEVERE

(In Welsh: Gwenhwyvar) The wife of Arthur, daughter of King Leodegrance of Cameliard in Malory.
Welsh tradition calls her father Gogrvan or Ocvran, while in DIU CRONE he is called King Garlin of
Galore. A late literary source, Thelwalls play THE FAIRY OF THE LAKE (1801), suggests that she is the
daughter of Vortigern. Wace makes her Mordred's sister. In Geoffrey, she is of Roman stock, and while
Arthur was fighting the Roman war, Mordred abducted her and made himself king. In the later version of
the arthurian story she was the lover of Lancelot. Their intrigue discovered, Lancelot fled and Guinevere
was duly sentenced to burning. Lancelot rescued her and war followed between him and Arthur. While
Arthur was away, Mordred rebelled. Arthur returned to do battle with him and received his final wound.
Guinevere took the veil. However, there are a different tales of her end. According to PERLESVAUS, she
died in Arthur's lifetime, while Boece averred she ended her days as a prisoner of the Picts. She and Arthur
had a son called Loholt, though he was also said to be the son of Arthur and Lionors. The ALLITERATIVE
MORTE ARTHURE says that she and Mordred were the parents of two sons. B. Saklatvala has suggested
she was really a Saxon named Winifred, and J. Markale has opined that Kay and Gawain were originally
amongst her lovers. Welsh tradition stated that Arthur was married, not to one, but to three Guineveres.
Some have argued that Guinevere is a mythical figure, representing the sovereignty of Britain, over which
contenders fight; in this respect she is a parallel figure to Eriu, the goddess of the sovereignty of Ireland. C.
Matthew's contends that this interpretation is supported by the legend of three Guineveres married to
Arthur, saying these are not three separate persons but a single triune goddess. J. Matthews contends that
Guinevere and Morgan are like two sides of a coin, the beneficent and maleficent aspects of sovereignty.

Efforts to connect Guinevere with Findabair, daughter of the Irish goddess Maeve, have not proven
successful. Guinevere was very susceptible to being abducted and it has been suggested that her story is a
parallel of the Irish story of Midir and Etain. In this, Etain was once an otherworldly bride of Midir but she
retains no memory of this fact and is now married to an Irish king. Midir turns up to lure her back to the
Otherworld. Similarly, it is said, Guinevere's abductor, be he Meleagaunce or Lancelot, Gasozein or Valerin
is merely taking her back to the Otherworld whence she came.

We are told in the MABINOGION that Guinevere had a sister named Gwenhwyvach; in French romance
that she had an identical half-sister who, for a while, took her place; and in the German DIU CRONE that
she had a brother, Gotegrin. # 156 - 438 - 710

GUINEVERE, THE FALSE

Guinevere's identical half-sister, whom Leodegrance fathered on the same night as he fathered Guinevere.
She claimed she was the true Guinevere and enticed Arthur into giving up her half-sister who took refuge in
Sorelois. The False Guinevere and her champion Bertholai admitted in the end that they were deceivers and
after two and a half years the real Guinevere was restored to Arthur. # 156 - 604

GUINGLAIN

The son of Gawain and Ragnell. He appeared at Arthur's court ignorant of his name, so he was called Le
Bel Inconnu ('The Fair Unknown'). A damsel turned up with a dwarf and asked for a knight to rescue her
mistress, a princess, with 'the daring kiss'. Arthur sent Le Bel Inconnu. After a couple of adventures they
came to the Golden Island where a fairy, Pucelle aux Blanche Mains, offered him love, but they went on to
the palace of the princess. There, Guinglain defeated a knight with a horned and fire-breathing horse, and
darkness fell everywhere. A snake appeared and kissed him and he heard a voice tell him his name and that
he was Gawain's son. He fell asleep and when he awoke a princess called Blonde Esmerée was there. She
told him she had been the snake, whom he had released from enchantment by receiving her kiss. After a
sojourn with Pucelle on the Golden Island, Guinglain married the princess. # 156

GUNDESTRUP CAULDRON, THE


The richly ornamented silver cauldron from the Raeve Bog at Gundestrup, Jutland.
It was probably placed there in the fourth or third century BC.

All photos, Lennart Larsen, The National Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark.

In the Danish National Museum in Copenhagen is the celebrated silver cauldron found in Gundestrup,
Jutland. It shows a curious blend of oriental imagery and techniques with apparently Celtic motifs, and
preserves one of the best surviving records of Celtic warriors and their accoutrements (c.100 BC) There are
helmets with bird or animal crests, the typical long shields, trousers-the idea of which the Celts probably
borrowed from the East- and the long, animal-headed war trumpets. One relief depicts the sacrifice of a
bull, which has a ritual significance all over the Celtic areas. The bowl itself had a ritualistic fate. Professor
P. V. Glob considers it to be booty brought home by the Cimbri. And he suggests the cauldron was sunk in
the Raeve Fen as an offering to turn the fortunes of war. In the magazine AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC, the
English archaeologist Timothy Taylor stress that the motifs of the Gundestrup Cauldron inti-mately connect
it to India and Hinduism. This notion isn't new at all, but Taylor suggests some new argumentation which
underlines this connection. - Other scholars have another view, like Iman Wilkens in his survey of Troy
(#730), where he says:...'It seems fairly safe to say that "wide Cnosus" (Iliad, XVIII, 591) was none other
than the ""cap"" of Jutland, the extreme north of Denmark, where there is a region and a hill with a name
unique in Europe, Knøsen. It is well established that the Celts lived in this area long before our own era, for
archaeologists found there one of the most celebrated of all Celtic works of art, the Gundestrup silver
cauldron (called after the village where it was found). This cauldron is decorated with a frieze showing
what seems to be a human sacrifice to a god and it is precisely to human sacrifice that Knossos owed its
notoriety throughout the ages. However, it was notsituated in the Mediterranean. It thus appears that the
Celts had conquered Jutland already, before Homer's time, from more ancient peoples who had erected the
many megalithic monuments found in the region. This may explain why Homer mentions various different
peoples living in "Crete": There dwell Acheans, there great-hearted native Cretans, there Cydonians and
Dorians of waving plumes and goodly Pelasgians. Among their cities is the great city Cnosus, where Minos
reigned. (Od.XIX, 175-178)'

# 354: Extracts from SE GUNDESTRUP KARRET (SEEING THE GUNDESTRUP CAULDRON). In


every respect is this a beautiful book with its handmade looking hardcover and its extraordinary size (A3)
and inside at the pages the author takes a fresh look at the scenes on the plates of the Gundestrup Cauldron.
Starting off with the ornamental leaves - which others have seen just as ornamental - he notes that they in
fact are a kind of pointing arrows showing the direction of movements. This leads to another observation:
there seems to be two complementary types of movements, horizontal and vertical, as seen in figs. A and B.

Fig.A Inner Plate "God Father""


In fig. A we see a male deity placed in an upper layer of running beasts with dotted furcoats. Their feet are
pushing backwards thereby supporting the right-to-left movement of the winged creatures in the lower
layer. The whole scene can be interpreted this way: a supreme male "God Father" is situated amongst the
figures of the zodiac (heaven's equator) making the spheres turn. The lower layer is the winds - notice by
the way the humorous detail of the helping deity supporting the winds in his own way! Below him we see a
ram-headedsnake placed as symbol of this deity. The same symbolizing way a beast is placed below the
female god in fig. B, telling that HER power is as strong as that of the zodiac, or of "God Father". This
"God Mother" has turned her attention inwards, as seen by the positions of her arms almost crossed. She is
counterbalancing the male side of the universal powers by turning the horizontal movements inwards,
creating a vertical up-going stream of psychic energy (the kind of which is shown on the plates by leaves
having small-dot pattern background).

Fig. B Inner Plate "God Mother"

Probably the God Mother was situated in the northern sky. Thus the circumpolar stars would come from
both right and left, and elephants would be an exellent choice of figures to indicate the lower speed
compared to the stars of the zodiac.

fig. C Inner plate: "The ever-running thoughts"

The male-female complementaries of the gods form a wholeness that in small scale can be found in every
man or woman. One of the three last inner plates (fig. C) shows a man who three times tries to stop a bull
or unicorn. This plate contains clearly three layers of running animals pushing each other with the feet just
like the animals on the plate of God Father. Here it shows the part of the human mind that concerns the
"male" expressive energies: the ever-running thoughts so difficult to stop. The top layer dotted animals
probably represent divine powers uncontrollable to most people and the bottom layer probably lower
animal (sexual?) instincts.

fig. D Inner plate:"Inner quietness"


The "female" way of dealing with the powers is shown in the plate(fig. D) where a person is sitting in a
meditative-like position. Here the normal horizontal movements has been stopped, and all kinds of animals
go to and fro in no apparent order. The person has reach the first goal - to stop the thoughts.

fig. E. Inner plate "Indian belief"

From here everything can happen. The last of the inner plates shows a lying plant as the central object.
Seven soldiers stand below it, out of which six are touching the plant with the points of their spears. The
last at the top of the plant wears a wild boar on his helmet.

If the plate is turned to make the plant stand up it becomes obvious that this is a "life-tree". Note the small-
dot background connecting it to the psychic movements. In India this is known in the form of a system of
Chakras - a flow of psychic energy flowing upwards in the body from the root (the genitals) along the spine
to the top of the head.

fig. F. Outer plate "Life-energy"

At the root of the plant a small person is held upside-down by a larger figure above what is usually thought
to be a vessel into which the small person is either baptized or made to offer his blood. The vessel,
however, can also be seen as the female sex out of which the small person is born. This is very probable
because it is placed right next to the root of the life-tree. Besides, even today when you begin working with
your psychic energies it is often accompanied by dreams of death and re-birth.

According to Indian belief not just one but three streams of energy flow upwards, crossing each other in
seven psychic centres - the chakras. To the right of the lying plant three men are blowing Celtic carnyxes.
Above them a ram-headed snake tells us that what comes through the three tubes is the same sort of energy
that symbolized the helper of God Father - and the same sort as the meditating person of the last plate held
in his hand.

Following Indian thoughts the middle stream is the most important. It can only flow upwards when the two
other streams, male and female, are balanced. This must be the reason why on the outer side of the cauldron
the originally eight plates (only seven are found) are telling us in details how the powers of each level -
chakra - should be balanced. The one extra plate shows the human's mind before starting his work of
balancing his male and female sides.

As an example of the outer plates take a look at fig. F. It differs from the others found because its arms are
in both active and passive positions at a time: one arm is streched upwards whilst the other is bent inwards.
Thus it can be suggested that this plate symbolizes a function balanced in itself. It seems logical to presume
that here we are at the level of solar plexus - at the solar chakra, concerning the reception and use of life
energy through breathing.

Obviously the life energy came into the body with the air. On the left receptive side of the central figure a
heraldic bird shows that something airy passes down here and is re-formed by a small figurine to create
nourishment for the small human lying at the big figure's breast. On the active side a four-legged animal is
changed to a bird showing that something is changed to air anew before it is returned to the same kind of
heraldic bird that brought the life energy in the first place.

The right shoulder peculiarly continues beyond the raised right arm and a small figurine sits on it. Above
her a creature flees upwards. This must be picturizing a very special kind of breathing out, namely the last,
the terminal breath. The spirit or soul flees to heaven whereas the body as pointed by the figurine's right
arm goes to the ground. Her left arm is held over solar plexus to show the seat of the life energy.

For accuracy it should be noted that according to Indian belief the life energy is connected to the fire-
element, not to air. On the other hand, why should this not have been the same to the Celts and Thracians?
Fire is clearly growing when blown at, and the other way round flames seem to change into smoke, or air,
again...

The interpretation made by the Danish writer Bjerre Jørgensen of the GUNDESTRUP CAULDRON is in
many ways unique and may give rise to new views from scholars in Celtic religious idiosyncrasy or ways
in the Celtic initiation process.

Details from the basic plate, showing head of bull. Among other symbols, the plate contains one human,
three dogs and a bull.

The interpretation from # 354 of this plate suggests that it may symbolize a moment of transformation, with
the death of the old personality and the birth of a new, more beautiful, happier and a more vigorous one. #
220 -253 - 354 - 372 - 730 - 769 - 781
GUNPHAR

The king of Denmark, slain by Arthur for refusing to pay him tribute. # 156 - 243

GURGURANT

A cannibal king whose son was slain by a giant who was, in turn, slain by Gawain. The son's corpse was
cooked and eaten by Gurgurant's followers. When Gurgurant became a Christian his name was changed to
Archier. He became a hermit near the Grail Castle. # 112 - 156

GURMUN

In Gottfried, the King of Ireland and father of Iseult. He was the son of an African king. The name probably
comes from Gormund who, in Geoffrey, was an African king who conquered and established himself in
Ireland. # 156

GUY OF WARWICK

A tenth-century legendary hero, said to have married the Earl of Warwick's daughter. He slew a monstrous
boar and cow as well as a dragon who was about to devour a lion, which afterwards became his champion.
He returned from the Holy Land to help King Ethelstan fight against the Danes and finally became a
hermit. # 454

GWAIR GWEIR

The mysterious prisoner of the poem, PRIDDEU ANNWN: 'Perfect was the captivity in Caer
Sidi/According to the tale of PWYLL AND PRYDERI.' Gweir seems not to have been a personal name, but
an alias or title which can be applied to the experiences of many characters within the MABINOGION,
especially Mabon. He was said to have been released by Goreu. ># 104 - 272 - 439 - 454

GWALCHMAI

(goo-ALKH-meh) Nephew of King Arthur. See also: GAWAIN. # 562

GWALHAFED

In CULHWCH, the son of Gwyar and brother of Gwalchmai (Gawain), perhaps the original of Galahad. #
156

GWARTHEG Y LLYN

(gwarrtheg er thlin) These, the fairy cattle of Wales, were among fairy animals very closely akin to the
Crodh Mara of the Highlands, except that they are generally said to be milk-white, though in one story at
least the cow is described as speckled or parti-coloured. These cattle in Wales were often given as part of
the dowry of a Gwragedd Annwn, a Lake Maiden, but a water-bull would sometimes visit earthly herds
with most fortunate results for the farmer. On one occasion at least a stray fairy cow attached herself to an
earthly bull, and the farmer succeeded in catching her. From that moment his future was made. The number
and quality of the calves born to the stray cow were unsurpassable. Never was such milk or butter or
cheese. The farmer became the richest man in the countryside. But as years passed the rich farmer became
prouder and more grasping. He began to think that the stray cow's heyday had passed and that it was time
to fatten her for the market. She was as industrious at fattening as she has been at breeding or giving milk.
Soon she was a prodigy of fatness. The butcher was called, the neighbours assembled to see the death of the
far-famed cow. The butcher raised his sharp knife; but before the blow could be struck his arm was
paralysed and the knife dropped from his hand. A piercing scream rang out, and the crowd saw a tall figure
in green standing on the crag above Llyn Barfog. She chanted out in a great voice

'Come thou, Einion's Yellow One,


Stray-horns, the Particoloured Lake Cow
And the hornless Dodin;
Arise, come home.'

As she sang the stray cow broke loose, and followed by all her progeny, raced up the mountain-side to the
fairy lady. The farmer followed frantically after them, only to see them surrounding the green lady, who
formed them into ranks and led them into the dark waters of the lake. She waved her hand derisively to the
farmer, and she and her herd disappeared into the dark waters, leaving only a cluster of yellow water-lilies
to mark the place where they had sunk. The farmer became as poor as he had been rich. The Highland
version of this story is the Elf-Bull, though no lake maiden appears. # 100

GWARWYN A THROT

(gwarrwin-a-throt) The hidden name of a Monmouthshire BWCA. # 100

GWAWL

# 562: (GOO-awl) Rival of Pwyll's for Rhiannon's hand. 2.Daughter of Coel and, possibly, wife of
Cunedda. # 454: The former betrothed of Rhiannon. He came as a suppliant to the feast where she was to
be married to Pwyll, who granted all Gwawl might desire. Gwawl asked for both the feast and Rhiannon.
At the wedding feast of Gwawl and Rhiannon, Pwyll likewise came disguised as a suitor and begged for his
bag to be filled with food. Gwawl assented, but the bag was bottomless. Pwyll explained that it would
never be filled until a nobleman pressed down the contents with his feet. This Gwawl did, becoming
enclosed in the bag and beaten by Pwyll's men in a game called 'Badger in the Bag' until he begged for
mercy and relinquished Rhiannon. He was made to swear he would not seek revenge, but his maltreatment
was avenged by his cousin, Llwyd ap Cil Coed. # 272 - 439 - 454 - 562

GWEN

1. In DREAM OF RHONABWY a mantle of invisibility belonging to Arthur. 2. Arthur's maternal


grandmother, the daughter of Cunedda, in Welsh tradition. 156 - 272 - 346

GWENDDOLAU

According to the Welsh Myrddin (Merlin) poems, Merlin's lord at the battle of Arthuret. His retinue was
described as one of the six faithful retinues of the island of Britain for it continued to fight for six weeks
after his death. In one of the TRIADS it states he had birds which had a yoke of gold and two corpses for
dinner and supper. They were killed by Gall, son of Dysgyfdawd. In the VITA Merlin was on the side
which opposed Gwenddolau at Arthuret. See: THIRTEEN TREASURES. # 156

GWENHWYVACH
The sister of Guinevere in Welsh tradition. She struck Guinevere and this led to the battle of Camlann. In
Thomas Love Peacock's MISFORTUNES OF ELPHIN (1829), Gwenhwyvach is married to Mordred. #
104 - 156

GWENHWYVAR

(gwen'hoo-ivar). Wife of King Arthur. See also: GUINEVERE. # 562

GWENT YS COED

(guint uss coit) Welsh place-name from the Arthurian saga.

GWENWYNWYN In CULHWCH, Arthur's chief fighter. # 156 - 346

GWERN

Son of Matholwch and Branwen; assumes sovranty of Ireland. He was thrown in the fire by his uncle,
Efnissien. # 272 - 439 - 562

GWION

(See also Gwion Bach) The son of Gwreang who was left by Ceridwen to stir her cauldron. Drops from it
landed on his finger which he sucked and at once understood everything that had happened or was to
happen. He fled to avoid Ceridwen, both pursuer and pursued changing into different shapes. Gwion
eventually changed himself into a grain of wheat and she changed herself into a hen and swallowed him.
She became pregnant with him and bore him as Taliesin. All this may represent an initiatory process, as C.
Matthews suggests. A certain similarity may be noted between Gwion and the Irish hero Finn (Fionn) mac
Cool, who sucked his thumb when some of the essence of the Salmon of Knowledge was on it. The
chewing of the thumb may recall a pagan practice of divination. R. Graves considers that Gwion was a
historical person who discovered poetic mysteries and began to compose poetry, using the name of the
legendary Taliesin. See: TALIESIN. # 156 - 259 - 272 - 439 - 508

GWION BACH

Son of Gwreang; put to stir magic cauldron by Cerridwen; similar action to Finn. # 562

GWLWLYD

(goo-loo'lid). The dun oxen of Gwlwlyd. # 562

GWRACH Y RHIBYN

(gwrarch er hreebin) A form of Welsh banshee. Her name means 'Hag of the Warning'. She is nearer to the
Cailleach Bheare/Bheur than the usual Sidhe-woman of Irish tradition. She always warns of a death and,
like the Washer of the Ford, is often encountered at a crossroad or stream.

This rather obscure name is used in Cardiganshire for the Welsh Banshee, sometimes called y Cyhiareth.
She would go invisibly beside the person she wished to warn, and if she came to cross-roads or to a stream
she would burst out into a ghastly shriek, beating the ground or the water and crying out, 'My husband! My
husband!' if she was accompanying a woman, or, 'My wife! if a woman's death was foretold. Or again, 'My
little child! O my little child!' if it was a child who would die. Inarticulate screams meant the death of the
hearer himself. She was described as very hideous, with tangled hair, long black teeth and long withered
arms out of all proportion to the length of her body. Rhys, who gives this description of her in CELTIC
FOLK-LORE, VOL.II, considers that she is generally regarded as an ancestral figure, but thinks it possible
that she may be one of the mother goddesses, like Anu or the Cailleach Bheur. # 100 - 454 - 554

GWRAGEDD ANNWN

(gwrageth anoon) Of all the folk fairy tales of Wales, that of the Lake Maidens who married mortals has
had the widest distribution and the longest life.

There are many sinister fairies in Welsh tradition, but the Welsh water-fairies are not among them. They are
beautiful and desirable, but they are not sirens or nixies. John Rhys devotes a chapter in CELTIC FOLK-
LORE to 'Undine's Kymric Sisters'.

The best-known and the earliest of the stories about the Gwragen Annwn is the story of the lady of Llyn y
Van Ffach, a small and beautiful lake near the Black Mountains. It happened in the 12th century that a
widow with a farm at Blaensawde, near Mydffai, used to send her only son two miles up the valley to graze
their cattle on the shores of Llyn y Van Ffach. One day, as he was eating his midday snack, he saw the most
beautiful lady he had ever seen , sitting on the surface of the lake combing the curls of her long golden hair
with the smooth water as her mirror. He was at once fathoms deep in love, and held out his hands with the
bread in them, beseeching her to come to shore. She looked kindly at him, but said, 'Your bread is baked
too hard' and plunged into the lake. He went back and told his mother what had happened. She sympathized
with him and gave him some unbaked dough to take next day. That was too soft, so the next day his mother
gave him lightly baked bread. That passed the test, for three figures rose from the lake: an old man of noble
and stately bearing with a beautiful daughter on each side of him. The old man spoke to the farmer saying
that he was willing to part with his daughter if the young man could point out to him the one on whom his
love was set. The fairy ladies were as like as two peas, and the farmer would have given it up in despair if
one of them had not slightly moved her foot so that he recognized the distinctive lacing of her sandal and
made the right choice. The fairy father gave her a dowry of as many cattle as she count in a breath - and she
counted quickly - but warned her future husband that he must treat her kindly, and if he gave her three
causeless blows she and her dowry would be lost to him for ever. They married and were very happy, and
had three beautiful boys, but she had strange, fairy-like ways; she fell sometimes into a kind of trance, she
was apt to weep when other people rejoiced, as at weddings, and to laugh and sing when other people were
mourning, as at a child-funeral, and these peculiarities were the cause of his giving her three causeless
blows, mere love-taps but a breach of the geasa or taboo, so that she was forced to leave him, taking with
her all her cattle and their descendants, even to the slaughtered calf hanging against the wall. She did not
forget her three sons, however, for she visited them and taught them deep secrets of medicine so that they
became the famous physicians of Mydffai, and the skill descended in their family until it died out in the
19th century. This tale Rhys reproduced from THE PHYSICIANS OF MYDFFAI be Rees of Tonn, but he
also recorded variations of it from oral collections, adding fresh details in some versions, though some were
rudimentary.

Wirt Sikes in BRITISH GOBLINS tells the same story in considerable detail, but without giving his source,
as Rhys is careful to do. In all the stories the taboo is, in the end, violated and the fairy disappears, just as
the wedded Seal Maidens regain their skins and return to their element. # 100 - 554 - 596

GWREANG

(goo're-ang). Father of Gwion Bach. # 562

GWRFODDU HEN

A maternal uncle of Arthur in CULHWCH. # 156 - 346


GWRHYR

(GUR-heer) An interpreter at Arthur's court. When Culhwch and Arthur's men were searching for Mabon,
Gwrhyr, who was able to speak the animals' tongues, asked the Blackbird of Cilgwri for directions. He
referred them to the Stag of Rhedynfrc who passed them on to the Eagle of Gwernabwy who took them to
the Salmon of Llyn Llw. # 156 - 346

GWRI

See: BORS.

GWRNACH

(goor-nach). Giant; the sword of Gwrnach the Giant is one of the tasks which must be won in Culhwch and
Olwen. # 562

GWYAR

A parent of Gawain. In the original Welsh tradition Gwyar may have been the father of Gwalchmai, but,
when the Welsh came in contact with Continental tales that made Lot the father of Gawain, they may have
decided Gwyar must have been his mother. Certainly, Gwyar is latterly so presented in Welsh sources.
However, as 'Lot' is not really a personal name but a title or designation meaning 'Lothian-ruler', it is not
impossible that he was actually called Gwyar. See: DIONETA. # 156

GWYDDAWG

The killer of Kay who was, in turn, killed by Arthur in Welsh tradition. ># 156 - 346

GWYDDBWYLL

The board (gwyddbwyll), is one of the hallows, and appears in the list of the Thirteen Treasures of the
Island of Britain. - An early Celtic board game, which Arthur played against Owain. It is the same as the
Irish game FIDCHELL, meaning 'wood sense'. The board was seen as the world in miniature and the match
between Arthur and Owain may have been a ritual. # 438

GWYDDNO GARANHIR

Horses of Gwyddno Garanhir drink of a stream poisoned by the cauldron of Ceridwen after Gwion had
drained it of its goodness; hence the stream 'Poison of the Horses of Gwyddno Garanhir'. - The father of
Elphin, who finds Taliesin. He possessed a weir which yielded many salmon and a MWYS or basket which
could feed 100 persons at a time. In his recent book, TALIESIN (1991), J. Matthews suggests that
Gwyddno may have been, in origin, a Celtic god. Many legends surround the father of Elphin, possibly
stemming from a central lost tradition, since they seem to turn on one theme. He was the possessor of a
magical container which could feed as many as took food from it. (cf. THIRTEEN TREASURES OF
BRITAIN). His name is associated with a submerged kingdom in Cardigan Bay. # 104 - 272 - 439 - 454 -
562

GWYDION
(gwud-EEON) # 454: Son of Don the Enchanter. He was steward to Math, his uncle, but abused his trust by
causing war between Gwynedd and Dyfed on account of his brother, Gilfaethwy's lust for Goewin, the
virgin footholder in whose lap Math rested his feet when he was not at war.

The war was sparked off by Gwydion travelling in disguise to the court of Pryderi who had the only
domesticated pigs given to him by Arawn. Gwydion made Pryderi part with them for horses, greyhounds
and their trappings - all of which were made out of mushrooms and which returned to their own shapes the
next day. The pigs were driven home and Pryderi's men pursued. In the ensuing combat Gwydion killed
Pryderi while Gilfaethwy raped Goewin. The brothers were allowed no hospitality or shelter until they gave
themselves up to Math who then turned Gwydion into a stag, a sow, and a wolf, successively. Gwydion
fathered offspring while in animal guise. At the end of three years, both brothers were released from their
punishment. When Math required a new footholder, Gwydion suggested his sister, Arianrhod, who
submitting to a test of virginity bore two children - Dylan and Llew, the latter Gwydion raised and fostered.
He enabled his protégé to overcome his mother's gease: to be nameless, weaponless and wifeless by means
of his magic, and was helped by Math to make a wife out of flowers for Llew, Blodeuwedd. When the
Flower-Bride betrayed Llew to his death, Gwydion searched for Llew's fetch - an eagle - and coaxed Llew
back to life again. He cursed Blodeuwedd into owl-shape forever.

# 562: Place in Cymric mythology taken later by the god Artaius. Nephew of Math; The magical creation of
Taliesin was the work of Gwydion, according to one tradition. Gwydion appears as a shapeshifter in the
MABINOGION and may be, in origin, a Celtic deity.

# 100: The wizard and Bard of North Wales, who was the son of the Welsh goddess, Don, the equivalent of
the Irish Dana. Don had three children: Gwydion the Wizard, Gofannon the Smith, and a daughter
Arianhrod, the mother of Llew. In the MABINOGI OF MATH AB MATHONWY, Math and Gwydion
make a bride for Llew - Blodeuwedd, the flower-like -who fell in love with another man and betrayed Llew
to his death.

In the MABINOGION, Gwydion performed many works of magic against the men of southern Wales. #
100 - 240 - 272 - 439 - 454 - 562

GWYDRE

In CULHWCH, a son of Arthur killed by the boar Twrch Trwyth. ># 156 - 346

GWYGLET

A hero of the Celtic epic THE GODDODDIN. He joined the battle of Catreath (Catterick) and there fell to
the lamentation of all. # 454 - 610

GWYL

One of Arthur's three mistresses, according to TRIAD 57. She was the daughter of Gendawd. # 104 - 156

GWYN AP NUDD

# 562: (gwin ap neethe) A Cymric deity likened to Finn (Gaelic) and to Odin (Norse);

# 156: Originally a Celtic god, the son of Nodens; in later belief, a warrior. He and his followers fought the
followers of Gwythr, son of Greidawl, for the maiden Creiddyled. To stop the general bloodshed, Arthur
made an agreement for the pair of them to fight each other at May Kalends (or May Day) until Doomsday.
The winner then would obtain the hand of Creiddyled. Arthur made Gwyn ruler of the demons of Annwn to
stop them destroying humanity. Another story makes Gwyn suffer defeat by Saint Collen on Glastonbury
Tor. He seems originally to have been the ruler of an Otherworld realm, of which Glastonbury Tor may
have been a portal. # 454: He leads the Wild Hunt. In Welsh legend he is the Lord of the Dead. He abducted
Creiddylad, over whom he fought with Gwythyr ap Greidawl. According to the medieval legend of Saint
Collen, Gwynn inhabited an otherworld kingdom whose gateway was Glastonbury Tor.

# 100: The reputed king of the underworld since the earliest of the Arthurian Romances, KILHWCH AND
OLWEN, appeared in the MABINOGION. there he is listed in the Court of King Arthur, but was said also
to be confined to the underworld, where it was his duty to control the imprisoned devils and prevent them
from destroying mankind. He had clearly been a Celtic Pluto. As time went on he dwindled to a fairy and
became king of the Plant Annwn, the subterranean fairies. Evans Wentz, in his FAIRY-FAITH IN CELTIC
COUNTRIES, mentions him in his examination of King Arthur and his followers as early Celtic gods
dwindled into fairies, and a more sober assessment of him is given by John Rhys in CELTIC FOLKLORE.
# 24 - 100 - 156 - 272 - 346 - 439 - 454 - 562

GWYNEDD

(gwin-ETH) Math, lord of Gwynedd (Wales). A medieval kingdom in North Wales, called in Latin
Vendotia. The earlier kings are legendary, but about the Arthurian time are thought to have been Einion
(until AD 443), Cadwallon I (AD 443-517) and the famous Maelgwyn (AD 517-47). Cadwallon is
mentioned by Geoffrey as Arthur's contemporary. # 156 - 562

GWYNFYD

Purity. The second of three concentric circles representing the totality of being in the Cymric cosmogony, in
which life is manifested as a pure, rejoicing force triumphant over evil. See: GOD AND CYTHRAWL. #
562

GWYNHWYVAR

(GWIN-hwee-var) Arthur's wife.

GWYNNLYM King of Gwynllyg, he abducted Saint Gwladys whose father, Brychan, gave chase. Arthur,
however, helped Gwynnlym to escape. Gwynnlym was the father of Saint Cadoc in Welsh tradition. # 156

GWYTHUR AP GREIDAWL

(See also: Gwyn ap Nudd) Victor, Son of Scorcher. Combat every May-day between Gwyn ap Nudd and
Gwythur ap Greidawl. He was the intended husband of Creiddylad, but she was abducted by Gwynn ap
Nudd whom he fought in perpetuity. Both men aided Culhwch and

Arthur in achieving thirty-nine impossible tasks set by the giant in CULHWCH AND OLWEN. # 272 - 439
- 454 - 562

GYNETH

In a modern work, Sir Walter Scott's BRIDAL OF TRIERMAIN (1813), daughter of Arthur by the half-
fairy Gwendolen. Because of her cruelty, Merlin had her fall into an enchanted sleep from which she was
awakened by Sir Roland de Vaux. # 156
HADES

(or Annwn). # 562: In a strange and mystic poem by Taliesin the Magic Cauldron of Abundance is
described as part of the spoils of Hades, brought thence by Arthur, in a tragic adventure not otherwise
recorded. # 730: Hades is generally spoken of as a place, but for Homer Hades was the god of the
Underworld and the human subconscious, while he was also the god of the new life through cyclic rebirth.
Odysseus is extremely frightened by what awaits him, for he has to go through the harsh ceremony of
initiation. This is to occur on another island in the same region, the home of Hades, whose name means the
'Invisible One'. In his WHERE TROY ONCE STOOD, Iman Wilkens explain, step by step, why Hades (or
the home of Hades) is placed in the northern region of what is now the Netherlands and not somewhere in
Greece. During his stay on the island of Hades, Odysseus was obviously in some kind of second state of his
initiation, because his environment such as the poet describes it does not exist in reality. The eternal
darkness, 'never does the bright sun look down... but baneful night is spread over wretched mortals' (OD.
XI, 15) describes the world of the subconscious. The three rivers are also symbolic, as their names suggest:
the Periphlegethon (river of Flaming Fire), the Cocytus (river of Lamentation) and the Styx (the Terrifying
One, river of irrevocable oaths by which the gods swore). The rock at the meeting place of the rivers is also
imaginary for there are only dunes in the area, so that Odysseus is able to dig a big hole in the sand with his
sword. Hades, in the concrete sense, is thus nothing but a hole in the sand into which Odysseus pours the
blood of the sacrificial animals provided by Circe for this ritual. These animals are black, as Homer repeats,
because only black animals were offered to the gods and spirits of the Underworld. # 562 - 730

HADRIAN'S WALL

Hadrian's Wall is the concept of Hadrian much more than the Stanegate system is of Trajan; it is an accurate
reflection of the man and his politics. Hadrian had gone through the normal career of a Roman senator, as
Trajan had done. He had served with distinction as a legionary tribune, as a legionary commander, as a
provincial governor. He had served Trajan faithfully, and probably had always been intended to be his
successor (despite the doubts surrounding the adoption and the inevitable tensions between 'king' and 'heir-
presumptive'); yet Hadrian and Trajan were far apart in thought. Hadrian intended to give the Empire
permanent frontiers. His first act was to abandon the untenable conquests of Trajan in the East. Thereafter
in two great journeys he visited all the armies of the Empire, inspecting them rigorously to ensure that they
were kept in training and good dicipline while winning their favour by his interest in their welfare and
abolition of abuses. His policy was clear and decided: peace, stable, controlled frontiers, a well-trained and
diciplined army, all under the vigilant eye of an itinerant emperor. When Hadrian came to power in 117 he
found trouble in Britain, and it was presumably in response to the disorders at the beginning of his reign
that Hadrian decided to deal effectively with the northern frontier in Britain. His inclinations were to
conserve rather than to expand, and so he chose to improve the existing frontier on the TyneSolway line
rather than conquer the whole of the island of Britain or move forward to the much shorter Forth-Clyde
isthmus. Hadrian visited Britain himself in 122 and, among other matters, concerned himself with the
problem of the frontier. The other frontiers of the empire were usually formed by natural boundaries: a sea,
or a great river such as the Rhine or Danube, or a desert as in North Africa.

In North Britain there was no such clear demarcation line and therefore Hadrian decided to create an
effective frontier by the construction of a wall from sea to sea, a wall which would, as his biographer put it,
divide the Roman from the barbarians. The only really effective method of control was a running barrier, a
wall, which would allow the army to supervise small-scale movement of people, prevent petty raiding,
hinder large-scale attacks and so encourage the peaceful exploitation of the province right up to the frontier
line. The purpose of the barrier was to control movement, not to prevent it, as the liberal provision of
gateways demonstrates. Civilians, whether merchants, local farmers moving their cattle and sheep or
simply local people visiting relatives on the other side of the Wall, would be allowed through the gateways,
though only presumably when they had satisfied the guards of their peaceable intentions and on payment of
customs dues. The frontier could only be crossed, unarmed, under guard and after paying a fee. The Wall
was an artificial frontier, the finest Roman artificial frontier in its elaboration and in the impressiveness of
its remains. Its history and developement mirrored that of the Roman frontier system in general, and though
it shared the weaknesses of that system it had some success, for the barbarians from the north never made a
lasting settlement within its range. - Many books have been written about Hadrian's Wall, but there are still
much to know, and most pressing of all, perhaps, is the history of the people of the land, who lived with the
Wall in their midst, who seemed little-affected by Rome materially but nevertheless enjoyed or endured the
Pax Romana, with peace, communications, and markets as never before. # 94

HAFGAN

Rival of Arawn; mortally wounded by Pwyll. The otherworldly opponent of arawn whom he was destined
to fight every year. Arawn obligated Pwyll to fight his enemy for him, bidding him give but one blow since
the second would revive him. Hafgan resembles closely the Green Knight and Gromer Somer Joure, the
two opponents in Gawain's story. # 272-439-454-562-672

HAG

# 701: The Celtic chooser of kings was the Hag of Scone, whose spirit was embodied in the famous Stone
of Scone, which still rests under the coronation throne in Westminster Abbey. Christian tradition insists that
she was turned to stone by a missionary's curse. But there are still indications of their former spiritual
authorithy. In sixteenth-century English literature, 'hag' is a synonym for 'fairy.' The New Year festival used
to be a 'Hag's Moon' (Hagmena), although clergymen insisted that the ceremony meant the devil was in the
house. Like the word CRONE, hag once connoted an elder woman with the spirit of the Goddess within
her, just after menopause her 'wise blood' remained within her body and brought her great wisdom. # 100:
There were thought to be supernatural hags, such as those who haunted the Fen country in Mrs Balfour's
story of the DEAD MOON; and giant-like hags which seem to have been the last shadows of a primitive
nature goddess, the Cailleach Bheur, Black Annis or Gentle Annie. # 100 - 701 p 258

HAGS OF GLOUCESTER

Nine witches who lived with their mother and father. One of them trained Peredur (Perceval) in the use of
arms. They had slain Peredur's cousin whose head had been seen by Peredur on a platter. Peredur and
Arthur's men destroyed them. See also: GLOUCESTER. # 156 - 346

HALLOWEEN

The festival HALLOWEEN used to be the Feast of the Dead (Celtic Samhain). It was perhaps the most
important of the cross-quarter days, when the 'crack between the worlds' could open up and let the spirits
pass through. Therefore the ghosts of dead ancestors could revisit the earth, join their descendants at the
feast, and give necromantic interviews and omens. In Ireland, all the sidh or fairy hills (grave mounds)
were said to open up for the occasion. Folks insisted that it was impossible to keep the fairies underground
on Halloween. Since these 'fairies' were simply pagan spirits, the church naturally insisted that demons
were abroad on Halloween, summoned by witches, which was the usual term for the ancient pagan
priestesses whose business it was to communicate with the dead. # 701 p 180

HALLOWS

The kingly regalia or emblems of empowerment wielded by the king or hero, often the object of quest. The
Hallows of Ireland were the Stone of Fal on which kings were inaugurated; the spear of Lugh, which gave
victory in battle; the sword of Nuadu, which none could escape unwounded and the cauldron of Dagda
from which no one came unsatisfied. These were brought from the Otherworld by the Tuatha de Danaan.
The Thirteen Treasures of Britain represent a parallel tradition. The concept of the Hallows has been
inherited by later traditions. Within folklore they are the pole of combat, the sword of light, the cauldron of
cure and the stone of destiny. Magical tradition retains the four representative emblems of the elements:
sword, spear, cup and pentacle. These emblems appear on orthodox tarot packs as the four suits. In
Arthurian tradition they are: the Sword which is broken, the spear of the Dolorous Blow, the Dish on which
the head of the withdrawn Grail guardian is processed, and the Grail itself as a sacramental vessel or
cauldron of plenty. The modern hallows exist as the regalia of the British monarch - the Sceptre or Rod of
Equity and Mercy, the Swords of State, the Ampulla of Holy Oil and the Crown itself - replacing the
ancient crowning stone as the primal symbol of Sovereignty. These items were guarded inviolate in the
Tower of London, and have inherited an early sovereignty myth: that as long as the ravens never leave the
Tower, Britain shall never be invaded. The Tower was once called the White Mount and was the place
where Bran's head were buried, to be a similar protection against invasion. It is his ravens which remain. #
56 - 104 - 439 - 453 - 454 - 461

HAMILCAR

Defeat of Hamilcar at Himera, by Gelon. # 562

HAMITIC, THE

Preserved in syntax of Celtic languages. # 562

HANDFASTING

Handfasting was the old pagan ritual of marriage in the British Isles; it remained legal in Scotland all the
way up to 1939, commonlaw marriages were quite acceptably validated by the couple themselves simply
joining their hands in the presence of witnesses. After Lord Harwicke's Act for England from 1753
(marriage valid only when performed by a clergyman) the town, Gretna Green became a mecca for eloping
couples who fled to handfast themselves in legal wedlock. # 701 p 180

HARE

# 701: Eostre's hare was the shape that Celts imaged on the surface of the full moon, derived from old Indo-
European sources. Queen Boadicia's banners displayed the Moon-hare as a sacred sign. Both hares and cats
were designated the familiars of witches in Scotland, where the word Malkin or Mawkin was applied to
both. # 161: Caesar said that hares were important to the early Britons and as such were not eaten. Boadicia
released one at the start of each campaign; her prophetic hare was kept and fed. The lunar significance of
the animal is prominent in the mythology of northern Europe. For the Celts it was an attribute of all moon
deities and hunter gods, who were often depicted holding a hare. # 454: The hare has long been associated
with the power of transformation, and its strange movements were utilized in ancient modes of divination.
This is recorded by Tacitus in his reports about the Icenian revolt by Boudicca (Boadicia). # 161-454-701 p
377

HARLEQUIN

See: HELLEKIN.

HART FELL

A mountain in Scotland which N. Tolstoy argues was the dwelling place of Merlin. # 156 - 673

HAVELIN

See: HOEL.
HAVELOCK THE DANE

He was the true heir to the Danish throne but was ordered to be killed by Godard, the Usurper. He was
taken by a fisherman, Grim, to England where Havelock became a byword and he was forcibly married to
Princess Goldborough, the heir of King Athelstan, whose regent wished to humiliate her. Havelock came to
Grimsby with his wife and she discerned the light shining from his mouth and the cross on his shoulder,
and knew him to be of royal blood. He was eventually recognized and made king of England and Denmark.
# 454 - 525

HAWK

In medieval times, the hawk, from kestral to eagle, was flown for sport. Celtic tradition records that the
oldest animal was the Hawk of Achill, who tricked the eagle into giving up her warm nest in search of the
answer to the question 'who can remember the coldest winter night?'. Although the salmon is normally
considered to be the oldest and wisest of beasts, the hawk was the oldest animal in this ancient oral
tradition. Gawain's ancient British name was Gwalchmai or Hawk of May. # 439 - 454

HAWTHORN

In Celtic tradition the tree was sacred to Olwen. It also represented fertility in the druidic alphabet, where it
formed the letter H, Uath. - The Goddess as death-bringing Crone was connected with the hawthorn in the
legend of CuChulain. After pronouncing her death curse on the hero, in her carrion crow shape, she settled
in a hawthorn thicket on the plain of Muirthemne. Therefore, the place is known as 'the hawthorn of the
Crow.' # 701

HAZEL

An important food tree, producing the once-prized hazelnuts (filberts), the hazel was sacred to witches and
to the Celtic sea god, Manannan. It was considered symbolic of female wisdom. Bards used to claim that
their knowledge of rhymes, epic tales, secrets of magic, and poetic inspiration came from eating 'sacred
hazelnuts' that dropped from the tree of wisdom - symbolically, the Goddess as instructress. The tree's
alphabetical letter was C (coll). Its wood came to be known as 'witch hazel' because it was the wood of
choice for witches' divining rods. # 701 p 465

HEAD

Mummified heads were speaking oracles in numerous Celtic tales. Bran, Lomna, Finn Mac Cumhal, Sir
Gawain and the Green Knight were all heroes of the oracular head cult. Celts often made fetishes not only
of real heads, but also of heads carved from stone or wood for the same purposes. The ceremoni of
knighthood - touching with a sword first one shoulder, then the other - was another remnant of earlier
beheadings that made heroes or gods out of ordinary men. One of the old Celtic gods of the oracular head
metamorphosed into a Christian saint named Alban, originally Albion, 'White Moon,' an archaic name for
Britain. The Christianized story said that Saint Alban was beheaded in the third century AD, but this story
was written three hundred years later by the monk Gildas, a great inventor of mythical sainthoods, all of
them replete with marvels and miracles. Saint Alban was depicted with a fountain springing from between
his feet, a common pagan symbol of esoteric knowledge. In Irish folklore the oracular spirit took the form
of the Dulachan, a ghost carrying its own head, riding horseback (a Celtic symbol of apotheosis). This Irish
spirit was the probable origin of Sleepy Hollow's famous headless horseman. - As among the ancient
Hebrews and Celts, the mummified head was respectfully treated as a magical oracular object. The general
idea was still extant in England during the fourteenth century AD, when a Southwark sorcerer was found in
possession of a corpse's head, which he used for divination. # 701 p 315 ff
HEATHER ALE

Heather ale. Folklore had it that the recipe for this ancient drink disappeared in 1411 when the English
killed the last Celtic chieftain for refusing to divulge the secret of this legendary elixir. The beleaguered
Celt leaped off a sea cliff rather than allow the hated foreigners to taste the Brew of Kings. # 383

HEBRON

An alternative name for Bron. It may have been invented by Robert de Boron, to make Bron sound more
Hebrew, as Hebron was a place name in Palestine. # 156

HECATAEUS OF ABDERA

Musical services of Celts (probably of Great Britain) described by Hecataeus of Abdera. # 562

HECATAEUS OF MILETUS

First extant mention of 'Celts' by Hecataeus of Miletus. # 562

HECTOR

In Greek legend, a Trojan hero, son of Priam, defender of his city against the besieging Greeks in the
Trojan War. According to the text of the ROMAN DE TROIE (an Old French romance), Morgan Le Fay
loved him but, spurned by him, turned against him. See also: TROY. # 156

HEDGEHOG

Irish lore associated the hedgehog with witches who could take its form to suck cows dry. - The hedgehog
is called the Urcheon in Heraldry, and occurs in a number of coats of arms. # 161

HEFAIDD HEN

Father of Rhiannon. An underworld king who sponsored his daughter's betrothal to Gwawl. # 272 - 439 -
454

HEILYN

Son of Gwyn. # 562

HEININ

Bard at Arthur's court. # 562

HELAIN THE WHITE

Son of Bors and the daughter of King Brandegoris. He eventually became Emperor of Constantinople. #
156

HELAIUS
Nephew of Joseph of Arimathea and ancestor of Arthur on the maternal side, according to the pedigree of
John of Glastonbury. # 156 - 344

HELIADES

One of the allies of Mordred to whom Mordred awarded the realm of Scotland. # 156

HELIE

A damsel in service to Blonde Esmerée, she brought Guinglain to rescue her mistress. At first she despised
Guinglain but, as time went on, her contempt turned to respect for his prowess. # 156

HELLANICUS OF LESBOS

Hellanicus of Lesbos, an historian of the fifth century BC, describes the Celts as practising justice and
righteousness. # 562

HELLAWES

Enchantress. Lady of the Castle Nigramours (Necromancy) who attempted to win the love of Lancelot, and
failing to do so, died. # 454

HELLEKIN In LI JUS ADAN

(thirteenth century) a fairy king who became Morgan Le Fay's lover. He was an established figure in
Germanic lore, first mentioned by Ordericus Vitalis in his ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY (eleventh-twelfth
century) in which he is described as a giant with a club leading the Wild Hunt. In later times in Italy,
Hellekin became the Harlequin (Arlecchino) of the Commedia dell'Arte. Harlequin actually appears in the
Arthurian pantomime MERLIN (1734) by Lewis Theobald. # 156

HELMWIND

A sort of cyclone which occurs in the Lake District. In Cumbrian tradition it is associated with Arthur. #
156 - 315

HELYAS

In the line of the Grail Kings he was fourth in line from Celidoine, King of Scotland, from whose line in
turn came both Lancelot and Galahad. # 454

HENGIST

Traditionally, the leader of the Saxon invaders of Britain who took service as a mercenary with Vortigern.
He brought with him his brother, Horsa. Vortigern married Ronwen, Hengist's daughter and Hengist
became King of Kent. Driven out of Britain by Vortimer. When the latter died he returned and again took
service under his son-inlaw. After Vortigern's death he was defeated by Ambrosius's ally, Count Eldol. This
much is Geoffrey's account. The ANGLO-SAXON CRONICLE, (a medieval list of Saxons in Britain),
places his death in AD 488, but does not say how he died. Some of the earlier history may be gleaned from
the Anglo-Saxon poems BEOWULF and THE FIGHT AT FINN'S BURG. These mention a Hengist who
may be identical with the invader. He was a follower of Hnaef, King of the Danes. When they were visiting
Hnaef's brother-in-law, Finn Focwalding, King of the Frisians, a fight occured and Hnaef was killed.
Hengist became the leader of Hnaef's followers and entered the service of Finn, but later killed him.
Hengist is credited with sons named Hartwaker (who was thought to have succeeded him as ruler of
German Saxony and to have reigned from AD 448-80)(# 17), Octa, Aesc and Ebissa, and daughters called
Ronwen and Sardoine. He has generally, if not universally, been regarded as a historical character. # 17 -
156 - 484

HENRY THE COURTLY

This character was the leader of the force sent to succour Jerusalem in the PROPHÉCIES DE MERLIN. #
156

HENWEN

In Welsh tradition, a pig whose offspring were going to cause trouble for Britain. When gravid, she was
pursued by Arthur and she gave birth to various progeny. She eventually dived into the sea at Penryn
Awstin. See: CATH PALUG. # 104 - 156

HEREWARD THE WAKE

He was said to have fought a bear and a Cornish giant and to have won a magical suit of armour. His
resistance against William the Conquerer was mainly carried out in the Fenlands, where Hereward holed up
with other disaffected men. His daring raids on Norman property and prowess in ambush warfare won him
renown. His death was unconfirmed and it is possible that raids on the Normans persisted in his name long
after his death. In the annals of British mythology, Ely is remembered as the centre of the rebellion of
'Hereward the Wake', in whose day Ely was an island set in the midst of boggy and dangerous fenland
marches. Hereward is mentioned in the Doomesday book as a Lincolnshire landholder, but in fact little is
known about him. What history lacks, mythology has supplied and embellished into a vast saga of derring-
do. It seems that Hereward did in fact take part in a Danish raid upon Peterborough in 1070, resulting in the
destruction of what had been the most wealthy of all British abbeys. Shortly afterwards he appears to have
formed the centre of a rebellion against the Norman overlords by taking refuge in the swamp-surrounded
Ely. So redoubtable was the courage of Hereward and his supporters, and so well-protected were they by
marches and fenlands, that the Normans were unable to dislodge them, even when the wicked Ivo
Taillebois called into their service the powers of an old witch (later called 'Pythonissa') who was hired to
cast spells on the island defenders even as the Normans attacked. Hereward and his followers were
eventually driven from Ely as a result of treason, and nothing more is heard of him from a historical
standpoint. However, legend tells of his later exploits in which the supernatural plays an important part. On
one occasion, while hiding in the vast forests which then stretched through Lincolnshire, he and his party
found themselves completely lost. However, a huge white wolf appeared, and ran ahead of them to lead
them through the labyrinth of dark trees; even as they followed, their lances began to glow like candles to
light their way. The story is in some ways symbolic, for in his day the white wolf was the symbol of St
Edmund, who was then the patron saint of the English and sought to guide those who fought on his behalf.
Hereward is often credited as being owner of the Manor of Bourne, but this is not recorded to his name,
while other manors (such as Witham-on-the-Hill) are.

The mystery of the title 'the Wake' seems to be derived from an attempt, made centuries after his death, to
link Hereward with a Norman family (tradition insists that he was finally reconciled to William the
Conquerer), for the Norman family of Wake was established in England immediately after the Conquest.
We see, then, that the title has nothing to do with the idea of Hereward being 'especially watchful or awake';
indeed, he was not called Hereward the Wake until about three hundred years after his death. As the
historian Charles Kightly records, the AngloSaxon word 'wak' means 'timid', and this is almost certainly the
origin of the modern 'weak' - a quite inappropriate title for such a hero as Hereward. In the legendary
account of his life, Hereward died fighting manfully against impossible odds, the last Englishman to
continue organized rebellion against the Norman invaders. He was reputed to have been buried in Crowland
Abbey church. See also: ELY. # 454 - 525 - 702
HERLA, KING

A legendary British king who, according to Walter Map, the twelfthcentury author of DE NUGIS
CURIALIUM, entered the Underworld kingdom of a dwarfish king. It was placed locally on the Welsh
Border, but Map's pleasing but rather diffuse account was slightly shortened by E. M. Leather in THE
FOLK LORE OF HEREFORDSHIRE: Herla was the king of the Ancient Britons, and was challenged by
another king, a pigmy no bigger than an ape, and of less than half human stature. He rode on a large goat;
indeed, he himself might have been compared to Pan. He had a large head, glowing face, and a long red
beard, while his breast was conspicuous for a spotted fawnskin which he wore on it. The lower part of his
body was rough and hairy, and his legs ended in goats' hooves. He had a private interview with Herla, in
which he spoke as follows: 'I am lord over many kings and princes, over a vast and innumerable people. I
am their willing messenger to you, although to you I am unknown. Yet I rejoice in the fame which has
raised you above other kings, for you are of all men the best, and also closely connected with me both by
position and blood. You are worthy of the honour of adorning your marriage with my presence as guest, for
the King of France has given you his daughter, and indeed the embassy is arriving here to-day, although all
the arrangements have been made without your knowledge. Let there be an everlasting treaty between us,
because, first of all, I was present at your marriage, and because you will be at mine on the same day a year
hence.' After this speech he turned away, and moving faster even than a tiger, disappeared from his sight.
The king, therefore, returned from that spot full of surprise, received the embassy, and assented to their
proposals. When the marriage was celebrated, and the king was seated at the customary feast, suddenly,
before the first course was served, the pigmy arrived, accompanied by so large a company of dwarfs like
himself, that after they had filled all the seats at table, there were more dwarfs outside in tents which they
had in a moment put up, than at the feast inside. Instantly there darted out from these tents servants with
vessels made out of precious stones, all new and wondrously wrought. They filled the palace and the tents
with furniture either made of gold or precious stones. Neither wine nor meat was served in any wooden or
silver vessel. The servants were found wherever they were wanted, and served nothing out of the king's or
anyone else's stores, but only from their own, which were of quality beyond anyone's thoughts. None of
Herla's provisions were used, and his servants sat idle. The pigmies won universal praise. Their raiment
was gorgeous; for lamps they provided blazing gems; they were never far off when they were wanted, and
never too close when not desired. Their king then thus adressed Herla: 'Most excellent King, God be my
witness that I am here in accordance with our agreement, at your marriage. If there is anything more that
you desire, I will supply it gladly, on the condition that when I demand a return, you will not deny it.'
Hereupon, without waiting for an answer he returned to his tent and departed at about cockcrow with his
attendants.

After a year he suddenly came to Herla and demanded the observance of the treaty. Herla consented, and
followed at the dwarf's bidding. They entered a cave in a very high cliff, and after some journeying throgh
the dark, which appeared to be lighted, not by the sun or moon, but by numerous torches, they arrived at the
dwarf's palace, a splendid mansion. There the marriage was celebrated, and the obligations to the dwarf
fittingly paid, after which Herla returned home loaded with gifts and offerings, horses, dogs, hawks, and all
things pertaining to hunting and falconry. The pigmy guided them down the dark passage, and there gave
them a (small) bloodhound (canem sanguinarium) small enough to be carried (portabilem), then, strictly
forbidding any of the king's retinue to dismount until the dog leapt from his carrier, he bade them farewell
and returned home.

Soon after, Herla reached the light of day, and having got back to his kingdom again, called an old shepherd
and asked news of his queen, using her name. The shepherd looked at him astonished, and said, 'Lord, I
scarcely understand your language, for I am a Saxon, and you a Briton. I have never heard the name of that
queen, except in the case of one who they say was Herla's wife, queen of the earliest Britons. He is fabled
to have disappeared with a dwarf at this cliff, and never to have been seen on earth again. The Saxons have
now held this realm for two hundred years, having driven out the original inhabitants.' The king was
astonished, for he imagined that he had been away for three days only. Some of his companions descended
from horseback before the dog was released, forgetful of the dwarf's commands, and instantly crumbled to
dust. The king then, forbade any more of his companions to descend until the dog leapt down. The dog has
not leapt down yet. One legend states that Herla for ever wanders on mad journeys with his train, without
home or rest. Many people, as they tell us, often see his company.

However, they say that at last, in the first year of our (present) King Henry (the second) it ceased to visit
our country in pomp as before. On that occasion, many of the Welsh (Wallenses) saw it whelmed in the
Wye, the Herefordshire river (Waiam Herefordiae flumen). From that hour, that weird roaming ceased, as
though Herla had transferred his wandering (Errores, a pun containing the idea of error) to us, and had
gained rest for himself. (A hit at contemporary politics). # 100 - 390 - 424

HERMONDINE

A daughter of the King of Scotland, she married Meliador, one of Arthur's followers, after he had slayed
another suitor called Camal. # 156

HERNE

The antler-horned spirit who haunts Windsor Great Park. Like Gwynn ap Nudd and Arawn, he is said to
lead the Wild Hunt and be a conductor of the dead to the otherworldly regions. # 454 - 486

HERODOTUS

Herodotus, an historian from about the beginning of the first century AD, speaks of the Celts as dwelling
'beyond the pillars of Hercules' - and also of the Danube as rising in their country. # 562

HEROES, THE BIRTH OF

Features of the birth of the heroes are specified for some of them. You will find them throughout this
encyclopaedia under the name of the hero concerned. Some of the most striking features in these tales may
be tabulated as follows:

1. The advent and future greatness of the hero have been foretold.
2. His advent is destined to bring death or misfortune to a presiding power, his grandfather, his uncle,
or his mother.
3. Certain difficulties have to be overcome before his future mother can fulfil her destiny:
a. She is closely guarded or confined in a fortress. Or
b. She has to be induced to leave home. Or
c. Her own resistance has to be overcome by force or by cunning. Or
d. She is married, but barren.
4. There is a mystery about the hero's begetting:
a. Whether he has an earthly father or not, he is usually begotten by another - a king, a man
from another race, or a supernatural being.
b. Others say he is born of incest.
c. Others again attribute his conception to a creature swallowed by his mother in water.
5. There is an auspicious time for his birth, which is heralded by signs in the natural world; his birth
is delayed until the appropriate time.
6. Certain animals are associated with his birth and upbringing.
7. He is lost at birth, or an attempt is made to kill him; he is thrown into the sea or borne away in a
boat.
8. At birth and in his youth he displays qualities that reveal his extraordinary nature.
9. Difficulty is sometimes experienced in securing a name for him, or he is given a name in peculiar
circumstances.
# 548

HEROIC FAIRIES

The fairy knights and ladies that occur in the Celtic legends, are of human or more than human size and of
shining beauty. The Lady Tryamour who bestowed her favours in Sir Launfal and the elfin woman who was
captured by Wild Edric from her band of dancing sisters are examples of the fairy damsels; Young Tamlane,
though a transformed human, is to all appearance a typical fairy knight, though he had an ulterior motive
for his courtship. The truest type of all are the Daoine Sidhe of Ireland, dwindled gods, and the Fingalian
knights, who spend their time in the aristocratic pursuits of hunting, fighting, riding in procession, as well
as the dancing and music that are belowed by all fairies. The size of the fairies is variable, and even in the
medieval times there are both tiny and rustic fairies as well as hideous and monstrous ones, just as in
modern times some are still stately, but in terms of fashions in fairy-lore one tends to think of the heroic
fairies as characteristic of medieval times. # 100

HERON

The Heron shares the attributes and mythos of the crane in many respects. # 454 - 563

HEROWDES

An emperor of Rome who went blind and consulted Merlin who told him to slay the Seven Sages who were
the imperial counsellors. When he did so, he was cured. # 156 - 238

HERZELOYDE

In Wolfram, the mother of Perceval. She first married Castris from whom she inherited Wales and
Northgalis. She subsequently married Gahmuret, Perceval's father. # 156 - 748

HESPERIDES

The paradisiac place of the gods from the classical western world, equivalent of Blessed Islands and
Avalon, the apple-gardens of growth and fertility. In Irish romance Mador's father is the king of the
Hesperides. In Greek mythology the Hesperides were the daughters of Atlas and their gardens were situated
on Mount Atlas or on islands. # 156 - 406

HEVYDD HEN

Father of Rhiannon. # 562

HIGH KINGS OF IRELAND

Stone of Destiny used for crowning of High Kings of Ireland. See: STONE OF DESTINY. # 562

HILDA, SAINT

(614-80) Queen of Mercia, which later founded a double monastery and hosted the Synod of Whitby, at
which Celtic and Roman Christians met to decide on liturgical matters. Her lover was pagan and she herself
was Christian although she favoured the Celtic faction. She had organized her monastery after the Rule of
Columbanus, but accepted the decision to universalize British practices and align them with Rome. She
lived all her life with her faith, at the same time strong but also constantly doubting on what to believe
about herself and the outer world she was living in. Caedmon became a monk under her influence, and he
acclaimed her the mother of the poor through her wisdom and generosity. She is said to have rid Eskdale of
serpents by driving them off the edge of a cliff and cutting their heads off with a whip. The ammonites
whose fossilized remains are to found at Whitby, are said to be the same serpents. Her feast-day is 17
November. # 454 - 692

HILL OF AINÉ

Name of goddess Ainé clings to Hill of Ainé. Ainé appears on a St. John's Night, among girls on Hill of
Ainé. # 562

HILL OF ALLEN

Finn's hounds, while returning to Hill of Allen, recognise Sadbh; On his return from the Land of Youth,
Oisin made at once for the Hill of Allen, where the dun of Finn was wont to be, but marvelled, as he
traversed the woods, that he met no sign of The Fian hunters and at the small size of the folk whom he saw
tilling the ground. (See: OISIN). Return of the Fianna to Hill of Allen, to celebrate the wedding feast of
Finn and Tasha; Finn bears Grania as his bride to Hill of Allen. # 562

HILL OF KESHCORRAN

Finn bewitched by hags on Hill of Keshcorran. # 562

HILL OF MACHA

The name of Armagh, or Ard Macha, the Hill of Macha, enshrines the memory of the Fairy Bride and her
heroic sacrifice, while the grassy rampart can still be traced where the war-goddess in the earlier legend
drew its outline with the pin of her brooch when she founded the royal fortress of Ulster. # 562

HIMILCO

A Carthaginian explorer, made a voyage round the west coast of Europe and explored as far as Britain and
Ireland about 500 BC. An account of his expedition, giving details of the coast and the tribes who dwelt on
it, written probably by himself, was known to the ancients but is now lost. Eratosthenes (c.275-195 BC),
librarian to Ptolemy III, king of Egypt, translated this account into Greek, but this work too is lost. Rufus
Festus Avienus, who was proconsul for Africa AD 366, and an elegant writer of Latin, had a copy of the
Greek version of Himilco's work and amused himself by rendering it into Latin verse. Of this Latin
translation, written 850 years after the events it narrates, we have a fragment of some 4015 lines. These
have been carefully published by Alfred Holder, under the title of RUFL FESTI ARIENI CARMINA. It
should be noted that at the time of Himilco's expedition the Celts had not conquered Spain. Polybius and,
following him, Strabo blame Eratosthenes for stating that the Celts held all Spain except Cadiz, which
belonged to the Carthaginians, and then omitting the Celts from his list of peoples occupying the west coast
of Spain. There is, however, no contradiction here. Eratosthenes, writing c.240 BC, correctly states that the
Celts held dominion over the greater portion of the Iberian peninsula, but when copying the account of the
voyage of Himilco, which relates to 500 BC, he does not find the Celts among the tribes occupying Iberia.
We must conclude they had not yet conquered the peninsula. We know, however, from Herodotus that about
fifty years after the expedition of Himilco the Celts had conquered the Iberian peninsula. The conquest
therefore took place in the fifth century BC. We shall see they were subsequently conquered by the
Carthaginians.

# 455 p 121 ff: W. Dinan: Monumenta Historica Celtica


HIND

Hind is another word for a doe, specifically a doe of the red deer family, which also provided images of the
stag horns worn by the Horned Gods of northern Europe. As the divine consort of such a god, the Goddess
naturally appeared in the form of a hind. The Celtic woodland Goddess Flidhais habitually took this form. #
701 p 377

HIND OF THE FAIRIES

In Erasmo de Valvasone's LA CACCIA, an animal which led Arthur into a cave, then out on the far side of
the mountain, to Morgan's palace. He was shown the heavens and the earth to give him guidance for the
future. # 156 - 238

HISTORIA REGUM BRITANIAE

See: GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH. In Geoffrey's narrative there is nothing about the Holy Grail, or
Lancelot, or the Round Table, and except for the allusion to Avalon the mystical element of the Arthurian
saga is absent. Like Nennius, Geoffrey finds a fantastic classical origin for the Britons. His socalled history
is perfectly worthless as a record of fact, but it has proved a veritable mine for poets and chroniclers, and
has the distinction of having furnished the subject for the earliest English tragic drama, 'Gorborduc', as well
as for Shakespeare's 'King Lear'; and its author may be described as the father - at least on its
quasihistorical side - of the Arthurian saga, which he made up partly out of records of the historical DUX
BELLORUM of Nennius and partly out of poetical amplifications of these records made in Brittany by the
descendants of exiles from Wales, many of whom fled there at the very time when Arthur was waging his
wars against the Saxons. Geoffrey's book had a wonderful succes. It was speedily translated into French by
Wace, who wrote 'Li Romans de Brut' about 1155, with added details from Breton sources, and translated
from Wace's French into AngloSaxon by Layamon, who thusanticipated Malory's adaptations of late French
prose romances. Except a few scholars who protested unavailingly, no one doubted its strict historical truth,
and it had the important effect of giving to early British history a new dignity in the estimation of
Continental and of English princes. To sit upon the throne of Arthur was regarded as in itself a glory by
Plantagenet monarchs who had not a trace of Arthur's or of any British blood. # 562

HJORTSPRING FIND, THE

In an English Summary (#357), the Danish scholar Flemming Kaul suggest that during the fourth century
BC, a great sacrifice was made to the gods in a little bog at Hjortspring on the small island of Als in south
Jutland. A foreign army had tried to force its way into the island, but had been repulsed by the local
inhabitants. As thanks for the victory, the weapons of the conquered army were sacrificed - more than 50
shields, 169 spears, 11 swords and several coats of chainmail. Also one of the boats which had brought the
army to the island was sacrificed. This boat, a swift, 19 metre long war-canoe is the North's oldest plank-
built vessel and bears witness to a shipbuilding skill of remarkably high standard in our early Iron Age. It is
quite the largest single such find, but, even though it is the oldest, one must nevertheless see it as probable
that it was imported from the Celts - who lived in Central Europe at that time. # 357 p 89 ff

HOBGOBLIN

# 701: The word Goblin means a spirit, probably derived from the same root as Kobold, a spirit of caves
and mountains. A hobgoblin, however, was a spirit of the hearth (hob), a domestic ghost or ancestral
guardian of the family fireside. Because of the primitive practice of burying family dead under the treshold
or under the central firepit, their ghosts were long supposed to inhabit and protect the house - even when
later customs made burial places elsewhere. # 100: Used by the Puritans and in later times for wicked
goblin spirits, as in Bunyan's 'Hobgoblin nor foul fiend', but its more correct use is for the friendly spirits of
the Brownie type. In a MIDSUMMER NIGHT'S DREAM a fairy says to Shakespeare's Puck:
'Those that Hobgoblin call you, and sweet Puck,
You do their work, and they shall have good luck:
Are you not he?'

and obviously Puck would not wish to be called a hobgoblin if that was an ill-omened word. 'Hob' and 'Lob'
are words meaning tha same kind of creature as the Hobgoblin. They are, on the hole, goodhumoured and
ready to be helpful, but fond of practical joking, and like most of the fairies rather nasty people to annoy. #
100 - 593 - 701 p 259

HOEL

1. King of Brittany who was brought to Britain by Arthur to help him against the Saxons. He became ill
during the campaign and was left at Alclud (Dumbarton) where he was besieged by the Scots and Picts.
Arthur came to relieve him. He is presumably identical with the King Hoel of Brittany who was Tristan's
father-in-law. Geoffrey calls him Arthur's nephew but L. Thorpe (Arthurian scolar) argues that this is a
mistake and we must read 'cousin' for 'nephew', his mother really being the sister of Ambrosius rather than
Arthur. Geoffrey does not name his mother but calls his father Boudicius. The traditional dates of the
Breton kings say Hoel reigned from c. AD 510-45. The BIRTH OF ARTHUR, a Welsh work of the
fourteenth century, makes him a son of Arthur's sister Gwyar by Ymer Llydaw. The PROSE TRISTAN
gives him a son named Runalen. He is more well known as the father of Iseult of the White Hands and her
brother Kahedrin. See: GIANT OF ST MICHAEL'S MOUNT. - 2. In ARTHOUR AND MERLIN, Igraine's
first husband is called Hoel rather than Gorlois and their daughters are named as Blasine, Belisent and
Hermisent. The VULGATE MERLIN Continuation also mentions this Hoel, giving him the title Duke of
Tintagel. See: TWENTY-FOUR KNIGHTS. # 156 - 243 - 256 - 418 - 481

HOGG, JAMES

(1770-1835), called 'the Ettrick Shepherd'. A selftaught man who had less than a year's schooling in his life
and had been set to work at the age of seven. He began to make verses and trained himself to write them.
He submitted some poems to Sir Walter Scott, who became his steady friend and employed him to collect
oral material. His mother contributed many ballads to Scott's collection, but Hogg preferred to invent his
own. He wrote several prose collections of stories. He knew his background extremely well, but
unfortunately preferred to decorate his narrative, not believing that a simple, stragthforward style could be
acceptable to an educated audience. Among his best-known prose works is THE BROWNIE OF
BODSBECK; his greatest poem, 'Kilmeny', is on the well-known theme of a visit to fairyland, or the
Otherworld, and the return after a supernatural passage of time, seven years in this tale. Fairyland in this
poem is the land of the dead, and - unusually - of the blessed dead. Kilmeny returns with a supernatural
message to deliver, and dies when she has delivered it. The poem has the rhythm and flow of a ballad, and
one verse is reminiscent of an early religious poem, 'The Faucon Hath Borne My Make Away':

In yon green-wood there is a waik,


And in that waik there is a wene,
And in that wene there is a maike,
That neither has flesh, blood, nor bane,
And down in yon green-wood he walks his lane.

The poem is full of overtones and undertones, and so is the curiously touching poem, 'The Mermaid', which
turns on the difference between human time and fairy time, the long-lived, soulless mermaid and the short-
lived mortal with an immortal soul. The mermaid mourns her human lover whose grave has been green a
hundred years, and feels the Judgement Day drawing slowly nearer, when she will perish with the earth and
never know a union with her resurrected true love. It is a subtle conception, simply and movingly
expressed. # 100 - 314
HOLGER

See: OGIER.

HOLY WATER

One of the chief protections against fairy thefts, spells or illwishing. See also: PROTECTION AGAINST
FAIRIES. # 100

HOMER, PROPER NAMES IN

Referring to his book 'Where Troy Once Stood', the author Iman Wilkens' says: On rereading the ILIAD
and ODYSSEY and situating the action in western Europe, one may still have difficulty in believing that
the proper names are of western European origin because 'they look so Greek' and because they are no
longer given to people in this part of the world. The first problem is in many cases simply a question of
spelling, while the latter is due to the fact that names generally do not remain popular for ever. Few people
these days have medieval first names, although the Middle Ages are as yesterday compared to the Bronze
Age. However, on closer scrutiny, it appears that many Homeric first names (surnames were not yet in use)
have survived, with relatively little sound change, though the spelling looks quite different. I can mention
the example of Phorcys, chief of Regiment N from Phrygia (Scotland), whose name is perpetuated in the
Scottish family name Forsyth(e). In England, the Trojan name Phorbas became the surname Forbes, while
in the Netherlands Altes survived unchanged to become a surname. In the United Kingdom, Marpessa is
still occasionally given as first name; Peleus became Pélé in Iberia and Pelle in Scandinavia; Neleus and
Cloris became Nelis and Kloris in the Netherlands, surviving as somewhat old-fashioned first names in the
countryside; Alastor is now Alistair in England; Rhene is now Renée in France and many other countries,
while Theseus and Calais became place-names in France: Thésée and Calais. The reader will discover still
other examples for himself on rereading Homer. It is curious that Homer calls the girls Briseis and Chryseis
after their fathers, Brises and Chryses. According to other ancient sources, their real names were
Hippodamia and Astynome respectively. The former was said to be tall and dark, and the latter small and
fair. # 730

HONOREE

A sword unsheathed by Biausdous, the son of Gawain. This act is enabled him to wed Biautei. # 156

HONORIUS

Roman Emperor of the West in the fifth century. See: CONSTANTINE. # 156

HOOPER OF SENNEN COVE, THE

Bottrell, in the TRADITIONS AND HEARTHSIDE STORIES OF WEST CORNWALL, VOL. II, tells of a
beneficent spirit in Sennen Cove called the Hooper who gave warning of coming storms, rather like the
Manx Dooinney-Oie. It appeared like a curtain of cloud across the bay, with a dull light in the middle of it.
Strange hooting sounds came from it. It always appeared before serious storms, and people who attempted
to set out to sea felt an unaccountable resistance. Once a fisherman and his sons defied the warning and
sailed out. The threatened storm arose, their boat was lost, and the Hooper never returned to warn the
fishermen. # 84 - 100

HORN OF BRAN GALED


One of the Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain, Merlin had to acquire this one if he were to be given
the others. It had originally belonged to a centaur slain by Hercules and its particular property was that it
could contain any drink one wished. # 104 - 156

HORNS

Sometimes animals are represented with three horns or with horns ending in knobs (this has never been
satisfactorily explained). This occurs in Celtic and pre-Celtic times, as does the horned Serpent which
appears frequently with the Celtic Horned God. At La Tène (one of the most important archaeological sites
from Iron Age, situated on what is now Lake Neuchâtel) birds, swans and cormorants have horns, and there
was even a bird-stag. # 161

HORSA

Brother of Hengist who accompanied him to Britain. He was slain by a cousin of Vortigern. His memorial
was thought to have been a flint heap near Horsted (Kent). # 156 - 243 - 717

HORSE

The horse was highly important in the Celtic world and was frequently an attribute of deities such as the
Celtic, Welsh and Irish war gods, and especially of the Gaulish Epona, the Divine Horse, introduced into
Britain and later adopted by the Romans. She is depicted as riding a horse or accompanied by horses and
foals and sometimes is horse-headed. In Celtic lore horses appear in different colours and are magical
animals of the otherworld, carrying people there. Sometimes there are monster horses, capable of carrying
fifteen people at a time. There are also magical water-horses which, if mounted, plunge the rider beneath
the waters. Magical horses belonging to heroes can fly, cross seas, and become invisible. Many Celtic solar
deities could manifest as horses. The White Horse at Uffington, in England, is associated with Celtic horse
gods. There are innumerable horse-ghosts, particularly those of headless horses, and witches can adopt the
horse as a disguise. There were Celtic horse-headed goblins, called Krops or Cops, who were of a savage
and uncertain temper.

The horse is one of the primary totem beasts of the British Isles: a fact attested to by the taboo on eating
horse-meat. The reverence in which the horse was held has not lessened over the centuries as a trip to any
race-course will show. Horse-breeding and discussing the points of good racers or jumpers is still the
common talk in any small Irish village. The White Mare was the mount of Epona or Rhiannon, goddesses
associated powerfully with the horse, whose shape she often took. The most ancient horse chalk figure,
White Horse Hill in Berkshire, still testifies to the joint Celtic and Saxon reverence for this animal. The
horse with its magical bridle appears throughout folklore and Arthurian legend, where many knights go in
quest for it, including Gawain. When found, the beast is usually a mare who turns back into a woman. #
161 - 439 - 454

HORSES OF MANANAN

White-crested waves called Horses of Mananan. # 562

HORSESHOES

A horseshoe hung up above a stable or a house prevented the entrance of fairies and witches, and hence
constituted a protection against fairies. # 100

HOST, THE
See: SLUAGH, THE.

HOSTING

Bands of warriors 'went hosting', gathering together to go on warlike forays or cattle-reeving expeditions.
Hosting was usually a seasonal activity. # 437 p 20

HOUND OF ULSTER

See: CUCHULAIN.

HOUNDS OF THE HILL, THE

A name sometimes used in English for the hunting-dogs of the fairies who live in the hollow hills. As fairy
dogs they are distinct from the Gabriel Hounds, the Devil's Dandy Dogs and other spectral packs whose
duty it is to hunt souls rather than fairy deer. The Hounds of the Hill are generally described as white with
red ears rather than dark green like the Cu Sith described by J. G. Campbell. Ruth Tongue in FORGOTTEN
FOLK-TALES OF THE ENGLISH COUNTIES, reports an anecdote heard in Cheshire in 1917 and again
in 1970 about a Hound of the Hill befriended by a young labourer. It was the size of a calf with a rough
white coat and red ears. Its paws seemed sore, and the boy treated them with wet dock-leaves. Some time
later, going through a haunted wood, he was attacked by a spectral goat and rescued by the hound. The
episode has a Highland rather than a Welsh flavour.. # 100 - 131 - 674

HOWTH

See: BENN ETAIR.

HOWTH, THE HIDING OF THE HILL OF

This is a short piece which is representative of a group of episodic narratives that arose out of the general
tradition of the pursuit of Diarmuid and Grainne. Cross and Slover tells us that the selection brought in their
ANCIENT IRISH TALES, probably is much older than the long narrative mentioned above, but that it was
either unknown to the later redactor or was omitted purposely. As it stands it is an interesting example of
the stories of trickery which delighted Irish audiences during the Middle Ages, and that the short poem,
much as it inevitably suffers in translation, is one of the gems of early Irish lyric poetry. # 166

HUEIL

A son of Caw and brother of Gildas. He was an opponent of Arthur who eventually had him executed. Their
feud began when Arthur stabbed Gwydre, Hueil's nephew. In one tale, he and Arthur fought and Arthur was
wounded in the knee. Arthur told Hueil he would not slay him, provided Hueil never mentioned the wound,
but he later did and Arthur had him killed. # 26 - 156

HUGH

One of the Children of Lir. # 562

HUI

See: UI.
HUMBER

Scottish writers claimed Arthur's last battle was on this river. # 156

HUNBAUT

A companion of Gawain when Arthur sent the latter on a mission to the King of the Isles. In the course of
their adventures together, Hunbaut tended to show more caution than Gawain. # 156 - 450

HUNCAMUNCA

In Henry Fielding's TOM THUMB (1730), the name of Arthur's daughter. # 156

HUNGARY

# 562: Miled's name as a god in a Celtic inscription from Hungary. # 156: Arthurian romance assigned this
country several kings. In CLARIS ET LARIS it was ruled by King Saris who captured Cologne but was
killed by Laris. Elsewhere the king is called Jeremiah; Gawain married his daughter. Sagremor is styled the
son of the King of Hungary. King Ditas of Hungary was listed among the followers of the Roman Emperor
Thereus, when the latter attacked Arthur. In fact, Hungary did not really exist as a country until about the
end of the ninth century - much later than the Arthurian period - when the territory it subsequently
contained was divided amongst Gepids, Heruli, etc. # 156 - 562

HUNT, ROBERT

(b.1790) Hunt wrote the Preface to the third edition of POPULAR ROMANCES OF THE WEST OF
ENGLAND in 1881. The book had first been published in 1865, but was a fruit of long collection. # 100 -
331

HUNTING KNIGHT

A son of the King of Gascony, who came to Arthur's court to learn valour. # 156

HUON OF BORDEAUX

# 156: The hero of the romance HUON DE BORDEAUX (thirteenth century), set in Carolingian times. In
this tale Oberon, king of the fairies, assigned his realm to Huon. Arthur, who had been living in Fairyland
since his reign, had thought the kingdom would be his and was most disturbed, but Oberon, by threatening
Arthur, ensued there would be peace between him and Huon. There seem to be some confusion in the time-
table for this romance. Katharine Briggs argues in her ENCYCLOPEDIA OF FAIRIES that the French
romance HUON OF BORDEAUX was from the 15th century, and translated into English by Lord Berners
in the 16th century.

# 100: It became very popular in England, and though the earlier editions have disappeared, the third, of
1601, still remains. This is the first literary use of Oberon as the fairy king, though there are Magicians'
recipes for conjuring Oberion or Oberycom into a crystal stone. He was a dwarfish or diminutive fairy, of
the size of a threeyears child, though with a most beautiful face. This small size was attributed in the
romance to the ill offices of an offended fairy at his birth - one of the earliest examples of a wicked fairy at
a christening - but, since 'Auberon' is the French translation of the German 'Alberich', it seems likely that
Oberon was dwarfish from the beginning. This Oberon haunted a part of the forest through which Huon had
to pass in his eastern travels. He was a master of glamour and was regarded as a tempting devil who must
on no account be answered when he spoke. Huon was most earnestly warned about this by a good hermit,
but when his courtesy was too strong for him and he answered Oberon's touchingly earnest entreaties,
nothing but good came of it. Oberon was deeply grateful and became Huon's constant friend. In the end,
Oberon's soul was admitted to Heaven and Huon of Bordeaux was crowned king of Fairyland in his place.
It is not often in folk tradition that the pendolous, immortal state of the fairies is resolved on the heavenly
side. It will be remembered that Rudyard Kipling makes Huon of Bordeaux the king of the People of the
Hills in PUCK OF POOK'S HILL. # 85 - 100 - 156

HURLEY

A game played with sticks and balls, somewhat similar to field hockey.# 166

HY BREASIL

The Irish earthly paradise. It was considered to lie in the furthest west. Later Spanish adventurers who
knew the myth applied it to the land they discovered - Brazil.# 454

HYDE, DOUGLAS

(1860-1949) The first of the Irish folklorists to pursue the fully scholarly methods of research initiated by J.
F. Campbell. In his collection of folk-tales, BESIDE THE FIRE, he puts the Irish and the English on
alternate pages for the first time in an Irish folk-tale book. His introduction was a most scolarly piece of
work, criticizing keenly but not unkindly the work of his predecessors, and noticing particularly the
handicap under which Lady Wilde laboured in knowing no Irish, and strongly advising all collectors to take
careful note of the source of their tales. Dr. Hyde was the founder of the Irish League to promote the study
of Irish Gaelic. He was a close collaborator with Yeats and Lady Gregory in their Irish renaissance, and was
elected Ireland's first President in 1938. # 100 - 333

HYGWYDD

A servant of Arthur who carried the cauldron of Diwrnach on his back when Arthur captured it. # 156 - 346
IBAR MAC RIANGABRA

(ivar mok re-an-govra) See: RIANGABAR.

IBERIANS

Resemblance between Aquitani and Iberians. # 562

ICELAND

This island was part of Arthur's empire. Layamon says its king was Aeleus. He was married to the King of
Russia's daughter and they had a son named Escol. Aeleus voluntarily submitted to Arthur and gave him
Escol to be his man. Geoffrey gives Iceland a king called Malvasius. # 156 - 243 - 697

ID MAC RIANGABRA

See: RIANGABAR.

IDDAWG

Before Arthur's final tragic battle with Mordred at Camlann, the king sent Iddawg to Mordred with a
message. However, Iddawg uttered it in such a way that it angered its recipient and he was therefore known
as the Embroiler of Britain. # 156 - 346

IGRAINE IGERNE

(in Welsh: Eigyr). 1. The mother of Arthur. She was the daughter of Amlawdd and she married Gorlois, by
whom she had a number of daughters. (This husband is sometimes called Hoel.) Uther made her pregnant
with Arthur while he was under a spell which made him resemble her husband. Later, when Gorlois was
dead, Uther married her, although he was uncertain as to the fatherhood of Arthur whom he put to fosterage
with Ector of the Forest Sauvage. See: GOLEUDDYDD, and RIEINGULID. 2. In the VULGATE
MERLIN, the sister of Arthur with whom he committed incest. # 156 - 346 - 418

ILAX

See: EREC.

ILDANACH

(il'dan ah) ('The All-Craftsman', or 'The Many Gifted'). Surname conferred upon Lugh Lamfada, the Sun-
god. # 166 - 562

ILLAN

Illan was a traditional king of Leinster (Ireland) who was thought to have conducted raids in Britain. J.
Morris argues that he would have been one of the historical Arthur's enemies. The traditional regnal dates
of Illan are AD 495- 511, but the history of Leinster at this period is obscure and Illan may have reigned at
an earlier period or not at all. # 156 - 403
ILLTYD, SAINT

# 156: He founded the monastery at Llanilltud Fawr in Wales, the great settlement of Illtyd (now Llantwit
Major). He was said to have been related to Arthur and to have served as a warrior under him. See:
RIEINGULID.

# 678: According to a Norman clerk who wrote from that place, Illtyd's name comes from the Latin 'ille ab
omni crimine tutus' ('the one safe from all evil'). The Welsh tradition, based on an early life of Cadoc,
describes Illtyd's conversion as taking place when fifty soldiers under his command were swallowed into
the earth. Another tradition tells us that his conversion took place after a hunting accident in which several
of his friends were killed and that it was Dyfrig who was responsible for bringing Illtyd into the church.
Like many other Celtic abbots, Illtyd withdrew from time to time from his monastery, seeking out a cave by
the banks of the Ewenny River, sleeping each night on a cold stone and keeping himself alive by heaven-
sent offerings of barley loaves and fish.

# 454: All texts agree that he was the most learned Briton of his day. He was said to have been born in
Brittany and his reputation credited him with being a magician. Lindsay suggests that his disciples
demanded the old druidic right to exemption from taxes. He is remembered on 6 November. # 156 - 216 -
454 - 678

ILLYRIANS

Towards the end of the fourth century the Celts overran Pannonia, conquering the Illyrians. # 562

IMMORTALITY

In Egypt the solar boat is sometimes represented as containing the solar emblem alone, sometimes it
contains the figure of a god with attendant deities, sometimes it contains a crowd of passengers
representing human souls, and sometimes the figure of a single corpse on a bier. The megalithic carvings
also sometimes show the solar emblem and sometimes not; the boats are sometimes filled with figures and
are sometimes empty. When a symbol has once been accepted and understood, any conventional or
summary representation of it is sufficient. Rolleston take it that the complete form of the megalithic symbol
is that of a boat with figures in it and with the solar emblem overhead. These figures, assuming the
foregoing interpretation of the design to be correct, must clearly be taken for representations of the dead on
their way to the Otherworld. They cannot be deities, for representations of the divine powers under human
aspect were quite unknown to the Megalithic People, even after the coming of the Celts - they first occur in
Gaul under Roman influence. But if these figures represent the dead, then we have clearly before us the
origin of the so-called 'Celtic' doctrine of immortality. The carvings in question are pre-Celtic. They are
found where no Celts ever penetrated. Yet they point to the existence of just that Otherworld doctrine
which, from the time of Caesar downwards, has been associated with Celtic Druidism, and this doctrine
was distinctively Egyptian. # 562

IMMRAM

Voyages to Otherworlds. The tradition of the Immram is based upon certain fundamental understandings:
the voyage enacts the passage into the Otherworld, the testing of the soul, the passage into and beyond
death and the empowerment of the spiritual quest. Some of the best known Immrams's is that of 'The
voyage of Maelduin' (which is described in full in Chapter Two in # 437.), and Voyage of St Brendan (AD
489-?583). Also the pilgrimage and wandering mazes derives from the Immram. # 437 p 14 ff

INBER AILBINE
See: PLACE NAME STORIES.

INCUBUS

Technically, an 'Incubus' was a devil which assumed the appearance of a man and lay with a woman, as a
succubus or nightmare assumed the appearance of a woman or Hagge to corrupt a man. Merlin was
supposed to be the child of an incubus, and almost every 16th-century book on witchcraft mentions the
Incubus. # 100

INDEG

One of the mistresses of Arthur, according to TRIAD 57. She was the daughter of Garwy the Tall. # 104 -
156

INDIA

Dolmens found in India; symbol of the feet is found in India, as the print of the foot of Buddha. A good
example of this from Amaravati (after Fergusson) is given by Bertrand in his 'La Religion des Gaulois.' The
allusion to summer and winter suggests the practice in Indian music of allotting certain musical modes to
the different seasons of the year (and even to different times of day). Some scholars suggests that there
might have been a close connection between the Celtic peoples and India (see: GUNDESTRUP
CAULDRON, THE # 354). # 562

INDRA

Hindu sky-deity corresponding to Brown Bull of Quelgny. # 562

INDRAWING SEAS

See: GROCLAND.

INGCEL

(ing'cel) One-eyed British chief-pirate, son of King of Great Britain, an exile. He is associated with Conaire
Mor's fosterbrothers in the sack of Da Derga's hostel. # 166 - 562

INIS

(in'ish) An island. # 166

INIS FAIL

(in'ish fô il) An ancient poetic name for Ireland. See: FAL. # 166

INVASION MYTHS OF IRELAND

See: MYTHS.

INVASIONS, THE BOOK OF


# 628: The Irish BOOK OF INVASIONS describes six waves of people or races arriving in Ireland, and
attempts to merge its pagan tradition, originally derived from a lost Druidic mythical cycle of creation, with
Christian pseudo-history. The six races with the Gaels as the last one, can be seen as a cosmic sequence of
development or phases of the creation of the world, typified by the land of Ireland. 1. Cessair 2. Partholon
3. Nemed 4. FirBolg 5. Tuatha De Danann, and 6. The Gaels.

# 166: The narratives assembled under the title 'Book of Invasions (or Occupations)' are the literary
embodiment of Ireland's own impressions regarding the history of her population. For the early Irish they
served somewhat the same functions as the accounts of the wanderings of Aeneas did for the Romans. To
say, as some have done, that the 'Book of Invasions' is a collection of Irish mythology is to give an entirely
wrong impression of its contents. Some of the characters, it is true, may be rationalized gods, but the stories
as they now stand belong rather to pseudo-history than to mythology. For example, Emer, Eber, and
Eremon, though represented in the narrative as ancient kings, are in fact merely fictitious personages with
names made up from the ancient name for Ireland, spelled in the earliest manuscripts as ÉRIU. Modern
students of early Irish history are inclined to see underlying these obviously fictitious narratives a
substratum of fact, and to regard the account as reflecting in a general way an historical record of early
population groups. The version told in Cross and Slover's ANCIENT IRISH TALES is preserved only in
rather late manuscripts, but the ancient origin of at least some parts of it is convincingly supported by
comparison with the early forms of the British-Latin 'History of the Britons' (HISTORIA BRITONUM).
The selections presented in their work are not continuous, but they form tolerably unified sections,
describing the arrival of three different groups of immigrants. The first of the divisions given is preceded in
the complete text by the account of the arrival of Partholon and his people. The account of the Tuatha De
Danann serves as a background for 'The Second Battle of Moytura' and 'The Fate of the Children of
Tuirenn'. # 166 - 628 p 126 ff

INVERSKENA

Ancient name of Kenmere River, so called after Skena. # 562

INVOLUTIONS

Alwyn Rees and Brinley Rees in their CELTIC HERITAGE, states some interesting aspects about the
involutions concerning the correlation of the provinces of Ireland (q.v). The correlations with functions and
social classes, they say, is of course, symbolical. They are not suggesting that all the inhabitants of
Connacht were druids, or that all the inhabitants of Munster were minstrels! There are units within units.
Thus, there is a story of the division of Ireland into twentyfive parts among the children of Ugaine Mór, a
division which is said to have lasted for three hundred years. Whereas the five peoples of Irish tradition
symbolize the major functions in the hierarchy, there are indications that each was also a complete society
in itself, a replica of the entire series. Kingship belonged pre-eminently to the central province, but every
province had a king of its own. If, in the larger unity, the king of Munster's part was that of the 'Servant', in
his own province his role no doubt corresponded to that of the central king. Similarly, each province had its
druids, warriors, farmers and serfs. Furthermore, the social classes themselves were not homogeneous
groups. Each had a structure which seems to have reproduced that of the larger society. Just as there were
high-kings, provincial kings and tribal kings, so were the grades within the learned class. We hear of druids,
Vates, and bards of Celtic Gaul, of whom classical writers give somewhat confusing accounts. The druids
and the Vates were apparently closely related in function, though the former seem to have been held in
highest honour. Both were learned philosophers, but whereas the druids, who apparently presided at
sacrifices, were judges in public and private disputes, the Vates were probably seers who foretold the future
by augury and the sacrifice or victims. We have already noted that the name Druid probably comes from a
root meaning 'to know'. On the other hand, words cognate with Vates in other languages are connected with
prophecy, inspiration and poetry. The third class, the bards, accompanied their songs with instruments
resembling lyres and they praised some and reviled others, and so too in medieval Ireland, praise poems
(then composed by the Fili) were sung by the bard and there was a harp accompaniment. Indeed the
original meaning of the word Bard appears to have been 'singer of praise'. The preoccupation of Vates (and
probably of Filid) with inspiration, with prophecy, and with the temporal, seems to connect them with the
function of the warrior - Debordant, berserk - while the praises of the bard are analogous to the food-gifts
of the third function and the acclamation by which the third estate confirms the actions and status of its
rulers. Thus, within the learned class there were grades corresponding to those of priest, warrior, and farmer
- and beneath them were disreputable entertainers such as the Crossain. With the advent of Christianity
such a pattern would inevitably become blurred. The druid, as priest of the old religion, lost his function,
and in the Irish laws he is degraded to the subject Nemed class, while the Fili, who seems to have inherited
something of the druid's role, ranks with the upper Nemed class. Later still, the role of the Fili became
assimilated to that of the bard, so that the thirteenth century Fili was above all a composer of praise poetry.
However, 'The Book of Rights', compiled or edited in the eleventh century, states that 'knowledge about
kings and their privileges is proper to the Fili and not to the bard'. According to other texts, the honour-
price of a bard was but half that of a Fili, and moreover, a bard could claim nothing on the ground of being
a man of learning but should be satisfied with what his native wit might win him. The fact that every unit,
however small, tends to have a structure which mirrors that of the whole makes the over-all picture
extremely complicated. Personages and sub-groups can have associations with a function other than their
primary one. For example, the bard belongs to Function I, but in the subdivision of that function he
corresponds to Function III; the Fiana belong to Function III, but in as much as they represent the military
aspect of that function they have affinities with Function II. All this offers unlimited opportunities for
confusion in the transmission and interpretation of a tradition which has been only partially preserved. And
there is yet another complication to be noticed. Finn is associated chiefly with the southern half of Ireland;
his principal residence is said to be the Sidhe of Almu in Leinster. His chief adversary, Goll mac Morna, on
the other hand, is represented as the leader of the Connacht Fiana. That is, in the Lower cycle of stories, the
oneeyed antagonist Within the Fiana is located in the North of Ireland, the hero in the South. This inversion
of the relationship between North and South hitherto considered is in accord with the belief that in the
Otherworld everything is inverted. For example, we have already noted, with regard to ghosts of the dead
and other spirits, that our day is their night. In Hindu belief '"left" on earth corresponds to "right" in the
beyond, while according to the Dyaks of Borneo, in heaven 'no means yes, black becomes white'. Such
inversions have to be borne in any attempt to account for contradictionary beliefs concerning 'right' and
'left' as well as 'north' and 'south'. # 141 - 360 - 410 - 539 - 548

IOLLAN

The son of Fergus mac Roigh. He went with his father to ask Deirdre and Naoisi to return to Conchobar;
but they were ignorant that this was a false message, intended to entrap Deirdre and the sons of Usna.
Although Iollan defended them, Conchobar's champion, Conall Cernach, mortally wounded Iollan. # 454

IOLO MORGANWG

(ee-OLL-o mor-GAHN-ook) The Welsh editor, who in the late eighteenth century rewrote many of the
older triads in an expanded form, with the introduction of some fresh material. See also: CRAIG-Y-DINAS.
# 104

IRELAND

# 156: Arthur is represented as having this country as part of his domains. Geoffrey describes how Arthur
defeated the king of the country whom he names Gilmaurius. Elsewhere the king is represented as Anguish
(the father of Iseult), Elidus, Marhalt or Gurmun. DURMART features an Irish queen named Fenise and
informs us that the gonfalonier (royal standard-bearer) of Ireland was Procides, castellan of Limerick.
Arthur overcame the Scots (Scotti), who were Irish invaders in Britain. In early Medieval Latin Scotus
signifies an Irishman and, in the fifth century, many Scots from Ireland were settling in the country which
today bears their name. They had also settled elsewhere in Britain. As to the actual rulers of Ireland in the
Arthurian period, at that time the Irish kings of Tara had no effective, and perhaps even no theretical,
supremacy. They were Niall of the Nine Hostages (generally regarded as historical), Nath I (perhaps
legendary), Laoghaire, Ailill Molt and Muircheartach I, with whom the eighteenth-century antiquary
Keating, in some respects the Irish equivalent of Geoffrey, says Arthur had a treaty. The names
Marhalt/Marhaus in the Tristan saga may preserve some memory of him. One of the kings of the southern
Irish kingdom of Munster at this period was called Oengus - interestingly enough, probably a different form
of the name Anguish, borne by the King of Ireland in Malory. # 562: Unique historical position of Ireland,
which was never even visited, much less subjugated, by the Roman legionaries, and maintained its
independence against all comers nominally until the close of the twelfth century, but for all practical
purposes a good three hundred years longer. Ireland has therefore this unique feature of interest, that it
carried an indigenous Celtic civilisation, Celtic institutions, art, and literature, and the oldest surviving form
of the Celtic language (q.v.) right across the chasm which separates the antique from the modern world, the
pagan from the Christian world, and on into the full light of modern history and observation. In the sixth
century AD, a little over a hundred years after the preaching of Christianity by St Patrick, a king named
Dermot mac Kerval ruled in Ireland. He was the Ard Righ, or High King, of that country, whose seat of
government was at Tara, in Meath, and whose office, with its nominal and legal superiority to the five
provincial kings, represented the impulse which was moviing the Irish people towards a true national unity.

Name of Eriu (dative form Erinn), poetic name applied to Ireland. Children of Miled enter upon
sovereignty of, but henceforth there are two Irelands, the spiritual, occupied by the Danaans, and the
earthly, by the Milesians. Eremon, was the first Milesian king of all Ireland. # 156 - 562

IRELAND, PROVINCES OF

Modern Ireland comprises four great provinces, Connacht, Ulster, Leinster, and Munster, whose origin lies
beyond the beginning of recorded history. Yet, the Irish word for 'province' is Cóiced, which means a 'fifth',
not a 'fourth', and the expression 'five fifth of Ireland' is familiar to all who speak the Gaelic tongue. The
antiquity of this five-fold conception cannot be doubted, but tradition is divided as to the identity of the
fifth fifth. Lebor Gabála Érenn attributes the original division into five provinces to Fir Bolg. These settlers
were led by five brothers and they shared Ireland between them. The fifth province of that division
consisted of a subdivision of Munster, and in accordance with this, Ireland is represented throughout most
of the early literature as consisting of Connacht, Ulster, Leinster, and 'the two Munsters' (East Munster and
West Munster). It was held that all five provinces met at the Stone of Divisions on the Hill of Uisnech,
which was believed to be the midpoint of Ireland. The alternative tradition is that the fifth province was
Meath (Mide), 'the Middle'. This is a common belief among present-day Irishmen who are unfamiliar with
the historical literature, and it is not a recent invention. A poem which is attributed to Mael Mura, a
ninthcentury poet, tells of a revolt of the vassal tribes of Ireland under the kings of the four provinces, a
revolt in which Fiachu, King of Tara, was killed. After a period of misrule, the legitimate dynasty was
restored in the person of Fiachu's son, Tuathal Techtmar, who defeated the vassal tribes in each of the four
provinces - Connacht, Ulster, Leinster and Munster. According to some medieval texts, it was Tuathal who
created the central province of Meath by taking a portion of each of the other provinces; Keating states that
before Tuathal's conquest Meath was but a minor kingdom (tuath) around Uisnech. We must, however,
consider a body of comparative evidence before accepting the view that the central province, without which
no province could be called a 'fifth' in this scheme, was the result of a military conquest in the second
century AD. What we have to try to understand, as the Rees' points out in their CELTIC HERITAGE, is the
meaning of the subdivision of an island into four parts each of which is called a fifth, and the existence of
two apparently incompatible traditions - neither of which can be shown to be more authentic than the other
- which, respectively, locate the implicit fifth fifth at the centre and as an entity within one of the other four.
In the Middle Irish text called 'The Settling of the Manor of Tara', which relates how the territorial divisions
were confirmed at the beginning of the Christian era by a supernatural authority, both these conceptions of
the five-fold structure of Ireland are re-authenticated, and there is no indication that the writer of this
remarkable document was aware that the one is inconsistent with the other. The text relates that, in the reign
of Diarmait son of Cerball (AD 545-565), the nobles of Ireland protested against the extent of the royal
domain, and that Fintan son of Bóchra was summoned to Tara, from his abode in Munster, to define its
limits. Seated in the judge's seat at Tara, Fintan reviewed the history of Ireland from Cessair to the Sons of
Mil, and told of a strange personage called Trefuilngid Tre-eochair who suddenly appeared at a gathering of
the men of Ireland on the day when Christ was crucified. This stranger was fair and of gigantic stature, and
it was he who controlled the rising and the setting of the sun. In his left hand he carried stone tablets and in
his right a branch with three fruits, nuts, apples, and acorns. He inquired about the chronicles of the men of
Ireland, and they replied that they had no old historians. 'Ye will have that from me,' said he. 'I will
establish for you the progression of the stories and chronicles of the hearth of Tara itself with the four
quarters of Ireland round about; for I am the truly learned witness who explains to all everything unknown.'
And he continued: Bring to me then seven from every quarter of Ireland, who are the wisest, the most
prudent and most cunning also, and the shanachies of the king himself who are of the hearth of Tara; for it
is right that the four quarters (should be present) at the partition of Tara and its chronicles, that each may
take its due share of the chronicles of Tara.' It will be observed that the basic idea here is that Ireland
consists of four quarters and a centre - the provinces of Connacht, Ulster, Leinster, Munster, and Meath.
This arrangement was confirmed by Trefuilngid, and in leaving that ordinance with the men of Ireland he
gave Fintan some berries from his branch. Fintan planted them where he thought they would grow, and
from them are the five trees: the Ash of Tortu, the Bole of Ross (a comely yew), the Oak of Mugna, the
Bough of Dathi (an ash), and the Ash of populous Uisnech. Though the location of most of these five places
is uncertain, there can be no doubt that the underlying idea is that the trees symbolize the four quarters
around the centre. The confirmation of this pattern by Fintan on Trefuilngid's authority at Tara was not,
however, the end of the matter. 'Then the nobles of Ireland came...to accompany Fintan to Uisnech, and
they took leave of one another on the top of Uisnech. And he set up in their presence a pillar-stone of five
ridges on the summit of Uisnech. And he assigned a ridge of it to every province in Ireland, for thus are
Tara and Uisnech in Ireland, as its two kidneys are in a beast. And he marked out a FORRACH there, that
is, the portion of each province in Uisnech, and Fintan made this lay after arranging the pillar-stone.' In the
lay Fintan defines the extent of each of these five provinces of the Fir Bolg division - Connaht, Ulster,
Leinster, and the two Munsters. 'So Fintan then testified that it is right to take the five provinces of Ireland
from Tara and Uisnech, and that it is right for them also to take them from each province in Ireland!'
Leaving the second Munster aside for the moment, it can be shown further that the four great provinces and
the centre constitute a hierarchic system which corresponds to that of the invasions from Partholon to the
Sons of Mil. When the representatives of the four quarters and of the Manor of Tara had been assembled
together as we have just described, the supernatural Trefuilngid asked: 'O Fintan, and Ireland, how has it
been partioned, where have things been therein?' 'Easy to say,' said Fintan, 'knowledge in the west, battle in
the north, prosperity in the east, music in the south, kingship in the centre.' Then Trefuilngid proceeded to
indicate in detail the attributes of each quarter and the middle. There is some overlapping in these
descriptions which blurs the clear distinctions drawn by Fintan. The latter we will bring here in full: West
(Connacht): learning (Fis), teaching, judgement, chronicles, counsels, stories, histories, science, eloquence.
North (Ulster) battle (Cath), contentions, hardihood, rough places, strifes, haughtiness, unprofitableness,
pride, captures, assaults, hardness, wars, conflicts. East (Leinster) prosperity (Bláth), supplies, bee-hives (?
ceasa), householders, good custom, good manners, splendour, abundance, dignity, wealth, householding,
many arts, many treasures, satin serge, silks, cloths (?), green spotted cloth (?), hospitality. South (Munster)
music (Séis), fairs (oenaigi), reavers, musicianship, melody, minstrelry, music, fidchell-playing, retinue.
Centre (Meath) kingship, (not mentioned by Fintan) stewards, dignity, primacy, stability, establishments,
supports, destructions, warriorship, charioteership, soldiery, principality, high-kingship, ollaveship, mead,
bounty, ale, renown, fame, prosperity. Learning and Battle clearly refer to the aristocratic funtions of the
druids and the warriors, and their ascription to Connacht and Ulster fully accords with what we have said
about the superiority of Conn's Half.

The Mythological Cycle of Tuatha De Danann was characterized by wizardry, the CuChulain Cycle by
heroism and the Fenian Cycle by romance. It remains to add that Tuatha De Danann first appeared in
Ireland on a mountain of Conmaicne Réin in Connacht and that Mag Tuired, the scene of the great battles
which form the central theme of this cycle is also in Connacht. The warrior Cycle of CuChulain is the
Ulster Cycle, while the Fenian Cycle, the tales of the ordinary people, are located mainly in the South of
Ireland. The three qualities which we have discerned in these three cycles thus have their respective
provenance - thinking in the West, willing in the North, feeling in the South.

The correlation of provinces with functions makes the great epic of the CuChulain Cycle more intelligible.
It commemorates a struggle between the two aristocratic provinces of Connacht and Ulster, in which the
protagonists are Queen Medb of Connacht on the one hand, and King Conchobar and his nephew
CuChulain on the other. Tradition shows us that Medb personifies 'Sovereignty', and Professor Dumézil has
singled that out in its magical and judicial aspects as primary attribute of Function I. It is said that
Conchobar had been Medb's first husband, and her desertion of him against his will is said to have been the
first cause of the táin (cattle-raid). On the other hand, the immediate cause of the táin was that Medb
coveted Ulster's great bull. The bull symbolizes the warrior function both in Rome and India. Thus the táin
appears as an example of the classic struggle between the priestly and the warrior classes, each of which
tends to usurp the functions and privileges of the other. It may be compared with the First Battle of Mag
Tuired between the Tuatha wizards and the Fir Bolg warriors. That battle belongs to the Mythological
Cycle and in it the warriors are defeated, but the warriors are victorious in the struggle of the warrior Cycle.
- Modern historians regard the allocation of two fifths to Munster as a spurious tradition invented by the
ancient historians, but we have already suggested that the analogy between what may be called the 'central
fifth' and the 'outer fifth', on the one hand, and the invasions of the Sons of Mil and of Cessair on the other,
is a sufficient justification for considering both traditions seriously. - Divided into two, one half of Munster
symbolizes serfs, the other the Other World. But as one province it is a land of contradictions. In one of the
earlier law tracts, its king is described as 'a master (ollam) over kings'. After Tuatha De Danann have
repaired to the sidhe, leaving the daylight world to the Sons of Mil, it is Bodb of the Sid of Munster they
have as king. The visiting high-king who instructs their rulers is not a king of Tara, but Manannan mac Lir,
the god of the sea. In the occult, Munster and the powers beyond it are supreme. There, the last IS first. #
186 - 277 - 313 - 410 - 468 - 508 - 548

IRION

A king, the father of Martha and father-in-law of Tristan's son Ysaie. ># 156 - 198

IRISH CALENDAR CUSTOMS

Calendar Custom is deeply influenced by environment, by climate, by the fertility of the soil, by the
proximity of such geographical features as the sea, rivers, lakes, mountains and moors. It is intimately
connected with the daily and yearly routine of work. It is associated with travel and trade. It bears upon the
social traditions of the community and upon the individual lives of the community's members. It embodies
devotional and religious practices, divination, healing, mythology and magic. It abounds in explanatory tale
and legend, historical allusion and pious parable. It includes all manner of amusements, sports and
pastimes. Furthermore, it reaches back through time into the remote and unknown depths of prehistory. It
contains elements which already were of vast antiquity when the first Christian missionaries came into
Ireland, as well as matter which recalls the flowering of early Irish Christianity. It has features derived from
the piety as well as from the practicality of the Middle Ages. Every phase of our changing history has
effected it; every body of the people who came into Ireland has added something to it; Scandinavian and
Norman, English and Scots, all have left some mark upon it. Above all, it shares largely in the common
tradition of Western Europe, so many of its elements being but Irish versions of practices much more
widely known. Irish Calendar Custom is a vast and complicated field, how vast and complicated has been
shown in the one comprehensive investigation of an Irish folk festival which has hitherto appeared. Máire
Mac Neill's FESTIVAL OF LUGHNASA, a work which occupies almost 700 pages. The following is a
briefing of the well-known and for most part, still celebrated fiest-days.

SAINT BRIGHID'S DAY

In Irish folk tradition St Brighid's Day, 1 February, is the first day of Spring, and thus the farmer's year. It is
the festival of Ireland's venerated and much-loved second patron saint, who is also the patroness of cattle
and of dairy work. In the JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF IRELAND,
1945, Seán Ó Suilleabháin wrote: 'The main significance of the Feast of St Brigid would seem to be that it
was a christianization of one of the focal points of the agricultural year in Ireland, the starting-point of
preparations for the spring sowing. Every manifestation of the cult of the saint (or of the deity she replaced)
is closely bound up in some way with foodproduction, and this must be the chief line of approach to a study
of this spring festival.' A relaxation of the rigours of winter weather was expected at this time, for,
according to tradition, the saint had promised:
Gach 're lá go maith
Ó'm lá-sa amach
agus leath mo lae féinigh

Every second day fine


from my day onward
and half of my own day.

CANDLEMAS

A popular legend to explain why candlemas fell immediately after St Brighid's Day. Because of Our Lady's
diffidence in bringing the Infant Jesus to the crowded Temple, St Brighid promised to help her by
distracting the attention of the multitude. This she did by appearing with a headdress bearing many lighted
candles, and Mary, in gratitude, decreed that St Brighid's festival should be celebrated on the day before
that of the Purification and the Candles. Weather forecasts were made on Candlemas. A fine day was
believed to be a token of wintry weather during the rest of February.

SHROVE TUESDAY

In former times the austerities of Lent were observed with much more rigour and much more devotion than
more recently. The faithful were bound to abstain not only from meat but also, even on Sundays, from eggs
and from all milk products - that is to say from milk either sweet or sour, butter, cheese, curds and 'white
meats', a very severe restriction on people a large part of whose diet consisted of milk products. Nothing
then, was more natural than the desire to have a 'last fling' just before the beginning of Lent. On the
Continent of Europe this became a public, communal revel, the carnival, but generally in Ireland the Shrove
Tuesday celebration was a household festival with the family and their friends gathered about the fire-side,
when the surplus eggs, milk and butter were used up in making pancakes, and even the most thrifty
housewife did not object, as otherwise these perishable foodstuffs might go to waste. Some people kept the
Christmas holly for the fire which baked the pancakes. - There was a common belief that to lick a lizard
endowed the tongue with a cure for burns and scalds; this was especially effective if the lizard was licked
on Shrove Tuesday.

ASH WEDNESDAY

On this, the first day of Lent many people ate only one meal and drank only water.

At least one person from every household went to the church to have his or her brow marked with the
penitential ashes and to bring home a pinch of the ash so that the rest of the family too could have their
foreheads marked. In many places there is a tradition that the people brought their own ashes - usually a
small quantity of turf ashes - to be blessed in the church. Some burned the palm from last year's Palm
Sunday to make ashes for Ash Wednesday. Any unused portion of the ashes was carefully wrapped up and
put away.

LENT

As mentioned above, the Lenten fast and abstinence were very strictly observed in Ireland, and on all the
days of Lent no animal products of any kind were eaten or used in the preparation of food. For the average
farming family which enjoyed some degree of frugal comfort the Lenten fast meant a small meal of bread,
or porridge and black tea in the morning and again in the evening, and a midday dinner of potatoes
seasoned with fish or onions. On the coast, shellfish and edible seaweed appeared as relish with the potato
meal. Instead of the usual sweet or sour milk, water, to which a handful of crushed oats was added and left
to stand until the fermentation of the grain gave the beverage a sour taste, was drunk. - Children, if they
were over seven years old, got no milk, and even the younger ones were given it sparingly. 'The very infant
in the cradle was allowed to cry three times before he got milk on the fast days', as tradition puts it. A
curious sidelight on the Lenten fast is the eating of the barnacle goose (branta leucopsis) and, possibly, the
brent goose (branta bernicla) as fish. This is first mentioned in Ireland by Giraldus Cambrensis, who visited
the country in 1183 and again in 1185. Having described the wonderful way in which the geese came not
from the eggs but from shellfish (a common belief of the time) he goes on to say (Topography of Ireland):
'Accordingly in some parts of Ireland bishops and religious men eat them without sin during a fasting time,
regarding them as being flesh, since they were not born of flesh.' The tradition of the eating of these geese
during Lent is well known in many parts of the west of Ireland. In Tralee, Count Kerry, it is related that the
custom was kept up until quite recently, and that a well-known hotel in the town made a point of serving
brent goose during Lent, mainly for the benefit of the clergy. As Edward Armstrong remarks in THE
FOLKLORE OF BIRDS,: 'Vincent of Beauvais (SPEC.ANIM. xvii,40) records that at the General Lateran
Council in 1215, Pope Innocent III forbade this practice, but news of this does not seem to have yet reached
the west of Ireland.'

SAINT PATRICK'S DAY

That day is now one of Ireland's most important festivals, a national as well as a church holiday. It is
celebrated with ceremonies, parades, sports, exhibitions and entertainments of many kinds, most of them
having a distinctly national or 'Irish' flavour. All this is relatively new, for, when compared to the numerous
and varied traditional customs and practices associated with other great festivals such as May Day or
Christmas those belonging to St Patrick's Day appearfew and meagre. There are, indeed, associated with
the festival of the national patron only two main customs which appear to derive from older tradition,
namely, the wearing of an emblem or symbol, and the 'drowning of the shamrock'.

The first of these, the wearing of an emblem in honour of the saint and of his day is first noted by an
English traveller in Ireland, Thomas Dinely, in his Journal which appears to have been written in 1681. He
says: 'The 17th day of March yeerly is St Patrick's, an immoveable feast when the Irish of all stations and
condicions wore crosses in their hats, some of pins, some of green ribbon, and the vulgar superstitiously
wear shamroges, 3-leaved grass, which they likewise eat (they say) to cause a sweet breath. The common
people and servants also demand their Patrick's groat of their masters, which they goe expressly to town,
though half a dozen miles off, to spend, where sometimes it amounts to a piece of 8 or cobb a piece, and
very few of the zealous are found sober at night.' He does not explain why he regards the wearing of the
shamrock as superstitious while inferring that the displaying of the cross is not, but he does seem to
indicate some kind of social distinction between the two emblems - people of 'all stations' wear crosses,
while only the 'vulgar' sport the shamrock.

In 1908 we learn from the Journal of the Kildare Archaeological Society, that only girls and small children
still wore the crosses in Dublin and Kildare.

LADY DAY

25 March, the feast of the Annunciation, was a Holiday of Obligation on which the Lenten fast was relaxed
although there was in Ireland no extensive merry-making as on St Patrick's Day. It had some legal
significance for , until Britain belatedly accepted Pope Gregory's calendar in 1752, the year began officially
on 25 March, which was thus of importance as regards contracts, leases, rents and so on. Apart, however,
from its religious and legal significance, it had little effect on popular tradition. High winds were expected
on this day, and if it coincided with Easter Sunday people feared that the following harvest would be poor,
with consequent of food.

THE BORROWED DAYS

According to the old story AN tSEAN-BHó RIABHACH, the old Brindled Cow, boasted that even the
rigours of March could not kill her, whereupon March borrowed three days from April, and, using these
with redoubled fury, killed and skinned the poor old cow. Henceforth the first three days of April
traditionally bring very bad weather and are known as Laethanta na Riabhaiche, 'The Reehy Days,' 'the
Borrowed (or Borrowing) Days', the Skinning Days' and other names. Some people reckoned the days in
the Old Style, thus Amhlaoibh O Súilleabháin in 1827: 'This, the twelfth day of April, is the first of the
three days of the old brindled cow, namely three days which the weather of Old March took from the
beginning of Old April.' In parts of the north of Ireland the story was more elaborate, with nine borrowed
days instead of three:

TRI LÁ LOMARTHA AN LOINN


TRI LÁ SGIUTHANTA AN CHLAIBHREÁIN,
AGUS TRI LÁ NA BÓ RIABHAIGHTE.

(Three days for fleecing the black-bird,


Three days of punishment for the stone-chatter,
And three days for the grey cow.)

'The first nine days of April are called the "borrowing days". The old legend relates that the black-bird, the
stone-chatter, and the grey cow bid defiance to March after his days were over; and that, to punish their
insolence, he begged of April nine of his days, three for each of them, for which he repaid nine of his own.'
(Ulster Journal of Archaeology, 1861 -2).

MAY DAY

May Day, the first day of Summer, was a most important landmark in the Irish countryman's year. It was a
'gale day', when his tenancy began or ended, on which a half-year's rent must be paid to the landlord; The
letting and grazing and meadowing usually dated from 1 May, and farm servants and workmen were hired
at this time. Signs of the weather, the appearance of the sky and of the May moon, the strength and
direction of the wind, the amount of rain, were all carefully noted on May Day as indications of the coming
summer's weather. In different parts of the country it was held that one should not dig, whitewash, bathe or
sail on

May Day, the various explanations given for these prohibitions indicate on the one hand a reluctance to
engage in any activity which might seem to have a magical purpose and on the other a feeling that danger
was to be avoided at a time when ill-luck or evil influence might prevail. In Ireland the principal customs
and ceremonies of Maytime were those which welcomed the Summer. Whatever the origin of these, they
were in recent centuries mainly of festive character, an opportunity for merrymaking and holiday fun.
Nevertheless there lay behind them a slight element of the magical. The children set up their May bush in
the same spirit in which the grown ups hang out our flags on a national holiday, to celebrate an occasion,
but some, at least, of their parents were glad of the feeling of protection against unseen forces which the
May bush gave.

WHITSUNTIDE

In the Irish tradition Whit Sunday (Pentecost) is a very unlucky day, a day on which all precautions must be
taken against accident and ill fortune. Nobody should engage in any dangerous occupation nor should
anyone set out on a journey. People, especially children, who are ill, are more likely to die at this time than
at others. In parts of the midlands a counter-charm to this evil influence was the laying of a green sod on
the head of the sufferer; by this mimicry of burial it was hoped that ultimely death was warded off.

MIDSUMMER

The midsummer ceremonies were almost all connected with the Midsummer fire, and in the greater part of
Ireland were observed on 23 June, the eve of the feast of St John the Baptist. In several parts of north
Connaught and west Ulster the story is told that St John was martyred by being burned alive, and that the
Midsummer fires lighted on St John's Eve, are in pious commemoration of the saint's death. See also:
MIDSUMMER.

THE FIRST OF THE HARVEST

This was a favourite time for patterns at blessed wells and other local shrines. In this it resembles other
great festivals, but a number of these, held upon heights, are apparently connected with the hill gatherings.
In THE FESTIVAL OF LUGHNASA, Máire Mac Neill lists and describes thirteen of these, as well as
eighty blessed wells venerated at this time; See also: LUGHNASAD. # 174

IRISH CELTIC MAGICAL TRADITION, THE

There is a wealth of written material still available today which is equal in its spiritual content to the well-
known works of the East such as the UPANISHADS, the TAO TE CHING, the BHAGAVAD GITA, the
Egyptian BOOK OF THE DEAD and the plethora of other such works very mush in vogue among today's
students of things spiritual and magical. The difference is that whereas most Eastern philosophies are
nowadays easily accessible - mainly as a result of the wealth of books written about them which explain
their more subtle points - their Western equivalents are couched in the form of stories and legends which,
on the surface, appear to be no more than barbaric and fantastic accounts of rather brutal battles and the
goings-on of extremely dubious characters. Consequently such works have been largely ignored by those
on magical or spiritual quests, and it is very difficult to obtain any form of instruction or interpretation
concerning these legends, either in written or oral form. This situation has been changing in recent years,
however. There has been an upsurge of interest in the Arthuriad, the Welsh Mabinogi legends and the
Matter of Britain generally.

The term 'Western Mystery Tradition' has been coined to cover these areas of native research and study, and
readers of Steve Blamires' book: THE IRISH CELTIC MAGICAL TRADITION will in its Bibliography
find a huge list of recommended works, which have been written by authors who have not only deeply
studied the Western Mystery Tradition but are also active practitioners of it. There is, however, another
even more ancient and powerful system still extant in the West; details of it are to be found in the surviving
legends of the Irish Celts, legends which have been preserved in ancient manuscripts and, to a certain
extent, in the living oral tradition of Ireland and the West of Scotland. Several such Irish Celtic legends
contain within them the seeds of the whole Celtic philosophy in general, and each individual legend
demonstrates specific points and aspects of this Irish tradition in detail. Blamires' book concentrate on an
examination of the ancient Irish legend of THE BATTLE OF MOYTURA. This legend contains within it
the essence of the Irish Celtic spiritual and magical system as well as a great deal of practical instruction
and information on the various techniques and attitudes needed to live successfully both in this world and
in the Otherworld. In order to understand and appreciate fully the contents of this ancient Irish allegory it is
necessary to put aside temporarily one's modern way of thinking and outlook on life and to adopt, as far as
possible, the same way of thinking and understanding as was used by the ancient Irish Celts, who put this
unique system together originally over two thousand years ago. To do this, two main changes in attitude
have to be adopted which will help to open up a deeper understanding of the incredible of this seemingly
simple tale of battles and magical feats. The first major change necessary is to do away with one's normal
concept of linear time, the neat and orderly flow of events, one after the other, in a straightforward and to a
certain extent predictable manner. The events described in THE BATTLE OF MOYTURA seem to the
modern mind to jump forwards and backwards in time and, in some places, to be outside the effect of time
altogether. This does not matter. Simply accept such passages as they are and do not try to fit them into our
modern concept of time which dictates that everything must follow the neat order of Start - Middle - End.
Our modern concept of linear time is very inaccurate; once this is understood and accepted a great deal of
apparently puzzling or meaningless information becomes very clear and valuable. The second change in
thinking, and probably the most important, is to look upon everything, absolutely everything, as existing on
three distinct yet interlocking levels. These levels, for ease of reference, is called the physical level the
mental level, and the spiritual level. This tripartite outlook on life is crucial to a true understanding of the
Celtic philosophy and magical system, and if one can adopt this attitude initially without questioning it,
then it will soon become obvious why it is necessary, and why it is in fact the most accurate way to view
this world, the Otherworld, and all that both contain. The truth behind this, according to Steve Blamires,
will become apparent as the inner meanings of the text are explained. See also: BATTLE OF MOYTURA,
THE. # 75

IRISH ELK

Fossil remains of the 'Irish Elk' from prehistoric times portray an animal six feet high with horns that
sometimes measured eleven feet between the tips. The belief has persisted that this creature became extinct
because its antlers were so cumbersome. This is not true. It died out because of the climate. Furthermore
the Irish elk was not an elk but a species of deer. It lived not only in Ireland, but in Great Britain, northern
and central Europe, and western Asia. # 118

IRISH KINGS, TALES OF THE TRADITIONAL

Many of the most interesting early Irish tales deal, not with Finn and his companions, the Ulster heroes, or
Ireland's early settlers, but with traditional kings of Ireland or with persons connected with them. These
kings are by no means all fictitious. The existence of many of them is duly attested by historical evidence.
Upon their historical deeds there has, however, often been engrafted such a mass of legend that truth is
hardly distinguishable from fiction. Though these stories do not fall into any one of the main cycles of early
Irish literature, we should recall that some of them come from an authentically ancient period and may
originally have formed parts of other cycles that have now all but disappeared. Certainly Irish literature
would be much the poorer without the spirited accounts of the Lepracaun king and of the king cured of his
gluttony by the ruse of a wandering cleric. # 166

IRISH LANGUAGE, THE

Documents in Irish using the normal Roman alphabet do not begin until after Christianity had been
accepted by the greater part of the people of Ireland. Omitting ogham inscriptions, the earliest
contemporary records to survive are glosses and marginalia in manuscripts which have been preserved on
the Continent. The most important of these are the mid-eight-century glosses, or annotations, on a text of
the Epistles of Paul in the Codex Paulinus at Würzburg, and the ninth century glosses on a commentary on
the Psalms in the Codex Ambrosianus at Milan. This fairly substantial body of writing is the product of a
culture which Christianity and Latin learning have permeated: (i) although some native terms were
available from the ogham tradition, a whole new vocabulary relating to literacy had been introduced into
Irish from Latin; (ii) religious and ecclesiastical terms had, of course, been freely adopted; (iii) furthermore
Irish society had been introduced to ideas and artefacts well removed from the core of Christian concepts
and organisation (see Table below). As in modern literary English, all the words in an Irish sentence in
these texts may be of Latin derivation: ro-légsat canóin fetarlaici 'they have read the Old Testament text';
lég- from the Latin lego; canóin from Latin canon, fetarlaic- from an inflicted form (e.g. veteri legi) of the
phrase vetus lex 'old law'. On the other hand, the traditional vocabulary may be entirely adequate for the
expression of some concepts associated with the new learning: ar-ecar a n-ainm i ndiúitius ocus ni arecar
in Briathar acht i gcomsuiddigud 'The noun is found in simplex, and the verb is found only in compound'.
TABLE: A sample of words of Latin origin in Old Irish (Old Irish spelling)

Irish Latin English


(i) terms related to literacy
lebor liber book
légaid legit reads
line linea line
litir litera letter
scribaid scribit writes
(ii) religious and ecclesiastical terms
aingel angelus angel
altóir altaria altar
bendacht benedictio blessing
caindleóir candelarius candle-stand
demon daemon demon
eclais vespor vesper
grád gradus order
ifern infernus hell
maldacht maledictio curse
oróit oratio prayer
peccad peccatum sin
relic reliquiae cemetery
riagol regula rule
sacart sacerdos priest
umaldóit humilitas (-atis) humility
(iii) various other terms
bárc barca boat
cathair cathedra chair
cucann cocina kitchen
metur metrium wooden vessel
muilenn molinum mill
saiget sagitta arrow
sorn furnus furnace
ungae uncia ounce

The monks who wrote the glosses sometimes disgressed from their study and annotation of texts to pen
verses which they had either composed themselves, or were part of their contemporary literary repertoire:
Dom-Farcai Fidbaide Fál, Fom-chain Loid Luin - Lúad Nád Cél éas mo Lebrán, ind Linech, Fom-chain
Trirech inna n-én. - 'A screen of woodland overlooks me, a blackbird's lay sings to me - I will not decline to
mention it - above my little book, the lined one, the twittering of the birds sings to me'.

The fact is that these scholars were not succumbing to another, more powerful, culture. They were, on the
contrary, the confident bearers of a vigorous tradition which, as they saw it, was through their mediation
being enriched by the new religion and new learning. They were proud of the victory of Christianity and,
with Oengus writing in the year 800 or so, could boast: Ro-milled in genntlecht ciarbo ligdae lethan
'Paganism has been destroyed though it was splendid and widespread'.

They did evidently regard the native cultural heritage as worthy of interest and, as many of them were no
doubt direct heirs to the traditional learning, it is not surprising that they devoted some of their new literary
scholarship to making a record of the secular literature. The result is that Ireland possesses in the Irish
language, as N. K. Chadwick, the well-known English scholar, says, 'a greater wealth of carefully preserved
oral tradition from the earliest period of our era than any other people in Europe north of the Alps. For this
reason the foundation of her early history from traditional materials is of general interest far beyond her
geographical and political area, and second only to that of the ancient Greek and Roman world'. # 488

IRNAN

Lays Finn under geise to engage in single combat; She was one of three magical hag sisters who sought to
enchant the Fianna. Irnan changed into the shape of a monster and challenged any of the troop to fight with
her. Fionn accepted but Goll intervened and killed her. # 454 - 562

IRON, COLD

A knife, or a cross of iron, are sovereign protections against witchcraft and evil magic of all kinds. A pair of
open scissors hung above a child's cradle is said to protect it from being carried off by the fairies. It is a
dual protection because it is in the form of a cross, and is also made of steel. See also: PROTECTION
AGAINST FAIRIES. # 100

IRON-AGE SHIP

The ship a well-recognised form of sepulchral enclosure in cemeteries of the Iron-age. # 562

IRONSIDE

The name of the Red Knight of the Red Lands, defeated by Gareth. He became a Knight of the Round
Table and was father of Sir Raynbrown. # 156 - 418

ISCA LEGIONIS

(Isca Legionum). See: CITY OF THE LEGION.

ISEO

In Spanish romance, the daughter of Tristan who married King Juan of Castile. See: TRISTAN THE
YOUNGER. # 156 - 210

ISEULT

1. The daughter of King Anguish of Ireland who was married to King Mark of Cornwall, but also, as the
result of drinking a love potion, hopelessly enamoured of Tristan. When she heard of Tristan's death, she
died of a broken heart. Her name is not Irish, but derived from Ancient British Adsiltia (she who is gazed
on). Attempts to associate her with Chapelizod, Dublin, are due to a false derivation of that place name.

2. Tristan's wife, whom he married when he had parted with Iseult of Ireland, was called Iseult of the White
Hands. She is variously called the daughter of Hoel of Brittany and Jovelin, Duke of Aroundel. Tristan had
nothing to do with her, as he still loved Iseult of Ireland, a fact she naturally resented. When Tristan was
fatally wounded, he sent for Iseult of Ireland, hoping she could heal him. The ship sent for her was to have
white sails if she were aboard on its return, but black sails if she had declined to come. Iseult of the White
Hands, seeing the ship had white sails, lied about them to Tristan who died before his beloved's arrival, as a
result of hearing the falsehood. There seem to be classical influences here - the stories of Paris and Oenone
and of Theseus and Aegeus. The Icelandic version of the story says the second Iseult was Spanish and
claims she was given to Tristan when he defeated the King of Spain.
3. The name of Tristan's god-daughter.

4. The Queen of Ireland, mother of Iseult, wife of Mark.

# 61 - 104 - 156 - 204 - 217 - 256

ISLAND

The western paradise island had many names: Isles of the Blest, Fortunate Isles, or Avalon, the Celts' Apple
Isle that supported the Tree of Life. Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote: 'The Isle of Apples was also called
Fortunate Isle, because all the vegetation grew there naturally with no need of cultivation... nine sisters
ruled over it... and one of them surpassed all the others in beauty and power. Her name was Morgan and she
taught how plants could be used to cure illness. She knew the art of changing her outward form and could
fly through the air.' The GESTE REGUM BRITANNIAE said it was an island in the midst of the ocean,
where people were always young, and there was no sickness, crime, war, or uncomfortable weather. 'A
royal virgin, fairer than the fairest, governed that island.' Celtic island paradises were always ruled by
women. The island's Cauldron of Regeneration was sought, in Celtic lore, by the god Bran or Maelduin,
who went on a voyage to the western land of immortality, known as the Land of Women. He was later
restyled by the Irish church into a mythical Saint Brendan, abbot of Clonfert. A spurious life of the saint
was produced in the tenth century, five hundred years after his purported lifetime. There he was said to
have voyaged westward in search of a magic Land of Promise. Where the earlier heroes went in search of
the Land of Women, Saint Brendan went in search of paradise, showing that the land of Women is the
Celtic conception of heaven. Such was the perception of sexuality as a regenerative, divine force to be
channeled through women - until ascetic patriarchy relegated all such ideas to the realm of heresy and
witchcraft. It is interesting to note that the semipagan ballads of the folksingers named Fairyland as neither
heaven nor hell in the Christian sense, but a different place altogether. # 701 p 341 ff

ISLAND OF THE EAGLE

Voyage of Maelduin. Island 29. Commentary. This island brings the experience of complete renewal.

The ancient eagle is restored to full vigour and is able to fly away as strong as any young bird. Diurán
shares in the healing bounty of the berry-reddened lake and proclaims his experience to all people he meets
thereafter by the amazing youthfullness of his form. It is often remarked that those who engage in spiritual
pursuits remain miraculously youthful in appearance. This is part of the otherworldly exchange: those who
uphold the harmony of the inner realms are themselves upheld by otherworldly powers in the mundane
realm. # 437 p 55

ISLANDS - VOYAGE OF MAELDUIN

Voyage of Maelduin. Strange adventures of Maelduin and his companions on wonderful Islands; Island of
the Slayer; of the Ants; of the Great Birds; of the Fierce Beast; of the Giant Horses; of the Stone Door; of
the Apples; of the Wondrous Beast; of the Biting Horses; of the Fiery Swine; of the Little Cat; of the Black
and White Sheep; of the Giant Cattle; of the Mill; of the Black Mourners; of the Four Fences; of the Glass
Bridge; of the Shouting Birds; of the Anchorite; of the Miraculous Fountain; of the Smithy; of the Sea of
Clear Glass; of the Undersea; of the Prophesy; of the Spouting Water; of the Silvern Column; of the
Pedestal; of the Women; of the Red Berries; of the Eagle; of the Laughing Folk; of the Flaming Rampart; of
the Monk of Tory; of the Falcon. # 562

ISLANDS OF THE DEAD

See: MANANAN.
ISLE OF LIFE

A place, possibly identical with the Isle of Wight, where the ancient British kings Gaddifer and Perceforest
enjoyed a prolonged existence. # 156 - 198

ISLE OF MAN

Supposed throne of Mananan. # 562

ITALY, NORTHERN

Celts conquer Northern Italy from Etruscans; Murgen and Eimena sent to Northern Italy by Sanchan
Torpest, to discover the 'Tain'. # 562

ITH

# 562: Son of Bregon, grandfather of Miled; shores of Ireland perceived by Ith from Tower of Bregon;
learns of Neit's slaying; welcomed by Mac Cuill and his brothers; put to death by the three Danaan Kings. #
454: He sailed from Spain to arbitrate in a quarrel about the division of Ireland between three kings of the
Tuatha de Danaan. So eloquent was his speech, that they feared he might seek to be king himself, and so he
was killed. Miled set out to avenge his uncle. # 454 - 469 - 562

ITHER

Arthur's cousin, the son of Uther's sister, he had been raised by his uncle and became the King of
Kukumarlant. He claimed Arthur's throne and stole a golden cup from him. He was killed by Perceval. #
156 - 748

ITONJE

A sister of Gawain who married King Gramoflanz. # 156 - 748

IUBAR MAC RIANGABRA

See: RIANGABAR.

IUBDAN

(youb-dan). King of the Wee Folk; Bebo, wife of Iubdan; Bebo and Iubdan visit King Fergus in Ulster. #
562

IUCHABAR

(yew-ha-var) One of three sons of Turenn; Brigit, mother of Iucharba. Brother of Brian mac Tuirenn, who
slew Cian, Lugh's father. # 454 - 562

IUCHAR

( ew-har) One of three sons of Turenn; Brigit, mother of Iuchar. Brother of Brian mac Tuirenn, who slew
Cian, Lugh's father. # 454 - 562
IVOINE

The original name, in French romance, of Moine (Constans). # 156

IVOIRE

The sister of Ban who married King Constantine of Britain. They had three children: Ivoine (Constans),
Pandragon (Ambrosius) and Uther. # 156

IVOR

A huntsman who raised Meriadoc. # 156

IWERET

The father of Iblis, wife of Lancelot, in Ulrich. He was the lord of Beforet. He raided the territory of
Mabuz, Lancelot's foster-brother, and Lancelot subsequently killed him. He may be of Celtic origin, from
Ywerit, the father of Bran, or is possibly identical with Ibert. # 156 - 686
JACK IN THE GREEN

(The Hidden One - The Cylenchar) The Woodland spirit who, like the Wood-Wose or Wild Herdsman,
guards the greenwood. He appears in many kinds of folk art, as a multi-foliate head peering through the
keaves. Like the Sheela na Gig, he was especially portrayed in church decoration, usually as a roof-boss,
where he was a constant reminder of earlier beliefs.

See also: GREEN MAN. # 441 - 454

JACK THE GIANT KILLER

A hero of nursery tales, who was thought to have flourished in Arthur's time. He commenced his career by
killing a giant whom he trapped in a pit. He was then captured by the giant Blunderboar, but he killed him
and his brothers. He also tricked a Welsh giant into killing himself. He became a servant of King Arthur's
son and in the course of his service, obtained a cap of knowledge, a wonderful sword, shoes of swiftness
and a cap of invisibility. He continued to kill giants and eventually married a duke's daughter. He was given
a noble dwelling by Arthur. There is no evidence that Jack was a genuine hero of early tales, but he may be
a composite of several such, invented around 1700. # 156 - 511

JAPAN

Like in India, Dolmens are found as far as in Japan. # 562

JAUFRÉ

This character, possibly identical with Griflet, is the hero of a romance bearing his name which tells how
Taulat came to Arthur's court, killed a knight in front of the queen and said he would return each year to do
the same. Jaufré was sent after him and, following various adventures, defeated him. Jaufré married
Brunissen, whom Taulat had made to suffer. See also: GRIFLET. # 30 - 156

JEANNIE OF BIGGERSDALE

An evil spirit of the North Riding of Yorkshire who lived at the head of the Mulgrave Woods in
Biggersdale. She was much dreaded, but one night a bold young farmer, rather flown with wine, betted that
he would rouse her from her haunt. He rode up to Mulgrave Wood and called to her to come out. She
answered angrily: 'I'm coming.' He made for the stream with her hard on his heels. Just as he got to the
water she smote at his horse and cut it clean in two. He shot over the horse's head and landed safe on the far
side, but the hindquarters of the poor beast fell on Jeannie's side of the stream. # 100

JEFFERIES, ANNE

The affair of Anne Jefferies of St Teath in Cornwall and the fairies caused a great stir, even in the troubled
times of the English Civil War. It is better documented than many other cases, which appeared only in
pamphlets. There was even a letter about her in the Clarendon Manuscripts as early as March 1647, and in
1696, while Anne was still alive, Moses Pitt, the son of Anne's old master and mistress, wrote a printed
letter to the Bishop of Gloucester in which he gives an account of Anne Jefferies' later life and of his early
memories. Moses Pitt was only a boy when Anne, at the age of nineteen, came into service to his parents.
In 1645 she fell into a fit, and was ill after it for some time, but when she recovered she declared that she
had been carried away by the fairies, and in proof of this she showed strange powers of clairvoyance and
could heal by touch. The first she healed was her mistress. Anne told of some of her fairy experiences, and
these are retold by Hunt in POPULAR ROMANCES OF THE WEST ENGLAND. # 100 - 331
JEROME, SAINT

Attestation of Saint Jerome on Celtic State of Galatia. # 562

JESCHUTÉ

In the story of Perceval we learn that his mother had told him to demand a kiss or a jewel from any lady he
met. Chrétien tells us that, coming on a girl in a tent, Perceval demanded both. Wolfram gives us further
information about the girl: her name was Jeschuté and she was the daughter of King Lac and therefore a
sister of Erec. Her husband was Orilus, Duke of Lalander. # 156 - 748

JESUS CHRIST

Legend credits Joseph of Arimathea with bringing his young nephew, Jesus, to Britain in the course of one
of his many trade-visits to these shores in search of Cornish tin. This is the source for William Blake's
JERUSALEM: 'And did those feet in ancient time/Walk upon England's mountains green?' It is remarkable
that all legends concerning Christ's connections with Britain should revolve around his youth and his death.
The main relics of the Crucifixion were said to have been brought to Glastonbury by Joseph of Arimathea,
thus establishing the Christian tradition and associations with the native Grail cult. # 454

JOAN GO-TO-'T

The mother of Merlin in the Elisabethan play THE BIRTH OF MERLIN (published 1662, but written
earlier), in whose composition Shakespeare may have had a hand. If so, it is possible that he was helped by
W. Rowley (died 1626), although Rowley may well have written the entire play. # 156

JOHFRIT DE LIEZ

The trainer of Lancelot as a warrior during his sojourn in Maidenland. # 156 - 686

JOHN'S WORT, SAINT

This (Hypericum) is one of the most beneficent of the magic herbs, protecting equally against fairies and
the Devil. Sir Walter Scott gives a rhyme spoken by a demon lover who could not approach a girl because
she was carrying Saint John's wort and verbena:

'If you would be true love mine,


Throw away John's Wort and Verbein.'

See also: PROTECTION AGAINST FAIRIES. # 100 - 585

JOHN, IVOR, B.

His opinion of Celtic mystical writings: 'All idea of a bardic esoteric doctrine involving pre-Christian
mythic philosophy must be utterly discarded... The nonsense talked upon the subject is largely due to the
uncritical invention of pseudo-antiquaries of the sixteenth to seventeenth and eighteenth centuries'. # 562

JOINT-EATER
The name given by Kirk to what the Irish call 'Alp-Luachra'; but, according to Kirk, this Joint-eater is a
kind of fairy who sits invisibly beside his victim and shares his food with him. In THE SECRET
COMMONWEALTH he says: They avouch that a Heluo, or Great-eater, hath a voracious Elve to be his
attender, called a Joint-eater or Just-halver, feeding on the Pith or Quintessence of what the Man eats; and
that therefoir he continues Lean like a Hawke or Heron, notwithstanding his devouring Appetite.

In Ireland this phenomenon is accounted for by the man having swallowed a newt when sleeping outside by
a running stream. In Douglas Hyde's BESIDE THE FIRE, there is a detailed account of a man infested by a
pregnant Alp-Luachra, and the method by which he was cleared of the thirteen Alp-Luachra by Mac
Dermott the Prince of Coolavin. In all the stories the method is the same: the patient is forced to eat a great
quantity of salt beef without drinking anything, and is made to lie down with his mouth open above a
stream, and after a long wait the Alp-Luachra will come out and jump into the stream to quench their thirst.
But this is folk-medicine, not fairylore; it is Kirk who attributes the unnatural hunger to an Elf.

See: ELVES. # 100 - 333 - 370

JONAANS

An ancestor of Lancelot, noted for his virtue, he left Britain and went to Gaul where he married the
daughter of King Maronex, from whom he obtained his kingdom. # 156 - 434 - 604

JONAS

See: CUNOMORUS, and MARK.

JONES, BRYNMOR

Findings of Brynmor Jones on origin of populations of Great Britain and Ireland. Approaching the subject
from the linguistic side, Rhys and Brynmor Jones find that the African origin - at least proximately - of the
primitive population of Great Britain and Ireland is strongly suggested. It is here shown that the Celtic
languages preserve in their syntax the Hamitic, and especially the Egyptian type. From THE WELSH
PEOPLE pp 616-664, where the subject is fully discussed, in an appendix by Professor J. Morris Jones:
'The pre-Aryan idioms which still live in Welsh and Irish were derived from a language allied to Egyptian
and the Berber tongues.' # 562

JORAM

In Wirnt von Grafenberg's WIGALOIS (a medieval manuscript), a king who left Guinevere a magic girdle,
saying she could regard it as a present or else, if she preferred, he would come and fight for it. She asked
him to do the latter. Joram came and defeated several champions, but to one of them, Gawain, he presented
it. Gawain married Joram's niece Florie. # 156 - 746

JOSEPH OF ARIMATHEA

To the biblical data about him romance adds the following: He was a soldier of Pilate who gave him the cup
from the Last Supper. After the Resurrection, he was thrown into a dungeon where Jesus appeared to him
and gave him the cup which had fallen out of his possession. After the fall of Jerusalem to Vespasian's
army, he was set free and, with his sister Enygeus and her husband, Hebron or Bron, went into exile with a
group of fellow travellers. They began to suffer from a lack of food owing to sin, so they held a banquet.
Those amongst the company who were not sinners were filled with the sweetness of the cup of Jesus, the
Grail. Bron and Enygeus had twelve sons, eleven of whom married. The twelfth, Alan, did not, so he was
put in charge of his siblings, and they went out and preached Christianity. Bron was told to become a
fisherman and was called the Rich Fisher. In Robert's version, Joseph entrusted the Grail to Bron, but did
not accompany him to Britain.

Elsewhere, we are told that Joseph crossed to Britain on a miraculous shirt. We are also informed that he
and his followers converted the city of Sarras, ruled by King Evelake who, having become a Christian, was
able to defeat his enemy, King Tholomer. According to the various sources, the city of Sarras is located
either in the East (Asia), or else in Britain. It may have been thought of as the place from which the
Saracens derived their name. (It is not known outside romance.) John of Glastonbury claims that Joseph
brought two cruets containing the blood and sweat of Jesus to Britain, but he does not mention the Grail.
The romance SONE DE NAUSAY says that Joseph drove the Saracens out of Norway, married the pagan
king's daughter and became king himself. God made him powerless and the land became blighted. Fishing
was his only pleasure and men came to call him the Fisher King. At last he was cured by a knight. He
provided for the foundation of the Grail Castle-cum-Monastery with thirteen monks, typifying Christ and
his twelve apostles.

The interpolations of William of Malmesbury's HISTORY OF GLASTONBURY say Joseph was sent to
Britain by Saint Philip who was preaching in Gaul. With regard to Gaul, there is a tradition which says that,
with Mary Magdalene, Lazarus, Martha and others, Joseph was placed in an oarless boat which was
divinely guided to Marseilles. J. W. Taylor says there is an Aquitanian legend that says Joseph was one of a
party which landed at Limoges in the first century and that there is a Spanish tale relating how Joseph, with
Mary Magdalene, Lazarus and others, went to Aquitaine. Taylor also cites a Breton tradition that
Drennalus, first bishop of Treguier, was a disciple of Joseph. Taylor adduces these traditions as part of an
attempt to show that Joseph came first to Gaul, then to Britain. It is worth noting, however, that the
tradition of Mary Magdalene and Lazarus coming to Marseilles is not now regarded seriously by most
hagiologists. - Joseph was said, not only to have come to Britain, but to have settled at Glastonbury where
he was given land by King Arviragus. A local tradition, perhaps not older than the nineteenth century says
he buried the cup of the Last Supper above the spring in Glastonbury and hence the water had a red tinge. A
tradition amongst certain metalworkers was that, sometime before the Crucifixion, Joseph actually brought
Jesus and Mary to Cornwall. Benjamin suggests that Joseph may be identical with Joachim, the father of
the Virgin Mary in the PROTEVANGELIUM OF JAMES, an apocryphal work; but the two names are quite
distinct in origin. In the ESTOIRE Joseph is given a son, Josephe. In SONE DE NAUSAY he had a son
named Adam, while Coptic tradition claims he had a daughter, Saint Josa.

To conclude this chapter we will observe that the very first page of Dugdale's Monasticon Anglicanum
contains an account which assumes the truth of the legend of the arrival in Britain of Joseph of Arimathea,
as well as of several other statements in John of Glastonbury. It is there fore worth while to quote it in
connection with the present subject. # 779: Dugdale's account commences as follows: "About sixty-three
years after the Incarnation of our Lord, St Joseph of Arimathea, accompanied by eleven other disciples of
St Philip, was despatched by that Apostle into Britain, to introduce in the place of barbarous and bloody
rites, long exercised by the bigotted and besotted druids, the meak and gentle system of Christianity. They
succeeded in obtaining from Arviragus, the British king, permission to settle in a small island, then rude
and uncultivated, and to each of the twelve was assigned for his subsistence, a certain portion of land called
a hide, comprising a district, denominated to this day THE TWELVE HIDES OF GLASTON. Their
boundaries, as well as the names of the principal places contained in them, will be found in the Appendix
(i.e. the Appendix to the Monasticon). They enjoyed all the immunities of regal dignity, from ancient times
and the first establishment of christianity in this land. One peculiar privilege which this church possessed
by the grant of king Canute, was that no subject could enter this district without the permission of the abbot
and convent. It now includes the following parishes; Glastonbury St Benedict, Glastonbury St John,
Baltonsbury, Bradley, Mere, WestPennard, and North-Wotton. "The name by which the island was
distinguished by the Britons was Ynswytryn, or the Glassy Island, from the colour of the stream which
surrounded it. Afterwards it obtained the name of Avallon, either from Aval, an apple, in which fruit it
abounded; or from Avallon, a British chief, to whom it formerly belonged. The Saxons finally called it
Glæsting-byrig. Here St Joseph, who is considered by the monkish historians as the first abbot, erected, to
the honour of the Virgin Mary, of wreathed twigs, the first Christian oratory in England." # 24 - 156 - 261 -
320 - 392 - 418 - 604 - 779
JOSEPHE

The son of Joseph of Arimathea, first mentioned in the ESTOIRE. When Joseph and his followers crossed
the sea to Britain the pure ones did so on Josephe's outspread shirt. He consecrated Alan his successor as
Grail Keeper and was buried in Scotland. The QUESTE, however, has him living long enough to give
Communion to Galahad. # 156 - 604

JOSHUA

1. The son of Brons and nephew of Joseph of Arimathea. He married the daughter of King Kalafes of the
Terre Foraine, of which he later became king. He succeeded his brother Alan as guardian of the Grail. 2.
The son of Helaius he is recorded as an ancestor of Arthur according to the pedigree of John of
Glastonbury. # 156 - 344 - 604

JOVELIN

In Gottfried, the Duke of Arundel and father of Iseult of the White Hands. # 156 - 256

JOYCE, DR. P. W.

Reference in Rolleston's CELTIC MYTH AND LEGENDS to Dr. P. W. Joyce's 'Old Celtic Romances'. To a
tale like that of Deirdre and Grania the modern taste demands a romantic and sentimental ending; and such
has actually been given to it in the retelling by Dr P. W. Joyce in his OLD CELTIC ROMANCES, as it has
to this tale by almost every modern writer who has handled it. According to Rolleston, Dr John Todhunter,
in his THREE IRISH BARDIC TALES, of modern writers alone, has kept the antique ending of the tale of
Deirdre. # 562

JOYOUS GARD

Lancelot's castle in the north of England, which he captured. After he had rescued her, he took Guinevere
there. It was originally called Dolorous Gard and later reverted to that name. # 156 - 418

JUBAINVILLE, M.

Many references in Rolleston's CELTIC MYTH AND LEGENDS to M. Jubainville as interpreter and
translator regarding Celtic traditions. # 562

JUDWAL

See: MARK.

JULAIN

In PERLESVAUS, the husband of Yglais and mother of Perceval. # 112 - 156


KADIEN

An ancestor of Arthur in the maternal pedigree found in the Welsh BONEDD YR ARWR. # 156

KADWR

A paternal ancestor of Arthur in the Mostyn MS 117. # 156

KAHEDRIN

The son of Hoel of Brittany. Tristan was his bosom friend and married his sister, Iseult of the White Hands.
Kahedrin, however, fell in love with Iseult of Ireland and wrote letters and poems to her. She replied
innocently, but Tristan misunderstood and Kahedrin had to jump from a window to avoid his wrath, landing
on a chess game which Mark was playing below. Kahedrin eventually died of love for Iseult. # 64 - 156 -
256

KAI

(Kay, or in Welsh, Cai) King Arthur's seneschal; accompanies Culhwch (Kilhwch) on his quest for Olwen;
He refuses Peredur when the latter came to Arthur's Court, and rudely repulsed him for his rustic
appearance. See: KAY. # 562

KALAALLIT NUNAAT

See: GREENLAND.

KALAFES

King of Terre Foraine who was cured of leprosy by Alan, son of Bron. He became a Christian and took the
baptismal name of Alfasein. His daughter married Joshua, another son of Bron. Kalafes was speared
through the thighs for watching the Grail service and died shortly afterwards. # 156 - 604

KALEGRAS

In the Icelandic TRISTRAMS SAGA, the name of Tristan's father and also Tristan's son by Iseult of the
White Hands, his wife. It is said that the younger Kalegras eventually became King of England. # 156 - 355

KANAHINS

Lancelot's squire. # 156 - 712

KAPALU

See: CATH PALUG.

KARADAWC

See: KARADOC.
KARADOC

An ancestor of Arthur found in two pedigrees in the Welsh BONEDD YR ARWR. He is presumably the
same as Kradoc and Karadawc found in other manuscripts. # 156

KATE CRACKERNUTS

In Briggs ENCYCLOPEDIA OF FAIRIES, I found this very unusual Orcadian tale, which she in turn had
from D. J. Robertson who had collected and published it in FOLK-LORE (sept. 1890). It is a tale of
enchantment and disenchantment, and the fairy power to draw humans into their hills and to wear out their
lives with dancing. Once upon a time there was a king and a queen, and they each had a daughter called
Kate. But the king's Kate was far bonnier than the queen's Kate, and the queen was jealous of her
stepdaughter's beauty and determined to spoil it, but the two Kates loved each other dearly. So the queen
went to the hen-wife, her wicked crony, and took council with her. 'Send the bonny burd to me one
morning, first thing,' said the hen-wife, 'and I'll spoil her beauty for her.' So next day the queen sent the
king's Kate down to the hen-wife to fetch a basket of eggs for their breakfast. It happened that Kate was
hungry, and as she passed the kitchen she snatched up a bannock and munched it on her way. She came to
the hen-wife's, and asked for the eggs. 'Go in hen and lift the lid of the pot while I get them,' said the hen-
wife. The king's Kate lifted the lid, and a great steam rose up, but she was none the worse for that. 'Go
home to your minnie,' said the hen-wife, 'and tell her to keep her larder door better snibbit.' Next day the
queen saw Kate as far as the palace door; but on the way to the hen-wife's she spoke to some reapers in the
field, and they gave her some ears of corn, which she ate as she went. Again she went home scatheless, and
then the hen-wife said: 'Tell your minnie that the pot winna boil if the fire's away.' The third day the queen
went with her to the hen-wife's, and when Kate lifted the lid of the pot, a sheep's head rose out of it and
fastened on her shoulders, covering her own pretty head. The queen was delighted, but the queen's Kate
was very angry. She wrapped her sister's head in a linen cloth, and took her by the hand, and they went out
together to seek their fortunes. They walked until they got to the next kingdom, and the queen's Kate went
to the palace, and got work as a kitchen-maid, and leave to keep her sister in the attic. The eldest son of the
king was very ill. No one knew what ailed him, and all who watched by his bed at night disappeared. When
the queen's Kate heard this she offered to watch by his bed for a peck of silver. All was quiet till midnight;
then the prince rose and dressed like one in a daze, and went out and mounted on his horse. Kate followed
him, and jumped up behind him. They rode through a close wood of hazels, and Kate picked the nuts as she
passed. Soon they came to a fairy mound, and the prince said: 'Let the prince in with his horse and hound,'
and Kate said: 'And his fair lady him behind.' And a door opened in the hillside and let them in. Kate
slipped off and hid behind the open door, but the prince went in and danced till he fainted with weakness.
When dawn came he mounted his horse, and Kate climbed up behind him. Next night she offered to watch
again for a peck of gold, and followed the prince as before. That night a little fairy boy was playing about
among the dancers, astride of a silver wand. One of the dancers said to him: 'Tak tent o' that wand, for one
stroke of it would give back the king's Kate her ain heid again.' When the queen's Kate heard that she began
to roll the nuts she had gathered out, one by one, from behind the door, till the fairy child laid down the
wand and went after them. Then she snatched it, and carried it with her when she rode back behind the
prince. When the day came, and she could leave the prince, she ran up to her attic and touched the king's
Kate with the wand, and her own looks came back to her, bonnier than ever. The third night Kate watched;
but this night she must marry the prince for her reward. She followed the prince again, and this time the
fairy child was playing with a little dead bird. 'Now mind,' said one of the dancers, 'not to lose that birdie;
for three tastes of it, and the prince would be as well as ever he was.' When Kate heard that, she rolled out
the nuts faster than before, and the fairy boy laid down the bird and went after them. As soon as they got
home Kate plucked the bird and set it down to the fire to roast. At the first smell of it the prince sat up in
bed and said: 'I could eat that birdie.' At the third mouthful he was as well as ever he had been; and he
married Kate Crackernuts, and his brother married the king's Kate, and

They lived happy, and they died happy,


And they never drank from a dry cappie.
KAY

(In Welsh: Cai) Arthur's foster-brother, son of Ector. His name is often said to be a form of the Roman
Caius, but it may be of Irish origin as suggested by R. Bromwich in TRIOEDD YNYS PRYDEIN. In
earlier sources Kay was one of Arthur's doughtier champions but, in late romance, he is given a somewhat
churlish character. Indeed, in PERLESVAUS, he murdered Arthur's son Loholt and joined Brian des Illes in
a rebellion against Arthur. He claimed that it was he, not Arthur, who pulled the sword from the stone, but
Ector compelled him to tell the truth. The obscure Welsh poem PA GUR may imply that he killed the Cath
Palug. He married Andrivete, daughter of King Cador of Northumberland. Kay is credited with sons called
Garanwyn and Gronosis and a daughter called Kelemon. His horse was named Gwinam Goddwf Hir.
Geoffrey says he was made Duke of Anjou. In the CHRONIQUES D'ANJOU ET DU MAINE by J. de
Bourdigne, we are told he was a Saxon who served Uther and hated other Saxons because, unlike them, he
was a Christian. There are different accounts of his death: throughout Welsh literature it is claimed that he
was killed by Gwyddawg who was, in turn, killed by Arthur; but he is also said to have been killed by the
Romans or in the war against Mordred. See: CASTLE KEY, and GIANT OF ST MICHEL'S MOUNT. #
112 - 156 - 221 - 418

KEELTA MAC RONAN

Summoned from the dead by Mongan; warrior and reciter, one of Finn's chief men; Finn whispers the tale
of his enchantment to Keelta mac Ronan; Oisin and Keelta mac Ronan resolve to part; he meets St Patrick;
assists Oisin bury Oscar. # 562

KEEVAN OF THE CURLING LOCKS

Lover of Cleena (q.v). # 562

KEHYDIUS

Form of Kahedrin used by Malory. # 156

KELEMON

According to Welsh tradition, a daughter of Kay. # 156

KELLIWIC

A Cornish stronghold of Arthur, it was possibly identical with Castle Killibury. Alternatively, it may have
been Callington, Celliwith or Kelly Rounds. # 26 - 156

KELLS, THE BOOK OF

'Its weird and commanding beauty; its subdued and goldless colouring; the baffling intricacy of its fearless
designs; the clean, unwavering sweep of rounded spiral; the creeping undulations of serpentine forms, that
writhe in artistic profusion throughout the mazes of its decorations; the strong and legible minuscule of its
text; the quaintness of its striking portraiture; the unwearied reverence and patient labour that brought it
into being; all of which combined to make up the Book of Kells, have raised the ancient Irish volume to a
position of abiding pre-eminence amongst the illuminated manuscripts of the world.' These were the
beginning of the introduction to the Book of Kells, originally published by The Studio Ltd. in 1920, by
Edward Sullivan. And it is almost by everyone recognized as the most brilliant and outstanding of all
known illuminated manuscripts. Whether or not the famous Book of Kells, or as it is also called the Book
of Colum Cille, was written and illuminated in the ancient town of Kells in County Meath in Ireland is a
question still unsolved. The last few leaves of the Manuscript, which in all probability would have
furnished us with full information as to scribe, illuminator, and place of origin, have been missing for many
years. # 652

KELPIE

The Kelpie or Each-Uisge was the best-known of the Scottish waterhorses which haunted rivers rather than
lochs or the sea. He could assume the shape of a man, in which he appeared like a rough, shaggy man. In
this shape he used sometimes to leap up behind a solitary rider, gripping and crushing him, and frightening
him almost to death. Before storms, he would be heard howling and wailing. His most usual shape was that
of a young horse. He played the ordinary Bogy or Bogey-beast trick of alluring travellers on to his back and
rushing with them into the deep pool, where he struck the water with his tail with a sound like thunder and
disappeared in a flash of light. He was suspected of sometimes tearing people to pieces and devouring
them. A pituresque version of the story of 'The Time is Come but not the Man' is told of the river Conan in
Sutherland, in which the Kelpie seems to figure as the hungry spirit of the river. In his horse form, the
Kelpie sometimes had a magic bridle. Grant Stewart in his POLULAR SUPERSTITIONS tells how a bold
MacGregor, nicknamed Wellox, took his bridle of the Kelpie. The Kelpie begged him to restore it. but he
kept it and used it to work magic. On the other hand, the man who put a human bridle on the Kelpie could
subdue him to his will. Chambers tells us that Graham of Morphie once bridled a kelpie and used him to
drag stones to build his new castle. When the castle was built he took off the bridle, and the poor, galled
kelpie dashed into the river, but paused in the middle to say:

'Sair back and sair banes


Drivin' the Laird o' Morphie's stanes,
The Laird o' Morphie'll never thrive
Sae lang as the Kelpie is alive!'
From then misfortune dogged the Grahams of Morphie until their lives ended.

# 100 - 621

KELTCHAR

( kelt'yar) A lord of Ulster; mac Datho's boar and Keltchar. # 562

KEMPE OWEN

The hero who rescues a maiden enchanted into the shape of a dragon and who can only be disenchanted by
being kissed three times. The step-mother in turn becomes a dragon, and is fated never to become human
again until Saint Mungo (Kentigern) comes to Britain. # 150 - 454 - 762

KENMARE RIVER

In Co. Kerry; ancient name: 'Inverskena', so called after Skena. # 562

KENNETH, SAINT CAINNECH CANICE

# 454: (525-600) After plague struck his monastery in Ireland he came to Wales, and visited Scotland. He
was an attractively forgetful character, visiting Columba with only one shoe on and forgetting his crozier on
the beach. He nevertheless restored a dead girl to life and succoured her mother after both had been lost in
the snow. He was said to have been close to animals in his hermetic period, though he had to admonish the
birds to be quiet on Sundays and expelled mice from his cell after they had eaten his shoes. He was
something of a psychic, able to foretell coming events. His feast-day is 11 October. # 678: Shirley Toulson
has him born around 516 in Keenaght, County Derry, as son of a bard who sent him to Clonard to be
educated by Finnian. Later he was to go for a short while to Wales, to study under Cadoc at Llancarfan. In
Ireland, Kenneth is remembered for the work he undertook as a scribe. At his monastery at Aghaboe (now
known as Kilkenny), which was to become the residence of the Bishops of Ossory, he made copies of the
four gospels, to which he added his own commentaries. The work was known as the CHAIN OF CANICE.
# 454 - 678

KENT

In Vortigern's time, the kingdom of Gwyrangon, but given by Vortigern to the Saxons. In the Arthurian
period Kent would seem to have been under Anglo-Saxon rule and at this time, according to the ANGLO-
SAXON CHRONICLE, may have been ruled by King Aesc, who may have been the son of Hengist who
reigned AD 488-512. William of Malmesbury says Aesc did not enlarge his father's kingdom, but had to
defend it. This implies he had a formidable foe, such as Arthur, with whom to contend. Bede says the
barbarians who settled in Kent were Jutes. # 156

KENTIGERN, SAINT

# 454: The patron saint of Glasgow, from which he proselytized in Cumbria. Folklore makes him the
grandson of Urien of Rheged. He and his mother were set adrift in a coracle but were miracously saved. He
vindicated the virtue of a queen who had given her ring to her lover: when the king demanded to see it, it
was discovered in a salmon's belly. The salmon is Kentigern's device. He was reputed to have baptized
Merlin before his death. This last story is borrowed from the legend of SUIBHNE GELT, who was
confessed by Saint Moling after a life of paganism and madness.

# 678: Jocelyn, a twelfth-century monk of Furness, who wrote a life of Kentigern, tells of the many
miracles wrought by him while he was being educated at Culross, before, as a young man, he set out on his
own mission. The story of his link with Glasgow came about through his friendship with Fergus, an old
man whom he met soon after leaving Servanus. When Fergus came to die, he was put into a cart drawn by
untamed bulls. Once these animals reached the Clyde, they refused to move further, stopping at a place
which had been hallowed by Ninian, which has since become Glasgow. There Fergus was buried, and
Kentigern hung his handbell on the branch of a tree to call the people to prayer. This story was partly told
to explain why, at such a very young age, Kentigern should have been consecrated at Bishop of Strathclyde.
Kentigern died on the Feast of Epiphany in 612, comforted, so his biographers tell us, by the glory of the
Lord, and conversing to the last with his guardian angels. He is said to have reached the astonishing age of
181. He is remembered on 13 January. # 454 - 678

KENVERCHYN

The three hundred ravens of Kenverchyn. 'And thenceforth Owain dwelt at Arthur's Court, gratly beloved,
as the head of his household, until he went away with his followers; and these were the army of three
hundred ravens which Kenverchyn had left him. And wherever Owain went with these he was victorious.
And this is the tale of the Lady of the Fountain. (There is no other mention of this Kenverchyn or of how
Owain got his raven-army, also referred to in THE DREAM OF RHONABWY. We have here evidently a
piece of antique mythology embedded in a more modern fabric.) # 562

KERRY

Murna, after the defeat and death of Cumhal, took refuge in the forests of Slieve Bloom in the King's
County, and there she bore a man-child whom she named Demna. For fear that the Clan Morna would find
him out and slay him, she gave him to be nurtured in the wildwood by two aged women, and she herself
became wife to the King of Kerry. # 562
KESAIR

(kes'ER) Gaulish princess, wife of King Ugainy the Great; grandmother of Maon. # 562

KET

Son of Maga; rallies to Maev's foray against Ulster; slings Conall's 'brain-ball' at Conor mac Nessa which
seven years after leads to his death; the Boar of mac Datho and Ket; death of Ket told in Keating's 'History
of Ireland'. # 562

KEVA OF THE WHITE SKIN

Daughter of Finn, given in marriage to Goll mac Morna. # 562

KIAN CIAN

Father of Lugh; brother of Sawan and Goban; the end of Kian. See: CIAN MAC CAINTE. # 562

KICVA

Daughter of Gwynn Gohoyw, wife of Pryderi. # 562

KILHAM

The Church of All Saints at Kilham, Humberside, has some of the most remarkable Norman magical
symbols of any northern church. One collection is on the columns which support the Norman doorway
(now protected by a porch) and among these is a pentagram (the ubiquitous fivepointed star) which has
been invested with great significance by occultists, as well as a curious human figure holding aloft what
might be a switch. Next to this figure are two roundels, now very much weathered, though it is clear that
the roundel nearest to the figure contains a fish. A similar roundel on the opposite side of the doorway
recalls the twelfth zodiacal image for Virgo, found on other churches of that period, and so we may
reasonably suppose that these roundels are the last survivors of an astrogical tradition (which was important
in that period, as the zodiac had by that time been throughly Christianized). If this is the case, the single
fish in the roundel represents Pisces, reminding us that in the huge zodiacal complex of symbolism of
Chartres Cathedral, Pisces is also represented by a single fish. The range of corbels on both the south and
the north side of the exterior are also of great symbolic interest, incorporating reliefs from a large number
of different traditions. The bear, as symbol of Christ, is from the bestiary tradition, while at least one of the
armed knights (carrying a shield) appears to be connected with the image of the Giants Gog and Magog.
One curious image, that of a two-headed man, does not figure often in Norman symbolism, but there is no
doubt that it has an ancient origin, for similar figures are found in very early Greek and even Mesopotamian
sculpture. Some specialists suggest that it may be an image of zodiacal Gemini (the sign which rules
dualities) for similar images are found in some of the medieval astrological textbooks. To the south of the
church is a sundial mounted upon a true image of fleeting time - an upright and empty stone coffin, which
some say is prehistoric, but which is probably medieval. # 702

KILHWCH CULHWCH

(kil-HUGH) Son to Kilydd and Goleuddydd; story of Olwen and Culhwch; accompanied on his quest (to
find Olwen) by Kai (Kay, or in Welsh Cai), Bedwyr (Bedivere), Kynddelig, Gwrhyr, Gwalchmai(Galahad),
and Menw. See: CULHWCH. ># 562
KILIAN

In 689, Kilian, an Irish monk from Mullagh, was martyred in Germany because he criticized the tribal king
Gozbert for marrying his brother's widow. Kilian was one of the wandering Irish missionaries who ventured
deeply into the Continent. He sailed up the River Main to Wurzeburg with eleven companions. His Feast
Day is 8 July. # 678

KILLARNEY, LAKES OF

Ancient name, Locha Lein, given to the Lakes of Killarney by Len. # 562

KILYDD

Husband of Goleuddydd, father of Kilhwch (Culhwch). # 562

KIMBAY

(Cimbaoth) Irish king; reign of Kimbay and the founding of Emain Macha; brother of Red Hugh and
Dithorba; compelled to wed Macha. # 562

KING LEAR

'Historia Regum Britaniae' furnished the subject of King Lear. # 562

KING WITH A HUNDRED KNIGHTS

One of the eleven rulers who rebelled against Arthur, this king is variously called Berrant le Apres,
Aguysans and Maleginis. DUE TRISTANI seems to imply that he came from Piacenza and that his wife
was called Riccarda. # 156 - 238 - 418

KING, JESSIE M.

Jessie M. King was an illustrator of dreams. She created a world in which both fantasy and reality blended
together to delight and arrest the mind. She drew slender knights and princesses, fairies and nymphs. She
dressed them in gowns of the finest linens and armour of burnished silver from the lands of Mists and
Fairies that had inspired the Celtic revival. # 722

KINGSBOROUGH, LORD

'Antiquities of Mexico,' example of cup-and-ring markings reproduced in his book. # 562

KINGSHIP

A king may possess wealth in gold and silver, but the king exists for his people, and uses the wealth for the
good of all, to the increase of his clan. The king does not belong to himself. His life is the life of the tribe. A
true king lives out of himself, owning no life but that which he gives to his people. Thus possessing wealth
just for his own sake would be an offence against sovereignty. For the true king exists only, the Sovereignty
of the Land and its People. # 383 p 318 ff

KIPLING, RUDYARD
Kipling wrote a number of short stories on supernatural themes, ghosts, witchcraft and curses, but his great
contribution to literature for fairy-lore was made in the two volumes, PUCK OF POOK'S HILL (1906) and
REWARDS AND FAIRIES (1910). About certain of his books he said that his demon had been at work, so
that he could not go wrong, and he rated these among them, and rightly. About the beginning of this century
fairy-tales for children had fallen into a morass of prettification and sentimentality. From the 17th century
onwards, the English fairies had been assailed by various hazards, owing to the vagaries of fashions in fairy
lore. There was first a tendency to prettification and the diminution of the fairies. The diminutive fairies of
Shakespeare (see MIDSUMMER NIGHT'S DREAM) had retained their powers and quality, Drayton's
were reduced to a courtly parody, Herrick's retained some of the phallic qualities which belonged to the
fairies as the guardians of fertility, but much emphasis was laid to their tiny size, and the Duchess of
Newcastle's dwindled into miracles of littleness. At the end of the century came the fascinating but
sophisticated stories of Perrault and Madame d'Aulnoy which proliferated into the CABINET DES FÉES,
some seventy volumes of it, growing ever further from traditional sources. In the 18th century, with the
increasing production of books specially designed for children, fairies became instruments of edification;
but there was little excuse for the gauzy fairies of the early 1900s, for the beginning of the 19th century
authentic fairy tradition became available, at first from Germany and Scandinavia, but very soon from all
over Britain: Crofton Croker and Hyde from Ireland, J. F. Campbell, J. G. Campbell and others from the
Highlands, Scott, Chambers, William Henderson from the Border Country, Hunt and Bottrell from
Cornwall, John Rhys and Wirt Sikes from Wales, to mention only a few. In literary fairy tales, too, there
were sturdier creations: Jean Ingelow's and Mrs Ewing's. In spite of all this good material, a sentimental
attitude towards children in literature communicated itself to the fairy writing. Kipling struck a ringing
blow against this. His Puck is of the real, homely Robin Goodfellow type, squat and strong and brown,
broadshouldered and pointy-eared, with a hearty contempt for the modern butterfly-winged, gauzy
impostors. The People Of The Hills have all gone, he says, and he is the last 'Old Thing' left in England. He
brings the past back to the children who have unconsciously summoned him, but there are no fairy
encounters. He tells them tales of the old gods who had sunk to fairies, of Wayland Smith in particular, and
of a human foundling adopted by the Lady Esclairmonde, King Huon's Queen, and of the Dymchurch Flit,
one chapter in the Departure of the Fairies. Otherwise it is the human past into which he admits them, and
old Sussex that he brings to life. # 100 - 368 - 369

KIRK, ROBERT

To this day, Robert Kirk, (1644-92 or 1641-92 or 1644-97) the Scottish minister and scholar, is believed to
be entrapped in the mysterious Fairy realm, or Underworld, which he described in such detail in the late
seventeenth century. His SECRET COMMONWEALTH was the first work of its kind to be published in
the English language, and it has long been a primary source for the study of Highland Fairy lore and the
Second Sight. In his work Kirk argues that there is no contradiction between contact with the Secret
Commonwealth and its inhabitants, and the practice of good Christianity. The legend about Kirk also
illustrate what is called the 'fairy stroke' or 'elf stroke'. Kirk was accustomed to wander round the fairy hills
by night, and one morning he was found unconscious on the Fairy Knowe of the Sith Bruach at Aberfoyle.
He was carried to bed, and died without fully regaining consciousness. His wife was pregnant, and the
night before his child was born a kinsman, Grahame of Duchray, dreamt that Kirk appeared to him and told
him that he was not dead but had been carried away into the fairy Knowe. If his child was christened in the
Manse, however, he would have power to appear, and if on his appearance Grahame struck his dirk into
Kirk's armchair he would be freed. It was believed that Kirk appeared as he had promised, but Grahame
faltered back at the sight of him and failed to draw his dirk, so Kirk is still a prisoner in Fairyland. In 1944
it was still said that if a child was christened in the Manse, Kirk would be disenchanted if a dagger was
stuck into his chair, which had never been moved from the Manse. Presumably he would have crumbled
into dust, but his soul would still have been freed. While traditions of fairy thefts, fairy food, elf-shot, fairy
ointment, changelings and the like remained current in England, Wales and Lowland Scotland down to the
nineteenth century, actual belief in fairies and the related Second Sight survived latest among the Gaelic-
speaking Highlanders of Scotland because they lived in the most inaccessible part of Britain, further out of
the reach of authority and more remote from 'civilizing' influences - including the English language - than
the rest of the population. Kirk had an unparalleled opportunity to study their lore. A Gaelic speaker, he was
minister of Balquidder for twenty-one years, before being called as minister to Aberfoyle, his birthplace, as
successor to his father. His unique position in the community - as pastor and as his father's son -
undoubtedly meant that sources of information were open to him that would have been closed to a mere
passing antiquarian. But was Kirk indiscreet in telling the world what he knew? The people of Aberfoyle
evidently thought so, for he had broken the age-old taboo of secrecy imposed by the fairies on those who
witnessed their doings. When his body at length was found beside The Fairy Knowe (or hill) in Aberfoyle,
traditionally a fairy dwelling, the rumour went round that it was only a 'stock', a simulacrum left by the
fairies, and that Kirk himself had been taken to live under the Fairy Knowe. Kirk writes his account of the
fairies in the flexible and distinctive prose of the seventeenth century - a prose increasingly difficult for the
general reader to comprehend. Moreover, the fullest text of Kirk's work, edited by Stewart Sanderson and
published by the Folklore Society (1976), is uncompromisingly scholarly. # 637: In 1990 R. J. Stewart's
version ROBERT KIRK - WALKER BETWEEN WORLDS was published, and it seems to this version,
which smooths out difficulties without losing the rhythms of Kirk's speech, will make him more accessible.
Kirk have been argued over the length of Scotland, and with the encou-ragement of friends, will likely do
so till Kirk, or for that matter King Arthur, returns. But Kirk's experience of that secret common-wealth of
the Hidden People must be shared with a new generation. # 100 - 370 - 633 - 637

KLINGSOR

In Wolfram, the Duke of Terre de Labur; this appears to have been in Italy as its capital was Capua. After
being castrated by King Ibert of Sicily, he became a wizard. His character is not so black as it is represented
by Wagner in his opera PARZIFAL. He is portrayed as courteous, a man whose word was his bond; one
tradition makes him a bishop. He kept Arthur's mother and other queens captive, but they were rescued by
Gawain. See: ARNIVE. # 156 - 604

KNIGHT OF THE DRAGON

See: SEGURANT.

KNIGHT OF THE FAIR COUNTRY

A brother of Arthur, he married the daughter of Earl Cornubas of Wales and was the father of the Great
Fool. # 156

KNIGHT OF THE LANTERN

Slayer of the Black Knight who was the son of the King of the Carlachs. Also, the title of the son of
Libearn. # 156

KNIGHT OF THE LION

A name given to Owain, because of his lion companion. # 156

KNIGHT OF THE OLD TABLE

See: SEGURANT.

KNIGHTS OF THE FRANC PALAIS

An order of knights founded by Perceforest, they were eventually wiped out by the Romans. # 156

KNOTWORK, CELTIC
The magic and mystery of Celtic knotwork disappeared with the people and the artists whose last traces
date back over 1,000 years.

But the fascination with their brilliantly twisted and twined knots and plaits has only grown in the centuries
since. Studying the subject, one will discover the simple geometry behind adapting a straight knotted
pattern to fill a circle, a curve or a cross. The variations and adaptions are as infinite as the endless coils of
great Celtic knotwork. This pattern is an excellent example of creative freehand geometry. The cord path is
continuous. # 45

KNOWLEDGE, NUTS OF

The Salmon of 'Nuts of Knowledge'. In a pool of the River Boyne, under boughs of hazel dripped the Nuts
of Knowledge on the stream, and here lived Fintan the Salmon of Knowledge, and whoever ate of him
would enjoy all the wisdom of ages. # 562

KOBOLD

German miners used to say they saw only the eyes of the kobolds, shining in dark holes in mines and other
underground places. Some said the kobolds were ruled by Alberich, who was the English fairy king
Oberon, spouse of Titania - which leads to the pre-Hellenic Titans or earth giants, many of whose myths
dated back to the horseriding Amazon tribes. Again, the word Kobold may have descended from Greek
Kaballoi, horse-riders. # 701 p 261

KOKAPELI

'South Western trickster god, who rules over death and life, and who bears strong resemblance to the Celtic
Taliesin'. From a letter written by John Matthews on a travel in New Mexico in 1992.

KRADOC

See: KARADOC.

KUSTENHIN

Kustenhin is an early Welsh form of the name Constantine, used to designate Constantine, grandfather of
Arthur. Kustenin and Kustennin are variant forms. # 156

KYMIDEU KYMEINVOLL

Wife of Llassar Llaesgyvnewid. # 562

KYMON

A Knight of Arthur's court. # 562

KYNAN

An ancestor of Arthur in the maternal pedigree found in the Welsh BONEDD YR ARWR. # 156

KYNDDELIG
One of Arthur's servitors; accompanies Kilhwch on his quest for Olwen. # 562

KYNOR

Variant form of Kynuawr. # 156

KYNOTUS

Arthur made Kynotus Rector of Cambridge. # 156 - 476

KYNUAWR

Arthur's great-grandfather on the paternal side, according to Mostyn MS 117. # 156

KYNVARCH

In Welsh legend the father of Urien of Rheged by Nefyn, daugther of Brychan. # 156

KYOT

(guiot) Provencal poet; Wolfram von Eschenbach tells us that he had the substance of the tale of
PARZIVAL from the Provencal poet Kyot or Guiot - 'Kyot, der meister wol bekannt' - who in his turn - but
this probably is a mere piece of romantic invention - professed to have found it in an Arabic book in
Toledo, written by a heathen named Flegetanis. # 562
LA TENÉ CULTURE

Relics found in Austria developed into La Tène Culture. See also: BRAA, THE BRONZE CAULDRON
FROM. # 562

LABIANE

The niece of King Mark, she was violated by him and, as a result, gave birth to Meraugis. Mark murdered
the unfortunate Labiane. # 30 - 156

LABRA THE MARINER

See: MAON.

LABRAID LONGSEACH

He became dumb after having been made to eat his own father's heart by his uncle. He lived in exile until
one day his speech returned while playing hurley. While in Gaul, he fell in love with Moriath, daughter of
Scoriath the King. He employed Craiftine to play a sleepinducing tune upon his harp and so slept Moriath,
whom he married. He returned to Ireland and became King of Leinster. Like Mark of Cornwall, Labraid
had horses' ears, for which he might have been deposed as a blemished king. He was successful in hiding
this defect until his barber, though sworn to secrecy, told a tree, out of whose wood a harp was fashioned
for Craiftine; it subsequently revealed the secret when played. # 208 - 454

LABRAID LUATH-LAM-AR-CLAIDIB

(lou'ri loo'ah läv ar cliv') 'Lowry Swift-Hand-on-Sword.' A fairy king of Mag Mell, husband of Liban. He
sent her to CuChulain to beg for his help in battle; in return for this he gave him his sister, Fand. # 166 -
266 - 454

LABYRINTHS AND SPIRALS

Often scratched or carved on Stone Age monuments and grave sites, the labyrinthine design apparently
represented the soul's journey into the center of the uterine underworld and its return toward rebirth. A
labyrinth was not the same as a maze. A labyrinth had only one path, winding but branchless, heading
inevitably toward the goal. Design of this type were common on ancient coins, tiles, floor patterns, and
especially tombs and sacred caves. The expanding spiral that creates and protects the centre, and the
contracting spiral which dissolves it, are both concepts implicit in the labyrinth. By the existence of the
labyrinth, the centre is created and protected. When the labyrinth is penetrated, the centre is dissolved.
Entry and dissolution occur only under the right conditions: only with the knowledge of the way. Although
often intricate in form, the labyrinth is a spiral, and one which returns. It is a representation of the cosmos
and all cosmoses, and hence of all ordered entities which correspond on the descending scale of analogy. It
is therefore, at once the cosmos, the world, the individual life, the temple, the town, man, the womb - or
intestines of the Mother (earth), the convolutions of the bram, the consciousness, the heart, the pilgrimage,
the journey, and the Way. The earliest known labyrinth is that dating from the nineteenth century BC in
Egypt; the most famous was in Minoan Crete. These, and some of the earliest spiral rock engravings from
Palaeolithic times, are reminders of man's unceasing preoccupation with the spiral order and his own spiral
development. As the labyrinth creates and dissolves, expands and contracts, so it reveals and conceals. It is
cosmos to those who know the way, and chaos to those who lose it. It is Aridne's thread, whose windings
create the world and yet enable us to unravel it - or ravel it:
I give you the end of the golden string,
Only wind it into a ball,
It will lead you in at Heaven's Gate
Built in Jerusalem's wall.
William Blake, JERUSALEM.

This is the same thread that runs through the argument whose clue (the 'clew' or ball of thread) we follow;
and, when we do not lose it, it leads us to the point. Yet it also conceals the point, disorientates us, and is
the test of our endurance and knowledge. The point or centre, in those labyrinths depicted in the pavement
floors of many medieval cathedrals, is sometimes (as it originally was at Chartres) a depiction of Theseus
and the Minotaur. The symbolism is that of the 'original' Cretan labyrinth - an initiatory hero test, the
overcoming of death at the centre, and a subsequent return or rebirth into life, a regeneration on a higher
winding. For, as it is neccessary to be born from the womb to see this world, only he who is born from
himself sees the other world. 'He who is not twice born will not ascend to the Kingdom of Heaven.' Other
cathedral labyrinths depicted the architect at the centre, sometimes symbolized in the person of Daedalus,
builder of the Cretan maze. Since treading the maze was a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in miniature, Daedalus
also represents the Divine Architect. In most labyrinths the spiral continues, and having reached the goal
and centre, it either returns to the periphery and everyday life, or emerges on the other side, as it would on
the vortex sphere of which this is a two-dimensional version. In classical times, the labyrinth, together with
its ritual circumambulation, was essential to the creation of a city. This ritual imitated or re-enacted the
original cosmic creation; for when a space is set aside or delineated it is ordered, carved out from the
surrounding chaos, and so sanctified. Troia, or Troy, is still the name of many mazes - even those on
English village greens. The spiral movement made chaos into cosmos, and protected the holy space thus
formed from illicit entry. But according to the same law by which it both concealed and revealed, it also
both protected and destroyed: hence, whereas the twice-yearly circuits of the Salii protected the city of
Rome, it was seven circumambulations that razed Jericho to the ground.

The spiral or labyrinth, depicted in ancient tombs, implies a death and re-entry into the womb of the earth,
necessary before the spirit can be reborn in the land of the dead. But death and rebirth also mean the
continuous transformation and purification of the spirit throughout life; the alchemists use the word vitriol
to stand for visita interiora terrae rectificando invenies occultum lapidem. 'Visit the interior of the earth;
through purification thou wilt find the hidden stone.' Such a descent into the underworld (the kingdom of
Pluto) is the theme of most initiation rituals, and is comparable to the passage through the wilderness, or
the 'dark night of the soul', which is experienced by mystics on their path. It is furthermore nearly always
symbolized by the spiral. Those on the columns of the Treasury of Atreus (a relic of which is still to be
found in the volutes of the Ionic column) have a further correspondence; by passing between two spiral
columns, the initiate becomes the central axis or pillar of consciousness and equilibrium, for he has thus
passed between the two opposite pillars of the Tree of Life, or between the coils of the serpents of the
caduceus, and has thereby come into direct contact with the Source of Being. The labyrinth governs (and
also constitutes) man's circuitous windings through space and time, by ordering, guiding, checking and
growing him both from and to his source. It is none other than a model of existence as we know it, a
mandala, and a two-dimensional version of the spherical vortex. # 462 - 533 - 667 - 701

LAC

King of Estregales and ruler of the Black Isles. He was a Knight of the Round Table. # 156

LADIES OF THE LAKE

Igraine, Guinevere and Morgan, who are Arthur's kindred; Argante, Nimue and Enid, who bring the
wisdom of the Otherworld; and Kundry, Dindraine and Ragnell who manifest the compassion of the Grail.
These are the Ladies of the Lake in whom the ancient Celtic Goddess is fragmented and reflected. Just as
Arthur's knights assemble about the Round Table to discover their quest, so the Arthurian Ladies gather
about the deep upon their innate gifts. And just as the mysterious element of water permeates all life, so
does the influence of the Ladies of the Lake permeate the whole Arthurian legend. They are the
empowerers, guardians and transformers whose wisdom is still accessible today. From Caitlìn and John
Matthews' envoi in their book LADIES OF THE LAKE we read this: When we look closely at the stories
of the nine Ladies of the Lake, we see that a single theme unites them all. This is one of misunderstanding,
of the inability of the world of men to read the signs aright. Thus Igraine seeks to transmit her knowledge to
Arthur and to her male kindred, and when this does not happen, due to her early separation from son and
husband, she retires to the Castle of Maidens, where men must actively seek that knowledge. Guinevere is
consistently portrayed as a betrayer, while she in fact represents the ancient Sovereignty of the land, which
becomes her secret bower. Morgan mostly presents her dark face throughout the stories, only appearing in
her complete form as the land's guardian and the agent of Arthur's inner transformation in Avalon. Argante's
role is never wholly revealed, for she remains within, guarding the secret motherland of the Lake. Her
seclusion lends her the objectivity of a neutral otherworldly observer who has full knowledge of events and
their patterns. Nimuë is seen as a sly and sexually-insatiable woman rather than as her true self: the opener
of the ways and the true mate of Merlin. Enis is pitied as a poor, helpless victim, rather than as the
delivering messenger of love who restores joy to shuttered hearts. Kundry's harsh tongue is feared, but she
speaks the words that will change the face of the land from waste land into abundant growth. Dindraine is
spurned as a weak woman with nothing to offer the Grail quest, but she perceives the Grail's imminence
and mediates its power to all. Ragnell is a compendium of all that the world has hated: she is ugly, she is
old, she is a woman. Yet she is the bright joy at the heart of all women that longs to be unchained.

Each Lady of the Lake has been misrepresented in her day. The time now comes to set the record straight.
The signposts to the magical realm of the Lake have been boarded over too long and the old proscriptions
about travelling thither are beginning to lose their authority. The vital waters are welling up within each of
us and prompting us to seek out the realm of the Lake and the ladies who sit about it. They gather about the
otherworldly waters just as the ninefold sisterhood of Celtic tradition stand about the cauldron, each gifting
the brew with a unique gift. Without the unique ingredients which each of the Ladies of the Lake provides,
the Arthurian legends would be impoverished and savourless. These are figures as powerful as any from
Classical mythology, each representing an archetypal quality which is accessible to us today. They are not,
however, merely 'psychological' archetypes: their faithful abiding transcends such a narrow definition.
Approach them with respect, learn to understand their message, give them grateful thanks.

Those who have voyaged to the Lake or drunk of the cauldron will already know the truth and justice of
this remark. We have followed a complex and often winding path to recover the stories of our ninefold
sisterhood. We hope it will lead you to explore the inner life of the Arthurian legends and the vitality which
the Ladies of the Lake bring to them. # 443

LADIS

Ruler of Lombardy in Arthurian romance. # 156

LADRA

He was the pilot of Cessair's ship and the only other man in that invasion of Ireland. He and his companion
each shared the women between them, he with sixteen, the other with seventeen, which he considered an
unjust division. However, he subsequently died from a surfeit of women, it was recorded. # 454

LADY

See: BREAD.

LADY OF THE FOUNTAIN


Title of the mysterious countess in YVAIN by Chrétien de Troyes, and in THE LADY OF THE
FOUNTAIN in the MABINOGION. When her husband was killed by Owain, she demanded that Owain
become her husband; by this means she could remain guardian of the fountain. # 272 - 418 - 454

LADY OF THE LAKE

This mysterious female gave Arthur his sword Excalibur. She stole Lancelot when a child and cured him
when he went mad. She may be a Celtic lake divinity in origin, perhaps of the same kind as the Gwragedd
Annwn, the queen of an isle of fairy maidens in the middle of an enchanted lake, where winter never comes
and no one knows sorrow, in modern Welsh folklore. In Ulrich, the fairy who raised Lancelot is the mother
of Mabuz. As Mabuz is probably identical with the Celtic god Mabon, it would seem that the fairy must be
Morgan Le Fay who was, earlier, Mabon's mother, Matrona. A lady of the lake, perhaps a different one, was
killed by Balin. She is an Goddess of great antiquity and is analogeous with Sovereignty as she guards the
Hallows of the Land. From the Otherworld she employ the power to the future kings. See also: LADIES
OF THE LAKE. # 100 - 156 - 418 - 686

LAEG

(loy-h) CuChulain's friend and charioteer; sent by CuChulain to rouse men of Ulster; visits Fairyland to
report on Fand; the Grey of Macha resists being harnessed by Laeg; slain by Lewy. # 562

LAERY

(lay'ry) 1. Son of King Ugainy the Great; treacherously slain by his brother Covac; 2. The Triumphant;
shrinks from test for the Championship of Ireland; 3. Son of Neill; sees vision of CuChulain. # 562

LAHELIN

The brother of Orilus who robbed Herzeloyde of Wales and Northgalis after Gahmuret's death. His name is
a German form of the Welsh Llewelyn. # 156 - 748

LAILOKEN

A wild man in Celtic tradition whose career bears some resemblance to that of Merlin. He was for a time at
the court of Rhydderch Hael, revealed to King Meldred that his wife was adulterous and made a prophecy
concerning his own death. It is possible Lailoken was merely a nickname for Merlin, as Lailoken resembles
the Welsh word for twin and Merlin was thought to have a twin sister. # 156 - 401 - 673

LAIRD O' CO, THE

See: VIRTUES ESTEEMED BY THE FAIRIES.

LAIRGNEN

(lerg-men) Connacht chief, betrothed to Deoca; seizes the Children of Lir. # 562

LAKE DISTRICT

S. G. Wildman has suggested that this picturesque region of Cumbria was the birthplace of Arthur or at
least the place where he was brought up. # 156 - 729
LAKE MAIDENS

See: GWRAGEDD ANNWN.

LAKE OF THE CAULDRON

Place where Matholwch met Llassar Llaesgyvnewid and his wife Kymideu Kymeinvoll. # 562

LAKE OF THE DRAGON'S MOUTH

Resort of Caer; Angus Og joins his love, Caer, at Lake of the Dragon's Mouth. # 562

LAMBOR

The King of Terre Foraine or Logres, he was killed by Brulan (Varlan) and both his and Brulan's lands were
blighted, forming the Waste Land of the Grail stories. He may be identical with Lambord, Arthur's maternal
great-grandfather in the pedigree of John of Glastonbury. # 156 - 344 - 604

LAMBORD

An ancestor of Arthur in the pedigree of John of Glastonbury. # 156 - 344

LAMBTON WORM

The Norse and Saxon word for dragon was 'worm', so the Lambton Worm were one of the North Country
dragons. Even in Somerset some of the dragons were called worms, as 'The Gurt Vurm of Shervage Wood'.
Occasionally one hears of a winged worm, and sometimes of a leggless one, but as a rule they are wingless
and lizard-like in form. The tale of the Lambton Worm is of particular interest, for we hear of its life from
the beginning to the end. William Henderson put together the particulars in FOLK-LORE OF THE
NORTHERN COUNTIES from Sharpe's BISHOPRICK GARLAND. The son of Lord Lambton in the
fourteenth century was a wild youth, and delighted to outrage public opinion. One fine Sunday morning he
was sitting fishing in full view of all the tenants going to Brugeford Chapel on the bridge over the Wear
close to Lambton Castle. He had had no luck, and just as the last of the church-goers were hurrying in, he
burst out into a stream of oaths. As the church-bell stopped he had a bite, and after a fierce struggle he
landed his catch. It was not a fish, but a creature so horrible that he took it off the hook and threw it into the
well close at hand, still called 'Worm's Well'. A stranger passing asked what sport he had had. 'I think I've
caught the Devil,' said the heir. 'Look and see what you make of him.' 'He looks like an eft,' said the
stranger, 'except that he's got nine holes round his mouth. I think he bodes no good.' And he went on. The
years went on, and the young lord seemed a sobered man, and after a while he went to the Holy Land. The
eft grew and grew, till it was too big for the well and curled itself round Worm's Hill, whence it ravaged the
country-side. They put a great trough outside the castle gates, and filled it every day with the milk of nine
cows, but that did not content it. Brave knights came to destroy the worm, but when it was cut in two it
joined together again as worms do, and it crushed the knights to death.

At length the heir returned, a Knight of Rhodes now, and was horrified to learn what his folly had done. He
was determined to destroy the worm, but when he heard how all earlier attempts had failed he went to a
wise woman to learn what he should do. She scolded him fiercely for the sufferings he had caused, but in
the end she told him exactly what he must do. First he must go to the chapel and vow to kill the first living
creature that met him on his return from the battle with the worm. If he failed to carry this out, no Lord of
Lambton for nine generations would die in his bed. Then he must go to a smith and have his armour
covered with spikes, and thirdly he must take his stand on the great rock in the middle of the river Wear,
and there he must fight the worm as he came down to drink at sunset. All this he did. He told the servants to
loose his favourite dog as soon as he blew his trumpet after the battle; then he went down to the fight. At
his first stroke the worm turned to strangle him in its folds; but the more fiercely it squeezed the more it
wounded itself, till the Wear ran red with its blood. At last he cut it in pieces, and the swiftly flowing river
carried them away before they could reunite. The heir staggered home with hardly strength to blow his
horn. But his old father, who had been waiting in terrible suspense, ran out to greet him. The heir, in horror,
blew his horn again, and the servants loosed the dog. The heir killed it with one thrust, but the condition
was broken, the father had reached him first, and for nine generations no Lord of Lambton died in his bed.
See also: WORM. ># 100 - 302

LAMMAS

Lammas means 'Feast of Bread' and derives from the pagan Lugnasad, the Celtic 'Games of Lug'. Lug was
the grain god sacrificed and resurrected to honor the Harvest Mother at the beginning of August, the month
of harvest. One of the 'games' celebrated at Tailteann was the special temporary marriage, supposed to last
only a year and a day - the usual period of the ancient lunar calendar - after which the married couple could
separate and go their own ways. - In Ireland, special 'Lammas towers' were built, and Lammas dancers
circled around a female effigy representing the Harvest Mother. Because August was particularly sacred to
the Goddess who gave life, the Scots considered it a propitious month to be born. Augusta gave gifted
children. For a Scot to say someone was born in August was not a reference to a real birthday, but rather a
compliment to a 'wellskilled person.' # 701 p 186

LAMORAK

Pellinore's son, Perceval's brother and a Knight of the Round Table. He slept with Morgause and was killed
by her son, Gawain. # 156

LANCE OF LONGINUS

# 156: The weapon used to wound Jesus on the Cross. It was carried in the Grail Procession and was also
sought by Arthur's warrior daughter, Melora.

# 544: : For 2000 years the Spear of Destiny - the sword that pierced the side of Christ on the cross - has
been held by the rulers of the western world. Herod the Great, Charlemagne, the Hapsburgs and, most
recently and ominously, Adolf Hitler, have used the legendary powers invested in the Spear. Powers of both
good and evil. Now the Spear lies in full view of all those who wish to see it, and the spiritual realities
which it symbolises are open to all mankind. In his book, THE MARK OF THE BEAST, the sequal to THE
SPEAR OF DESTINY, Trevor Ravenscroft reveal the results of many years of research into the history of
the Spear and the history of good and evil in the western world. Research pointing to a conclusion so nearly
reached at the time of World War II: that the critical phase of the apocalypse will culminate in the
reappearance of the Beast who will achieve total world conquest where Hitler failed. And only then will the
prophesy of the Revelation of St John be fulfilled: 'All the inhabitants of the earth will worship the Beast...'
See also: GRAIL LANCE. # 156 - 543 - 544

LANCELOT

# 118: The one knight of the Round Table everybody knows is not, as a matter of fact, a member of the
original cast at all. There is no trace of Lancelot, or anyone like him, in the original British-Celtic legends
of Arthur and his famous group. No one really knows how Lancelot made his way into the Arthurian cycle
(and, of course, also into the MÉNAGE A TROIS which has become the dominant feature, to many readers,
of the Camelot story). He shows up first in a twelfthcentury French manuscript as the hero of a series of
amorous adventures, none of them, however, involving anybody like Guinevere. As the Arthurian cycle
grew in popularity during the Middle Ages, Lancelot appears simply to have moved in and taken over.
# 156: 1. The grandfather of Sir Lancelot of the Lake. He married the daughter of the King of Ireland. King
Ban and King bors were his sons. 2. Arthur's champion and right-hand man. He was the son of King Ban by
his wife Elaine. After his father's death, he was left near a lake by his mother and was taken by the Lady of
the Lake, who raised him. He became Arthur's trusted companion and a Knight of the Round Table. He fell
in love with Guinevere and commenced to have an affair with her; he was also the object of the affections
of Elaine of Astolat who died of love for him. Another Elaine was the daughter of King Pelles and, when
Lancelot visited Carbonek, he saved her from a tub of boiling water. Brisen, her nurse, arranged for her to
sleep with him, while he thought she was Guinevere. As a result, Galahad was conceived. When this
happened a second time, Guinevere discovered the pair IN FLAGRANTE and sent Lancelot away from
Camelot. He went mad, but was cured by the Grail. When Guinevere was abducted by Meliagaunce, son of
King Bagdemagus, Lancelot pursued him in a cart, a humble mode of conveyance in which the knight was
reluctant to travel. He had to cross a sword bridge to reach the castle and find Meliagaunce. The two
fought, but Bagdemagus pleaded with Guinevere that his son's life would be spared, so their combat was
stopped, to be taken up again in a year's time. Later, Meliagaunce accused Guinevere of adultery with Kay.
Lancelot fought the accuser as her champion and, once again, Bagdemagus had to plead for his son's life.
Eventually, Lancelot slew Meliagaunce in combat at Arthur's court. When Lancelot and Guinevere were at
last discovered together, Lancelot fled, but returned to rescue Guinevere from the stake, killing Agravain,
Gaheris and Gareth in the process. War between him and Arthur followed but was broken off when Arthur
had to return to deal with Mordred's rebellion. This version of Lancelot's adventures, found in French
sources and Malory, differs markedly from that of Ulrich who says he was the son of King Pant of
Gennewis and his wife, Clarine. Pant was killed in a rebellion and Lancelot was stolen by a fairy and raised
in Maidenland. The fairy would not tell him his name until he had fought Iweret of Beforet. Johfrit de Liez
trained him in the use of weaponry and he married the daughter of Galagandreiz. The fairy's son Mabuz, a
wizard, was having his territory raided by Iweret. Lancelot killed Iweret and married his daughter Iblis,
with whom he had four children. He eventually won back his father's kingdom. Did Lancelot originate in
Celtic imagination or was he a Continental invention? It is popularly supposed that he has no Celtic
counterpart. His name is generally thought to be a double diminutive of the German word Land; but R. S.
Loomis has argued that Lancelot is the same character as the one called Llwch Lleminawc in PREIDDEU
ANNWFN, in which he accompanies Arthur to the Otherworld.

This expedition may be the same as the one to Ireland in CULHWCH in which Llenlleawc, an Irishman,
aids Arthur to steal the cauldron belonging to Diwrnach. The identification of Lancelot with Llwch
Lleminawc/Llenlleawc is opposed by R. Bromwich who argues that neither of these forms was used to
translate Lancelot from other languages into Welsh; for this purpose the names Lanslod and Lawnslot were
employed. However, this may not be so severe an objection as it might appear. It is possible that the
Continentals could have translated Lleminawc/Llenlleawc into the similar-sounding Lancelot but, when
Welsh writers came on this form, they may have failed to realize it represented an original Welsh name and
re-translated it as Lanslod/Lawslot. Certainly the presence of Mabuz, who is probably the Celtic god
Mabon, indicates a Celtic origin for Ulrich's story. It is thought that the basis saga of Lancelot may have
dealt with the fairy captivity episode which is common to French and German sources.

See also: COLGREVANCE, ILLE ESTRANGE and TWENTY-FOUR KNIGHTS. # 104 - 118 - 156 - 401

LANCEOR

A son of the King of Ireland whom Arthur sent to inflict retribution on Balin for slaying the Lady of the
Lake. Balin killed him and his distraught lover Colombe committed suicide. King Mark of Cornwall came
by, saw their bodies and entombed them. # 156 - 418

LANCIEN

The place of Mark's residence, now Lantyan (Cornwall). # 156

LAND FROM WHICH NO ONE RETURNS


A mysterious realm ruled by Gundebald. # 156

LAND OF SHADOWS

Dwelling-place of Skatha; CuChulain went overseas to find the Land of the Shadows and Skatha. Owing to
the similarity of the name the supernatural country of Skatha, 'the Shadowy,' was early identified with the
islands of Skye, where the CuChulain Peaks still bear witness to the legend. # 562

LAND OF THE DEAD

'Spain' a synonymous term; the western extremity of Great Britain is Land of the Dead, according to
ancient writer cited by Plutarch, and also according to Procopius. # 562

LAND OF THE LIVING

Land of the Living = Land of the Happy Dead; When Lugh came from the Land of the Living, he brought
with him many magical gifts. There was the Boat of Mananan, son of the Sea God, which knew a man's
thoughts and would travel whithersoever he would, and the Horse of Mananan, that could go alike over
land and sea, and a terrible sword named Fragarach (The Answerer), that could cut through any mail. #
562

LAND OF THE WEE FOLK

(otherwise Faylinn). See: WEE FOLK

LAND OF THE YOUNG, THE

See: TIR NAN OG.

LAND OF YOUTH

Identical with 'Land of the Dead', 'Land of the Living' q.v. see: MANANAN; Cleena once lived in The
Land of Youth; Connla's Well in the Land of Youth visited by Sinend; to this day the Land of Youth and its
inhabitants live in the imagination of the Irish peasant; mystic country of People of Dana after their
dispossession by Children of Miled; lover from the Land of Youth visits Messbuachalla, to whom she bears
Conary; Oisin returns from the Land of Youth. # 562

LANSDOWN HILL

Near Bath, this is possibly the site of the battle of Mount Badon. It was called Mons Badonicus in early
times. In the Middle Ages what was said to be Arthur's skeleton was found there. # 156

LANVAL

One of Arthur's knights. He was approached by a mystery lady who became his lover, but made him
promise to keep the matter a secret. Guinevere tried to seduce him and, when rebuffed, accused him of
making overtures to her. He was put on trial and told to produce his lover to prove he was enamoured of
someone other than the queen. He could not, but the mystery lady arrived at the last moment to save him
and they left for Avalon. His story is found in Marie de France's LANVAL (twelfth century) and in the
English works SIR LANDEVAL (fourteenth century), SIR LAMBEWELL (sixteenth century) and SIR
LAMWELL (sixteenth century). See: BLANCHARD. # 156 - 425
LAPIS EXILLIS

The name given to the Grail by Wolfram who regards it as a stone. The term means 'worthless stone' and is
probably an alchemical variant of the philosopher's stone. # 156 - 748

LAPLAND

According to Hakluyt's TRAVELS (sixteenth century), the eastern border of Arthur's empire. # 156

LAR

The dead husband of Queen Amene. His ghost guided Wigalois on his way to aid Amene against the evil
Roaz. # 156 - 746

LARIE

Daughter of Lar and Amene, she married Wigalois. # 156 - 746

LARIS

The son of Henry, Emperor of Germany, he is one of the heroes of CLARIS ET LARIS and was in love
with Marine, daughter of Urien. The rival suitor, King Tallas of Denmark, besieged Urien, Arthur arrived
and raised the siege, but Laris was captured by the Danes and had to be rescued by Claris and others. Tallas
was defeated by Arthur, and Laris became King of Denmark. See: LIDOINE. # 30 - 156

LAUDINE

The Lady of the Fountain, widow of Esclados, who married Owain. # 152 - 156

LAUFRODEDD

The knife of Laufrodedd was one of the Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain. # 104 - 156

LAW GYFFES

(low guff-EZ)

LAWNSLOT

See: LANCELOT.

LAYAMON

Translator. See: HISTORIA REGUM BRITANIAE.

LEANAN SIDHE

(lan-awn-shee) The Fairy Mistress who encounters poets and musicians inspiring them with her muse-like
power. She appears frequently in Irish poetic tradition as the central figure of the aisling or vision, in which
the poet meets her on a hillside. The music and poetry which she inspires is usually indicative of
otherworldly sadness and regret for the past glories of Ireland. # 100 - 454

LEAR

King of Britain, son of Bladud. In his old age he gave away parts of his kingdom as dowries to his
daughters, in proportion to the amount of affection they said they felt for him. Goneril and Regan both
flattered him, but Cordelia gave an honest answer, for which she was cast out, with no dowry. Both Goneril
and Regan gradually stripped him of his retinue until he had only one retainer, whereupon he fled to
Cordelia in France. He regained his kingdom with her help but died. Cordelia had him buried 'in a four-
sided grave' on the banks of the Soar, in a chamber dedicated to Janus, to which craftsmen made pilgrimage
on the first day of the year. Lear is the same as Llyr. Shakespeare's play follows the general course of the
story. See also: CORDELIA. # 243 - 454

LEBORCHAM

(lyev'ar ham) A female satirist; the messenger of Conchobar; guardian of Deirdre. # 166

LEGEND, THE CYCLES OF IRISH

Irish mythical and legendary literature, as we have it in most ancient form, may be said to fall into four
main divisions. They are in chronological order, the Mythological Cycle, or Cycle of the Invasions, the
Ultonian or Conorian Cycle, the Ossianic or Fenian Cycle, and a multitude of miscellaneous tales and
legends which it is hard to fit into any historical fra mework. # 562

LEICESTER

See: LLYR.

LEINSTER, BOOK OF

De Jubainville draws attention most appositely to a passage from the TAIN BO CUAILGNE, in the Book
of Leinster, where the Ulster heroes declare to their king, who wished to leave them in battle in order to
meet an attack in another part of the field: 'Heaven is above us, and earth beneath us, and the sea is round
about us. Unless the sky shall fall with its showers of stars on the ground were we are camped, or unless the
earth shall be rent by an earthquake, or unless the waves of the blue sea come over the forests of the living
world, we shall not give ground.' The Book of Leinster is a manuscript of the twelfth century. The version
of the Tain given in it probably dates from the eight. - Ancient tract, the 'Dinnsenchus', preserved in the
BOOK OF LEINSTER; traditional derivation of name, see CONNACHT; men of Leinster rally to Maev's
foray against Ulster; Mesroda, son of Datho, dwelt in province of Leinster. # 562

LEIX

Reavers from Leix slay Ailill Edge-of-Battle; Maelduin's desire to avenge his father send him on his
voyage to Leix. # 562

LEN OF KILLARNEY

Bôv the Red, brother of the Dagda had, it is said, a goldsmith named Len, who 'gave their ancient name to
the Lakes of Killarney, once known as Locha Lein, the Lakes of Len of the Many Hammers. Here by the
lake he wrought, surrounded by rainbows and showers of fiery dew.' (O'Grady, LOC.CIT.)# 562
LEODEGRANCE

King of Cameliard and father of Guinevere. It was he who gave the Round Table to Arthur, and was one of
his earliest supporters against the rebellious kings. # 156 - 418

LEPRECHAUN LUPRECAN

(lep'râ hôn) A pigmy= a leprechaun; the nation of pigmies. He is a folk-variant of the Fir Dhearga or the
Red Men and, like them, indulges in jokes at mortals' expense. He is often the guardian of a treasure
though, in the way of things, he rarely allows mortal adventurers to get the better of him. The modern
leprechaun is almost totally obliterated under a welter of cute Irish green-wash and has been devalued for
tourist use. # 166 - 454

LETH CUINN

(lyeh coo'in) 'Conn's Half.' The northern part of Ireland. # 166

LETHA

(lye'ha) Brittany. Sometimes the Continent in general. # 166

LEUDONUS

See: LOT.

LEVANDER

A servant of the King of Africa, he was sent by the King to help Arthur's daughter Melora on her quest. #
156 - 406

LEVARCAM LEVARCHAM

Deirdre's nurse; Conor questions Levarcam, re sons of Usna; See also: LEBORCHAM. # 562

LEWY LUGAID

Son of Curoi, CuChulain's foe; slays CuChulain outright; slain by Conall of the Victories. See also:
LUGAID. # 562

LEY LINES

In Hamish Miller's and Paul Broadhurst's book THE SUN AND THE SERPENT, John Michell writes in his
introduction: ...Travelling west from Glastonbury towards Taunton, we came across a great mound of a hill,
the Mump at Burrowbridge, also topped by a ruined church of St Michael. The road makes directly for it
and then skirts its base in a curve. From the summit of the Mump, Glastonbury Tor is visible in the distance
about 12 miles away. The spiritual link between these two hills is obvious. They appear in some way to be
in communication, and not merely between themselves but as points in a more extensive chain of
communication, conveying a type of spirit which the early Christians in Britain associated with St Michael.
Visions of Michael, as reported at St Michael's Mount in the fourth century, are traditionally in the form of
glowing apparitions, and this suggested a possible connection between the Michael spirit and the strange
lights which we had seen floating over Glastonbury Tor. As well as both being dedicated to St Michael, the
Tor and the Mump have another feature in common, their orientation. The axis of the Mump is directed
towards the Tor, where the line is continued by the old pilgrims' path along the ridge of the Tor to St
Michael's tower. This line drew attention to itself and demanded further investigation, so I extended it
further east, and the result confirmed its significance. The line went straight to the great stones at the
entrance to the megalithic temple at Avebury. In the other direction, westward, it pointed towards St
Michael's Mount by way of other prominent Michael sanctuaries. The accuracy of this alignment, precisely
between the entrance to Avebury and the summits of the Tor and Mump, was later confirmed through
geodetic calculations by Robert Forrest. Also on the line, a few miles east of Avebury, he located the church
at Ogbourne St George (St George, according to Rudolf Steiner and Tudor Pole, representing an earthly
aspect of St Michael), and his calculations showed that the western end of the line was not St Michael's
Mount, which it bypasses a short distance to the north, but a point on the coast beside Land's End, the
extreme western tip of Cornwall. From there it runs across country to bulge of East Anglia, virtually the
extreme eastern point of England. Almost half-way up the line is the great temple of Avebury.

In his book on Avebury, first published in 1743, William Stukeley was inspired to identify it as a winged
serpent temple. The serpent was formed by the two curved avenues of standing stones which met within the
Avebury circle. At the eastern end of the serpent was its head, represented by two concentric stone rings
which Stukeley called the Sanctuary. It stood on a ridge of Hackpen Hill, a name which Stukeley translated
as Serpent's Head. He interpreted the overall design as an alchemical symbol of sacred energy, created by
the Druid priests as a means of attracting divine influences and sanctifying the whole countryside. Other
associations between the serpent, as a symbol of the earth spirit, and the Avebury landscape are mentioned
in Michael Dames' very perceptive book of 1977, THE AVEBURY CYCLE. It seems natural to extend the
serpent imagery to the St Michael Line which has Avebury as its mid-point. On an early visit to
Glastonbury I painted a large mural across a wall of Gino's Abbey Café, showing the line as the spine of a
giant earth figure, a reference to William Blake's ALBION, with its eye at Eye in Suffolk, other CHAKRA
points at Avebury and Glastonbury and its feet at Land's End. Twirling round the spine were serpents
symbolising its vital energies. The only reason for mentioning this crude effort is that it was the first
illustration of the St Michael Line, and even at that early stage in its conception it had attracted to itself the
imagery of the serpent. This appeared spontaneously and I sought for no particular meaning in it. In this
book the same symbolism reappears in connection with the St Micahel Line across England, but this time it
is shown that it does indeed have meaning. Paul Broadhurst and Hamish Miller have opened a new
dimension to studies of the St Michael Line.

THE SUN AND THE SERPENT is one of the strangest, most stirring books I have ever read, and it may
prove through its implications to be one of the most important. For if the authors are correct in what they
affirm, they have uncovered in the English landscape the most remarkable of ancient secrets. If the authors
are correct... That is obviously the first thing one wants to know on reading this amazing book. Are they
deceiving us, or deluding themselves, and can their findings be checked and reproduced by other people?
The first part of this question is easy to answer. I have known Paul and Hamish long enough and well
enough to be absolutely confident in saying that they are entirely honest and straight-forward. Everyone I
have met who also knows them says just the same. They are without guile and quite incapable of wilfully
misleading anyone. Could they themselves, then, have been misled? Dowsing is an intuitive practice and
therefore to some extent subjective. Beginners soon learn how easy it is for results to be conditioned by
one's own, and even by other people's thoughts and wishes. Hamish, however, is not a beginner. He is an
experienced, self-critical dowser, much respected by the dowsing fraternity, and he is professionally alert to
the constant possibility of delusion. The fact that he is confident enough to stake his reputation on the
findings reported in this book is impressive to those who know the worth of that reputation. Paul's good
name is also at stake here. He is well aware of this, and he has watched Hamish narrowly on their journeys
along the St Michael Line, needing to be sure in his own mind that the dowsing results were genuine.
Often, unknown to Hamish, he set him tests, taking him on unfamiliar roads to see where he would pick up
the line of energy. Always the spot found was on the continuation of the line as previously established. I too
have seen Hamish at work on a section of the St Michael Line, and was impressed by his certainty. On that
occasion, other dowsers, who had acquired the 'feel' of the energy line being followed, were able
independently to confirm his results. This brings us to the question of whether other, neutral dowsers,
outside the influence of our authors, will be able to detect the energies of the St Michael Line as and where
Hamish Miller has done. Science likes experiments to be repeatable, and if the phenomenon here described
is to have scientific standing, other people also must find it. With that in mind, and to facilitate detailed
investigation of their claims, the authors offer to provide interested readers with local maps, marked with
the lines of current which thay have found. From what has been said above, there is surely a case prima
facie for taking this book at face value and allowing that there may be an energy pattern in connection with
the St Michael Line. Some readers will probably not be inclined to accept that without further evidence.
Others will hear in it the ring of truth and find that it coincides with their intuition.

Whatever one's attitude, there is plenty to enjoy in these pages. In the entire literature of antiquarian
ramblings there has never been one like this! How lucky we are in England to inhabit such a diverse,
mysterious, symbolically rich landscape. Finally we must come down to brass tacks and ask the hard
question. It is, of course, about meaning. Granted that the straight pole of St Michael Line, from the furthest
western to the furthest eastern point in England, is entwined by serpentine earth energies, what are we
supposed to think or do about it? Since I have been asked to write this Introduction, I presume that I am
allowed, even required, to contribute some personal notions. Here they are, then. We are living through a
period of revelation. In response to the dire necessities of this apocalyptic time, answering the demand for
real knowledge and wisdom, our minds and senses are receiving messages from nature - from Gaia as the
Lovelockians have it. Jung predicted this in his Flying Saucer book. In the thirty years since he wrote it, the
portents he foresaw have grown ever more numerous and insistent. The UFO phenomenon has solidified
from mere lights and rumours, now leaving its physical marks every summer in the form of energized 'crop
circles' in the field around Avebury, Warminster and other ancient parts of Wiltshire. Here again the
question of meaning arises; and it arises also in connection with modern discoveries of aligned sacred sites
('leys') throughout the world, of temples orientated astrologically to receive light and energies from certain
heavenly bodies, of the mystical science of geomancy and of the cosmological patterns and formulae which
sustained ancient civilizations. Revelations abound. Individually, and in terms of modern rationalistic
conventions, they appear meaningless. But together they amount to a statement, given directly by nature; a
statement that our present way of understanding and treating the earth is wrong, that we inhabit a living
planet and we must give it the respect due to any living creature. From that follows a quite different
perception of our relationship to nature, leading to the rediscovery of the ancient spiritual sciences. We do
not know why serpentine energies spiral around the course of the line of St Michael sites from the far west
to the far eastern end of England. Others before us have recognized the phenomenon, and they have made
their sanctuaries and pilgrimage routes in relation to the earth energies. The ancients, as Plato reminds us,
were simple people. They did not ask reasons from nature, but accepted things as they were, so that if a
certain rock was known for giving dreams and true oracles, they listened to it. Plato also emphasizes that
everything, all human science, knowledge and wisdom, originates in divine revelation. Those of us who,
from a rational point of view, have assessed the likelihood of human survival under the present regime of
thought reckon it a lost cause. Yet the rational point of view gives no prospect of revelation, and thus
prevents us from seeing what has been going on in recent years. The signs of an approaching climax of
revelation are rapidly increasing, and this book is one of them. It was not written by the authors' own
decision or for their own benefit. They were impelled to do it by those forces in nature which are now
active in disclosing knowledge, long hidden, to a generation that desperately needs it and is now ready to
accept it. "Is not that Sun thy husband and the Moon thy glimmering veil? Are not the Stars of heaven thy
children? art thou not Babylon?

Art thou Nature, Mother of all?" William Blake.

In the previous pages we have drawn from the text of only one specific book about the subject, Ley Lines.
We could easily have chosen several others just as remarkable as the literature is rich and is rapidly
growing. In the 1920s the Danish writer, Martinus, experienced a cosmic baptism of fire through which he
became his own source of light, and where he saw the Earth as a living being with the human's as its
cerebral cells, and with energy-lines throughout. What he saw through the years to come in his now
permanent cosmic conciousness, he wrote down in what is called THE THIRD TESTAMENT, LIVETS
BOG in seven volumes. This new world-picture also in details describes the chemical processes of the
living planet Earth. In 1992 the twelfth book about Earth energies or Ley lines by Paul Devereux was
published as SYMBOLIC LANDSCAPES with the subtitle, 'The Dreamtime Earth and Avebury's Open
Secrets.' Its about ancient worldviews, how they differed from ours, and why. This topic is taken both
figuratively AND literally - how did our ancestors ACTUALLY PERCEIVE the landscape. Ancient people
are still offering us their wisdom, through their sacred sites and landscapes where they have become
extinct, or through the knowledge and traditions still nurtured by their decimated descendants. This in
effect amounts to a kind of transcultural, perennial manual of how to understand our minds and our planet -
the two sides of the same coin, as this book argues. The wisdom is being offered, if we are prepared to pay
attention. The baton is being passed on: can we take hold of it? - If we do not, then we miss our last chance,
for the time of traditional and indigenous peoples is now drawing to a close, so let us from now study the
Earth as a living creature with the LEYS as its meridian lines. # 11 - 184 - 431 - 471 - 473 - 639 - 705

LIA

(lee'a) Lord of Luachar, treasurer to the Clan Morna; slain by Finn; father of Conan. # 562

LIA FAIL, THE

(lee'a fawl) See: STONE OF DESTINY.

LIADIN

She was a poet whom Cuirithir fell in love with. He remarked that a child of their union would be famous,
which offended her so much that she forsook poetry and became a nun. Cuirithir then became a monk. Both
regretted their hasty action and, though they loved each other until death, they were never again united in
the flesh. The cycle of poems telling of their pain and love is as touching and bitter as that correspondence
between the tragic lovers Abelaird and Heloise. # 454

LIAGAN

(lee'a-gan) A pirate slain by Conan mac Morna. # 562

LIANOUR

A duke, ruler of the Castle of Maidens. # 156

LIATH MACHA

(le'ah ma'ha) 'The Grey of Macha.' One of CuChulain's chariot horses. # 166

LIBAN

(le'van) # 156: 1. A daughter of King Ban and mother of illegitimate twins by Pandragus. # 166: Messenger
of Fann; wife of Labraid. # 100: 2. Liban was one of the daughters of Eochaid and presumably of Etain. In
the year 90 a sacred spring which had been sacrilegiously neglected overflowed its bounds and formed the
great water of Lough Neagh. Eochaid and all his family were overwhelmed and drowned, except his two
sons, Conang and Curman, and his daughter Liban. Liban was indeed swept away by the waters, but she
and her pet dog were supernaturally preserved and carried into a subaqueous cave where she spent a year in
her bower with no company except her little dog. She grew weary of this after a time, and prayed to God
that she might be turned into a salmon and swim around with the shoals of fish that passed her bower. God
so far granted her prayer as to give her the tail of a salmon, but from the navel upwards she retained the
shape of a beautiful woman. Her dog was turned into an otter, and the two swam round together for 300
years or more. In this time Ireland had become Christian and St Comgall had become Bishop of Bangor.
One day Comgall dispatched one of his clergy, Beoc, to Rome to consult Pope Gregory about some matters
of order and rule. As they sailed they were accompanied by a very sweet voice singing from under the
water. It was so sweet that Beoc thought that it must be an angel's voice. At that Liban spoke from under
the water and said: 'It is I who am singing. I am no angel, but Liban the daughter of Eochaid, and for 300
years I have been swimming the seas, and I implore you to meet me, with the holy men of Bangor, at Inver
Ollarba. I pray you tell St Comball what I have said, and let them all come with nets and boats to draw me
out of the sea.' Beoc promised to do as she asked, pressed on on his errand, and before the year was over
had returned from Rome, in time to tell St Comgall of Liban's prayer. On the appointed day a fleet of boats
was there, and Liban was drawn out of the water by Beoan, son of Inli. They half-filled the boat in which
she was caught with water, and crowds of people came to see her swimming around. A dispute arose as to
who had the right to her. St Comgall thought she was his as she was caught in his diocese; Beoc claimed
her because she had made her appeal to him; and even the man who had drawn her out of the sea staked his
claim. To avoid dissension all the saints of Bangor embarked on a night of fasting and prayer. An angel
spoke to them and said that on the next morning a yoke of two oxen would come to them. They were to put
Liban into a chariot and harness the oxen to it; wherever they stopped, that was the territory. It was a
method employed in many saints' legends to settle the place where a church should be erected, and the
expedient did not fail this time. The oxen drew their chariot undoubtingly to Beoc's church, Teo-da-Beoc.
There she was given her choice whether to die immediately and ascend at once to heaven or to stay on the
earth as long as she had lived in the sea, and to ascend to heaven after 300 years. She chose immediate
death. St Comgall baptized her by the name of Murgen, or 'sea-born', and she made her entry into heaven.
She was accounted one of the Holy Virgins, and signs and wonders were done through her means in Teo-
daBeoc. # 100 - 156 - 166 - 351

LIBEARN

The stepmother of Alexander, Prince of India, she turned him by magic into the Crop-Eared Dog. # 156

LICAT ANIR

A mound at Archenfield which marked the burial place of Arthur's son, Amr. The length of the mound was
said to vary each time it was measured. # 156 - 494

LICONAUS

See: ENID.

LIDOINE

In CLARIS ET LARIS, the sister of Laris and daugther of Henry, Emperor of Germany. Her first husband
was King Ladon of Gascony, a man of advancing years, after whose demise she was captured by Savari,
King of Spain. Arthur rescued her and she married Laris' companion, Claris. # 30 - 156

LIGESSAC

A fugitive from Arthur who took sanctuary with Saint Cadoc for ten years. # 156

LIGHT OF BEAUTY

See: SGEIMH SOLAIS.


LIGHTNING

Lightning became the 'Golden Lance,' Lanceor, an archaic name for Lancelot in the Grail cycle of myths. It
was also the sword Excalibur, which Geoffrey of Monmouth called Caliburn, from the Welsh Caledvwich,
Irish Caladbolg: old names for the lightning. # 701 p 343

LILE

The lady of Avalon who brought to Arthur's court a sword that only Balin could drawn from its scabbard.
When he had done so, she asked him to return it. When he refused, she foretold it would bring about his
destruction and kill his dearest friend. # 1 - 44

LINNUIS

The scene of four of Arthur's battles in the catalogue of Nennius. It may be identical with Lindsey. # 156

LINTON WORM

A worm or dragon supposed in the twelfth century to have infested the small parish of Linton in
Roxburghshire. It was probably a legless worm and had a poisonous breath, which destroyed the cattle and
men which it devoured.

It was destroyed by Somerville of Lariston, who thrust a peat dipped in burning pitch down the throat of the
monster. This not only neutralized its poisonous breath but burned out its entrails. The spiral ridges on
Wormington Hill still bear witness to the worm's dying agonies. In the same way, Assipatle killed the
Meister Stoorworm. Further details of the Linton Worm are given by William Henderson in FOLK LORE
OF THE NORTHERN COUNTIES. # 100 - 302

LION

Lions occur in various Arthurian tales. Although the animal is unknown in Britain, Boece, a historian who
lived in Scotland in the sixteenth century, claims that lions once existed in Scotland. Breunor slew one, as
did Gawain. Owain had a lion as a companion and the story of Androcles may have been an influence here.
The lions mentioned as having been slain by Kay on Anglesey in PA GUR may have been creatures of a
supernatural nature. # 156

LIONEL

The son of the elder Bors and the brother of the younger Bors, he was a fierce character to whom Arthur
gave the throne of Gaul. After Arthur's death, he was slain by Melehan, son of Mordred. See:
COLGREVANCE, and ILLE ESTRANGE. # 156 - 418

LIONES

The kingdom ruled by Meliodas, Tristan's father, thought by some to be identical with Lyonesse. In the
VULGATE VERSION, Lot is said to be its king; if this is the case then Liones is also Lothian. Its early
history is supplied by the PROSE TRISTAN: one of its kings, Pelias, was succeeded by his son, Lucius.
Lucius was succeeded by Apollo who unwittingly married his mother but later wed Gloriande. by whom he
became the father of Candaces the later king of Liones and Cornwall. # 156 - 243 - 604 - 712

LIONORS
The daughter of Sevain, she was the mother of Arthur's son, Loholt. Malory calls her the mother of Arthur's
illegitimate son Borre, possibly identical with Loholt. See: LOHOLT. # 156 - 418 - 604

LIR

(leer) 1. Sea-god, father of Mananan, and Lodan and grandparent of Sinend. 2. Cymric deity Llyr
corresponds with Lir. Lir appears in two distinct forms. In the first he is a vast, impersonal presence
commensurate with the sea; in fact, the Greek Oceanus. In the second, he is a separate person dwelling
invisibly on Slieve Fuad in Co. Armagh. We hear little of him in Irish legend, where the attributes of the
sea-god are mostly conferred on his son, Mananan. # 562

LISMORE

In 'The Dean of Lismore's Book,' by James Macgregor, Dean of Lismore is described. # 562

LISS

An area surrounded by a wall; usually the enclosure between the wall and the houses of a fortified place;
the outer court of a chieftain's dun.# 166

LISTINOISE

A kingdom that became the Waste Land when its monarch, Pellehan, was given the Dolorous Stroke. # 156

LIT MERVEILLE

A wondrous bed. Gawain went to rescue certain captives from a palace and, on entering, he saw the bed
scudding around on its own. Gawain jumped onto it and it shot from wall to wall dashing itself against
them. When it ceased its gallivanting 500 pebbles were unleashed at Gawain from slingstaves. Crossbow
bolts were then aimed at him but happily his armour was sufficient to protect him. # 156

LITTLE OLD MAN OF THE BARN, THE

See: BODACHAN SABHAILL.

LITTLE SALKELD STONE CIRCLE

Near the village of Little Salkeld in Cumbria, is the ancient stone circle dominated by a vast outlier called
Long Meg. The circle of 65 stones was probably constructed about 2,500 years ago, and is now associated
with many witchcraft legends, such as how Long Meg and her daughters, once living witches, were
petrified and stuck on this headland for all time. # 702

LITTLE WASHER BY THE FORD

A euphemistic name for the Banshee and the Bean-Nighe. # 100

LLACHEU

A son of Arthur mentioned in Welsh tradition. He was identified with Loholt, but they were probably
different characters originally. Arthur's illegitimate son by Lysanor, according to ancient Welsh texts.
Nothing is known of him except for a later medieval story which tells of his murder by Kay. His head was
sent to Arthur and Guinevere in a wooden casket. He is also called Borre or Boare in other versions. # 104 -
156 - 454

LLAMHIGYN Y DWR

(thlamheegin er doorr) (The Water-Leaper) The Water-Leaper was the villain of Welsh fishermen's tales, a
kind of water-demon which broke the fishermen's lines, devoured sheep which fell into the rivers, and was
in the habit of giving a fearful shriek which startled and unnerved the fisher man so that he could be
dragged down into the water to share the fate of the sheep. Rhys, from a second-hand account of it given
him by William Jones of Llangollen, learned that this monster was like a gigantic toad with wings and a tail
instead of legs. # 100 - 554

LLAMREI

Arthur's mare. # 156

LLASSAR LLAES GYFNEWID

(HLASS-ar lyze GUNG-wud) Husband of Kymideu Kymeinvoll, giver of magic cauldron to Bran. A giant
who lived under a lake in Ireland and emerged bearing the Cauldron of rebirth on his back. His wife
Cymidei Cymeinfoll, was twice as big as he and bore a child every six weeks. Within six more weeks each
child was as big as a fully-armed warrior. Matholwch took them both in but soon grew tired of them and
had the whole family confined in an iron house which was then heated from without. Only Llassar and his
wife escaped with the cauldron, which they then gave to Bran, with whom they settled peaceably. # 272 -
439 - 454 - 562

LLENLLEAWC

or LLWCH LLAWWYANAWC or LLEMINAWC or LLENLLAWC. The name of a companion of Arthur


in CULHWCH. An Irishman, he helped Arthur to seize the cauldron which belonged to Diwrnach. He is to
be identified with Llwch Lleminawc in PREIDDU ANNWFN. There is a possibility he was the prototype
of Lancelot. Equivalent to Llew and Lugh. # 156 - 260 - 346

LLEU

(hlye) See: LOT.

LLEVELYS - LLEFELYS

(hlev-ELL-iss) Son of Beli; story of Ludd (Nudd) and Llevelys. (THE MABINOGION). King of France.
See: DINAS EMRYS, and LLUDD. # 156 - 562

LLEW LLAW GYFFES

(hluu hlow guff-EZ) Otherwise 'The Lion of the Sure Hand.' A hero the subject of the tale 'Math Son of
Mathonwy'; identical with the Gaelic deity Lugh of the Long Arm; the flowerwife of Llew Llaw Gyffes,
named Blodeuwedd; slays Gronw Pebyr, who had betrayed him. The infant was brought up under
Gwydion's protection. Like other solar heroes, he grew very rapidly; when he was four he was as big as if
he were eight, and the comeliest youth that ever was seen. One day Gwydion took him to visit his mother
Arianrhod. She hated the children who had exposed her false pretensions, and upbraided Gwydion for
bringing the boy into her sight. 'What is his name?' she asked. 'Verily,' said Gwydion, 'he has not yet a
name.' 'Then I lay this destiny upon him,' said Arianrhod, 'that he shall never have a name till one is given
him by me.' On this Gwydion went forth in wrath. It must be remembered that Gwydion is, in the older
mythology, the father of Arianrhod's children.

He was resolved to have a name for his son. Next day he went to the strand below Caer Arianrhod, bringing
the boy with him. Here he sat down by the beach, and in his character of a master of magic he made
himself look like a shoemaker, and the boy like an apprentice, and he began to make shoes out of sedges
and seawood, to which he gave the semblance of Cordovan leather. Word was brought to Arianrhod of the
wonderful shoes that were being made by a strange cobbler, and a couple of times she sent her measures for
a pair. But Gwydion either made them too big or too small, so that she eventually had to show up herself to
be fitted. While this was going on, a wren came and lit on the boat's mast, and the boy, taking up a bow,
shot an arrow that transfixed the leg between the sinew and the bone. Arianrhod admired the brilliant shot.
'Verily,' she said, 'with a steady hand (llaw gyffes) did the lion (llew) hit it.' 'No thanks to thee,' cried
Gwydion, 'now he has got a name. LLew Llaw Gyffes shall he be called henceforward.' We have seen that
the name really means the same thing as the Gaelic Lugh Lamfada, Lugh (Light) of the Long Arm; so that
we have here an instance of a legend growing up round a misunderstood name inherited from a half-
forgotten mythology. # 562

LLONGAD GRWRM FARGOD EIDYN

The killer of Addaon, son of Taliesin. # 156 - 346

LLONGBORTH

Arthur's men took part in a battle here. The Red Book of Hergest says Gereint was killed in this fracas, but
the preferred text of the Black Book of Carmarthen does not mention this. # 156

LLUAGOR

Caradoc Briefbras's horse. # 156

LLUDD

(hlooth) (See also: NUDD.) Son of Beli, brother to Llefelys. He was King of Britain and rebuilt London
Town, which is named after him. Three plagues came upon Britain: a race called the Coronians who knew
what-ever was spoken; a shriek which was heard on May Eve and which blighted crops, killed animals and
children and made women barren; and the disappearance of the King's provisions. Lludd sought the counsel
of Llefelys, who told him that the Coronians could be overthrown by their drinking an infusion of crushed
insects in water; that the shriek was caused by dragons who were trapped at the exact centre of Britain, and
who could be overcome by strong mead then buried there; and that the thief of the provisions was a man of
power who cast sleep on the court and stole the food. Lludd overcame all three. - The story of the dragons
is analogous to those in Merlin's story, while the thief of provisions is perhaps associated with Gwyddno
Garanhir. These plagues are due to the reign of an unworthy king. # 272 - 454

LLWCH LLEMINAWC

See: LANCELOT, and LLENLLEAWC.

LLWYD AP CIL COED


# 454: The cousin of Gwawl. He set the land of Dyfed under enchantment and spirited away both Pryderi
and Rhiannon to a period of servitude in the Underworld. He was defeated by Manawyddan.

# 562: Son of Kilcoed, an enchanter; removes magic spell from seven Cantrevs of Dyfed, and from Pryderi
and Rhiannon. # 454 - 562

LLYCHLYN

Welsh name for Scandinavia but, like the analogous Irish Lochlann, it may originally have signified an
Otherworld realm. Blaes, a character in the TRIADS who is apparently identical with Blaise, the master of
Merlin, is called the son of the Earl of Llychlyn. # 156

LLYN BARFOG

A lake in Gwynedd where Arthur is said to have fought an afanc. # 156

LLYR

# 562: (thleer) In Welsh legend, father of Manawyddan; Irish equivalents, Lir and Mananan; Llyr-cester
(now Leicester) once a centre of the worship of Llyr; house of Llyr corresponds with Gaelic Lir; Penardun,
daughter of Dôn (Don), wife of Llyr. # 454: Also the father of Bran, Branwen, Efnissien and Nissien,
according to BRANWEN, DAUGHTER OF LLYR. His name means 'of the sea'. He is cognate with the
Irish Lir and King Lear of Geoffrey of Monmouth and Shakespeare, but there seems to be no
correspondence in the stories of Llyr and King Lear by Shakespeare. He is said to be one of the three
notable prisoners of Britain in the TRIADS. He is also called Lludd Llaw Ereint (Silver Hand), analogous
to Nuadu and Nodens. # 100 - 104 - 272 - 439 - 454 - 562

LLYR MARINI

An ancestor of Arthur, both paternal and maternal, who occurs in Welsh pedigrees. In origin he may have
been a divinity of the sea (Welsh: llyr) who was regarded as the ancestor of a number of royal houses. He
would seem to be the original of Shakespeare's King Lear. See: CARADOC - and CARADOC
BRIEFBRAS - and MANAWYDAN. # 57 - 156

LLYS

Llys is an old Briton word for court-designating either the place of meeting, or the meeting itself. # 383 p
166 ff

LLYWARCH HEN

A celebrated Welsh poet who may have flourished about the year AD 600. He was said to have been a
cousin of Urien of Rheged. Traditions variously place him among the North Britons or in Powys. He may
once have figured in independent tales but later been drawn into the Arthurian circle. He was listed as one
of the Twenty-Four Knights of Arthur. # 156

LOATHLY LADY

The figure of the hag, cailleach or Loathly Lady is widespread in Celtic literature from early times up to the
Arthurian cycle. Her appearance in these later stories attests to the persistent tradition of Sovereignty, who
is the personification of the land and in whose gift lies its kingship. She appears to the kingly-candidate as a
hag of hideous appearance and asks him to kiss her: his acceptance as king is thus shown, since he is
willing to embrace all that kingship entails, and the Loathly Lady becomes a fair maiden once more,
becoming his consort. In later Arthurian tradition, she appears as the Grail messenger: Sovereignty
disguised as a hag who walks the land, guiding and testing the Grail candidate. She rebukes Perceval for
failing to ask the Grail Question. She appears as Ragnell and marries Gawain (Arthur's champion and heir),
helping Arthur to successfully answer the question 'What is it women desire most?' - the answer being
Sovereignty (diminished to 'her own way' in later versions). In Parzival she becomes Cundrie in whom her
capacity for wisdom is most marked. See: NIALL OF THE NINE HOSTAGES, and LADIES OF THE
LAKE. # 152 - 185 - 438 - 454 - 461 - 507

LOCH

Son of Mofebis, champion sent by Maev against CuChulain; wounds CuChulain, but is slain by him. # 562

LOCH ASHIE, HIGHLAND

To the north-western end of Loch Ashie (north-east of Dores) is a large boulder called by the locals
'Fingal's Seat'. It is said that in ancient times the legendary Fingal (see STAFFA) led his Fianna into battle
at this spot against the Norsemen (the men of Lochlann) under their leader Ashie. According to local
tradition, this battle is re-enacted as a silent phantom-play soon after dawn on the first of May. When the
ghostly battle was observed in 1870, the curious happening was 'explained' in terms of its being a long-
distance 'mirage reflection' of men who were even at that time fighting in the Franco-Prussian war. The
same phantom battle was also seen during the First World War. An equally 'phantom' battle was said to have
been seen near a small well on the road from Uig to Portree in Skye, on 15 April 1746, with the ghost of a
young man watching the battle and lamenting. On the following day the battle of Culloden was fought, and
the Scots defeated. A few days later, the fleeing Prince Charles drank at the same small well, and the locals
immediately took the earlier vision as a presage of the disaster which occurred at Culloden. # 702

LOCH DERGDEIRC

See: PLACE NAME STORIES.

LOCH GARA

Lake in Roscommon; mac Cecht's visit to Loch Gara. # 562

LOCH RURY

Fergus mac Leda was never tired of exploring the depths of the lakes and rivers of Ireland; but one day, in
Loch Rury, he met with a hideous monster, the MUIRDRIS, or river-horse, which inhabited that lake, and
from which he barely saved himself by flying to the shore. With the terror of this encounter his face was
twisted awry; but since a blemished man could not hold rule in Ireland, his queen and nobles took pains, on
some pretext, to banish all mirrors from the palace, and kept the knowledge of his condition from him. One
day, however, he smote a bondmaid with a switch, for some negligence, and the maid, indignant, cried out:
'It were better for thee, Fergus, to avenge thyself on the river-horse that hath twisted thy face than to do
brave deeds on women!' Fergus bade fetch him a mirror, and looked in it. 'It is true,' he said; 'the river-horse
of Loch Rury has done this thing.' The conclusion may be given in the words of Sir Ferguson's fine poem
on this theme. Fergus donned the magic shoes, took sword in hand, and went to Loch Rury:

'For a day and night


Beneath the waves he rested out of sight,
But all the Ultonians on the bank who stood
Saw the loch boil and redden with his blood
When next at sunrise skies grew also red
He rose-and in his hand the MUIRDRIS' head.
Gone was the blemish! On his goodly face
Each trait symmetric had resumed its place:
And they who saw him marked in all his mien
A king's composure, ample and serene.
He smiled; he cast his trophy to the bank,
Said, 'I, survivor, Ulstermen!' and sank.'

This fine tale has been published in full from an Egerton MS., by Standish Hayes O'Grady, in his SILVA
GADELICA. The humorous treatment of the fairy element in the story would mark it as belonging to a late
period of Irish legend, but the tragic and noble conclusion unmistakingly signs it as belonging to the Ulster
bardic literature, and it falls within the same order of ideas, if it were not composed within the same period,
as the tales of CuChulain. # 504 - 562

LOCH RYVE

Maev retires to island on Loch Ryve, and is slain there by Forbay. # 562

LOCRINUS

Eldest son of Brutus. He ruled over Loegria or England. He fell in love with Estrildis, daughter of the King
of Germany, forsaking his wife Guendolena who subsequently defeated him in battle. His name is the basis
for the name of England which is used in Arthurian legend and in modern Welsh: Loegres or Logres. # 243
- 454

LODAN

Son of Lir, father of goddess Sinend. # 562

LOEG

(leekh)

LOEGAIRE

# 454: He was CuChulain's charioteer and, with him, one of the heroes whom Bririu baited at his feast, he
visited Mag Mell and there rescued its queen, Fiachna's wife from abductors. In reward, Loegaire was
given Sun-Tear for his wife. He remained in the Otherworld for a year before becoming homesick. Fiachna
gave him a horse on which to return home but before he dismounted, he realized how much better was Mag
Mell. In a variant text, he stopped a spear intended for CuChulain and died. # 166: Sedland, son of
Riangabar, was the charioteer of Loegaire, and Loeg mac Riangabra, Sedland's brother was CuChulain's
charioteer. See also: LOEGAIRE BUADACH and LOEGAIRE MAC NEILL. # 166 - 266 - 454

LOEGAIRE BUADACH

(la'â re boo'yah) 'Leary the Triumphant.' A famous hero of Ulster; son of Connad mac Iliach. # 166

LOEGAIRE MAC NEILL


(la'â re moc na'il) Leary mac Neil, king of Ireland in the fifth century; converted by St Patrick. # 166

LOGRES

The name of England in Arthurian romance. It comes from Lloegr, the Welsh name for England, perhaps
derived from Anglo-Saxon Legor, an element found in the place name of Leicester (See also LLYR). The
derivation of this Legor is puzzling. Logres remains the name for the 'inner' Britain as the secret heart of the
land. See: LOCRINUS. # 153-156 - 185 - 434 - 454 - 461

LOHENGRIN

# 156: The son of Perceval in Wolfram and one of the Grail community. Lohengrin went to Brabant in a
boat drawn by an angel, disguised as a swan, to aid Elsa the duke's daughter against Frederic de Telramund,
who claimed she had promised to marry him. Lohengrin defeated Telramund in combat and married Elsa
but cautioned her not to ask his name. They had two children but Elsa eventually posed the forbidden
question, whereupon Lohengrin left her. Lohengrin subsequently married Princess Belaye of Lizaborye, but
he was murdered by armed men sent by her parents who thought he had enchanted her. Belaye died of
grief. The country's name was changed to Lothringen (Lorraine) in his honour. Lohengrin's adventures are
told by Wolfram and in a subsequent anonymous poem (RIGOMER). # 562: Loherangrain, Knight of the
Swan. Son of Parzival. # 156 - 562

LOHOLT

A son of Arthur, he was a Knight of the Round Table. He is variously called the son of Guinevere or of
Lionors. He was murdered by Kay in PERLESVAUS, the author of which may have invented this episode.
See: LLACHEU. # 112-156

LOMBARDY

In Arthurian romance, the territory of King Ladis. This region had not yet been conquered by the
Lombards, however, in the Arthurian period. # 156

LONDON, LEGENDARY HISTORY

In 'The Aquarian Guide to Legendary London' (p 21), Nigel Pennick says: Various London legends exist
concerning the prehistoric kings of Britain, who, although recorded in medieval chronicles, are considered
by the historians of today to be nothing more than fables. For example, Bladud, father of Leir, prototype of
Shakespeare's King Lear, was reputed to be the first British monarch to die in an aviation accident.
According to THE BRITISH HISTORY, TRANSLATED INTO ENGLISH FROM THE LATIN OF
JEFFREY OF MONMOUTH by Aaron Thompson, London 1743, 'This prince was a very ingenious Man,
and taught Necromancy in his Kingdom, nor left off pursuing his Magical Operations, till he attempted to
fly to the upper Region of the Air with Wings he had prepared, and fell down upon the Temple of Apollo in
the City of Trinovantium (London), where he was dashed to pieces.' His burial-place is not recorded, but
that of King Lud is. In the nineteenth century, 'King Lud' was the pseudonym used by machinebreakers in
their vain attempts to stem the tide of the Industrial Revolution. But, unlike an alternative name for
machine-breakers, 'Captain Swing', this name was taken from one of the prehistoric kings of Britain, after
whom London was supposed to be named. According to Geoffrey of Monmouth, 'When Lud died, his body
was buried in the above-mentioned city (London), near the gateway which in the British language is still
called after him "Porthlud", though in Saxon it bears the name Ludgate.' Although the legend is discounted
now, in 1260 the gate was repaired and statues of Lud and his two sons, Androgeus and Tenuantius, were
erected there. Not far away, Billingsgate, for many centuries London's fish market, is said to be named after
King Belinus, for, when he died, his ashes were placed in a bronze (or golden) urn on top of the gate.
It is probable that the site of Lud's burial was the sepulchre of the old kings of Britain, now occupied by the
church of St Martin's within-Ludgate. This is indicated by a strange legend which tells of the body of the
Welsh king, Cadwal II (Cadwallon II of Gwynedd), penultimate King of Britain, being taken there for
burial after his death in battle. He fell with his Welsh warriors fighting on the side of the pagan Mercians
against the Christian Northumbrians at the Battle of Hefenfelth in the year 634. At the time, London was
officially pagan, having expelled Mellitus, the Archbishop, on the death of King Sebert, first Christian king
of the East Saxons, when London was re-paganized. Because of this, the archbishopric of the south of
England, which followed the old Roman imperial organization in having London as its centre, was set up at
Canterbury, where it remains to this day. If the Cadwal story is true, then it was the last recognition that a
British king should be buried at the traditional site, despite the change in rulership of London from Britain
to Saxon. An earlier royal burial, that of the Icenian queen, Boudicca, is reputed to be located under
platform 10 at King's Cross main-line station. The place where the station was built by the Great Northern
Railway in 1852 was called Battle Bridge, the alleged site of her last, fatal, battle with the Roman army.
Another of her reputed sepulchres, however, was a tumulus on Primrose Hill which in 1811 was used by the
Masonic architect John Nash as a survey-point for laying out Regent's Park. # 460

LONDON, WILLIAM BLAKE'S

Bernard Nesfield-Cookson contribute with an essay entitled 'William Blake's Spiritual Four-fold City', in
The Aquarian Guide to Legendary London (p 48). William Blake born 28 November 1757, in London, and
died, in London, on 12 August, 1827, saw the city of London as being ruled by a rigid system of
oppression, as a manifestation of a closed system in which every aspect of life is codified. No freedom of
expression, creative energy, individual feeling, thought and will, is permitted. Thus, for instance, the priest
of organized religion in Blake's poem, 'A little Boy Lost', makes a martyr of a child who cannot
comprehend and accept an abstract God somewhere above the clouds, but sees the divine both within
himself and in 'the little bird/That picks up crumbs around the door'. Any attempt to break through the rigid
boundaries of dogma and tradition is regarded by the Establishment as being dangerous.

It is impossible to know whether Blake had already begun the poem at Felpham, and, if so, how much was
written there. But as surely as Milton breathes the atmosphere of the paradisal cottage, JERUSALEM
reflects the sombre grandeur of London:

In Felpham I heard and saw the Visions of Albion


I write in South Molton Street what I both see and hear
In regions of Humanity, in London's opening streets.

This great poem, with its superb engraved pages, was to be Blake's companion over many years. During the
years in South Molton Street, JERUSALEM was Blake's life, but not his livelihood. When he left Felpham
it was understood that he was to continue to work for Hayley, and there was much correspondance on the
plates of the LIFE OF ROMNEY which was to follow Cowper's LIFE.

The bitterest irony in the story of Blake's failures and humiliations is that he was never unknown; on the
contrary, he was in the heart of London's art world, and knew all the most famous artists and engravers of
his day. And yet he failed where they succeeded, ousted by men of inferior talents and passed over by
lifelong friends. Against the really new the passive resistance of every society is mustered; and Blake's (or
Swedenborg's) New Age is even now still only in its birth-pangs. One of the stories of his last days tells us -
'his glance fell on his loving Kate, no longer young or beautiful, but who had lived with him in these and
like humble rooms, in hourly companionship, ever ready helpfulness, and reverent sympathy, for now
forty-five years... "Stay!" he cried, "Keep as you are! YOU have ever been an angel to me: I will draw
you!" And a portrait was struck off by a hand which approaching death - few days distant now - had not
weakened nor benumbed.' The last work to come from Blake's hand was this hasty pencil drawing (now
lost) of the faithful companion of his life's hard journey. He died singing his own songs of praise and joy in
the vision which illuminated his death, as it had sustained and inspired his life. # 460 - 538
LONGHCREW

Great tumulus at Loughcrew supposed burying-place of Ollav Fola. # 562

LORD

See: BREAD

LORETE

The sister of Griflet. # 156

LORICA LUIRECH

A breastplate. # 166

LOST CELTIC CHRISTIANITY

See: CELTIC CHRISTIANITY, LOST.

LOST LANDS AND SUNKEN CITIES

'Everyone who has ever studied geography at school knows the familiar outline of the British coast; an
outline that appears on modern maps showing topographical, meteorological, administrative and historical
information. But although we can be certain that on historical maps, every place-name, road and trackway
has been painstakingly checked and re-checked by eminent archaeologists, historians and archivists, the
familiar coastal outline is ever-present. Despite the meticulous research behind them, modern historical
maps of prehistoric or Roman Britain are invariably inaccurate for they fail to take account of far-reaching
changes in the coastline. Apart from the more-or-less legendary lost lands like Lyonesse, which is said to
have existed between Cornwall and the Scillies, large tracts of coastal land have vanished from mainland
Britain over the last two thousand years.' These words commences the introduction in Nigel Pennick's book
LOST LANDS AND SUNKEN CITIES (1987), and the author continues: 'Whilst some of these territories
are remembered only in folklore or legend, others are well documented, having disappeared in the last few
centuries. In some places the coastline is now several miles inland of its former position. Flourishing towns
have been obliterated, coastal farmland overwhelmed, and forest eradicated. The singular lack of readily
available information on coastal changes has made historians loath to admit their far-reaching significance,
yet, without the study of lost legends, many historical documents remain incomprehensible, and the
peculiar geographical patterns inland of now-lost territories remain anomalous. This lack of recognition
may have been born of ignorance of geophysical processes, of a false assumption that the status quo
represents an eternal state, or even from reasons of nationalistic pride; for what patriot would care to admit
that Britain, in whose defence he would die rather than yield a square inch of territory, annually lost many
acres to the sea? Whatever the reasons for this serious omission, it is a fact that the coastline has altered
drastically over the years. The data in this book has been collated from many sources: old chronicles,
ancient legends, folk-tales, Inquisition and surveys, old maps and hydrographic charts, parish records and
county histories. Sometimes fragmentary, sometimes with a wealth of detail, these accounts all testify to the
incessant battle of the sea against the land, a battle continuing at this very moment. Modern scholarship has
often found it fashionable to attempt to discredit the testimony of tradition, yet time and again local lore has
been exonerated by archaeological excavation. In the case of legendary 'treasures' in burial mounds, this
verification has been easy, but with lost lands and vanished towns the gleaning of evidence of that kind is
much more difficult. Sometimes, actual fragments of buildings are found.
In June 1981, divers studying the site of the lost city of Dunwich found a stone capital from a medieval
building over a quarter of a mile from the present shore. But such finds are rare (# 515). Comparison of old
maps with the present-day geography is usually more fruitful. Many ancient maps, despite the relative
unsophistication of ancient instruments, were tolerably accurate, and provide indicators towards areas of
study. Ptolemy's map of the British Isles, for instance, whilst considerably inaccurate for the coast of
Scotland, tallies reasonably well with the rest of the country, and has the added bonus of possessing a
record of latitudes and longitudes for important promontories. From Ptolemy's map we can adduce some
interesting observations pertinent to the understanding of coastal changes since 150 AD. Although the map
shows the Isle of Wight, it omits Anglesea, which in Roman times was separated from the mainland only by
a fordable creek. Cornwall, too, is shown considerably larger than at present, presumably because Lyonesse
was in existence then.

The Merceyside geomantic researcher Edward Cox showed the correspondences between Ptolemy's map
and the traditional extent of the lost lands bordering the Irish Sea: Morecambe Bay, too, is scarcely shown
on Ptolemy's map, which fit in precisely with the known late date of its formation. Many ancient and
Renaissance maps show a geography considerably different from that of today. During the last couple of
centuries, this varience has been viewed as fanciful invention or just plain inaccuracy, yet several modern
archaelogical cartographers have pointed out the uncanny correspondences between these ancient maps and
the Earth's geography thousands of years ago. The maps of Ptolemy, Piri Re'is, Andreas Benincasa,
Oroniaus Finaeus and Haji Ahmed have all been shown to contain features lost to knowledge in their day
but re-discovered during the twentieth century. The Zeno brothers' Map, dating, it is said, from an
exploratory voyage undertaken by the Venetians in 1380, shows much of the coastline of northern Europe
including Iceland and Greenland. In the seas around Iceland, the Zeno brothers depict several islands that
today are no more than sandbanks known for their fishing potential. According to the map, some of these
islands were inhabited with towns and cities. Perhaps we have here the last relics of more ancient maps
from which were copied the sites of Thule, Numinor and Hy-Brasil, now lost beneath the waves and
relegated to the realm of myth. In addition to maps, there are written sources. For example, it is recorded
that as late as the fourth century, the Scillies, now an archipelago of many islets, was but a single large
island. In the year 387, a heretic was banished there by the would-be Emperor Maximus. Geomantic and
geographical evidence is found in the patterns formed by seaside roads that now lead nowhere but to the
cliff or beach, which, formerly, were access to towns. The unusual distribution of megalithic chambered
tombs in Wales and Lancashire also points to the existence of lands now engulfed by the ocean. Relics of
lost lands may still be found today in the intertidal zone at low tide. The remains of forests, universally
termed 'submarine forests' have been reported on the coasts of Wales, Lancashire, Holderness, Lincolnshire,
Norfolk, Kent and Sussex. The anchorage of Selsey Bill in Sussex, known as the Park, was formerly real
parkland, full of game, presided over by a great Saxon cathedral that has long since sunk beneath the
waves. The notorious Goodwin Sands, graveyard of many a ship, formerly farmland, was overwhelmed in a
great flood, and all around the coasts were towns which once flourished and lived the colourful lives of
ports, trading centres and fishing communities. Some perished rapidly, engulfed by the raging elements,
whilst others fought a protracted rearguard action against the inexorable onward march of the waves, until
the last building was grudgingly abandoned to the victorious sea. With all the lost villages, towns and cities
documented here, it is not surprising that a whole mythology and folklore of lost lands has been built up.
Despite sometimes fanciful details, the legends almost certainly record actual events. For example, several
tell of a man riding on horseback in front of a rapidly-advancing tidal wave overwhelming his homeland.
Such a tale may appear to be an embellishment until one finds that comparable details were recorded about
the 1953 and 1978 East Anglian flood disasters. Unless they had occurred in modern times and had been
documented, they would have been dismissed as myth; like those towns whose sole relics are their names,
handed down from antiquity to the present day. Even though the construction of scientifically-designed sea
walls over the last hundred years or so has diminished the incidence of coastal destruction, there is still
much evidence of erosion. Villages stand on cliff-tops, pale fragments of their former selves. Roads lead
nowhere but over the edges of cliffs. Parishes, without churches, are reduced to a handful of fields, and
cliff-falls periodically inform us that part of these islands are still disappearing into the sea. During the
nineteenth century, it was estimated that the sea around the coast of Britain washed away land equivalent in
area to that of the old county of London. Worldwide, the estimate is twelve square miles a year.
In an era when coastal defences were less perfect, even absent, it is apparent that a not inconsiderable area
of our coastline has been claimed by the sea, and with a large number of towns and villages, each with their
own peculiar history and character. Perhaps in the distant future, some British coastal cities, whose names
are familiar in every household, might also be remembered only as 'lost cities', engulfed in some cataclysm
yet to come. There is a wealth of lore and recorded history concerning lost Britain, but space precludes
comprehensive details of every known event and anecdote. In the following pages, however, beginning at
Chapter Six, we explore the major areas of coastal losses, with their associated legends and histories, and
attempt to mention most of the known lost towns and villages that once graced these inconstant shores.'#
515 - 521

LOT

The King of Lothian, Orkney and Norway, father of Gawain and his brothers, husband of Arthur's sister
Anna (according to Geoffrey) or Morgause (according to Malory). In Geoffrey he is represented as a
supporter of Arthur, already King of Lothian, whom Arthur placed on the throne of Norway. The idea that
he was King of Orkney seems a later development. Elsewhere, however, it is stated that he took part in the
rebellion against Arthur at the start of his reign. He was killed by Pellinore and a resultant discord existed
between Lot's sons and those of Pellinore. - The name Lot (in its earlier form Leudonus) simply means
'Lothian-ruler' and need not to be taken as a personal name (see also GWYAR). It seems certain that there
was a king in the Lothian area in the fifth century whose headquarters were at Traprain Law, near
Edinburgh. - Lot's sons in Arthurian lore included Gawain, Gaheris, Agravain, Gareth and Mordred, and his
daughters were Soredamor and Clarrisant. The ENFANCES GAUVAIN says that the young Lot was a page
at Arthur's court and that he had an intrigue with Morgause, as a result of which Gawain was conceived.
The LIFE OF ST KENTIGERN says that he was the father of Thaney, Kentigern's mother - assuming that
the same Lot is being referred to. Boece claims Lot was the king of the Picts. As to his ancestry, John of
Fordun in his CHRONICA GENTIS SCOTORUM claims he was descended from Fulgentius, one of
Geoffrey's early kings of Britain. However, John of Glastonbury gives the line of descent from Petrus, one
of Joseph of Arimathea's companions. # 156

LOVEL

A son of Gawain who was one of the party that surprised Lancelot and Guinevere together. He was slain by
the escaping Lancelot. # 156

LUCAN

# 562: Triad of deities mentioned by Lucan. # 156: Arthur's butler and one of his knights. He was the Duke
of Gloucester and brother of Bedivere. After Arthur's final battle, he tried to help Bedivere to lift the king
but as he was so badly wounded, he fell dead. A variant of this is that Arthur embraced him but he was so
badly wounded that the embrace killed him. # 156 - 418 - 562

LUCHAD

(loo-chad) Father of Luchta. # 562

LUCHTA

(looh-ta) Son of Luchad; the carpenter of the Danaans. # 562

LUCIUS
1. The Roman emperor who fought against, and was defeated by Arthur. Geoffrey is rather vague as to his
actual status and calls him PROCURATOR; he implies he was inferior to the Emperor Leo in
Constantinople. Wace and Malory both style him emperor. 2. An early King of Liones, son of Pelias. See:
ALIFATIMA.# 156 - 243 - 418

LUD

See also LLUDD. He was the eldest brother of Cassivelaunus. He renamed Trinovantum as Caer Lud or
Caerlundein, later called London. He was buried near a gateway in the capital called Porthlud or Ludgate. #
243 - 454

LUDGATE

For derivation see: NUDD. # 562

LUGAID LEWY

(loo'he) Son of Cu Roi and Blanaid. He was known as the 'Son of Three Dogs' because Blanaid was
believed to have lain with Conall Cernach and CuChulain as well as her husband (Cu or Conn means dog).
He gave the death blow to CuChulain but as he struck off his head, the sword fell and cut off his own hand.
Conall Cernach avenged CuChulain's death by fighting Lugaid in single combat during which, for fairness,
he agreed to have one hand tied behind his back. See also: LEWY. # 166 - 266 - 454

LUGAID SRIAB NDERG

(loo'he sre'av nyârg) 'Lugaid of the Red Stribes.' An Ulster warrior who married Dervogil, daughter of
Ruad; later king of Ireland. # 166

LUGH

(looh), or Lugus. # 562: 1. See Apollo; the god of Light in Gaul and Ireland as Lugh; 2. Son of Cian, the
Sun-god PAR EXCELLENCE of all Celtica, the coming of Lugh; other names, Ildánach (The
AllCraftsman) and Lugh Lamfada (Lugh of the Long Arm); his eric from sons of Turenn for murder of his
father, Cian; slays Balor and is enthroned in his stead; fiery spear of Lugh; his worship widely spread over
Continental Celtica; father, by Dectera, of CuChulain; Cymric deity Llew Llaw Gyffes corresponds with
Lugh. # 238: Lugh, the Lord of Light! - The Celtic Mercury played an important part in the lives of the
Celts, being patron of (according to Caesar) all the arts, travelling and influence in commerce. A god of
many skills, or perhaps the god of the essence and distribution of skill, as war was included as an artistic
skill by the Celts; we can see this in the CuChulain saga, where the warrior's ability and his weapons and
costume are described in high poetry.

# 454: The grandson of Balor, born of Ethniu and Cian, and fostered by Manannan and Tailtiu. He was the
guardian of the spear of Gorias which killed all opponents. When the Tuatha de Danaan were oppressed by
the Fomorians, he came to their aid. He was refused entrance to the hall of their king, Nuadu, but
eventually was allowed in because he combined many skills in one person, for which he was called
Samildanach (Many-Skills). He became the Tuatha's substitute king in place of Nuadu who was a
blemished or Wounded King because he had lost his hand in battle. After Nuadu's death Lugh himself
became the Tuatha's rightful king. He killed his grandfather Balor by piercing him through his baleful eye.
He was the spiritual father of CuChulain, and fought in his son's place in order to give him rest during his
lone combat at the ford. Lugh is analogous to Llew and to the warrior Llwch Llawwynawc who helped
Arthur obtain the cauldron from Annwn. His mythos passed partially into that of Lancelot. His many
epithets describe him as being skilful with weapons and crafts. Everything about him is of the light and of
the victorious sun over darkness. # 166: Lugh was called Lamfhada ('of the long arm') or Samildanach
('many-skilled'). He was handsome and polished, unlike his father, the Dagda, who was a more primitive
deity. # 100 - 166 - 173 - 238 - 439 - 454 - 469 - 562

LUGH OF THE LONG ARM

See also LUGH. Invincible sword of Lugh; Bres, son of Balor, and Lugh; husband of Dectera and father of
Cuchulain; appears to Cuchulain and protects the Ford while his son rests; fights by his son's side; Cymric
hero Llew Llaw Gyffes corresponds with Lugh of the Long Arm. # 562

LUGH, THE BIRTH OF

On Tory Island dwelt a robber, Balor, who had one eye in the middle of his forehead and another, which
would cause the death of those he looked upon, in the back of his head. It had been revealed, by a druid,
that he would be slain by his grandson, and so confined his daughter Ethne (Ethniu) in a high tower and set
twelve women to see that she learned nothing about men. Balor coveted Glas Gaivlen, the marvellous cow
of Gavida the smith who lived on the mainland with his two brothers, Mac Samthainn and Mackinealy
(Mac Cennfaelaidh), the latter being the lord of that district. By trickery, Balor stole the cow. Then
Mackinealy, helped by a druid and a fairy, succeeded in gaining access to Ethne and in due time she gave
birth to three boys. These Balor gave to a servant to drown, but one of them fell out of the sheet in which
they were wrapped and he was taken to Mackinealy and brought up as a smith by Gavida. Mackinealy was
captured by Balor and killed. (In another version, Mackinealy sleeps with the twelve women as well; their
children fall into the water and become seals. Ethne's child does not thrive until it is taken back to Tory
Island to be nursed. In yet another version, Cian, the child's father, is told by his druid helper that the boy
will not thrive until his grandfather calls him by name. Cian engages himself as a gardener to Balor who,
however, does not like having any child near him. One day the boy very nimbly picks up some apples that
have fallen to the floor and Balor cries 'Away with you Lui* Lavada ('little longhand').' 'Oh, he has the
name now,' says Cian. After that, the boy grows wonderfully.) The remainder of the story is concerned with
the death of Balor. See also: LUGH.

* Lui=Lugaid, a derivative of Lug. # 270 - 548

LUGHNASAD

Harvest time, marked by the Autumn games of Sovereignty, when the Summer and Winter Kings often
fight. Celebrated on 1 August, this Celtic festival marked the season of harvest. Although it is named after
the god, Lugh, its origins are more closely associated with Lugh's foster-mother, Tailtiu, who laboured to
clear the plains of Ireland for agrarian use and so died. Sacred games were held in her honour at Teltown
and temporary marriages were lightly entered into, with no binding contract, though many such unions
endured. Farm-hands were hired and animals sold at this time. The reason for attaching Lugh's name to this
feast is presumably due to his association with the goddess of Sovereignty, with whom he mystically
entered into marriage and with whom he ruled from the Otherworld. Tailtiu was clearly a type of the
Goddess of the Land. # 438 - 454

LUIDEAG

(lootchak) This name, which means 'The Rag', belonged to a murderous female demon who haunted a
lochan (the Lochan of the Black Trout) in Skye. She was as squalid in appearance as she was evil in
disposition and an account of her can be found in Mackenzie: SCOTTISH FOLK LORE AND FOLK LIFE.
# 100 - 415

LUIN
(loo'in) The name of a famous spear found at the Battle of Moytura and owned, at various times, by
Celtchair and other warriors. # 166

LUNANTISHEE

Evans Wentz was told by an informant, Patrick Waters, who was enumerating the different types of fairies,
that the Lunantishee are the tribe that guards the blackthorn bushes, and will allow not a stick to be cut on
11 November (originally All Hallows Day) or on 11 May (originally May Day). If you cut blackthorn on
those days, some misfortune will befall you. Blackthorn is one of the Fairy Trees. # 100 - 711

LUNED LUNET LINET

Maiden who rescued Owain; Owain rescues her. In YVAIN by Chrétien de Troyes and LADY OF THE
FOUNTAIN in the MABINOGION, she is the servant of the Lady of the Fountain who frequently rescues
the hero from death and who appears to be possessed of magical powers. She is in turn rescued from
imprisonment under a stone by Owain/Yvain. # 153 - 272 - 454 - 562

LUNETE

Nimue's cousin. She learned magic from Nimue and put up a fountain in the Forest of Broceliande, to be
defended by her lover. # 156

LYBIUS DESCONUS

An illegitimate son of Gawain, his mother kept his ancestry a secret. He went to Arthur's court and was
made a knight. He was sent to rescue the Lady of Sinadone, which he did, accompanying the damsel Ellen.
This character is identical with Guinglain, Lybius being his nickname. Lybius Desconus means 'the Fair
Unknown One'. # 156

LYNETTE

Her sister, Lyonesse, was besieged by the Red Knight of the Red Lands. She obtained Gareth from Arthur's
court to rescue her but at first her manner towards Gareth was derisory, and improved only as the adventure
progressed. See: LAUREL. # 156 - 418

LYONESSE

1. A lady besieged by the Red Knight of the Red Lands. Gareth rescued her and in due course she married
him. 2. A lost land said to have existed beyond Cornwall. Some thought it identical with Liones, the
kingdom of Tristan's father, but this may originally have been Lothian (Leoneis), later confused with a
region of Brittany (Leonais). As to the lost land itself, a legend told that, when Arthur had fallen in his last
battle, Mordred pursued the remnant of his army into Lyonesse. The ghost of Merlin appeared, the land
sank and Mordred's forces were destroyed. Arthur's men, however, reached what are now the Isles of Scilly
and survived. Did such a land exist? Reference is made to it in Camden's SURVEY OF CORNWALL
(1602). Earlier, the medieval Arab geographer Idrisi uses the word Dns for a place that is perhaps the
Scillies. Dns may be a scribal mistake for Lns (Lyonesse). In Roman times the Scillies seem to have been a
single island partially overrun by the sea. Maybe the legends origin? See also: LOST LANDS AND
SUNKEN CITIES. # 156 - 418
MAB

The Queen of Faery. The etymology of the name is uncertain, although it has been suggested that it may be
associated with Maeve or the Welsh 'mab' for baby, since she is called the 'fairies midwife', which is her
name in Shakespeare's ROMEO AND JULIET, but in this play, she is a much less dignified person than his
Titania in A MIDSUMMER NIGHT'S DREAM. # 100 - 454

MABIN OF THE MABINOGION, THE

In republishing the work with the above title, the 'Research Into Lost Knowledge Organisation,' hope to
bring the attention of thoughtful readers a remarkable collection of knowledge which has been overlooked.
It is known that Tyndale during his work on translation of the Bible was astonished to discover the
correspondance between old Welsh and the Hebrew language. This in turn owed much to the connection of
the Hebrews with Chaldea, and to this day the folklore, customs and modes of expression in Britain show
remarkable similarities with the Near East, especially so in the west of Britain, Wales, Cornwall, the
Scottish Highlands and Ireland, to which the original people were driven by later invaders. That several of
the papers collected in the MABIN OF THE MABINOGION will scandalise some of today's scholars is
more than likely, but when we recollect how many times even in the last hundred years or so statements of
opinion have had to be altered or repudiated, we think the more liberal minded readers who are not easily
alarmed by the unfamiliar, will welcome the book and gain a deeper understanding of the appellation
"Britain the Great". These were the words by Elizabeth Leader, Founder Member of R.I.L.K.O., and here is
some extracts from the Introduction by the author Morien O. Morgan: ... 'We learn that the Rock at Horeb,
which yielded "Water" to the nation in the Wilderness, was the symbol of Christ-Messiah. (1. Cor. x. 2, 3,
4). The great apostle tells the Corinthians, who were familiar with the Ambrosia, for in their Vintage feast
in honour of the Sun's fertilising heat, under the name of Bacchus, they partook of the portion of the wine
consecrated and named Ambrosia. When St Paul states that the Rock "followed" the nation in the
wilderness, he asserts, mystically, that the Divine essence - "Water" - the Divine Ambrosia - the basis of all
created things, and, therefore, of the said Rock itself, had followed as a river. To this day in Wales it is said
of a dried up fruit of the earth. "It is devoid of Rhinwedd" (virtue) or Ambrosia.

They therefore understood perfectly Paul's meaning. ... The Druids called Ambrosia Rhin, or Virtue, of all
nourishing essences, but instead of the juice of grapes, they used the juice of apples, as well as oil, as
Ambrosia. In India Ambrosia is called Amrita, and as a fertilizer, descending through the sun, it is called in
the Bible the food of the angels, by the Gentiles, the food of the Gods, but by the Druids was regarded as
the food of Fairies. Carnal creatures take it mixed with solids and water. The "fruit" of the Tree of
Knowledge of Good and Evil is alluded to by the serpent as the food of Elohim, or Gods. (Gen. iii. 4). The
reader is reminded also of Elijah's circle of twelve stones on Mount Carmel, and then, states the Septuagint,
"poured a sea around its outward circular trench" (VIDE Homer's Iliad xviii), like that around Stonehenge,
Avebury, and each of the ancient Mounds on Salisbury Plain.' The foregoing examples, agreeing with
Druidism as a creed, induced the author to make researches with the object of discovering the common
source of the two great creeds. the results are the MABIN OF THE MABINOGION, or as it was originally
published, THE ROYAL WINGED SON OF STONEHENGE AND AVEBURY. # 777

MABINOGION, THE

(ma-bin-OG-eon) In the MABINOGION we meet the only genuine Welsh Arthurian story we possess, the
story of Culhwch and Olwen. The tales of the MABINOGION are mainly drawn from the fourteenth
century manuscript entitled 'The Red Book of Hergest'. The MABINOGION is the work in which the chief
treasures of Cymric myth and legend were collected by Lady Charlotte Guest and published in 1849, given
to the world in a translation which is one of the masterpieces of English literature. MABINOGION is the
plural form of MABINOGI, which means a story belonging to the equipment of an apprentice-bard. Strictly
speaking, the MABINOGI in the oldest volume are only the four tales given first, and which were entitled
FOUR BRANCHES OF THE MABINOGI. Later other tales were added. One of them, the romance of
Taliesin, came from another source, a manuscript of the seventeenth century. The four oldest tales in the
Mabinogion are supposed by scholars to have taken their present shape in the tenth or eleventh century.

The following tales are listed in the Mabinogion: Pwyll Lord of Dyfed- Branwen Daughter of Llyr -
Manawydan Son of Llyr Math Son of Mathonwy - The Dream of Maxen - Lludd and Llevelys Culhwch
and Olwen - The Dream of Rhonabwy Owain or The Lady of the Fountain - Peredur Son of Efrawg Gereint
and Enid - and alone of the tales in the collection called by Lady Charlotte Guest, the story of Taliesin q.v.
Four Branches of the Mabinogi: Pwyll, Branwen, Manawydan and Math, form most important part of it.
But as J. Gantz says: 'While we in fact posses only one version of each tale, it is quite possible that other,
substantially different, versions also existed at one time.' # 100: Katharine Briggs: In Culhwch and Olwen
we are half-way back to the mythological Arthur and in the land of fairy-tales where the hero is
accompanied by a picked band of strong men with magical, specialized powers to aid him in the
performance of his quest. These manuscripts appear to represent the material used by the Welsh bards or
cyfarwydd's. This was transmitted by word of mouth, and it would be centuries before it was written down,
and therefore these tales were probably very ancient indeed, as can be judged by the customs and linguistic
turns which are built into them. The word Mabinogi means: 'story of youth' or 'story'. # 100 - 237 - 562 -
772 - 773

MABON

The Young Son of Light. Mabon or Maponus, the Celtic god of liberation, harmony, unity and music. He
may have been one of the most universally worshipped deities in the Celtic world, and was at the centre of
the Druidic magical cosmology as the original Being, pre-existent, Son of the Great Mother. He is
represented in myth and legend as both a prisoner and a liberator; many other heroic and divine figures are
related to Mabon. # 562: Son of Modron - released by Arthur. # 156: In the poem PA GUR two of Arthur's
followers are so called: one the son of Modron, described as the servant of Uther Pendragon, and the other
the son of Mellt. This may be a duplication, the same character having Modron for a mother and Mellt for a
father. CULHWCH says he was abducted when he was three nights old. It was necessary for Culhwch to
find him, as part of his quest. Arthur attacked his prison, while Kay and Bedivere rescued him. Similarly
named characters are Mobonagrain in Chrétien's EREC ET ENIDE and Mabuz in Ulrichs LANZELET. In
origin, these characters are perhaps all the same. Mabon, the son of Modron, is undoubtedly the Celtic god
Maponus (perhaps the equivalent of the Irish Mac ind oc) Modron originally being the Celtic goddess,
Matrona, and Mellt perhaps a hypothetical god called Meldos. C. Matthews regards the story of Mabon as a
mystery cycle. G. Ashe argues that Merlin may have acted as a prophet of the god Maponos, while J.
Matthews feels that the history of Gawain replays the story of the god. Mabon is also referred to as a
sorcerer. See: BLONDE ESMERÉE, and MARSIQUE.

# 439: The mystery of Mabon is hard to disentangle and restore. The main textual source appears in
CULHWCH AND OLWEN. Where textual evidence is meagre it is possible to assume further facts about
Mabon from his many aliases who appear as heroes within the MABINOGION and related literature,
although we must be circumspect when drawing from secondary sources. Yet texts alone do not give us a
full picture. The cult of the Divine Youth, Maponus, was localised in both Gaul and Northern Britain. Two
place names survive: Lochmaben, a village, and Clochmabenstane, a prehistoric stone, both in
Dumfriesshire. The stone was a tribal assembly point (#564). - The Romans swiftly identified many native
deities as aspects of their own, as well as recognising the genii loci of the land in their own right. Maponus
was soon identified as a type of Apollo - a Greek aspect which the Romans retained, although they renamed
his sister Artemis as Diana. In Greek tradition, the name of Apollo, or Apple-Man, recalled the hidden
youth of Britain whose mysteries were celebrated within a circular temple, and whose cult was associated
with music and the paradisal Otherworld(#258). Apollo the Harper, has been identified closely with
Maponus (#564). - Mabon and Modron are merely titles and not names; they are honorifics. Initiates of a
particular cult always spoke of their gods in such a guarded manner, while preserving the secret names and
inner titles from the profane. - Within British tradition, 'Mabon is not only the Great Prisoner, he is also the
Immemorial Prisoner, the Great Son who has been lost for aeons and is at last found' (# 564). - Mabon is
the Wondrous Youth of Celtic tradition: like Merlin, he is the child of otherworld and earthly parents. His
cult was widespread in north-west Britain, along Hadrian's Wall. Like Angus, he is the god of youth. His
name merely means 'son' and so is a mystery title which is ascriable to many suitable local deities (# 454).
# 26 - 156 - 258 - 269 - 439 - 450 - 454 - 455 p 70 - # 562- 564

MABONAGRAIN

An opponent of Erec, Mabonagrain was a prisoner of sorts in a castle with an airy wall and he was the lover
of a lady who dwelt there. When Erec overcame hime, Mabonagrain told him to blow a horn and this freed
him from his imprisonment. It seems likely that Mabon is the original of this character, especially as the
motif of liberation from imprisonment occurs in the story. # 152 - 156

MABUZ

In Ulrich, the son of the Lady of the Lake. His territory was being raided by Iweret and Lancelot came to
succour him. He is very likely identified with Mabon; this would, in turn, identify the Lady of the Lake
with Modron/Morgan. # 156 - 686

MAC CECHT

(môc ceht') Danaan king, husband of Fohla; member of Conary's retinue at Da Derga's Hostel. Mac Cecht
has rushed over Ireland in frantic search for water. But the Fairy Folk, who are here manifestly elemental
powers controlling the forces of nature, have sealed all the sources against him. He tries the Well of Kesair
in Wicklow in vain; he goes to the great rivers - they all hide away at his approach; the lakes deny him also;
at last he finds a lake, Loch Gara, which failed to hide itself in time, and thereat he fills his cup. He
returned to the Hostel finding a reaver with Conary's head. He slew the reaver, and mac Cecht, taking up
his master's head, poured the water into his mouth. Thereupon the head spoke, and praised and thanked him
for the deed. # 166 - 562

MAC CONGLINNE, THE VISION OF

This story stands almost alone as perhaps the only extended piece of vernacular narrative from the earlier
Middle Ages that was composed expressly for humorous purposes. It is one of the wildest extravaganzas of
all literature; in fact we find nothing quite so preposterous again until we come to Rabelais. The writer
adopts the conventional literary form of those who wrote for religious edification, and composes an
uproarious satire on hagiography, ecclesiastical mendicancy, and royal gluttony. In his higher moments he
throws overboard his satirical purpose for the sake of his gastronimical cadenzas. The piece is at least as
old as the twelfth century and perhaps even more ancient. The vigor of the burlesque spirit is closely akin to
that in THE FEAST OF BRICRIU, one of the earlier tales of the Ulster cycle. # 166

MAC CUILL (QUILL)

Danaan king, husband of Banba. # 562

MAC DATHO

(moc' da ho') A king in Leinster; owner of a famous hound. # 166

MAC DATHO'S PIG, THE STORY OF

# 166: This is a remarkably picturesque narrative. The action is swift, the dialogue spirited, and the climatic
arrangement of the episodes highly effective. The plot is based on the ancient Celtic practice of assigning
the choicest portion at feasts to the guest who could most successfully establish his superiority over his
fellows. It is of interest to note that the author, writing as early as the ninth or tenth century, thought of the
enmity between Ulster and Connacht as extending back into remote antiquity. Incidentally, 'The Story of
Mac Datho's Pig' is one of the few sagas of the Ulster cycle in which CuChulain does not appear. The scene
was laid in Leinster, and the saga is brought in Cross' and Slover's ANCIENT IRISH TALES.

# 236: Although 'The Tale of Macc Da Thó's Pig' (The title in Irish, as Jeffrey Gantz put it in his 'Early Irish
Myths and Sagas), with its feasting and fighting, may seem the quintessential Ulster Cycle story, its
antiquity is open to doubt. Every other important figure of the Ulster Cycle - Ailill, Medb and Cet of the
Connachta; Conchobar, Fergus, Loegure, Conall Cernach and all the Ulaid warriors- is present; but
CuChulain is not only absent, he is not even mentioned. One could argue (as Cross and Slover does it
above) that CuChulain is a late addition to the traditions of the Ulaid and that this story predates his arrival.
There are, however, other puzzling elements. The pig of the title is so large that forty oxen can be laid
across it; such a beast could be mythic in origin, but it could also be satiric. In 'The Cattle Raid of
Cuailnge', Ulaid and Connachta go to war over a mythic beast, the finest bull in Ireland; in this tale, the two
provinces fall out over a dog. Macc Da Tho promises the dog to both Ulaid and Connachta, then feigns
innocence when they show up to collect on the same day. During the bragging contest for the right to carve
the pig, the Ulaid warriors - the heroes of any ordinary Ulster Cycle story - not only are shamed but are
made to look ridiculous: Loegure has been speared and chased from the border, Oengus's father has had his
left hand cut off, Eogan has had an eye put out, and so on. And Fer Loga's demand that the nubile women
of Ulaid sing 'Fer Loga Is My Darling' to him every night is so comical its inclusion cannot possibly be
inadvertent. Some of the rhetorical verse is old and obscure; but it is hard to resist the conclusion that 'The
Tale of Macc Da Thó's Pig' is a later story, a parody of the Ulster Cycle in general and of 'The Cattle Raid
of Cuailnge' in particular. # 166 - 236

MAC GRENÉ

Danaan king, husband of Eriu. Mythical name of the Son of the Sun. # 562

MAC IND OC

(moc' in og') See: ANGUS.

MAC KERVAL, DERMOT

Rule of Dermot mac Kerval in Ireland, and the cursing of Tara. See: DERMOT. # 562

MAC PHERSON

Pseudo-Ossian poetry by Mac Pherson. # 562

MAC ROTH

Maeve's steward named Mac Roth, and the Brown Bull of Quelgny. He said to Maeve: 'The Brown Bull of
Quelgny, that belongs to Dara son of Fachtna, is the mightiest beast that is in Ireland'. And after that Maeve
felt as if she had no flocks and herds that were worth anything at all unless she possessed the Brown Bull of
Quelgny. The Brown Bull is the Celtic counterpart of the Hindu sky-deity, Indra, represented in Hindu
myth as a mighty bull, whose roaring is the thunder and who lets loose the rains 'like cows streaming forth
to pasture.' # 562

MACHA

(mak-kha) An aspect of the Morrighan. Macha herself appeared in three guises:


1. Macha, wife of Nemed;
2. Macha the Red,
3. Macha, wife of Crunnchu.

The last mentioned was the silent wife of a farmer who came from the Otherworld. She imposed one
condition upon her husband - that he should not mention her to anyone. The king boasted that his horses
were the swiftest but Crunnchu said that Macha was faster. She was made to run a circuit against the horses
when she was about to give birth. She won the race, and after delivering her two children, cursed Ulster
saying that when its greatest need was upon it, all its warriors would suffer the weakness of a woman in
childbirth for five days and four nights, to the ninth generation. It was so that CuChulain defended Ulster
single-handed, because he was not descended from the stock of Ulster. Emain Macha (The Twins of Macha
in the centre at the foundation of the kingdom of Ulster) was named after her, and the name is redolent to
the Irish student of legendary splendour and heroism. Macha the Red was the battle-aspect of the Morrigan
and it was upon the Pole of Macha that the heads of slaughtered men were stuck. The legend of Macha tells
that she was the daughter of Red Hugh, an Ulster prince who had two brothers, Dithorba and Kimbay. They
agreed to enjoy, each in turn, the sovereignty of Ireland. Red Hugh came first, but on his death Macha
refused to give up the realm and fought Dithorba for it, whom she conquered and slew. She then, in equally
masterful manner, compelled Kimbay to wed her, and ruled all Ireland as Queen. Macha was no mere
woman, but a supernatural being offering support for the worthy, but cursed the unworthy with magical
spells. One of the triple forms taken by the ancient Irish war goddess Badb.

All are in the shape of Royston or hoodie crows. Macha is a fairy that 'riots and revels among the slain', as
Evans Wentz puts it in his analysis of Badb's triple form. # 100 - 166 - 367 - 439 - 454 - 562

MACSEN WLEDIG

See: MAXEN WLEDIG.

MADAGLAN

A king in PERLESVAUS, who, after the death of Guinevere, demanded that Arthur yield him the Round
Table as he was Guinevere's relation; otherwise, he required Arthur to marry his sister. He was twice
defeated by Lancelot. # 112 - 156

MADOC

In the poem YMDDIDDAN ARTHUR A'R ERYR, Arthur's nephew, Eliwlod, appears in the shape of an
eagle. Eliwlod's father is called Madoc, implying that Madoc was Arthur's brother-in-law. A possible
reference to Madoc, son of Uther, appears in the BOOK OF TALIESIN. A Madoc or Maduc appears as an
opponent of Arthur in French romance. See: TALIESIN. # 156

MADOC AP OWAIN GWYNEDD

A Welsh prince who discovered America in the twelfth century. Southey wrote a long poem about this
legend. George Catlin, the nineteenthcentury artist who lived among the indians of the Mid-West, found
supposed traces of European ancestors among their customs. # 454

MADOR

# 156: A Knight of the Round Table and Grail quester, surnamed de la Porte (of the Door). In EACHTRA
MHELORA he is called the son of the King of the Hesperides.
# 454: Cousin of Sir Patrice, a knight who was murdered, his death blamed on Guinevere. In fury and
anguish at his cousin's death he challenges the knights who defend the Queen, but fortunately the real
culprit is discovered and slain by Lancelot, and Guinevere willingly forgives her would-be accuser. # 156 -
418 - 454

MADRUN MATRIANA

(fifth century) She was said to be the daughter of Vortimer, Vortigern's son who fled with her son Ceidio,
from Caerwent to Cornwall where she died. Her story may be vaguely derived from the lost myth of
Modron. Madrun is depicted fleeing from battle carrying her son. Her feast-day is 9 April. # 454

MAELDUIN, THE VOYAGE OF

The Immram upon which the CELTIC BOOK OF THE DEAD is based is Immram curaig Maelduin inso or
The Voyage of Maelduin's boat. This text was transcribed in the eight or ninth century, although later
transcriptions exist. Apart from the VOYAGE OF BRAN, it is the earliest immram story. Many incidents in
the VOYAGE OF ST BRENDAN are reworkings of scenarios found in the Maelduin story. The son of a
nun who was raped by his father, Ailill Edge of Battle. He desired to go in search of his father's murderers,
and so made a skin-boat and sailed on a great voyage among the Blessed Islands q.v. where he encountered
many islands q.v., including Tir na mBan, where he and his crew would have stayed, but for their
homesickness for Ireland. Many of the islands are similar to those visited by Brendan. See: BRAN, and
BRENDAN, and ISLANDS, and BLESSED ISLANDS. # 282 - 416 - 437 p 18 ff - # 454

MAELGWYN

See: MELKIN.

MAEN ARTHUR

The name of a stone which can no longer be identified which had a hollow in it where Arthur's horse had
stepped. It was in the vicinity of Mold (Clwyd). Another stone called Maen Arthur Wood near Llanafan
(Dyfed). # 156

MAEVE MEDB

# 562: Queen of Connacht; Angus Og seeks aid of Maeve; debility of Ultonians manifested on occasion of
Cattle-raid of Quelgny; Fergus seeks aid of Maeve; her famous bull Finnbenach, and her efforts to secure
the Brown Bull of Quelgny; host of Maeve spreads devastation through the territories of Bregia and
Murthemney; she offers her daughter Findabair of Fair Eyebrows to Ferdia if he will meet CuChulain;
Conor summons men of Ulster against Maeve; She is overtaken but spared by CuChulain; she makes seven
years peace with Ulster; vengeance of Maeve against CuChulain; Maeve retires to island of Loch Ryve; she
is slain by Forbay.

# 454: She was originally the woman of Conchobar whom she left for Ailill. She coveted the Brown Bull
owned by the Ulsterman Daire. When he refused to give it to her she appointed the disaffected Ulster
warrior, Fergus mac Roigh to attack Ulster. They succeeded in their attempt to raid the Bull because the
Ulstermen were suffering from the debility brought upon them by Macha's curse. Only CuChulain was able
to hold the ford against them and he was eventually killed by the help of the daughters of Calatin. Maeve
was renowned for her lust for men, taking her lovers indiscriminately. In antiquity she may have
represented the earthly Sovereignty in her own person.
# 769: Medb's very promiscuity marks her as a goddess, symbolic of the fertility of Ireland. She is the
personification of the land itself and its prosperity. Other indications of her divinity include her ability to
shape-shift between young girl and aged hag: in the story of Niall of the Nine Hostages, Medb appears to
Niall as a crone guarding a well. She gives him water, and he agrees to mate with her; she is immediately
transformed into a beautiful young woman, who grants him the kingship of Ireland. The goddess of
sovereignty could also be a deity of death, and Medb possesses this characteristic also. She brings about the
death of CuChulain and of her own husband Ailill, infuriated (though hardly fairly) by his infidelity. She
incites the former Ulster hero, Conall Cernach, to murder him on the Feast of Beltaine. Medb has other
supranormal traits: she has animal attributes, in the form of a bird and a squirrel who perch on her shoulder;
she can run very fast; and she is able to deprive men of their strength simply by her presence.

Medb's death is described in an 11th century text: she is killed by her nephew, Furbaidhe, whose mother,
Clothra, has been murdered by Medb. Her death is somewhat bizarre: she is killed by a sling-shot with a
lump of hard cheese. # 100 - 166 - 266 - 367 - 454 - 562 - 769

MAG

(môy) A plain. # 166

MAG BREG

(môy bräg) 'The Plain of Bray'. A district formerly comprising most of eastern Meath; said to have been
named after Breaga, son of Breogan and uncle of Mil. # 166

MAG MELL

The pleasant plain in which gods and immortal heroes lived and sported. Manannan speaks of it to Bran
mac Febal as the 'plains' of the sea wherein otherworldly folk move as on land: its fish are its flocks, its
vegetation are its forests, while its chariots are ships. The fairy Otherworld; a beautiful land of perpetual
spring and sunshine, the Land of Youth (Tir na n-Og). # 166 - 434 - 454

MAG MOR

The great plain: the heartland of the gods where men and maidens lived together without shame, where
music always sounded, where possessions were unknown and where the ale was more intoxicating than the
best produced in Ireland. # 454

MAG MUIRTHEMNE

(môy moor'hev ni) A plain extending from the River Boyne to the mountains of Cualgne; CuChulain's
inheritance. # 166

MAG SLECHT

(moy slackd)

MAG TUIREADH

(moy-TOO-ra)

MAG TURED, THE SECOND BATTLE OF


The central heroic tale of the group dealing with the Tuatha De Danann and the so-called Mythological
Cycle is THE SECOND BATTLE OF MAG TURED (MOYTURA). The text, though not so early in date
as most of the stories of the Ulster cycle, still preserves much of the rugged strength and directness for
which the older tales are admired. It also exhibits something of the rough exaggerated humor of the earlier
texts. The diversity of material, the repetitions, and the contradictions all go to show thet the story as we
now have it is a compilation made up of a number of independent narratives. # 166

MAGA

Daughter of Angus Og, wife of Ross the Red. Also wedded to Druid Cathbad. # 562

MAGIC

# 160: Celtic magic is an ancient practice firmly rooted in the Celtic pantheon, Nature and the Elements,
and just the words Celtic Magic conjure up pictures of Druids and mystical oak groves, daring Irish
warriors existing cheek to cheek with fairies, elves and ancient deities who took an active part in the lives
of their worshippers.

# 562: Traces of magic found in Megalithic monuments. Clan Calatin learn magic in Ireland. Alba and
Babylon magic to practise against CuChulain.

# 612: The tradition of the arcane and the mysterious cleaves to certain races so naturally as to make it
seem an inherent and inalienable possession. The magic of Arabia, the secret doctrines of India and the
runic mysteries of Scandinavia are salient expressions of racial affinity with the mystical and the
marvellous. But to na race, Lewis Spence maintain, was it given to cultivate a higher or keener sense of
spiritual vision or of the fantastically remote than to the Celtic. It has indeed justified the claim by the
production of a literature which casts back to the seventh and eighth centuries of our era, and is
unsurpassed in fantasy and weirdly delicate invention. Later Celtic popular stories and folk-tales reflect and
continue this distinction in the primitive yet brilliant simplicity and remote strangeness of their subject-
matter and narrative quality. And as if unexhausted by the conception in its Irish sphere of a series of sagas
unmatched for magical charm among the world's mythologies, the Celtic tradition addressed itself in its
later heyday in the island of Britain to the transformation of these older materials into a body of romance
which, because of its noble excellence, its amazement of marvel and incident and its almost divine
sentiment of chivalry, made every land in Europe its spiritual tributary. To the Celtic sense of wonder and
the generous ideals which accompanied it as expressed in the Arthurian epic, the folk of the Empire of
Britain, both in these islands and in the Britain oversea, are vastly more indebted than even the wisest
among us suspects. The writers of antiquity were at one in realizing the native superiority of the Celtic
mind in the science of Magic. Pliny remarks that the Britain of his day (the first among the new centuries)
"celebrates them with such ceremonies that it might seem possible that she taught Magic to trhe Persians".
Diodorus Siculus, Timagenes, Hippolytus and Clement of Alexandria were unanimous in believing that
Pythagoras had received his mystical philosophy from the Celtic priests of Gaul, rather than they from him.
Valerius Maximus, in the Second Book of his 'Stromata', issues a warning that if one should jeer at the
notions of the Druids respecting immotality, he must also laugh at those of Pythagoras.

The ancient world was assuredly almost as deeply impressed by the doctrines and mysteries of ancient
Britain as it was by those of Egypt or Chaldea. In the pages of THE MAGIC ART AMONG THE CELTS,
Lewis Spence indicate that a very complete system of Magic, associated with a definite body of mystical
dogma and arcane thought, was practised by the Magi of ancient Britain and Ireland is apparent from
trustworthy evidence. # 160 - 562 - 612

MAGICIANS
Those learned men who, like Dr Dee, stretched the area of their learning to include magic and intercourse
with spirits. Some of them restricted their studies to theurgic magic, in which they approached God by
intensive prayer, and sought intercourse with angels; others called up the spirits of the dead in a kind of
refinement of necromancy called 'sciomancy'. A step lower was to reanimate a corpse- true necromancy - as
Edward Kelly was said to have done. Others engaged in more dangerous experiments still and tried to call
up devils and confine them into a stone or magic circle. This was an exeedingly tedious, and was felt to be
a highly dangerous, proceeding, for if the spirit raised succeeded in frightening the magician to the edge of
his ring, so that a step backward would cause a fold of his robe or the heel of his foot to protrude, he would
be liable to be seized and carried down to Hell. It was tediousness and danger of these efforts to control the
Devil that induced some magicians to take the last step down the slippery slope and sign the Diabolic
Contract, thus becoming Wizards. There was an alternative to raising devils, and that was 'Traffic with the
Fairies', of which we have mentions in the Scottish witch trials and in the North of England. To the Puritans
as a whole, all fairies were devils, but the country people generally took a more lenient view of the 'Good
Neighbours.'#100

MAGNUS

(1075-1116) Earl of Orkney. When King Magnus Barefoot of Norway invaded Orkney, Magnus fled to
Scotland, returning when the king died. However, his cousin Haakon was in possession of Orkney. The
rival earls decided to divide the islands between them. After a few years of uneasy peace, a conference was
called on Egilsay, each earl bringing an equal shipload of retainers. It was clear that Haakon intended to
murder Magnus, and Haakon's cook, Lifolf, was bidden to strike the blow. Magnus is remembered on 16
April. # 108 - 454

MAGPIE

The most 'talkative' of birds, the magpie was often credited with oracular announcements and the
communication of secrets to those who could understand the mystical bird language. Like other relatives of
the crow, magpies could learn to imitate human speech when kept in captivity. For centuries the chattering
of magpies was said to foreshadow the arrival of guests. Two or more magpies prophesied a happy
occasion; one magpie meant sorrow. The bird was sacred to 'MAGOG.' # 701 p 404

MAID OF THE NARROW WOOD

She fell in love with Gawain but, when the latter did not reciprocate her sentiments, she tried to kill him. #
156

MAIDENLAND

The country where Lancelot was raised by his foster-mother, a waterfairy. It parallels the Irish Celtic
Otherworld land called Tir na mBan (Land of Women). See: JOHFRIT DE LIEZ. # 156 - 686

MAIMED KING

One of the two characters into whom the Fisher King was divided in the VULGATE VERSION. He is
called Parlan, Pelleam, Pellehan or Pelles. His injury was variously ascribed to a wound by Balin or to a
punishment for drawing the Sword of Strange Hangings. # 156

MAINE

(ma'ni) A name borne by seven sons of Ailill and Medb (Maeve). # 166
MALDUC

A wizard who said he would free Guinevere from the clutches of Valerin if given Erec and Gawain as
prisoners. He freed Guinevere and duly received the prisoners but they were rescued by Lancelot. # 156 -
710

MALEDISANT

Wife of Bruno le Noir (La Cote Mail-Taile) who begins by accompanying him on a dangerous adventure
rebuking him mercilessly all the time for his ragged and ill-fitting clothes and apparent lack of money. In
the end she falls in love with him, and perhaps as the similar tale of Gareth and Linet should have ended,
marries him. Her name, which means 'ill speech' clearly reflects her acid tongue. # 454

MALEGINIS

See: KING WITH A HUNDRED KNIGHTS.

MALEHAUT

A city of Arthurian Britain. The Lord of Malehaut was called Danain the Red. His wife, Bloie, the Lady of
Malehaut, was the lover of Galehot and the mother of Dodinel. Elsewhere, Noie is called Eglante, see
Dodinel. The city was supposedly in the realm of the King with a Hundred Knights. # 156

MALLOLWCH

(ma-HLOL-lukh)

MALMESBURY, WILLIAM OF

Here follow the author, William of Malmesbury's epistle¹ to Robert Earl of Gloucester, Son of King Henry
the First.² To my respected lord, the renowned earl Robert, son of the king, greeting; and, if aught they may
avail, his prayers, from William, monk of Malmesbury. The virtue of celebrated men holds forth as its
greatest excellence, its tendency to excite the love of persons even far removed from it: hence the lower
classes make the virtues of their superiors their own, by venerating those great actions to the practice of
which they themselves cannot aspire. Moreover it redounds altogether to the glory of exalted characters,
both that they do good, and that they gain the affection of their inferiors. To you therefore, princes, it is
owing that we act well; To you, indeed, that we compose anything worthy of remembrance: your exertions
incite us to make you live for ever in our writings, in return for the dangers which you undergo to secure
our tranquillity. For this reason I have deemed it proper to dedicate the History of the Kings of England,
which I have lately published, more especially to you, my respected and truly amiable lord. None surely
can be a more suitable patron of the liberal arts than yourself, in whom combine the magnanimity of your
grandfather, the munificence of your uncle,³ the circumspection of your father; more especially as you add
to the qualities of these men, whom while you equal in industry, you resemble in person, this characteristic
peculiarly your own, a devotion to learning. Nor is this all: you even condescend to honour with your
notice, those literary characters who are kept in obscurity either by the malevolence of fame, or the
slenderness of their fortune. And as our nature inclines us not to condemn in others what we approve in
ourselves, therefore men of learning find in you manners which are congenial to their own; for, without the
slightest indication of moroseness, you regard them with kindness, admit them with complacency, and
dismiss them with regret.* Indeed, the greatness of your fortune has made no difference in you, except that
your beneficence can now almost keep pace with your inclination. Accept then, most illustrious sir, a work
in which you may contemplate yourself as in a glass, where your highness's sagacity will discover that you
have imitated the actions of the most exalted characters, even before you could have heard their names. The
preface to the first book declares the contents of the work; on deigning to peruse which, you will briefly
collect the whole subject-matter. Thus much I must request from your excellency, that no blame may attach
to me because my narrative often wanders wide from the limits of England, since I design this as a
compendium of many histories, although, with reference to the larger portion of it, I have entitled it an
'History of the Kings of England.'

¹ In two MSS. (D.E.) this dedication occurs at the end of the third book; in two others (C.K.) it appears at
the commencement of the work; but in others (A.G.H.L.) it is not found at all. ² Robert earl of Gloucester
was one of the natural children of Henry I. He married Maud, or Mabell as she is sometimes called, the
eldest co-heir of Robert Fitz-Hamon, and in her right had the honour of Gloucester. He died on the 31st of
October, 1147. Dugd.Baron i. 534. ³ An allusion probably to Robert duke of Normandy, to whose
munificence Malmesbury more than once alludes in this work. * V. R. 'with presents.' # 731

MAN, ISLE OF

In Arthurian times, this island was ruled by various Celtic kings about whom we know very little.
According to Arthurian romance, Gromer, an enchanted knight, became King of Man with the help of
Gawain. It was at Castle Rushden on the island that Merlin was said to have defeated giants and buried
them in the caves beneath the castle. There has been a recent attempt to identify the Isle of Man with
Avalon. # 156 - 255

MANANNAN MAC LIR

# 166: (mö'nan an moc ler') # 454: The sea-deity of Ireland, older than the Tuatha de Danaan, although he is
reckoned as one of them. He prepared the Sidhe for their occupation after the coming of the sons of Miled.
He was the foster-father of many gods including Lugh. He lost his wife, Fand to CuChulain. He became the
father of Mongan, his earthly incarnation, by visiting Caintigerna in the shape of her husband, Fiachna. He
is the guardian of the Blessed Islands: these have been identified with the Isle of Arran (Emain Abhlach)
and the Isle of Man. In his crane-bag, he kept the earliest forms of the Hallows, including his magical
coracle and the cup of truth, which Cormac journeyed to find. In the Irish version of Nennius, Manannan is
mentioned as one of the Grail guardians with Pryderi. He was a great shape-shifter and nightvisitor of
women, often assuming the shape of a sea-bird or heron. He is analogous to Manawyddan.

# 628: In Irish tradition the best-documented sea god is Manannan mac Lir, whose name means, simply,
Manannan Son of the Sea. He may be relatively local to the Isle of Man area, and is not an overall ocean
god. He is also called Barinthus. A primal god of the ocean deeps, who is also associated with stellar
navigation. In the VITA MERLINI he ferries the wounded King Arthur, accompanied by the prophet Merlin
and the bard Taliesin, to the Otherworld for his cure.

# 562: The magical boat with Horse of Manannan, and sword Fragarach, brought by Lugh from the Land of
the Living. He is the most popular deity in Irish mythology. The Lord of Sea beyond which Land of Youth
or Islands of the Dead were supposed to lie. The Cymric deity Manawyddan corresponds with Irish
Manannan. # 166 - 416 - 454 - 469 - 562 - 628 p 74 ff and 120 ff.

MANAWYDAN MANAWYDDAN

(man-OW-eeth-an) # 156: The son of Llyr. He is mentioned in CULHWCH as a follower of Arthur, but is
in origin a Celtic sea-god corresponding to the Irish Manannan mac Lir. The MABINOGION calls him the
brother of Bendigeid Vran (Bran the Blessed). # 454: He was left landless on the death of Bran and became
the husband of Rhiannon. He helped break the enchantments upon Dyfed, caused by Llwyd in revenge for
Gwawl's rough treatment at the hands of Rhiannon's first husband, Pwyll. Manawyddan is a man of
cunning and a master craftsman, able to earn his own living when the land is enchanted. As instructor and
man of power, he stands in the place of father to Pryderi, and inherits the qualities of Pwyll. # 104-156-272
- 346 - 439 - 454

MANESSIER

A continuator of Chrétien de Troyes # 562

MANÉ ER H'OECK

Remarkable tumulus in Brittany. # 562

MANÉS

Seven outlawed sons of Ailill and Maeve, who rallies to Maeve's foray against Ulster. # 562

MANGOUN

The King of Moraine, he sent Caradoc a horn which would expose any infidelity on the part of his wife. #
156 - 604

MANTLE OF INVISIBILITY

Arthur's mantle became one of the Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain. # 104 - 156

MANX

See: MAN, ISLE OF

MAON

(may'un) Son of Ailill. Brutal treatment of Maon by Covac; has revenge on Ailill by slaying him and all his
nobles; weds Moriath and reigns over Ireland; equivalent, 'Labra the Mariner.' # 562

MAPONOS MAPONUS

# 156: An early Celtic god, son of Matrona, the original of Mabon in Arthurian lore. # 454: Dedications to
him occur as far apart as Gaul and Dumfriesshire. He assimilated the attributes of Apollo and appears on a
relief with Diana, who is likely to have taken on the attributes of Modron in that locality. # 156 - 264 - 439
- 454 - 563

MARA MERA

An old English name for a demon, which survives in 'night-mare' and 'mare's nest'. Gillian Edwards, in
HOBGOBLIN AND SWEET PUCK, discussing the origin of 'Mirryland', mentioned in ballads and
sometimes in the witch trials, accepts D. A. Mackenzie's explanation of it as deriving from 'Mera'.

# 100 - 202

MARDOC
A character who appears on the Arthurian bas-relief in Modena Cathedral where he is represented on the
battlements with Winlogee (possibly Guinevere). He may be identical with Mordred. # 156 - 238

MARHALT

King of Ireland and father of Marhaus (according to Malory). The chronology in Malory is a little odd:
when Marhaus fought Tristan he was the brother-in-law of the Irish King Anguish, yet only later does his
father, Marhalt, ascend the throne. One wonders if names such as Marhalt and Marhaus might preserve
some genuine memory of the fifth-century King of Tara, Muircheartach I. # 156

MARHAUS

The brother of Iseult, slain by Tristan in combat. Malory tells us that, prior to this, he had been a follower
of Arthur and had killed the giant, Taulurd. Gottfried supplies us with the information that he was a duke
and Eisner feels that his combat with Tristan was based on that of Theseus and the Minotaur. He had sons
named Amoroldo and Golistant. See also: MARHALT. # 156 - 204 - 256 - 418

MARIE DE FRANCE

Anglo-Norman poetess. Sources relating to the Arthurian saga in writings of Marie de France. # 562

MARINAIA

See: ALDAN.

MARIUS

An early King of Britain, and according to Geoffrey of Monmouth, the son of Arviragus. See: SODRIC. #
156

MARJODOC

The steward of Mark, at first friendly towards Tristan, but, when he discovered Tristan's intrigue with
Iseult, he turned against him. # 156 - 256

MARK

# 156: 1. King of Cornwall, uncle of Tristan and husband of Iseult. He is generally presented as something
of a tyrant, Malory calling him 'bad King Mark'. In Welsh his name (March) means a horse and Beroul
informs us he had horse's ears - a characteristic he shares with other legendary personages. THE DREAM
OF RHONABWY tells us that he was Arthur's cousin while, in the TRIADS we learn that Tristan was his
swineherd. In the story of Tristan, Mark did not find out for some time of his nephew's affair with his wife.
One version says that, on the deaths of the lovers, Mark had them interred in a single grave. However, in
Malory, Mark is the slayer of Tristan.

The question arises as to whether Mark was identical with a historical Cornish ruler called Cunomerus, who
reigned also on the far side of the channel in Brittany. The ancient inscription on a stone at Castle Dor
(Cornwall) may read (though this is uncertain) Drustans hic iacit Cunomori filius (Here lies Tristan, son of
Cunomorus). If the reading is accurate, it may mean that, in the original version, Tristan was more closely
related to Mark than subsequent story tellers were prepared to allow. The writer Wrmonoc says Cunomorus
was also called Mark and he may have thought him identical with March, son of Meirchiaun, King of
Glamorgan. A story tells that this Cunomorus had been warned that one of his sons would kill him, so he
murdered his wives when they become pregnant. One wife, Trephina, daughter of Warok, chief of the
Venetii, actually gave birth before Cunomorus had her decapitated. However, he performed this task after
the birth and her son (Judval or Tremeur, apparently identical) was left to die. Gildas restored Trephina to
life. They went back to the castle (Trephina carrying her head) and the battlements fell on Cunomorus,
killing him. At a more prosaic historical level, we are told that Cunomorus supported Chramm, son of the
Frankish King Clothair, in a rebellion in which both he and Chramm fell (AD 560). However, M. Dillon
and N. K. Chadwick state that Cunomorus fell while fighting people who had rebelled against him. King
Mark lives on in Breton tradition. He is thought to ride a winged horse (MORMARC'H) when the sea off
Penmarc'h (Mark's head, a headland in Brittany) is stormy.

2. King of Glamorgan. See: LABIANE, and MERCHIAUN. # 55 - 156 - 194 - 243 - 418 - 484

MARLYN

The son of Ogier and Morgan Le Fay; hence, Arthur's nephew. # 156

MARRIAGE

# 548:In medieval Ireland and Wales, the most highly esteemed form of Marriage was a contract between
consenting kin-groups - marriage 'by gift of kin' (as it is termed in the Welsh laws) - and between partners
of comparable status, with proper arrangements about marriage payments. Abductions were known and
there were procedures whereby such faits accomplis could be legalized, but these were inferior kinds of
marriage. Similarly in more recent centuries, although temporary marriages and other irregular unions
existed, the approved union, even among the common people, was a 'match' negotiated by two families.
There was shrewd bargaining over brideprice and dowry, and a 'good match' in the material sense seems to
have counted more than mutual attraction between bride and bridegroom. How different are the marriages
of mythology! Just as the hero's birth has an outward resemblance to the most disgraceful births in human
society, so does his marriage have more in common with abductions and elopements than with the socially
approved forms of marriage. Yet some wedding customs express attitudes towards marriage which are
strangely reminiscent of the stories we have related.

As a counterpart to the sober contract, there are displays of mock-hostility. Gates are tied and rope-barriers
and other obstacles impede the bridegroom's progress to church and his return with his bride, and forfeits
must be paid for safe conduct. Hostile powers threatening the success of the marriage must be banished
with gunshots. In parts of Ireland, on the day of bringing home the bride, the bridegroom and his friends
would ride out and meet the bride and her friends at the place of treaty. 'Having come near to each other,
the custom was of old to cast short darts at the company that attended the bride, but at such a distance that
seldom any hurt ensued; yet it is not out of the memory of man that the Lord of Howth, on such an
occasion, lost an eye.' This brings to mind the spear-throwing contest in CULHWCH AND OLWEN, while
the escape with the bride in the tales is recalled by Lady Wilde's description of the bride 'placed on a swift
horse before the bridegroom while all her kindred started in pursuit with shouts and cries.' # 209 - 548 - 669
- 728 - 751

MARROK

# 156: One of the Knights of the Round Table whose wife changed him into a werewolf for seven years. #
454: She, it seems, discovered his secret, and he had to hide his clothes until he was ready to turn back into
a human being. She stole them and Marrok was a wolf until Arthur discovered him behaving in a very
unwolf-like manner and brought him home. Here the wolf was gentle with all save his wife and her lover.
She was then forced to confess and Marrok was given back his clothing, whereupon he returned to his
natural shape. It is made clear that he was not the kind of werewolf normally written about, but simply a
man who, perhaps under enchantment, turned into a wolf at night. # 156 - 454
MARS

# 454: He was a particularly popular god in Roman Britain, with both native and occupying peoples alike,
so that his name appears linked with that of native deities embodying similar characteristics, e.g. Mars
Loucetius (Brilliant), or Mars Rigonemetis (King of the Sacred Grove), Mars forsakes his classical
attributes, reverting instead of the original Italian attributes as a god of vegetation and agriculture. In
Britain he is also associated with healing and sometimes appears as the Triple Mars - a truly Celtic idea -
complete with ram-headed snakes, the attributes of Cernunnos. He is often partnered by Nemetona. # 265 -
454 - 563

MARY, THE BLESSED VIRGIN

England has been traditionally known as Mary's Dowry for centuries. The claim to this title is not difficult
to discover, since Joseph of Arimathea founded the first Christian church at Glastonbury - a humble edifice
of wattles which was dedicated to Our Lady Mary. He was also, according to variant legends, supposed to
have brought Mary with him to England after the death and resurrection of her son. The other focus of her
cult was at Walsingham where in 1061, Lady Richeldis had a vision of Mary which commanded her to
build a replica of Mary's house in Nazareth. This shrine became the pilgrimage centre of England up until
the Reformation when the image of the Virgin was destroyed. The shrine is now operative again and
drawing almost as many pilgrims as in the Middle Ages where its reputation for answering prayer has not
failed. The healing well still dispenses its waters. The Milky Way became known as the Walsingham Way. #
454

MATH

# 454: Son of Mathonwy and uncle to Gwydion, Gilfaethwy and Arianrhod, and brother of Penardun. He
was omniscient, among other skills, the strange gift of hearing everything that was said if once the winds
got hold of it, was a property also attributed to him. He was full of wisdom, a great king. In MATH, SON
OF MATHONWY (The MABINOGION), he can only live when his feet are in the lap of a virgin
footholder. Goewin. War causes him to abandon this mode of living temporarily and Goewin is raped by
Gilfaethwy. Math marries her to assuage her shame, and punishes his nephews, Gilfaethwy and Gwydion,
by causing them to assume various animal disguises. It is with his help that Gwydion makes Blodeuwedd
out of flowers, as a bride for Llew, his great-grandson. # 104 - 272 - 439 - 454 - 562

MATHOLWC

(math-ol-ook) King of Ireland who comes to Prydein, seeking Branwen's hand in marriage. His and
Branwen's wedding celebrated at Aberffraw, where Efnissien mutilates his horses. Among other gifts, Bran
gives a maigic cauldron to Matholwc. He is ill-treating Branwen, which cause Bran to invade Ireland,
where Matholwc is defeated and deposed in favour of his son, Gwern. See: BRAN, and EFNISSIEN, and
GWERN. # 272 - 439 - 454 - 562

MATHONWY

(math-ON-wee) Two great divine houses or families are discernible that of Don, a mother-goddess
representing the Gaelic Dana), whose husband is Beli, the Irish Bilé, god of Death, and whose descendants
are the Children of Light; and the house of Llyr, the Gaelic Lir, who were represents, not a Danaan deity,
but something more like the Irish Fomorians. As in the case of the Irish myth, the two families are allied by
intermarriage - Penardun, a daughter of Don, is wedded to Llyr. Don herself has a brother, Math, whose
name signifies wealth or treasure (cf. Greek Pluton, ploutos), and they descend from a figure indistinctly
characterised, called MATHONWY. # 562
MATIèRE DE FRANCE

Source of Round Table and chivalric institutions ascribed to Arthur's court. # 562

MATRES

See: MOTHERS, THE.

MATRONA

An early goddess of the Celts, worshipped in Britain and Gaul where her name survives in the River
Marne, near the source of which she had a sanctuary (#102). It is thought that she is the original of
Morgan.#156-187

MATTER OF BRITAIN, THE

The Arthurian legends were first called 'The Matter of Britain' by a twelft-century French poet, Jean Bodel,
who spoke of 'those idle and pleasant tales of Britain' (Chanson des Saisnes, edited by Michel, Paris, 1939
vols. ff.). He treated them frankly as legendary, but they had been thought of as genuine history as early as
the year 679 by Nennius of South Wales in his HISTORIA BRITONUM. He speaks of 'the warrior Arthur',
and gives a list of the twelve battles in which he was victorious, ending with Mount Badon, where Arthur
slew 960 men in one onslaught; 'no one laid them low save he'. Professor Collingwood in his book
ROMAN BRITAIN came to the conclusion that Arthur was an actual warrior who led a picked band, armed
and deployed in the almost forgotten manner, to aid whatever king was in need of his services against
invading Saxons. By Nennius' time, however, it is plain that legend had been at work, and indeed Nennius,
among his 'wonders' gives us a real piece of Celtic tradition in the mark left by Arthur's foot in his
legendary hunting of the boar Troynt with his dog Cabal. As early as 1090 the Celtic traditions of Arthur
had spread even down into Italy, and many children were baptized by tha name of Artus.

By the year 1113, the sixth-century warrior Arthur had become a King of Fairy, one of the sleeping warriors
whose return was confidently expected. At that date a riot broke out in Bodmin church. Some monks of
Laon, visiting Cornwall on a collecting expedition, were shown King Arthur's chair and oven and their
servants openly mocked the Cornishmen's belief that Arthur was still alive and would return to help his
countrymen. The sacredness of the place in which they spoke did not prevent a furious retaliation. It is of
these beliefs that William of Malmesbury, a serious and scholarly historian, wrote a few years later in his
GESTA REGUM ANGLORUM (Exploits of the English Kings, 1125), 'He is the Arthur about whom the
Britons rave in empty words, but who in truth is worthy to be the subject not of deceitful tales and dreams,
but of true history.' The mythological treatment of the Matter of Britain is clearly shown in the tale of
'Culhwch and Olwen' from the Red Book of Hergest, a part of the MABINOGION. Here we have a god-
like king surrounded by a lesser pantheon of knights with special and magical skills, very much like the
atmosphere to many of the early Irish folktales. Something of this was known, as we have seen, outside the
Celtic folk-tales, but it received comparatively little attention until in 1135 Geoffrey of Monmouth
launched it as serious history in LIBELLUS MERLINI, afterwards incorporated into his HISTORIA
REGUM BRITANNIAE. This hit the popular taste between wind and water, in spite of the horrified
protests of such serious historians as William of Newbridge and Giraldus Cambrensis. R. F. Treharne in
THE GLASTONBURY LEGENDS has pointed out how well suited Geoffrey's treatment was to catch the
taste of the tough fighting men of his period, and how it became modified in the gentler and more civilized
society of the later twelfth and thirteenth centuries, so that the idea of a gentleman was evolved in the
writings of Marie de France in England and Chrétien de Troyes in France, and in the works of many
anonymous poets and prose writers. Geoffrey of Monmouth brought nationalistic fervour, delight in combat
and a simple pleasure in magic into his historical background, but the later authors introduced their
countrymen to chivalry and the idea of gentleness; and it was in a fairy world that they both moved. # 100 -
250 - 494 - 682 - 732 - 733
MAXEN WLEDIG MACSEN WLEDIG MAXIMUS

A Roman emperor, Magnus Maximus (AD 383-88), known in Welsh tradition as Macsen Wledig (oo'le-
dig). He was said by Geoffrey - who calls him Maximianus - to have made Conan Meriadoc the ruler of
Brittany. In the DREAM OF MAXEN, the Emperor dreams of an unknown woman with whom he falls in
love. Messengers eventually report her existence in Cymru so that he leaves Rome in order to marry her.
She is Elen. The historical Maximus, underlying the legend, did indeed serve in Britain, but took many
troops away from the island in his struggles against his rival Western Emperor, Gratian, thus leaving Britain
unprotected. Traces of fact remain in the legend: the Welsh retained his name where it appears in many
genealogies of noble families as an imperial connection. The leaving Roman soldiers, took with them
foreign wives, but, it is said, cut out their tongues, lest they should corrupt the speech of the Britons. Thus
early and thus powerful was the devotion to their tongue of the Cymry. # 32 - 104 - 156 - 243 - 272 - 346 -
454 - 562

MAY DAY

See: MAY EVE and: BELTAINE.

MAY EVE MAY DAY

# 701: May Eve was known as Beltain or Beltane to the Celts. The presiding deity was the Goddess Flora
also known as The Maiden. The festival celebrated her virgin or 'flower' aspect, harbinger of the fruit to
come. It was a time of 'Wearing of the Green', in honor of Earth's new green garment, as well as a time of
sexual licence, symbolizing nature's fertilization: a honey-moon when marriage bonds were temporarily
forgotten and sexual freedom prevailed. # 562: Sacred to Beltane, the day which Sons of Miled began
conquest of Ireland. In the story of Lludd and Llevelys, one of the three plagues were a fearful scream that
was heard in every home in Britain on May Eve. See: LLUD AND LLEVELYS. # 562 - 701 p 186

MAYPOLE

# 701: The Maypole was a pagan symbol for the May King's phallus, traditionally set up for the festivities
of Beltane (May Eve) that initiated the new season of growth and fertility, and "wearing of the green" in
imitation of Mother Earth's new green cloak. The Maypole dance was the origin of the square dancer's
Grand Right and Left, as men and women alternately passed in and out of each others circles, winding the
ribbons around the pole.

# 162: Originally it was the sacred pine of Attis which was taken in procession, or on a chariot, to the
temple of Cybele and set up for veneration; it was followed by men, women and children and dances were
performed round it. Later this ceremony appeared in the May Day celebrations of the May Queen and the
Green Man. The ribbons of the maypole are also suggested as the bands of wool bound round the Attis
pine. The entire ceremony is symbolic of renewed life, sexual union, resurrection and Spring.# 162 - 701

MAZADAN

According to Wolfram, Arthur's great-grandfather and also an ancestor of Perceval. He was a fairy, husband
of Terdelaschoye. # 156 - 748

MAZE, SAFFRON WALDEN

See: SAFFRON WALDEN MAZE.


MEATH

Fergus in his battle-fury strikes off the tops of MAELA of Meath, so that they are flat-topped (mael) to this
day. See also: MIDE. # 562

MEBD

(maev) See: MEDB, and MAEVE.

MECHI

He was the Morrigan's son. He was killed by Ogma's son, because of a prophesy which said that he would
ruin Ireland. This was due to his three hearts out of which three serpents would hatch, devastating the
land.#166-454

MEDB

(mayv) Daughter of Eochaid Fedlech, High King of Ireland; queen of Connacht; wife of Ailill mac Matach.
See also: MAEVE. # 166

MEDRAWT

See: MORDRED.

MEGALITHIC PEOPLE

The religions of 'primitive' peoples mostly centre on, or take their rise from, rites and practices connected
with the burial of the dead. The earliest people inhabiting Celtic territory in the West of Europe of whom
we have any distinct knowledge are a race without name or known history, but by their sepulcral
monuments, of which so many still exist, we can learn a great deal about them. They were the socalled
Megalithis People (from Greek megas, great, and lithos, a stone), the builders of dolmens, cromlechs and
chambered tumuli of which more than five thousand were found alone in northern and western Europe.
Druidism in its essential features was imposed upon the imaginative and sensitive nature of the Celt - the
Celt with his 'extraordinary aptitude' for picking up ideas - by the earlier population of Western Europe, the
Megalithic People. # 562

MELCHINUS

See: MELKIN.

MELEAGRAUNCE

See: MELVAS.

MELEHAN

A son of Mordred. When Mordred was dead, he and his brother seized the kingdom, but they were defeated
by Lancelot. He was killed by Bors.#156-604

MELIODAS
A natural son of King Meliodas of Liones and the Queen of Scotland. His mother set him adrift and he was
raised by the Lady of the Lake. # 156 - 238 - 418

MELKIN

John of Glastonbury mentions a vaticinator (one who foresees the future) called Melkin, who lived before
Merlin and uttered a prophecy about Glastonbury, couched in obscure Latin, which is difficult to interpret.
It may refer to Glastonbury as a place of pagan burial and to a future discovery of the tomb of Joseph of
Arimathea. Apart from an entry in the Annals of Glastonbury Abbey, evidence is scanty for his existence,
but there is a strong indication that he embodied an ancient tradition before Christian times. It has been
suggested that Melkin is to be identified with Maelgwyn, a sixth-century ruler of Gwynedd. Henry VIII's
royal antiquary, John Leland (c.1503-52) claimed to have seen Melkin's book at Glastonbury Abbey. # 156
- 344 - 454

MELORA

In an Irish romance, a daughter of Arthur who fell in love with Orlando, son of the King of Thessaly.
Mador, who was jealous, bribed Merlin to get rid of him and Merlin complied, persuading his servant, the
Destructive One, to imprison the hapless prince. Only the Lance of Longinus, the carbuncle of the daughter
of the King of Narsinga, and the oil of the pig of Tuis could dispose of the enchantments that surrounded
him. Melora, dressed as a knight, defeated the King of Africa on behalf of the King of Babylon who gave
her the Lance and sent Levander, his servant, to accompany her, They were imprisoned by the King of Asia
but escaped with the aid of a guard, Uranus, and obtained the porcine oil from their captor. They lured the
King of Narsinga and his daughter, Verona, on to a ship, but all became friends and the carbuncle was
secured. Melora freed Orlando and they went to Thessaly, while Levander married Verona. # 156 - 406

MELWAS MELEAGAUNCE MELEAGRAUNCE

A knight, son of the otherworld King Bagdemagus, who abducted Guinevere, taking her to his territory.
Only his father prevented him from raping her. Lancelot rescued her. There are different versions of what
befell Meleagaunce. In the ancient LIFE OF CARADOC, the saint mediates between Arthur and Melwas
(here called the King of the Summer Country) to prevent warfare between them. In later medieval tradition,
Melwas becomes Sir Meleagraunce. In another version he subsequently imprisoned Lancelot but the latter
escaped and slew him. In another, he and Lancelot fought a single combat over Guinevere, Lancelot
winning and killing his opponent. A Welsh version of the abduction story tells how Melwas, ruler of
Somerset, carried Guinevere off to Glastonbury. Arthur laid siege to it but the Abbot and Gildas prevailed
upon Melwas to return his captive. # 24 - 156 - 378 - 418 - 454

MENW AP TEIRNAEDD

(menoo ap tair-noo-AYTH) An enchanter in Arthur's service. In CULHWCH, Arthur assigned him to help
the hero, Culhwch, in case he and his party needed to be made invisible. # 156 - 346

MERAUGIS

King Mark of Cornwall violated his niece, Labiane, and as a result she gave birth to Meraugis. Mark then
murdered Labiane and abandoned Meraugis in the woods, but he was raised by a forester and grew to be a
Knight of the Round Table. After Arthur's last battle, he became a hermit with Bors and others. # 30 - 156

MERCHIAUN
The father of King Mark of Glamorgan. This Mark may have been the original of, or confused with, Mark
of Cornwall. # 156

MERCURY

# 562: Regarded as chief of the gods by Gauls; Lugh Lamfada identified with Mercury. # 454: He was
particularly popular among natives of Britain and, although he retained his classical attributes, he blended
in well with native gods. He is shown with caduceus, cockerel and purse, indicating his function as
conductor of the dead and god of financial transactions. He is partnered by Rosmerta in many inscriptions
and reliefs. # 265-454-562-563

MERIADEUC

A knight who obtained a second sword because he was the only one able to unfasten a swordbelt which
Lore, Lady of Garadigan, brought to Arthur's court. He was therefore known as the Knight of the Two
Swords (a title also given to Balin). He eventually married Lore. # 30 - 156

MERIADOC

He was the son of King Caradoc of Wales. The latter was succeeded by Griffith who had secured the throne
by murder. Griffith sent Meriadoc and his sister Orwen to the woods to be killed, but the executioners did
not carry out their task. Meriadoc was subsequently raised by Ivor the Huntsman and his wife Morwen.
Urien, here called the King of Scots, abducted Orwen and married her. Meriadoc went to Arthur's court
and, with that king's help, he ousted Griffith and gained his rightful throne which he handed over to Urien.
Meriadoc went abroad and rescued the daughter of the Emperor of Germany from Grundebald, king of the
Land From Which No One Returns, and married her. # 156 - 753

MERLIN

# 156: (In Welsh: Myrddin, latinized as Merlinus because the more natural Merdinus would have connected
it with Latin merdus, 'dung'). Arthur's magician and counsellor, in many ways the architect of his reign. The
popular modern image of Merlin is a wise elder, but there is abundant evidence in many early sources of
Merlin's true nature as a primal prophet, magician, wise man, and, paradoxically, foolish seeker of the truth.
His life was in three phases: innocent prophetic youth, madman and hermit, and wise elder. In the classic
form of the tale, Merlin was begotten by an incubus. Robert says the devils of Hell had determined to set on
earth an evil being to counter-balance the good introduced by Jesus Christ. Happily, the child was promptly
baptized so he was not evil! Vortigern, King of Britain some time after the Roman withdrawal was
haplessly trying to build a tower for, whenever it was erected, it would collapse. The king's counsellors told
him he would need to sacrifice a fatherless child to remedy this. Such children were hardly thick on the
ground but Merlin, now a youth, was popularly supposed to be sireless so he was secured for this purpose.
However, he pointed out that the real reason for the collapse was the existence of a pool beneath the
foundations. Digging revealed the truth of this and a brace of dragons emerged, one red and one white;
these caused Merlin to utter a series of prophecies.

# 632: It was Geoffrey of Monmouth whose HISTORIA REGNUM BRITTANIAE and VITA MERLINI
are the chief sources for his life, there renamed him Merlin. In these books Merlin makes a series of
prophecies concerning the fate of Britain. It is possible that he may be the same character as the sixth-
century Welsh poet, Myrddin, several of whose poems are still extant. (He fought on the side of King
Gwenddolau against Rhydderch Hael at Arfderydd in AD 575 and went mad as a result of losing the battle.)
The madness of Merlin is contained in several traditional stories concerning suibhne gelt and Laioken. All
three mad prophets are said to suffer the threefold death caused by falling, hanging and drowning, although
the usual tale of Merlin's death or passing away became attached to the story of Niniane or Vivienne, an
otherworld woman who tricked him into revealing his magic. She then shut him up in a glass tower, or
under a stone or in a hawthorn tree. This tradition is probably a garbled understanding of Merlin's
withdrawal from the world into the Otherworld. # 156: When Aurelius Ambrosius defeated Vortigern he
wished to put up a monument. Merlin advised him to procure certain stones from Ireland and these were
erected on Salisbury Plain as Stonehenge. After the death of Aurelius, when Uther came to the throne,
Merlin arranged for him to seduce Igraine by magically making him take the shape of her husband, Gorlois.
He took the child, Arthur, born of this union, and arranged the sword-in-stone contest, whereby Arthur
became king.

According to Malory became Merlin infatuated by Nimue (elsewhere called Viviane), whom he taught
magical secrets which she used to imprison him. Geoofrey, however, have him active after Camlann,
bringing the wounded Arthur to Avalon. As mentioned above he went mad after the battle of Arthuret and
became a wild man, living in the woods. According to Giraldus Cambrensis, this was because of some
horrible sight he beheld during the fighting, where three of his brothers were killed. King Rhydderch Hael
was married to Merlin's sister, Ganieda, who persuaded him to give up his life in the forest, but he revealed
to Rhydderch that she had been unfaithful to him. He decided to return to the greenwood and urged his
wife, Guendoloena, to remarry. However, his madness once again took hold of him and he turned up at the
wedding, riding a stag and leading a herd of deer. In his rage, he tore the antlers from the stag and flung
them at the bridgegroom, killing him. He went back to the woods and Ganieda built him an observatory
from which he could study the stars. Welsh poetry antedating Geoffrey largely agrees with this account,
though it has Merlin fighting against Rhydderch rather than for him. Similar tales are told about a character
called Lailoken, who was in Rhydderch's service and this may have prompted Geoffrey to change the side
which Merlin was on. As Lailoken is similar to a Welsh word meaning 'twin brother' and as Merlin and
Ganieda were thought to be twins, it is possible it was merely a nickname applied to Merlin. Merlin is not,
at any rate, a personal name but a place name - the Welsh Myrddin comes from Celtic Maridunon
(Carmarthen) - which was applied to the magician because, according to Geoffrey, he came from that city.
Elsewhere it is averted that the city was founded by, and named after, the wizard. Robert has him born in
Brittany. Geoffrey makes him King of Powys, and the idea that he was of royal blood is also found in
Strozzi's VENETIA EDIFICATA (1624).

As to the historical Merlin, if he existed, modern writers such as Ward Rutherford and N. Tolstoy think he
may have been a latter-day Druid and so took part in shamanistic practices. Jung and von Franz also see
shamanistic elements in the story of Merlin. This contrasts with the earlier theory of E. Davies that Merlin
was a god (the evening star), and his sister Ganieda a goddess (the morning star). There is some evidence
that Merlin may originally have been a god, for in the TRIADS, we are told that the earlieast name for
Britain was Merlin's Precinct, as though he were a god with proprietorial rights. G. Ashe would connect
him with the cult of the god Mabon. Because of his association with stags, there may be a connection with
Cernunnos, the Celtic horned god. Merlin's mother was called Aldan in Welsh tradition. The Elizabethan
play THE BIRTH OF MERLIN - which may have been partially authored by Shakespeare - calls her Joan
Go-to-'t. That he had no father does not seem to be a feature of Welsh tradition in which he is given the
following pedigree: Coel Godebog - Ceneu - Mor - Morydd - Madog Morfryn - Myrddin (Merlin). He was
also said to be the son of Morgan Frych who, some claimed, had been a prince of Gwynedd. Both Welsh
poetry and Geoffrey have him speaking with Taliesin, with whom he seemed to be considerably connected
in the Welsh mind. Thus one Welsh tradition asserted he first appeared in Vortigern's time, then was
reincarnated as Taliesin and reincarnated once more as Merlin the wild man. The idea that there were two
Merlins, wizard and wild man, is found in Giraldus Cambrensis (the Norman-welsh chronicler of the
twelfth century), doubtless because of the impossibly long lifespan assigned to him by Geoffrey. A modern
relic of the Merlin legend was to be found in the pilgrimages made to Merlin's Spring at Barenton in
Brittany, but these were stopped by the Vatican in 1853.

Merlin's ghost is said to haunt Merlin's Cave at Tintagel, and some have had a real meeting at Dinas Emrys
with somebody claiming he were Merlin. # 635: R. J. Stewart in his book, THE WAY OF MERLIN: (p 63
ff)...'a man stepped out of the tree. There is no other way to describe this - it was not a faint impression or a
spiritual vision, not a meditational intimation, but a man stepping out of the tree to stand before me. ... His
build was very powerful... his manner was demanding and stern. He looked at me and said, without any
preamble, 'I am Merlin. You will be my pupil.' This was a flat statement that seemed to declare an
inevitable established fact; it was not an introduction or a suggestion.' This experience was followed by
several others, probably making Stewart our times most knowing Merlin scolar and interpreter, which
brought about his many books including a tarot set build up around Merlin, See also: CONRAD, and
DINABUTIUS. # 156-177-238-242-243-341-353-418-562-571-606-632-635-673-780

MERLIN'S ENCLOSURE

Merlin is the tutelar of Britain which is anciently called Clas Merdin or Merlin's Enclosure. # 454

MERLIN'S HILL CAVE

A Carmarthen cave where Merlin is said to be buried. # 156

MERLIN'S OAK

A tree, also called Merlin's Oak, (in Priory Street in Carmarthen). It was believed that, if the tree fell,
Carmarthen's destruction would follow. Every care was taken over the centuries to protect it from falling,
however, a few years ago the Local Authority decided to risk it and remove the tree which had become a
traffic hazard and consisted mainly of concrete and iron bars anyway. # 49

MERLIN, ENTERTAINMENTS BY

To cure Vortigern's fit of melancholy, and, to cheer him up, Merlin provided various entertainments, such as
invisible musicians and flying hounds chasing flying hares. # 308

MERROWS MURDHUACHA MERMAIDS

(muroo-cha) The Irish equivalent of Mermaids. Like them they are beautiful, though with fishes' tails and
little webs between their fingers. They are dreaded because they appear before storms, but they are gentler
than most mermaids and often fall in love with mortals. The offspring of these marriages are sometimes
said to be covered with scales, just as the descendants of the Roane, or Seal People, are said to have webs
between their fingers. Sometimes they come ashore in the form of little hornless cattle, but in their proper
shape they wear red feather caps, by means of which they go through the water. If these are stolen they
cannot return to the sea again. If the female merrows are beautiful, the male are very ugly indeed, with
green faces and bodies, a red, sharp nose and eyes like a pig. They seem, however, to be generally amiable
and jovial characters. A lively story by Crofton Croker gives a pleasant picture of a merrow, and can be
read in FAIRY LEGENDS OF THE SOUTH OF IRELAND, VOL.II. # 100 - 165

MESS BUACHALLA

(mess'boo'a hal a) A name given to the daughter of the second Etain and Cormac, King of Ulster. Cormac,
tiring of Etain, bade her baby daughter be cast into a pit, but she was rescued and fostered by the cowherds
of Eterscel, King of Tara. When she grew up she was kept closely guarded by the cowherds, but Eterscel
saw her and desired her. It was prophesied that a woman of unknown race would bear him a son, but Mess
Buachalla - the Cowherd's Fosterchild, as she was known- was warned by an otherworldly man in the shape
of a bird; it was he who was the real father of Conaire Mor, not Eterscel. # 166 - 188 - 454

MESTER STOORWORM

The Orcadian Mester Stoorworm is a prime example of the Scandinavian Dragon in Britain. There are two
main types of dragon in these islands: the heraldic dragon, winged and usually fire-breathing, and the
Worm, for which one generally supposes a Scandinavian origin, which is generally huge, often wingless
and most commonly a sea monster. These worms are not fire-breathing, but have a poisonous breath.

The Mester Stoorworm fulfilled all these qualifications. Trail Dennison, whose manuscript is reproduced in
SCOTTISH FAIRY AND FOLK TALES, gives several descriptions of the creature. 'Now you must know
that this was the largest, the first, and the father of all the Stoorworms. Therefore was he well named the
Mester Stoorworm. With his venomous breath he could kill every living creature on which it fell, and could
wither up everything that grew.' A little later, as Assipattle sails out towards the Stoorworm, the description
becomes even more gargantuan: 'The monster lay before him like an exceedingly big and high mountain,
while the eyes of the monster - some say he had but one eye - glowed and flamed like a ward fire. It was a
sight that might well have terrified the bravest heart. The monster's length stretched half across the world.
His awful tongue was hundreds on hundreds of miles long. And, when in anger, with his tongue he would
sweep whole towns, trees, and hills into the sea. His terrible tongue was forked. And the prongs of the fork
he used as a pair of tongs, with which to seize his prey. With that fork he would crush the largest ship like
an egg-shell. With that fork he would crack the walls of the biggest castle like a nut, and suck every living
thing out of the castle into his maw. Later, in his dying agony, he spews out his teeth and they become the
Orkneys, the Faroes and the Shetland Islands. His forked tongue entangles itself on one horn of the moon
and his curled-up body hardens into Iceland.' The whole thing is an extravaganza, a fairytale, not a legend.
# 100 - 192 - 473

METEMPSYCHOSIS

Celtic mythology assumes the constant interchanging of souls which can pass from one body to another.
Finn's two dogs were actually his nephews. # 161

MEURIG

A king of Glenvissig whose son, Arthrwys is identified with King Arthur. # 72 - 73 - 156

MEURVIN

The son of Ogier and Morgan, therefore Arthur's nephew. He was the father of Oriant and an ancestor of the
Swan Knight. # 156

MIACH

(mee-ah) A great physician of the Tuatha De Danann. After his father Diancehct made a silver hand for
Nuadu, Miach, whose skill surpassed his, made a hand of flesh instead. In his jealous rage Diancecht
wounded him in three separate attacks, which Miach healed. On the fourth attack he received a wound in
the brain from which he died. 365 herbs grew from his grave which his sister Airmed gathered, but
Diancecht confused them so that no one knew which was which. # 166 - 454

MICHAEL'S MOUNT, ST

The mount of St Michael, Cornwall (who is the archangel of the sun), with its fairy-tale castle, may be
reached only by boat before low tide, after which a causeway is revealed, making it possible to walk across
to the island from the mainland. Although given to the National Trust, the castle is the 'embattled home' of
the St Aubyn purchased it in 1567. # 702

MICHEL, LE MONT ST
Mont St-Michel was originally called 'Mont-Tombe', and like Tombelaine was doubtless one of the sea-
tombs whither, according to Celtic mythology, the souls of the dead were ferried in an invisible barque. In
708 an apparition of St Michael the archangel to St Aubert, Bishop of Avranches, commanded the building
of an oratory on the summit of this rock, which gave place to a Carolingian church in the tenth century, and
a Romanesque basilica in the next centuries. In 966 Richard I of Normandy installed Benedictines here,
who provided several vessels for the Conqueror's fleet a century later. In 1047 a chapel on St Michael's
Mount in Cornwall was placed under their control by Edward the Confessor. By the twelfth century, under
its abbot Robert de Totigni, it became a celebrated seat of monkish learning. In 1166 Henry II held court
here and received the homage of the turbulent Bretons he had subdued. In 1203 the French king sent an
expedition against the Mont, when some of its dependencies were burnt, for which depredation Philippe
Auguste later compensated the monks royally, and with the proceeds the 'Merveille' was built, while Louis
IX, who visited the abbey in 1254, contributed to the cost of its defensive works; indeed it increasingly
took on the character of an ecclesiastical fortress, with a garrison maintained at the joint charge of both
king and abbot. It was the only stronghold which held out when the rest of Normandy was overrun by
Henry V's armies, and withstood two sieges under Louis d'Estouteville (in 1417 and 1423), and a third
English assault was beaten off in 1434. In 1469 Louis XI added to the prosperity of the monastery by
instituting the royal order of St Michel. Noël Beda, head of the Collège de Montaigu in Paris from 1499,
was banished here by François I for his officiousness, where he died in 1536. In 1591 it successfully
resisted Montgomery and his Calvinist troops. In 1622 the vitiated confraternity were replaced by the
reformed (but Philistine) congragation of St Maur, who divided the refectory into the storeys of dormitory
cells. From 1790 to 1863 it was a State prison, and only after 1874, when it passed into the hands of the
Commission des Monuments Historiques, did its restoration commence. # 3 - 559

MIDE

(mi'he) Meath. The central portion of Ireland. # 166

MIDER

(MEETH-er)

MIDIR MIDHIR MIDAR

(mi'yâr) King of Sidhe of Femen, and the fairy lover of Etain, the queen. He lost his wife Etain, who was a
human, and went in search of her to the court of Eochaid Airem, whom she had married. He sought her
through many reincarnations and strove to remind her of their happiness within the sidhe. He fought to
regain her by playing fidchell (chess) with Eochaid and eventually abducted Etain by seizing her and rising
through the smoke-hole of Eochaid's hall in the form of swans. # 166 - 267 - 454

MIDSUMMER

The festival of the summer solstice remained a major pagan holiday, up through the ages. The solstices and
equinoxes were important festivals keyed to the progress of the growing season. Midsummer was the vital,
somewhat scary time when the sun reached its turning point and began its slow decline toward another
winter. Therefore Midsummer was always a festival of fire, when bonfires burned all night to encourage the
solar deity to return again in due course. # 701 p 187

MIDSUMMER NIGHT'S DREAM, A

The diminutive fairies of which we have some mentions in the medieval chronicles were first introduced
into literature in the poetry and drama of Elizabethan times. We find them first in Lyly's ENDIMION, but
here they are incidental. In A MIDSUMMER NIGHT'S DREAM they are among the principal characters
with a sub-plot of their own, but are important agents in the main plot as well. There is no doubt that the
fairies are small - the elves creep into acorn cups to hide, find a bee's honey bag a heavy burden and a bat a
formidable adversary. But they still have their powers. All of them can travel immense distances as swiftly
as the moon. The chief ones among them can change their shape and size. When they quarrel, all nature is
affected and the seasons are out of gear. Like all fairies they have great herbal knowledge; they have power
over human offspring and can bless marriage beds. Like most fairies they are amorous of mortals. They
have their Fairy Rades like the Heroic Fairies. These are good fairies, the Seelie Court, benevolent to
mortals except for an occasional jest, ready to help those who are in need. In other plays of Shakespeare
there are mentions of fairies, the bestknown, perhaps, being Mercutio's description in ROMEO AND
JULIET of Queen Mab, the midwife of dreams, an intentionally comic description. There is the invocation
to the fairies in CYMBELINE, where, in pagan Britain, the fairies take the place of God. When we come to
THE TEMPEST we have full treatment of a fairy again, if we may call Ariel a fairy; he is perhaps rather an
elemental - a sylph; but he can summon fairies to help him in his revels and he sings their songs. # 100 -
593

MIDWIFE TO THE FAIRIES

From the earliest times there have been stories of mortal women summoned to act as midwives to fairy
mothers among the themes of the dependence of fairies on mortals. One of the latest of these was of a
district nurse summoned by a queer old man who boarded a bus near Greenhow Hill in Yorkshire. He
conducted the nurse to a cave in the side of Greenhow Hill, and the occupants turned out to be a family of
pixies. The interesting point here, since the pixies are not native to Yorkshire, is that Greenhow Hill was
said to have been mined by Cornishmen. The anecdote had currency in the 1920s and after. The Fairy
Ointment motif does not occur in this version. The earliest version of the midwife tale is to be found in
Gervase of Tilbury's thirteenth-century OTIA IMPERIALIS. The fullest of all, however, perhaps the only
complete fairy midwife story, is given by John Rhys in CELTIC FOLKLORE, VOL. I, he gives the Welsh
version, written down by William Thomas Solomon. # 100 - 246 - 554

MILED

(mee-leh) Ancestor of the Milesians. Grandson of Bregon. He sailed from Spain to avenge the death of his
uncle (sometimes called brother), Ith. The Tuatha de Danaan caused Ireland to be swathed in a magic mist,
so that he called the place 'Muic Inis' or Pig Island. He willed the land to his sons Eber and Eremon. # 454 -
469

MILESIANS

The sons of Miled and ancestors of the Gaels. They came to Ireland via Scythia, Egypt and Spain. They
held the land after the departure of the Tuatha de Danaan. See also: THEORIES OF FAIRY ORIGINS. #
454 - 469

MILKY WAY

The 'river of stars' created by our edge-on view into the central portion of our galaxy was seen as a river of
sparkling, life-giving Goddess milk by ancient civilizations, and in Celtic lands as the Track of the White
Cow. In the nursery rhyme, the famous White Cow became the animal who jumped over the moon, leaving
a trail of her star-milk across the sky. # 701 p 343

MIMIR

God of the sea, which is sometimes named 'Mimir's weel'. Its draughts gave him knowledge of all things
past and future, and Odin traded one of his own eyes for a drink of it. Like the Celtic Bran, Mimir's head
when cut off, became oracular and Odin preserved and consulted it long afterwards. Mimir is clearly a god
of primeval power and qualities. In some versions of the Norse myths, Yggdrasil, the worldtree, is named
Minameid, Mimir's tree, after him. # 168 - 454

MINERVA

In Celtic understanding, the Goddess took many forms, but she was especially revealed as a goddess of
wisdom, governing the inspired wisdom of the initiate. Minerva's chief temple in Britain was at Bath where
she was twinned with the native goddess, Sulis. The veneration of the virgin goddess of wisdom and of war
was already wellestablished in Britain: the attributes of Minerva are given to Brigantia. # 265 - 454 - 627

MIODHCHAOIN

(MEE-than)

MIRAUDE

The wife of Torec. Torec had been sent to obtain his grandmother's circlet from Miraude and she promised
to wed him if he overcame the Knights of the Round Table. This he did. # 156

MIRROR

Celtic women were buried with their personal mirrors, which were supposed to be their soul-carriers. # 701
p 145

MISER ON THE FAIRY GUMP, THE

The Gump near St Just in Cornwall had been famous as the meetingplace of the Small People. Robert Hunt,
in POPULAR ROMANCES OF THE WEST OF ENGLAND, gives a vivid description of a fairy gathering
as tiny, bejewelled and courtly as any to be found in the poetry of Herrick or Drayton. The old people of St
Just had long told their children and grandchildren of the great spectacle there, of the music, dancing and
feasting. Modest spectators were not punished, and some had even been given tiny but most precious gifts.
# 100 - 331

MISTLETOE

Druid's considered the plant's poisonous, pearly white berries to be drops of the oak god's semen, much as
the red holly berries were drops of the life-giving lunar blood of the Goddess Hel (Holle). Thus the
mistletoe acquired phallic significance. Druids 'castrated' the oak god by cutting the mistletoe with a golden
sickle, and catching it in a white cloth before it could touch the ground. # 701 p 447

MNA ALLTHACHA

A wise woman, who was learned about the various herbs and poultices that could be made from the
seemingly innocent roadside weeds, one familiar with the ways of the gentry, the fairies. # 582

MOCHAEN

(mo-chayn') Hill of Mochaen and Lugh's eric. ...and the three shouts are to be given on the hill of a fierce
warrior, Mochaen, who, with his sons, are under vows to prevent any man from raising his voice on that
hill. See: ERIC. # 562
MOCHAOMHOG

(mo hay-voc) The priest who cared for the enchanted children of Lir, Fionnuala and her brothers. He
fashioned chains of silver for their necks, heard their story and instructed them in the Christian faith. He
refused to give them up and eventually baptized them before they died, restored to their human shapes. See
also: CHILDREN OF LIR. # 267 - 454

MODDEY DHOO MAUTHE DOOG

(moor tha do) The most famous of the Black Dogs of the Isle of Man was the Moddey Dhoo or Mauthe
Doog of Peel Castle, made famous by Walter Scott. In the seventeenth century when the castle was
garrisoned, a great, shaggy black dog used to come silently into the guardroom and stretch himself there.
No one knew whom he belonged to nor how he came, and he looked so strange that no one dared to speak
to him, and the soldiers always went in pairs to carry the keys to the governor's room after the castle was
locked up. At length one man, the worse for drink, taunted his companions and mocked the dog. He
snatched up the keys, dared the dog to follow him, and rushed out of the room alone. The dog got up and
padded after him, and presently a terrible scream was heard and the man staggered back, pale, silent,
shuddering. The dog was never seen again, but after three days of silent horror the man died. That was the
last thing seen of the Mauthe Doog, but the Moddey Dhoo persists to modern times. # 100 - 585

MODRED

See: MORDRED.

MODRON

# 156: 1. This is the Welsh name for the Celtic goddess Matrona, thought to be the prototype of Morgan.
See: AVALON and EVELAKE.

# 454: 2. Mother of Mabon. Her name merely means 'mother' and is a mystery title. No specific legend
exists about her, although traces of her mythos are appeciable in the stories of Rhiannon, Macha, Demeter
etc. She is the mother who loses her child. Her cult is closely tied with that of her lost son, Mabon. Modron
appears as the title of Morgan in a late sixteenth-century folk-story, where she is also called 'daughter of
Afallach'. Her mythic lineage can be traced through Morrigan and is probably associated with the once
widespread cult of the Mothers. She may be associated with Saint Madrun. # 104 - 156 - 272 - 439 - 454

MOEL ARTHUR

A hill in Clwyd where, according to legend, King Arthur's table was situated. Certainly, a hill fort on the
site may have been in use in the early Middle Ages and a survey of 1737 mentions Cist Arthur, a burial
chamber, possibly thought to be Arthur's last resting place. # 156

MOG RUITH

'Slave of the Wheel'. A druid or enchanter who lived on Valentia Island off south-west Munster. With his
'rowing wheel' - prototype aircraft - he is supposed to have been a disciple of Simon Magus. His daughter
Tlachtga was the only survivor of Simon Magus' ill-fated attempts to fly. His location, so near to the home
of the Cailleach Bheare, suggests that he may have some connections with her cult. # 454 - 548

MOINE
In the PROSE MERLIN, the name given to the elder brother of Ambrosius and Uther. His real name was
Ivoine, from Ivoire, his mother's name, but he was called Moine (monk) because he had been brought up in
a monastery. Elsewhere he is called Constans. # 156

MOLING, SAINT

In Irish tradition St Moling figures as the friend of a celebrated leaper, the mad Suibne Geilt, who, resorting
to the woods, grew feathers and so could jump from tree to tree and from hill-top to hill-top - an Irish
counterpart of the Welsh Myrddin Wyllt.

For a parallel to a tale about St Moling we will turn to the contest between Vishnu, one of the three supreme
gods of Hinduism, and the demon Bali son of Virocana. This is the version related in the Râmâyana: Bali,
who had overcome Indra, Lord of Gods, enjoyed the empire of the three worlds, and he was celebrating a
sacrifice when Indra and the other gods, distressed with fear, spoke to the great ascetic Vishnu who was
engaged in mortification and contemplation in 'The Hermitage of the Perfect'. 'Bali, son of Virocana', they
said, 'is performing a sacrifice... Do thou, O Vishnu, for the benefit of the gods resort to a phantom shape
and assuming the form of a dwarf bring about our highest welfare...' Thus adressed by the gods, Vishnu,
adopting a dwarfish form, approached the son of Virocana and begged three of his own paces. Having
obtained three paces Vishnu took a monstrous form and with three steps the Thrice-stepper then gained
possession of the worlds. With one step he occupied the whole earth, with the second the eternal
atmosphere, with the third the sky....He made that demon Bali a dweller in the underworld and gave the
empire of the three worlds to Indra...' The predicament of the gods at the beginning of the Hindu story,
which reproduces that of the Tuatha before the Second Battle of Mag Tuired, has no counterpart in the
Moling story. Otherwise, the parallelism is well-nigh complete.

Moling: Vishnu:
1. A candidate for the
priesthood practising
austerities. 1. A hermit perfecting himself in a hermitage.
2. He is collecting alms for the 2. The contest is such as 'is engaged when a
Church. man offers the fore-offerings'.
3. He is armed with a staff of 3. He is armed with a 'thunderash - a bolt' (a
wood used to keep demons at ritual term for anything used to destroy
bay. spiritual enemies).
4. His contest with the Evil 4. His contest with the king of the Spectre.
demons. 5. Three paces granted.
5. Three steps granted readily. 6. The prodigious paces.
6. The prodigious three leaps.
7. He is called the Thrice-stepper.
7. He is named Moling for his
leaps.

The full collation between the texts from Hindi and Celtic sources is to be found in Alwyn Rees and
Brinley Rees CELTIC HERITAGE. See also: KENTIGERN, SAINT. # 548

MOMUR

The name of the fairy kingdom ruled by Oberon in the French romance HUON DE BORDEAUX. # 156

MONGAN
King of Ireland. He was the son of Caintigerna who was visited by Manannan after her husband Fiachna
had gone to fight in Scotland. Manannan promised to help her husband win his battle if she lay with him.
Mongan was the son of this union. Manannan made her promise to allow Mongan to accompany him to the
Otherworld, where he would be taught magical skills. Mongan was thus skilled in magic and poetry as well
as kingship and overcame his enemies by the use of these arts. He was eventually killed in battle and
passed into the Otherworld. Some consider him to have been a reincarnation of Finn mac Cumhal as well as
an avatar of Manannan. In the VOYAGE OF BRAN MAC FERBAL, Mongan's coming is likened to that of
Christ. # 454 - 548

MONGAN, STORIES OF

With the stories of Mongan we come upon an unusually puzzling phase of Irish literature. The characters of
Mongan and Manannan mac Lir may have had a very early origin, but they appear to enjoy their greatest
popularity in the later texts. They seem to belong to an age when people were more interested in getting the
explanations of things than they were in simple narrative for its own sake. Little is definitely known about
the original date of this material, but it seems certainly to be later than the beginning of the cycle of Finn.
Its preoccupation with the bizarre and complicated is not necessarily an indication of a late date, but the
fact may be significant that the demonstrably earlier texts seem to have no knowledge of the characters here
involved. Mongan, as well as Mannanan, is regarded by many as a sort of Adonis-like divinity who has
much in common with Angus of the Brug. In neither case, however, is the evidence for an originally divine
character absolutely conclusive. That Mongan was looked upon as a reincarnation of the famous Finn mac
Cumhal is clear enough from the texts preserved. # 166

MONGAN, THE BIRTH OF

A king who was also believed to have had a supernatural father was Mongan. Fiachna Finn, King of Ulster,
was sorely pressed in battle in Lochlann when a tall warrior, who transpired to be Manannan mac Lir,
appeared on the battlefield and offered victory if Fiachna would allow him to go to Ireland to sleep with
Fiachna's wife. He would go in Fiachna's shape and beget a glorious child who would be called Mongan
son of Fiachna Finn. The king agreed and secured his victory. In due course a son was born to Fiachna's
wife, but when he was three nights old Manannan came and took him to be reared in the Land of Promise
until he was twelve years of age. According to another version, Manannan first went to Fiachna's wife and
offered to save her husband's life if she consorted with him. He then went and told Fiachna what had taken
place and gave him the victory. Features similar to those which recur in the different tales of the birth of the
heroes are likewise found in many others. You will find them throughout this encyclopaedia under the
specific name of the hero concerned. # 468 - 548

MONGFIND

The jealous stepmother of Niall. She sent his mother, Cairenn, to serve her by drawing water from a well.
Her four sons by Eochu the King of Ireland were passed over when Niall succeeded in winning all the tests
to establish which of the boys had the right to the succession. # 188 - 454

MONSTERS

Giants and Dragons generally absorb the greater part of the monsters of British fairy-lore. Heraldic
monsters, properly speaking, are those that display a mixture of parts of the body belonging to other
creatures, as, for example, a griffin, which has the head and wings and forefeet of an eagle, the body,
hindquarters and tail of a lion and ears which appear to be its own invention. Griffins are occasionally
mentioned in some of the fairy-stories. In 'Young Conall of Howth', for instance, which is included in
ó'Súilleabhain's FOLKTALES IN IRELAND, a volume of the FOLKTALES OF THE WORLD series,
there is a causal mention of an old man having been carried to Ireland by a griffin, but these heraldic
monsters are given little importance. Less formal creatures occupy the imagination of both the Celts and the
Saxons, Hagges of extraordinary hideousness, with their eyes misplaced and hair growing inside their
mouths, the Direach, with one leg, one hand and one eye, the skinless Nuckelavee, the shapeless Brollachan
and Boneless and watermonsters like the Afanc and the Boobrie; these are felt to be more satisfactory than
the mathematical conceptions of the heralds. # 100 - 513

MOR

Ancestress of the royal houses of Munster. A sun goddess whose throne is pointed out in the western seas of
Ireland. # 454 - 548

MORANN

It is said that the Druid Morann prophesied over the infant, Setanta: 'His praise will be in the mouths of all
men; charioteers and warriors, kings and sages will recount his deeds; he will win the love of many. This
child will avenge all your wrongs; he will give combat at your fords, he will decide all your quarrels'. # 562

MORC

A Fomorian king. # 562

MORDA

A blind man, set by Ceridwen to keep fire under the magic cauldron. See also: MORFRAN. # 562

MORDRAIN

The name adopted by Evelake when he was baptized. # 156

MORDRED

The incest motif where Mordred was the fruit of the union between Arthur and his half-sister Morgause,
appeared first in Malory's MORTE DARTHUR. In the ANNALES CAMBRIAE we are told that Arthur and
Medrawt (Mordred) perished at Camlann, but we are not told they were on different sides. Geoffrey
informs us that Mordred was Arthur's nephew, the son of Arthur's sister Anna and her husband, Lot of
Lothian. The DREAM OF RHONABWY makes him Arthur's foster-son as well as his nephew.

Geoffrey asserts that, when Arthur was away on his Roman campaign, Mordred seized Guinevere and the
throne, thus paving the way for their final battle. As to Malory's version, if Mordred indeed was the
incestuous union, it made him both son and nephew of Arthur - anciently a powerful position according to
the kingmaking rules of Celtic times which favoured the King's nephew, rather than his son as heir-
apparent. (Hence the strong relationships which Arthur has with other nephews, including more
particularly, Gawain, whose family had greatest claim to the throne.) As an adult, Mordred became one of
Arthur's knights and was for a time a companion of Lancelot. He took the part of the Orkney family against
the family of Pellinore, slaying Pellinore's son, Lamorak.

When Arthur went to fight Lancelot, Mordred was left as regent in his absence. He proclaimed that Arthur
was dead and then laid siege to Guinevere, so Arthur's return became necessary. In most versions of the
Arthurian story, Mordred is depicted as a villain. His father sought to kill him when he realized that he had
slept with Morgause; he ordered all children born at that time to be put into a boat and left to drown.
Mordred escaped and was brought up with his half-brothers Gawain, Gaheris, Gareth and Agravaine. In
Wace, Mordred is not Arthur's son, but Guinevere (whom he seized and made his queen) was his sister. In
the ALLITERATIVE MORTE ARTHURE, he and Guinevere had a child. In Welsh tradition Mordred
married Cywyllog, daughter of Caw, and they had two sons. In the earliest Welsh sources he seems to have
been regarded as a hero rather than a villain. But in most versions, he was finally slain by his father whom
he mortally wounded at the Battle of Camlann. See: MARDOC, and TWENTY-FOUR KNIGHTS. # 55 -
156 - 243 - 418 - 483 - 562 - 697

MORFESSA

Great-Knowledge, is the meaning of his name. He was the master of wisdom who dwelt in Falias, one of
the four cities from which the Tuatha de Danaan came to Ireland. He gave ste stone of Fal into their care;
this was the sacred inauguration stone which shrieked out under a rightful king.#166-454

MORFRAN MORVRAN

He was one of the Twenty-four Knights of Arthur's Court. The son of Ceridwen and Tegid Foel. His name
means 'great cow'. He was also called 'Afagddu' or 'Utter Darkness'. He was so ugly that his mother sought
to compensate this by the acquisition of great wisdom. It was for him that she prepared her cauldron of
inspiration, but it was Gwion (Taliesin) who drank it. Morfran was so ugly that, according to CULHWCH
AND OLWEN, he was not slain at the Battle of Camlann because his enemy thought him to be a devil. See:
AFGADDU. # 104 - 156 - 272 - 439 - 454

MORFUDD

In Welsh tradition, the twin sister of Owain. Her lover was Cynon, son of Clydno, one of Arthur's warriors.
# 156

MORGAN MORGANA MORGAN LE FAY

In the VITA MERLINI by Geoffrey, Merlin tells Taliesin that, after Camlann, they took Arthur to the Isle of
Apples, presided over by Morgan Le Fay (the Fairy), Arthur's half-sister, the chief of nine sisters, including
Moronoe, Mazoe, Gliten, Glitonea, Cliton, Tyronoe and Thitis. Nothing here indicate that she was Arthur's
sister. It does say, however, that she could fly with wings and change her shape. According to Malory, she
was the daughter of Gorlois of Cornwall and Igerna, half-sister to Arthur, mother of Owain by Urien of
Gore. She was 'put to school in a nunnery, where she learned great sorcery'. She became Arthur's most
implacable enemy, attempting by means of magic to destroy him and the Round Table Fellowship. She was
responsible for stealing the sword Excalibur and when this was recovered, succeeded in loosing forever the
scabbard which protected its wearer from all wounds.

The VULGATE MERLIN and the HUTH-MERLIN both make her Arthur's niece, the daughter of Lot. She
became a lady-in-waiting to Guinevere and fell in love with Arthur's nephew, Guiomar, but Guinevere
parted them. She learned much of her magic from Merlin. She tried unsuccessfully to have Arthur killed by
her lover, Accolon of Gaul. She fell in love with Lancelot and captured him, but he escaped. In Malory, she
was one of the queens who bore Arthur off on a barge after his final battle. Behind Morgan stands the figure
of the ancient Celtic battle-goddess the Morrigan. Vestiges of this earlier identity remain embedded in the
character as we now have it, such as her appearance with two other shadowy queens on the ship to Avalon.
She is almost certainly in origin the goddess Modron (earlier Matrona). Indeed Giraldus Cambrensis refers
to Morgan as a dea phantastica (imaginary goddess). Although localized in time in Arthur's reign,
romancers sometimes seemed aware that she had existed in early times, for example, in the ROMAN DE
TROIE (c. 1160) she is alive at the time of the Trojan War, while the romance PERCEFOREST has her
alive in early Britain. The author of SIR GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT also seems to realize her
originally divine status, calling her 'Morgan the goddess' (line 2452). Her name may have changed from
Modron to Morgan in Brittany where there was a belief in a class of water-fairies called Morgans or Mari-
Morgans. They also believed in one particular Morgan identified as Dahut or Ahes who caused the
destruction of the city of Ys.

It is now difficult, if not impossible, to argue that Morgan was derived from the Irish goddess, the
Morrigan. In more recent times her name has become synonymous with witchcraft, although there are again
signs that she is becoming restored as a more ancient and powerful figure more in accordance with her
origins. She may also be identified with a mirage sometimes seen in the Straits of Messina, which is called,
in Italian Fata Morgana, in French, le Chateau de Morgan Le Fée. Italian romance gives Morgan a
daughter, Pulzella Gaia, the lover of Gawain. The poet Torquato Tasso (1544-95) endows her with three
daughters, Morganetta, Nivetta and Carvilia. Other authors took up her name in their Arthurian romances
like in Rauf de Buon's PETIT BRUT, Morgan the Black was a son of Arthur. - Morgan Frych was said to be
the father of Merlin. - Arthur's physician was called Morgan Tud. - She was the illegitimate daughter of the
Duke of Tintagel, distinct from Morgan Le Fay, who married Nentres. See also: TERRESTRIAL
PARADISE, and THIRTEEN TREASURES.

There is a mysterious story about the Morgan who was supposed to haunt the Lake Glasfryn Uchaf in the
parish of Llangybi. It is one of quite a number of lakes which were said to have burst forth from a covered
well when the cover had been removed and the well exposed. Rhys, in CELTIC FOLKLORE, carefully
explores all the various forms in which he received the legend. The one that he finds of special interest is
that of the Morgan, which is said to come from the lake and carry away naughty or over-adventurous
children. He believes that the Morgan was originally a Mermaid of the same breed as the Breton Morgens
and connected with Morgan Le Fay. 'Morgan' in Welsh, however, was always a man's name, and Rhys
suggests that the water spirit became male in this tradition because of the Welsh usage. # 21-88-100-156-
202-221-238-242-243-346-397-418-438-439-454-516-632

MORGANNWG

A minor kingdom in Wales. Caradoc was believed to have been the ancestor of the royal family. # 98 - 156

MORGAUSE

A daughter of Gorlois of Cornwall and Igraine (Igerna). She was Arthur's half-sister who married Lot of
Orkney. The mother of Gawain, Gaheris, Gareth, Agravain and Mordred. She had a dark reputation, much
like that of her sister, Morgan Le Fay. According to ENFACES GAUVAIN, Lot was her page with whom
she had an intrique, as a result of which Gawain was born. In Malory she is Lot's queen who, as the result
of an amatory encounter with Arthur who were ignorant of their relationship) gave birth to Mordred. She
eventually perished at the hands of her son Gaheris, who caught her in bed with Lamorak, son of the
Orkney clan's greatest enemy, King Pellinore who had slain Lot. Morgause does not seem to have been the
original name of this character. In Geoffrey, the wife of Lot is called Anna, sister of Arthur. In DE ORTU
WALUUANII the part taken by Morgause in the ENFACES GAUVAIN is assigned to Anna; and the name
Morgause itself seems to be in origin a territorial designation rather than a personal name, for in DIU
CRôNE Gawain's mother is called Orcades or Morchades, which seems to be taken from the Orkneys (in
Latin: Orcades), the name of one of Lot's kingdoms, and Morchades seems to be a variant form of
Morgause. # 156-418-450

MORHOLT

The giant Irish champion who came every year to claim a tribute from King Mark of Cornwall. He was
slain by Tristan, Mark's nephew, who received a poisoned wound from Morholt's sword. He was evidently
of royal blood, being the uncle of Isolt. See also: MARHAUS. # 156 - 418 - 658

MORNA
Father of Goll. See: GOLL MAC MORNA. # 562

MORONOE

A sister of Morgan Le Fay. # 242

MORRIGAN

# 562: (MOR-rig-ahn) Extraordinary goddess, embodying all that is perverse and horrible among
supernatural powers. - # 454: The Great Queen. She was the archetypal form of the Goddess in Ireland,
particularly associated with war (when she appeared in triple guise as Macha, Nemainn and Badb). She also
combined with her bloodthirsty war-mongering, a lust for men - just like the Sumerian Inanna whom she
much resembles. She fought on the side of the Tuatha de Danaan against the Firbolgs in the first Battle of
Mag Tuired, after the second battle she foretold the end of the world, when moral virtues were ignored and
where the land was laid waste. She offered her love to CuChulain and after he rejected her, fought him in
the shape of an eel and a wolf-bitch. Her normal appearance was in the shape of a battle-crow. She mated
with the Dagda while straddling a river. Her name is really a title and is sometimes used as a collective
noun for her three aspects - the Morrigan. There are obvious overlays with both Modron and Morgan.

# 628: Phantom Queen of Death, Sexuality and Conflict. The Morrigan known in Irish legend and
mythology as a red-haired goddess of battle and pro-creation, often appearing in triple form. She combined
the treshold energies of life and death, sexuality and conflict in one terrifying goddess. Part of the doom of
CuChulain was that he did not recognize her when in her presence. # 100: Morrigan (moreeghan), or
Morrigu. One of the forms taken by the ancient Irish war goddess Badb. In the CuChulain epic, TAIN BO
CUAILNGE, in which the great war between the Fomorians and the Tuatha De Danann is celebrated, the
three war goddesses in the form of crows are Neman, Macha and Morrigu, of whom Morrigu is the
greatest. As Evans Wentz analyses the legend, they are the tripartite form of 'Badb'. Neman confounds the
armies of the enemy, so that allies wage mistaken war against each other, Macha revels in indiscriminate
slaughter, but it was Morrigu who infused supernatural strength and courage into CuChulain, so that he
won the war for the Tuatha De Danann, the forces of goodness and light, and conquered the dark
Fomorians, just as the Olympic gods conquered the Titans. # 166: She was perhaps the ancestor of the Ban
Sidhe. # 100-166-282-367-389-454-469-562-563-628 p 74 ff

MORRIS SQUARE

The Morris square, also known as the Mill, is the board used for the modern game of Morris, a simple
procedure for placing counters on the lines, reminiscent of tic-tac-toe. As a sacred figure in ancient Celtic
paganism, it was called the Triple Enclosure, delineating the center of the world with the four quarters, four
cardinal directions, four elements, four winds, four rivers of paradise, and so on emanating from the holy
Mill or Cauldron at the center. # 701

MORUADH

See: MERROWS.

MOTHERS, THE MAMAU MATRES

Directly related to the great Neolithic goddesses of Europe, the triple mothers appeared all over the Celtic
world, even becoming attached to certain Roman deities such as Mercury. The Romano-British Matres
show the native influence combined with an intrinsic understanding of the classical Parcae (Fates). They
are usually depicted as three seated, heavily draped women of mature years, bearing the fruits of the earth -
cornucopias, fruit, barley-loaves, cakes, beer etc. Some also nurse babies (Dea Nutrix). Their frequent
depiction in reliefs denotes their universal function as guardians of the hearth, the land and of plenty. They
are never given individual names but are adressed as the Mother of a particular locale - just as the Blessed
Virgin Mary is entitled Our Lady of a particular place. While they undoubtedly flourished before Roman
occupation, after it we find inscriptions adressing 'the Mothers of my Homeland' - of Gaul, Italy and
Germany - showing their widespread understanding as the native goddesses or genia locus of every land.
They were called the 'Mamau' in Welsh tradition. # 264 - 265 - 454 - 563

MOUNDS

# 548: The centre of the mysterious adventures of Pwyll and Pryderi is the throne-mound (GORSEDD)
which was outside the court of Arberth. Who-ever sat on it would see a wonder or suffer wounds or blows.
It was from this mound that Pwyll, the Head of Annwfn, first saw Rhiannon on her magic horse. There sat
Pryderi when enchantment fell upon Dyfed, and it was there that Manawydan was on the point of executing
a super-natural, thieving 'mouse' when the land was disenchanted and his lost companions restored to him.

The association of a ritual mound with Annwfn appears in Ellis Wynne's GWELEDIGAETHEU Y BARDD
CWSC (1703), which tells of three visions- of the World, of Death and of Hell. The poet falls asleep and
sees crowd of people whom he takes to be Gypsies or witches until, noticing their beauty and recognizing
among them the faces of deceased acquaintances, he realizes they are fairies (tylwyth teg). They are dancing
on the 'play mound' (twmpath chwareu), but they now take hold of the poet and they carry him over land
and sea until he espies below him the most beautiful castle he has every seen. Meanwhile they try to get the
poet to satirize his own king, when he is rescued from their clutches by an angel who informs him that they
were the Children of Annwfn. A 'play mound' used to be found near or inside graveyards in Wales. The
mound was banked up, with turf seats for the spectators arranged around an open floor where the games
were played. It appears to be a simple version of the Cornish plen an gwary ('the place of the play'), the
examples of which have been described as 'the only surviving medieval theatres in Britain'. The Irish word
oenach (assembly) is glossed by theatrum, and the Welsh word gorsedd which means 'assembly' and 'court'
as well as 'throne-mound', occurs as the equivalent of théátre. That 'mound', theatre, and place of general
assembly should be closely related, or indeed identified with one another, is not peculiar to Celtic tradition.
In Irish tales, mounds outside courts are scenes of games and visionary encounters which do not belong to
the round of mundane existence, and the holding of assemblies on hills and mounds is a commonplace of
Irish history. It may be assumed that every local community had such a traditional assembly place, but it is
to Munster that assemblies are attributed in 'The Settling of the Manor of Tara', and the gorsedd celebrated
in Welsh story is in Dyfed. Moreover, CuRoi, herdsman and King of Munster, has been compared with the
giant herdsman in Arthurian stories who sits on a mound and directs the hero to the strange palace where
his mettle is proved. In the story of 'The Lady of the Fountain', this director is a big, black, ugly forester,
onefooted and one-eyed, and wild animals 'numerous as the stars in the firmament' assemble and disperse at
his command. In both Celtic and Norse tales, the person who sits on a mound is usually a king or a
herdsman or both at once, while many a Fenian wonder-tale begins with Finn seated on his hunting-mound
when his company follow the chase.

Like the throne-mound outside the court, the sun-chamber (grianán) outside the banqueting-hall has
features which suggest comparison with the 'outer fifth' province. In some contexts, the grianán is the
women's part of the court. Again, it is from his grianán that Bricriu, the master of ceremonies who always
stands aside from the conflicts he initiates, watches the proceedings in the hall from which, though he built
it, he is excluded. Bricriu and CuRoi seem to have their Norse counterparts in Loki and Utgarda-Loki,
respectively. Utgarda-Loki is the colossal lord of an outer world, and his conduct towards Thorr, the
champion god, is in some ways similar to that of CuRoi towards CuChulain. Loki, a ruthless deceiver and
creator of conflict, is of the gods and yet not of them. They vainly try to exclude him from their feast, and
later he seeks refuge from them in a mountain where he builds himself an observatory from which he can
see in every direction. It is no accident that Bricriu and Goll, in the Ulster cycle, are both sons of Carbad
(i.e. they have the same patronymic); that in the Fenian Cycle, Conan Mael, the reviler and trouble-maker,
and Goll, the slayer of Finn, are both sons of Morna, and that Kai, the churlish senechal in the Arthurian
Cycle, is concerned with the service of the king's table.
# 49: All over Britain one can come across man-made earthen mounds. It has been estimated that there are
at least 40.000 of them; and it is likely that at one time there were far more. Thousands must have been
destroyed by farming and road-building activities. The mounds vary considerably in size and many were
constructed as places to bury the dead. But some have been excavated with no sign of such a purpose being
discovered and so the original function of these prehistoric remains is still regarded as a mystery. It is
neccessary to distinguish between the mounds known as tumuli and those referred to as barrows. The
tumuli are impressive heaps of earthen often situated on high ridges and on the sites of Iron Age hill forts
where they were probably used for defensive purposes. There are round barrows and long barrows which
generally have been found to contain so-called burial chambers. In the round barrows the bodies were often
buried in a crouched position and when cremation was involved the remains of the dead were placed in an
urn. Some of the long barrows are between 200 and 300 feet in length and often more than 50 feet wide and
about 8 feet high. They were possibly even higher when first built. Sometimes they are found to be just
mounds of earth but they often contain stone-lined chambers. They usually have an east-west orientation
and the chamber is situated in the east end, which is generally higher than the west end. They were mainly
used for multi-burials. In the earthen variety the group of bodies all had to be interred at the same time but
barrows containing stone chambers were used for separate burials carried out over a period of time. Bedd in
Welsh means 'grave' and such graves are generally barrows. Such an example is Bedd Taliesin on the slopes
of Moel y Garn, near Talybont in Dyfed (See: TALIESIN). This is a barrow with a stone lining reputed to
have been the grave of the sixth-century bard Taliesin. In the Preseli Hills is a Neolithic long barrow with a
stone gallery known as Bedd-yr-Afanc or 'Grave of the Monster'. There are many fascinating legends
associated with tumuli, carns and barrows. Many were believed to have been constructed by giants or to
have giants or monsters buried inside them. Some of these so-called 'Giants' Graves' have been excavated
and surprisingly found to contain skeletons of men of considerable height, sometimes as much as 8 feet tall.
Wales must have been famous for its burial mounds during the Arthurian period (sixth century) for Taliesin
referred to the country as Cymru Garneddog (Carn Wales). These monumental heaps over the remains of
the dead would sometimes vary according to the nature of the terrain. In stony districts a carn of stones was
heaped, but where stones were scarce a circular mound of earth was constructed and covered with turf. In
ancient times it was customary when passing a stone carn covering the remains of a warrior of a great man
to throw a stone on top in respect of his memory. Perhaps even more intriguing than the mounds are the
massive hill fort constructions that can be seen throughout the British Isles and Ireland. They are generally
very fine situations and the climb up to their summits can be rewarded with an extensive view. They appear
to have been used mainly as places where the local population could take temporary refuge in times of
danger, but some, such as the wellpreserved fort of Tre'r Ceiri on the Lleyn Peninsula, were inhabited for
quite long periods. It has been suggested by some modern writers that these so-called hill forts with their
massive rings of ditches were not originally built for purposes of defence but had some other mysterious
function. They were certainly used as fortresses during the Iron Age and Roman periods and the people of
those times probably adapted them to suit their purpose. # 49 - 212 - 283 - 347 - 548

MOUNTAIN

Often the Goddess as creator of the world began her activities with mountain-making. A Welsh title of the
Crone or Caillech was 'Hag of the Dribble,' because she let stones dribble from her apron to form the
Earth's mountain ranges. However, the 'dribble' may have been originally her milk or her uterine blood,
both of which were once considered the creative fluid whose curdling or clotting made all land masses. #
701 p 346

MOYRATH

Battle of Moyrath ended resistance of Celtic chiefs to Christianity. # 562

MOYS

According to Robert, a follower of Joseph of Arimathea, who wished to sit on the Siege Perilous but was
swallowed up by the earth. # 156 - 557
MOYSLAUGHT

'The Plain of Adoration'. Idol of Crom Cruach erected there. # 562

MOYTURA, PLAIN OF

1. Scene of First Battle (Co. Sligo) between Danaan and the Firbolgs. 2. Scene of Second Battle (Co.
Mayo) between Danaans and Fomorians. # 562

MôR CYLCH

Stone-carving depicting the life-maze. # 384 p 101

MUGAN

(moog'an) Wife of Conchobar; daughter of Eochaid Fedlech. # 166

MUGMEDON, THE ADVENTURES OF THE SONS OF EOCHAID

Here, as in 'The Death of Niall,' the hero is Niall of the Nine Hostages, who, according to the annals, was
high-king of Ireland from AD 379 to 405. Niall, the eponymous ancestor of the O'Neills, is reputed to have
been one of the most powerful kings of ancient Ireland. The tale is not an especially good example of the
Irish story-teller's art, but it is full of interest for the student of ancient Irish beliefs. It is still more
noteworthy as an early example of a theme dear to the Irish people, the personification of Ireland in the
form of a beautiful woman. The plot itself is of a type widely circulated in medieval Europe and perhaps
best known to the general reader in the form given to it by the Wife of Bath in Chaucer's CANTERBURY
TALES. The story in ANCIENT IRISH TALES is not older than the eleventh century. # 166

MUILEARTEACH

The watery form of the Cailleach Bheur. She could appear as a hag or as a sea-serpent. On land, she would
often appear to beg shelter at a mortal's fire, whereupon she would grow in size and ferocity. She had a
blue-black face with one eye and raised winds and storms at sea. # 454

MUIR N-ICHT

(mwir aiht) The Sea of Wight; the English Channel. # 166

MUIRCERTACH MAC ERCA, THE DEATH OF

Muircertach mac Erca, according to the Irish annals, was high-king of Ireland during the first half of the
sixth century. The story to be found in Cross' and Slover's ANCIENT IRISH TALES is rich in details that
throw light on the early social history of Ireland. In Muircertach's prophetic dream, the fear of having one's
name uttered, the accounts of the standards of Tyrconnel and Tyrone, the blood-covenant, the magic powers
of the enchantress Sin, the practice of beheading foes and placing their heads on stakes, the washing of
corpses in a river, and women going to battle. Like 'The Adventures of Art Son of Conn', the story tells of
the machinations of a supernatural woman who fascinates a mortal and involves him in difficulties. It also
illustrates the introduction of ecclesiastical elements into pagan heroic tales, and a special point is made of
the conflict between pagan and Christian ideals. The writer shows considerable skill in building up the
climax which leads to the death of the unfortunate king. Though relatively late, the story is certainly older
than the twelfth century. # 166
MUIRCHEARTACH

Fifth-century King of Tara who may have been the prototype for the various characters called Marhalt and
Marhaus in Arthurian stories. # 156

MUIRTHEMNE

See: MAG MUIRTHEMNE.

MULLAGHMAST, THE LEGEND OF

Earl Fitzgerald (Gearoidh Iarla) is the Irish hero of the widespread legend of the Sleeping Warriors. He was
the son of the fairy Aine and Gerald, Earl of Desmond. Through the breach of a gease (taboo) he had
disappeared into an underground resting-place, but there are different versions of the story. This, which is
the best-known, is given by Patrick Kennedy in his LEGENDARY FICTIONS OF THE IRISH CELTS.
Earl Fitzgerald was a champion of the Irish against the Normans, and as well as a great warrior he was a
great master of magic. His lady had often heard of his power of shape-shifting, but she had never seen any
evidence of it and she kept begging him to show her what he could do. He often put her off, and at last he
warned her that if she cried out or gave any sign of fear while he was under enchantment he would
disappear out of this world and would have no power to return to it till many generations of men had passed
away. But she said proudly that she was the wife of a great warrior and knew better than to show fear. So he
turned himself in a twinkling into a beautiful goldfinch and flew up on to her hand. They played merrily
together, and he flitted out of the window for a moment, but sped in again to take refuge in her breast with a
great hawk behind him. His lady screamed out and beat at the hawk and it swerved and dashed against the
wall and fell dead. But when the lady looked down for her goldfinch he was nowhere to be seen, and she
never saw Earl Fitzgerald again. He and his warriors are sleeping in a long cave under the Rath of
Mullaghmast, as Arthur sleeps under Cadbury. Once in seven years they ride round the rath on white horses
shod with silver. Their shoes were once half an inch thick and when they are worn as thin as a cat's ears,
Earl Fitzgerald will return again and reign as king over Ireland. Once in seven years the door of the cave is
open, and one night, over a hundred years ago, a drunken horse dealer went in. He was terrified at the sight
of the slumbering host, and when one of them raised his hand and said, 'Is it time yet?' he answered hastily,
'Not yet, but it will be soon, ' and fled from the cave. Arthur and Fitzgerald both had fairy blood in them;
but the same may not be true of Charlemagne or Frederick Barbarossa, two other famous sleeping warriors.
# 100 - 364

MUNREMAR MAC GERRCIND

(mwin'rëv ar moc gâr'cin) 'Fat-Neck son of Short Head.' An Ulster warrior. # 166

MUNSTER

Ailill Olum, King of Munster. - Province in Ireland. Origin of the name: The ending -ster- in three of the
names of the Irish provinces is of Norse origin, and is a relic of the Viking conquest in Ireland. Connacht,
where the Vikings did not penetrate, alone preserves its Irish name unmodified. Ulster (in Irish Ulaidh) is
supposed to derive its name from Ollav Fôla, Munster (Mumhan) from King Eocho Mumho, tenth in the
succession from Eremon, and Connact was 'the land of the children of Conn' - he who was called Conn of
the Hundred Battles, and who died AD 157. # 562

MURDHUACHA

(muroo-cha) See: MERROWS.


MUREIF

See: URIEN.

MURIAS, THE CITY OF

One of the four cities from which the Tuatha de Danaan came to Ireland. Its master of wisdom was Semias,
who entrusted the cauldron of knowledge to the Dagda. See: DANA, and HALLOWS. # 166 - 454 - 562

MURINE

Sister-in-law of Lugh. Mother of Fionn (Finn). She bore Fionn after his father's death and was unable to
protect him, so she left him in fosterage with Bodhmall and Laith Luachra: a female druid and a woman
warrior. # 267 - 454

MURNA OF THE WHITE NECK

Wife of Cumhal, mother of Finn; takes refuge in forests of Slieve Bloom, and gives birth to Demna (Finn);
marries King of Kerry. # 562

MURTAGH MAC ERC

King of Ireland, brother of Fergus the Great; lends famous stone of Scone to Scotland. (The Stone of Scone
was abducted from Westminster Abbey in 1950, but later returned). # 562

MURTHEMNEY

Cian killed on the Plain of Murthemney. CuChulain of Murthemney seen in a vision by prophetess
Fedelma; host of Ulster assemble on this Plain. # 562

MURYANS

Muryan is the Cornish word for 'ant'. The Cornish belief about the fairies was that they were the souls of
ancient heathen people, too good for Hell and too bad for Heaven, who had gradually declined from their
natural size, and were dwindling down until they became the size of ants, after which they vanished from
this state and no one knew what became of them. For this reason, the Cornish people thought it was
unlucky to kill ants. In the Fairy Dwelling on Selena Moor the reason given for the dwindling size of the
Small People of Cornwall was that they had the power of changing into birds or other forms, but after every
such change, when they resumed their former shape, they were rather smaller, and therefore as time went
on they dwindled. # 100

MYLOR

He was a boy prince when his uncle killed his father. In order to block Mylor's becoming king, his uncle
maimed him by cutting off his right hand and left foot, which were replaced by a silver and bronze
appendage, respectively. These started to function as natural limbs and Mylor was subsequently executed in
the monastery where he had taken shelter. This myth is parallel to that of Nuadu's silver hand, and shows
the persistence of the Celtic abhorrence for a WOUNDED KING. Mylor's relics are kept at Amesbury
Abbey and he is remembered on 1 October. # 454
MYNYDD FYRDDIN

A mountain at Longtown (Herefordshire) where Merlin is said to be buried. # 156

MYRDDIN

(MER-thin) See: MERLIN. A deity in Arthur's mythological cycle, corresponds with the Sun-god Nudd.
Suggestion of Professor Rhys that chief deity worshipped at Stonehenge was Myrddin. Seizes the
THIRTEEN TREASURES OF BRITAIN. # 562

MYTH, MEANING OF

All myths constructed by a primitive people are symbols, and if we can discover what it is that they
symbolise we have a valuable clue to the spiritual character, and sometimes even to the history, of the
people from whom they sprang. Now the meaning of the Danaan myth as it appears in the bardic literature,
though it has undergone much distortion before it reached us, is perfectly clear. The Danaans represent the
Celtic reverence for science, poetry and artistic skill, blended of course, with the earlier conception of the
divinity of the powers of Light. In their combat with the Firbolgs the victory of the intellect over dulness
and ignorance is plainly portrayed the comparison of the heavy, blunt weapon of the Firbolgs with the light
and penetrating spears of the people of Dana is an indication which it is impossible to mistake. # 562

MYTHOLOGY, COMPARISON BETWEEN GAELIC AND CYMRIC

We can clearly discern certain mythological figures common to all Celtica. We meet, for instance, Nudd or
Lludd, evidently a solar deity. A temple dating from Roman times, and dedicated to him under the name of
Nodens, has been discovered at Lydney, by the Severn. On a bronze plaque found near the spot is he
encircled by a halo and accompanied by flying spirits and by Tritons. We are reminded of the Danaan
deities and their close connection with the sea; and when we find that in Welsh legend an epithet is attached
to Nudd, meaning of 'the Silver Hand' (though no extant Welsh legend tells the meaning of the epithet), we
have no difficulty in identifying this Nudd with Nuadu of the Silver Hand, who led the Danaans in the
battle of Moytura. Under his name Lludd he is said to have had a temple on the site of St. Paul's in London,
the entrance to which was called in the British tongue parth Lludd, which the Saxons translated Ludes
Geat, our present Ludgate. # 562

MYTHS

Before everything else, myths are stories. The word muthos means an account: words organised to give
specific information or to make a particular effect. More narrowly, myths are attempts to explain - or at
least bring nearer to our comprehension - matters such as the beginning of the universe (see TALIESIN),
the nature and demands of supernatural powers, the hierarchy of creation, the causes of things, and the
origins of certain social customs and popular beliefs. In a pre-scientific age, myths were an intellectual
binding-force, a net of ideas and attitudes which guaranteed social identity. Whether each set of myths
reflected its society, or the society reflected in the myths, is a moot point, but certainly myths had a
defining and enabling power which scientific rationalism has still not begun to equal.
NABON

A giant who gave his realm, the Isle of Servage, to Segwarides. He was slain by Tristan. # 156

NABUR

The foster-parent of Mordred. He discovered Mordred as a baby when the ship, on which he had been set
adrift, was wrecked. # 156

NAISI

(nä'she) Son of Usnech; one of the three brothers who carried off Deirdre from the court of Ulster; a fellow-
pupil of CuChulain. # 166

NAME

Of all the symbols invented by incessantly symbolizing humanity, names are probably the most significant.
Irish and Welsh divine and heroic groups are named after the mother, not the father. In the older strata of
Celtic tradition it is common for heroes to be matronymous, the father's name being omitted. # 701 p 147

NANTES

According to Wolfram, the seat of Arthur's court. # 156 - 748

NANTOSUELTA

Gaulish goddess, consort of Sucellos. She appears with a dove-cot or model-house on a pole and is
accompanied by a raven. Her name means 'Winding River'. # 454 - 563

NAOISI

The lover of Deirdriu. She bound him on his honour to rescue her and flee from Ulster with her. He was
slain by Conchobar's client king, Eoghan.

# 266 - 454 - 654

NARBERTH

Castle where Pwyll had his court. Pwyll's adventures on the Mound of Arberth near Narberth. Pryderi and
Manawyddan and their wives left desolate at palace of Narberth. # 562

NASCIEN

When Evelake (Mordrain), his father-in-law, was taken away by the Holy Spirit, Nascien was blamed and
cast into prison. Rescued by a miracle, he was placed on the Turning Island where he saw Solomon's ship.
King David's sword broke in the hands of Nascien who was not worthy to hold it. He eventually came to
Britain. He was the hermit dedicated to the service of the Grail. He appeared at various intervals in many of
the medieval stories, as an adviser or explicator to the Grail Knights of the strange events and encounters
made along their way. In earlier texts it is told how he was once a pagan lord named Seraphe, who took the
name, Nascien, when he was baptized. Stricken blind when he tried to look within the Grail, he was healed
by the Grail Lance. He arrived in Britain together with Joseph of Arimathea and lived on to become the
hermit figure of later stories. # 99 - 156 - 454 - 461

NATCHRANTAL

Famous champion of Maeve; assists to capture the Brown Bull. # 562

NATHALIODUS

Boece informs us that this was a person of no background whom Uther made a commander. As a result,
half the island of Britain fell into the hands of the Saxons. # 156

NATURAL WORLD, SYMBOLISM OF THE

The sensitivity of the Celts to their natural environment is striking and manifests itself in the amount of
religious imagery which is associated with the natural world.

The numinosity of all natural phenomena - of the sky, sun, water, mountains, and trees demonstrates the
close alliance existing between humankind and its surroundings. The suddenness of storms, the occurence
of drought, the capriciousness of water, the healing properties of springs and the daily reappearance of the
sun, were all explicable only if these phenomena were controlled by the gods. The relationship of the Celts
to animals is related but more complicated: an animal's particular qualities were revered, so those qualities
were adopted as being appropriate to represent an aspect of divinity. Animals were not generally deities per
se, but on occasions the boundaries between god and beast were blurred. Hunter and hunted had a peculiar,
symbiotic interdependence; and certain gods relied so heavily on beasts that their very identity was
inextricable from animal imagery. The rural basis of their society meant that the Celtic peoples were
intensely aware of and at one with their natural habitat. The gods were everywhere and the natural spirits
had to be harnessed and their power used for good, whilst their capacity for destruction was equally
acknowledged. ># 770

NAUD

Among the ancient Celts, a nobleman had the right to claim naud, or santuary, excusing him from a
punishment. It was always granted, because of some obscure logic, for a monarch to refuse naud when it
had been asked would transfer the guilt for the crime to the king. # 383 p 171

NAWGLAN

The Sacred Nine. It is a specially prepared mixture of ashes obtained from the burning of the nine sacred
woods: willows of the streams, hazel of the rocks, alder of the marches, birch of the waterfalls, ash of the
shadows, yew of the plain, elm of the glens, rowan of the mountains, oak of the sun. Used by Druids and
Bards in sacred rituals in 'time between times' inside the Stone Circle, and scattered to the four quarters. #
383 p 225

NEAMHAN

See: NEMAN.

NECHTAN
Between the plains of Tara and Brugh na Boyne, the charioteer of CuChulain pointed out the great dûn of
the sons of Nechtan. 'Are they,' CuChulain asked, 'those sons of Nechtan of whom it is said that more of the
men of Ulster have fallen by their hands than are yet living on the earth?' 'The same,' said the charioteer.
'Then let us drive thither,' said CuChulain, and before the day was done, he had slain them all. Nechtan was
the husband of Boann. The well of knowledge, over which nine hazel trees dropped their nuts was
forbidden to any but he and his cup-bearers. Boann disobeyed him so that the well rose up and chased her,
becoming the River Boyne. #454-562

NEF DE JOIE

A ship made by Merlin and used by Mabon to bring Tristan to him. This ship was to be destroyed after
Arthur's final battle. # 156 - 712

NEFYN

The daughter of Brychan, wife of Cynfarch and mother of Urien. # 104 - 156

NEIT

Danaan king, and the male consort of Nemainn. His name may mean 'vigour' or 'exaltation in combat'. He
is one of the primeval gods of Ireland and after his death, he was slain at the second Battle with the
Fomorians at Mag Tuired, his sons divided the land between them. He was the grandfather of Balor. # 389 -
454 - 562

NEMAN NEAMHAN NEMAINN

The ancient Irish war goddess Badb took a triple form, Neman, Morrigu and Macha, all in the shape of
royston or hoodie crows, aform taken in modern Irish fairy-lore by the Bean-Sidhe (Ban Sidhe). Each
manifestation has a different function and Neman is 'the confounder of armies'. It is she who causes bands
of the same army to fight together, mistaking each other for the enemy. Evans Wentz, in THE FAIRY
FAITH IN CELTIC COUNTRIES, gives a useful account of these war spirits, founded mainly on SILVA
GADELICA and THE BOOK OF CONQUESTS, but with other comparisons and references. #100-711

NEMED

(nev-eh) Son of Agnoman. He came from Scythia into Ireland, which he took possessions of, fighting
victoriously aganst the Fomorians in three battles but shortly afterwards died of plague along with three
thousand of his people. # 454 - 469 - 562

NEMEDIANS

Sail for Ireland; akin to Partholanians; revolt of Nemedians against Fomorians. # 562

NEMETONA

'Goddess of the Sacred Grove' is the meaning of her name. Like many other Celtic deities, her name is a
title, reverently hiding the local given name. She appears as the partner of Mars in his RomanoBritish
guises.#454-563

NEMHGLAN
He was the bird-like being who appeared to Mess Buachalla and made love to her. His son, Conaire Mess
Buachalla, attempted to shoot at a flock of birds but Nemhglan flew down and laid a geise upon him to strip
naked and proceed thus to Tara with only his sling-shot and one stone in his hand. By this method the
druids recognozed Conaire as the next High King. #454 - 562

NENNIUS

British historian in whose HISTORIA BRITONUM (AD 800) is found first mention of Arthur. # 562

NENTRES

King of Garlot who married Elaine, Arthur's half-sister. He was one of the eleven kings who made a revolt
against Arthur at the beginning of his reign, but eventually became an ally and a Knight of the Round
Table. # 156 - 418

NEOT

(d 877) Trained as a monk at Glastonbury, he became a hermit near Bodmin Moor at Neotstoke. He is said
to have appeared to King Alfred the Great on the eve of the Battle of Ethandum. When Neot's oxen were
stolen, he yoked stags to plough his fields. His feast-day is 31 July.

A hundred years after Neot's death, his relics were taken from Cornwall to grace the monastery founded by
the Saxon Leofric at Eynesbury, near St Ives, Cambridgeshire. # 454 - 678

NERA

He was a servant of Ailill. One Samhain night, Ailill offered a prize to any who would go out and encircle
the foot of a corpse hanging outside with a withy. It being the time of the dead, everyone refused but Nera.
As he was about to perform the deed, the corpse asked for water: Nera carried him to a nearby house which
was immediately circled by the fire. At the next house, it became surrounded with water. At the third house
the corpse drank three cups of water and spat out third upon the occupants who promptly died. Returning to
claim his prize, Nera found the royal fort in flames and the King and his men beheaded. Nera descended to
the underworld entrance of Cruachan to regain the heads and there lived with a bean-sidhe who explained
that it had only been a vision and the best way to avoid it happening was to return to the royal fort and
destroy the sidhe in which he now was. Fergus mac Roigh destroyed the place after plundering its treasures.
Nera escaped with his sidhe-wife and child. # 208 - 454

NERA, THE ADVENTURES OF

'The Adventures of Nera' apparently also known in ancient times as the 'Cattle Raid of Aingen,' is one of
the wildest tales in early Irish literature. In its present form given in Cross' and Slover's ANCIENT IRISH
TALES, unfortunately, it is the result of two unskillfully combined parallel accounts of Nera's excursion
into the fairy world; hence the confused state of the latter part of the text. The scene is laid in Connacht, not
in Ulster. The story is connected, at least superficially, with the two famous bulls that figure in the 'Cattle
Raid of Cooley'. The compiler was acquainted not only with the central epic, but also with the 'Cattle Raid
of Regamna' and 'The Exile of the Sons of Usnech'. The reference to the opening of the fairy-mounds on
Hallowe'en is a piece of ancient folk-lore which has come down even to the present day. The royal family
preparing food in the midst of the great hall at Cruachan, the hanging of the captives before the door, and
the emphasis upon the terrors of the night are touches of primitive barbarism and superstition which point
to the antiquity of the traditions underlying the tale. The cave of Cruachan, known in Christian tradition as
'Ireland's gate to Hell,' was, according to pagan belief, an entrance to Fairyland. # 166
NEREJA

The female emissary of Queen Amene, she went to Arthur's court to obtain aid for her mistress whose
territory had been largely conquered by the evil Roaz. # 156 - 746

NESSA

1. Daughter of Echid Yellow-heel, married to Fachtna the Giant which she bore a son named Conor. When
Fachtna died, Fergus son of Roy, his half-brother succeeded him, Conor being only a youth. Fergus loved
Nessa and would marry her, but she made the condition that her son Conor could reign for one year. Fergus
agreed, and so wise and prosperous was the young Conor's rule that, at the years end, the people, as Nessa
foresaw, would have him remain king. Fergus, who loved feast and chase better than the toils of kingship,
was content to have it so and remained at Conor's court, happy, but king no longer.

2. Wife of Cathbad. Her name was originally Assa or 'Gentle', but after Cathbad had killed all her tutors she
took up arms as a woman warrior and was afterwards called 'Ungentle' or Niassa (Nessa). Cathbad
surprised her bathing without her arms, but he spared her and granted her only to have her as his wife. She
bore Conchobar on the day prophesied as the birthday of Christ. # 188 - 454 - 562

NESTOR

The brother of Ban and father of Bleoberis, he was accidentally killed by his son. Nestor was also the name
of the son of Bleoberis. # 156

NEW GRANGE

# 562: Tumulus at New Grange regarded as dwelling-place of Fairy Folk. Angus' Fairy palace at Brugh na
Boyne identical with New Grange.

# 470: It has been known for some years that at dawn on the shortest day of the year a ray of sunlight
penetrates the inner chamber at New Grange, shining straight down the narrow passage through a
rectangular, stone-framed slit above the entrance. In THE BOYNE VALLEY VISION, 1980, Martin
Brennan claimed that the two chambers at Knowth, one facing east, the other west, were illuminated by
sunrise and sunset at the equinoxes. This was confirmed by observation in 1980 at the autumn equinox, and
Brennan went on to show that the inner chamber at Dowth received light at midwinter sunset.

Significant shadow effects have also been observed in connection with megalithic carvings. At Knowth, for
example, as the time of the equinox approaches, the shadow of an upright stone at sunset falls onto an
inscribed stone at the western entrance. A vertical line carved down the centre line of the passage, and on
the day when the sun sets at the mid-point of its yearly course, the edge of the shadow cast by the standing
stone falls precisely onto the carved line. # 96 - 470 - 562

NIALL OF THE NINE HOSTAGES

King of Tara in the late fourth century. He was the son of Eochu Muigmedon by Cairenn, a concubine, and
was recognized by his father with his four step-brothers as a suitable heir to the throne. However,
Mongfind, Eochu's wife caused all the boys to be tested to see which would be king. She sent them to a
prophetic smith, Sithchean, who set his forge on fire to see what implements the boys would rescue. Niall
rescued the anvil and was accorded the winner. Mongfind set another test, dissatisfied that her children had
been passed over. Sithchean sent the boys to fend for themselves in the forest, but they found themselves
without water. Each boy went to a well which was guarded by a hag; she would only give water to the one
who kissed her. Only Niall obliged her and she turned into a beautiful woman, naming herself as the
Sovereignty of Ireland, which she accorded Niall. # 188 - 454 - 548

NIALL OF THE NINE HOSTAGES, THE DEATH OF

Though this story in its form given in Cross' and Slover's ANCIENT IRISH TALES hardly can be older
than the eleventh century, it doubtless contains reminiscences of Irish invasions of Great Britain during the
late fourth and early fifth centuries, when, as we know from British records and other evidence, the
inhabitants of Britain were suffering from the inroads of the Scots (Irish). # 166

NIAMH

(NEE-av) 1. Wife of Conall of the Victories; tends CuChulain; Bave puts a spell of straying on her. 2.
Niamh of the Golden Hair, daughter of the King of the Land of Youth (Manannan). She loved Oisin and
talked him into a journey to her father's Land Oversea. Here they lived happily for three hundred years after
which Oisin got satisfied with all the events he had adventured, that he longed for a visit to his native land
and to see his old comrades. It was granted to him, but Niamh made him promise not to unmount the steed
he was riding and set foot on his land or the way of return to the Land of Youth would be barred to him for
ever. He met strange people in his own land who in return looked at him as was he an Fairy or an angel. He
offered to help them heaving a huge stone from its bed, and in doing so he was instantly changed with the
weight of three hundred mortal years upon him. # 562

NICHT NOUGHT NOTHING NICHT NOCHT NAETHIN

An example of a widespread story of which the earliest example is that of Jason and Medea. Andrew Lang
published it in FOLK-LORE, VOL. I. In this version we have the supernatural wizard as the hero's father-
in-law. The tale is still alive, and was recorded and published by Dr Hamish Henderson in THE GREEN
MAN OF KNOWLEDGE, where the heroine is a Swan Maiden. # 100

NICODEMUS

The body of this biblical personage was first kept at Camelot and then at the Grail Castle. It accompanied
Perceval on board ship when he made his final voyage. # 112 - 156

NIGHTMARE

# 118: The second part of the word has nothing to do with horses. The 'mare' derives from Old English
mara, or a spectra which, it was said, perched itself on the breast of a sleeper and deprived him of motion
and speech. # 100: One form in which the name of Mara, a demon, survives. The other is 'mare's nest'.
Other names for Night-Mare are Succubus and the Hagge. # 100 - 118

NIMBLE MEN, THE

See: FIR CHLIS.

NIMPHIDIA

See: DIMINUTIVE FAIRIES.

NIMUE
Her father was Diones or Dinas, a vavasour (holder of feudal lands, lesser in rank than a baron). The origin
of the name Nimue may derive from Irish Niamh or Welsh Rhiannon. Merlin saw her as a maiden making
merry in the forests and became infatuated with her and taught her his magic, so she enclosed him in a
tower of glass where she could visit him but from which he could not escape. Some says she had him
imprisoned in a cave or in a tomb. According to Breton tradition this happened in the woods of Broceliande
near the Fountain of Barenton in Brittany. She is also named Vivienne, Viviane or Niniane. The tradition of
Merlin's imprisonment by this maiden probably stems from his withdrawal into the realms of the Celtic
Otherworld which is frequently described in terms of a glass or crystal spiral tower in which the poet or
magician is imprisoned for a while to learn the mysteries of life and death. She was the lover of Merlin but
she also became the lover of Pelleas. She might have been The Lady of The Lake. # 37 - 100 - 156 - 418 -
454 - 589

NINIANE

See: NIMUE.

NINTH WAVE, THE

The ninth wave was considered to be the magical boundary of the land, beyond which was another country.
In ancient times, boats usually hugged coastlines rather than venturing on the open sea. # 437 p 21

NISSIEN

Son of Eurosswyd and Penardun, brother of Efnissien. His name means 'peaceful', but he was unable to
weave peace between his brother and all those people whom his brother, Efnissien insulted. # 272 - 439 -
454 - 562

NIVETTA

According to Tasso, a daughter of Morgan Le Fay. # 98 - 156

NODENS

He is analogous with Nudd or Lludd, Nuadu (Nuada). His chief sanctuary was at Lydney, Gloucestershire
where the shrine had a guest house attached as well as a dormitory or 'abaton' for temple sleep. No
depictions of him exist, though his symbol seems to have been the dog, if the votive plaques found at his
temples are any indication. He was a water-god associated with the Romano-British god Neptune. See:
NUDD. # 104 - 439 - 454 - 562 - 720

NOGGLE NUGGLE NYGEL

This creature, whose name is variously spelt, is the Shetland Kelpie. It appears like a beautiful little grey
horse, about the size of a Shetland pony, bridled and saddled. It is less malicious than the Kelpie and much
less dangerous than the Eash Uisge, but it has two mischievous tricks. Its peculiarity is that it is much
attracted by water-mills, and if the mill was running at night it would size the wheel and stop it. It could be
driven off by thrusting a burning brand or a long steel knife through the vent-hole of the mill. Its other trick
was to loiter along the mill-stream and allure pedestrians to mount it. It would then dash away into the sea
and give its rider a severe and even dangerous ducking; but it did not, like Each Uisge, tear its victim to
pieces, it merely rose through the water and vanished in a blue flame. Before mounting a stray horse it was
wise to look well at its tail. The Noggle looked like an ordinary horse, but it had a tail like a half-wheel,
curled up over its back. Some people called the Noggle a Shoopiltie, but it seems to have shared this name
with the merpeople. Anecdotes and descriptions of the Noggle have been brought together from various
sources by A. C. Black in COUNTY FOLKLORE, VOL. III. # 71 - 100

NORTHERN IRELAND

This region really ought to be called 'Northeastern Ireland' Surprisingly few, except from the Irish and the
British, seem to realize that Donegal, to the north and west of Northern Ireland, is a part of Eire. There are
spots on the Donegal-Northern Irish border where one would need to travel due south, even southwest in
places, to cross into Northern Ireland. Parts of Donegal are considerably north of Northern Ireland. See
also: BRITAIN AND ENGLAND. # 118

NORTHGALIS

This kingdom seems to have been North Wales, but it may, at least at times, have signified a kingdom of the
North Britons, such as Strathclyde, as it is said to have been near Northumberland. The ESTOIRE tells us
that an early king of this realm was Coudel who fell fighting against Christians. Wolfram has it under the
rule of Herzeloyde, while elsewhere it is given kings named Cradelment and Alois. Historically, a king
called Cadwallon was thought to have been ruling in North Wales during the traditional Arthurian period
and Geoffrey mentions him as King of the Vendoti (inhabitants of North Wales) in Arthur's time. # 156

NORTHUMBERLAND

In Arthurian romance this realm in the north of England is variously ruled by King Pellinore, King Clarion,
King Cador and King Detors. # 156

NORWAY

In Arthurian time, according to Geoffrey, Norway was ruled by King Sichelm who left it to Lot. Arthur had
to enforce Lot's claim, however, as the throne had been seized by a usurper, Riculf. At Arthur's final battle,
Odbricht, the King of Norway, supported Arthur and met his death. # 156 - 243

NUADA OF THE SILVER HAND

(NOO-da) King of the Danaans. Identical with solar deity in Cymric mythology viz., Nudd or Lludd, or in
Romano-British mythology, Nodens. He lost his hand fighting against the Firbolgs and as a maimed king
was disqualified from kingship. Diancecht made him a silver hand which caused Nuada to be called
Airgetlam (Silver Hand). However, Diancecht's son, Miach, created a hand of flesh. He allowed Lugh to
reign while he and his counsellors in one year conferred for the best way to overcome the Fomorians, but
he was killed in the second battle. See also: NUADU ARGAT LAM. ># 166 - 439 - 454 - 469 - 562 - 720

NUADHA

(of The Silver Arm). As king of the Tuatha De Danann, he was first deprived of kingship due to the loss of
his hand in battle, then gave kingship over to the multi-skilled Lugh who was better able to handle the war,
for a wounded king may not rule and must be replaced by a successor. It was typical of the Celts that they
enacted the deepest themes of their religion and mythology in myths of two brothers of light and dark
which compete for the love of the Land Goddess. # 628 p 117 ff

NUADU

(noo'â ha) A famous druid of Cathair Mor. # 166


NUADU ARGAT LAM

(noo'â ha âr'gat läv) 'Nuada of the Silver Arm.' First king of the Tuatha De Danann in Ireland; lost an arm in
the First Battle of Moytura; supplied with an arm of silver by Diancecht. # 166

NUALA

Mentioned incidentally by Evans Wentz as the wife of Fin Bheara, the king of the fairies of Connaught and
king of the dead whose wife, according to Lady Wilde, is Oonagh. # 100 - 711 - 728

NUC

The father of Yder, he fought against his son, neither knowing who, the other was. During the fight, their
identities became clear and they stopped. Nuc eventually married Yder,s mother. Nuc is called Duke of
Alemaigne, by which Albany (Scotland; in Gaelic: Alban) is probably intented. # 156

NUCKALAVEA

An Irish sea-monster of Centaur type; it had no skin and its breath brought the plague. # 161

NUDD

or Lludd. Roman equivalent, Nodens. A solar deity in Cymric mythology. Identical with Danaan deity
Nuada of the Silver Hand. Under the name Lludd, said to have had a temple on the site of St Paul's
Cathedral in London. Entrance to Lludd's temple called Parth Lludd (British), which the Saxons translated
Ludes Geat - the present Ludgate. # 562

NUMBERS

# 548: The subdivision of land into quarters is a very potent symbol. In Wales, according to the Law-books,
there were four acres in a homestead, four holdings in every township, and so on. In the Isle of Man four
quarterlands at one time formed a treen, the smallest unit for administrative purposes. Similarly in Ireland
and the Western Highlands of Scotland the quarterland is regarded as the primary division of farmland
(though it is further subdivided into eighths, sixteenths and so on). The Irish Baile Biatach, like the Davach
or ounceland in Scotland and the Hebrides, comprised four quarterlands and wax a tax unit. There are also
traces of the existence of this fourfold system in medieval England where four wards, four townships, or
four villes constituted a unit for various legal purposes. 'There is definite evidence that the number four was
associated in the medieval mind with the four quarters.' While the dominant idea in these cases is the four
quarters, the elusive fifth is not altogether absent. The Irish Faithche consisted of four fields, one of each
side of a Homestead, and a similar concept is implied in the Welsh system of four acres to one homestead.
We also know that in at least one district of South Wales the inhabitants of four adjoining sharelands used
to meet at a focal point on three annual holidays to play games and to listen to songs. Five is not the most
prominent number in Celtic tradition, but it nevertheless appears in a large number of significant contexts.
Ireland had five great roads and five celebrated hostels. There were five paths of the law, and five
prohibitions for each of the four provincial kings (but seven for the king of Tara). Both Finn and the fairies
counted by fives. Finn was one of the five masters of every great art, and was killed by the 'five sons of
Uirgriu', each of whom 'planted a spear in the royal fian-chief'. The unitary character of five is also
suggested by an episode in the Tain in which the Galioin, whose loyalty is suspect, are distributed among
the other troops 'so that no five men of them shall be in one place'.

Mythical personages wore fivefold cloaks, and CuChulain had five wheels on his shield, which is
particularly noteworthy when we remember that Achilles' shield was made in five layers and that shields
representing the cosmos were widespread in the iconography of the ancient world. When his wife, Ethne,
and three champions of Ulster visit CuChulain on his sick bed, they arrange themselves around him, Fergus
between him and the wall, Conall Cernach between him and the bed-rail, Lugaid Reoderg between him and
the pillow, Ethne at his feet - one at each point, with CuChulain in the middle. A medieval tract on language
teaches that 'five words are adjudged to be a breath of the poet.' And when dithyramb or metrical rhytm was
present, how was it measured? for there is not couplet rhyme or caesura rhyme in it. Not hard. 'By a word
completing a breath which was indicated by the fifth word...' Again, there are five kinds of language,
namely: 'the language of the Féni, the precedents of the poets, the language of separation, the hidden (?)
language of the poets, in which they speak with one another, and iarmberla, such as cuich [? cóic 'five'],
that is a secret, and Ballorb, a member which completes the poet...' The fifth kind of language was learned
by the poet in his fifth year of training. The number nine figures so prominently in Celtic tradition that it
has been described as the 'northern counterpart of the sacred seven' of Near Eastern cultures. Bricriu was
not the only subject who built a ninefold residence for his king. It is stated in Welsh Laws that the serf class
should build nine houses for the king, while the serf's own house also consist of a hall plus eigth
penthouses.

Repeated allusions to houses comprising 'nine houses (or rooms) in one', in the fifteenth-century poems of
Guto'r Glyn, confirm the existence of a Welsh tradition that a complete house should consist of nine
component parts. A holding consisting of a homestead and eight acres (erwau) is sometimes mentioned in
the Welsh Laws as an alternative to the more usual unit of a homestead and four acres, while in Ireland
there are instances of kingdoms which consisted of nine cantreds. Apart from sporadic pointers of this kind,
and the subdivision of quarterlands into eighths, the eight/ninefold conception of things has not left an
enduring impression on the territorial divisions of the Celtic lands, but it is to be found in a great many
other significant contexts, among which the following are but a small selection. We can mention the nine
hazels of wisdom that grew at the heads of the seven chief rivers of Ireland. There is also a story of a
marvellous tree which grew from above downwards, like an inverted Yggdrasill. It had nine branches, of
which the highest was the most beautiful, and in them pure white birds listened to the melodies to be heard
there. The story is interpreted allegorically, the tree being Christ, the nine branches the nine grades of
heaven, and the birds the soul of the just. An early Welsh poem which mentions the Cauldron of the Head
of Annwfn says that 'by the breath of nine maidens was it kindled', and in the VITA MERLINI the
Fortunate Isles are governed by nine sisters, the first of whom was Morgen. In the DINDSENCHAS there
is a tale of Ruad son of Rigdonn who rows north of Ireland with three boats and finds they have no power
to move. He swims to a secret spot and finds nine fair and strong 'female forms' with whom he sleeps nine
nights 'without gloom, without tearful lament, under the sea free from waves on nine beds of bronze.' One
of the women bears him a child. In Irish literature it is made clear that the nine consist of a leader and eight
others. This is strikingly illustrated in a description of Medb's mode of travel in TAIN BO CUAILGNE:
'and nine chariots with her alone; two before her, two behind, and two at either side, and her own chariot in
the middle between them'. King Loegaire, when setting out to arrest St Patrick, ordered nine chariots to be
joined together 'according to the traditions of the gods'. Nine, like five, symbolized the whole. In Welsh
medieval society the ninth generation was the recognized limit of kin relationship. In Scotland, the needfire
was kindled sometimes by nine men and sometimes by nine nines of first-begotten sons. The number was
also connected with the Beltaine fire in Scotland, Wales, as in part of Scandinavia, where it was made with
nine sticks collected by nine men from nine differnt trees. The number nine may at one time have had a
place in the calendar of the Celtic peoples. In the Welsh Laws, the ninth day of the month often marks the
end or the beginning of a period, and a period of nine days or nine nights is certainly in evidence in the
literature as a significant unit of time.

With the number twelve, as with the number seven, there is always the possibility that native tradition has
been affected by Christianity, but the symbolism of twelve, like that of seven, is certainly older and more
widespread than Christianity. A knowledge of the zodiacal twelve is found throughout Eurasia, and it was
firmly established in Scandinavia in pre-Christian times. That it should have been unknown to the pre-
Christian Celts is hardly probable. # 183 - 199 - 228 - 312 - 397 - 502 - 548 - 739 - 763

NUTS OF KNOWLEDGE
Drop from hazel-boughs into pool where Salmon of Knowledge lived. # 562

NWYWRE

Druidic name for the invisible force that governed both life and the material universe: Nwywre, symbolized
by the serpent, which is a universal symbol already familiar to us from the statues of the Pharaohs, who
were believed to represent the divinity on earth. According to Moreau, Nwywre 'was the creative power of
the physical world'. Nothing happened without it. It was the cosmic fluid, the ether, the light and the great
creative and divine Principle that linked Heaven and Earth. Its union with the other elements created life,
movement and spirit. A Gallic bard sang that it is smaller than the smallest and bigger than worlds because
it is subtleness and power itself. For the Druids, Nwywre was the thread mysterious linking the human
world to the divine world. # 482 - 730
O

(ô) (Irish) A grandson, descendant. Plural: ui. # 166

O CEALAIGH

(o kyal-eye)

OAK

Few trees have been so widely revered as the oak. The classic composition of the Dianic grove or Nemeton,
the residence of the heaven-god who controlled thunder and lightning, the deity of druids and dryads, the
oak was duir (D) in the druidic alphabet and represented power. Irish churches used to be called Dairthech,
'oakhouse,' an old druidic name for the sacred grove. # 701 p 468

OAKMEN

There are scattered references to oakmen in the North of England, though very few folktales about them:
there is no doubt that the oak was regarded as a sacred and potent tree. Most people know the rhyming
proverb 'Fairy folks are in old oaks'; 'The Gospel Oak' or 'The King's Oak' in every considerable forest had
probably a traditional sacredness from unremembered times, and an oak coppice in which the young
saplings had sprung from the stumps of felled trees was thought to be an uncanny place after sunset; but the
references to 'oakmen' are scanty. Beatrix Potter in THE FAIRY CARAVAN gives some description of the
Oakmen, squat, dwarfish people with red toadstool caps and red noses who tempt intruders into their copse
with disguised food made of fungi. The fairy wood in which they lurk is thrice-cut copse and is full of
bluebells. THE FAIRY CARAVAN is her only long book, and is scattered with folktales and beliefs. It is
probable that her Oakmen are founded on genuine traditions. In Ruth Tongue's FORGOTTEN FOLK
TALES OF THE ENGLISH COUNTIES there is a story from Cumberland, 'The Vixen and the Oakmen', in
which the Oakmen figure as guardians of animals. This rests on a single tradition, a story brought back by a
soldier from the Lake District in 1948, and may well have been subject to some sophistication, but these
two together make it worth while to be alert for other examples. # 100 - 674

OBERON

# 156: 1. King of the fairies. According to HUON DE BORDEAUX, he was the son of Julius Caesar and
Morgan Le Fay, naming his Faery kingdom Momur. Elsewhere it is stated that he was originally an
extremely ugly dwarf named Tronc, but the fairies took pity on him, removed his ugliness and gave him a
kingdom. He is also called Auberon and is believed to be associated with the dwarf Alberich from German
mythology. He was a companion of Ysaie the Sad, Tristan's son who resigned his kingdom to Huon of
Bordeaux. Arthur, who had removed to fairyland after his earthly sojourn, protested, as he had expected to
receive the crown, but Oberon's treat to turn him into a werewolf was sufficient to silence him. Oberon died
shortly afterwards. We are told that Oberon was the father of Robin Goodfellow by a human girl. Spencer
makes him the father of Gloriana, with whom Arthur fell in love. In A MIDSUMMER NIGHT'S DREAM
Oberon's wife is called Titania. She does not often appear in medieval Arthurian literature, though she does
occur in two modern works, Richard Hovey's THE QUEST OF MERLIN (1891) and Reginald Heber's
THE MASQUE OF GWENDOLEN (1816).

2. A brother of Morgan in OGIER LE DANOIS (a non-Arthurian French medieval romance. See: OGIER.
# 100 - 156 - 202 - 322

OCEAN SWEEPER
Manannan's magical boat. # 562

OCHALL

(o-hal)

OCTA

See: OSLA BIG-KNIFE.

OCTRIALLACH

He was a Fomorian who discovered how Diancecht had been able to bring the dead to life by means of the
Well of Slaine. Octriallach showed his tribe the place and they filled in the spring. He was killed by Ogma.
# 208 - 454

ODBRICHT

The King of Norway who supported Arthur in his final battle at Camlann and died there. # 156 - 243

ODGAR

The King of Ireland when Arthur went there seeking the cauldron belonging to Diwrnach, the King's
supervisor. See: AEDD. # 156

ODHRAN, SAINT

# 454: (d 563) He was one of Columba's companions in his exile on Iona. Legend tells that the monastery
of Iona was hampered when the monks attempted to build the first church. Columba had a vision in which
it was shown to him that devils were hindering the work and that the building would not remain standing
unless a human victim was buried in the foundation. Odhran offered himself and was buried alive in the
foundations. After three days Columba dug him up. Odhran was still alive and said: 'There is no wonder in
death and Hell is not what it is reported to be.' Columba ordered the earth replaced over Odhran, saying:
'Earth, earth, on the mouth of Odhran, that he may blab no more.' The cemetery was indeed called Reilig
Orain (Odhran's Crypt). His feast-day is 27 October.

# 678: When Columcille (the dove of the church), the Latin rendering of his name is Columba, arrived on
Iona, he found a Christian monastery there, directed by Odhran. This first settler appears to have joined the
community founded by Columcille, who told his companions that whoever among them would be the first
to die would confirm the Irish right to the island and be assured of an easy passage to heaven. Odhran,
weary of the world, apparently consented to be the victim, and Columcille promised that in future years all
intercessions must be made through him. The fact that Odhran was buried at the place where Columcille
built his abbey is in keeping with that aspect of folklore which demands that a corpse (be it only that of a
mummified cat) must be buried in the walls of any new building to ensure good fortune. # 454 - 466 - 678

ODIN WODEN

It seems likely that Odin was the original leader of the Wild Hunt in England, as he was until recent times
in Scandinavia, where, however, he chased the harmless little wood-wives instead of the souls of damned
men. It was common for Satan to take over the role of any influential god, and Odin, as the leader and
chooser of the dead, had a special right to play the Devil's part. Brian Branston, in THE LOST GODS OF
ENGLAND, devotes a chapter to Woden and maintains his right to serve as the first leader of the Wild
Hunt, the Devil's Dandy Dogs and other sinister routs of the same kind. See also: WODEN. # 91 - 100

ODRAN

According to the life of Patrick written by Jocelyn, Odran drove the cart in which the saint travelled.
Realizing that there were threats against the life of his master and that enemies were lying in ambush for
him, Odran begged Patrick to drive the horses, while he took the saint's place in the cart. So it was, and the
murderers deceived by the change, thrust their spears into Odran, whose soul, Patrick saw, was carried by
angels into heaven. Because of the similarity of the name some people have identified Odran with Odhran
(q.v.). There is a link in the fact that both men voluntarily sacrificed themselves in order to clear the way so
that the work of a greater saint could be carried out. His feast-day is 19 February. # 678

ODYAR FRANC

The steward at Arthur's court. # 156 - 346

OENGHUS OENGUS MAC OG

(engus) The Irish equivalent of Maponus is Oenghus. He is son of the Dagda, the greatest Irish god, born of
a secret union with Boann, the river goddess. He was called 'in Mac Óc ('the Young Son') for his mother
said: 'Young is the son who was begotten at break of day and born betwixt it and evening.' After a playmate
had called him a hireling whose father and mother were unknown, Midir, his fosterfather, brought him to
the Dagda, who acknowledged him as his son and instructed him how to take possession of Elcmar's lands.
He is said to dwell in the prehistoric mound of the Bruigh na Boinne, which he tricked away from his
father. Although Oenghus is a bright young god, born of primal powers, he is not associated with
therapeutic springs. Oenghus is a figure of great beauty, wit and charm, and is also associated with fatal
love in Irish legends. The Scottish poet William Sharp (writing as Fiona Macleod in the nineteenth century
with a profound knowledge of Celtic mythology and language) rightly described Oenghus as 'Lord of Love
and Death'. In this last context we may see once again a link with the primal Apollo, whose bolt could bless
or blast. # 628 p 110

OENGUS, THE DREAM OF

'The Dream of Oengus' is a continuation of the opening episode of 'The Wooing of Etain', wherein Boand
and the Dagdae sleep together and Oengus is born. Although the story survives only in a relatively late
source, the fifteenth-century Egerton 1782 manuscript, it is mentioned in the Book of Leinster, in a list of
preliminary tales to 'The Cattle Raid of Cuailnge'. Even so, 'The Dream of Oengus' does not appear to be
especially old. The themes are familiar to Celtic literature: love before first sight (as in the Welsh tale 'How
Culhwch Won Olwen'), the initiative of the otherworld woman (as by Rhiannon in 'Pwyll Lord of Dyved'
and by Macha in 'The Labour Pains of the Ulaid'), the wasting away of the mortal lover (Gilvaethwy in
'Math Son of Mathonwy', Ailill Angubae in 'The Wooing of Etain'), the unwillingness of the woman's father
(as in 'Culhwch and Olwen' and 'The Wooing of Etain') and the transformation of the lovers into swans
(Mider and Etain). And Boand and the Dagdae are scarcely recognizable as people of the Sidhe: Boand is
unable to help her son at all, and the Dagdae has to ask assistance from the king of the Sidhe of Mumu. The
meeting and transformation of Oengus and Caer Ibormeith at Samhain, a time of changes, does evince a
genuinely ancient Celtic motif; and the tone of the story, while romantic, is still restrained. The link to 'The
Cattle Raid of Cuailnge', however, is pure artifice.

One puzzling feature of this story is Oengus' failure to reveal the cause of his illness. In the Welsh story
'Math Son of Mathonwy', Gilvaethwy falls in love with Math's virgin footholder; in the second section of
'The Wooing of Etain', Ailill falls in love with his brother's wife. Both men fall ill from love, but neither
will reveal his guilty secret, and it may be that this idea of silence was transferred. Inappropriately (since
Oengus has no cause for guilt), as part of the overall theme of wasting sickness. 'The Dream of Oengus' is
the ultimate source of Yeats's poem 'The Dream of Wandering Aengus'. See also: ANGUS MAC OG. # 236

OENOCHOE

Celtic wine pitchers. # 730

OESC

A King of Kent, said to be the son or grandson of Hengist, ruler in the traditional Arthurian period. # 156

OGHAM (OGAMIC)

The secret fifth has its counterpart in the fifth of the five 'families' (or groups) of five signs each which
constitute the Ogham alphabet. The first three groups of five stand for the different consonants, the fourt
group for vowels. The fifth set of five, called the 'supplementary family', is said, in the medieval tracts, to
denote diphtongs. Early Irish stories contain several references to the use of Ogham to convey secret
messages or for divinatory purposes. In one case four sticks are used, in another a four-sided stick.
Vendryes, in L'ÉCRITURE OGAMIQUE ET SES ORIGINES in ÉTUDES CELTIQUES, notes the
importance of twenty in the Celtic numerical system, and the five 'supplementary letters' (forfeda) are
dismissed as a later addition, just as the fifth province has been accounted a later addition. The signs in this
fifth group are different in character from those of the four other groups. But are we to consider it an
accident that each of the five characters of the fifth group is formed by a cross (single, double or
quadruple), a diamond or circular enclosure, or a rudimentary spiral - all apt symbols of the mystic centre?
Several hundred Ogamic inscriptions have been found on stones in England and Ireland, most of them in
the southwest of the latter country. It has been possible to decipher them thanks to Irish manuscripts of the
Middle Ages, such as the Book of Leinster and the Book of Ballymoore, which contains the 'Ogham tract',
an exposé of about seventy varieties of Ogamic writing. The name itself is derived, according to some,
from the Greek 'ogmos' (furrow), while according to others it comes from Heracles' alternative Celtic name,
Ogmios. Ogamic writing has also been found on stones in Spain and North America but it is difficult to
date the stones. See also TREE ALPHABET.

# 768: The origin of the Ogham alphabet is ascribed in the BOOK OF BALLYMOTE to Ogma, one of the
learned men of the mythical Tuatha De Danaan race, and in a manuscript in the British Museum (Add.
47830) Breas mac Elathan is said to have been the inventor. Oghams are continually referred to in the Irish
manuscripts, such as the BOOKS OF LEINSTER, BALLYMOTE, LISMORE, and the LEABHSAR na
UIDRE, generally as being carved on sepulcral monuments, but sometimes on objects of metal. The
inscriptions on the Ogham pillars, and the nature of localities in which they are found, prove conclusively
that they were originally erected to commemorate the dead. The point we have now to determine is how far
they are Christian.

Two of the authorities who have written on the subject come to diametrically opposite conclusions. Sir S.
Ferguson, in 'Ogham Inscriptions' says, "I shall be able, I think, to show reasonable grounds for believing
that the bulk, if not all, of our Ogham monuments are Christian; that some of them represent, perhaps, as
old a Christianity as has been claimed for the Church in either island." Mr. R. Rolt Brash believes that the
Ogham alphabet is of pagan origin, and that most of the stones inscribed with this form of letter belong to
the pre-Christian period. # 548 - 730 - 768

OGIER

A hero of Carolingian romance who was the son of Godfrey, a Danish duke. He features in the romance
OGIER LE DANOIS. His historical prototype may have been Otker, advocate of Liège in Charlemagne's
time. At Ogier's birth, Morgan Le Fay said she would eventually take him to Avalon, which she did. He
stayed there for 200 years and then returned to aid assailed Christendom, finally going back to Avalon. He
and Morgan had a son called Meurvin. The Danes regarded Ogier as a Danish hero named Holger. He was
given the sword of Tristan by Charlemagne and he called it Curetana. Other traditions are that he slept with
his men in a cave in Denmark or that he perpetually wandered about in the Ardennes. According to
Mandeville's TRAVELS (1356-57) he was an ancestor of Prester John. # 156

OGMA

(og'ma) A distinguished warrior and strong man of Nuada of the Silver Hand. He was the son of Dagda, to
whom Dagda gave one of his Brughs when he was forced to take refuge underground before the advance of
the invading Milesians. The whole incident is to be found in the LEBOR GEBAR (Book of Battles), which
is one of the ancient books of Ireland. Ogma was the husband of Etain, and father of Tuirenn. He was
oppressed by Bres and the Fomorians whom he overcame in battle, as leader of the Tuatha de Danaan. He
captures the speaking sword of the Fomorian King Tethra. He is credited with inventing the ogham
alphabet which the Irish used in inscriptions, but not for writing. (The druidic prohibition on writing down
knowledge persisted until very late in Ireland's history: its professional teachers, poets and judges all
conned their art by heart.) Analogous to Gaulish god Ogmios. See also: OGMIOS. # 100 - 264 - 265 - 454 -
709

OGMIOS

Ogmios was an old man, bald and wrinkled, and in Romano-Celtic carvings, carrying a club and a bow. The
latter to show his strenght in his field which was eloquence. He was the god of the binding strenght of
poetry, of the power of the poetic word, charm, incantation or image. In Ireland the god Oghma is the
equivalent of Ogmios. Oghma is significantly credited with the invention of Ogham, the Celtic alphabet,
but he is also a strong champion. A Gaulish god. There is a native inscription to him as 'Ogmia' where he
appears wielding the whip of the Invincible Sun and with his hair raying out in the manner of a sun-god.
There are likely connections here with the native cults of Maponus/Apollo. See also: OGMA and, TREE
ALPHABET. # 265 - 454 - 563 - 628 p 122 ff - # 709

OGO'R DINAS

A cave near Llandebie. See: CRAIG-Y-DINAS. # 156

OGOF LANCIAU ERYRI

The cave in North Wales where Arthur's men were said to be awaiting his return. A shepherd was thought to
have seen him there. # 156 - 554

OIMELC IMBOLC

The coming of Brighid, Feile Bhride, or Brigit's feast - that was springlambing (Oimelc means 'sheep's
milk') and the combat between the Caillech of Winter and her rival, the Spring Maiden. Celebrated on 1
February. It is told in an obscure text how Brigit's lamb fought against the Cailleach's dragon. Scottish
Gaelic regions still celebrate her feast in remembrance of a gentle mystery cycle about Brigit's imminent
appearance, while in Ireland, people make Bride's Crosses woven of rushes or withies and in the shape of a
three or four-armed cross. This custom may derive from an earlier fireceremony in which this cross would
have been ignited and cast into the winterskies of February to hasten the coming spring. The combat of
Brigit with the Cailleach can still be traced in some extant folkstories. # 438 - 454

OISIN
(ush'een) Otherwise Little Fawn. Son of Finn and Sadbh; greatest poet of the Gael; father of Oscar; the only
hero, apart from Caoilte, to survive the Battle of Gabhre, at which most of the Fianna died; Keelta and
Oisin resolve to part, and together they bury Oscar; loved by Niamh of the Golden Hair who, during the
battle lured him into Tir na n'Og (Land of the Youth, the Otherworld where time doesn't exist), where he
intended to stay only for a short time, however, it was first after 300 years has passed in earthly time he was
satiate and became homesick. Niamh gave him a steed to go and see Ireland once more, telling him not to
touch the ground with his foot, but when he met people who needed his helping hand he forgot the geise
and became instantly an aged man. St Patrick attempted to baptize him, and obtained from him the history
of the Fianna so that it might be recorded for later ages. See also: NIAMH. # 267 - 454 - 504 - 562

OISIN IN THE LAND OF YOUTH

The story of the visit of Oisin son of Finn to Fairyland, the Happy Otherworld of the ancient Irish, belongs
less definitely to the heroic tradition than the other Finn tales printed in this group. The central motif, of
course, belongs to the oldest period (cf. THE ADVENTURES OF CONNLA THE FAIR,) and
CORMACH'S ADVENTURES IN THE LAND OF PROMISE, but the form present in Cross and Slover's
ANCIENT IRISH TALES dates only from the eighteenth century, when it was written by the poet Michael
Comyn. The dialogue form in which Patrick acts as interlocutor shows the influence of THE COLLOQUY
OF THE OLD MEN. The translation, which is very free, aims to reproduce the complicated system of
alliteration and internal rhyme used in Irish bardic poetry. The events of the story are supposed to have
taken place just after the celebrated battle of Gabra, in which Finn's band met its final defeat, but the
introduction of the Rip Van Winckle motif carries the action through many years to a period long after the
decline and ruin of the celebrated fian. The story furnishes an explanation of the tradition that Oisin
survived Finn and the rest of the fian long enough to converse with St Patrick, as in THE COLLOQUY OF
THE OLD MEN. The fact that the return of Oisin is used as a basis for parts of THE COLLOQUY OF THE
OLD MEN is an indication of the antiquity of the theme. See also: OISIN - and - COLLOQUY OF THE
OLD MEN, THE # 166

OLD ENGLISH

Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400) did not write in Old English. Nor did Sir Thomas Malory, the fifteenth-
century compiler of the stories of King Arthur and his Round Table in LE MORTE D'ARTHUR, write Old
English. Certainly William Shakespeare did not write in Old English; both he AND Malory, in fact, wrote
in modern English. Nor are the various illustrated (or 'illuminated') manuscript pages or imitations thereof
often sold in gift shops Old English. - Old English is, in fact, a language completely different from
Chaucer's, or that of anyone else mentioned in the preceding paragraph. It's a foreign language in spite of
its name; Chaucer himself probably could not read it, though Chaucer was a proficient enough linguist to
write in French and to translate from Latin and Italian. A student setting out to learn Old English today
would expect to spend at least as much time mastering it as if he were to train himself to read German or
Russian. - Scolars divide the history of the English language into three broad periods: Old English (AD
450-1100); Middle English, the language of Chaucer (1100-1500); and modern English (1500 to present).
The language of Malory is often called Early Modern English, sometimes abbreviated eMnE. The dates are
approximate; the historical factors which determine them are the invasion of England by the Angles,
Saxons and Jutes, who brought their Germanic tongue with them, usually dated AD 449; the Norman
Conquest, which occurred in 1066; and the introduction of printing to England by William Caxton in 1476.

The only manuscript of any length that survives from the real Old English period is that of BEOWULF-
and it is sheer luck that it does survive, since it was very nearly destroyed by a fire in the library of Sir
Robert Bruce Cotton, a well-to-do antiquarian and collector of Shakespeare's time. One can still see the
charred edges of the manuscript today. That Old English bears little resemblance in the popular conception
is amply demonstrated by the original text from that manuscript.

A literal translation of a highly inflected (or, as linguists say, 'synthtic') language like Old English into an
'analytic', or noninflected language like modern English is almost impossible. But at least it will show how
very different Old English is from the YE OLDE GIFTE SHOPPE variety so often miscalled Old English.
Transliterated into ordinary modern type without utilizing any special characters, following are all but the
last few words of the first four lines of the 'Beowulf' manuscript, with translation. Beowulf mathelode bearn
ecgtheowes [Beowulf spoke, son (of) Ecgteow:] hwaet we the thas saelec sunu healfdenes [Lo,we(to) you
this seabooty, son (of) Healfdene,] leod scyldinga lustrum brothon tires [Lord (of the) Scyldings (with) joy
(have; brought; of glories] to tacne the thu her to locast... [As token which you here at-look (i.e.,look at)...]
- Put very briefly, the reason Old English is so unlike today's-or for that matter, Chaucer's Malory's or
Shakespeare's-language is that following the Norman Conquest, England officially became a French-
speaking nation - and remained so for several centuries. The profound influence of Norman French, the
language of William the Conqueror, upon the 'native' Old English brought by the Germanic Anglo-Saxons
when they themselves invaded Britain about AD 450, is responsible for the radical alterations which took
place in English between BEOWULF and THE CANTERBURY TALES.

In any event, what practically everyone calls Old English today is really Middle English or even Early
Modern English. # 118

OLD LADY OF THE ELDER TREE, THE

Of all the sacred and fairy trees of England, the surviving traditions of the elder tree seem to be the most
lively. Sometimes they are closely associated with witches, sometimes with fairies, and sometimes they
have an independent life as a dryad or goddess. These traditions are not now generally believed, but they
are still known to some of the country people. Formerly the belief was more lively. Mrs Gutch in COUNTY
FOLK LORE, VOL. V, quotes from a paper given by R. M. Heanley to the Viking Club in 1901: Hearing
one day that a baby in a cottage close to my own was ill, I went across to see what was the matter. Baby
appeared right enough, and I said so; but its mother promptly explained: 'It were all along of my master's
thick 'ed; it were in this how: T' rocker cummed off t' cradle, an' he hedn't no more gumption than to mak a
new 'un out on illerwood without axing the Old Lady's leave, an' in coorse she didn't like that, an' she came
and pinched t' wean that outrageous he were a' most black i' t' face; but I bashed 'un off, an' putten an' esh
'un on, an' t'wean is as gallus as owt agin.' This was something quite new to me, and the clue seemed worth
following up. So going home I went straight down to my backyard, where old Johnny Holmes was cutting
up firewood - 'chopping kindling,' as he would have said. Watching the opportunity, I put a knot of elder-
wood in the way and said, 'You are not feared of chopping that, are you?' 'Nay,' he replied at once, 'I bain't
feared of chopping him, he bain't wick (alive); but if he were wick I dussn't, not without axin' the Old Gal's
leave, not if it were ever so.' ...(The words to be used are): 'Oh, them's slape enuff.' You just says, 'Owd Gal,
give me of thy wood, an Oi will give some of moine, when I graws inter a tree.' See also: ELDER. # 100 -
276

OLD PEOPLE, THE

One of the Cornish euphemistic names for the fairies. It was founded on the belief that the Small People of
Cornwall were the souls of the heathen people of the old times, who had died before the days of
Christianity and were too good for Hell and too bad for Heaven. They were therefore pendulous till the Day
of Judgement between Hell and Heaven. This belief was found by Evans Wentz in the early twentieth
century to be held by a proportion of the population in most of the Celtic countries which he explored. #
100

OLD TABLE

The Round Table was originally King Uther's and he too used it to seat knights, fifty in all. There may have
been many romances about this original table of warriors in Italian literature where it is mentioned, but, if
so, most have not survived. One of the best knights of the Old Table was Brunor. # 156 - 238

OLD WOMEN OF THE MOUNTAINS, THE


An individual member of the Gwyllion of Wales. Her special function seems to be to lead travellers astray.
Both Wirt Sikes and Rhys mention the Gwyllion in some detail. # 100 - 554 - 596

OLLAM

(ô'lav) A learned man of the highest rank. # 166

OLLAV FOLA

Ollav (a royal person) was a term applied to a certain Druidic rank; it meant a learned man - a master of
science. It is a characteristic trait that the Ollav is endowed with a distinction equal to that of a king. The
most distinguished Ollav of Ireland was also a king, the celebrated Ollav Fola, who is supposed to have
been eighteenth from Eremon and to have reigned about 1000 BC. He was the Lycurgus or Solon of
Ireland, giving to the country a code of legislature, and also subdividing it, under the High King at Tara,
among the provincial chiefs, to each of whom his proper rights and obligations were alloted. But whether
the Milesian king had any more objective reality than the other more obviously mythical figures it is hard
to say. He is supposed to have been buried in the great tumulus at Loughcrew, in Westmeath. # 562

OLWEN

She was daughter of the giant Yspaddaden. She is described in one of those pictorial passages in which the
Celtic passion for beauty has found such exquisite utterance: 'The maiden was clothed in a robe of flame-
coloured silk, and about her neck was a collar of ruddy gold on which were precious emeralds and rubies.
More yellow was her head than the flower of the broom, and her skin was whiter than the foam of the
wave, and fairer were her hands and her fingers than the blossoms of the wood-anemone amidst the spray
of the meadow fountain. The eye of the trained hawk, the glance of the three-mewed falcon, was not
brighter than hers. Her bosom was more snowy than the breast of the white swan, her cheek was redder
than the reddest roses. Whose beheld her was filled with her love. Four white trefoils sprang up whereever
she trod. And therefore she was called Olwen. Her name means 'She of the White Track'. She was the
object of Culhwch's love and could not be won from her father without her future husband fulfilling
numerous impossible tasks. Although she shares all the usual attributes of a giant's daughter - courage,
resourcefulness and beauty - she does not, however, enable Culhwch to fulfil his tasks in accordance with
most folk-stories. Whoever she weds will cause the death of her father, and thus it happens, when Culhwch
eventually wins her. It is interesting to compare the story of CULHWCH AND OLWEN with the Welsh
folktale EINION AND OLWEN, recorded by Evans Wentz, in which Einion, a shepherd, went to the
Otherworld to marry Olwen. Their son was called Taliesin. See: WRNACH. # 156 - 272 - 346 - 439 - 454 -
562 - 711

OLYROUN

A fairy king, the father-in-law of Lanval. He lived on an enchanted island. # 156

OONAGH

(oona) According to Lady Wilde in her ANCIENT LEGENDS OF IRELAND, Oonagh is the wife of
Finvarra, the king of the western fairies and of the dead. She says: Finvarra the King is still believed to rule
over all the fairies of the west, and Oonagh is the fairy queen. Her golden hair sweeps the ground, and she
is robed in silver gossamer all glittering as if with diamonds, but they are dew-drops that sparkle over it.
The queen is more beautiful than any woman of earth, yet Finvarra loves the mortal women best, and wiles
them down to his fairy palace by the subtle charm of his fairy music.
Nuala is also said to be Finvarra's wife, but perhaps it is not surprising that so amorous a fairy should have
several wives. # 100 - 728

OPTIMA

See: ALDAN.

ORC TRIATH

This boar was the possession of Brigit, the Dagda's daughter. It is synonymous with Twrch Trwyth. One
commentary gives it as the name for a king, possibly indicating that the boar was a kingly totem to aspire
to. # 454

ORCADES

An alternative name for Morgause found in DIU CRôNE. It comes from Orcades, the Latin name for the
Orkneys, ruled by Morgause's husband, Lot. # 156

ORCANT

The ruler of Orkney who had been converted to Christianity by Petrus, a follower of Joseph of Arimathea. #
30 - 156

ORFEO

The native form of Orpheus. In Scottish folk-story, Orfeo goes in search of his queen, Isabel, and plays his
pipes (or harp) to good effect in the Underworld, thus releasing his lady. The same story is told in a Middle-
English text; Orfeo goes in search of Meroudys or Herodis. The same story appears in native tradition in
the story of PWYLL and RHIANNON, and of MIDIR and ETAIN. # 150 - 454 - 762

ORGUELLEUSE

A proud lady who maintained that persistence in courtship and deeds of derring-do were the only things
that could lead to fulfilment in courtly love. She is mentioned by both Chrétien and Wolfram, the latter
suggesting she had an affair with Amfortas, culminating in his receiving his wound. She eventually gave
her love to Gawain. She had once been spurned by Perceval. # 156

ORIANT

The son of Meurvin, grandson of Morgan Le Fay by Ogier the Dane and nephew of Arthur. # 156

ORIGIN OF FAIRIES

Those inhabitants of Britain who used to believe in the fairies, and that small number who still believe in
them, have various notions about their origin, and this variety is not purely regional but is partly founded
on theological differences. Folklorists and students of fairy-lore who have not committed themselves to
personal beliefs also put forth a selection of Theories of Fairy Origins, which for the sake of clarity can be
examined separately. A valuable work of research on the beliefs held about fairy origins among the Celts
was published by Evans Wentz under the title THE FAIRY-FAITH IN CELTIC COUNTRIES (1911). In the
course of his work he travelled in Ireland, the Highlands of Scotland, Wales, the Isle of Man, Cornwall and
Brittany, interviewing first eminent scolars, such as Douglas Hyde in Ireland and Alexander Carmichael in
the Highlands, and also people of all classes and types who were believed to have information about the
fairies. He found that, among the older people, many of the opinions of the 17th and 18th centuries still
prevailed. There seemed to be some trace of the prehistoric beliefs left, though these were not so explicit as
the beliefs in the fairies as the dead, or as fallen angels, or occasionally as astral or elemental spirits.
Sometimes the particular class of the dead is specified. The Sluagh or fairy Hosts are the evil dead,
according to Highland belief. Finvarra's following in Ireland seem to comprise the dead who have recently
died as well as the ancient dead; but they are almost as sinister as the Sluagh. In Cornwall the Small People
are the souls of the heathen dead, who died before Christianity and were not good enough for Heaven nor
bad enough for Hell, and therefore lingered on, gradually shrinking until they became as small as ants, and
disappeared all together out of the world. The Fairy Dwelling on Selena Moor gives a good account of this
theory. In Cornwall and Devon too the souls of unchristened babies were called Piskies, and appeared at
twilight in the form of little white moths. The Knockers in the tin mines were souls of the dead too, but of
the Jews who had been transported there for their part in the Crucifixion. In Wales the belief in the fairies as
the dead does not seem to have been so common. They were often described as a race of 'beings half-way
between something material and spiritual, who were rarely seen', or 'a real race of invisible or spiritual
beings living in an invisible world of their own'(Wentz). In the Isle of Man a passage on the 'Nature of
Fairies' is something the same: 'The fairies are spirits, I think they are in this country yet: A man below here
forgot his cow, and at a late hour went to look for her, and saw that crowds of fairies like little boys were
with him. Saint Paul said that spirits are thick in the air, if only we could see them; and we call spirits
fairies. I think the old people here in the island thought of fairies in the same way.' (Wentz).

The belief in the fairies as the dead may well come from preChristian times, but with the fairies as fallen
angels we come into the post-Christian period. In Ireland, in spite of the lively belief in Finvarra and his
host, there is also an explicit belief in the fairies as fallen angels. Lady Wilde contradicts the ususal trend of
her testimony in one chapter of her ANCIENT LEGENDS OF IRELAND VOL I, 'The Fairies As Fallen
Angels': The Islanders, like all the Irish, believe that the fairies are the fallen angels who were cast down by
the Lord God out of heaven for their sinful pride. And some fall into the sea, and some on the dry land, and
some fell deep down into hell, and the devil gives to these knowledge and power, and sends them on earth
where they work much evil. But the fairies of the earth and the sea are mostly gentle and beautiful
creatures, who will do no harm if they are let alone, and allowed to dance on the fairy raths in the
moonlight to their own sweet music, undisturbed by the presence of mortals.

From the Highlands, Evans Wentz quotes a lively account of the story behind this, given to him by
Alexander Carmichael, who heard it in Barra in company with J. F. Campbell: 'The Proud Angel fomented
a rebellion among the angels of heaven, where he had been a leading light. He declared that he would go
and found a kingdom for himself. When going out at the door of heaven the Proud Angel brought prickly
lightning and biting lightning out of the doorstep with his heels. Many angels followed him - so many that
at last the Son called out, 'Father! Father! the city is being emptied!' whereupon the Father ordered that the
gates of heaven and the gates of hell should be closed. This was instantly done. And those who were in
were in, and those who were out were out; while the hosts who had left heaven and had not reached hell
flew into the holes of the earth, like the stormy petrels.' - The greater part of these angels were thought of,
like the Cornish Muryans, as 'too good for Hell and too bad for Heaven', but with the growth of Puritanism
the view of the fairies became darker and the fallen angels began to be regarded as downright devils, with
no miti-gating feature. We find this in 17th century England. William Warner in ALBION'S ENGLAND
goes so far as to deny all performance of house-hold tasks to Robin Goodfellow, saying ingeniously that he
got the housewives up in their sleep to clean their houses. Robin got the credit of the work, and the poor
housewife got up in the morning more tired than she had gone to bed. This is to deprive the fairy character
of all benevolence. On the other hand, two of the Puritan divines of the same period allow the fairies to be a
kind of spiritual animal of a middle nature between man and spirit. It is clear that there was no lack of
diversity between those who believed in the real existence of fairies. # 100 - 711 - 728

ORKNEY

In Malory, the Orkney Islands form part of the realm of Lot. This seems a late development. In Geoffrey,
Lot is the King of Lothian who becomes King of Norway. In the Middle Ages the Orkney Islands had many
Norse associations and these probably led to their being regarded as part of Lot's domain. Geoffrey gives
them a separate king, Gunphar, who voluntarily submitted to Arthur. In the sixth century the Orkneys seem
to have been organized into some sort of kingdom, itself subject to one of the Pictish kings, for Adamnan's
VITA COLUMBAE mentions a petty king (regulus) of the Orkneys. # 156

ORLAM

Son of Ailill and Maeve, slain by CuChulain. # 562

OSCAR OSGAR

The son of Oisin. He and the High King of Ireland, Cairbry, met in single combat, and each of them slew
the other. Oscar dies and Oisin and Keelta raise him on a bier of spears and carry him off under his banner,
'The terrible Sheaf,' for burial on the field where he died, and where a great green burial mound is still
associated with his name. His death was prophesied by the Washer at the Ford. He was a reconciler of
enemies but was fearless in battle. # 267 - 454 - 504

OSLA BIG-KNIFE

A Saxon, possibly in origin Octa, the son or grandson of Hengist. His knife, Bronllavyn Short Broad, could
be used as a bridge and, when he was amongst Arthur's men hunting the boar Twrch Trwyth, the water
filled his sheath and he was dragged underneath. THE DREAM OF RHONABWY says he was an
adversary of Arthur at Badon. # 156 - 346

OSSETES

See: SARMATIANS.

OSSIAN

(isheen) 'Ossian' has been the usual Highland spelling of the Irish Oisin since the time of James
Macpherson's poem OSSIAN, loosely founded in the Highland Ossianic legends. J. F. Campbell, in his
discussion of the Scottish Ossianic legends in his POPULAR TALES OF THE WEST HIGHLANDS,
VOL. IV, well establishes the widespread knowledge of the Ossianic poems and ballads in 18th-century
Scotland and of the Fingalian legends. All over the Highlands, Ossian was known as the great poet and
singer of the Feinn, who survived them all and kept the memory of them alive by his songs. Many of the
Fenian legends survived in these songs, and in such early manuscripts as THE BOOK OF LEINSTER. 'The
Death of Diarmid' and other tragic stories of the last days of the Feinn were deeply remembered and the
tragic plight of Ossian, old, blind and mighty, is the most vivid of all. What is not recorded in the Highlands
is his visit to Tir na n' Og and the happy centuries he passed with Niamh of the Golden Hair. # 100 - 130

OSWALD

1. In Dryden's KING ARTHUR, the King of Kent who opposed Arthur and who, like Arthur, loved
Emmeline. Arthur defeated him and expelled him from Britain. No King Oswald of Kent is known to
history. 2. (d. 642) King of Northumbria. He became a Christian while in exile on Iona. When reinstated as
king, after the death of Edwin the Usurper, Oswald gave Lindisfarne to Saint Aidan. He united Bernicia and
Deira, but was killed at the Battle of Maserfield. Aidan had once prayed that the king's generous hand never
become corrupted. Indeed, his body was mutilated on the orders of pagan King Penda who ordered
Oswald's head, arms and hands to be displayed on stakes. He was buried at Oswestry (Oswald's Tree) but
his relics were scattered throughout Christendom - the remaining incorrupt. His feast-day is 5 October. #
156 - 454
OTHERWORLD

The Otherworld is subtle described in some of the Celtic knotwork. The Celts of old never tired of
producing it. For them, the design represented the essential nature of earthly existence. Two bands this
world and the Otherworld - entwined in dynamic, moving harmony, each band dependant upon the other,
and each complimenting and completing the other.

The ancient Celts didn't distinguish between the 'real' and the 'imaginary'. The material and the spiritual
were not separate or self-limited states: both were equally manifest at all times. An oak grove might be an
oak grove, or it might be the home of a god or both simultaneously. Such was their way of looking at the
universe. And it inspired a great appreciation and respect for all created things. A respect born of a deep and
abiding belief. The concept of one object or entity being somehow more real, simply because it possessed a
material presence, would not have occurred to them.

And they were seeing bridges or gateways from the manifest world to the other world at hollow mounds,
caves or at a sea-shore where standing in the waves at the shore you actually are in two worlds. At land and
at sea at the same time. - They were very much aware of the great ocean which contains mountains and
valleys, and there the mountain top rises above the water, at our isles, they saw the places where the
Otherworld pokes through into our world, and whenever they discovered such 'isles' or openings they
marked them with cairns, stone circles, standing stones, mounds, and other enduring markers. But they
marked the doorways so that people would stay away from them much the same way as we mark thin ice or
quicksand. Danger. Keep out! The ancients wanted these places to be distinguished clearly, because they
knew that only the true initiate may pass between the worlds safely. Stories abound of unsuspecting
travellers stumbling into the Otherworld served to warn the unprepared to avoid the unknown.

Such 'unaware travellers' have only come out again if they exercise courtesy and carry iron, the metal
inimical to Fairies. The Fairies themselves are fond of musicians and poets, and will willingly entertain
such artists, teaching them new skills, tunes and rhymes. Those who have returned often find that time has
slipped by in the mundane world, while they may have enjoyed only a couple of days in Faery. - The
Otherworld is a sort of Supernature, a separate, invisible OTHER nature, the Form of forms, from which all
earthly or natural forms derived. It is from the Otherworld all our thoughtsparks are kindled into higher
consciousness or imagination. Its the source of the REAL Archetypes. Its the storehouse of archetypes that
inform and shape our own phenomenal world. Take the trees that grow all around us in our own world: in
the Otherworld they grow perfectly, without blight or frost to kill them. They have a luminous life, which is
stronger and 'more real'.

# 774: Before the coming of Christianity, the Celtic peoples of Western Europe had strong and singular
beliefs about the future life. In fact, it was their preoccupation with the beyond, which extended even to the
making of loans to be settled in the 'other world,' which the Romans regarded as their most striking feature.
In the fourth century AD, Procopus wrote that on the coast opposite the Island of Britain there were many
villages whose inhabitants grew crops, but were also fishermen. Subject to the Francs, they were free from
payment of tribute because a certain service which, they said, they had been performing since ancient
times. This service, they claimed, was the transport of souls. At night, they would suddenly be awakened by
a loud knocking at the door, and a voice outside would call them to their task. They would get up in haste
and a mysterious force would drag them from their homes towards the beach, even against their will. There
would be boats there, not their own, but others. They would look empty but, in reality, they would be
loaded almost to the point of sinking and the water would be up to the gunnels. They would climb in and
take the oars. An hour later, despite the invisible passengers' weight, they would reach the Island (of
Britain) although the voyage would normally have taken a day and a half. Scarcely had they touched the
coast than the boats would rise up without their seeing the passengers disembark, and the same voice that
had called them would be heard. It was that of the conductor of souls presenting the dead one by one to
those qualified to receive them, calling the men by their father's names, women, if there were any, by their
husbands' names, and describing what they did when they were alive.
The above is a summary of the story given by Procopus; it is the most complete account of the Celtic
legend of the dead that we have from the writings of Classical Antiquity. There can be little doubt that
many of the beliefs, practices and customs associated with the Celtic cult of the dead passed into early
Celtic Christianity. In Ireland, for example, so many Christian monasteries appeared so quickly after the
conversion by Saint Patrick, as to imply the wholesale conversion of Druidic colleges. # 383 p 88 ff - # 437
p 11 ff - # 774

OTKER

See: OGIER.

OTTER

# 161: In Celtic art Cernunnos, as Lord of Animals, is depicted as accompanied by an otter, bear and wolf.

# 454: The otter is a strange magical animal whose genus totally baffled Celtic clerics who were always
arguing whether it was flesh or fish and therefore edible during Lent. Anciently, the otter or waterdog was a
transformatory beast. It is one of the guises which Ceridwen assumes when she chases Gwion (Taliesin). In
the many wondervoyages or 'immrama' which Maelduin, Brendan and others take, they usually meet with a
helpful otter who provides food for them or which performs this service for a hermit. Otter-skin bags also
served as waterproof covering for harps in Ireland. #161-454

OUPH

An Elizabethan variant of ELF. It does not appear to be in common use now, but is to be found in literature.
# 100

OWAIN

Son of Urien of Rheged and Modron (Morgan). A historical character, (in French: Yvain) he succeeded
Urien and fought on the side of the northern British against the Angles which he defeated about AD 593.
Although he lived later than the traditional Arthurian period, he and his father were drawn into the sagas
around Arthur in which he is the son of Urien by his wife, Morgan Le Fay, Arthur's sister. He was the hero
of THE LADY OF THE FOUNTAIN and THE DREAM OF RHONABWY, in the latter while Arthur and
Owain were playing Gwyddbwyll (a board game), Owain's ravens fought with Arthur's men and were
nearly defeated until Owain ordered his flag to be raised and they set on their attackers with renewed
vigour. As his mother, Modron (identical with Morrigan) often assumes the shape of a raven and promises
to aid Urien and his family when they are in need in this shape, we can assume that the Ravens are not
warriors, but in fact otherworld women in the form of ravens. In later medieval versions of this story,
YVAIN by Chrétien we learn how Owain, hearing of a wondrous spring in the Forest of Broceliande, went
thither and defeated the knight Esclados who defended it. He chased him home to his castle where he died
from his wound. As Owain was trying to enter the castle, he became ensnared between the portcullises, but
was rescued by Lunete, the sister of Laudine the widow of the slain knight. Owain fell in love with
Laudine, and Lunete persuaded her to marry him. When Arthur and his followers arrived, Owain went with
him, but promised his wife that he would return in a year at the latest. He did not keep an eye on the time,
failed to honour his promise and Laudine rejected him. He became a madman in the forest and it took a
certain ointment to cure him. He went to the aid of a lion fighting a serpent and the lion became his
companion - hence his nickname, the Knight of the Lion. Welsh tradition made Owain the husband of
Penarwan and Denw, the latter being Arthur's niece. # 104 - 152 - 156 - 243 - 272 - 346 - 439 - 453 - 454 -
604

OWAIN THE BASTARD


The half-brother of Owain, whom Urien begot on the wife of his senechal. He was a sensible character and
a Knight of the Round Table. He was killed in a joust with Gawain who had not recognized him. # 156 -
434

OWEL

Foster-son of Manannan and a Druid, father of Ainé. # 562

OWEN

Son of Duracht; slays Naisi and other sons of Usna. # 562

OWEN GLYNDWR

Despite his close links with the English monarchy, Owen Glyndwr rebelled against Henry IV and started
consolidating treaties with neighbouring barons which might well have set up a separate Welsh state if he
had succeeded. A long drawn-out border-war swept the Marches of Wales and England. However, having
shown himself a capable commander and man of foresight, Owen found his forces defeated, his family
imprisoned and his hopes deferred. He remains one of the greatest of Welsh heroes who attempted to draw
together the shattered links of British pride once more. He was credited with magical powers and, like
Arthur, his death was obscure so as to give foundation to myths of his returning to aid the Cymru once
again. # 454-735

OWENS OF ARAN

Ailill derives from the sept of Owens of Aran. Maelduin goes to dwell with Owens of Aran. # 562

OWL

# 161: The owl is prominent in Celtic lore, being a sacred, magic bird; it appears in early times as an owl-
goddess and is depicted frequently in La Tène figures, preceding the cult of Athene. It is chthonic, the 'night
hag' and 'corpse bird', and is an attribute of Gwyan or Gwynn, God of the Underworld, who ruled over the
souls of warriors slain in battle.

454: It has long been considered to be a bird of ill-omen, especially if sighted during the day. Blodeuwedd's
transformation into an owl, effected by Gwydion, is a punishment for having betrayed her husband, Llew;
the story-teller comments that this is why owls bear the unlikely name of 'flower-face', which is the
meaning of Blodeuwedd's name. In Scottish Gaelic, the owl is called 'cailleach', or the old woman, and
shows it to a bird under her protection. # 161 - 226 - 454

OWL OF CWM CAWLWYD

One of the very old beasts who help Culhwch in his tasks in CULHWCH AND OLWEN. # 562

OYSTER-CATCHER

# 161: Among the Gaels this bird is an emblem of St. Bride, who carried one in each hand. It bears the form
of a cross on its plumage as it once covered Christ with sea-weed when his enemies pursued him. # 454: It
is called Brid-eun, 'Bride's Bird' or Bigein-Bride, 'Bride's Boy', in Gaelic. # 161 - 225 - 454

PACH PATCH
A common name for a court fool. Both Henry VII and Henry VIII had fools called 'Pach'. In the LIFE OF
ROBIN GOODFELLOW, Pach seems to perform the function of a censor of housewifery and care of the
stock rather than Court Jester. # 100

PADARN REDCOAT

The coat of Padarn Redcoat was one of the Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain. # 104 - 156

PADERN PATERNUS

(sixth century) The founder of Lanbadarn Fawr (Dyfed) where he was Abbot. When Arthur tried to steal the
saint's tunic, according to legend, Padern caused the earth to swallow the king up to the neck. He was
released only when he apologized. Padern's feast-day is 15 April. # 378 - 454

PADSTOW

According to Leland, Henry VIII's librarian, this Cornish town was the birthplace of Arthur. # 156

PALACE ADVENTUROUS

A palace, containing the Grail, in the Castle of Carbonek. # 156

PARIS

# 156: A Frenchman, a friend of Arthur in LE MYREUR DES HISTOIRES. Arthur conquered the kingdom
of Saynes and bestowed it and the king's daughter on Paris. He may be identical with the French King Paris
mentioned in CULHWCH AND OLWEN. # 730: It is generally thought that the city of Paris itself was
founded after Homer's time by the Parigii, a Celtic tribe who were still living there at the time of the
Romans (who called the town Lutetia). According to some scholars, the name Paris is connected with sun
worship, as dolmens have been found with images of a sun ship strikingly similar to the Egyptian sun ships.
It seems that there were indeed certain links between the Druidic cult and that of the Egyptian goddess Isis.
The sun ship, which is still found in the Paris coats of arms, gave name to the city, via Barisis ('Barque
d'Isis', or boat of Isis'). There can indeed be little doubt that Paris owes its name to Isis, as we also have
written evidence that this goddess - usually associated only with the Egypt of the pharaohs- was venerated
in northern Europe. # 156 - 221 - 482 - 662 - 730

PARSIFAL

Richard Wagner's Parsifal is the knight to whom it succeeded to render the Christian feast of Easter its
proper power and significance, after the feast is pined away and had become stereotyped in the hands of its
priest hitherto, the old and sick king Amfortas. With the holy lance Parsifal heal the king's gaping wound,
and thus justify himself as not only the rightfully keeper of the Grail - the holy cauldron which contains the
blood of Christ but also the new and duly by right administrator of the political power in the kingdom. Such
is the tale of Parsifal in Wolfram von Eschenbach's medieval High German drama PARZIVAL from about
1205, and from where Wagner was inspired to compose the opera. But Wagner goes thoroughly into
different features of the myth in a way as Wolfram never have dreamt of, according to B. Bojesen. As for
instance does Wagner emphasize the incident with the beautiful witch, Kundry, and that there in Parsifal's
relation to her is hiding a decisive perspective in the opera. In the middle of the second act she sings: 'The
only reason why I was lingering here, was as for you to find me'. But this reply acted with a double
entendre. In short, he, Parsifal, has to understand that she is a spiritual function, which he should integrate.
And the only way to do this is to reject the physical sexual union with her. The result of this is pictured in
the last scene of the opera. After Parsifal has raised the Grail from its shrine, Kundry sinks, with her eyes at
him, slowly to the ground in front of Parsifal, inanimated. She no longer exists as a concrete being - exactly
because Parsifal has integrated her as spiritual function. Parsifal is now 'whole', and has in one stroke
achieved his authority. See also: PERCEVAL. # 78

PARTHOLON PARTHOLAN

The Celts believed themselves to be descended from the God of the Underworld. Partholon is said to have
come into Ireland from the West, where beyond the vast, unsailed Atlantic Ocean, the Irish Faeryland, the
Land of the Living, the Land of the Happy Dead, was placed. Partholon's father was Sera (the West?). He
came with his queen Dealgnaid and a number of companions of both sexes. Partholon was the leader of the
first invasion of Ireland. He was the chief of every craft: he cleared the plains for husbandry. His people
were overcome by plague. He is the reaper of the last sheaf in modern Irish folklore. Partholan fought the
Fomorians for the lordship of Ireland, and drove them out to the northern seas, whence they occasionally
harried the country under its later rulers. # 418 - 454 - 562

PATRICK, SAINT

(c.391-461) Patron of Ireland. He was British by birth and was enslaved by Irish pirates who raided his
home. He eventually escaped, having spent his captivity consolidating his spiritual life while tending his
master's herds. He trained rather sketchily for priesthood and was determined to return to Ireland and
evangelize its people. His success was doubtless based on preparatory work undertaken by anonymous
monks already settled in Ireland, in addition to his assimilation of existing druidic and religious patterns,
upon which he built. He put down the worship of Crom Cruach, is reputed to have expelled serpents from
Ireland, and to have explained the Trinity theologically by means of the shamrock. His breastplate - or
lorica prayer - in which the warrior through his prayer invokes Christ as his armour, is very typical of
existing Celtic invocations. His feast-day is 17 March. # 454 - 562

PATRISE

An Irish knight who was accidentally poisoned by Sir Pinel when he was trying to poison Gawain. At first
Guinevere was accused of his murder, but Nimue found out the truth. # 156 - 418

PECHS PEHTS PICTS

Pechs and Pehts are Scottish Lowland names for fairies and are confused in tradition with the Picts, the
mysterious people of Scotland who built the Pictish Brughs and possibly also the Fingalian Brochs, the
round stone towers, of which the most perfect examples are the Round Towers of Brechin and Abernethy.
At the end of the nineteenth century, David Mac Ritchie made out a good case for his THEORY OF FAIRY
ORIGINS that the Feens or Fians of the Highlands and Ireland were substantially identical with the Pechs
of the Lowlands and the Trows of Shetland. # 100 - 409

PEDIVERE

A knight who murdered his wife. He was sent by Lancelot with her dead body to Guinevere and eventually
became a holy hermit. # 156 - 418

PEDRAWD

In Welsh tradition, the father of Bedivere. # 156

PEGWELL, KENT
An astonished-looking monster-headed prow of a Viking ship looks towards the new hovercraft terminal at
Pegwell Bay, no doubt as surprised by what goes on today as when the infamous marauders Hengist and
Horsa landed here in the fifth century. The longship was sailed from Denmark to Pegwell in 1949, to
commemorate the arrival of the Saxons who so moulded the history and mythology of Britain. The Saxons
brought with them their pagan gods, which were later introduced into a sort of genial English demonology
and a complex tanglewood of mythological tales, of which the story of Beowulf, the slayer of Grendel and
other monsters, has survived. Hengist was traditionally the founder of Kent, and many of the name-places
of old Saxon stomping grounds (their earliest thefts) of Kent, Sussex and Wessex are derived from their
method of naming the localities they took over from those who had previously (or currently) owned them.
Hastings was from the followers of Haesta ('the violent one'), reminding us of our schoolboy Latin, 'hasta, a
spear', while the followers of Raeda ('the red one') gave us Reading. More difficult to grasp (though well
recorded) is the derivation of the name Nottingham from its founders, the family Snotr, 'the Wise ones'.
Perhaps the only query one may raise of the monstrous Viking longship is, why Pegwell? The earliest
historian of the subject, the Reverend Bede, tells us that Hengist and Horsa came to Kent in AD 449 at the
request of Vortigern, and landed at Ebbsfleet. What is this Ebbsfleet now? All that remains of Ebbsfleet,
above Pegwell Bay, is a copy of a Saxon cross, some 18 feet high, covered with crumbling reliefs. Tradition
has it that the cross marked the place where Hengist and Horsa arrived, and where, over a century later,
Augustine was received by King Ethelbert of Kent under the 'Ebbsfleet oak'. It is said that the monks truly
believed themselves to be the first Christians in Britain, yet when they arrived at Canterbury they found
there an old Roman church dedicated to Saint Martin, perhaps the first of the stone churches built in
England. The monks should have known better - had not the legends told of the coming of Joseph of
Arimathea to Glastonbury, and was not the Queen who stood at the side of Ethelbert already a Christian
before they arrived? # 702

PELIAS

An early King of Liones. # 156

PELLAM PELLES

There seem to be some confusion about these names. According to Malory, Pellam was King of Listinoise.
Balin had killed his brother, the invisible knight Sir Garlon, so Pellam fought with him. In the fray Balin's
sword was broken and he was chased by Pellam around the palace until he came to the Lance of Longinus
with which he stabbed his pursuer. This stabbing was called the Dolorous stroke. Pelles (Pellam) was the
Wounded King of the Grail Castle; the stabbing was called the Dolorous Blow, since it caused not only the
king to be wounded, but the land to be laid waste. His daughter, Elaine of Corbenic became the mother of
Galahad by Lancelot. Galahad later healed his wounds with blood from the Grail. Pelles is one of several
characters with similar names: Pellam, Pellean and Pellinore. These may indeed have once been the same
person, the root of the name derives probably from the Cornish 'Peller' or wise man. Other scholars have
identified him with Pwyll in the MABINOGION and if true, this may well make him of otherworld origin.
In later versions he became the father of Pellam and brother of Pellinore. See also: FISHER KING. # 156 -
418 - 434 - 451 - 461 - 562

PELLEAM

The Maimed King in French romance. See: PELLEHAN, and PELLAM PELLES, and MAIMED KING,
and WOUNDED KING. # 156 - 604

PELLEAS

A Knight of the Round Table, who was enamoured of Ettard, who sadly did not reciprocate his sentiments.
Gawain said he would intercede for him, but betrayed him, bedding Ettard himself. Nimue made Pelleas
fall in love with her by magic and made Ettard fall in love with Pelleas by the same means. Ettard, finding
her passion unrequited, died. # 156 - 418

PELLEHAN

The Maimed King who, in the QUESTE, received his wound by drawing the Sword of Strange Renges.
Elsewhere it is stated that he received his wound when Balin struck him with a lance. He is much the same
character as Pellam. See: MAIMED KING, and PELLAM PELLES, and WOUNDED KING. # 156 - 668

PELLINGS, THE

A prosperous and respected family living at the foot of Snowdon who were supposed to have fairy blood in
them. They had fair complexions and Golden Hair like the Tylwyth Teg, and were said to be the children of
a fairy wife, Penelope, one of the Gwragedd Annwn whose story was much like that of the Lady of Fan y
Fach. The imputation of fairy blood seems to have resented by most Welshmen, but it was respected in the
Pellings, as in the Physicians of Mydfai. # 100

PELLINORE

He was King of the Isles, one of Arthur's vassals, who is variously described as sovereign of Listinoise,
Northumberland or the Gaste Forest. His brother was said to be Pelles, the Wounded King of the Grail
legends.In some versions his son was Perceval. In the LIVRE D'ARTUS he is called the Rich Fisher King.
He was wounded in the thighs for doubting the Holy Grail and this suggests he was originally identical
with Pellam. He pursued the Questing Beast. During the rebellion of the kings in the beginning of Arthur's
reign, he killed Lot of Orkney, which caused a feud between the clans. In Malory, he was the father of
Aglovale, Perceval, Dornar, Driant, Lamorak, Alan, Melodiam and Elaine. He slew King Lot and was
killed by Lot's son, Gawain. It is possible to discern in Pellinore, through the similarity of sound, the Celtic
ancestor god, Beli the Great (Beli Mawr), and this deity may also lie behind similarly named Fisher or
Maimed Kings.

# 156 - 418 - 454

PENARDUN

Daughter of Don, wife of Llyr, and also of Eurosswyd, and sister of Math; mother of Bran, Nissyen and
Efnissien, and consequently, an ancestor of Arthur. # 156 - 562

PENARWAN

Owain's wife. According to the TRIADS, she was unfaithful to him. # 104-156

PENBEDW

A farm in Clwyd. In his book, SUPERNATURAL CLWYD (1989), R. Holland, suggests that a menhir and
nearby standing stones on the farm might be Arthur's burial place as, in the vicinity, Moel Arthur was,
according to folklore, the site of Arthur's palace. # 156

PENDRAGON

A title taken by Uther and later Arthur. Old Welsh Dragwn (dragon) was used to mean a leader and
Brythonic Pen signifies a head, so the title means a chief leader. See: BREUNOR. # 156
PENTACLE

The pentacle was sacred to the Celtic death-goddess Morgan and was carried in her honor on a blood-red
shield, according to the tale of GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT. It is still the sign of the earth
element in the Tarot suit of pentacles, which evolved into the modern suit of diamonds. With one point
downward, the pentacle was supposed to represent the head of the Horned God. # 701

PEOPLE OF PEACE, THE - OR DAOINE SIDHE

These, of the Highlands, are very much the same as the Daoine Sidh of Ireland, except that they have - with
the exception of the Feens, who exactly reproduce the stories of Finn of the Fianna - no monarchial
government. They are Trooping Fairies who live under the green hills and ride on the Middle Earth, hunting
and dancing like other fairies. As individuals, they visit mortals as lovers. The earliest study of them was
made by Kirk in THE SECRET COMMONWEALTH. There are ample accounts of them in the writings of
J. G. Campbell and J. F. Campbell, of J. G. Mackay, Donald Mackenzie and others. In the Lowlands, the
Elves or Good Neighbours have a king and a queen Nicnevin or the Gyre-Carling - and in later days were
suspected of having a good deal of intercourse with witches and of paying a tribute to the Devil. # 100 -
130 - 131 - 370 - 415 - 464

PEOPLE OF THE HILLS, THE

A widespread euphemism for the fairies who live under the green mounds, or tumuli, all over England. It is
the name chosen by Rudyard Kipling to be used in PUCK OF POOK'S HILL and REWARDS AND
FAIRIES. # 100 - 368 - 369

PEOPLE OF THE SIDHE, THE

(shee) Danaans dwindle into fairies or People of the Sidhe. # 562

PERCARD

The name of the Black Knight, killed by Gareth. # 156 - 418

PERCEFOREST

In the romance of the same name, when Alexander the Great conquered England, he made Betis king. Betis
was accepted by the people, for the line of Brutus had become extinct, and Betis' brother Gaddifer was
made King of Scotland. When Betis had killed the magician Damart, he was given the new name of
Perceforest. He founded the Knights of the Franc Palais and built a temple to the Supreme God. His son
Bethides made an unfortunate marriage to Circe, who brought the Romans into Britain. They wiped out the
Franc Palais, and Perceforest and Gaddifer went to the Isle of Life. After the coming to Britain of Alan, the
Grail keeper, Gallafer, grandson of Gaddifer, accepted Christianity and went to preach to his ancestors who
still lived on the Isle of Life. They were baptized, left the island and came to a place where there were five
monuments waiting for them. There they died. # 156 - 198 - 238

PERCEVAL

The name by which the hero called Peredur by the Welsh is known in non-Welsh sources. This name was
apparently invented by Chrétien. According to Chrétien, Perceval was raised in the woods by his mother
who wanted him to know nothing of knighthood; but, having seen some knights, he determined to go to
Arthur's court and become one. His mother told him to demand either a kiss or a jewel from ladies so, when
he came on a girl asleep in a tent, he kissed her and purloined her ring. On arrival at Arthur's court he
discovered the Red Knight had taken a cup so he pursued and killed him. He stayed with an old knight,
Gornemant de Goort, who taught him chivalry and knighted him. He came to the castle belonging to
Blanchefleur, being besieged by King Clamadeus. He became Blanchefleur's lover and defeated Clamadeus
in monomachy (single combat). On the way to see his mother, a fisherman directed him to his own castle
where he beheld an old man on a couch and was given a sword. The Grail Procession occurred, but
Perceval did not ask what the Grail was or whom it served. Next morning, when he awoke, the castle was
deserted and Perceval only just escaped from it. The sword had fragmented. He encountered his cousin who
informed him that he should have asked the question and told him to take the sword to Trebuchet. Perceval
overcame the husband of the girl whom he had kissed earlier in the tent, who had not understood that
Perceval had acted innocently.

Perceval forgot about God for five years, but his hermit uncle absolved him. Chrétien's work is unfinished,
but Manessier (see CONTINUATIONS) told how Perceval returned to the castle and asked the questions.
He discovered that the Fisher King was wounded by fragments of a sword which had killed his brother
Goon Desert; this wound would not heal until the murderer was killed. Perceval killed the murderer and the
king recovered. Perceval was identified as the nephew of the Grail King who had been sustained by the
Grail during his period of ill health. When the king died, Perceval succeeded him. In the English SIR
PERCEVAL OF GALLES, Perceval's beloved is called Lufamour and he eventually met his death on
Crusade. In the DIDOT PERCEVAL, the Rich Fisher told Perceval the secret words that Jesus had told
Joseph of Arimathea. In PEREDUR the procession in the castle features a salver with a man's head
surrounded by blood. It later transpired the head was his cousin's and that Peredur/Perceval had to avenge
him. In this tale we are told the hero had to fight the afanc. In the QUESTE and Malory, Perceval is to some
exrent supplanted by Galahad. In Malory, Perceval's father is Pellinore; in Wolfram, Gahmuret. Wolfram
calls his mother Herzeloyde, his sister Dindrane and his sons Kardeiz and Lohengrin. SIR PERCEVAL OF
GALLES says his mother was Acheflour, the sister of Arthur, and his father, Perceval, had been killed years
previously by the Red Knight. According to PERLESVAUS his father was Julain and his mother Yglais,
while Gerbert contends his mother was Philosophine and his father Gales li Caus. His father is identified as
Efrawg in PEREDUR and as Bliocadran in the work of the same name, and his sister as Agrestizia in the
TAVOLA RITONDA. Perceval was said to have survived Galahad by over a year Descent of Perceval
(Wolfram): Mazadan - Laziliez - Addanz - Gandin Gahmuret - Perceval. As Mazadan is also listed as
Arthur's great-grandfather, this makes Arthur Perceval's second cousin twice removed. See: TWENTY-
FOUR KNIGHTS, and WHITE STAG. # 112 - 153 - 156 - 185 - 346 - 418 - 434 - 740 - 748

PEREDUR

Peredur was a chieftain from the North of Britain, York to be exact. But like many other Northern heroes he
became localized in Wales and was the subject of a number of tales, telling of his feats and wanderings.

The tale of PEREDUR, as we have it, belongs to the thirteenth century. We know this because the earliest
manuscripts date from the end of that century and that they post-date parallel versions in French by
Chrétien de Troyes. They could be earlier, but unlikely. Chrétien's corresponding tale LE CONTE DU
GRAAL dates from 1181. The 'book' to which he refers given to him by his patron Philippe of Champagne,
was a version of the tale regarded as the common source of both PEREDUR and LE CONTE DU GRAAL
and was in French. Of course, the differences probably outweigh the similarities between the two versions.
The Welsh tale is as straight-forward as the French is convoluting; Welsh concision contrasts with French
prolixity. The story is more readily available in the Welsh, whereas the French explores psychological and
social avenues in a manner which paved the way for the great Western narrative tradition. But then the stuff
of the narrative was given to the French by the Welsh and Breton story-tellers who sold their wondrous
wares all over the continent. The Celts have always known to tell a good story. See also: PERCEVAL. #
778

PERFERREN
A niece of Arthur in Welsh lore, the mother of Saint Beuno. See: BUGI. # 55 - 156

PERIGLOUR

Periglour(Welsh), Anmchara(Irish), means 'soul friend'. He was a person who acted as spiritual guide and
counsellor to young monks and to new converts (to early Christianity). He took the part of confessor, but
would offer only wisdom, advice and encouragement to his juniors, refraining from taking on the power to
grant absolution for any sins. In that the Celtic Church followed the practice of the Celtic druids, who
communed with the gods without themselves adopting divine authority. # 676

PERILOUS BED

The strange resting-place encountered by various of the GRAIL seekers. It appears as an ordinary bed, but
anyone lying down on it is assaulted by invisible opponents who fling spears and by fierce beasts who
attack the sleeper. Gawain successfully defeated the devices of the bed. # 454

PERILOUS BRIDGE

According to PERLESVAUS this led to the Grail Castle. # 156

PERILOUS SEAT

The Siege Perilous, so called because it swallowed up or cracked underneath whoever wrongfully sat in it.
It was the place reserved at the Round Table for the Grail Knight. It was claimed by Perceval in the earlier
versions of the story: he sat in it and it cracked apart while a disembodied voice warned him of his misdeed.
He later caused the stone to reunite when he became a successful Grail Knight. In later versions, it is
Galahad's place. It is said to represent the place of Christ at the table in the cenacle. #185-454

PERIMONES

See: RED KNIGHT.

PERRY DANCERS

The Suffolk name for the Aurora Borealis. See also: FIR CHLIS. # 100

PERTOLEPE

See: GREEN KNIGHT.

PETER DES ROCHES

A historical bishop of Winchester, whose episcopate lasted 1204-38. According to the LANERCOST
CHRONICLE, he came upon a house in which Arthur was still alive and banqueted with him. In order that
people would know he told the truth when he spoke of this, Arthur gave the bishop the power of closing his
hand and, upon opening it, producing a butterfly. This power led to his being called the Bishop of the
Butterfly. # 156

PETITCRIEU
A fairy dog which came from Avalon. It was wonderfully coloured, tiny and had a sweet-sounding bell
about his neck. It was the property of Gilan, Duke of Swales, who gave it to Tristan. # 156

PETROG, SAINT

# 156: According to the poet Dafydd Nanmor, he was one of the seven survivors of the Battle of Camlann.
R. Bromwich argues that the poet used a local Cardiganshire tradition. # 454: (sixth century) He came from
South Wales and founded a monastery at Wethinoc (Padstow) in Cornwall. He eventually became a hermit
and is credited with having a great affinity for wild animals, especially a stag which he hid from huntsmen.
His feast-day is 4 June. # 104 - 156 - 454

PETRUS

According to John of Glastonbury, one of the associates of Joseph of Arimathea; he travelled to the
kingdom of Orkney and converted its ruler, Orcant. He married Orcant's daughter, Camille, and was an
ancestor of Lot. # 30 - 156

PHALERAE

Decorative bosses for horses' harness. # 730

PHARAMOND FARAMOND

A legendary Frankish king, possibly a historical ruler of the fifth century. In Arthurian romance he was a
freedman (a slave who had been set free) who seized the French throne. He came in disguise to Arthur's
court, for Arthur was an enemy, but his disguise was penetrated. His daughter, Belide, was enamoured of
Tristan, who did not requite her passion, thereby causing her to die of a broken heart. Pharamond provided
a refuge for Tristan and Gorvenal after the death of Meliodas. Ariosto tells us that Tristan defeated
Pharamond's son, Clodion, in combat. According to a non-Arthurian romance of the seventeenth century,
Pharamond was enamoured of Rosemonde, daughter of the King of the Cimbri. # 21 - 156 - 198 - 712

PHARIANCE

A knight who came with Ban and Bors to aid Arthur, and who took part in the battle of Bedegraine. He was
eventually exiled by the elder Bors for murder and became a follower of Claudas. See also: PHARIEN. #
156 - 604

PHARIEN

This character is probably identical with Phariance. His wife was the lover of King Claudas. After Bors'
death, Bors' sons fell into his hands, but they were soon passed on to Claudas. # 156

PHELOT

A knight who wished to kill Lancelot. He persuaded his wife to ask Lancelot to climb a tree in order to
retrieve her falcon. He removed his armour and weapons to do this and Phelot then attacked him. However,
Lancelot walloped his assailant on the side of the head with a tree branch, thus knocking him unconscious.
He then beheaded Phelot with his own sword. # 156 - 418

PHOUKA, THE
(pooka) The Irish word 'Phouka' is sometimes used, as 'Pouk', or Puck, was in Middle English, for the
Devil. More usually he is a kind of Bogy or Bogey-Beast, something like the Picktree Brag of the North of
England, who takes various forms, most usually a horse, but also an eagle or a bat, and is responsible for
people falling as well. Many a wild ride has been suffered on the Phouka's back. It is he who spoils the
blackberries after Michaelmas. This is Crofton Croker's view of him. According to Lady Wilde, however,
he was nearer to the Brownie or Hobgoblin. There is a charming story, 'Fairy Help', in her ANCIENT
LEGENDS OF IRELAND in which a young boy, a miller's son, makes friends with Phouka and throws his
coat over it as it rushes like a mad bull towards him. Afterwards he sees the Phouka directing six younger
ones to thrash his father's corn while the miller's men are asleep. In this form the Phouka is like an old
withered man dressed in rags. The boy tells his father and together they watch the phoukas at work through
the crack of the door. After this the miller dismisses his men, and all the work of the mill is done by the
phoukas. The mill became very prosperous. The boy Phadrig became very fond of the Phouka and night
after night he watched him through the keyhole of an empty chest. He became more and more sorry for the
Phouka, so old and frail and ragged, and working so hard to keep the idle little phoukas up to their work. At
length, out of pure love and gratitude, he bought stuff and had a beautiful coat and breeches made for the
Phouka, and laid them out for him to find. The Phouka was delighted with them, but decided that he was
too fine to work any more. When he left all the little phoukas ran away, but the mill kept its prosperity, and
when Phadrig married a beautiful bride he found a gold cup full of wine on the bridal table. He was sure it
came from the Phouka and drank it without fear, and made his bride drink too. A better-known story is that
of 'The Phouka of Kildare', in which the brownie-like spirit keeps its animal form of an ass, but describes
itself as the ghost of an idle kitchen boy. It too is laid by a gift of clothing, but in this case because it has at
length earned a reward by its labours. These stories show the Phoka very near to Robin Goodfellow, or
Puck, tricksy, mischievous, practical-joking, but helpful and well-disposed to the human race. # 100 - 165 -
728

PICTS

# 455: The name Picti is of Latin origin, based on the reported custom of dyeing the skin. In Latin writings
of the time of Roman Britain, Picti has no specific ethnic application, but is said indiscriminately of all
inhabitant of Britain to the north of the Roman frontier. See also: Pretani, and Britain.

# 156: It was the people who lived in Northern Britain in Roman times and in the traditional Arthurian
period. They were raiding in Britain about the time of the Roman withdrawal and Vortigern is thought to
have invited the Saxons to oppose them. According to Geoffrey, they opposed Arthur who might have
wiped them out had not their clergy interceded. Boece avers that Guinevere died as their captive. As to the
racial identity of the Picts, they were possibly Celtic and called Pretani in their own language, hence the
name of Britain. The Irish called them Cruthin and applied this name also to people of the same race in
Ireland. Picti (painted folk), was the name given them by the Romans. Although they probably preceded the
Britons in Britain, the Venerable Bede says they arrived after them and came from Scythia. Geoffrey asserts
that this migration took place under King Sodric who suffered defeat at the hands of the British king,
Marius, who bestowed Caithness on them. Mael Mura of Othain, a medieval Irish poet, maintains they
came from Thrace. Whatever their origins, the kings of the principal Northern Pict kingdom in Arthur's
time were said to have been Galem I (AD 495), Drust III and Drust IV (AD 510-25, after which Drust III
ruled alone), Gartnait III (AD 530) and Cailtram (AD 537); however this list should be treated with caution.
The Southern Picts were divided into four states - Atholl, Circinn, Fife and Fortrenn. See also: PECHS. #
156 - 187 - 455 p 127 ff - # 508

PIG

The pig has a formidable reputation in Celtic lore. Whether it be the great boar, Twrch Trwyth or Orc
Triath, or the pigs which Pwyll receives as a gift from the Underworld of Annwn by Arawn. Their
appearance in the first and fourth branches of the MABINOGION, indicates an imbalance between the
worlds and sure enough they cause war in Britain and their theft by Gwydion, is responsible for the slaying
of Pwyll's son Pryderi. There is a similar story in which Arthur and his men go to steal the pigs of Mark.
The hero, Culhwch, whose name means pig-sty, was actually born in one because his insane mother was
startled by pigs in the forest. It is he who is responsible for the slaying of Twrch Trwyth, the Great Boar
himself. See also: SWINE, and BOAR. # 104 - 226 - 439 - 454

PINEL

A cousin of Lamorak who sought to avenge the latter's death by poisoning Gawain. Sir Patrise of Ireland
consumed the poison and Pinel had to flee once his part in the affair had been discovered. # 156 - 418

PISHOGUE

(pish-ogue) An Irish fairy spell, by which a man's senses are bemused, so that he sees things entirely
different from what they are in actuality. The Fir Darrig is a master at pishogues, and the tale of the Fir
Darrig in Donegal is a good example, but pishogues are thickly scattered through the Fenian legends. In
English it is called Glamour, and examples of it are to be found in Malory and in many English folk-tales. #
100

PIXIES PIGSIES PISKIES

These are West Country Fairies, belonging to Somerset, Devon and Cornwall. # 100

PIXY-LED

One of the most common traits of the fairies was their habit of leading humans astray. Pouk-ledden was the
Midlands term for it, the stories of the Stray Sod give us the Irish version, and Robin Goodfellow, or Puck,
was often credited with it by the early poets. Many of the fairies are credited with a kind of trickery, among
them the Gwyllion of Wales, but in modern times the West Country Pixies or the Cornish Piskies are the
most usual practitioners of the art. To avoid being Pixy-led it is necessary to know the correct methods of
'Protection against Fairies'. # 100

PLACE NAME STORIES

The strong tendency toward antiquarianism among the early Irish is nowhere better illustrated than in the
collection of place-names stories known as Dinnsenchas. In their present form brought in this
encyclopaedia it is hardly safe to assign the Dinnsenchas as a whole to any considerable antiquity. On the
other hand, there are certain individual instances in which the stories seem to preserve, embedded in the
explanation of place-names, fragments of the most ancient narrative material. The habit of telling stories to
explain placenames is by no means limited to the early Irish; it must be granted, however, that Irish
antiquarians brought to the task an astounding virtuosity and enthusiasm. Nowhere else in European
literature of the Middle Ages are legends of place-names so abundantly recorded.

1. INBER AILBINE.

Ruad son of Rigdonn son of the king of Fir Murig mustered the crews of three ships to go over sea to have
speech with his foster-brother the son of the king of Lochlann. When they had got halfway across they were
unable to voyage in any direction, just as if an anchor was holding them. So then Ruad went out over the
ship's side that he might know what it was that was stopping them, and he swam under the vessel. Then he
saw nine women, the loveliest of the world's women, detaining them, three under each ship. So they carried
Ruad off with them and he slept for nine nights, one night with each of the women on beds of bronze. And
one of them became with child by him, and he promised that he would come again to them if he should
perform his journey. Then Ruad went to his foster-brother's house and stayed with him for seven years,
after which he returned and did not keep his tryst truly, but fared on to Mag Murig. So the nine women took
the son that had been born among them, and set out singing, in a boat of bronze, to overtake Ruad, but they
did not succeed. So the mother then killed her own son and Ruad's only son, and she hurled the child's head
after him; and then said every one as if with one mouth, 'It is an awful crime (ailbine)! It is an awful crime!'
Hence 'Inber Ailbine.'

2. FAFAINN.

Broccaid mac Brice of the Galeoin of Labraid the Exile had a son, Fafne the poet, and a daughter Aige. His
mother was Liber daughter of Lot. Folk were envious of them; so they loosed elves at them who
transformed Aige into a fawn and sent her on a circuit all round Ireland, and the warriors of meilge son of
Cobthach king of Ireland, killed her, and of her nought was found save a bag of water, and this he threw
into the river, so that from her the 'Aige' is named. Thereafter Fafne her brother, in order to avenge her,
went to blemish the king of Ireland, and upon him three blotches were raised by Fafne's satire. Then the
poet was arrested by Meilge, for he, Meilge was guiltless of Aige's death. And Fafne was killed on Fafainn,
for satirizing the king of Tara, and therein he was buried; and while they were killing him he entreated that
his name might be for ever on that mound, to wit 'Duma Faifni.' Liber succumbed to her woe and drowned
herself in the river Liber, so that from her it is so called. Broccaid died of disease in Rath maic Bricc.

3. BOYNE.

Boann (Boyne) wife of Nechtan son of Labraid went to the secret well which was in the green of the fairy-
mound of Nechtan. No one who went to it could come away from it without his two eyes bursting, except
Nechtan himself and his three cup-bearers, whose names were Flesc and and Luam. Once upon a time
Boann went through pride to test the well's power, and declared that it had no secret force which could
shatter her form, and thrice she walked from right to left round the well. Whereupon three waves from the
well broke over her and deprived her of a thigh and one of her hands and one of her eyes. Then she, fleeing
her shame, turned seaward, with the water behind her as far as Boynemouth, where she was drowned. Now
she was the mother of Angus son of the Dagda. Or thus: 'Bo' the name of the stream [of the fairy-mound of
Nechtan] and 'Finn' the river of Sliab Guairi, and from their confluence is the name 'Boann' (= BÓ +
(F)INN). Dabilla was the name of her lapdog, whence 'Cnoc Dabilla' ('Dabilla's Hill'), today called 'Sliab in
Cotaig' ('the Mountain of the Covenant').

4. DUBLIN.

Dub daughter of Rodub son of Cass son of Glas Gamna was wife to Enna son of Nos, an elf out of
Forcartan. Enna had another wife, namely Aide daughter of Ochenn son of Cnucha, and when Dub
discovered this, for she was a druid and a poetess, she grew jealous of Aide, and she went beside the sea as
far as opposite Ochenn's house. There she chanted a sea-spell so that Aide was drowned in that house with
all her family. Mairgine, Ochenn's servant, saw Dub, and turned against her, and made a skillful cast from
his sling at her, so that he struck her off her path, and shattered her, and she fell into the pool (LINN).
Whence 'DUB-LINN' is said.

5. ATH CLIATH CUALANN (DUBLIN)

Hurdles of wattling the Leinstermen made in the reign of Mesgegra under the feet of the sheep of Athirne
the Importunate when delivering them to Dun Etair at the place in which Allainn Etair was taken from
Ulster's warriors, where also Mesdedad son of Amergin fell by the hand of Mesgegra king of Leinster. So
from those hurdles 'Ath Cliath' ('the Ford of Hurdles') was named. Or thus: 'Ath Cliath': When the men of
Erin broke the limbs of the Matae, the monster that was slain on the Liacc Benn in the Brug of Mac Oc,
they threw it limb by limb into the Boyne, and its shinbone (Colptha) got to Inber Colptha ('the estuary of
the Boyne'), whence 'Inber Colptha' is said, and the hurdle (Cliath) of its frame (i.e. its breast) went along
the sea following the coast of Ireland until it reached yon ford (áth); whence 'Ath Cliath' is said.

6. TONN CLIDNA
Clidna daughter of Genann son of Tren went out of Tulach Da Roth ('Hill of Two Wheels'), out of the
Pleasant Plain of the Land of Promise, with Iuchna Curly-locks to get to the Mac Oc. Iuchna practised guile
upon her. He played music to her in the boat of bronze wherein she lay, so that she slept thereat, and then he
turned her course back, so that she rounded Ireland southwards till she came to Clidna. This is the time at
which the illimitable seaburst arose and spread throughout the regions of the present world. Because there
were at that season Erin's three great floods, namely, Clidna's flood and Ladru's and Baile's; but not in the
same hour did they arise: Ladru's flood was the middle one. The flood pressed on aloft and divided
throughout the land of Erin till it caught the boat and the damsel asleep in it on the beach. So there she was
drowned, Clidna the Shapely, Genann's daughter, from whom 'Tonn Clidna' ('Clidna's Wave') is named.

7. LOCH DERGDEIRC

Ferchertne son of Athlo, chief-poet of Ulster, was the cruellest man that ever lived in Erin. 'Twas he that
would slay the woman in childbed, and would demand his weapon from one foe and his only eye from
another. 'Twas he, moreover, that went to Eochaid son of Luchta son of Lugar son of Lugaid White-Hand,
King of Munster, to peg his only eye in payment for Boirshe's hen which the poets had brought from the
west; and Eochaid, to save his honor, gave him his only eye. Then Eochaid went to wash the blood off his
face, and searched the rushry and found no water: so he tore a tuft of rushes from its roots, and water
trickled forth. With this he washed his empty eyesocket, and as he dipped his head thrice under the water all
the well became red. Then because of the miracle of generosity which Eochaid had performed the King
regained both his eyes, and as he looked on the well he said: 'A red (derg) hollow (derc) is this hollow, and
this will be every one's name it.' Whence 'Loch Dergdeirc' is said. # 166

PLANT ANNWN, THE

(plant anoon) The Welsh fairies of the underworld, whose entrance to the human world is by the lakes.
Their king is Gwyn ap Nud, and they are chiefly known to men through their maidens, the Gwragen
Annwn, by their white or speckled cattle, the Gwartheg y LLyn, and by their swift white hounds, the Cwn
Annwn, who were sometimes seen with their fairy mistresses, but more often heard on summer nights in
full cry after the souls of men who had died unassoiled and impenitent. The Lake Maidens made loving and
docile wives until the taboo attached to them was violated; the Lake Cattle brought wealth and prosperity to
any farmer who was lucky enough to keep one; but the hounds of the underworld betray the nature of these
underwater people: they were the company of the dead, like the subjects of Fin Bheara in Ireland. In a story
told by Pugh of Aberdovey and preserved by John Rhys, Gwyn ap Nud is called King of Annwn, but
elsewhere Rhys calls Arawn, the friend of Pwyll of Dyfed, the undoubted king of the underworld. # 100 -
554

PLANT RHYS DWFEN

(plant hrees thoovn) This, meaning the family of Rhys the Deep, is the name given to a tribe of fairy people
who inhabited a small land which was invisible because of a certain herb that grew on it. They were
handsome people, rather below the average in height, and it was their custom to attend the market in
Cardigan and pay such high prices for the goods there that the ordinary buyer could not compete with them.
They were honest and resolute in their dealings, and grateful to people who treated them fairly. One man
called Gruffid always treated them so well that they took a great liking to him and invited him to their
country, which was enriched with treasures from all over the world. They loaded him with gifts and
conducted him back to their boundary. Just before he took leave of them he asked how they guarded all
their wealth. Might not even one of their own people betray them into the hands of strangers? 'Oh no,' said
his guide. 'No snakes can live in Ireland and no treachery can live here. Rhys, the father of our race, bade
us, even to the most distant descendant, honour our parents and ancestors; love our own wives without
looking at those of our neighbours; and do our best for our children and grandchildren. And he said that if
we did so, no one of us would ever prove unfaithful to another, or become what you call a traitor.' He said
that a traitor was an imaginary character with them, shown in a symbolic drawing with the feet of an ass,
the head of the devil and a bossom full of snakes, holding a knife in his hand, with which he had killed his
family. With that he said goodbye, and Gruffid found himself near his own home, and could no longer see
the Country of Plant Rhys. After this time he prospered in everything and his friendship with the Plant Rhys
continued. After his death, however, the farmers became so covetous that the Plant Rhys no longer
frequented Cardigan Market, and were said to have gone to Fishguard. John Rhys in CELTIC FOLK-LORE
quotes this account from the BRYTHON VOL. I. # 100 - 554

PLENTYN-NEWID

(plentin newid) Wirt Sikes in BRITISH GOBLINS gives a full account of a plentyn-newid, or Welsh
changeling, left by the Tylwyth Teg in exchange for the beautiful human child which they coveted. The
Welsh changelings differed very little from those elsewhere, and received the same harsh treatment. # 100 -
596

POET RANKS

In Wales as in Ireland, there were grades within the learned class. In the pre-Christian society the highest
was doubtless that of the druids, but even in the earliest Welsh records the druids are hardly mentioned. The
'chief-poet' (Pencerdd), 'a poet who has won in a contest for a chair', was at least equal in honour to the
highest court officers. He seems to correspond to the Irish Ollam or chief Fili. Beneath him was the poet of
the household or house-troop (bardd teulu), who was one of the twenty-four court officers. When the bardd
teulu took office he received from the king a harp, with which he was never to part. He sang for the troop
when it went on a raid, and before it set out for battle he sang 'The Monarchy of Britain'. The term
Cerddorion seems to cover yet another class of minstrels who recognized the pencerdd as their lord, and
there are references in the laws to the lowly Croesaniaid. In medieval tracts on the art of poetry, slightly
different terms seem to refer to the same classes: prydydd 'poet', teuluwr 'poet of the household or house-
troop', and clerwr, 'minstrel'. Three duties are assigned to the teuluwr: to gladden the company, to be
generous (literally 'to promote generosity'), and to make courteous supplication - terms which recall the
festive music of Buchet's House in Leinster. The teuluwr, who also composed love poems, was the disciple
of a prydydd, but the prydydd should shun the chaotic art of the clewr for 'their arts are opposed to one
another'. With the eclipse of the superior functions of the master-poets, their art became for the most part
confined to the composition of praise-poems. When the law and the prophets belong to the past, the psalms
remain.

In Ireland in the early seventeenth century, the traditional precedence of the North was challenged by a
southern poet, and this led to a sustained and wide-ranging poetic disputation concerning the relative claims
of Leth Cuinn and Leth Moga. Towards the end of the following century a similar case for the greater
importance of the southern contribution to the Welsh literary tradition was elaborated, not without
fabrication, by Iolo Morganwg. In the context of the fourfold structure, Iolo's claim for Glamorgan as the
seat of bardism may well be correct, provided the 'bard' is duly assigned to the third place in the learned
hierarchy. And it is fair to add that Iolo particularly claimed for his native province a wealth of pleasant
'household poetry' (canu teuluaidd) - the poetry of the teuluwr or bard. It is said that throughout Welsh
history the South has been the region of innovation and enterprise and that what the South has created the
North has elaborated and perfected (W. J. Gruffydd, OWEN MORGAN EDWARDS, I, Aberrystwyth,
1937). Thirty of the court poets of the twelfth and early thirteenth centuries, authors of the most abstruse
poems in the language, have been tentatively assigned to the various provinces: more than half of them
were from Gwynedd, eight from Powys, and only one from the South. On the other hand, metres which
later appear as accentual song-metres seem to have found readier acceptance in South Wales. In what is
believed to be the first eisteddfod upon record two prizes were offered, one for poets and one for
instrumentalists. The former was won by a poet from the North, the latter by a harpist from the South. In
medieval Ireland, the filid looked back to three early poets of Connacht as their great exemplars, and most
learned families either traced their origin to Connacht or Meath or were associated with patrons from those
parts. With the emergence of the accentual metres, 'which belonged essentially to the people', Munster
poets came into far greater prominence.
The dichotomy manifested in the division into North and South appeared too in the division of the Welsh
royal hall. One of the terms used for the partition that separated the two parts of the hall was corf, a word
which is also used of 'a wood on the steep brink of a stream', such a wood as often formed the boundary
between the upper and lower halves of territorial units. The king and his heir, his judge, his chief poet, and
other dignitaries, sat in the upper part of the hall; the captain of the house-troop and his men, and the
household bard, sat in the lower part. When the king wished to hear a song, the chief poet sang two songs in
the upper hall, one of God and the other of kings, and then the household bard sang a third song in the
lower hall. It was also the household bard who, with a quiet voice, sang for the queen in her room. The two
songs - of God and of kings - in the upper hall and the bard's one song in the lower hall hardly call for
further comment, and the same is true of the association of the bard with the queen and with the troop. One
officer connected with the court, the Maer Biswail ('dung officer'), was responsible for the king's mensal
land. There the villeins came under his jurisdiction and he ordered their ploughing, sowing, and other
activities. He had charge, under the steward, of the maintenance and supplies of the court, but he belonged
to the villein class; scant respect was shown to him in the precincts of the king's hall. # 548 - 736

POOKA

The pooka of Irish legend was a magic spirit-animal, usually a horse; but a pooka could appear in
humanlike form also. To see a pooka was an omen of death. Therefore the horse form probably descended
from the spirit-horses of Celtic religion whose function was to carry dead heroes to paradise. The pooka
was a cognate of Old English Puca, a fairy creature, which also produced spook and Puck, Such ancestral
fairy beliefs are still preserved in a number of Irish place names, such as Puckstown, Puck Fair, and Pooka's
Ford. The pooka is still sighted occasionally, in remote and lonely places, particularly swamps and bogs. In
Scotland, the creature was usually called a kelpie. This was a water spirit embodied sometimes in a seal,
sometimes in a white horse whose mane was like the foaming crests of the waves. # 701

POPE

The Pope is mentioned from time to time in Arthurian romance. The fictional Pope Sulpicius made Gawain
a knight; this may be another name for Pope Simplicius (AD 468-83). The Pope crowned Arthur Emperor
of Rome and sent the bishop of Rochester to mediate between Arthur and Lancelot in the war over
Guinevere. The Salzburg Annals and Jean de Preis (1338-1400) claim Arthur was contemporary with Pope
Hilary (AD 461-68). Other popes in the traditional Arthurian period were Felix III, Gelasius I, Anastasius
II, Symmachus, Hormisdas, John I, Felix IV, Boniface II, John II, Agapitus I, Siverius and Vigilius. # 156

POPPET

A witch's poppet was not the sort of puppet or doll that a child might play with. It was meant to represent a
real person, so it was very much a magical symbol. Anything done to the poppet was supposed to happen to
the person also. Poppets also served as surrogate sacrifices. English and Welsh harvest festivals sometimes
involved the 'killing' of the cornbaby or Kernababy, a poppet made from the sheaves of the previous
harvest. As in all sacrifices, the idea was to give back to the Mother part of her gift of nourishment. The
poppet was burned or 'drowned' at the Kern Supper (Harvest Feast). # 701 p 149 ff

POTTER THOMPSON

He found a secret tunnel running under Richmond Castle and discovered King Arthur and his knights
asleep. A horn and sword stood by, but as he went to pick up the horn the knights began to stir. Terrified, he
ran away hearing:

'Potter Thompson, Potter Thompson If thou hadst drawn the sword or blow the horn, Thou hadst been the
luckiest man e'er born.'
Another story about the castle has a drummer boy sent down an underground passage to discover where it
ran. He never emerged but his drumming is still heard. A similar story about finding King Arthur is found at
Sewingshields. # 282 - 454

POUK

See: PUCK.

POUK-LEDDEN

The Midland equivalent of Pixy-led. It will be remembered that among the mischievous tricks of
Shakespeare's Puck is 'to mislead nightwanderers, laughing at their harm'. In medieval times, 'Pouk' was a
name for the Devil. Langland speaks of Pouk's Pinfold, meaning Hell. By the sixteenth century, however,
Pouk had become a harmless trickster, and only the Puritans bore him a grudge. # 100

POWER OVER FAIRIES

Country people and learned Magicians both desired power over fairies and chose it rather than the double-
edged weapon of submission to Satan. They generally pursued their end by rather different methods. The
most brutal and straightforward was by direct capture. Fairy wives were caught in this way, as in the story
of Wild Edric and many tales of the Roane or Seal Maidens. But other captured fairies were caught from
covetousness, like Skilly-widden, the fairy boy. The fairies which were most eagerly seized were the
Lepracauns, or fairy shoemakers, of the same type as the Cluricaune, but there is no example of their being
retained by their captors. A typical tale about them can be read in Thomas Keightley's FAIRY
MYTHOLOGY. #100-362

POWRIES

See: DUNTERS.

POWYS

An early Welsh kingdom. In the Arthurian period it is said to have been ruled by legendary kings such as
Cadell I, Cyngen I, and Brochmael I. # 156

PRAYERS

Naturally, prayers are a chief form of protection in any supernatural peril, and particularly the Lord's
Prayer. Against the Devil it used to be supposed that this was much more efficacious if said aloud, because
the Devil could not read man's thoughts, and could only judge the state of his soul by his words and actions,
and therefore he was fatally discouraged by hearing people praying aloud. The same no doubt would apply
to evil fairies when seeking adequate protection against fairies. # 100

PREHISTORIC BRITAIN, THE RIDDLE OF

See: BRITAIN, THE RIDDLE OF PREHISTORIC.

PRESTER JOHN

A legendary monarch whose realm was thought to have been in Asia or Africa. He is first mentioned by the
chronicler Otto of Freising who says he attacked Ecbatana and defeated the Medes and Persians, whose
capital it was. A spurious letter of Prester John, describing the wonders of his kingdom, appeared in Europe
(perhaps in 1185) and became vastly popular. Marco Polo identified him with an Asiatic ruler, but Jordanus
de Sévérac (fourteenth century) placed him in Ethiopia. He is mentioned in a number of Arthurian tales. In
Wolfram, he was the son of Feirefiz and Repanse and therefore a nephew of Perceval and a cousin of
Arthur. In the Dutch LANCELOT he is apparently the son of Perceval. In TOM A' LINCOLN he was the
father of Anglitora, with whom Arthur's illegitimate son, Tom a' Lincoln eloped. # 156-668

PRETANI

1. As late as the time of Julius Caesar, and probably much later, the main native population of Britain
and Ireland was known to the Celts of Gaul by the name Pretani. From the Gallic Celts, Greek
writers learned to call Britain and Ireland the Pretanic Islands. The name Pretani is represented in
the earliest Irish documents by Cruithin, which is translated by the Latin Picti, and is the specific
designation of the ethnic group now called the Picts.
2. For Pretani, Caesar substituted Brittani or Britanni, which was probably the name of a subdivision
of the Belgae in Gaul, perhaps also in Britain. For Albio or Albion, the older name of Britain,
Caesar substituted Brittania (Britannia), and thenceforward in Latin writings Brittani became the
name of the people of the island in general. From Brittani the by-form Brittones also came into
use.
3. Where Caesar ascribes to the Brittani the distinctive customs of dyeing the skin and of forming
polyandrous unions, he relates what came to him by report and with exaggeration from the Gallic
Celts regarding the Pretani, whom they looked upon as an alien race of inferior civilization.
4. The name Picti is of Latin origin, based on the reported custom of dyeing the skin. In Latin
writings of the time of Roman Britain, Picti has no specific ethnic application, but is said
indiscriminately of all the inhabitants of Britain to the north of the Roman frontier.
5. The earliest Irish traditions and historical records justify the ancient description of Ireland as a
Pretanic island. The negative position of later writings is deceptive.

# 455 p 127 ff

PRIORY OAK

See: MERLIN'S TREE.

PRIURE

The King of the Sea, whose scaly envoy (according to DIU CRôNE) brought a cup to Arthur's court to see
if the men and women were false. Arthur was the only one shown not to be so. # 156

PROCIDES

Procides was the castellan of Limerick and gonfalonier of Ireland according to DURMART. # 156

PROTECTION AGAINST FAIRIES

People walking alone by night, especially through fairy-haunted places, had many ways of protecting
themselves. The first might be by sacred symbols, by making the sign of a cross or by carrying a cross,
particularly one made of iron; by prayers or the chanting of hymns, by holy water, sprinkled or carried, and
by carrying and strewing churchyard mould in their path. Bread and salt were also effective, and both were
regarded as sacred symbols, one of life and the other of eternity. As Herrick says:
For that holy piece of bread
Charmes the danger and the dread.

Bells were protective; church bells, the bells worn by morris dancers and the bell round the necks of sheep
and oxen. So was whistling and the snapping of clappers. A man who was pixy-led, wandering around and
unable to find his way out of the field, would generally turn his coat. This act of turning clothes may have
been thought to act as a change of identity, for gamblers often turned their coat to break a run of bad luck.
Certain plants and herbs were also protective counter-charms. The strongest was a four-leafed clover, which
broke fairy glamour, as well as the fairy ointment, which was indeed said by Hunt to be made of four-leafed
clovers. St. John's wort, the herb of Midsummer, was potent against spells and the power of fairies, evil
spirits and the Devil. Red verbena was almost equally potent, partly perhaps because of its pure and
brilliant colour. Daisies, particularly the little field daisies, were protective plants, and a child wearing daisy
chains was supposed to be safe from fairy kidnapping. Red-berried trees were also protective, above them
all rowan or mountain ash. A staff made of rowan wood or a rowan cross or a bunch of ripe berries were all
sure protections, and where rowan did not grow ash was a good substitute. - If chased by evil fairies, one
could generally leap to safety across running water, particularly a southward-flowing stream, though there
were evil water-spirits such as the kelpie who haunted fresh-water streams A newly-christened child was
safe against being carried off by the fairies, but before christening 'the little pagan' was kept safe by his
father's trousers laid over the cradle, or an open pair of scissors hung above it. This last had a double
potency as being made of steel and as hanging in the form of a cross, on the same principle that the child's
garments were secured by pins stuck in cross-wise. The house and stock were protected by iron horseshoes
above the house and staple doors, and horses were protected from being elf-ridden by self-bored stones
hung above the manger. With so many methods of protection, it was surprising that such number of babies
were stolen and replaced by changelings and so many travellers were pixy-led. # 100 - 306

PROVINCE OF THE SPEARMEN

(Irish, LAIGHIN - 'LY-IN'). See: CONNACHT.

PRYDEIN

See: BRITAIN.

PRYDERI

# 455: (prid-EER-ree) Pryderi, called also Gwynvardd Dyved, was the son of Pwyll, Lord of Dyved, the
son of Meirig, the son of Arcol, with the long hand, the son of Pyr, or Pur of the East, the son of Llion the
ancient. A fascinating pedigree, but it would be absurd to connect their history with any known
chronological period. It is purely mythological, as appears from the very import of their names. Pryderi is
deep thought, or mature consideration; and the general subject of this thought may be collected from his
other title Gwynvardd Dyved -Druid of Demetia. (According to Rolleston, Pryderi means: trouble). Pwyll,
his father, is reason, discretion, prudence, or patience. That both the father and the son were characters
wholly mystical or personifications of abstract ideas is shown in Taliesin's SPOILS OF THE DEEP, where
we are told that the Diluvian patriarch first entered the Ark by the counsel of Pwyll and Pryderi.

# 454: Pryderi was snatched from his cot by a monstrous claw, causing his mother, Rhiannon's ignominious
servitude at the horse-block. Although not stated, the context of the story suggests an otherworldly foe,
possibly the family of Gwawl, abducted him. He was found in a stable on May-Eve by Teirnyon Turf Liant
who was guarding his mare which was in foal. The monstrous claw attempted to snatch her foal but was
driven back by Teirnyon. Pryderi was called by his rescuer Gwri and brought up as Teirnyon's own son.
However, on recognizing the likeness between the boy and Pwyll, Teirnyon returned the boy to his parents
and so released Rhiannon from her bondage. Pryderi later married Cigfa and succeeded to the Lordship of
Dyfed. When the enchantments fell on his land, Pryderi and Manawyddan, his step-father, went hunting,
and he was stuck to a golden bowl and trapped in the Otherworld. Manawyddan rescued him. In MATH,
SON OF MATHONWY', Pryderi was robbed of his Pigs by Gwydion, whom he followed and challenged to
single combat. Gwydion exerted magic force and so Pryderi died. There are elements within this story
which suggests that Pryderi is a form of Mabon, or that Mabon's lost mythos has been transmitted within
the story of Pryderi. See also: PWYLL. # 104 - 272 - 439 - 454 - 455 p 58 ff - # 562

PRYDWEN

In Welsh tradition, the name of Arthur's ship in which he made the expedition to Annwfn, although
Geoffrey calls it his shield. This confusion arose due to the similarity between shield and ship in the
original Latin. # 156 - 243 - 260 - 439

PUBIDIUS

In one version of the story of Merlin, Pubidius was the wizard's maternal grandfather. He was the ruler of
Mathtraval (Wales). # 156

PUCELLE AUX BLANCHE MAINS

A fairy who became the lover of Guinglain. She lived on the Golden Island. Her name means the Maiden
with the White Hands. # 156

PUCK

Shakespeare in his MIDSUMMER NIGHT'S DREAM has given Puck an individual character, and it no
longer seems natural to talk, as Robert Burton does in THE ANATOMIE OF MELANCHOLY, of A puck
instead of 'Puck', nor, like Langland, equate Puck with the Devil and call Hell 'Pouk's Pinfold'.
Shakespeare's Puck is the epitome of the Hobgoblin, with the by-name of Robin Goodfellow. In folk
tradition emphasis is perhaps most laid on Puck as a misleader, and 'Poukledden' is a commoner phrase
than 'Hobberdy's Lantern'. Shakespeare's Puck plays all the pranks described in the 'Life of Robin
Goodfellow'. His self-descriptive speech to Titania's fairy could not be bettered as the description of a
hobgoblin. Human follies are his perpetual entertainment, but, like all hobgoblins, he has his softer
moments, his indignation is always raised against scornful lovers and he feels real compassion for Hermia ,
scorned and deserted by the man with whom she had fled.

Puck in Drayton's account of diminutive fairies in NIMPHIDIA shows many of the same characteristics.
For the rest, we shall find that Puck's traits correspond with those to be found in the Celtic parts of these
islands, in the Pwca, Phouka and Pixies. Like all hobgoblins, he is a shape-shifter, but he also performs
Brownie labours for humans, and like a Brownie he is laid by a gift of clothing. Shakespeare's Puck differs
in one thing from ordinary pucks of tradition: he belongs to the fairy court and cannot be called a solitary
fairy. # 100 - 120 - 193 - 593

PUFFIN

After Arthur's death, he was reincarnated as Puffin, according to Cornish lore. See: RAVEN. # 156

PURGATORY

In the Middle Dutch romance WALAWEIN, this region was visited by Gawain, who saw it as a boiling
river. Souls went into it as black birds, but came out white. # 156
PWCA

(pooka) Welsh form of Puck. Many versions of Pwca appear in British tradition, spelt variously as Pooka,
Puck, Bwca, etc. His character are so like those of Shakespeare's Puck that some Welsh people have
claimed that Shakespeare borrowed him from stories told him by his friend Richard Price of Brecon who
lived near Cwm Pwca, one of the Pwca's favourite haunts. Sikes in BRITISH GOBLINS reproduces a
rather pleasing drawing of the Pwca, done with a piece of coal by a Welsh peasant. The Pwca in this picture
has a head rather like a fledgeling bird's and a figure not unlike a tadpole's. No arms are shown, but the
figure is in silhouette. One story about the Pwca shows that a tribute of milk was left for him. This may
possibly have been in payment for his services as a cowherd, though that is not expressly mentioned. A
milkmaid at Trwyn Farm near Abergwyddon used to leave a bowl of milk and a piece of white bread for
Pwca in a lonely place on the pastures every day. One day, out of mischief, she drank the milk herself and
ate most of the bread, so that Pwca only got cold water and a crust that day. Next day, as she went near the
place, she was suddenly seized by very sharp but invisible hands and given a sound whipping, while the
Pwca warned her that if she did that again she would get worse treatment. Pwca is best known, however, as
a Will o' the Wisp. He will lead a benighted wanderer up a narrow path to the edge of a ravine, then leap
over it, laughing loudly, blow out his candle, and leave the poor traveller to grope his way back as best he
can. In this behaviour he is like the Scottish 'Shellycoat' as well as the English Puck. # 100 - 596

PWYLL

# 455: (poo-ellh) Pwyll, Prince of Dyfed (from the MABINOGION). This tale manifestly alludes to Arkite
theology, and to the rejection of Sabian idolatry, or solar worship, and even some foreign abuses, or
innovations, which were intermixing with the doctrines and rites of the natives. # 454: When out hunting,
he encounted Arawn, Lord of Annwn and, in payment for an unintentional insult, offered to exchange
places with him and fight his enemy, Hafgan. He spent a year in Arawn's shape and so won his friendship
by good manners and successfully overcoming Hafgan, that he was given the title 'Lord of Annwn'. He won
Rhiannon as his wife, but only after defeating her former suitor, Gwawl. They lived happily until the loss of
Pryderi. See also: PRYDERI. # 104 - 272 - 368 - 454 - 455 p 58 ff - # 565
RADIGUND

Queen of the Amazons, slain by Britomart. # 156 - 614

RAGALLACH

He was a king of Connacut to whom it was prophesied that he would die at his daughter's hands. He
ordered his wife to cast her into a bag and gave her to a swineherd to destroy. However, she was left at the
door of a woman who raised her to become her own father's concubine. # 454

RAGNELL

A loathsome-looking lady, the sister of Gromer Somer Joure, who enchanted her into that shape. She helped
Gawain find the answer to the riddle which Gromer set Arthur: 'What is it women desire most?' on the
understanding that if the answer was correct, she would marry Gawain. They were married and on the
wedding night Gawain discovered the true answer for, on kissing her, she became a beautiful woman. She
said he could have her fair by night and ugly during the day, or ugly at night and fair by day. He could not
decide and bade her choose, thus realizing the answer to the question: 'women desire to have sovereignty or
their own way.' The story also occur as the wife of Bath's tale in CANTERBURY TALES. The story is
perhaps related to Celtic tales in which the hag stands for sovereignty. Thus Niall of the Nine Hostages,
King of Tara, kissed an old crone who became beautiful and turned out to be the Sovereignty of Ireland. #
148 - 156 - 401 - 454 - 507

RAGUIDEL

A knight slain by Guengasoain. Raguidel's dead body appeared near Arthur's court on an apparently
unmanned ship. With him was a letter asking that he be avenged and stating that he who did so would be
the only one able to draw rings from the fingers of the corpse. Gawain was the only one able to do this. #
30 - 156

RAM

Contrary to its Egyptian and Indo-English symbolism the ram appears as chthonic in Celtic tradition. It
accompanies Horned Gods but has both fertilizing and death associations; it is also an attribute of war gods.
There are ram-headed serpents and geese, and rams with human heads. Supernatural rams and sheep are
found in Celtic lore and later in the stories of Christian saints. Rams were connected with the sacred hearth,
the entrance to the underworld, and among Celtic remains there were found near the hearth andirons of clay
decorated with a ram's head. Fire-dogs were also made in ram effigy, rams were depicted on Gaulish tombs,
and heads of rams appeared on monuments to Gallic gods of the underworld. The Great God of the Gauls
was Belin, the ram, and his material and earthly manifestation was Bélisama, his consort, wife and sister.
The ram was a Celtic and Gaulish sacrificial animal. # 161 - 787

RAT

There was an Irish belief that rats could be killed by reciting rhyming spells. # 161

RATH

(raa or raath) A fortified place surrounded by a wall or ditch or by both. # 166


RATH CRUACHAN

See: CRUACHAN AI.

RATH GRANIA

King Cormac and Finn feasted at Rath Grania. # 562

RATH LUACHAR

Lia keeps the Treasure Bag at Rath Luachar. # 562

RATHCROGHAN

Maeve's (Medb) palace in Roscommon. # 562

RATHLEAN

Mother of the Otherworldly woman, Ailleann, she was therefore, for a time, Arthur's mother-in-law. # 156

RAVEN

# 701: Among the Celts, ravens were sacred to the Otherworld Birdgoddess Rhiannon, and also
incarnations of the death-dealing Morrigan. Ravens brought omens of death. It was often said that ravens
could foretell outbreaks of the plague. Because of their association with the Otherworld, ravens were
viewed as oracles and teachers of magic. Ravens gave magical instructions to the Celtic god Lugh and to
his Norse counterpart Odin.

# 161: In Celtic lore the raven is associated with deities of war and features as a helper and protector of
warriors and heroes. It is an important Celtic figure but is ambivalent as helper on the one hand and
connected with death and the Raven-Crow goddess, 'The Blessed Raven', had a three-fold function as war,
procreator and prophecy.

The raven is also associated with the wren in prophecy and divination, appears with the swan in solar
symbolism, and is connected with the dove-cote as a house-symbol, this probably being pre-Celtic. The
Raven of Battle, the Goddess Badb, symbolizes war, bloodshed, and malevolence. Morrigan as a raven
goddess watched over battles. Bran has a raven, and Lugh or Lugos, who had two magic ravens, is an all-
purpose and wise raven-god like the Teutonic/Scandinavian Woden/Odin. The Welsh hero Owain had an
army of ravens which had magic powers and while he and King Arthur are playing a game of gwyddbwyll,
a boardgame similar to the Irish brandubh (black-raven), they defeats Arthur's men, as Owain defeats
Arthur in the game until the tables are turned. # 156: After his death Arthur's soul went into a raven's body
in Cornish folklore. The raven is one of the primal totems of the British Isles. If they saw a flock where all
black ravens were malefic, with a white feather it became to be beneficient. # 454: In Ireland, it is the bird
in whose shape Morrigan appears over battle-fields with her sisters, Badb and Nemainn. Throughout Celtic
and Arthurian literature, raven-women appear, performing much the same function as the Goddess. In one
story, the DIDOT PERCEVAL, Morgan herself appears as a raven. In Britain the raven is primarily the bird
of Bran the Blessed, for 'bran' means raven. In that story he asks for his head to be cut off and buried at the
White Mount, (modern Tower of London), to act as a palladium against invasion. This was done, but when
Arthur became king, he dug up the head, not wishing any other to defend Britain but himself. This act of
hubris is perhaps represented in the tradition about the Tower's ravens who are supposed to similarly keep
Britain free of invasion, and it is said that if they leave the Tower, Britain is doomed. It is for this reason
that their wings are always kept well clipped.
# 725: The Raven, Corvus or Corax, takes its name from the sound of its gutteral throat, because its voice
croaks. It is said to be a bird which refuses to feed its children properly until it recognizes in them the
appearance of the real black colour in the wings. But after it sees them to be sable feathered, it feeds those
which it recognizes, generously.

When eating corpses, the bird goes for the eye first. # 52 - 156 - 161 - 389 - 438 - 454 - 701 p 408 - # 717 -
725

RAWHEAD AND BLOODY BONES

This was the full name, but it is sometimes shortened to 'Bloody Bones' or 'Old Bloody Bones', and
sometimes to 'Tommy Rawhead'. Samuel Johnson in his dictionary defines it as 'the name of a spectre,
mentioned to fright children', and quotes instances from Dryden and Locke. In Lancashire and Yorkshire,
'Tommy Rawhead' or 'Rawhead and Bloody Bones' is a water demon haunting old marl-pits or deep ponds
to drag children down into their depths, like the other Nursery Bogies, Peg Powler and Nelly Longarms.
Mrs Wright, in RUSTIC SPEECH AND FOLK LORE, quotes a typical warning: 'Keep away from the
marl-pit or rawhead and bloody bones will have you.' #100-752

RAYNBROWN

A Knight, the son of Sir Ironside. # 2 - 156

RECESSE

The kingdom ruled by Carras, brother of King Claudas. # 156

RED BRANCH

Order of chivalry which had its seat in Emain Macha. Heroes of the Red Branch and CuChulain strive for
the Championship of Ireland. With CuChulain and Conor passes away the glory of the Red Branch. The
Craeb Ruad (crâv' roo'ah), the great assembly hall at Emain Macha; now Creevroe, a townland near the
River Callan not far from Navan, the ancient site of Emain Macha. # 166 - 562

RED HUGH

Ulster prince, father of Macha, brother of Dithorba and Kimbay. # 562

RED KNIGHT

1. A knight who stole a cup from Arthur's court. He was pursued and killed by Perceval. 2. A knight named
Sir Perimones, defeated by Gareth. 3. The Red Knight of the Red Lands, called Sir Ironside, who besieged
Lyonesse until he was defeated by Gareth. 4. A title which was given to Gawain in PERLESVAUS. 5. A
knight defeated by the Great Fool. # 112-153-156-418

RED RIDERS

Conary's journey with the Red Riders, who were from the fairyworld and became one of several of
Conary's geise which seized him in one night. # 562

RED ROSE KNIGHT


See: TOM A' LINCOLN.

REDSHANKS

See: DANES.

REGAMNA, THE CATTLE RAID OF

or 'CuChulain and the Morrigu' is one of a number of early Irish romances called REMSCÊLA, or
foretales, designed to explain the central epic. It also belongs to a group of sagas called 'cattleraids' (tânâ
bô), of which the most important is THE CATTLE RAID OF COOLEY. But in the present instance the title
has little appropriateness, as only one cow instead of a herd is stolen and no person called Regamna (or,
perhaps, Regaman) appears in the story. Besides THE CATTLE RAID OF REGAMNA there are several
other ancient Irish episodic narratives dealing with one or both of the two famous bulls that figure in THE
CATTLE RAID OF COOLEY - the Donn of Cooley and the White-Horned of Connacht. According to one
account the two animals were originally fairy swine-herds who were at enmity with each other and who
assumed a series of transformations until they finally appeared as the two bulls. See also: THE
ADVENTURES OF NERA. # 166

RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT CELTS

The records of the ancient Celtic religion are scanty: from the Irish Celts there is some written material
found mainly in the eleventh and twelfth centuries; from Wales there is the classic document
MABINOGION. Valuable hints are supplied by early classical documents but more important are the
existing folk customs which preserve so much of the old cults. Celtic burial mounds yield their testimony to
ancient beliefs and customs: the cult of the dead; river and well worship; tree and plant worship; Druidic
rites of rebirth and transmigration. How far the Celts cultivated religion in our sense of the term or had a
vision of monotheism must remain unknown. But a people whose spiritual influence has been so great must
have glimpses of these things. But even how scanty, from these fragments we see the Celt as the seeker
after God, linking himself by strong ties to the unseen, and eager to conquer the unknown by religious rite
or magic art. For the things of the spirit have never appealed in vain to the Celtic soul, and long ago
classical observers were struck with the religiosity of the Celts. # 776

RELIGION, CYMRY

The religion of the Britons, like that of other heathens, grew up in the dark... In the first place, it may be
inferred from the tone of the evidence already produced that the primitive religion of the Cymry (long
before the age of the oldest bard who is now extant) was a kind of apostasy from the patriarchal religion, or
a mere corruption of it... and that the Cerridwen of the Druids was as much the genius of the Ark, as the
Ceres and Isis of our great mythologist. # 455 p 57 ff

RENOART

He was a warrior in the Guillaume d'Orange cycle. In the romance BATAILLE LOQUIFER (see
CORBON), he was brought to Avalon by Morgan and other fays. Here he met Arthur. He became the lover
of Morgan, but soon left. Morgan persuaded Kapalu to sink Renoart's ship, but he was rescued by sirens.
He and Morgan had a son named Corbon. # 156

RESTOR DE TRISTRAM
The name given to a hero of a lost romance by a disgruntled fairy. The name signifies 'New Tristram' and
the fairy intended that he should undergo a sorrowful life like his namesake. He went to Morgan's castle,
but we do not know what befell him there. # 156

RHEGED

A kingdom in the Cumbria region, ruled by Urien later than the traditional Arthurian period. T. Clare,
County Archaeologist of Cumbria, however, maintains that Urien and Arthur were identical; in this case
Rheged would have been Arthur's kingdom. Certainly, Arthur is associated with Carlisle in Rheged. # 156 -
484

RHEUMATISM

The twisting and deformities which follow on rheumatism used to be suspect as a sign that the sufferer was
a witch, especially if it came on suddenly. Severe lumbago was a dangerous affliction to have in the 16th
and 17th centuries, for a witch was often supposed to be bent like a hoop; but it was also, in more minor
forms, as a result of having displeased the fairies in some way, and particularly when it took the form of
lameness, as of the lazy dairymaid who refused to get up and put out water for the fairies and was afflicted
with a seven-years' lameness. An account of this is to be found in Mrs Bray's THE BORDER OF THE
TAMAR AND THE TAVY. See also: BLIGHTS AND ILLNESSES ATTRIBUTED TO THE FAIRIES. #
92 - 100

RHIANNON

(hree-AH-non) Daughter of Hefaidd Hen, Lord of the Underworld. Pwyll saw her riding on a white mare
and attempted to follow her, but she rode so fast that he was unable to catch her. He went to Hefaidd's hall
to beg her hand in marriage and was tricked into giving her away to her former suitor, Gwawl. Rhiannon
showed Pwyll how to outwit Gwawl and they were married. Their only son, Pryderi, was snatched from the
cradle by otherworld forces. While Rhiannon slept, the nurses and midwives killed some puppies and
smeared her face with the blood, making believe she had killed and eaten her son, lest the blame should fall
on them. Rhiannon was set a penance: to stand at the mounting block and offer to take all visitors to the
court upon her back, telling them her story of shame. She was relieved from this necessity on Pryderi's
return. On Pwyll's death, she married Manawyddan. She followed Pryderi into an otherworldly castle
where he stuck to a golden bowl. She likewise became stuck and suffered a long sojourn in the Otherworld
with her son. She was released by the guile of Manawyddan.

The Birds of Rhiannon were said to be harbingers of otherworldly bliss: Bran and his company listened to
them after his beheading, so that they were unaware of the passing of time. Rhiannon's attributes can be
taced from the Celtic goddess Epona and the Greek goddess Despoina, daughter of Demeter Erynnes, but
she is most closely modelled on the archetype of Modron, whose mythos she embodies. # 104 - 272 - 439 -
454

RHITTA, RICCA, RITH

See: RIENCE.

RHONABWY

(HRON-ahv-wy) He fell asleep and dreamed he was brought before Arthur. The story of his dream forms a
piece of Arthuriana in the MABINOGION. #156-346

RHONGOMYNIAD
See: RON.

RHUN

Sent from King Arthur's court to Elphin's wife. # 562

RHY AWDD

(hri'owth)

RHYDDERCH

A historical king of Strathclyde called Hael (generous). He may be identical with Rhydderch ap Tudwal,
who was king of Dumbarton in the sixth century. One of the kings involved at Arthuret, Welsh tradition
claims he was on the side opposed to Merlin but, in the VITA MERLINI, Geoffrey has Merlin on his side
and Rhydderch married to Merlin's sister, Ganieda. He defeats Merlin's Lord, Gwenddolau at the Battle of
Arfderydd. See: LAILOKEN, and THIRTEEN TREASURES. # 156 - 242 - 454 - 632

RHYGENYDD

The crock of Rhygenydd was one of the Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain. # 104 - 156

RHYS AP TEWDWR

South Welsh prince; brought knowledge of the Round Table to Wales. # 562

RHYVERYS

Arthur's master of hounds. # 156 - 346

RIACH

(ree-ah)

RIANGABAR

(re'an gôv'ar) An Ulsterman whose sons Iubar, Loeg, Sedland, and Id, were the charioteers of Conchobar,
CuChulain, Loegaire, and Conall, respectively. # 166

RICH FISHER

See: FISHER KING.

RICHARD

In the PROPHÉCIES DE MERLIN, the son of the King of Jerusalem; he was sent by the Pope on a
diplomatic mission to Arthur's court to obtain aid for Jerusalem which was menaced by the King of Baudec.
A force under Henry the Courtly was sent to help Jerusalem. When Richard became King of Jerusalem
himself, he attacked Sarras but, as no Crusader was able to defeat its gigantic ruler, a truce ensued. # 156
RICULF

On the death of King Sichelm of Norway, the people chose Riculf as king although Sichelm had willed his
domains to Lot. Arthur enforced Lot's claim by invading Norway and Riculf was killed. # 156 - 243

RIDGE OF THE DEAD WOMAN

Vivionn buried at the Ridge of the Dead Woman. # 562

RIEINGULID

In Welsh lore, the mother of Saint Illtyd. She was Arthur's aunt, the sister of his mother, Igraine. # 156

RIENCE

A king which is variously made the ruler of Northgalis, Ireland, Denmark and the Land of Pastures and
Giants. At the time of Arthur's war with the eleven rebel rulers at the outset of his reign, Rience was at war
with Leodegrance. He had a cloak made from the beards of eleven kings and sent to Arthur demanding his
for the twelfth. War ensued, and Balin and Balan captured Rience and brought him captive to Arthur.
Modern Welsh tradition describes Rience as a robber whom Arthur slew and buried in the vicinity of
Llannwchllyn. He is presumably identical with Rhitta, Ricca or Ritho, a giant associated in Welsh folklore
with Snowdonia. The LIVRE D'ARTUS describes him as a Saxon. Spencer made him the father of
Britomart. See: ARAVIUS, and MARMYADOSE. # 156 - 243 - 418

RIGANTONA

Great Queen - a title not a personal name. It is properly applied to Rhiannon, whose name may derive from
this Celtic epithet. # 454 - 563

RIGDONNA

(re'doon a) Kingship. # 166

RIGRU ROISCLETHAN

Queen of Benn Edair - an otherworldly place. She was the mother of Segda Saerlabraid whom Conn
Cetchathach sought to slay. She appeared just as her son was about to be killed at Tara in the guise of a
wailing woman with a lowing cow. She is a clear form of Sovereignty. She warned Conn to put away
Becuma or else Ireland would remain a wasteland. # 188 - 454

RING

Rings were traditional symbols of the bond between chieftains and their warriors in Anglo-Saxon Britain.
Overlords in the BEOWULF are referred to as "givers of rings". Among the Celts, a ring given by a woman
to a man represented her sexual availability; putting the finger through the ring was a sign of sexual
intercourse. # 701 p 12

RIOTHAMUS
A British king who brought a large army by ship to the Continent to assist the Emperor Anthemius (ruled
AD 467-72) against Euric the Visigoth (AD 466-84). He was defeated and disappeared in Burgundy.
Geoffrey Ashe argued that Riothamus is the original of Arthur, claiming that it is a title meaning 'great
king'. That eccentric R. Morgan (HISTORY OF BRITAIN) seems to identify Riothamus with Uther. See:
CERDIC. # 31 - 156

RIVALIN

1. In Gottfried, the father of Tristan, ruler of Parmenie. He married Blanchefleur, sister of King Mark of
Cornwall. His name may be taken from Rivalen, lord of Vitré, who flourished in the eleventh century. 2. A
ruler of Nantes who attacked Hoel but was defeated in monomachy (single combat) by Tristan. # 156 - 256

RIWALLAWN

A son of Urien of Rheged. # 156

ROARING BULL OF BAGBURY, THE

An example of a ghost who has taken over the character and functions of a Bogie, or even of a devil. His
story is told in Burne and Jackson's SHROPSHIRE FOLK LORE. He had been a very wicked man who
lived at Bagbury Farm. He had only done two good deeds in his life, given a waistcoat to an old man and a
piece of bread and cheese to a poor boy, but those deeds were not enough to save his soul, and after he died
he came back in the shape of a monstrous bull which haunted the farm and the outbuildings, roaring and
bellowing so loud that tiles and shutters would fly off. At last the people could stand it no longer, so they
called together twelve parsons to lay him. They got him under, but they could not lay him, so they drove
him before them to Hyssington Church. All the twelve of them had lighted candles, and eleven held them in
their hands, but one old blind parson knew the bull's tricks, and when they got him into church he tucked
his candle into his top-boot. Sure enough, the bull made a great rush, and he blew out all the eleven
candles. But the old parson said, 'Light all your candles from mine.' They did so, and the bull raged round
till he cracked one wall of the church. But they conjured him down, smaller and smaller, till they got him
into a snuff-box, and he asked to be laid under Bagbury Bridge, so that every mare that passed over should
lose her foal, and every woman her child. They would not consent to that, but sent him off to the Red Sea
for thousand years. For all that, the people of Hyssington crossed Bagbury Bridge very cautiously for a
good few years to come. Here the procedure of laying is the same as that used in laying a demon or devil.
The method is even more clearly shown in the story of the Great Giant of Henllys. These are undoubtedly
ghost stories, but here we see the balance trembling towards those fairy stories in which the fairies are
regarded as the dead.

# 100 - 119

ROBERT THE BRUCE

(1274 - 1329) Although he first swore fealty to Edward I of England, the Bruce soon followed in the
footsteps of William Wallace in his defence of Scottish independence. After Wallace's execution, he was
crowned Robert I at Scone. He was then temporarily defeated, and while exiled in Ireland he is said to have
had his encounter with the spider, where he watched it try six times to fix its web to a beam. It was
successful on the seventh attempt. The Bruce had also attempted to so secure his position six times and
took heart. He finally won the treaty of independence as Scotland's sovereign in 1327, but died of leprosy
two years later. # 454

ROBIN
The nursery rhyme says 'Cock Robin' was slain by arrows, a common mode of sacrificial death for pagan
heroes such as CuChulain, for example. Robin Hood's death scene also featured an arrow. The rebirth of
Robin - or return of the robin to the greenwood - was and still is the classic harbinger of spring. # 701 p 409

ROBIN GOODFELLOW

The best known and most often referred to of all the Hobgoblins of England in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries. The son of Oberon and an earthly woman. Indeed, in a sense he seemed to swallow
all others and their names were made nick-names of his. Even in Shakespeare, Robin Goodfellow and Puck
are identified. In the very informative conversation between Puck and the wandering fairy in a
MIDSUMMER NIGHT'S DREAM, she begins by calling him 'Robin Goodfellow', but seems to consider
that he prefers the name of 'Puck':

Those that Hob-goblin call you and sweet Puck, You do their work, and they shall have good luck. # 100

ROBIN HOOD

The legend began about 1261-62. The man, if he existed at all, lived even earlier. He has survived as a hero
in ballad, book poem and play ever since. - He cannot be identified. There is a quiverful of possible Robin
Hoods. Even the likeliest is little better than a shot in the gloaming. To substantiate an identity, the earliest
tales of Robin's doings have to be matched with information from other sources. This is scanty, and even in
the earliest stories there is no sure way of sifting fact from fiction. Hence who he might have been is
inseparable from what he was thought to have been: any search for a man involves an analysis of the
legend. - What the original story was really like, how the plant took root and grew and in what sort of soil,
are matters for patient reconstruction, but still the fancy saturate the tales of Robin Hood. It made heroes of
outlaws. It confused violence and crime with justice and charity. In this it achieved an enduring confidence
trick, which we now all can enjoy.

The school of witchcraft theory initiated by Dr Margaret Murray puts forward the proposition that the
medieval witches and their successors were a Stone Age fertility cult with a dying god who was bled to
death on May Day to give new life to the land and who from the Middle Ages onward was Robin Hood.
Later Dr Murray explored the theory of a rather more long-lived god, the actual king of the realm or his
substitute, and suggested William Rufus, Thomas à Becket, Joan of Arc and Gilles de Rais as victims.
Presumably, if that was so, Robin Hood would merely become part of the May Day celebrations. It has also
been suggested that the outlaw Robin Hood took the name of a woodland spirit. Recent investigations,
however, seem to point to a solid historical foundation for the legends, and to an aristocratic rather than a
popular cult. # 100 - 319

ROC

Angus' steward; his son crushed to death by Donn; then changed into a boar and charged to bring Dermot to
death at length. # 562

ROCKS

In addition to standing stones, stone circles and cromlechs, which have all without question been erected by
man, there are many interesting boulders and rocks in Wales (as well as in the rest of Britain and Ireland)
whose existence is either attributed to the Druids, the Devil, King Arthur, local giants, witches, fairies or
merely freaks of nature. One can come across heaps of stones that have mysteriously been carried there by
a witch or a giantess in her apron. Sometimes the apron strings broke and the stones fell out, or they
dropped into her shoe and in anger she tossed them out to land several miles distant. The legendary figures
who carried and threw stones appear continually in Welsh folklore. Arthur was the greatest of them all but
others were Huw Gadarn, Cadwaladr, Rhitta Gawr, Brutus and Idris who were all members of a mythical
race of giants whose pebbles and stones are scattered all over Wales. However, the champion pebble-tosser
of Wales seems to have been the Giant of Trichrug (a fairy haunt in Dyfed). He invited neighbouring giants
to try their strength with him in throwing stones and won the contest by hurling a huge rock across the sea
to Ireland. # 49

ROGES

In the Middle Dutch romance WALAWEIN, a prince who was turned into a fox by sorcery. He aided
Gawain in one of his adventures and was eventually turned back into his normal shape. # 156

ROMAN BRITAIN

# 232: At the end of april in AD 43 the conquest of Britain was begun with the invasion of more than
40.000 men in the Roman legions, led by general Aulus Plautius under the Roman Emperor Claudius, and it
came to an end in AD 476. The civilisation of Roman Britain was a synthesis of things Roman and Celtic.
Though it owed an incalculable debt to introductions from abroad and its preponderating element was
imported from the civilisation of the Mediterranean, this civilisation took root in a Celtic land and enjoyed
a native contribution: 'Romano-British' is a term not wholly synonymous with 'Roman'. Britain formed part
of the Roman Empire for close on 400 years, a not inconsiderable slice of her total recorded history; and
during this time there was ample opportunity for interaction and development; there were the powerful
influences of geographical environment, as well as previous regional differences in the inheritance of the
inhabitants to modify and colour the history of the province. Romano-British culture arose from the impact
of the civilisation of Rome upon the Celtic people of Britain; the result, however, was not a replacement of
cultures, but rather what can broadly be described as a synthesis. A convinient illustration of this is
provided at the small town of Brough on Humber (Petuaria), which may have been the caput of the civitas
of the Parisi. By the middle of the second century military occupation of the area had ceased, and a civilian
town was arising over the site of the fort. It possessed a theatre whose stage-building was presented by a
Roman citizen, M. Ulpius Ianuaris, aedile of the vicus of Petuaria, who set up a tablet in honour of the
Domus Divina of Antoninus Pius and the deified emperors. It would be hard to find a more Roman scene.
But about the same time as this dedication was made there was buried in the cemetery just outside the town
a local priest. The burial rite was inhumation accompanied by a native iron-bound wooden bucket and two
sceptres. This was a native burial-rite; and as if to emphasise the non-Roamn character of the ritual the two
sceptres had been intentionally bent and broken to devitalise them for the journey to the Otherworld.
Nothing could illustrate better the dual character of Romano-Brtish civilisation. Outwardly it was Roman,
inwardly it remained Celtic; yet it would be wrong to suppose an inner conflict between the two aspects.
The result was a synthesis, intended by Rome, and welcomed by the British people as they came to realise
the advantages of peace and wealth conferred by membership of the empire.

At any one time, indeed, there was a wide range of variability within the synthesis, owing to the social
stratification of Romano-British society on the one hand, and, on the other, to the widely varying conditions
of life and opportunity existing in different regions of the province. At one end of the spectrum lay
considerable approximation to the classical way of life and at the other a substantial survival of native
characteristics. Moreover, the culture of Roman Britain should not be treated as if it were a static historical
phenomenon. Through the four centuries of its existence it had its periods of development and decline, of
maturity and decay, despite the comparative slowness of such processes of change in the ancient world
when compared with our own. It should be studied, therefore, as far as the evidence allows, against the
background not only of historical growth but also of varied social achievement. In this quotation from
Sheppard Frere's latest edition (1986) of his work BRITANNIA, the author adds, We can measure the
Romanisation of Britain only with imprecision, for we have to depend so largely upon the much more
revealing evidence of contemporary testimony. Not that the evidence of material things is of little account.
Haverfield long ago made the point that when the provincial adopted the use of Roman things he could be
declared civilised enough to realise their value and, further, could be seen to have abandoned any inherited
hostility towards them. Nevertheless, the evidence of the written word is invaluable in such an enquiry, and
Romano-British writings are denied us until the fifth century. The Romanising agents responsible for the
new culture were the soldiers of the occupying army, service by Britons themselves in the Roman forces,
the colonies of Roman citizens, the merchants from the Continent and, at a higher level, the policy of
governors like Agricola or of client kings like Cogidubnus. The civilisation thus introduced was not really
the metropolitan culture of Rome or even of Italy: it was the provincial version of this, diluted but none the
less real, and sufficiently vigorous to unify an empire whose boundaries touched Scotland, the Black Sea,
the Euphrates and the Sahara. # 32 - 293 - 294

ROMAN LONDON

We here quote from Gordon Home's splendid work ROMAN LONDON (1926), where he opens with:'
Those who would write the history of London from its beginnings are confronted with the greatest
difficulties imaginable, owing to the fact that the whole of the original site has been built upon from an
early date, and that since then successive ages have rebuilt with ever deepening foundations so that the
ancient deposits have been removed or so much disturbed that the archaeologist of to-day is too often
unable to obtain any reliable information from builders' excavations, which so frequently appear to offer
chances of elucidating the problem. It is also a melancholy task to record the fact that, as a rule, the digging
operations of the building contractor are seldom closely watched, and very few sectional drawings of the
deposits revealed have been made'.

The fact that London is a Celtic name, and the references of early historians to its consequence as a port
long before the Claudian conquest in AD 43, is it very satisfying that there was a thriving settlement on the
spot before Britain became a Roman province. From the sack of London by Boudicca to about the year 286
there are no direct references to London. Evidently history was not being made at the prosperous capital of
Britannia. We can take this period as being one of uninterrupted growth during which the place grew into a
city of great importance in the second rank of the cities of the Empire. Considering such evidence,
historical and archaeological, which exists and, witout prejudices in any direction, one may come to the
conclusion that Roman London had continuous existence through the period of the English or Anglo-Saxon
invasions. # 321

RONAN SLEW HIS SON, HOW

This tale is older than the twelfth-century manuscript in which it first appears; yet it is clearly not as ancient
as the historical period in which the scene is laid. The Ronan of this story is evidently identical with Ronan
mac Colmain, king of Leinster, who, according to the annals, died about AD 610. According to the same
authority, Eochaid king of Dunseverick, who figures in the story as the father-in-law of Ronan, did not die
until half a century later. The suspicion that we are dealing here with romantic fiction rather than with
historical facts is confirmed by the obvious similarity between our story and the Greek myth of Phaedra and
Hyppolitus. Both the Irish tale and the Greek myth not only contain the theme of the young step-mother's
love for her handsome step-son and the father's jealousy and revenge, but also correspond in matters of
detail; Mael Fothartaig resembles Hyppolitus in being a mighty hunter who roams the forest and regards his
hounds as his most precious possessions. It is by no means improbable that the Greek story found its way
into Ireland and became attached to the royal family of Leinster. # 166

ROSMERTA

Her name means 'Good Purveyor'. She is a native goddess who was adopted into the Romano-British cult
of Mercury, where she appears as his consort, adopting his caduceus and purse as well as retaining her own
basket of fruit or cauldron/bucket of plenty. # 264 - 454 - 563

ROSS THE RED

King of Ulster, husband of Maga, a daughter of Angus Og. The name of his second wife was Roy. Ross was
the originator of the Red Branch. # 562
ROUGEMONT

The castle belonging to Talac. # 156

ROUND TABLE

# 156: The table at which Arthur seated his knights to avoid wrangling over precedence. It had originally
been Uther's then it became the property of King Leodegrance of Cameliard and, when Leodegrance's
daughter married Arthur, it fell to him. The table is variously represented as a disc, a ring, a semicircle or a
broken ring with an opening for servants. Arthur would have sat at a separate table from the knights. The
Round Table is first mentioned by Wace who claimed the knights sat inside the circle which it formed.
Robert de Boron has it seating fifty knights, the VULGATE VERSION 250 and Layamon 1600. Round
Tables were not the sole property of the Arthurian saga. Aurelius Cassiodorus says Theodoric the Ostrogoth
had one and, in the SAGA OF DIETRICH, one belongs to Czar Cartäus. The Round Table at Winchester,
which survives to this day, was thought by Caxton, when he wrote his preface to Malory's MORTE
D'ARTHUR, to be the original table, but such an opinion cannot be sustained, (it has been scientifically
dated to the reign of Edward III, about 1344). In the Middle Ages, round tables were sometimes made in
imitation of Arthur's. Roger de Mortimer had one at Kenilworth and Edward III had one at Windsor, 200
feet in diameter.

# 454: The Round Table esoterically symbolizes the coming together of peers, human and otherworldly, to
watch over the fortunes of humanity. It is an encapsulation of the ancient concept of Clas Myrddyn. # 26 -
98 - 156 - 418 - 524 - 697

ROWAN

# 701: Also called quickbeam or mountain ash, the rowan tree represented the second letter of the druidic
tree alphabet, Luis (L). The tree stood for magic and was sacred to the Goddess Brigit.

In Irish legends, 'the rowan tree in the north' bore the berries of immortality. The tree was guarded by a
Fomorian giant with one fiery eye in the middle of his forehead.

# 100: The tree which above all others offered the best protection against fairy enchantments and
witchcraft. It will be noticed that all rowan are reddish, and the red berries of the rowan-tree make it
specially effective. A staff of rowan, a cross made of rowan, a bunch of rowan berries, all these were
effective, and it was customary in the Highlands to plant a rowan-tree outside every house. Where rowans
were scarce, ash-trees took their place. An ashen gad was supposed to be protective of cattle. See also:
PROTECTION AGAINST FAIRIES.

# 489: Along with other trees, Rowan played a central role in Druid ceremonies. Even in more recent times,
these beliefs have been upheld in practices from different parts of Britain. In the North, for example, sprays
of Rowan were fixed to cattle sheds to protect the animals from harm, and in Strathspey farmers drove their
goats through hoops framed from branches of Rowan. Sprigs were placed over the main door of the house
and also worn on the person to ward off false enchantment - the 'evil eye'. In Wales, or Cymru, Rowans
used to be planted in churchyards to watch over the spirits of the dead, as Yew is elsewhere. # 100 - 489 -
701 p 470

ROWENA

In Geoffrey, the name of the daughter of Hengist who married Vortigern. The name does not occur before
Geoffrey and is probably Welsh rather than Anglo-Saxon. In Thelwall's melodrama THE FAIRY OF THE
LAKE (1801), Rowena was in love with Arthur, even though married to Vortigern. #156 - 243 - 697
ROWLAND

A son of Arthur according to a Scottish ballad. When his sister, Ellen, disappeared, Merlin claimed the
fairies had taken her. The eldest of her brothers went to search for her, but he vanished for he had not
followed Merlin's instructions. The same happened to the next brother. Rowland, however, did all that
Merlin had bidden him which entailed the slaughter of each person he met after he entered the fairy realm.
He then went inside a hill where there was a hall in which he found Ellen together with his two entranced
brothers. Rowland defeated the King of Elfland and secured the release of the prisoners. In the ballad
CHILDE ROWLAND, Rowland is called childe, signifying an upper-class young man. A quotation from a
ballad about Rowland occurs in KING LEAR. # 156

RUADAN

1. Tara cursed by Saint Ruadan of Lorrha due to the arrest by the High King of a murderer which this
clergy had found a hiding-place.

2. The son of Bres and Brigit. He fought on Fomorian side in the second Battle of Mag Tuired and was sent
to spy on the dispositions of the Tuatha de Danaan, particularly on their provision of arms and the nature of
the healing well Slane with which Diancecht healed their men. He managed to wound Goibniu but the
smith pierced him with the spear which he had been making. The similarities between this story and the
accidental slaying of Dylan by Gofannon are striking. # 188 - 454 - 562

RUNALEN

Son of Hoel of Brittany and brother to Iseult of the White Hands # 156

RUNNING WATER

This, particularly southward-running water, is holy, and cannot be passed by evil spirits. See also:
PROTECTION AGAINST FAIRIES. # 100
SADBH SADB

(shahv) 1. Mother of Oisin. She was enchanted into the form of a deer on refusing the love of Fear Doirche,
but she found he had no power over her while she was within the dun of the Fianna. Bran and Sceolan,
Fionn's (her husband) hounds did not attempt to kill her when the Fianna found her out hunting. She was
brought home, but later she was lured out from the protection of the house and she was enchanted once
more, by the Druid Fear Doirche. After seven years, the hounds found a little boy, Oisin, Sadbh's son, who
remembered his deer-mother. She was made to follow Fear Doirche and leave her son to the elements. 2.
(sôv) Daughter of Ailill and Medb. # 166 - 267 - 454

SAFFRON WALDEN MAZE

The maze in the beautiful little gardens at Saffron Walden which were presented to the public about 1830
by Mr. L. Fry, M.P., and are known as Bridge End Gardens, is still in excellent condition, although
suffering in places from the illicit short-cuts made by impatient visitors. It is locally believed to be a replica
of that of Hampton Court, but is of very different plan and is, in fact, much more elaborate. The fame of the
Saffron Walden maze, and of the fighting giants Tom Hickathrift and the Wisbech Ogre on the parget-work
of the Old Sun Inn, have tended to obscure the fame of the Saffron Walden Monster. This monster was a
cockatrice, hatched from a cock's egg by a toad, and vested with the power to kill all on whom it looked
with its glance. The hero who liberated Saffron Walden was a famous knight who despatched many such
creatures by walking among them in a special armour made from reflecting mirrors, 'whereby,' writes the
seventeenth-century natural historian Topsell, 'their owne shapes were reflected upon their owne faces, and
so they dyed.' The maze, on Saffron Walden common, has a convoluted pathway over 1,500 metres in
length. The maze is so large that it is difficult to see the formal pattern clearly from the ground, but in the
church of St Mary, whose tower may be seen from the maze, is a most lovely tapestry kneeler in crewel
wool, which reveals the pattern clearly. # 462 - 702

SAGREMOR

A Knight of the Round Table whose father was King of Hungary and in whose veins flowed the imperial
blood of Constantinople. His brothers were both bishops, while his sister Claire was saved from a couple of
giants by Guinglain. He had a lover named Niobe and he was the father of a child by the Irish princess
Orainglais. See: WHITE STAG. # 112-156-418-604

SAINT, CELTIC

The leaders of the Celtic Church were called saints - few of them have actually been canonized; the term
was used widely - in the sense that Paul used it in referring to his fellow Christians. In Britain the term also
meant 'revered' or 'learned'; and as education was in the hands of the Church the term 'saint' came to imply
anybody who could read and write. Because we have come to associate the term purely with those men and
women who have been nominated by the Catholic Church at Rome for evincing some miraculous,
supernatural intervention in the course of their earthly existence, we no longer recognize the principle that
no man is more peculiarly divine than his fellows. If the Celtic use of the word 'saint' were to be translated
into Hebrew terminology, it would appear as Rabbi (teacher) or Abba (father). The leaders of the Church
lost to us, acted as teachers and parents to their followers; above all, they were men and women beloved for
their charity, patience and good sense. They lived in troubled times when pestilence and plague were rife,
and when famine was so acute that in the 440s people in England were actually fighting each other for
food. Yet the Christian 'saints' remained faithful to the golden rule of Christ's love, and were convincingly
close to both the unseen world of spiritual truths and to the material density of the earth and her creatures.
Above all, they followed out the injunction of Micah, 'to do justly, and to love mercy and to walk humbly
with thy God.' They were people of great humility. The advisers of kings, they forbore to ride horses when
they went on their journeys lest they touch with the common people. They followed a religion that was
primarily concerned with the relations between people, a religion of an isolated rural landscape, in which to
meet a fellow human being is to hail him. In Whitby in 664 we traded that for a city-based religion, and in
the cities people are amassed in crowds, to be manipulated, no matter how benevolently. Now that we are
realizing the deadly dangers of our mass technological society, it is time to turn back and consider the
humanity of the men and women of the Celtic Church. Their Church could have been our inheritance - as it
is, we can still visit the places associated with it, look at some of the things that were made by its adherents,
and catch something of the spirit of its leaders in the descendants of the people who were their friends. #
676

SAINTS, THE COMING OF

Stories of the coming of saints into the world (recorded in the Lives of the Saints) have a great deal in
common with those of the 'secular' heroes. Their births are foretold by an angel, another saint, or a druid. St
Beuno's father and mother had been continent for twelve years before the saint was begotten in their old
age. St David and St Cynog were the products of rape, St Cadoc's mother was abducted and St Lonan's
mother was tricked into having intercourse with a man other than her lover. St Budoc's mother was accused
of infidelity. St Cennydd and St Cuimine Foda were born of incest and St Declan's ancestry was traced back
to the incestuous Clothra. St Finan's mother was impregnated by a 'redgold salmon' when she was bathing
in Loch Lein. In several cases, the saint's mother has a vision or dream at the time when her child is
conceived. She sees a star falling into her mouth, a ball of light descending upon her head, or 'her bosom
full of gold and her paps shining like snow'. During her pregnancy, St Columba's mother received from an
angel a marvellous mantle which then floated away from her to heaven. St Senan's mother, like the
Buddha's, was delivered from the pains of travail, and other miracles are characteristic of the births of
saints. The child may speak at birth, or a spring may burst forth and he is baptized in it.

There is often a plan to kill the child and in some cases, like those of St Budoc and St Cennydd, he, or his
mother before he is born, is set adrift on the sea. When St Brendan was born, a cow cast thirty calves and
they were given to him. When he was five years old, a wild doe came daily to provide him with milk. St
Cennydd was fed in the same way; Saints Ailbe, Bairre and Ciwa were all suckled by wolves. Needless to
say, tales of this kind are not peculiar to Celtic mythology. They are the common stiff of birth myths the
world over, and if one went into detail one would find strange similarities between the Celtic stories and
stories collected from the far ends of the earth. Lest anyone should too readily dismiss the visions of saints'
mothers as the fanciful imaginings of Christian hagiographers, we will just mention that a Chinese dynasty
traced its origin to an egg, dropped by a heaven-sent bird, which was swallowed by a girl while bathing;
that several Tartar tribes ascribe their lineage to a virgin who was awakened one night by a light which
embraced her and, entering her mouth, passed through her body. The Aztec deity, Huitzilopochtli, was
conceived by a mother who caught and hid in her bosom a little ball of feathers that floated down to her
through the air. Her children conspired to kill her, but Huitzilopochtli, issuing forth from her womb all
armed, like Pallas from the head of Zeus, slew them and enriched his mother with their spoils. The virgin
mother of the great Mexican hero, Quetzalcoatl, was visited by a god who breathed upon her and so
quickened life within her. The mother and father of the Hindu god Krishna were imprisoned in a castle
because it was prophesied that their son would kill the king, his own mother's brother. When he was born,
the boy stood up before his parents in the full glory of his divinity. He then became a human child again,
the doors were opened and his parents were freed of their fetters. The father took the child across a river,
which rose as they went through it and almost overwhelmed them, and he left it to be reared by cowherds.
Tales of this kind could be multiplied indefinitely without touching either Classical or Biblical sources, and
they could be augmented by stories of heroes born of incest and of heroes set adrift at birth or reared with
animals. # 55 - 190 - 291 - 332 - 498 - 528 - 529 - 548 - 699

SALISBURY PLAIN

The site in Malory of Arthur's final battle. It is first placed there in the VULGATE MORTE ARTHURE.
See also: ARTHUR KING, THE HISTORICAL. # 156
SALMON

Believed to be one of the oldest creatures in the world, the salmon was particularly sacred to the Celts and
was a form for Metempcychosis and associated with the sacred wells. It was consulted for its wisdom and
foreknowledge. In Celtic lore eating the salmon of wisdom conferred supreme knowledge, as in the case of
Fionn. The Salmon in the Well of Segais into which the five hazel nuts dropped from the sacred hazels,
with five sweet streams flowing from the well, symbolize the five senses which give knowledge. It was
prophesied that Finegas should catch and eat it, thus gaining all knowledge. However, it was roasted by
Fionn, Finegas' apprentice. He burnt his thumb while preparing it and so cooled it in his mouth and was the
recipient of its power. This salmon was called Fintan. The salmon is an attribute of the god Nodons. It takes
the place of the Serpent of other traditions in being the means of contact with otherworld powers and
wisdom. # 161 - 439 - 454

SALMON OF LLYN LLW

A gigantic fish which took Kay and Gwrhyr on its shoulders to rescue Mabon from his place of
incarceration. See: EAGLE OF GWERNABWY. # 156 - 346

SALT

A universal symbol of preservation, eternity, and of goodwill. See also: PROTECTION AGAINST
FAIRIES. # 100

SAMHAIN SAMAIN

(sô'van - or - SHAH-vin) The Celtic festival which marked the New Year and was held on 1 November,
corresponding roughly to Hallowe'en. Samhain eve was associated with the opening of the Sidhes and was
a time of the dead. The feast marked the beginning of winter proper and its name may be related to
'summer's end'. At this time beasts were slaughtered for winter store and to conserve herds during the lean
months: beasts were brought into winter pasture or into outbuildings. But most especially it was the
inception of winter when the Cailleach ruled. In a curious early Irish text we hear of a strange boardgame
which the boys of Rome play. At one end of the board is a cailleach with a dragon which she sends against
a maiden with the lamb. The game was instituted by the sibyl, says the story, and explains why Samhain is
so called. This contest is a clear remembrance of combat between winter and spring, which in Celtic terms
were governed by the Cailleach and Brigit respectively. See: OIMELC and: LUNANTISHEE. # 166-438-
454

SAMILDANACH

(sôh'vil dàn'ah) 'Many Talents'. One name applied to Lugh Lamfada. # 166

SAMSOM, SAINT

# 454: (d 565) Bishop of Dol, Brittany. He was a Welshman who was trained by Saint Illtyd. He became a
hermit on Caldy Island. One of the Scilly islands is named after him and it is on this spot that Tristan fought
the Morholt. Like many other Celtic monks he was a great missionary. It is possible that he fled to Brittany
due to the political unrest following the passing of Arthur at Camlan. His feastday is 28 July.

# 678: According to the earlier biography, Samson left Illtyd while he was still a young man and established
his own monastery on Ynys Pyr (Caldey Island). While he was there he was visited by some 'distinguished
Irishmen' returning from a pilgrimage to Rome. Samson went to Ireland with them, and while he was there
he obtained an Irish 'chariot', some sort of horse-drawn cart, in which he could carry his books on travels,
and it accompanied him wherever he went. He returned to Caldey but did not remain there for long. He
planned a journey that would enable him to visit many places in Cornwall before sailing for Brittany from
Golant. We are told that Samson heard that he had been elected Bishop of Dol, while he was still with Illtyd
at Llantwit Major. He was said to be so distressed at the thought of leaving his beloved master that he wept
bitterly, his tears falling into a stream 'that still bears his name'. Dol himself honoured Samson with a
stained glass window made in the thirteenth century. It shows the Welsh saint on his travels with two
companions. The boat is under full sail and captained by a cherub. # 454 - 678

SANCHAN TORPEST

Chief Bard of Ireland. # 562

SARMATIANS

A barbarian people who inhabited Russia in Roman times. One of their tribes was the Alans, whose
descendants, the Ossetes, still live in the Caucasus today. The Ossetes have a story very similar to that of
the passing of Arthur. It tells how the hero Batradz received his death wound and told two others to throw
his sword into the water. Twice they pretended to have done so but the third time the sword was actually
thrown in and the water became turbulent and blood-red. If this story was current among the ancient
Sarmatians, they could have brought it to Britain for Sarmatian soldiers served there in the Roman army
under the command of Lucius Artorius Castus. The tale of Batradz may have been transferred to this
Artorius and he may have been subsequently confused with Arthur. # 31 - 156

SARRAS

The holy city of the Grail, so named because it was once a city of Saracens (or alternatively, of Gypsies -
the followers of Sara). Here the three Grail Knights came with the body of Perceval's sister, Dindrane, and
here Galahad, after looking within the Grail, died in an odour of sanctity and was buried within the great
abbey. # 434 - 454 - 461

SAXONS

The general term accorded the Teutonic invaders of Britain who fought against the Britons. These stories
refer to the historical invasions of Britain by Saxons, Angles, Jutes and, possibly, Frisians which began
between AD 440 and 460. They were barbarous folk at this time, with neither armour nor cavalry. Bede
divides them into three original groups as follows: 1. Saxons: East Saxons (Essex) - South Saxons (Sussex)
- West Saxons (Wessex). 2. Angles: East Angles - Middle Angles - Mercians - Northumbrians. 3. Jutes:
Kentishmen - Vectians (Inhabitants of the Isle of Wight). As to their places of origin, Bede gives regions
probably intended to mean North Germany (Saxons), Schleswig (Angles) and Jutland (Jutes). The evidence
for Frisian involvement comes from the Byzantine historian Procopius (died? AD 562). The Saxons may
have been descended from the German tribe of Chauci. The languages they spoke coalesced to form the
tongue referred to as Old English by Oxford scholars. These races became the ancestors of the modern
English. # 61 - 156

SCANDINAVIA

In Welsh: Llychlyn. In Irish: Lochlann. # 156

SCATHACH

(scou'ha - or - SKAH-thakh) A female warrior who lived in Scotland or on the Continent; CuChulain's
instructor in the use of arms. According to one account, her sister Aife was mother of Connla by
CuChulain. She was eventually bested by him and he was given her daughter, Uathach as his wife.
Scathach is the eponymous goddess of Skye. She prophesied CuChulain's fame as a hero. # 166 - 266 - 454

SCEANBH

She was the wife of Craiftine the harper and was the cause of his helping to kill Cormac because she was
his lover. # 454

SCEOLAN

(shkeolawn) As Finn's second hound, Sceolon was bound to him by a hidden blood-tie, for he was born
while his mother, Finn's aunt, was in the form of a hound. See: BRAN AND SCEOLAN. # 100

SCOT, MICHAEL

(1175? - 1234?). See: WIZARDS. # 100

SCOT, REGINALD

(1535? - 1599) The author of two books, both original in conception and treatment, of which the second,
THE DISCOVERIE OF WITCHCRAFT (1584) concerns the Celtic origin. Scot, after going down from
Hart Hall, Oxford, spent a quiet, studious life in his native Kent. He was not, however, entirely abstracted
from public business and concerned himself in local affairs to good purpose. In the course of his public
services he became much concerned at the cruelty and injustice with which old women suspected of the
practice of witchcraft were treated, and he set himself to expose the superstitions and fallacies on which the
witchcraft beliefs were founded. This he did with great learning, and in a racy and engaging style which
captured popular attention. # 100

SCOTLAND

The Romans never conquered the Highlands of Scotland. In Arthurian times, the country was divided
amongst three peoples: Britons in the Lowlands that had once been Roman territory and, north of Hadrian's
Wall, the Picts and Scots, the latter having arrived from Ireland. Geoffrey says that Scotland was ruled in
Arthur's time by King Auguselus. According to Boece in SCOTORUM HISTORIAE, the king was
Eugenius, an ally of Modred. The HISTORIA MERIADOCI makes Urien the King of Scots. Historically,
the kings of the Hiberno-Scottish kingdom of Dalriada at this time were Fergus More, Domangort, Comgall
and Gabran, but their actual dates are uncertain. It is rather more difficult to discover who was ruling the
Britons of Strathclyde at the time, as reliable lists do not exist. For Pictish rulers see: PICTS. # 156

SCOTT, SIR WALTER

(1771-1832) The author who was the great originator of the Romantic Revival in the nineteenth-century
English literature. He received the impulse as a boy from Percy's RELIQUES and was ever after entranced
by myths and legends and historical traditions, more particularly in his own native Border Country.

The first book he published, THE MINSTRELSY OF THE SCOTTISH BORDER, contained traditional
ballads that he had collected and slightly refurbished, as well as some literary poems on traditional subjects.
Vol. II is notable for his essay on 'Fairies of Popular Superstition', an important contribution to the fairy-
lore of Scotland, which shows how much he had profited from his collecting expeditions in the Border
Country and farther afield in the Scottish Highlands. THE MINSTRELSY contained versions of Young
Tam Lin and True Thomas, but the long introductory essays were the most valuable part of the book. The
essay on the fairies was later supplemented by Chapters 4-6 in DEMONOLOGY AND WITCHCRAFT
(1830), which is full of interesting references to the fairies in the witch trials and to fairy references in early
literature. In 1805, a poem which established Scott's fame, THE LAY OF THE LAST MINSTREL,
appeared. It is founded on the tricks played by Gilpin Horner, a Boggart-like Hobgoblin who haunted one
of the Border farms. His cry of 'Lost! Lost!' is borrowed from the Shellycoat who haunted Eskdale, but in
the poem he is supposed to be a devil who had been called up by Michael Scot and had escaped. This was
the only one of the poems which used a folk theme for its subject, but in THE LADY OF THE LAKE,
which was perhaps the most popular of all, a complete fairy ballad was introduced as the ballad sung by
Allan Bain, Douglas' harper. This poem, 'Alice Brand', introduces many interesting pieces of fairy tradition,
the perilous state of unconsciousness in which mortals can be snatched away into Fairyland, the shifting
appearance of the fairies, the unluckiness of wearing green near fairy territory, the possibility of rescuing
captives in Fairyland by the use of objects sacred to Christianity, the Cross, a Bible, Bread, with its
sacramental connection. Throughout his poems and novels snatches of folk-belief and tradition are to be
found. The generous interest he took in fellow authors, in James Hogg, Chambers, Crofton Croker, the
Grimm brothers and many more, gave prestige to folklore studies everywhere. # 100-584-585-661

SEA

A good many pagan heroes were born from the maternal sea, which was symbolized by the Cauldron of
Regeneration and was referred to in Scandinavia as 'the Mother's womb.' Scyld, ancestor of Beowulf, was
deposited on a beach by sea waves as a newborn infant; so was RigHeimdall; so was Merlin. Little Gwion
(Taliesin) was swallowed by Cerridwen, Goddess of the Cauldron, and given rebirth when she sent him
forth again 'from the sea in a bag of skin,' meaning that he would be a spiritually gifted person because he
was born with the caul. People 'born with the caul' were always considered highly magical, with great
spiritual powers and the gift of second sight. 'The caul' meant a portion of the amniotic membrane, which
sometimes covers the head of an infant as it is born. When this occurred, superstitious mothers or midwives
would carefully preserve the caul, believing that its possession would bring great good luck. # 343 - 701 p
351 ff

SEANACHIES

Story-tellers in Ireland. See also: Cyfarwyddion. Storytellers and bards often travelled in circuits, moving
around the land and being maintained by patrons. Other seanachies were permanently attached to socially-
important households. Today, in parts of Gaelic Scotland and Ireland, the story-teller's house may also be
the CEILIDH house, where the community comes of an evening to hear stories, make music and sing
songs. # 437 p 12 ff

SEEING FAIRIES

It is generally supposed that fairies can present themselves to human sight if they wish to do so, but there
seem to be also certain times when they can be caught unawares. One of the most general means is by a
four-leafed clover, or by the use of the well-known fairy ointment, compounded of four-leafed clovers,
which disperses the glamour that fairies can cast over human senses. Once a human eye has been touched
by the ointment it can penetrate fairy disguises, and this power is only removed by a blast of fairy breath or
the more vindictive blinding of the seeing eye, as occurs in one of the Midwife to the Fairies stories. There
are, however, certain people who have permanent or sporadic power of seeing fairies without fairy
permission. These are the 'second-sighted' Highlanders, or those called 'gifted' in Somerset or the
southwest, and 'sighted' in Ireland. John Aubrey made some researches into the beliefs about second-
sighted men in Scotland, and gives the result of them in his MISCELLANIES. He issued a questionnaire,
like those later used by folklorists, posing such questions as whether second sight consists in 'the discovery
of present or past events only, or if it extend to such as are to come', and, 'If the objects of this knowledge
be sad and dismal events only; such as death and murders? or, joyful and prosperous also?' The answers
vary, as ones comes to expect in folklore research. In Kirk's SECRET COMMONWEALTH there is
frequent mention of second-sighted men, who either have the gift by nature or aquired it by magical art.
Often they find the gift very onerous. There are certain times which are specially suitable for seeing the
fairies. Twilight is one of them, midnight and the hour before sunrise, and noon, when the sun is at its
meridian. It is said, too, that you can only see the fairies as long as you can look at them steadily; that is
why captured Lepracauns try to make people look aside. If you hold a fairy in your eye it cannot escape,
but if you so much as blink it vanishes. # 38 - 100 - 370 - 474

SEELIE COURT

A Court of the kindly fairy host. 'Seelie' is blessed. The malignant fairies were sometimes called the
Unseelie Court. The Seelie Court is mentioned in earlier works as the fairies with their purely benevolent
activities, such as gifts of bread and seed corn to the poor and the help they are given to their favourites. #
100

SEGDA SAERLABRAID

The son of Rigru Roisclethan. The otherworldly youth sought by Conn who required the blood of a boy of
sinless parents to fructify the wasteland of Ireland. He gave unstinted affection to Conn and was even
willing to die for his sake, but he was saved by his mother Rigru. # 188 - 438 - 454 - 548

SEGURANT THE BROWN

Uther's mightiest knight, called the Knight of the Dragon; a Knight of the Old Table. # 156 - 238

SELF BORED STONES

These stones, meaning stones with a hole bored through them by the action of water, not only formed an
aperture through which one could look at fairies, but hung up over the stalls of stables very close to the
horse's back, were effective in brushing off the fairies, who were fond of riding the horses round the field at
night and exhausting them. Aubrey gives this recipe. See also: PROTECTION AGAINST FAIRIES. # 38 -
100

SEMIAS

He was the master of wisdom who dwelt in Murias, one of the four cities from which the Tuatha de Danaan
came to Ireland. He gave the cauldron of knowledge and satiety to the Dagda. See: HALLOWS. # 454

SENCHA MAC AILLELA

(shen'ha môc il'yil la) The wise man of the Ulster cycle, corresponding to Nestor of the Iliad, and somewhat
to Merlin of the Arthurian legends. # 166

SENNAN HOLY WELL

See: SEVEN KINGS OF CORNWALL.

SEPARABLE SOUL

or external soul. The separable or external soul is a magical strategem generally employed by supernatural
wizards or giants. Somewhat allied to this power is a generally invulnerability like that enjoyed by Llaw
Llew Gyffes in the MABINOGION, who could only be killed in circumstances so peculiar that the
opportunity had to be elaborately engineered. However, the separable soul was the more usual expedient.
For this, the giant or wizard removed his life, or soul, from his body and placed it in an egg, which was
concealed in the body of a duck, in the belly of a sheep, hidden in a stock or under a flagstone or in some
comparable series of hiding-places. Most of the British stories in which this motif occurs come from the
Highlands and bear a general resemblance to each other. Examples are 'Cathal O'Cruachan and the Herd of
the Stud' in Macdougall and Calder's FOLK TALES AND FAIRY LORE. 'Green Sleeves' comes from Peter
Buchan's ANCIENT SCOTTISH TALES, just outside the Celtic area. It is on the usual plot of NICHT
NOUGHT NOTHING with the Swan Maiden motif added, and the unusual addition of the separable soul,
contained in this tale in an egg hidden in a bird's nest. J. F. Campbell's tale, 'The Young King of Easaidh
Ruadh', contains all the elements of the story in a comparatively concise form, beginning with the gambling
challenge as in the Mider and Etain story, except that in this case the first challenge was the hero's. The
young king of Easaidh Ruadh, after he had come to his kingdom, resolved to go and play a bout of chess
games against a Gruagach called Gruagach carsalach donn - that is, the brown curly-haired Gruagach - who
lived in the neighbourhood. He went to his soothsayer about it, who advised him to have nothing to do with
the Gruagach, but when he insisted on going told him to take nothing as his stakes but the cropped rough-
skinned maid behind the door. He went and had a good reception, and that day he won the game, and
named as his stakes the cropped rough-skinned maid behind the door. The Gruagach tried to make him
change his mind and brought out twenty pretty maids, one after the other, but the young king refused them
all till the cropped rough-skinned maid came out, when he said, 'That is mine.* So they went away, and
they had not gone far when the maid's appearance changed, and she became the most beautiful woman in
the world. They went home in great joy and contentment and spent a happy night together; but the next
morning the young king got up early to spend another day with Gruagach. His wife advised against it. She
said that Gruagach was her father and meant him no good, but he said he must go. She advised him, if he
won, to take nothing for his prize but the dun shaggy filly with the stick saddle. That day he won again, and
when he put his leg over the filly he found she was the best mount he had ever ridden. That night they spent
together in great enjoyment, but the young queen said that she would rather that he did not go to the
Gruagach that day. 'For,' she said, 'if he wins he will put trouble on thy head.' He answered that he must go,
so they kissed each other and parted. It seemed to him that the Gruagach was glad to see him that day, and
they settled to gaming again, but this time the Gruagach won. 'Lift the stake of thy game,' the young king
said, 'and be heavy on me, for I cannot stand to it.' 'The stake of my play is,' said the Gruagach, 'that I lay it
as crosses and spells on thee that the cropped rough-skinned creature, more uncouth and unworthy than
thou thyself, should take thy head, and thy neck if thou dust not get for me the Glaive of Light of the King
of the Oak Windows.'

The young king went home heavily and gloomily that night, and, though he got some pleasure from the
young queen's greeting and her beauty, his heart was so heavy when he drew her to him that it cracked the
chair beneath them. 'What is it ails you that you cannot tell it to me?' said the young queen; so he told her
all that happened and of the crosses laid on them. 'You have no cause to mind that,' she said. 'You have the
best wife in all Erin and the next to the best horse, and if you take heed to me you will come well out of this
yet.' In the morning the young queen got up early to prepare everything for the king's journey and brought
out the dun shaggy filly to him. He mounted her, and the queen kissed him and wished him victory of
battlefields. 'I need not tell you anything,' she said, 'for the filly will be your friend and your companion,
and she will tell you all that you must do.' So the young king set off and the filly galloped so fast that she
left the March wind behind her and outstripped the wind in front of her. It was far they went, but it did not
seem far until they got to the court and castle of the King of the Oak Windows. They stopped then, and the
dun filly said, 'We are come to the end of our journey, and if you listen to my advice you can carry the
Sword of Light away. The King of the Oak Windows is at dinner now, and the Sword of Light is in his
chamber. I will take you to it; there is a knob on its end; lean in at the window and draw out the sword very
gently.' They went to the window. The young king leaned in and drew out the sword. It came softly, but
when the point passed the window-frame it gave a kind of 'sgread'. It is no stopping time for us here,' said
the dun filly. 'I know the king has felt us taking out the sword.' And they sped away. After a time the filly
paused and said to him, 'Look and see what is behind us.' 'I see a crowd of brown horses coming madly,'
said the young king. 'We are swifter than those ones,' said the dun filly, and sped on. When they had gone
some long way she paused, and said, 'Look, and see what is behind us.' 'I see a crowd of brown horses
coming madly,' said the young king, 'and in front of them is a black horse with a white face, and I think
there is a rider on him.' 'That horse is my brother and he is the swiftest horse in Erin. He will come past us
like a flash of light. As they pass his rider will look round, and try then if you can cut his head off. He is the
King of the Oaken Windows, and the sword in your hand is the only sword that could take the head off
him.' The young king did just that and the dun filly caught the head in her teeth. 'Leave the carcass,' she
said. 'Mount the black horse and ride home with the Sword of Light, and I will follow as best I can.' He
leapt on the black horse and it carried him as if he were flying, and he got home before the night was over,
with the dun filly behind him. The queen had had no rest while he was away, and be sure they got a hero's
welcome, and they raised music in the music place and feasting in the feasting place; but in the morning the
young king said, 'I must go now to the Gruagach, and see if I can lift the spells he has laid on me.'

'He will not meet you as before,' said the young queen. 'The King of the Oaken Windows is his brother, and
he will know that he would never part with the Glaive of Light unless he was dead. He will ask you how
you got it, but only answer that if it were not for the knob at its end you would not have got it, and if he
asks again give the same answer. Then he will lift himself to look at the knob and you will see a wart on his
neck. Stab it quickly with the Glaive of Light, for that is the only way in which he can be killed, and if it is
not done we are both destroyed.' She kissed him and called on victory of battlefields to be with him and he
went on his way. The Gruagach met him in the same place as before. 'Did you get the sword?' 'I got the
sword.' 'How did you get the sword?' 'If it had not been for the knob on its end I had not got it.' 'Let me see
the sword.' 'It was not laid on me to let you see it.' 'How did you get the sword?' 'If it were not for the knob
that was at its end I got it not.' The Gruagach lifted his head to look at the sword; the young king saw the
mole; he was sharp and quick, he plunged the sword into it and the Gruagach fell down dead.

The young king went back rejoicing, but he found small cause of rejoicing at home. His guards and
servants were tied end to back, and his queen and the two horses were nowhere to be seen. When the king
loosed his servants, they told him that a huge giant had come and carried away the queen and the two
horses. The young king set off at once to find them. He followed the giant's track all day long, and in the
evening he found the ashes of a fire. He was blowing it up to spend the night there when the slim dog of the
green forest came up to him. 'Alas,' he said, 'thy wife and the two horses were in a bad plight here last
night.' 'Alas indeed,' said the young king. 'It is for them I am seeking, and I fear that I shall never find
them.' The dog spoke cheerily to him and caught him food. He watched over him through the night, and in
the morning he promised that the young king had only to think of him if he was in need, and he would be
there. They wished blessings on each other, and parted. The young king travelled on all day, and at night
found the ashes of another fire, and was cheered, fed and guarded by the hoary hawk of the grey rock. They
parted with the same promise of help. The third night he spent with the brown otter of the river, who fed
and guarded him as the others had done and was able to tell him that he would see his queen that night.
Sure enough he came that night to a deep chasm in which was the giant's cave, where he saw his wife and
the two horses. His wife began to weep when she saw him, for she was afraid for his safety, but the two
horses said he could hide in the front of their stable and they would make sure that the giant would not find
them. They were as good as their word, for when the giant came to feed them they plunged and kicked, till
the giant was almost destroyed. 'Take care,' said the queen. 'They will kill you!' 'Oh, they'd have killed me
long ago,' said the giant, 'if I'd had my soul in my body, but it is in a place of safety.' 'Where do you keep it,
my love?' said the queen. 'I'll guard it for you.' 'It's in that great stone,' said the giant. So next day when the
giant had gone out, the queen decked the stone with flowers and cleaned all around it. When the giant came
back at night he asked why she had dressed up the stone. 'Because your soul is in it, my dear love,' she
replied. 'Oh, I see you really respect it,' said the giant. 'But it's not there.' 'Where is it then?' 'It is in the
treshold.' So next day she cleaned and dressed up the treshold. This time the giant was really convinced that
she cared for him, and he told her where it was hidden - beneath a great stone under the treshold there was a
living wether, and in the wether's belly was a duck, and in the duck's belly was an egg, and in the egg was
the giant's soul. When the giant was fairly away next morning they set to work. They lifted the great stone,
and the wether leapt out and escaped, but she was fetched back by the slim dog of the green forest and the
duck was caught by the hoary falcon and the egg found and brought back from the sea by the brown otter.
By this time the giant was returning; the queen crumbled the egg in her fingers and he fell dead to the
ground. They parted lovingly from their helpers and returned to the young king's castle where they had a
hero's banquet, and lived lucky and happy after that. - This type was used by G. Macdonald in one of his
fairy-tales, THE GIANT'S HEART. The motif of the vulnerable spot was used by Tolkien in THE HOBBIT.
# 100 - 115 - 130 - 414
SEQUENCE

The name of one of Arthur's swords. # 156

SERAPHE

See: NASCIEN.

SERPENT

# 701: Several mythologies had the Tree of Life or Tree of Knowledge guarded by a serpent sacred to the
Goddess, such as Ladon, the mighty serpent who guarded Mother Hera's life-giving apple tree in the
Garden of the Hesperides. The intimate relationship between the Goddess and her serpent consort was often
believed to be the reason for his death- lessness. Gnostic mysticism turned the Great Serpent into
OUROBOROS, the earth dragon living forever in the UNDERWORLD.

# 161: The snake was an important Celtic cult creature, appearing with deities. The ram-headed serpent is
the most frequent attribute of the Horned God, Cernunnos, as incarnating virility and fertility. The serpent
again appears as an emblem of the Great Mother, the Celtic Bride, who had a festival at which the Snake
Goddess was worshipped. She was later adopted by Christianity as St Bridgit. # 161 - 701 p 388 ff

SETANTA

Earliest name of CuChulain; 'the little pupil' harries Medb's hosts. # 562

SEVEN KINGS OF CORNWALL

In Cornish folklore, allies of Arthur with whose help he was able to overcome the Danes at the battle of
Vellendrucher. Afterwards, they worshipped at Sennan Holy Well and had a banquet at the rock called the
Table Man. Merlin foretold that the Danes would return, that a larger number of kings would see this and
that it would be the end of the world as we know it.#156

SEVEN LEAGUE BOOTS

Magical footwear enabling the wearer to take strides of seven leagues (twenty-one miles). They were
invented by Merlin. # 156

SEVEN WHISTLERS, THE

These are allied in people's minds with the Gabriel Hounds, the Wish Hounds, and others, but are not
thought of as hounds with a spiritual huntsman but as seven spirits, death portents like the Banshee.
William Henderson in FOLKLORE OF THE NORTHERN COUNTIES quotes a Folkstone fisherman who
well knew what caused the sound, but still thought it ominous. 'I heard 'em one dark night last winter,' said
an old Folkestone fisherman. 'They come over our heads all of a sudden, singing "ewe, ewe," and the men
in the boat wanted to go back. It came on to rain and blow soon afterwards, and was an awful night, Sir;
and sure enough before morning a boat was upset, and seven poor fellows drowned. I know what makes the
noise, Sir; it's them long-billed curlews, but I never likes to hear them.' Wordsworth in one of his sonnets
mentions the Seven Whistlers, and connects them with the Gabriel Hounds:

And counted them!


And oftentimes will start,
For overhead are sweeping Gabriel's hounds,
Doomed with their impious lord the flying hart
To chase for ever on aërial grounds.

SEWINGSHIELDS

There was formerly a castle at this Northumberland location beneath which Arthur, Guinevere and Arthur's
knights were supposed to be sleeping. A bugle and a garter were lying nearby and, in order to rouse the
knights, it was necessary to blow the bugle and cut the garter with a stone sword.# 156

SGEIMH SOLAIS

(skayv sulish) Light of Beauty. Daughter of Cairbry, wooed by son of King of the Decies. # 562

SHAG FOAL

Tatter Foal or Shag Foal which are practically the same, are the Lincolnshire members of that tribe of Bogy
or Bogey Beasts that are adept at Shape Shifting, can take many forms but seem to prefer to go about as
shaggy, fiery-eyed horses, foals or donkeys. The Picktree Brag and the Hedley Kow are famous examples.
Examples are given in COUNTY FOLK LORE, VOL. V by Gutch and Peacock: SHAG FOAL. - An old
lady used to talk of a mysterious phantom like an animal of deep black colour, which appeared before
belated travellers. On hearing that we had been attacked at midnight by a large dog, she eagerly inquired:
'Had it any white about it?' and when we assured her that it had a white chest, she exclaimed in
thankfulness: 'Ah! then it was not the shag foal!'

Here the old lady makes no distinction between the shag and the shag foal. Eli Twigg in the next extract
sticks closer to the usual type: TATTER FOAL. - 'Why, he is a shagg'd-looking hoss, and given to all
manner of goings-on, fra cluzzening hold of a body what is riding home half-screwed with bargain-drink,
and pulling him out of the saddle, to scaring an old woman three parts out of her skin, and making her drop
her shop-things in the blatter and blash, and run for it.' # 100 - 276

SHALOTT

Another name for Astolat, made well known to English readers by Tennyson's LADY OF SHALOTT. This
form of the place name occurred as Scalot in the Italian LA DAMIGIELLA DI SCALOT and as Scalliotta
in LANCIALOTTO PANCIANTI-CHIANO, whence English Shalott. # 156 - 238

SHAMROCK

The shamrock or three-leaf clover is now claimed by the Irish as a symbol of their country generally.
However, worship of the shamrock vastly predated Christianity in Ireland and other Celtic lands. Its three
heart-shaped leaves were supposed to be a natural reference to the Triple Mothers of Celtic lore, sometimes
called Three Brigits or Three Morgans, the 'mother-hearts' of Celtic tribes. # 701 p 452

SHANACHIE

A learned man, a historian, a story-teller. # 166

SHANNON, THE RIVER


Myth of Sinend and the Well of Knowledge accounts for the name of the Shannon river. # 562

SHAPE SHIFTING

A magical accomplishment, common in a greater or lesser degree to fairies, wizards and witches. Not all
fairies are shape-shifters. The small, powerless fairies like Skillywidden have no power to take any other
shape or even to alter their size, as Spriggans can do, and Cherry of Zennor's master. Some, like the Eash
Uisge, have two forms at their disposal, a young man or a horse. The Cornish fairies whose habits are
treated in such detail in 'The Fairy Dwelling on Selena Moor' seem to be able to assume only the form of a
bird, and the pay for each change by a diminuition in size. The fairies into whose house the human Midwife
to the Fairies is brought can change their appearance and the appearance of their dwellings, but this is
probably not a real shape-shift, only the effect of glamour, a kind of hypnotism which affects the senses of
the beholder, and a hypnotism against which Saint Collen was armed by his sanctity. The Bogy or Bogey
Beasts and all their kind are true shape-shifters, and so are such Hobgoblins as Puck. They exercise their
powers for mischief rather than for malevolence. A typical story is that of the Hedley Kow. Wizards, and
particularly Supernatural Wizards, are the true shapeshifters, able to change the form of other people as
well as to shift from one shape to another. The ordinary fairy people seem as helpless as humans against
this kind of magic, as Etain was when the wizard turned her into a midge. Some fairies, however,
presumably those who had studied magic, had the power. Uchtdealb turned Tuiren into a dog and herself
into the appearance of Finn's messenger. The second seems to have been an illusion, the first a real change
of form, for Tuiren's off-spring were irrecoverably puppies. Human wizards as well as supernatural
creatures are capable of becoming masters of shape-shifting according to the fairy-tales, and to some
legends.

A Celtic tale of which there are a good many variants is that of which McKay's story, 'The Wizard's Gillie',
to be found in MORE HIGHLAND TALES, is a good example. A man apprentices his son to a Magician
for a stated period of years, which is afterwards extended and then extended more indefinitely, until the son
does not return at all and his father goes out to look for him. He finds him a captive of the magician's and
manages to get him away by recognizing him in his transformed shape. The father and son go off together,
and in order to gain money the son transforms himself into various creatures whom the father sells, but he
must always retain the strap by which the creature is led, for the son's soul is in that, and as long as his
father has it he can always resume his own shape and return. The wizard is the purchaser each time, and
each time the gillie escapes until the father is so much elated by the magnificent price paid that he forgets to
remove the strap and his son is thrown into harsh captivity. By his ingenuity he manages to escape, the
wizard pursues him and the two engage in a transformation combat, at the end of which the wizard is
destroyed. The theme is roughly the same as that of the folk song 'The Coal Black Smith'. Other tales on the
same plot are 'Taliesin' where Cerridwen pursues Gwion Bach through a cycles of shapes, an in 'The King
of Black Art', a particularly good version collected by Hamish Henderson from John Stewart, and 'The
Black King of Morocco', from Buchan's ANCIENT SCOTTISH TALES. Tales of people changed into
another shape by a wicked enchantment are very common. Many of them are variants of the Cupid and
Psyche story. 'The Black Bull of Norroway' is the best-known of these, but there are others, such as 'The
Hoodie'. Escapes by temporary transformations are another use of shape-shifting. Morgan Le Fay used this
expedient once in Malory's MORTE D'ARTHUR. Ordinary witches were commonly accused of shape-
shifting, generally into stereotyped forms such as hares or hedgehoes. # 100 - 115 - 419 - 464

SHEELA-NA-GIG

According to Dineen's Irish-English Dictionary: Sighle na gcíoch, as a stone fetish, supposed to give
fertility. But the derivation of the name has never been fully explained, except for the main opinion in
Ireland that the name derives from some of the 'unspoken' words describing an 'displaying' woman whose
gesture would avert evil and bring about good luck. The image of the Sheela-na-Gig adorns walls and
doorways of churches throughout Normandy, the British Isles, especially in Ireland. She is shown naked,
some with large breasts but always holding her legs apart to reveal her vagina. She is one of the few actual
depictions of Irish deities and represents the primal earth mother herself who gives birth and death. Her
image was incorporated into churches to remind the faithful of their oldest allegiance.#13

SHIP SYMBOLS

The ship symbol can be traced to about 4000 BC, in Babylonia, where every deity had his own special ship
(that of the god Sin was called the Ship of Light), his image being carried in procession on a litter formed
like a ship. This is thought of Jastrow in THE RELIGION OF BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA, to have
originated at a time when the sacred cities of Babylonia were situated on the Persian Gulf, and when
religious processions were often carried out by water.

In W. C. Borlase's DOLMENS OF IRELAND we read 'that the typical design of an Irish dolmen was
intended to represent a ship. In Minorca there are analogous structures, there populary called Navetas
(ships), so distinct is the resemblance. And from sepulchral tumuli in Scandinavia we know actual vessels
have on several occasions been disinterred. In cemeteries of the Iron Age, in the same countries, the ship
was a recognized form of sepulchral enclosure.' According to this we have here a very strong corroboration
of the symbolic intention which is attributed to the solar ship-carvings of the Megalithic People. # 562

SHOE

An Irish pagan practice of throwing a woman's shoe over the head of a new tribal chief, symbolizing his
physical marriage to the Goddess of the Land.

# 701 p 154 ff

SI

See: SIDHE.

SIB

The principal female fairy, who acts as a spokeswoman of the rest in the LIFE OF ROBIN
GOODFELLOW. She speaks for herself and her sisterfairies: 'To walke nightly, as do the men fayries, we
use not; but now and then we goe together, and at good huswives fires we warme and dresse our fayry
children. If wee find cleane water and cleane towels, wee leave them money, either in their basons or in
their shoes; but if wee find no cleane water in the their houses, we wash our children in their pottage, milke
or beere, or what-ere we finde; for the sluts that leave not such things fitting, wee wash their faces and
hands with a gilded child's clout, or els carry them to some river, and ducke them over head and eares. We
often use to dwell in some great hill, and from thence we doe lend money to any poore man or woman that
hath need; but if they bring it not againe at the day appointed, we doe not only punish them with pinching,
but also in their goods, so that they never thrive till they have payd us. # 100

SIBREACH

Changeling. # 100

SIDHE SITH SI

Pronounced 'Shee'. It means literally the People of the (Fairy) Mounds. The Gaelic name for Fairies, both in
Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland, as in the Bean Si or the Daoine Sidh. # 100 - 562
SIEGE PERILOUS

A seat at the Round Table. Merlin gave it its name and said it was reserved for a certain knight. Brumart, a
nephew of King Claudas, tried to sit on it and was destroyed. When Galahad, the destined knight, sat on it,
his name appeared on it. # 156 - 418 - 434

SIGUNE

Perceval's cousin in Wolfram. In Chrétien, she was an unnamed damsel whom the hero met but once. In
Wolfram, Perceval met her both before and after his visit to the Grail Castle. On the second meeting, she
upbraided him for lack of sorrow over Amfortas' suffering (though in Chrétien she chided him for not
asking whom the Grail served). On the first encounter, she was carrying the body of her slain husband,
Schionatulander. In time she became a recluse and was buried next to her husband. # 156 - 748

SILBURY HILL

More of a cone than a hill, and entirely built by human hands in prehistoric times, Silbury Hill in Wiltshire
is clearly part of the Avebury complex of stone circles and embankments, the larger part of which is visible
from its summit. No-one knows why it was built, though some occultists suggest that it was the sighting
point for stellar phenomena, much like the circles of stones elsewhere. It remains one of the most
tantalizing mysteries in the British landscape. # 702

SILURIA, ANCIENT

The affection of most Welshmen for their native 'Bro' or birthplace is something that has been apparent
since the earliest Welsh literature. The author of ANCIENT SILURIA says in the Introduction. 'Thus I
make no apology for wielding my pen, however clumsily, in praise of these haunts of ancient beauty. For
such a small work this book has been a long time in the writing, myself being the main beneficiary, as I've
read about and visited all the sites herein described, and my boots can boast the mud of almost every South
Wales parish in the twenty or so years I have been 'hunting the wild megalith' as H. J. Massingham
described his Cotswold studies. In my forty years I have been fortunate enough at one time or another to
have lived near almost every one of the sites described beginning with the cairns and tumili of my earliest
playground on the hills above the Rhondda and summer holidays spent on the Gower coast. At school, the
picture of Pre-historic man as an "uncouth savage" had been fleshed out by Allan Sorrels pictures of skin
clad louts lurking aimlessly around Stonehenge, like skinheads in a shopping precinct; later in the mid
sixties the Neolithic inhabitants of these Isles had suddenly become elevated to 'gods' from outer space,
plotting flight paths of stone over the greensward of Wiltshire or the moors of Orkney. Somewhere between
these two conflicting images lies the truth. It is certainly time to bury the skin-clad lout, and see the mound
of his burial as part of a ceremonial landscape where: "The traditional music was heard and the appropriate
seasonal episode in the mythic cycle was enacted, the life of the community was ritualized and held in
harmony with the rhythms and power of nature". It is with some difficulty that urbanised modern man can
visualise such a world. Traces of this ceremonial landscape still remain however, in scool playgrounds and
in the shadows of coal tips, on lofty hilltops and lush meadows; ancestral footsteps can still be traced, all
over ancient Siluria.

The following is only one of the many monuments described in the book. The Sweynes Howes, Rhosili
Down. A brisk walk uphill from the car park at Rhosili, brings us to the group of Bronze Age cairns known
as "The Beacons" and the highest point in all of Gower from which a fine view is to be had of Gower and
Carmarthen Bay. It was customary at one time to carry a stone to add to the largest cairn; this must have
amounted to quite a heap as cartloads of stone were removed from here early this century to build the
chapel in Pitton village. The ridge is peppered with cairns most of which are very badly eroded; one that
will be noticed is a kerbed platform cairn situated near the path; look out for the quartzy white stones
forming a circle that was originally the outer kerb of a Bronze Age cairn. A little further along the track, the
jumble of large conglomerate boulders that make up the Sweynes Howes can be seen, a little way down the
hillside, possibly to be out of the prevailing wind. The Sweynes Howes are two chambered cairns, the
South cairn is in a very ruinous state and gives little clue to its original structure; both tombs were oval
mounds with a megalithic chamber placed off centre. At the North tomb the chamber with its fallen
capstone can still be made out. The name stems from a local legend that one Sweyne, a Viking warrior from
whom the port of Swansea is said to get its name, is buried there. Howe is Nordic for mound, and although
not used as such locally, the name crops up at several other sites that have witnessed Viking intrusions. An
alignment toward the mid-summer sunrise between the North chamber, the two stones at Burry and the
enclosure on Cefn Bryn has been noted by Col. L. L. Morgan. # 771

SILVA CALEDONIAE

A wood situated in the Lowlands of Scotland, and the site of one of Arthur's battles. # 156 - 494

SINANN

(shin'an) The River Shannon. # 166

SINEND

Goddess, daughter of Lir's son Lodan. # 562

SION, LLEWELLYN

Welsh bard, compiler of BARDDAS. # 562

SITH

See: SIDHE.

SITHCHEAN

He was the druid who, in the form of a smith, tested the sons of the King of Tara, to see which should be
king. He tested them by setting his forge on fire to see what they would bear out from it. While four boys
brought out various items still in the making, kindling, a barrel of ale and other items, Niall alone thought
fit to bring out the blacksmith's tools - the hammer and anvil. In a further test, Sithchean sent them off into
the forest as armed men for the first time to see how they would fare. In need of water, each boy came to a
well guarded by a hideous hag who refused a drink until one of them kissed her. Only Niall complied and
found himself embracing the goddess of Sovereignty, who declared him the rightful king. # 454

SITHEIN

(sheean) The Gaelic name for the fairy hill, or Knowe seen from outside. If it opens on pillars, the interior
is called the Brugh. # 100

SITHICH

Fairy. Elf. The Dwelly's illustrated Gaelic dictionary tells us that 'The sithich is the most active sprite of
Highland mythology. It is a dexterous child stealer and is particularly intrusive on women in travail. At
births many covert and cunning ceremonies are still used to baffle the fairies power; otherwise, the new-
born infant would be taken off to fairyland, and a withered brat laid in its stead. They are wantonly
mischievous, and have weapons peculiar to themselves, which operate no good to those at whom they are
shot. A clergyman of the kirk, who wrote concerning fairyland about the end of the 17th. century, says of
these weapons that, 'they are solid earthy bodies, nothing of iron, but much of stone, like to a yellow soft
flint spur, shaped like a barbed arrow-head, but flung like a dart with great force'.' SITHICHEACH: Fairy-
like. # 214

SITULAE

Square-shouldered vessels in bronze or glass. # 730

SIZE OF THE FAIRIES

The fairy people are good and bad, beautiful and hideous, stately and comical, but one of the greatest of
their many variations is that of size. This variation is sometimes within the control of the fairies; by shape-
shifting they can monstrously enlarge themselves or shrink into midgets of their own volition, but this is not
always so. Some of them seem to be controlled by the very essence of their being and to be small,
powerless creatures of the class of diminutive fairies. The OXFORD DICTIONARY, by defining a fairy as
'one of a class of beings of diminutive size', seems to cast its vote for the small elves so much beloved in
Jacobean England, and this indeed is one true element in folk tradition. Among the tiny medieval fairies are
the Portunes described by Gervase of Tilbury, which, as far as one can make out, were about a finger's
length in size, or such as the Danish troll which occurs in the Ballad of 'Eline of Villenokor' quoted by
Keightley in THE FAIRY MYTHOLOGY:

Out then spake the tinyest Troll,


No bigger than an emmet was he;

or the tiny fairies visited by Elidurus in Geoffrey of Monmouth, and little Malekin, described by Ralph of
Coggeshall as the size of the tiniest child. All these are medieval fairies, although the fashion in fairylore in
earlier times laid more stress on supernatural creatures of human or more than human size, White Ladies,
Fays, Hags, Magicians, Giants and fairy Knights like the one in the story of Sir Gawain and the Green
Knight. These never disappeared from tradition, and were reinforced by the Fairy Godmother who invaded
England from the courtly French tales, like those of Perrault. The commonest fairies of country tradition,
however, are generally described as of the size of a three-years' child, the smaller size of human kind; or the
smaller ones, 'a span and a quarter in height'. The insect-sized fairies are rarer in tradition, though very
common in literature. In Hampshire, in the tale of 'I Weat, You Weat', we have fairies so small that a grain
of wheat is a burden; the Muryans of Cornwall reach the size of an ant only at the last stage of their
appearance on earth. In that very interesting description of the conditions of fairy life, 'The Fairy Dwelling
on Selena Moor', the captive in Fairyland explains that every time one of the Small People of Cornwall
changes its shape - turns itself into a bird, for instance it is rather smaller when it returns to its natural form,
so that it gradually dwindles, until when it reaches the size of a muryan, or ant, it passes out of that state
altogether. The fairies of variable size are all those with powers of shape-shifting, the Heroic, the White
Ladies, many of the hags and Bogles and Hobgoblins, the Giants and Wizards. The Spriggans of Cornwall
are generally tiny, but are capable of shooting up into monstrous size, as in Hunt's story of The Miser on
the Fairy Gump. #100-246-362

SLEEPING LORDS AND WARRIORS

# 454: The many famous, legendary or heroic characters who are said to sleep under various hills in the
British Isles seem to have been a persistant tradition from Cronos to King Arthur. Bran the Blessed is also
one of their number, while Vortimer is another. The tradition of an undying champion who sleeps beneath
the land ready to wake in time of national danger may testify to an ancient concept of regnal sacrifice, by
which the king would voluntarily agree to become the tribal representative in the Otherworld, thereafter
being paid supreme honours and joining the ranks of the gods.
# 100: The theme of a sleeping champion in a cave under a hill is common through Europe. Sometimes the
hero is Charlemagne, sometimes Barbarossa, sometimes King Marko, sometimes Holger the Dane. In
Britain it was most commonly King Arthur in the Matter of Britain legends, or in Ireland it was Finn Mac
Cumhal, though sometimes it was a mysterious, unspecified champion. At Sewing Shields in
Northumberland, between the Roman Wall and the ancient military road, there is a persistent and ancient
legend that King Arthur, with Queen Guinevere and all his knights, lies in an entranced sleep awaiting a
champion who shall awake them. An account of the time when they were nearly awakened is to be found in
the Denham Tracts. The tradition was that the warriors would be aroused if a champion could find his way
into the vault where they lay, blow a horn that was lying near the king, and cut a garter lying beside him
with a stone sword, but no one knew where among heaps of briar-covered rubble the entrance could be
found. One day chance disclosed it to a shepherd, who was sitting knitting on one of the mounds. His ball
slipped off his knee and rolled down a deep and narrow hole. The shepherd was convinced that he had
found the entrance, and, cutting the thorns and brambles that covered the hole, he found a way down wide
enough for him to enter, and soon found himself in a vaulted passage. The floor was covered with toads and
lizards, bats brushed against his ears, but he followed his clew of wool downwards in the darkness, and at
last saw a distant light. Encouraged by this, he made his way towards it and found himself in a huge vaulted
room lit by a fire that burned without fuel. On a hundred rich couches round the room lay the sleeping
bodies of King Arthur, Queen Guinevere and the king's knights; in the dim light behind the fire, sixty
couple of noble hounds lay sleeping, and on a table in front of it were a horn, a stone sword and a garter.
The shepherd went up to the table, drew the sword softly from its sheath and cut the garter. When he
touched the sword all the company stirred, and as he cut the garter they rose up sitting on their couches, but
as he pushed the sword gently back into its sheath sleep came over them again, and they sank on to their
beds. Only the king lifted his hands and said in a strong voice:

'O woe betide that evil day


On which the witless wight was born
Who drew the sword - the garter cut,
But never blew the bugle-horn.'

Some of the story-tellers have it, that when the king stirred and began to speak, the shepherd was scared to
death, but managed to find his speedy way out of the caves, and then missed the great opportunity to, by
blowing the horn, really awaken the legendary king and his host. Another place where Arthur is said to be
sleeping is in a smooth hill called Round Howe in Richmond in Yorkshire. A potter called Thompson was
walking round the howe one night when a stranger met him and conducted him into the vault beneath it. He
began to draw the sword, but put it hastily back when the company stirred. A great voice cried out,

'Potter, Potter Thompson,


If thou hadst either drawn
The sword or blown the horn,
Thou'd been the luckiest man
That ever was born.'

The Somerset legend of Arthur and his knights at Cadbury Castle is different. No one visits them, and
anyone who tries to dig up the Round Table will fail, because it only sinks deeper into the earth. But every
Midsummer Eve, King Arthur and his knights come out of the mound and ride round it on horses shod with
silver, as Earl Fitzgerald does at Mullaghmast. According to a Welsh legend recorded by John Rhys, King
Arthur's knights sleep without him in a cave on Snowdon. Once a shepherd looking for a sheep found the
entrance to it and made his way in timidly, but as he went through the door he brushed against a bell which
rang out and waked the sleepers, who started up with such a monstrous din that the shepherd fled from the
cave and never recovered from his terror. There are legends of a wizard seeking for horses for the sleeping
host, one told of Alderly Edge in Cheshire, where an anonymous wizard, probably Merlin, is seeking to
make up the full number of white horses sleeping in the stables until the time should come for them to ride
out and save England. It was Thomas of Ercildoune, better known as Thomas the Rhymer, who was buying
horses, black ones this time, for the sleeping place under the Eildon Hills. This time poor Canobie Dick, a
horse-coper from whom Thomas had bought several horses, made a fatal error by blowing the horn before
he had drawn the sword. All the sleeping knights started up, drew their swords and made for him. A great
voice cried out:

'Woe to the coward, that ever he was born,


That did not draw the sword before he blew the horn!'

A whirlwind sprang up and swept him out of the cave and down a precipice, where he had only time to tell
his story to the shepherds that found him before he died. We cannot be sure who True Thomas' warriors
were. There is one legend of Finn Mac Cumhal, 'The Smith's Rock in the Isle of Skye'. It is told by J.
Macdougall in WAIFS AND STRAYS OF CELTIC TRADITION, VOL. III. The Fenians in this tale are
Giants: There was a report that the Fians (Fingalians) were asleep in this Rock, and that if anyone would
enter it and blow the Wooden-Crier (Whistle), which lay beside Finn, three times, they would rise up alive
and well as they formerly were. A Smith who lived in the island heard the report, and resolved that he
would attempt to enter the Rock. He reached the place where it was; and, having formed a good idea of the
key-hole, he returned to the smithy, and made a key which fitted in the hole. He then went back to the
Rock, and, as soon as he turned the key in the hole, the door opened, and he saw a very great and wide
place before him, and exceedingly big men lying on the floor. One man, bigger than the rest, was lying in
their midst, having a large hollow baton of wood lying beside him. He thought that this was the Wooden-
Crier (Whistle). But it was so large that he was afraid that he could not lift it, much less blow it. He stood
for a time looking at it, but he at last said to himself that, as he came so far, he would try at any rate. He laid
hold of the Wooden-Crier, and with difficulty raised its end up to his mouth. He blew it with all his might,
and so loud was the sound it produced that he thought the Rock and all that was over it came down on the
top of him. The huge unwieldy men who lay on the floor shook from the tops of their heads to the soles of
their feet. He gave another blast on the Wooden-Crier, and with one spring they turned on their elbows.
Their fingers were like the prongs of wooden grapes, and their arms like beams of bog-oak. Their size and
the terrible appearance they had put him in such fear that he threw the Wooden-Crier from him, and sprang
out. They were then crying after him, 'Worse have you left us than as you found us, worse have you left us
than as you found us.' But he looked not behind him until he got outside and shut the door. He then drew
the key out of the hole, and threw it out into the lake which is near the Rock, and which is called to this day
the Lake of the Smith's Rock. In the above mentioned stories we may recognize some of the ways in which
we in both ancient and modern psychology and cosmology may be able to find the paths into our deepest
and still sleeping and hidden Overself, with all the hazardous guardians of the threshold. Sometimes we are
able to pass that threshold and we can 'blew the horn', while we at other challenges must realize that we still
lack some experiences in our life, to wake up our 'Sleeping Lord'. # 100 - 439 - 454 - 691

SLEIGH BEGGEY

(sleigh beargar) or the 'Little Folk'. A name given to the fairies in the Manx tongue, though they are more
usually spoken of as 'the Li'l Fallas', 'Themselves', or 'Them That's In', which covers Bugganes and other
sinister characters as well as the fairies. Another Manx name for them is the Ferrishyn. # 100

SLIAB

(slev) A mountain, mountainous district. # 166

SLIAB LUACHRA

(slev loo'ah ra) A mountainous district on the border of Kerry and Cork in Ireland. # 166

SLIEVE BLOOM

Murna takes refuge in in the forests of Slieve Bloom, and there Demna (Fionn) is born. # 562
SLIEVE FUAD

(sleeve fuad) afterwards Slievegallion. Invisible dwelling of Lir on Slieve Fuad. CuChulain finds his foe in
this dwelling, and Fionn slays a goblin there. # 562

SLIEVEGALLION

A Fairy mountain. See: SLIEVE FUAD. # 562

SLUAGH, THE

(slooa) (or the Host). This is the Host of the Unforgiven Dead. They are the most formidable of the
Highland fairy people. There are several accounts of the host collected by Evans Wentz in THE
FAIRYFAITH IN THE CELTIC COUNTRIES from named informants. A few of them regard 'The Host' as
fallen angels, not the dead, but on the whole their accounts correspond closely to that given by Alexander
Carmichael in CARMINA GADELICA, VOL. II: SLUAGH, 'the host', the spirit-world. The 'hosts' are the
spirits of mortals who have died. The people have many curious stories on this subject. According to one
informant, the spirits fly about in great clouds, up and down the face of the world like the starlings, and
come back to the scenes of their earthly transgressions. No soul of them is without the clouds of earth,
dimming the brigthness of the works of earth. In bad nights, the hosts shelter themselves behind little russet
docken stems and little yellow ragwort stalks. They fight battles in the air as men do on the earth. They may
be heard and seen on clear frosty nights, advancing and retreating, retreating and advancing, against one
another. After a battle, as I was told in Barra, their crimson blood may be seen staining rocks and stones.
('Fuil nan sluagh,' the blood of the hosts, is the beautiful red 'crotal' of the rocks melted by the frost.) These
spirits used to kill cats and dogs, sheep and cattle, with their unerring venomous darts. They commanded
men to follow them, and men obeyed, having no alternative. It was these men of earth who slew and
maimed at the bidding of their spirit-masters, who in return ill-treated them in a most pitiless manner. They
would be rolling and dragging and trouncing them in mud and mire and pools.

In a report by Evans Wentz, Marian MacLean of Barra distinguishes between the fairies and the Host.

Generally, the fairies are to be seen after or about sunset, and walk on the ground as we do, whereas the
hosts travel in the air above places inhabited by people. The hosts used to go after the fall of night, and
more particularly about midnight. # 100 - 136 - 711

SOLOMON

King of Brittany and Arthur's great-grandfather, according to Gallet's pedigree. See: NASCIEN. # 55 - 156

SORELOIS

A kingdom in Arthurian tales. Its king was called Gloier and its capital Sorhaut. There are various
suggestions as to its location Sutherland, South Wales and the Isles of Scilly. # 156

SORHAUT

The name of the capitals of Gore and Sorelois. # 156

SOUL FRIEND

See: PERIGLOUR. # 676


SOVEREIGNTY

A strangely misspelled word, the last syllable being mistaken for the word reign. It may stem from the
French 'souverain' which is nearer the Latin word (supreme over all). Our word has fairly given rise to the
punning etymology 'so-ever-reign.' The concept of the sovereignty-bestowing goddess is especially marked
among the Celtic peoples and their stories. Originally Lady Sovereignty was called by the name of land e.g.
Eriu or Logres. Only the rightful kingly candidate could 'marry' her in a symbolic union representing the
king's obligation to the land and its peoples; thus he have tested by having to encounter and embrace
Sovereignty who appeared as a loathsome hag. Her response was to become her own beautiful self and
announce his rightful kingship to the people. The king who misused his power or who became maimed or
mutilated ruptured the mystic union with the land and therefore with the Sovereignty. The result of his
continuing reign was a wasting of the land - a theme central to the Grail legend. See: WASTELAND;
WOUNDED KING; NIALL. The Lady of Britain's Sovereignty is Brigit or Brigantia, though Brigantia has
latterly assumed this function. # 97 - 282 - 439 - 454 - 461

SOW

The brilliance of the White Sow and her seven porcine attendants is prominent in the Celtic myth of the
Princess Goleuddydd, 'Bright Day,' mother of Culhwch, whose name meant something like 'womb, or
hiding place, of the pig.' It retained the essential episode of Goleuddydd giving birth in a sow's lair.
'Obviously she is the sowmother, the sow Goddess, and Culhwch is the young hog that she carries in her
sow's hiding-place, her womb.' Later Culhwch stole a comb from the head of the magic boar, Twrch
Trwyth, who may have been a sow originally; because 'he' lay in 'his' lair with 'his' seven piglets-something
that only a female pig would do. The Welsh saints Dyfrig, Kentigern, Cadog, and Brynach all were said to
have founded monasteries at places where they were led by a magic White Sow. This is fairly good
evidence that all of them were only pseudosaints, or loosely Christianized versions of earlier pagan heroes,
Men of Sow. # 701 p 389 ff

SPAIN

Celts conquer Spain from the Carthaginians, and the latters trade with Spain broken down by the Greeks.
There are found place-names of Celtic elements in Spain, and dolmens found round the Spanish
Mediterranean coast. Equivalent Spain is The Land of the Dead. In Arthurian sources, Spain was variously
the realm of Alifatima, Savari, Claris and Tristan. Historically, in Arthurian times a Visigoth kingdom
existed there, ruled by Alaric II (AD 484-507), Gesalaric (AD 507-11), Amalric (AD 511-31) and Theudis
(AD 531-48). # 156 - 562

SPEAR

In the legends of the Holy Grail it was related that Longinus's spear was set upright in the divine vessel,
making a design suspiciously similar to Oriental lingam-yoni. The Christianized Grail stories based this
symbolic lingam on the pagans' holy Spear of Lugh, which 'had such destructive force that its head has
always to be immersed in a cauldron so that the town where it was being kept did not go up in flames'.
Since the cauldron was always a womb symbol, and the spear both lightning and a phallus, the sexual
implication of this symbolism is clear. # 701 p 30

SPENCER, EDMUND

(1552-99) See: FAERIE QUEENE.

SPIRAL
Both single and double spirals were among the most sacred signs of Neolithic Europe. They appeared on
megalithic monuments and temples all over the continent and the British Isles. Spiral OCULI-double twists
resembling eyes - appear prominently in places like the treshold stones at New Grange in Ireland. - The
spiral was connected with the idea of death and rebirth: entering the mysterious earth womb, penetrating to
its core, and passing out again by the same route. Sacred dances imitated this movement, which is why so
many pagan-derived European folk dances use the spiral line of dancers circling into a center and out.
Spiral labyrinth designs were also common in cathedral decoration, transposed from the older shrines
formerly located on the same sites. The magical staff called LITUUS, used by Roman augurs (diviners) to
mark out sacred areas such as temple sites, usually terminated in a spiral. See also: LABYRINTHS AND
SPIRALS. # 701 p 14

SPRIGGANS

Grotesquely ugly fairies which seems to act as the fairy bodyguard. Bottrell says about them in his
descriptions of the various types of Fairy: The Spriggans, quite a different class of being, are the dourest
and most ugly set of sprights belonging to the elfin tribe; they are only to be seen about old ruins, barrows,
giants' quoits and castles, and other places where treasure is buried, of which they have the charge. They
also steal children, leaving their own ugly brats in their place, bring bad weather to blight the crops,
whirlwinds over the fields of cut corn, and do much other mischief to those that meddle with their favourite
haunts. According to Hunt, the Spriggans are the ghosts of the old giants, and though they are usually very
small, they can swell to enormous size. # 84 - 100 - 331

SRENG

Ambassador sent to the People of Dana by Firbolgs. He was the Firbolg who was responsible for cutting off
Nuadu's hand, thus rendering him unfit for kingship. # 454 - 562

STAFFA

Although the island of Staffa, Strathclyde, was regarded as one of the great natural wonders of the ancient
world, and interwoven into the mythology of both Scotland and Ireland, it was 'discovered' in modern times
as late as August 1772 by Sir Joseph Banks. It was the same Sir Joseph who had been the companion of
Captain Cook on his first voyage round the world, and who encouraged Cook to name Botany Bay in
Australia on the grounds that all the plants there were new to science. Thus, at Donald MacCulloch points
out, Sir Joseph has left his name with the northern Hebrides (by way of Staffa) and with the southern
Hebrides (the 'New Hebrides'), among which is a group of islands called 'Banks Islands'. In his first report
of the discovery of Staffa he remarks that it 'is reckoned one of the greatest natural curiosities in the world:
it is surrounded by many pillars of different shapes, such as pentagons, octagons etc. They are about 55 feet
high, and near five feet in diameter, supporting a solid rock of a mile in length, and about 60 feet above the
pillars. There is a cave in this island which the natives call the Cave of Fingal: its length is 371 feet, about
115 feet in height, and 51 feet wide..

The Giant's Causeway in Ireland, or Stonehenge in England, are but trifles when compared to this island...'
Who was this Fingal after whom the remarkable cave had been named? For an answer to this question we
must turn to Irish mythology, which seems to have given birth to this semi-legendary leader of men who
not only had the Staffa cave named after him, but was even said to have constructed with his own hands the
entire magical island itself. Finn MacCumhaill (sometimes, Fin MacCoul) is the earliest name of Fingal,
who was so renowned as a 'builder' that he is said to have erected many of the stone circles in Scotland.
Finn was more than a mythological king, he was also a magician, who learned the power of magic-making
almost by accident (see BRODICK ARRAN). Perhaps this is one reason why a natural break in the wall of
basaltic columns above the Causeway of Staffa is called 'Fingal's Wishing Chair', and why it is said that
anyone who sits in this cavity and makes a wish will have this wish come true. Fingal is the central hero of
the Ossianic cycle, the mythical ruler of a race of giants called the Fianna, a sort of Celtic equivalent of the
British Arthurian knights. Those who claim Fingal to have been a living leader of men, rather than a
product of mythologizing, say that he died towards the end of the third century AD. The original epic of
Fingal was said to be written by the third-century Ossian, whom many claim to have been the son of Fingal,
but there was much dispute about the authorship of this fragmentary verse. James Macpherson's FINGAL,
published in 1761, and supposedly adapted from the 'original version' by Ossian, was challenged by Dr
Johnson. It is certain that one of the reasons why Dr Johnson made his famous tour of the Hebrides was in
order to accumulate proof that there was no poetry by anyone named Ossian. See also: LOCH ASHIE. #
702

STAG

# 701: The Stag was probably one of the earliest versions of the Horned God as sacrificial consort of the
Goddess of woodland creatures. Horned animals, especially stags, were associated with male sexuality.
Phallic amulets were often carved of staghorn. Because of its treelike horns the stag was also depicted as a
male spirit of the forest.

# 161: The stag is an important cult animal in Europe, especially in Celtic tradition where it is associated
with the Horned God Cernunnos, Nurturer of Animals, with the Hunter God Cocidius and with Ossian. It is
the attribute of the warrior and is virility, solar power and fertility; it is also therapeutic. In mythology stag
hunts often lead to some supernatural meeting or situation. In solar cults it is often depicted with the Bull,
Horse and Swan. In Norse tradition the four stags of the Yggdrasil represent the four winds. # 161 - 701 p
390

STAG OF REDYNVRE

One of the helping beasts in CULHWCH AND OLWEN. # 562

STANDING STONES

The practice of erecting standing stones is certainly a very ancient one, and their uses through the ages were
no doubt considerably varied. In Genesis 28:18, we can read that Jacob took the stone that he used for a
pillow and set it up as a pillar. Mention of the erection of stones can also be found in several other parts of
the holy scriptures. According to ancient Welsh laws, the Maen Gobaith or Guide Stone was erected as a
guide to travellers over mountains and derelict tracts of land in the absence of well-defined roads. Removal
or destruction of these stones was punished by death. The same applied to the Maes-yBrenin (The King's
Post or Stone) which was erected to display public notices or proclamations. Another type of ancient stone
was the Maen Terfyn or the Boundary Stone, the removal of which was also punishable by death: 'Cursed
be he that removeth his neighbour's landmark.' Wherever the boundary of an estate terminates at some
particular stone it may be fairly assumed that such a stone is a Maen Terfyn of the old Welsh laws. The
oldest stones of all are the meinhirion which can be found in many parts of the world. Their exact purpose
is still a mystery although many remarkable theories have been suggested. Traditionally the meinhirion are
said to have been erected to indicate the burial place of some distinguished person. During the Dark Ages it
was customary to bury important chieftains beside a road or track in the absence of churchyards. The
meaning of the word maenhir has been translated by some to mean a tall, upright stone; yet others believe
that the word hir (long) signifies a longing or a regret and it is therefore applicable as a memorial. It has
also been suggested that the stones were erected as gathering places for men serving as warriors at a time
prior to the Roman invasion. Sometimes the stones were brought long distances, for the type of rock of
which they are formed does not exist in the neighbourhood where they have been erected. A large number
of standing stones consist of a strange material known as 'pudding-stone', which seems to have been chosen
by the ancients for reasons known only to themselves. There are legends in some parts of Britain that
'puddingstone' has the ability to grow in size.

The small lumps in the stone were once believed to multiply and the stones were often called 'growing
stones' or 'mother stones'. Many of the standing stones in Britain must have disappeared over the ages,
having been broken up for making roads or incorporated into buildings but stories are often told of farmers
who have tried to remove a standing stone by digging around the bottom and hitching a team of horses or a
tractor to the stone - without success. Some modern writers have expressed a theory that the stones were
once part of an incredible system of energy transmission which fell into disuse many thousands of years
ago. People have even claimed to have received electric shocks from the stones and photographs have been
taken that show rays of light exuding from the monoliths. There are many recent books written on these
mysteries, such as EARTH MAGIC by Francis Hitching, which are of great interest to anyone wishing to
learn more about standing stones. In folklore the stones are often given peculiar personal attributes.
Sometimes they are believed to be able to move from place to place without mortal aid, or to move uneasily
when disturbed by humans, or expand or contract at will. Some stones are even said to cling to people who
touch them with a guilty purpose. Others are said to have the power of making people invisible or filling
one's pockets with gold. Some stones are also accredited with healing powers, particularly those with a hole
in them. In such cases people at one time used to insert their rheumatic limbs through the holes and would
often claim an improvement in their condition. Geoffrey of Monmouth writing in about 1136 claimed that
the stones of Stonehenge, which he referred to as the 'Giant's Dance', had healing powers. In his famous
HISTORY OF BRITAIN, he had Merlin say to Aurelius: 'Laugh not so lightly, king... for in these stones is
a mystery and healing virtue against many ailments.' # 49 - 311 - 470

STAR-STRONG KING

The Star-strong King refers to Christ who, in Celtic tradition, is often adressed as 'King of the Elements'. #
437 p 29, XVIII

STATER

See: AGRICOLA.

STERILITY, FAIRY

In his IRISH FOLK & FAIRY TALES OMNIBUS, Michael Scott points out that a fairy maiden are able to
feel and make love to a mortal man, but never can bear his child. In 'The Return of Oisin' Niamh
GoldenHair have some reflections about that matter, when she bid Oisin farewell before his return to his
own world:

'And once again, for the thousandth time, the princess of Tir na nOg longed to belong to the world of Man
once more so that she might fully experience the love of Oisin. But that was impossible; everything had its
price, and the price of eternal life was sterility.' # 582

STONE CIRCLES

Throughout Britain, particularly in the lonely parts of western Scotland, there are literally hundreds of stone
circles, varying in size from about 12 feet in diameter to very large areas several hundred feet across. Some
scientists, such as Professor Alexander Thom, have carried out experiments to prove that the circles had
been constructed with such incredible accuracy that it is possible to make use of them to calculate the
movements of the sun, the moon and the stars during the year. It is accordingly believed that the people
responsible for erecting the circles must have had a thorough knowledge of Mathematics. The 'circles' are
not always perfectly round in shape but are often flattened circles and ellipses. Stone circles were built long
before Christian times, yet when the churches were later established many of them were built within these
ancient circles. Such is the case of Tregaron and Llanddewi Brefi churches in Dyfed. Sir Mortimer Wheeler
once wrote, 'It is likely enough that some of the stone circles were like medieval churches, used for
communal secular, no less than for religious purposes in an age when the two were essentially one and
indivisible.' Many people believe that stone circles were erected in connection with astronomy. In view of
the great difficulty of transporting these huge blocks of stone and raise them into position, one wonders
why wood was not used for the purpose. However there is a great deal of support today for the theory that
these prehistoric stone structures were erected to capture and store some form of energy which was then
transmitted across the land from stone to stone along the mysterious system of ley lines first noticed by
Alfred Watkins. # 49

STONE OF ABUNDANCE

Equivalent, the Cauldron of Abundance. Appears plenty in Celtic mythology as for instance as the Grail in
Wolfram's poem. Similar stone appears in the Welsh PEREDUR, which correspondences the Celtic
Cauldron of the Dagda. And in the Welsh legend, Bran obtained the Cauldron. - In a poem by Taliesin the
Cauldron forms part of the spoils of Hades. # 562

STONE OF DESTINY

Otherwise LIA FAIL, or Stone of Scone. One of the treasures of the Danaans, which they brought from one
of the four cities, Falias. It was the Stone of Destiny on which the High Kings of Ireland stood when they
were crowned, and which was supposed to confirm the election of a rightful monarch by roaring under him
as he took his place on it. The actual stone which was so used at the inauguration of a reign did from
immemorial times exist at Tara, and was sent thence to Scotland early in the sixth century for the crowning
of Fergus the Great, son of Erc, who begged his brother Murtagh mac Erc, King of Ireland, for the loan of
it. An ancient prophesy told that wherever this stone was, a king of the Scotic (i.e., Irish-Milesian) should
reign. This is the famous Stone of Scone, which never came back to Ireland, but was removed to England
by Edward I in 1297, and is now the Coronation Stone in Westminster Abbey. # 562

STONE, CORONATION

The Coronation Stone at Westminster Abbey is identical with the Stone of Scone. See: STONE OF
DESTINY. # 562

STONEHENGE

A large circular array of stones on Salisbury Plain, one of many found in western Britain. Stonehenge was
not its original name, the name merely dating from medieval times. It was built in three stages: in about
2800 BC, a ditch and bank with the Heel Stone; in about 2000 BC, bluestone pillars, perhaps brought from
the Prescelly Mountain in Wales, transported by sea and up the Avon, and then overland, possibly put up by
the Beaker People; and in about 1500 BC sarsen trilithons put up, probably by the Wessex culture.

One of the legends says Stonehenge was brought from Ireland at the suggestion of Merlin, to be used as a
memorial for the dead. It is possible that this account contains some trace of an oral tradition that it was
transported over water. Professor Rhys suggests that Myrddin was worshipped at Stonehenge. Without
doubt, the ancient circle of Stonehenge is the most enigmatic of all the mysteries bequeathed us by the
ancients, and it is not surprising that some people believe the stones to have been carried from distant
places by magical means. It has been recognized from very early times that Stonehenge was built to mark
calendrical periods - the ancient Roman author Diodorus Siculus wrote of the Sun God visiting the circle
once every 19 years. Within a day or so, the 19-year period does measure a cycle of considerable
importance to Stonehenge for it measures a period-return of the moon's node to a solar point. The
movement of the nodes of the moon is in a gradual circling of the ecliptic (which of course marks the
movement of the sun), in contrary direction to the planets. This 'lunar node cycle' is 18 years and seven
months. In three of these nodal revolutions, which take a sequence of 56 years, the moon completes a
circuit of eclipses and then begins the same sequence again. The cycle describes a complete relationship
between sun and moon. The arrangement of uprights at Stonehenge is designed (among other things) to
mark this periodicity of 18 years and seven months, which Diodorus Siculus rounded-up to 19 years. Some
authors - most notably Professor Gerald Hawkins of Boston University, who followed outline plans drawn
up by earlier investigators have treated the arrangement of stones as though it were a complex graphic
computer of critical solar and lunar positions. In his STONEHENGE DECODED, Hawkins claimed that 10
of the alignments of the circle point to significant positions of the sun, within an accuracy of under one
degree, while a different set of 14 alignments point to extreme positions of the moon. Further, he claims,
that when the winter moon rises over the horizon above the Heel Stone, then an eclipse of sun or moon will
follow. The eclipse of sun and moon is one of the most obvious pointers to the 19-year cycle of Diodorus
Siculus, for the lunar node is actually the point where the path of the moon crosses the path of the sun (the
ecliptic). Hawkins' own conclusions have been subjected to a battery of criticism, yet there may be little
doubt that in some mysterious way the circle of stones was raised as a ritual centre, its stones marking out
significant solar-lunar positions, the most important of which was linked with the '19-year' cycle.
Cotsworth of Acomb recognized at the end of the last century that for the stone circle to measure precisely
the full range of amplitude for sunrise and sunsets at the Winter Solstice, another stone (long removed)
should have marked the direction of sunset at the south-western end of the axis line which marked the
period of the Yuletide (Christmas) festival. A fallen stone, now dramatically and quite erroneously called
the 'Slaughter Stone', once stood erect, and, through the resultant aperture it formed with a nearby stone, the
sun could be seen to set on the shortest day. Cotsworth proposed that this fallen stone formerly stood erect
in line with the vertical Friar's Heel stone, to align the amplitude of the Summer Solstice. His propositions
appear to confirm Sir Norman Lockyer's view that, 'Not only does the sun rise on June 21st, at one end of
the axis or line which divides the circle of Stonehenge, but it also appears to set at the other end of this
same axis at the time of the shortest day (21 December)' - Cotsworth derived much pleasure from the fact
that this orientation appears to have been echoed in the arrangement of the central tower of York Minster.
He took the matter of orientation a step forward, however, by pointing to the two vertical stones which had
not attracted the attention of earlier writers, and had therefore not been explained, even though they fell on
the winter sunrise and summer sunset axis. After a careful examination of these orientations, he was
convinced that these marked the ancient Druidical festivals of Beltane and Hallowe'en, so important in the
ancient rites. As in many later cathedrals and churches, and as mentioned above, not all the structures that
we see today at Stonehenge were built at the same time. As the result of excavations we can now divide the
history of Stonehenge into several periods, covering a span of about twenty centuries between about 3100
and 1100 BC. The first Stonehenge comprised the bank and ditch enclosing the Aubrey Holes. There was
probably a ceremonial gateway on roughly the present alignment. There may have been a timber building
in the centre, but no evidence for this survives. The site was, as mentioned, built around 3100 BC, but was
in use for only about 500 years, after which it reverted to scrub. The second development stage occurred
around 2100 BC when Stonehenge was radically remodelled. The about 80 bluestones from the Preseli
mountains in south-west Wales were set up at the centre, forming an incomplete double circle. The entrance
was widened and a pair of Heel Stones erected. The nearer part of the Avenue was built, aligned with the
midsummer sunrise.

The third phase of Stonehenge about 2000 BC saw the arrival of the sarsen stones, which were arranged in
an outer circle with a continuous run of lintels. Inside the circle five trilithons were placed in a horseshoe
arrangement, whose remains we can still see today. The axis of the monument pointed to the midsummer
sunrise and was marked externally by a single Heel Stone inside a smaller circular ditch. The next stage
involved the selection of about twenty bluestones, which were shaped and erected in an oval setting inside
the sarsen horseshoe. At least two miniature copies in bluestone were made of the great sarsen trilithons.
Their separated components still survive. Sometime later, around 1550 BC, two rings of holes were dug to
form once again a double circle of bluestones but the project was abandoned. The final stage of Stonehenge
took place soon after 1550 BC when the bluestones were rearranged in the horseshoe and circle that we see
the remains of today. About 60 bluestones were used, but very few survive. The largest bluestone, the Altar
Stone probably stood as a tall pillar on the axial line of the monument. # 34 - 35 - 151 - 156 - 295 - 562 -
702

STORYTELLER

See also: CYFARWYDDION, SEANACHIES, and BARDS. The story-teller acted as a guardian of
otherworldly traditions, revealing the inner meaning through skilled retelling. Along these established
pathways, seekers were enabled to explore their own problems and frustrations in a creative way, finding
empowerment and help in time of trouble. It is to the source of the 'saving story' that we too are drawn
today: people find the companionship of the story in scriptures, poetry and novels, for these may reveal
deep wells of nourishment in times of need. There is no greater healing than to be told a story that answers
our present condition or predicament. Each of us has a story to which we can respond wholeheartedly and
which will teach us wisdom. The repitition and 'giving' of that story may provide us with clues about the
purpose and direction of our own life, as well as imparting initiatory teaching to others. # 437 p 11 ff

STORYTELLERS REPERTOIRE, THE

Though the ancient storytellers were doubtless aware of the existence of the separate 'cycles', each with its
distinct DRAMATIS PERSONAE, there is no mention of them as such in the extant literature. In the
classification of tales that has survived, the stories are not grouped according to cycles, nor are the events in
the life-stories of individual personages arranged chronologically, as they are in the Lives of the Saints.
Instead the stories are grouped according to the subjects with which they are concerned - as in a modern
index of folktale types. There is no way of estimating the antiquity of this mode of classification. All that
can be said is that the two extant medieval versions of it, nowadays designated List A and List B, are
probably derived from an original which was already in existence in the tenth century. The order of
classification is different in the two lists, each of which contains some subject-headings which are absent
from the other. List A contains seventeen types of tales, List B fifteen, thirteen types being common to both.
There is no reason to suppose, however, that types recorded in only one of the lists, such as Conceptions
and Births, Voyages, and Tragic Deaths, are less authentic than the others, and little weight can be attached
to the omissions. The two lists may be collated as follows:

Types in Lists A and B: Types in List A only:

• Destructions (Togla) • Caves (Uatha)


• Cattle-raids (Tána) • Voyages (Immrama)
• Courtships (Tochmarca) • Violent Deaths (Oitte)
• Battles (Catha) • Sieges (Forbassa)
• Feasts (Fessa)
• Adventures (Echtrai) Types in List B only:
• Elopements (Aithid)
• Slaughters (Airgne) • Conceptions and Births (Coimperta)
• Irruptions (Tomadma)
• Visions (Físi) • Frenzies (Buili)
• Loves (Serca)
• Expeditions (Sluagid)

• Invasions (Tochomlada)

A preamble to List A in the Book of Leinster indicates that the poets memorized the tales under these
headings:

'Of the qualifications of a Poet in Stories and in Deeds, here follows, to be related to kings and chiefs, viz.:
Seven times Fifty Stories, i.e. Five times Fifty Prime Stories, and Twice Fifty Secondary Stories; and these
Secondary Stories are not permitted (assigned) but to four grades only, viz., an ollamb, an anrath, a cli, and
a cano. And these are the Prime Stories: Destruction, and Cattle-raids, and Courtships, and Battles, and
Caves, and Voyages, and Violent Deaths, and Feasts, and Sieges, and Adventures, and Elopements, and
Slaughters.' After listing the tales under these twelve headings, five more headings are introduced with the
statement that: It is as Prime Stories these below are estimated; namely, Irruptions, and Visions, and Loves,
and Expeditions and Invasions.' While the preamble asserts that there were 250 Prime Stories and 100
Secondary Stories, less than 200 of the Prime Stories, and none of the Secondary Stories, are listed. It is
possible that certain categories of Prime Stories are missing from both lists. For example, a section of the
TÁIN is devoted to the MACGNIMARTHA (Youthful Exploits') of CuChulain, and there is a tale called
MACGNIMARTHA FINN. In any case, the absence of any reference to the nature of the hundred
'Secondary Stories' (Foscéla) constitutes a serious gap in our knowledge. The omission of these tales from
the lists, together with the fact that they were the prerogative of the first four grades of poets, suggests that
it may not have been considered proper to tell them to the public generally, and there seems to be no
justification for regarding them as 'secondary' in any pejorative sense. Again, the body of the traditional
lore recounted at the Assembly of Carmun includes such subjects as Assemblies, Annals, Prohibitions, and
Divisions, which do not seem to be fully covered by the headings in the Lists. It also mentions the
important class of tales known as Dindsenchas, stories of places, to which there is no reference in the lists.
Thus, important as they are as an indication of the way in which the poets organized their material, the lists
as we have them cannot be regarded as a complete canon of the traditional literature, though evidence we
have considered suggests that List A with its seventeen types made up of twelve plus five may be an
attempt to arrange the tales in accordance with a cosmological pattern. Again, storytelling was a feature of
the celebration of seasonal festivals, while it has been the custom at wakes for the dead, at christenings, and
at weddings down to our own day. We may believe that originally there were tales appropiate to each
occasion. We have noted that at the Assembly of Carmun, and probably at other great ceremonial
gatherings, the whole repertoire of tales was declaimed. In this respect the custom among the early Celts
may not have been very different from what it is in our Christian ritual. But outside the ritual the deeds of
mythical heroes cannot be repeated by mortal men. # 352 - 503 - 548 - 650

STRAITS OF MOYLE

(between Ireland and Scotland) It was here Aoife executed her cruelty to her step-children (CHILDREN OF
LIR). # 562

STRANGGORE

An Arthurian kingdom, perhaps identical with East Wales, ruled by Brandegoris. # 156 - 418

STRATHCLYDE

A British kingdom in the Lowlands of Scotland in the traditional Arthurian period. The names and dates of
the kings are uncertain. # 156

STRAY SOD, THE

Sometimes called 'The Lone Sod' or Foidin Seacrain. The Irish version of the state of being Pixy-led or
Pook-ledden. It is not effected by lights or voices; the general explanation is that a fairy spell is laid on a
piece of turf so that the human stepping on it is unable to find his way out of a well-known spot, and
wanders helplessly, often for several hours, until the spell is suddenly lifted. References to this
phenomenon are to be found in many of the learned writings of the seventeenth century, but the fullest
modern account is given in THE MIDDLE KINGDOM by D. A. Mac Manus, who devotes a short chapter
to 'The Stray Sod'. Several anecdotes illustrate the belief, among them one of a rector who was called out
one Midsummer Night to visit a sick parishioner who lived about seven miles off by road. A pleasant
footpath more than halved the distance, so the rector determined to walk there. The footpath led through a
strong gate to a field with a fairy oak in the middle of it and a stile at the other end of the path. The rector
walked straight through the field, but when he got to the other side of it, the stile was not to be found, and
what was more the path had gone. The rector walked along the hedge, feeling for any possible gap, but
there was none. When he got back the gate had gone as well as the stile. He walked round and round the
field, following the hedge for several hours, until suddenly the spell lifted and he found the gate. He went
through it and home, where he took his bicycle and went by the road. The usual spell in Ireland as in
England against fairy misleading is to turn one's coat. The rector did not try the spell of Turning Clothes,
but D. A. Mac Manus says that it has been tried with the stray sod and has failed. About how to get hold of
a fairy, see: FAIRY SPELLS. # 100 - 407

STROKE

The traditional name for a paralytic seizure. It was a shortened version of 'fairy-stroke' or 'elf-stroke'. It was
generally believed that the victim had been carried away by the fairies and what Kirk calls 'a lingering
substituted image' left in his place. This was sometimes supposed to be a fairy baby or an aged fairy or,
alternatively, a Stock, a roughly-carved wooden image which was given by Glamour the appearance of the
victim. It was sometimes supposed to happen to cattle and other stock. An example occurs in 'The
Tacksman of Auchriachan', told in Stewart's POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS OF THE HIGHLANDS. An
example of a human image of wood occurs in the story of Sandy Harg's Wife. Honey-dew, the excreta of
aphides, was also called 'stroke', and was associated with the smaller Trooping Fairies who were supposed
to feed on it. See also: BLIGHTS AND ILLNESSES ATTRIBUTED TO THE FAIRIES. # 100 - 370 - 621

SUALTAM MAC ROIG

(soo'al tah môc ro'eh) The reputed father of CuChulain, and the mortal husband of Dechtire. His severed
head called warning to the men of Ulster when Medb attacked them. Bran's head gave similar warning and
protection to Britain. # 166 - 454

SUBTERRANEAN PASSAGES

Legends of secret underground passages are always fascinating. There are many of these stories to be heard
in Wales. Generally they seem very far-fetched, particularly in view of the incredible distances involved
and the amount of labour that would be required to engineer such routes. But in a few cases the legends
have been proved to be based on an element of truth. We often read in the newspapers of workmen,
engaged on road repairs or excavation work, who have by chance broken into stone-lined subterranean
passages. Unfortunately in most cases they are found to be blocked by roof falls after a short distance. -
Churchyard, writing about his visit to the ruins of the Roman city of Caerleon in 1587, recorded, 'I have
seen caves underground that go I know not how far, all made of excellent work and goodly great stones
both overhead and underfoot.' Today there are several legends of mysterious underground passages
associated with Caerleon and it would seem that in Churchyard's day they were still accessible. Throughout
Britain there is an abundance of these stories and many of them are linked with tales of buried treasure
which is generally supposed to be guarded by dragons, fierce eagles or nasty ghosts. There are other
legends that concern an inquisitive fiddler or hornblower who enters an underground passage. People on the
surface listen to him playing his instrument and follow his movements until the playing stops but he is
never seen again. During times of unrest or persecution some tunnels are reputed to have been utilized by
people in order to escape from their enemies. At Machynlleth there is supposed to be a secret passage from
the Royal House (which used to be the town gaol) to the river. It is said that Charles I was once held
prisoner here and was helped to escape by way of this passage.

A few miles away is Mathafarn House where an underground tunnel is supposed to link with Owain
Glyndwr's old Parliament House at Machynlleth. - Near Knighton the monks from Monaughty are believed
to have escaped when their monastery was attacked, by making their way along an underground passage to
Pilleth. A similar story occurs on Gower where a secret passage is supposed to lead from Penrice Church to
Sanctuary Farm where a nunnery once stood. Llansteffan Castle, Dyfed. Stories are told of an underground
passage leading from this old castle to a mansion called Plas Llansteffan. Apparently in olden days many
attempts were made to complete the journey down this mysterious passage - but always in vain, for a ghost
blew out the candles of everyone who entered the passage after proceeding a certain distance. No attempts
in modern times with the use of flashlight have been reported. - The Culver Hole, near Port Eynon, West
Glamorgan, is one of the strangest places in Wales. It is reached on foot by following the coast around to
the north from Port Eynon. Sixty feet of rough masonry have been built to seal up a cleft in the rocks. A
tricky scramble gives access to a steep stone staircase leading to a smaller upper chamber. The purpose of
this construction has never been satisfactorily explained. Some say that it was a smuggler's cave but surely
it was far too obvious for that purpose. Others claim that it was built as a columbarium where pigeons were
bred for food. Or was it some sort of castle built by the pirate John Lucas? There is a legend of a secret
passage to the Salthouse which he is said to have built. In 1850 the local curate dug up several mammoth
bones and a skull so large that he was unable to get it out of the cave. So he buried it again. Whether it has
since been removed is not known. # 49

SUBTERRANEANS, THE

Robert Kirk calls those Highland fairies that live under the fairy hills, or Brochs, Subterraneans. They do
not always inhabit the same hill, but travel from place to place, moving their lodgings always at quarter
day. In this they seem to differ from those fairies that live constantly under some human habitation and
seem to resemble the Roman LEMURES in being the spirits of ancestral inhabitants. Kirk says, however,
that the Highlanders believe these mounds to be the homes of their dead ancestors and therefore sacred. In
their 'flitting' times, therefore, they may be equated with the Sluagh. # 100 - 370

SULIS

We know that 'Sulis' was the name of the native goddess, from her inscriptions, and that she was linked to
the thermal waters at Bath who was twinned with Minerva at the Roman occupation, which is the only
reference we have to Sulis, but this is not surprising, as Celtic or British deities often had a strictly local
identity relating to the environment. Her cult was evidently well-established since the Roman temple
incorporated the worship of other deities apart from herself. Sulis was a goddess of hot springs, the
Underworld, of knowledge and prophesy. She includes in her name the meaning 'orifice or gap'. She was
responsible for therapy. There is no reason to assume that Sulis, with the three basic attributes that we have,
was any different from other aspects of this type of goddess, and there is plenty of additional evidence to
support the theory that she was, indeed, a pre-Roman deity similar to the fierce and powerful beings that we
know from Irish, Welsh, and other native traditions dating back to magical and mythical originals. Her
eternal fire was supposed to have been brought by Aeneas from the sacked city of Troy, a theme that recur
in the legend of the founder of Bath, King Bladud who, disfigured by a leprous skin-disease, bathed in the
hot mud which pigs used to heal their own sores. He founded Sulis' temple over the spot. The restored
Roman temple is most impressive, incorporating all levels of building and indicating the vast spiritual
resources available at that site. # 627

SUMMER COUNTRY

A name for the otherworld kingdom ruled over by Melwas. He abducted Guinevere to this land and Arthur
rescued her. It may be a source for the county of Somerset. # 454

SUN

Among the Celts the sun was known as Sol or Sul or Sulis. Her rites were celebrated especially on hilltops
overlooking springs, like the springs of Bath, which used to be called Aquae Sulis. The Romans set up
altars to her under the name of Sul Minerva. Various priestesses dedicated to her entered Celtic mythology
as sun-women, like Iseult, Grainne, and Deirdre. Many of the old pagan festivals involving bonfires,
torches, candles and other lights were originally dedicated to the Goddess-as-Sun, or to the Goddess as
controller of the sun and its cycles. # 701

SUN GODDESS

To the Celts she was Sul or Sulis, from SUIL, the sun's eye. At doomsday, she would give birth to a
daughter sun who would illuminate the new world to come. In England she was worshiped at Silbury Hill
(Sulisbury) and at Bath, where the Romans identified her with Minerva and built altars to Sul Minerva. #
701 p 221

SUN SIGN

It might have been an anticipation of the Sun-goddess of the next universe that placed her symbol on the
rock faces of Celtic megalithic monuments, such as New Grange in Ireland, where she appears as a dotted
and rayed sun sign. # 701 p 14

SUPERNATURAL WIZARDS

It can be difficult at times to distinguish the true supernatural wizard from the wizard who has acquired his
skill, however unusual, from practical experience and training and some inborn aptitude. The wizards of the
Sidhe, such, for instance, as Bresil, the druid who laid the spell of diminishment on Etain, may be counted
as minor supernatural wizards, and so may the Giant wizards who have their lives hidden away in a
separable soul, such as the wizard giant in 'The Battle of the Birds'; but the true supernatural wizard is he
who started as a god. Gwydion is an example of this; so is Bran the Blessed. # 100

SURLUSE

A kingdom, perhaps identical with Sorelois, of which Galehaut made himself master. When Arthur was
living with the False Guinevere, Galehaut gave the genuine Guinevere the kingdom of Surluse. The River
Assurne marked its boundaries with Logres. # 156

SWAN

Celtic swan divinities are solar, benificent and sacred. They are prominent in Celtic symbolism and have
magic powers of music, also the therapeutic powers of the sun and waters; they also represent love and
purity. Swans can be shape-shifters and can assume human form, a theme which appears frequently in myth
and fairy tale; they can be recognized by having gold and silver chains round their necks. As a creature of
the three elements - earth, air and water - the swan can command all three. The children of Lir were
transformed into swans by their step-mother and lived thus for 900 years until at last Saint Mochaomhog's
churh bells released them. # 161

SWAN MAIDENS

The swan maiden story has currency all over the world, but in Britain it occurs most often in Celtic fairy-
tales. In the general run of the stories, the enchanted maidens are the daughters of a royal Magician. The
hero sees them bathing or dancing, falls in love with one of them and steal her feather cloak. A swan is one
of the most usual forms for the maidens to assume, but they are often doves or partridges. In the main type
of the swan maiden tale, the hero is set tasks by the wizard father and helped by his future wife. The story
often follows the same pattern as Nicht Nought Nothing, with the obstacle flight, the destruction of the
wizard and the breach of Taboo which causes magical forgetfulness resolved by the motif of the bartered
bed. Hartland in THE SCIENCE OF FAIRY TALES analyses the swan maiden tale in detail and treats the
Seal Maiden legend as a variant of the same tale. This, however, is a much simpler tale, the seal-skin is a
more necessary part of the seal maiden's life, the finding of the skin and escape into the sea is intrinsic to
the seal maiden story, although it occasionally occurs in the pure swan maiden type. A representative
example of the Scottish swan maiden story is to be found in WAIFS AND STRAYS OF CELTIC
TRADITION, VOL. III, the tale of 'The Son of the King of Ireland and the Daughter of the King of the Red
Cap'. # 100 - 288 - 691

SWARTH
The appearance of a person as a death omen in Cumberland. Mentioned by William Henderson in FOLK
LORE OF THE NORTHERN COUNTIES. The Yorkshire equivalent is Waff. # 100 - 302

SWINE

Swine played an important part in the life of the Celts. Its flesh was regarded as food for the gods at
otherworld feasts. The pig was the attribute of Manannan, whose pigs provided supernatural food since
when they were killed and eaten they returned daily to supply more. The Celtic sow goddess Ceridwen, the
'Old White One', is a Great Mother and Phaea, the 'Shining One', represents the moon and fertility. Maccus
was a swine-god and the worship of the pig was widespread. Some tribes abstained from swine-flesh and it
was not eaten by the Galatian Celts and little eaten in the Highlands of Scotland, although it was eaten in
Ireland. The boar was ceremoniously hunted and killed by the Celts. The black sow is death, cold and evil.
See also: BOAR, and PIG. # 161

SWITHUN, SAINT

(d. 862) Bishop of Winchester. He was the tutor of King Ethelwulf who later made him Bishop. Swithun is
popularly credited with control of the weather. He particularly asked to be buried outside Winchester
Cathedral but was later transferred inside the church on 15 July; such was the heavy rainfall and
accompanying miracles, that he was moved back to his original resting-place. If it rains on that day it is
believed that rain will continue falling for another forty days. # 454

SWORD

Swords of heroes and sacred kings typically came out of a stone, a tree, or water, having been forged in
fairyland or under the earth by magical beings. On the hero's death, the sword returns to its origin. Some
famous magical or holy swords include Arthur's Excalibur, Lancelot's Arondight, and Beowulf's Hrunting.
# 701 p 31

SWORD OF STRANGE HANGINGS

A sword which once belonged to King David of Israel. His son Solomon placed it aboard his ship, his wife
having made the hempen hangings for it. Later these were replaced by Perceval's sister who made hangings
for it with her hair. # 153 - 156

SWORD-BRIDGE

The bridge which separates this world and the Otherworld. It first makes its appearance in CULHWCH
AND OLWEN where one of Arthur's allies, Osla Big-Knife, lays his knife down over a river in order to
help Arthur and his host cross. It passed into the mythos of Lancelot who has to cross such a bridge to
rescue Guinevere from Melwas. It also becomes one of the tests which the Grail Knights have to undergo in
order to reach the Castle of the Grail. CuChulain learns to cross a similar bridge when he is trained by
Scathach. # 272 - 418 - 434 - 451 - 454 - 517
TABLE MAN

See: SEVEN KINGS OF CORNWALL.

TABOO

A recent term in English, first introduced into the language by Captain Cook in his VOYAGE TO THE
PACIFIC (1777). It is to be found in various forms and spellings through the South Sea Islands, but always
as an adjective, with the meaning of 'sacred' or forbidden. The verbal use of 'under a taboo' was introduced
by Tylor in his EARLY HISTORY OF MAN. In that sense it is virtually the same as the Irish Geasa, a
mysterious prohibition which was magically laid upon an individual, and once laid was irremovable. Some
unfortunate people had conflicting geasas laid upon them, like CuChulain, who might refuse no invitation
to meat and might not eat the flesh of a dog. Other taboos that are not called geasas are like those laid on
the men wedding fairy brides who might not reproach them with their inhuman origin or might not give
them causeless blows. Some fairies impose a taboo that they may not be thanked, and a taboo of secrecy is
imposed by many, The UTTER NOT WE YOU IMPLORE of the fairies by Ben Jonson. # 100 - 349

TAILTIU

Foster-mother of Lugh. She was the daughter of the King of Spain who married Eochaid of the Tuatha de
Danaan. She cleared a plain on the site of Coill Chuan, and that place was named Tailtiu after her. She was
remembered ever after by mourning the games which were performed by Lugh and other kings after him.
They were held for a month and became known as the Assembly of Lugh or Lughnasadh - after which the
month of August is now called in Ireland. # 454 - 548

TAIN BO CUALGNE

(thawn-bo-coo-alg'ny - or - tahn bo cooley) See also: CUALGNE, THE CATTLERAID OF. An ancient
piece of Aryan mythology is embedded in it. The Brown Bull is the counterpart of the Hindu sky-deity,
Indra, represented in Hindu myth as a mighty bull, whose roaring is the thunder and who lets loose the rains
'like cows streaming forth to pasture.' The two animals in the Celtic legend probably typify the sky in
different aspects. They are described with a pomp and circumstance which shows that they are no common
beasts. The Brown Bull is described as having a back broad enough for fifty children to play on; when he is
angry with his keeper he stamps the man thirty feet into the ground; he is likened to a sea wave, to a bear,
to a dragon. We are therefore concerned with no ordinary cattle-raid, but with a myth, the features of which
are discernible under the dressing given it by the fervid imagination of the unknown Celtic bard who
composed the TAIN although the exact meaning of every detail may be difficult to ascertain. # 166 - 562

TAITHCHWANT

It was through a taithchwant, a wanderlust intense and strong that Beli the Great King of the Otherworld,
created or added the dark into his realm of pure light and happiness. To obey the taithchwant he had to
choose which of his two sons Llud and Nudd, who were equal in goodness, should be king and ruler over
his realm during his travel. It was indeed a very difficult decision, but at last he chose Llud, which finally
turned Nudd into his opponent and savage enemy. # 383 p 266 ff

TALIESIN

(tal-YESS-in) The figure of the bard was among the most important at the court of the Celtic princes. Their
task was to remember the songs and stories which told of every man's ancestors. Thus the Celts buried their
dead in unmarked graves since they knew that while the bards survived so would the memory of the mighty
dead. Undoubtedly the most famous of these men was Taliesin, an actual historic personage who lived
towards the middle of the sixth century and left a substantial body of material behind, though in a form
much muddled and misunderstood. His fame as a semi-mythical character in the HANES TALIESIN (Story
of Taliesin) wrought a curious circumstance whereby a vast amount of mythical and mystical teaching
constellated around the figure of the historical bard. An entire system of Celtic magical teaching lies buried
within the poems and stories about Taliesin and many attempts have been made to decipher it. Among the
first to attempt a serious and reasonably accurate translation was the nineteenth-century scholar W. F.
Skene, who published the text and translation of THE FOUR ANCIENT BOOKS OF WALES (including
'The Book of Taliesin') in 1868. His work was shortly followed by a lengthy commentary with further
translations by D. W. Nash, whose vituperative attack on his predecessors is often, in retrospect, amusing.
The extract, gives the best of his commentary, which is exhaustive and lively. His book remains the most
reliable until now on the subject. Taliesin was the greatest poet of the Island of Britain: he saw and foretold
many of the events of Arthur's reign and the ages to follow. According to a seventeenth-century text (of
admittedly earlier provenance) attached to the MABINOGION collection, he was once named Gwion Bach
and was set to watch over the cauldron of Ceridwen in which was brewed a drink of knowledge and
inspiration intended for her son, Morfran or Afagddu. Some drops splashed out onto his fingers which he
then thrust into his mouth, in order to cool them. So did he have access to all knowledge. He subsequently
underwent a series of transformations (analogous to his poetic initiation) and was finally reborn of
Ceridwen as Taliesin (Radiant Brow). - She set the baby poet in a coracle and he was found on May-Eve at
the Salmon Weir by Elphin who became his patron. Taliesin subsequently rescued his master from prison
and silenced the bards of Maelgwn.

He sailed with Arthur on Prydwen when the king led the raid on Annwn in order to recover the Hallows of
Britain. He has been identified with a sixthcentury poet of the same name and is associated with both
Merlin and Aneurin. A similar gaining of knowledge scenario is told of Fionn. In Taliesin, the mantic and
magical powers of the ancient poet-kind are revealed. His famous 'I have beens' boast, in which he lists the
places and people he has been and met throughout time reveal the nature of his poetic initiation in which all
knowledge is recapitulated.

His pursuit by Ceridwen in her hag-aspect is a remnant of a once widespread myth in which the Cailleach
Bheare/Bheur pursues her son, the God of Youth or Mabon, through countless transformations until he is
possessed of all knowledge. Taliesin became famed for his poetry. He is said to have adressed Urien of
Rheged poetically, but he may have been a visitor to Urien's realm rather than a resident and have been of
south Welsh provenance. Taliesin was regarded as both poet and prophet. In both Welsh tradition and the
VITA MERLINI he is represented as discoursing with Merlin. The verse ascribed to him is difficult to
understand. Tolstoy contends that it may originally have been regarded as the work of Merlin and only later
attributed to Taliesin.

TALIESIN, BEDD

Bedd Taliesin, north-east of Talybont, on the slopes of Moel y Garn, Dyfed. From Talybont a lane leads N.
E. climbing on to moor and in 2 miles on a lonely hillside reaching Bedd Taliesin. The barrow is reputed to
contain the remains of of the sixth-century bard Taliesin, once the chief bard of Britain. His birth was
suppose to be quite miraculous. He was found as a baby in a coracle caught in a fish weir near Borth, by
Elphin, a local prince. Years later Taliesin returned the favour by managing to rescue Prince Elphin from
the dungeon of Deganwy Castle. Many of the legends associated with this ancient poet are to be found in
the MABINOGION. The barrow consists of a large stone slab and a cairn. The other stones have been
removed over the years, probably by farmers looking for suitable stones for erecting gate-posts, and in
1991 there were but fragments left from what we can see in the photo taken by Chris Barber and to be
found in his book from 1982 MYSTERIOUS WALES. In the nineteenth century an attempt was made to
discover the bones of Taliesin and remove them to a more holy place. But while the wellmeaning persons
were digging, they were suddenly startled by a terrible thunderstorm. Lightning flashed and struck the
ground with a loud crack. The men fled for their lives, leaving their tools behind, and they never returned to
try again. # 49
TALKENN

Means Adze-head. Name given to Saint Patrick by the Irish. # 562

TALLAS

The King of Denmark in CLARIS ET LARIS. He made Laris a prisoner but Claris rescued him. # 156

TALTIU TELTA

Daugther of the King of the 'Great Plain' (The Land of the Dead), wedded by Eochy mac Erc. # 562

TAM LIN

The guardian of Carterhaugh Wood who exacted the maidenhead of any maiden who went there. His true
love, Janet, rescued him from his bondage to the Queen of Fairy. At Hallowe'en Janet dragged him off his
horse and held on to him resolutely while he shape-shifted in her arms into various wild beasts. At last he
was his own self and free of the Queen's spell. Here we have the summoning of a spirit by breaking the
branch of a tree sacred to him, the Fairy Rade with its jingling bells at Hallowe'en, the time most sacred to
the fairies, the Fairy Knowe, the Teind to Hell - so characteristic of Scottish Fairyland - the rescue from
Fairyland by holding fast, the shape-shifting of the captive, and the essential illwill of the Fairy Queen.
Tamlin, Tamlane, Tam Lin, Tam-a-Lin were names often given to a fairy, sometimes a page and sometimes
to a knight. # 100 - 150 - 454 - 762

TANABURS

A wizard who lived before Uther, second in sorcery only to Merlin. He laid a spell on Carbonek so that this
castle could be found only by certain knights whom chance would lead to it. # 30 - 156

TARA

# 562: Seat of the High Kings of Ireland. The Stone of Scone sent from Tara to Scotland. It was at Tara that
Lugh accused the sons of Tuirenn, of the murder of his father, Cian. Bull feast at Tara to decide by
divination who should be king in Eterskel's stead. CuChulain's head and hand buried at Tara.

# 548: In discussing the feminine nature of kingship, we observed that the kings of Ireland were men who
showed favour to, or were accepted by, the lady who personified the realm. Installation was a 'king-
marriage'. In the ritual of Tara, on the other hand, the king must be acknowledged by an embodiment of the
masculine principle. Ireland, in addition to bearing the names of various goddesses, is called the 'Plain of
Fál', or the 'Island of Fál', the Irish are 'the men of Fál', the king 'the ruler of Fál'. Fál is the name of a stone
on the Hill of Tara. It is characterized as 'the stone penis', and in later tradition as 'the member of Fergus'.
This is the 'Stone of Knowledge' which cries out under the destined king. One story speaks of a more
elaborate ritual in which the cry of Fál is preceded by a symbolical rebirth. There were two flagstones at
Tara, called Blocc and Bluigne, which stood so close together that one's hand could only pass sideways
between them. When they accepted a man, they would open before him until his chariot went through. 'And
Fál was there, the "stone penis" at the head of the chariot-course (?); when a man should have the kingship,
it screeched against his chariot axle, so that all might hear.' The court of Tara, the centre of the Plain of Fál,
was the quintessence of the state. A medieval source tells how King Domnall son of Aed established his
seat at Dún na nGéd, on the banks of Boyne, because Tara had been cursed by all the saints of Ireland. 'And
he drew seven great ramparts about that fort after the manner of Tara of the kings, and he designed even the
houses of the fort after the manner of the houses of Tara: namely, the great Central Hall, where the king
himself used to abide with kings and queens and ollams and all that were best in every art; and the Hall of
Munster and the Hall of Leinster and the Banquet-Hall of Connacht and the Assembly-Hall of Ulster.' In
addition to the Central Hall and the Halls of the four Great Provinces there were 'the Prison of the Hostages
and the Star of the Poets and the Palace (Grianan) of the Single Pillar (which Cormach son of Art first made
for his daughter) and all the other houses. It seems likely that the four provincial halls at Tara were arranged
around the Central Hall, and the plan of the whole state was further reproduced within the Central Hall
itself. 'And he (Domnall) summoned the men of Ireland to this feast at Tara. A couch was prepared for
Domnall in the midst of the royal palace at Tara and afterwards the host were seated. The men of Munster
in the southern quarter of the house. The men of Connaught in the western part of the house. The men of
Ulster in the northern. The men of Leinster in the eastern side of it.' And in the middle of the hall sat the
five kings. 'The CENTRE OF IRELAND around Domnall in that house. Thus was the court made. The king
of Leinster on the couch opposite in the east, the king of Munster on his right hand, the king of Connacht at
his back, the king of Ulster on his left hand.

It is noted in A NEW VERSION OF THE BATTLE OF MAG RATH, ed. and transl. by C. Marstrander in
ERIU, V, that if the high-king had been of the Southern Ui Néill the arrangement would have been slightly
different. In THE BANQUET OF DUN NA NGED' this diffrence seems to be greater: 'The custom was that
when a king of the Southern Ui Néill was High King the king of Connacht should be at his right hand, and
when a king of the Northern Ui Néill was High King, the king of Ulster on his right and the king of
Connacht on his left.' One wonders whether a high-king of the Southern Ui Néill faced southwards and a
high-king of the Northern Ui Néill faced northwards. With the alternation of the kings of Connacht and
Ulster as the high-king's right hand, cf. 'There was a covenant between Lugaid and Ailill Aulum and
between their offspring after them that whenever Aulum's offspring held the kingship, Lugaid's offspring
should hold the judgeship, but when Lugaid's offspring held the kingship, Aulum's sons were to hold the
judgeship. Lugaid and Ailill made this arrangement in the presence of Connall of the Hundred Victories
over one half of Ireland. Thus the men of Leinster and Munster held kingship and judgeship. And thus the
orientation of the group accords with the dual meaning of the usual Gaelic terms for the four directions,
north, south, east, and west, meaning also left, right, before, and behind, respectively. These kings may not
have had the political power of a Louis XIV, but in the realm of symbolism they could legitimately
proclaim: l'état cést nous. The division of a city, a land, or the world, into four quarters with a central fifth
is anything but unique. We can find resemblance of this in both ancient China and India. And again, the
Grail Castle as pictured in SONE DE NAUSSAY is a complete cosmic symbol. It is built on an island, with
four towers (elsewhere given as a square), which 'is the palace'. Evidence of this kind which could be
quoted from many other parts of the world leaves us in no doubt as to the cosmological significance of the
four and central fifth in Ireland. The view of the diversion of Tara's Banqueting Hall, allegorical speaking,
is deeply expounded in A. Rees, and B. Rees: Celtic Heritage, chapter seven. # 70 - 106 - 273 - 312 - 467 -
548 - 562 - 605 - 764

TARAN TAFOD

The Dark Tongue. A request or prayer for help to slay an enemy to the Taran Tafod may sound like this:
'CWMWL DYFOD! GWYNT DYRNOD!' and 'DYRNOD! DYFOD! TYMESTL RHUO! - TERFESGU!'
where the chief-bards outcry for help brought a terrible thunderstorm with heavy rain and hail to fall
exclusively over the enemy. # 384 p 81

TARANIS

The Lord of Thunder. Taranis, god of the wheel. One of the powerful Father Gods, associated with forces of
change. The Romans associated him with their Jupiter, and with the shadowy Dis Pater, the primal god of
the Underworld. His connection to the oak tree and to thunder, both of which were important symbols and
entities in Druidism, suggests that he may have been a specifically Druidic father god. # 628 p 70

TARANS
In the north-east of Scotland the spirits of babies who have died without baptism are called 'Tarans'.
McPherson, in PRIMITIVE BELIEFS IN THE NORTH EAST OF SCOTLAND, quotes from Pennant's
TOUR OF SCOTLAND, the Banff section: The little spectres, called Tarans, or the souls of unbaptized
infants, were often seen flitting among the woods and secret places, bewailing in soft voices their hard fate.
In the Lowlands and in Somerset these would be called Spunkies. Little Short Hoggers of Whittinghame
was one of the Spunkies. # 100 - 465

TARBFEIS

(TAR-vaysh)

TAROT

See: ARTHURIAN TAROT, THE, - and HALLOWQUEST, and MERLIN'S TAROT, and CELTIC
TAROT, THE.

TARSENESYDE

See: ENID.

TAULAT

A villain who came to Arthur's court and slew a knight in front of the queen, promising to return each year
to do the same. He was eventually defeated by Jaufré. # 30 - 156

TEGAU EURFON

The wife of Caradoc Briefbras in Welsh tradition. She had three treasures: a mantle, a cup and a carving
knife. See: THIRTEEN TREASURES. # 156

TEGID FOEL

Husband of Ceridwen. A man of Penllyn, his home is said to have been in Lake Tegid. He appears in many
Welsh genealogies. # 272 - 454 - 562

TEIND

The old Lowland term for the tithe. It was the tribute due to be paid by the fairies to the Devil every seven
years. The mention of it is to be found in the ballad of 'True Thomas and the Queen of Elfland'. # 100

TEIRNYON TWYRVLIANT

(tair-NON turv-LEE-ant) A man of Gwent ys Coed, who finds and restore Pryderi. # 562

TELLTOWN TELTIN

Palace at Telltown (Teltin) of Telta, Eochy mac Erc's wife. There was a great battle at Teltin between
Danaans and Milesians. After Conary's death, Conall of the Victories makes his way to Teltin. # 562

TEMPLEISE
In Wolfram, the knights who guarded the Grail. # 156 - 748

TERRE FORAINE

A country ruled by King Kalafes who was converted to Christianity by Alan. Alan's brother, Joshua,
succeeded Kalafes. La Terre Foraine was possibly identical with Listenois and was said to have been under
the rule of King Pellehan in Arthurian times. Perceval's aunt was once its queen and it may have been
identical with the Waste Land. # 153 - 156

TERRESTIAL PARADISE

In the Middle Ages, it was conjectured that the Garden of Eden was still in existence and its whereabouts
could be discovered. In LE CHANSON d'ESCLARMONDE (an obscure medieval work), the heroine
Esclarmonde was taken by Morgan to the Terrestrial Paradise where she bathed in the Fountain of Youth. #
156

TERRIBLE, THE

A demon who by strange test decides the Championship of Ireland. # 562

TEYRNON TURF LIANT

His epithet means 'Lord of the raging Wave', but is generally believed to be drawn from the Celtic form
'Tigernonos' or Great Lord. He was the rescuer and foster-father of Pryderi. His part within the story of
Rhiannon may once have been greater if the Celtic derivation of his name is any clue. Rhiannon marries
Manawyddan who is closely associated with the sea and who might well share Teyrnon's title. Rhiannon is
derived from the Celtic form, 'Rigantona' or Great Queen a suitable title for the wife of Tigernonos. The
father of Pryderi is also uncertain, since Rhiannon was probably the wife of Arawn or a Lord of Annwn
prior to Pwyll. # 272 - 439 - 454

THANEY

The mother of Saint Kentigern in the LIFE of that Saint. She is described as the daughter of Lot. # 156

THANOR

Tristan had to fight Marhaus over the tribute which Cornwall paid to Ireland, this having been instituted at
the time of King Thanor of Cornwall as payment for Irish help against King Pellas of Leonois. # 156

THEFTS FROM THE FAIRIES

Considering the awe in which the fairies were held, is it surprising how many attempts, some of them
successful, were made to take gold and silver plate out of their mounds. Gervase of Tilbury tells a story of a
fairy cup-bearer who appeared from a mound near Gloucester and offered drink to any huntsman who
asked for it. One was so ungrateful as to carry off the cup and present it to the Earl of Gloucester, who,
however, executed him as a robber and gave the cup to Henry I. In his SUPERSTITIONS OF THE
HIGHLANDS AND ISLANDS OF SCOTLAND several versions of 'Luran' stories is given. In one version
the fairies steal from Luran and he tries to make up his losses by stealing from the fairies. He is not finally
successful. A feature of the story is the friendly adviser among the fairies. He is generally called 'The Red-
headed Man' and is supposed to be a captured human who retains his sympathy with his fellow men. # 100
- 131 - 246
THEMSELVES

or They, or Them that's in it. Manx euphemistic names for the fairies, 'fairy' being generally considered an
unlucky word to use. It is sometimes said that 'Themselves' are the souls of those drowned in Noah's
Flood.# 100

THEORIES OF FAIRY ORIGINS

The people who believe in the existence of fairies has different notions about their origin. Folklorists are
more concerned in the origin of fairy beliefs; what is important to them is not so much whether the fairies
really exist as whether their existence is actually believed in by the people who tell about them. When that
has been discovered, the folklorist's next object is to find out the grounds on which the belief was founded.
Various suggestions have been put forward, either as full or partial solutions of the problem. One of the
most well-supported is that which equates the fairies with the dead. Lewis Spence in BRITISH FAIRY
ORIGINS makes a very plausible case for this theory. He can bring forward plenty of evidence from
tradition, as, for instance, Lady Wilde's accounts of Finvarra's court, and Botrell's story 'The Fairy Dwelling
on Selena Moor'. According to Kirk, the fairy Knowes by the churchyard were supposed to be places were
the souls of the dead lodged, waiting to rejoin their bodies on the Day of Judgement.

The small size of the fairies might be plausibly accounted for by the primitive idea of the soul as a
miniature replica of the man himself, which emerged from the owner's mouth in sleep or unconsciousness.
If its return was prevented, the man died. David Mac Ritchie in THE TESTIMONY OF TRADITION and
other writings was the chief exponent of the theory that the fairy beliefs were founded on the memory of a
more primitive race driven into hiding by the invaders, lurking in caves or fens, some of them
halfdomesticated and doing chores about the houses like the shaggy and unkempt Brownie. Such tales as
'The Isle of Sanntraigh' give verisimilitude to the theory, but it does not cover all forms of fairy belief. A
third suggestion which attempts to cover only part of the ground is that the fairies are dwindled gods or
nature spirits. This was undoubtedly true of the Daoine Sidh and possibly of the Tylwyth Teg, and of a few
of the more primitive spirits such as the Cailleach Bheur, the Hag of Winter, Black Annis and so on. Tree
and water spirits might also be traced to this source. The psychological foundation of folk-tales, explored at
some depth by C. G. Jung, may afford some valuable hints to folklorists probing into the foundation of
fairy beliefs, and their curious plausibility as if the mind leapt to receive them. On the whole we may say
that it is unwise to commit oneself blindfold to any solitary theory of the origins of fairy belief, but that it is
most probable that these are all strands in a tightly twisted cord. # 100 - 409 - 611

THEY

See: THEMSELVES.

THIRTEEN TREASURES OF THE ISLAND OF BRITAIN

Sometimes two more tresures were added to the originally number of thirteen: the mantle of Tegau
Eurvron, and the stone and ring of Eluned. But from the following list (a late medieval version) we can still
discern their earlier prototypes, which is the sovereigntybestowing objects, similar to the Hallows, which
Arthur is said to have journeyed to Annwn in his ship Prydwen to fetch.

1. Dyrnwyn, sword of Rhydderch Hael (the Generous): in the hands of a nobleman it would burst
into flame from hilt to tip. (Arthur's sword Caledfwlch or Excalibur has the same ability in THE
DREAM OF RHONABWY.)
2. The Hamper of Gwyddno Garanhir: food for one man could be put into it and food for a hundred
would be found when next opened. (This resembles the hamper which is stolen from the court of
Lludd.)
3. The Horn of Bran: this dispensed whatever drink one wanted. (Bran the Blessed became known as
a Grail guardian because of his cauldron of rebirth. This horn is clearly similar in function to the
Grail which serves whatever food one likes best.)
4. The Chariot of Morgan the Wealthy: transported its owner wherever he wished to go quickly.
5. The Halter of Clyno Eiddyn which was attached to the owner's bedfoot by a staple: whatever horse
one wished for would be found in the halter. (Such a dream-horse would be much desired by the
horseloving Celts.)
6. The Knife of Llawfronedd the Horseman: this would carve for twentyfour men at a meal.
7. The Cauldron of Diwrnach the Giant: would not boil a coward's food but only that of a brave man.
(This is the one treasure mentioned in CULHWCH AND OLWEN which Arthur successfully
fetches.)
8. The Whetstone of Tudwal Tudglyd: if a brave man sharpened his sword upon it it would draw out
the life of any man it wounded, though a coward's sword would be unchanged.
9. The Coat of Padarn Red-Coat: it would only fit a nobleman, not a churl. (This resembles the
Mantle of Faithful Wives which will cover the nakedness of a faithful woman but not an
adulteress, in Arthurian legend.)
10. The Crock of Rhygenydd: in which would be found the food one liked best.
11. The Dish of Rhygenydd: in which would be found the food one liked best.
12. The Gwyddbwll board of Gwenddolau: the pieces were of silver, the board of gold and they
played by themselves when it was set up. (This Chessboard appears in PEREDUR where Peredur
plays and, when his side loses, he casts the whole board into a lake). In that story it is termed 'the
Chessboard of the Empress' where it clearly indicates the Land of Sovereignty.
13. The Mantle of Arthur: whoever wore it was invisible. (This cloak is also that worn by Caswallawn
when he enchants Britain; it is probably also that of Curoi mac Daire who is specifically termed
'the grey man in the mantle'.) All thirteen treasures reveal a preoccupation with worthiness of the
person finding or using them: they will not work for the unworthy. This is a clear indication of
their funtion in the king's relationship with Sovereignty: they cannot be found or wielded by any
save the rightful king or champion of the king. - Merlin was supposed to have procured these from
their owners and taken them to his abode of glass on Bardsey Island.

# 104 - 272 - 438 - 439 - 454

THOLOMER

The King of Babylon who first gave land to Evelake but, when the latter became King of Sarras, the two
were drawn into a war against each other. Helped by Joseph of Arimathea, Evelake defeated Tholomer. #
156

THOMAS OF CANTERBURY

(1118-70) Archbishop and Chancellor of England under Henry II. His close friendship with the King did
not survive his appointing Thomas Archbishop, for Thomas refused to prejudice the position of the Church
by bringing its malefactors under secular law as Henry wished. He was exiled in France for six years but
later returned to an uneasy peace. When the King had his son, Prince Henry, crowned as his successor by
bishops who had no right to this prerogative of Canterbury's, Thomas excommunicated the erring clerics.
Henry then, enraged asked his men to 'rid him of this turbulent priest'. For barons readily despatched
themselves for Canterbury, where they slew Thomas in his own cathedral. Henry did extravagant penance
and Thomas became the centre of a great pilgrimage cult. Thomas was not particular saintly, though his
defence of the Church's rights was impressive; as usual the success of his cult was dependent on his
popularity with the people who like to ally themselves with a sinner turned saint against a choleric king.
Canterbury was one of the richest pilgrim-centres in Europe until the Reformation. His feast-day is 29
December. # 454

THOMAS THE RHYMER - TRUE THOMAS


Thomas of Ercledoune lived in the thirteenth century. He met with the Queen of Elfland and visited that
country in her company. He begins his Journey under a hawthorn, the Eildon Tree of physical
manifestation, but leading to the Otherworld. He encounters the tree a second time within the UnderWorld,
as the Tree of Initiation. At first it is the Forbidden Tree, and the Queen of Elfland warns him that its fruit
'bears all the plagues of Hell'. Yet this same tree described as a golden or silver apple tree, or of mixed fruits
and nuts in Celtic lore, is the very source of the gift 'the tongue that cannot lie' the Gift of Prophesy, (these
prophesies were passed down and many were proven true. That Gift is only transformed or purified through
the meditation of the female power: the Queen of Elfland. When Thomas left the mortal world for the last
time, he was led back to the Otherworld by a hind and a doe. He had been seen from time to time by those
who have made visits to Fairyland. # 100 - 150 - 454 - 633 - 76

THOMPSON

The name of a potter in an English legend who happened on Arthur and his men sleeping beneath
Richmond Castle (Yorkshire). On a table lay a horn and a sword. He started to draw the latter, but grew
frightened and dropped it when the knights began to stir. See: POTTER THOMPSON. # 156

THRUMPIN

In FOLK LORE OF THE NORTHERN COUNTIES, William Henderson cites the authority of the Wilkie
manuscript for an instrument of fate called 'the thrumpin' who attented on every man like a dark guardian
angel with the power to take away his life. This belief is found on the Scottish Border. # 100 - 302

TIBERIUS

Emperor of Rome, who supressed Druids, prophets and medicine-men. # 562

TIERNA

(Teer'na) Abbot of Clonmacnois, eleventh-century historian. # 562

TIGERNMAS TIERNMAS

(teern'mas) He was an ancient, legendary king, the fifth Irish king who succeeded Eremon and instituted the
worship of Cromm Cruach, which used human sacrifice in its rites. Tigernmas means 'Lord of Death'. He is
credited with the introduction of gold-mining, silversmithing and the weaving of tartans. # 208 - 454 - 562

TIGERNONOS

A Celtic title meaning 'Great King or Lord'. It is the male equivalent title to Rigantona, a title ascribed to
Rhiannon. # 454

TIME IN FAIRYLAND

The early fairy specialists had a vivid sense of the relativity of time, founded, perhaps, on experiences of
dream or trance, when a dream that covers several years may be experienced between rolling out of bed and
landing on the floor. Occasionally the dimension is in this direction. Hartland, in his exhaustive study of
'The Supernatural Lapse of Time in Fairyland', contained in THE SCIENCE OF FAIRY TALES, is given a
Pembrokeshire example of a visit to Fairyland. A young shepherd joined a fairy dance and found himself in
a glittering palace surrounded by most beautiful gardens, where he passed many years in happiness among
the fairy people. There was only one prohibition: in the middle of the garden there was a fountain, filled
with gold and silver fish, and he was told he must on no account drink out of it. He desired increasingly to
do so, and at last he plunged his hands into the pool. At once the whole place vanished, and he found
himself on the cold hillside among his sheep. Only minutes had passed since he joined the fairy dance.
More often this trance-like experience is told in a more theological setting, the journey of Mahomet to
Paradise, for instance, or the experience of Brahmins or hermits. As a rule, however, time moves in the
other direction, both in visits to Fairyland and to other supernatural worlds. A dance of a few minutes takes
a year and a day of common time, as in the tale of 'Rhys and Llewellyn', a few days of feasting and
merriment have consumed 200 years in the mortal world (see KING HERLA).

This is not always so, for nothing in folk tradition can be contained in an exact and logical system. Elidurus
could go backwards and forwards between Fairyland and his home with no alteration of time, human
midwives to the fairies can visit fairy homes and return the same night, the man who borrowed Fairy
Oinment from the fairy hill was taken into it with impunity, and Isobel Gowdie visited the fairy hills in the
same way to obtain Elf-Shot. Yet, on the whole, it may be said that the man who visits Fairyland does so at
a grave risk of not returning until long after his span of mortal life has been consumed. Sometimes, as in
the Rip Van Winkle tale, a broken taboo, the partaking of fairy food or drink in Fairyland, is followed by an
enchanted sleep during which time passes at a supernatural rate, but it is not always so. Certainly King
Herla and his companions feasted in Fairyland, but there seems no suggestion that the passage of time was
caused by this communion. The effect of the visit was disastrous, but the intention does not seem to have
been unfriendly. The Ossian story, in which the hero goes to live with a fairy bride and returns after some
hundreds of years, is widespread and is even to be found among the best-known of the Japanese fairy-tales,
'Urashima Taro'. Here, as in many other versions, his bride is a seamaiden. Fairyland is often under or
across the sea, and Mermaids are amorous of mortals. When Urashima tries to return home, his bride gives
him a casket in which his years are locked, and old age and death come on him when he opens it.

Hartland in THE SCIENCE OF FAIRY TALES noted an interesting Italian variant of the Ossian tale. In
this, which begins as a Swan Maiden tale, the hero's bride is Fortune, and after once losing her, he follows
her to the Isle of Happiness, where he stays, as he thinks, for two months, but it is really 200 years. When
he insists on returning to visit his mother, Fortune gives him a magnificent black horse to carry him over
the sea, and warns him not to dismount from it, but she is more prudent than Niam of the Golden Locks, for
she goes with him. They ride over the sea together, and find a changed country. As they go towards his
mother's house they meet an old hag with a carriage-load of old shoes behind her, which she has worn out
looking for him. She slips and falls to the ground, and he is bending down to lift her when Fortune calls
out: 'Beware! That is Death!' So they ride on. Next they meet a great lord on a leg-weary horse, which
founders at their side, but before the hero can come to his aid, Fortune cries out again: 'Be careful! That is
the Devil!' And they ride on. But when the hero finds that his mother is dead and long since forgotten, he
turns back with his bride to the Isle of Happiness, and has lived there with her ever since. This is one of the
few stories of fairy brides and visits to Fairyland which ends happily. One of the same motifs occurs in a
Tyrolean story, also told by Hartland. A peasant followed his herd under a stone and into a cave, where a
lady met him, gave him food and offered him a post as a gardener. He worked in the country for some
weeks, and then began to be homesick. They let him go home, but when he got back everything was
strange, and no one recognized him except one old crone, who came up to him and said, 'Where have you
been? I have been looking for you for 200 years.' She took him by the hand, and he fell dead, for she was
the Death.

When people return in this way after long absence they often fall to dust as soon as they eat human food.
This is especially so in the Welsh stories. In a Highland version two men who had returned from Fairyland
on a Sunday went to church, and as soon as the scriptures were read they crumbled into dust. The
suggestion behind all these stories is that Fairyland is a world of the dead, and that those who entered it had
long been dead, and carried back with them an illusory body which crumbled into dust when they met
reality. In Ruth Tongue's moving story 'The Noontide Ghost' in FORGOTTEN FOLKTALES OF THE
ENGLISH COUNTIES, this transformation has already occurred. The old man who long ago met the 'queer
sort of chap' who delayed him with wagering-games and old merriment, returned as a ghost to look for his
long-dead wife, and was called by her up to Heaven after he had told his story to a mortal listener. As in
this tale, the fairy condition, or indeed the entry into eternity, often needs no entry into a geographical
fairyland, underground or underwater. A fairy ring, the encounter with a Fairy Rade, the singing of a
supernatural bird, is enough to surround the mortal with the supernatural condition, so that he stands
invisible and rapt away from the mortal world which continues all around him until the mysterious time-
pattern ceases to have potency. For it is to be noticed that, whatever the differences in pace, human time
and fairy time somehow interlock. The dancer in the fairy circle is nearly always to be rescued after a year
and a day, sometimes after an exact year; two months equal 200 years; an hour may be a day and a night;
there is some relationship. And if times are somehow interconnected, seasons are even more important.
May Day, Midsummer Eve, Hallowe'en are all times when the doors open between the worlds. James
Stephen's IN THE LAND OF YOUTH, a translation of one of the early Irish fairy legends, is a good
example of this. Certain times of day are important too. The four hinges of the day, noontide, dusk,
midnight and early dawn, are cardinal to the fairies. Certain days of the week are also important, days of
danger and days of escape. In fact, however free and wild the course of fairy time appears to be, we find
here as elsewhere traces of the dependence of fairies upon mortals. # 100 - 288 - 619 - 674

TIME TABLE OF KEY EVENTS IN BRITAIN (AD)

43-47 Britain is conquered by Emperor Claudius and becomes an island province of the Roman Empire.

78 Western command of Britain is transferred to the city of Chester and Viroconium becomes a thriving
civilian town.

122 Emperor Hadrian orders the building of Hadrian's Wall between Newcastle and the Solway Firth.

200 The Antonine Wall is abandoned and Hadrian's Wall become the empire's northern frontier.

380 Pelagius leaves Britain for Rome and comes into conflict with the Church.

383 Magnus Maximus is proclaimed emperor by the British legions, invades Gaul and Italy and is defeated
by Theodosius I.

401 Alaric, king of the Visigoths, invades northern Italy.

407 Constantine III is proclaimed emperor by the British legions and inva des Gaul.

408 Alaric lays siege to Rome and Emperor Honorius is forced to withdraw troops rom Britain.

409 Picts and Irish tribes invade North-East Britain and West Wales.

410 Alaric sacks Rome. Honorius is unable to respond to the British plea for rein forcements. The last of
the Roman legions leave Britain.

411 Constantine III is defeated at Arles and is later executed by Honorius.

412 Honorius sends the COMES BRITANNIARUM to Britain, together with an auxiliary legion.

416 The Roman Church proclaims that the teachings of Pelagius constitute a here sy.

418 The COMES BRITANNIARUM is withdrawn from Britain, together with any military precence that
remains.

420 The kingdom of Powys is founded. A major rebuilding of Viroconium takes place.
425 Vortigern ('overlord') assumes control of central and southern Britain.

429 Germanus, bishop of Auxerre, visits Britain as an envoy of the Catholic Church.

445 A plague epidemic reaches Britain, severely weakening Vortigern's control.

446 Pictish raids recommence in northern Britain. Further Irish invasions of West Wales take place.

447 Germanus visits Britain for a second time. Vortigern dies and is succeeded by his son, Vortigern II
(probably Britu).

448 The British make an unsuccessful request for military aid to the Roman consul, Aetius, in Gaul.

449 Vortigern II invites Anglo-Saxon mercenaries into Britain to fight the Picts and Irish.

451 Attila the Hun is defeated at Châlons-sur-Marne.

455 A Saxon revolt led by Hengist and Horsa. The Battle of Egelesprep (Aylesford) takes place, in which
Horsa and Cateyrn die. Hengist establishes the kingdom of Kent. British forces are defeated.

455-60 The Anglo-Saxons take control of eastern Britain. Vortigern II is deposed.

459 The battle of Guoloph is fought, at which Ambrosius fights Vitalinus (probably for controls of Powys).

460 Ambrosius becomes leader of the British forces. British defences are reorga nised. Cunedda and the
Votadini are invited into North Wales to expel the Irish. There is an Imperialist revival in Britain.

470 A British contingent fights for Emperor Anthemius in northern France.

476 Odovacer defeats Emperor Romulus Augustulus and proclaims himself king of Italy. The final collapse
of the Western Roman Empire occurs.

477 The Saxon leader Aelle lands in Sussex.

480 There is a military stalemate between the Britons and the Saxons in the South of England. The Angles
suffer defeat in the North. Cunorix is buried in Viroconium.

485 Aelle defeats the British at Mearcredesburna.

485-88 Arthur fights for Ambrosius against the Angles.

488 Hengist dies and is succeeded by Ochta. Arthur succeeds Ambrosius.

488-93 The Arthurian campaigns.

491 Aelle besieges the fort at Anderida (Pevensey) and establishes the kingdom of Sussex.

493 Arthur defeats Aelle and Ochta at the battle of Badon. The Anglo-Saxons retreat into South-East
England.

495 Cerdic lands in Hampshire, possibly as a mercenary.


508 Cerdic achieves victory over a British king named Natanleod, and establishes control over an area
roughly the size of modern Hampshire. An alliance is made between Cerdic and Cunomorus.

512 Oisc is king of Kent.

519 The battle of Certicesford. The battle of Camlan. THE DEATH OF ARTHUR. Maglocunus becomes
king of Gwynedd. Cuneglasus becomes king of Powys.

520 Viroconium is abandoned.

522 Oisc dies.

530 The Byzantine emperor, Justinian I, fails to recapture the Western Empire.

534 Cynric becomes king of Wessex.

540-45 Gildas writes the DE EXCIDIO CONQUESTU BRITANNIAE.

549 Maglocunus dies.

550 The Drustanus stone is erected.

552 Cynric defeats the Britons at Old Sarum.

555 Buckinghamshire is overwhelmed by the Saxons.

556 The battle of Beranburh (near Swindon).

560 The death of Cynric.

571 Cuthwulf routs the Midland British in Bedfordshire.

575 The battle of Arfderydd, after which Myrddin (Merlin) goes insane (according to the Annales
Cambriae).

577 The British are defeated at the battle of Dyrham; Bath, Cirencester and Glou cester are lost to the
Saxons.

598 The Angle kings Aethelfrid and Aelle defeat the British at Catraeth (Catterick in Yorkshire).

603 The Irish king Aedan is defeated by Aethelfrid in northern England.

604 Aethelfrid moves against Aelle, occupies York and founds the kingdom of Nort humbria.

610 The poem GODODDIN is composed.

613 Aethelfrid defeats a joint Gwynedd/Powys army at Chester, where the Powys king is killed.

614 Wessex Saxons move into Devon.

617 The death of Aethelfrid. Edwin becomes king of Northumbria.


626 Penda breaks with Northumbria and founds the kingdom of Mercia in the East Midlands.

629 Cadwallon of Gwynedd is besieged by Edwin in North Wales.

633 Edwin is defeated by Cadwallon and Penda.

634 The IRISH ANNALES record the burning of Bangor.

635 Cadwallon is defeated by Oswald of Northumbria.

638 Gododdin is overrun by the Angles.

644 Penda of Mercia, in alliance with Cynddylan of Powys, defeats Oswald of Nort humbria at the battle of
Maes Cogwy (Oswestry).

645 The 'hammering of Dyfed' (perhaps by the Irish) took place, according to the ANNALES CAMBRIAE.

649 The 'slaughter of Gwent' (perhaps by the Saxons) takes place according to the ANNALES
CAMBRIAE.

655 Penda, together with Aethelhere of East Anglia, is defeated by Oswy. Peada is king of Mercia. Anna is
king of East Anglia. Mercia and East Anglia become subservient to Northumbria.

656 In this year Penda was killed, and Wulfhere, son of Penda new ruler of Mercia. Cynddylan defeats the
Mercians at Luitcoet.

658 Oswy sacks Powys. The death of Cynddylan. The British lose Staffordshire and Shropshire. Mercians
occupy western Powys.

661 The 'Tribal Hidage' is compiled.

682 The Wessex Saxons consolidate their hold on the entire South-West peninsular, apart from Cornwall.

731 Bede writes the HISTORIA ECCLESIASTICA GENTIS ANGLORUM.

800 The Pope crowns Charlemagne of the Franks as Holy Roman Emperor.

830 Nennius writes the Historia Brittonum.

850 The GODODDIN is committed to writing. CANU LLYWARCH HEN and CANU HELEDD are
composed. Cyngen, king of Powys, erects the Pillar of Eliseg.

854 Cyngen dies while on a pilgrimage to Rome. Rhodri Mawr of Gwynedd becomes king of Powys.

871-99 The ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE is compiled from early monastic records under the
supervision of Alfred the Great.

926 Cornwall is conceded to the English.

927 Athelstan effectively unites the Anglo-Saxon people and becomes first king of all England.
955 The ANNALES CAMBRIAE are compiled.

990 CULHWCH AND OLWEN is composed.

1100 Lifris writes the LIFE OF ST CADOC, in which Arthur is briefly mentioned. 1110 The CHRONICLE
OF MONT SAINT MICHEL is compiled, in which Arthur is mentioned as king of Britain.

1120 A surviving manuscript containing the HISTORIA BRITTONUM and the ANNALES CAMBRIAE is
compiled.

1125 William of Malmesbury writes the GESTA REGUM ANGLORUM, in which he refers to King Arthur.

1120-40 The Modena Archivolt, on the north portal of Modena Cathedral, is decorated with an Arthurian
scene.

1130 William of Malmesbury writes DE ANTIQUITATE GLASTONIENSIS ECCLESIAE.

1130 Geoffrey of Monmouth composes the PROPHETIAE MERLINI while working on the HISTORIA.

1135 The HISTORIA REGUM BRITANNIAE is completed by Geoffrey of Monmouth.

1135 Henry of Huntingdon writes the HISTORIA ANGLORUM, in which he includes Nennius' list of
Arthur's battles.

1130-40 Hermann of Tournai records the visit of the Laon Cathedral officials to England, when they were
told of Arthurian legends in Cornwall.

1140 Caradoc of Llancarfan, in his LIFE OF GILDAS, includes Arthur in the life of the monk.

1150 Geoffrey of Monmouth's VITA MERLINI is composed.

1155 Wace completes his poem, ROMAN DE BRUT, based on Geoffrey's work, and introduces the Round
Table to the Arthurian story.

1160 The DREAM OF RHONABWY is composed.

1160-80 Chrétien de Troyes writes his five Arthurian poems, which are chiefly responsible for establishing
King Arthur as a fashionable subject of Romantic literature. He introduces many of Arthur's knights and the
name Camelot.

1190 The monks of Glastonbury Abbey claim to have discovered the grave of King Arthur and Guinevere.

1195-1200 Robert de Boron composes a trilogy of Arthurian verses. He introduces the notion of the Holy
Grail as the vessel used at the Last Supper by Christ, along with the sword and stone motif.

1200 The English priest Layamon is the first to relate the Arthurian saga in native English. His work,
BRUT, is an adaptation of Wace's ROMAN DE BRUT.

1200 The Arthurian story enters Germany in the form of two poems, EREC and IWEIN, by the poet
Hartmann von Aue.
1205 Wolfram von Eschenbach writes his epic Arthurian story PARZIVAL, in which he depicts the Grail as
a magical stone.

1215-35 A large number of rambling Arthurian stories, known collectively as the VULGA TE CYCLE, are
compiled. Anonymously composed, this Cycle is chiefly responsi ble for many of the story's
embellishments.

1247 Glastonbury Abbey produces a revised edition of William of Malmesbury's DE ANTIQUITATE


GLASTONIENSIS ECCLASIAE.

1250 The BLACK BOOK OF CARMARTHEN, the oldest surviving manuscript to contain Welsh poems
that include Arthur, is compiled.

1265 The BOOK OF ANEIRIN, containing the surviving copy of the GODODDIN, is compiled.

1275 The BOOK OF TALIESIN, containing the SPOILS OF ANNWN, is compiled.

1325 The WHITE BOOK OF RHYDDERCH, containing the earliest section from CULHWCH AND
OLWEN, is compiled.

1400 SIR GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT is composed by an anonymous writer from the North-
West Midlands.

1400 The RED BOOK OF HERGEST is compiled. It contains the DREAM OF RHONABWY, the tale of
CULHWCH AND OLWEN, and the surviving copy of CANU HELEDD and the CANU LLYWARCH
HEN.

1470 Sir Thomas Malory completes LE MORTE DARTHUR, the most famous of all Arthurian Romances.
# 239 - 262 - 524

TIMIAS

In Spenser's FAERIE QUEENE, Arthur's squire; he probably represents Sir Walter Raleigh. # 156 - 614

TINTAGEL TINTAGIL

The site of the castle in Cornwall where Arthur was conceived. The present castle, a Norman structure, does
not date back to the Arthurian period, but the site of a Celtic monastery lies adjacent on an island connected
by a causeway to the mainland. This may well have been extant in Arthur's time. In earlier sources it is the
castle of Gorlois of Cornwall, but later legends associate it with King Mark of Cornwall, although his real
residence was probably Castle Dore. See: BRASTIAS. # 156 - 418 - 454 - 717

TIR NA MBAN

The Land of Women. The place of beautiful otherworld women, who welcome pilgrims and voyagers on
the great voyages (immrama). Ruled over by its queen, the island provided a consort for every man, the
best of entertainment, food and music. Both Bran mac Febal and Maelduin visited it. Time stood still, but
both men found its timeless beauty too much for mortals and, though warned about its gifts of immortality,
chose to sail away home. # 416 - 454

TIR NA MBEO
Land of the Living q.v. The place of everlasting life. # 166

TIR NA N'OG

(Teer nahn Ock).

TIR NAN OG TIR NA N'OG

(teer na nogue) (The Land of The Young). This, which lay west across the sea, was one of the lands into
which the Tuatha De Danann retreated when they had been conquered by the Milesians. They had other
habitations, under the Sidh, the green mounds or tumuli of prehistoric Ireland, or the Land under the Waves,
Tirfo Thuinn, but Tir Nan Og was the earthly paradise where time, like time in Fairyland, was no longer
reckoned by mortal measures, a land of beauty, where the grass was always green and fruit and flowers
could be picked together, where feasting, music, love, hunting and joyous fighting went on all day and
death made no entry, for if in the fights men were wounded and killed one day they came to life again none
the worse the next. Occasionally mortal men were invited to Tir Nan Og, as Oisin was, and if they wanted
to revisit earth they were put under a gease (taboo). When this was violated the weight of their mortal years
came upon them and they were unable to return. In Wales a comparable story is that of King Herla. If Tir
Nan Og was the Celtic heaven, there are glimpses of a Celtic hell. In Ireland it was Scathach, visited by
CuChulain, the hero of the Ulster Cycle, and in Wales Ysbaddaden, the Land of the Giants visited by
Culhwch in the MABINOGION. # 100

TITANIA

Corresponds to the goddesses Diana and Mab. The latter was a name not commonly used for the Fairy
Queen, though in one of the magical manuscripts in the British Museum (Sloane 1727) 'Tyton, Florella and
Mabb' are mentioned as 'the treasures of the earth'. # 100

TOLKIEN, J. R. R.

(1892-1973) The whole area of fairy fiction arose to new heights and dimensions, when Tolkien supplied
our literature with his works THE HOBBIT and its sequels THE LORD OF THE RINGS. These books
were felt at once by a surprising number of people to have something significant to say about our modern
problems and to hold an implicit message for young people all over the English-speaking world (at present
time, 1993, his works are translated into many more than just the main languages and read throughout the
world; in 1977, Margrethe II, Queen of Denmark, supplied the trilogy LORD OF THE RINGS with her
magnificent illustrations). People used the elven script and learnt the elven tongue. One got the feeling that
the whole of life was embraced in this archaic-seeming tale. It was about danger and endurance against
heavy odds, about championship and simple pleasures of food and song, about landscape, about the
dreadful weight of a corrupting responsibility, the dangers of science and the terrible pressure of an evil
will. There was no explicit preaching, but the will was braced by reading. The whole was not decorated but
deepened by the use of traditional folklore which gave it that sense of being rooted in the earth which is the
gift of folklore to literature. The folklore used was in the main Scandinavian in tone. The Dragons, the
Gnomes, the Goblins, the Elves fit into the world of Scandinavian mythology. It was not of supreme
importance what type of folklore was used so long as it was authentic and came like native air to the mind
of the writer. # 100 - 670 - 671

TOLLEME

The ruler of Sarras, who was defeated by Evelake; he had accepted Christianity from Joseph of Arimathea.
J. W. Taylor in his book THE COMING OF THE SAINTS (1906), is of the opinion that the Saracens
Tolleme ruled may have been a race of Jewish descent living in Cornwall. According to Gerbert, Tolleme
was King of Syria. # 153 - 156
TOM A LINCOLN

The illegitimate son of Arthur, known as the Red Rose Knight. His mother was called Angelica. He was
raised by a shepherd and Arthur made him a commander in the army, in which capacity he defeated the
Portuguese. He had a natural son (called the Faerie Knight) by Caelia, the Fairy Queen. Tom went to the
realm of Prester John and eloped with Anglitora, the daughter of that monarch, and they had a son called
the Black Knight. When Anglitora discovered Tom was illegitimate, she left him and became the mistress
of the lord of a castle and, when Tom arrived, she murdered him. His ghost told the Black Knight all and
the latter killed Anglitora. He met the Faerie Knight and they travelled together, eventually coming to
England. The romance of TOM a' LINCOLN was written by Richard Johnston (born 1573; date of death
uncertain). # 156 - 668

TOM THUMB

He was the son of Thomas of the Mountain who sent his wife to consult Merlin in order to find out why she
had no children. Merlin said she would have a child no bigger than her husband's thumb. This was Tom,
who became a man in four minutes, but never grew any bigger than he had been at first. He was often
present with King Arthur and the Round Table. Tom's godmother was the Queen of the Fairies, who gave
him a hat of knowledge, a ring of invisibility, a girdle of transformation and shoes which would carry him
easily over long distances. Tom was said to have been killed fighting an adder. In the foreword of the
earliest surviving version of 'Tom Thumb', written by a pamphleteer, Richard Johnson, and printed in 1621,
the author claims that it is an ancient tale, and there is little reason to doubt his word, for the name was
already proverbial. This pamphlet is reproduced in its entirety in Iona and Peter Opie's THE CLASSIC
FAIRY TALES without the modifications which the gentility of subsequent ages imposed on it. The story is
left incomplete, with Tom happily returned to the court of King Arthur after his adventures with the pigmy
king Twaddle. A metrical version which appeared in 1630 carried the story on to the death of Tom Thumb,
but as mentioned above, in later versions he was killed in a fight with either a spider or a snake. # 100 - 156
- 511

TONN CLIDNA

See: PLACE NAME STORIES.

TONN CLIODHNA

(thown cleena) Otherwise 'Wave of Cleena'. One of the most notable landmarks of Ireland was the Tonn
Cliodhna on the seashore at Glandore Bay, in Co. Cork. The story about Cleena exists in several versions,
which do not agree with each other exept in so far as she seems to have been a Danaan maiden once living
in Mananan's country, the Land of Youth beyond the sea.

Escaping thence with a mortal lover, as one of the versions tells, she landed on the southern coast of
Ireland, and her lover, Keevan of the Curling Locks, went off to hunt in the woods. Cleena, who remained
on the beach, was lulled to sleep by fairy music played by a minstrel of Mananan, when a great wave of the
sea swept up and carried her back to Fairyland, leaving her lover desolate. Hence the place was called the
Strand of Cleena's Wave. # 562

TONSURE

Celtic Christianity retained many of its pagan features, including druidic methods of tonsure. This involved
shaving the head from ear to ear, thus leaving the forehead bare of hair. # 437 p 9 ff

TOR
The son of Pellinore or maybe of Aries the cowherd. He slew Abelleus and later became a Knight of the
Round Table - a rare enough desire in the breast of any humble born man in Arthur's time. He had many
adventures but was eventually killed in the battle to free Guinevere from the stake. # 156 - 418 - 454 - 712 -
713

TOR MOR

Precipitous headland in Tory Island. Ethlinn imprisoned by Balor in tower built on Tor Mor. # 562

TORC TRIATH

See: TWRCH TRWYTH.

TOREC

The son of King Ydor. When he grew up, he tried to retrieve his grandmother's circlet from Miraude who
said she would marry Torec if he could overcome all the Knights of the Round Table. Gawain arranged
with the Knights to allow Torec to do so and he was therefore able to marry Miraude. # 156

TORQUE TORC

Celtic collar. The torc was one of the most important ornaments worn by the Celts. It was a neck ring made
of a rod of metal (sometimes twisted), of bronze or gold according to the wealth and status of the wearer.
The two ends of the torc almost met, but the metal was pliant, for it had to open sufficiently to let it on or
off. The torc of the Gallic chief slain by Titus Manlius was rich and attractive enough for him to take as the
only trophy of the combat, and thus he gained the name Torquatus. Torcs formed part of the booty paraded
in triumphs by Roman generals. They are listed along with the military standards taken, and they must have
been considered a very precious and important object, because the Gauls gave one to Augustus, 'a golden
necklet a hundred pounds in weight'. # 556

TORTOISE

Early Celtic art portrayed the cock and tortoise together, as an attribute of the Celtic Mercury. # 161

TORY ISLAND

Stronghold of Fomorian power, which was invaded by Nemedians. # 562

TRADABAN, THE WELL OF

Keelta praise the Well of Trabadan. # 562

TRADITIONS, BRANCHES OF THE

The traditional Irish Tales which appears in medieval manuscripts comprise four groups or cycles, usually
referred to as:

1. The Mythological Cycle


2. The Ulster Cycle
3. The Fenian Cycle
4. The Historical Cycle

In the so-called Mythological Cycle, the chief characters belong to Tuatha De Danann, 'The Peoples of the
Goddess Danann' (or Danu), who are said to have occupied Ireland before the coming of the Sons of Mil,
the ancestors of the present inhabitants. The stories of the Ulster Cycle are mainly about the warriors of
King Conchobar of Ulster, and especially about the exploits of the foremost among them, CuChulain. The
Fenian stories are about Finn mac Cumaill and his roving warbands (Fiana). This cycle is sometimes
described as the Ossianic Cycle because most of the poems which belong to it are attributed to Finn's son
Oisin, or Ossian as he is known through the work of Macpherson. The so-called Historical Cycle is a more
miscellaneous group of stories centred on various high-kings of Ireland and on a number of provincial or
lesser kings. Each of these four cycles contains material which appears to belong to a common Indo-
European heritage and which presumably was part of the tradition of the Celtic peoples before they ever
came to these islands. But in the works of early Irish historians, the personages about whom the tales are
told are arranged in a chronological sequence extending from the time of the Deluge to the time of the
Viking raids in Ireland. The events of the Mythological Cycle of traditions are synchronized with the main
events in ancient world history; King Conchobar is said to have reigned in Ulster at the beginning of the
Christian era; Finn and his Fiana served Cormac mac Art who is believed to have been King of Ireland in
the third century AD, while the tales of the Historical Cycle are centred on kings who are ascribed dates
ranging from the third century BC to the eight century AD. A certain amount of supplementary information
concerning the characters and events in these four groups of stories is supplied by various learned works
compiled in the early Middle Ages, in particular LEBOR GABALA ERENN (The Book of the Taking of
Ireland), a 'history' of the Irish and of the peoples who occupied Ireland before them, with its
accompanying List of Kings, the Glossary attributed to Cormac mac Cuilennain, the king bishop of Cashel
who was killed in the year 908, the DINDSENCHAS, lore associated with hills and other features in the
Irish landscape, COIR ANMANN (The Fitness of Names), which gives brief stories in explanation of the
origin of the names of traditional personages, and finally poems, triads, and genealogies, which record
famous names.

Early Welsh traditions are found in the 'Four Branches of the Mabinogi' ('story of youth' or 'story'),
comparable in some ways with the Irish Mythological Cycle, in the poems and stories of the Arthurian
Cycle, which is also represented by extensive texts in many other languages, in some miscellaneous stories,
and in poems which probably once formed parts of sagas. Most of the latter poems are attributed to
Llywarch Hen, Taliesin, and Myrddin, poets who are said to have been associated with kings of those
regions of north Britain which, in the sixth century, were still Welsh. Wales too has her genealogies, triads,
and stanzas of the graves of heroes, compilations that bear witness to traditions which perhaps were never
embodied in extensive narratives and to these may again be added two important Latin texts, both of them
landmarks in the history of the Arthurian tradition: the HISTORIA BRITTONUM of Nennius (early ninth
century) and the more elaborate and presumably more fictional HISTORIA REGUM BRITANNIAE of
Geoffrey of Monmouth. In Wales and in Ireland, the lives of native saints, written either in Latin or in the
vernacular, may perhaps be regarded as an extra cycle of stories. Like the saints lives of other countries,
they have many motifs in common with the 'secular' tales and they are by no means irrelevant to a study of
the pre-Christian tradition. # 136 - 548 - 651 - 766 - 783

TRAFFIC WITH THE FAIRIES

Among the Puritans in Britain, by whom the fairies were generally thought of as minor devils, intercourse
with the fairies was looked on with the gravest suspicion, though the country people looked on it more
leniently and the Irish regarded a certain amount of homage paid to the fairies as a very justifiable piece of
protection payment, though some of them at least took a darker view of the transaction. It was widely said
that the witches, the fairies and the dead danced together on Hallowe'en. In the North of England, people
accused of witchcraft sometimes claimed to work through the fairies rather than the Devil. Durant Hotham
and Webster described how a man brought into court as a witch offered to lead the judge to see the fairy hill
from which he received the medicine he used. The judge treated his plea harshly, but the jury refused to
convict him. Durant Hotham in the introduction to his LIFE OF JACOB BEHMEN is the first to mention
the case in 1654:
There was (as I have heard the story credibly reputed in this Country) a man apprehended of suspicion of
Witchcraft, he was of that sort we call white-witches, which are such as do Cures beyond the Ordinary
reasons and deducing of our usual Practitioners, and are supposed (and most part of them truly) to do the
same by the ministrations of Spirits (from whence, under their noble favour, most Sciences first grew) and
therefore are upon good reason provided against by our Civil Laws as being waies full of danger and deceit,
and scarce ever otherwise obtain'd than by a devilish Compact of the Exchange of ones Soul to that
assistant Spirit for the honour of its Mountebanjery. What this man did was with a white powder, which he
said, he receiv'd from the Fayries, and that going to a hill he knockned three times, and the hill opened, and
he had access to, and converse with, a visible people; and offer'd, that if any Gentleman present would
either go himself in person, or send his servant, he would conduct them thither, and show them the place
and persons from whence he had his skill. Twenty-three years later Webster published DISPLAYING OF
SUPPOSED WITCHCRAFT, perhaps the most influential book of its time in removing the practice of
witchcraft from the Criminal Statute Book. Webster comments on Hotham's mention of the case, and brings
fuller knowledge to bear on it, for he was himself present at the examination of the man: To this I shall only
add thus much, that the man was accused for invoking and calling upon evil spirits, and was a very simple
and illiterate person to any mans judgement, and had been formerly very poor, but had gotten some pretty
little meanes to maintain himself, his Wife and diverse small children, by his cures done with this white
powder, of which there were sufficient proofs, and the Judge asking him how he came by the powder, he
told a story to this effect.

'That one night before the day was gone, as he was going home from his labour, being very sad and full of
heavy thoughts, not knowing how to get meat and drink for his Wife and Children, he met a fair Woman in
fine cloaths, who asked him why he was so sad, and he told her that it was by reason of his poverty, to
which she said, that if he would follow her counsel she would help him to that which would serve to get
him a good living; to which he said he would consent with all his heart, so it were not by unlawful ways:
she told him that it should not be by any such ways, but by doing of good and curing of sick people; and so
warning him strictly to meet her there the next night at the same time, she departed from him, and he went
home. And the next night at the time appointed he duly waited, and she (according to promise) came and
told him that it was well he came so duly, otherwise he had missed of that benefit, that she intended to do
unto him, and so bade him follow her and not be afraid.

Thereupon she led him to a little Hill and she knocked three times, and the Hill opened, and they went in,
and came to a fair hall, wherein was a Queen sitting in great state, and many people about her, and the
Gentlewoman that brought him, presented him to the Queen, and she said he was welcom, and bid the
Gentlewoman give him some of the white powder, and teach him how to use it; which she did, and gave
him a little wood box full of the white powder, and bad him give 2 or 3 grains of it to any that were sick,
and it would heal them, and so she brought him forth of the Hill, and so they parted. And being asked by
the Judge whether the place within the Hill, which he called a Hall, were light or dark, he said indifferent,
as it is with us in the twilight; and being asked how he got more powder, he said when he wanted he went
to that Hill, and knocked three times, and said every time I am coming, I am coming, whereupon it opened,
and he going in was conducted by the aforesaid Woman to the Queen, and so had more powder given him.'
This was the plain and simple story (however it may be judged of) that he told before the Judge, the whole
Court and the Jury, and there being no proof, but what cures he had done to very many, the Jury did acquit
him: and I remember the Judge said, when all the evidence was heard, that if he were to assign his
punishment, he should be whipped thence to Fairyhall, and did seem to judge it to be a delusion or
Imposture. # 100

TRANSMIGRATION

Allegation that Celtic idea of immortality embodied Oriental conception of the doctrine of transmigration,
but evidence shows that the doctrine of transmigration was not held by Celts in same way as by Pythagoras
and the Orientals. Welsh Taliesin who became an eagle also points to the same doctrine. See: TUAN MAC
CARELL. # 562
TREASURES, BURIED WELSH

There are numerous Welsh legends relating to hidden treasures, buried under cromlechs or tumuli or
concealed in caves. Sometimes the legends stress that whoever goes seeking for the treasure will be
frightened away by torrents of rain, blinding lightning or deafening thunder. Sometimes the treasure is said
to be in a cavern guarded by a dragon waiting to belch forth fire onto the intruder. About one hundred years
ago there was a hollow in the road near Caerau in old Cardiganshire which 'rang when any wheeled vehicle
went over it'. Two local men were told by a gypsy that there was a treasure hidden there so one day they
decided to dig for it. After a few hours of steady digging they came to the oak frame of an underground
doorway. They took a break at this point and went home for lunch. No sooner had they gone than a terrible
storm arose; the rain fell in torrents, the thunder crashed and the lightning flashed. When they went back to
their work, the hole they had been digging was covered over and they both agreed that supernatural powers
must surely be working against them. # 49

TREBUCHET

In the Grail story, he fashioned the Grail Sword and later made it whole. A connection has been suggested
with Turbe, father of the Irish smith god, Gobniu. # 153 - 156

TREE ALPHABET

Like the runic alphabet, the alphabet of the trees was used by European pagans for divination and for
transmitting secret messages that would have been incomprehensible to anyone who did not know the
system. Each letter was named for a tree or shrub, so messages could be spelled out by stringing the right
sorts of leaves in the right order on a cord or a wand, with 'blank' leaves not included in the alphabet to
divide one word from the next. It has been suggested that nonletter leaves were sometimes inserted at
random just to render the message more cryptic. It has been claimed that the following version of the tree
alphabet is 'a genuine relic of Druidism orally transmitted down the centuries.'

The Vowels:

A: Silver Fir (Ailm)

O: Furze (Onn)

U: Heather (Ur)

E: White Poplar (Eahha)

I: Yew (Idho)

The Consonants:

The consonantal letters have also been related

B: Birch (Beth) to the lunar calendar, the pagan feast days and

L: Rowan (Luis) agricultural seasons, and various tutelary

N: Ash (Nion) deities. Robert Graves points out that the


F: Alder (Fearn) letters of the modern Irish alphabet are

S: Willow (Saille) similarly named after trees.

H: Hawthorn (Uath)

D: Oak (Duir)

T: Holly (Tinne)

C: Hazel (Coll)

M: Vine (Muin)

G: Ivy (Gort)

P: Dwarf Elder (Pethboc)

R: Elder (Ruis)

As a supplement from Colin Murray's The Celtic Tree Oracle:

Q: Apple (Quert)

Ng: Reed (NgEtal)

Ss: Blackthorn (Straif)

CH: Grove (Koad)

TH: Spindle (Oir)

PE: Honeysuckle (Uilleand)

PH: Beech (Phagos)

XI: The Sea (Mór)

which complete the Ogham alphabet. # 489 - 701 p 471

TREES

Nearly all trees have some sacred association from very early times, but some are more sacred than others.

There is the magical trilogy of Oak and Ash and Thorn. There are the fruit-bearing trees, especially Apple
and Hazel; there are Rowan, Holly and Willow, Elder and Alder. Some trees seem to be regarded as having
a personality of their own, and some are more specifically a haunt of fairies or spirits. Most people would
probably think first of an oak as a sacred tree, worshipped by the Druids, and it is strong enough certainly
to stand in its own right, though everyone knows the couplet,"Fairy folks Are in old oaks,
and many oak coppices are said to be haunted by the sinister Oakmen. Hawthorn has certain qualities of its
own, but it is primarily thought of as a sacred to or haunted by the fairies. This is especially so of solitary
thorns growing near fairy hills, or of a ring of three or more hawthorns. White may in blossom was
supposed to bring death into the house, and although it was brought round on May Morning it was hung up
outside. Ruth Tongue collected a folk-song in Somerset whose chorus illustrates the popular belief about
three very different trees: Ellum do grieve, Oak he do hate,

Willow do walk If you travels late.

Possibly because of the vulnerability of elms to disease, it was thought that if one elm was cut down a
neighbouring elm would pine and die in sympathy. Oaks, however, as fitted their ancient, god-like status,
bitterly resented being cut, and an oak coppice which sprang from the roots of a felled oakwood was
malevolent and dangerous to travel through by night, more especially if it was a blue-bell wood.

Willows were even more sinister, for they had a habit of uprooting themselves on a dark night and
following a solitary traveller, muttering. Tolkien is faithful to folk tradition in the ogreish behaviour of Old
Man Willow. Wood-Martin, in his TRACES OF THE ELDER FAITHS OF IRELAND, devotes some
attention to tree beliefs. For instance, speaking of the sacred ash, he mentions one in the parish of Clenor in
County Cork, whose branches were never cut, though firewood was scarce all round, and another in
Borrisokane, the old Bell Tree, sacred to May Day rites, of which it was believed that if any man burnt even
a chip of it on his hearth his whole house would be burned down. A similar fate was brought down on
himself by a cottager who tried to cut a branch from a sacred elder overhanging a saint's well. He tried three
times; twice he stopped because his house seemed to be on fire, but found it a false alarm. The third time he
determined not to be put off by appearances and carried the branch home, only to find his cottage burnt to
the ground. He had had his warning. There are two views of the elder. It has been a sacred tree, as we may
see from Hans Christian Andersen's ELDERFLOWER MOTHER. In Lincolnshire, too, it used to be
thought neccessary to ask the tree's permission before cutting a branch. The formula was 'Owd Gal, give me
of thy wood, an Oi will give some of moine, when I graws inter a tree'. The flowers and fruit were much
esteemed for wine, the tree was a shelter against flies, and it was said also that the good fairies found
protection under it from witches and evil spirits. On the other hand, in Oxfordshire and the Midlands, many
elders were strongly suspected of being transformed witches, and they were supposed to bleed if they were
cut. The witch of the Rollright Stones took the form of an elder tree according to the popular legend. D. A.
Mac Manus in THE MIDDLE KINGDOM, an explanation of comparatively modern fairy beliefs in
Ireland, devotes a chapter to fairy trees, and gives many examples of the judgements falling on people who
have destroyed sacred thorn trees. He believes some trees to be haunted by fairies and others by demons,
and gives one example of a close group of three trees, two thorns and an elder, which was haunted by three
evil spirits. He says that when an oak and ash and thorn grew close together, a twig taken from each, bound
with red thread, was thought to be a protection against spirits of the night. In England, ash was a protection
against mischievous spirits, but in Scotland the mountain ash, rowan, was even more potent, probably
because of its red berries: Rowan, lammer (amber) and red threid - Pits witches to their speed, as the old
saying went. Red was always a vital and conquering colour. A berried holly was potent for good. On the
other hand, a barren one that is, one that bore only male flowers - was thought to be malevolent and
dangerous. Two fruit-bearing trees, apple and hazel, had specially magical qualities. Hazel-nuts were the
source of wisdom and also of fertility, and apples of power and youth. There was some danger attached to
each of them. An 'ymp-tree' - that is, a grafted apple - was under fairy influence, and a man who slept under
it was liable, as Sir Lancelot found, to be carried away by fairy ladies. A somewhat similar fate befell
Queen Meroudys in the medieval poem of KING ORFEO. The fertility powers of nut-trees could be
overdone, and the Devil was said to be abroad in the woods at the time of nutgathering; 'so many cratches,
so many cradles', goes the Somerset saying quoted by Ruth Tongue in COUNTY FOLKLORE, VOL.VIII.
On the other hand, the hazel-nuts eaten by trout or salmon gave their flesh a power of imparting wisdom at
the first taste of it. It was to this that Finn owed his tooth of wisdom. And finally, through all our sources,
the beech is by any means a holy tree. # 100 - 276 - 407 - 670 - 671 - 674 - 751

TREES, (MAGIC TREES IN WALES)


In many parts of Wales one can come across some very interesting legends associated with trees.
Sometimes they are reputed to have supernatural powers or it is claimed that some famous person once hid
from his enemies among the foliage. The best-known tree story in Wales concerns the stump of Merlin's
Oak in Carmarthen - the removal of which was supposed to bring about the downfall of the town. Early in
1978 the Local Authority after many years of soul-searching finally broke with tradition and removed the
stump which had become a traffic obstruction in a middle of a junction. By this time it consisted mainly of
concrete and iron supports but the event was important enough to be mentioned on the national Welsh
news. There is good reason to believe that trees were planted in ancient times as sighting points. Clumps of
trees on top of hills really stand out on the landscape and it is thought by some writers, including the late
Alfred Watkins who wrote THE OLD STRAIGHT TRACK, that these trees were once part of the ancient
ley system. Generally the trees at such points are Scots firs which much have reseeded naturally and today
they stand out in certain prominent locations as the only trees of that type for miles around. Watkins
referred to them as 'mark trees'. The planting of yew trees in churchyards is a custom as old as the
churchyards themselves. It is probable that originally the trees were intended to act as a windbreak for the
churches by virtue of their thick foliage, as well as providing shelter for the congregation assembling before
the church door was opened. The first churches were only wooden structures and needed such screening
much more than the sturdy stone buildings that exist today. It has been suggested that the yews were
planted to provide ready materials for constructing bows, as these were at one time the national weapons of
defence. The churchyards were the places where they were most likely to be preserved and perhaps the
English word 'yeoman' was derived from 'yewman', that is, the man who used the yew bow. Throughout
Wales in medieval times the yew bow was very common and skill in archery was an important part of a
young man's education. In the memorable Battle of Crécy 3500 Welsh archers followed the Black Prince in
the attack on France during the year 1346 and it was said that the success of this war was largely due to the
skill of the Welsh archers. At the end of the battle the Prince adopted the motto 'Ich Dien' which has been
the motto of the Prince of Wales ever since.

Possibly a large number of yew trees were planted in churchyards as symbols of immortality - the tree
being so lasting and always green. In churchyards throughout Wales there are some fine specimens of these
trees and some of them are hundreds if not thousands of years old. In former times the yew was consecrated
and held sacred. During funeral processions its branches were carried over the dead by mourners and
thrown under the coffin in the grave. The branches were also used for church decorations. In Wales, the
yew was the most valuable of all trees, and the consecrated yew of the priests had risen in value over the
reputed sacred mistletoe of the Druids. The Bleeding Yew Tree, Nevern Church, Dyfed: In the churchyard
at Nevern is an avenue of yew trees. The second on the right is the mysterious 'bleeding tree'. Examine it
and you will find a blood-red resin dripping continuously from a place where a branch was once removed.

The tree is estimated to be seven hundred years old and apparently it will continue to bleed until the castle
on the hill is occupied by a Welshman again. He will have to be a man of wealth, for all that remain of
Nevern Castle is a very overgrown mound just north of the church. - The Newcastle Oak, Newcastle,
Gwent. - A huge oak tree used to stand near the old post office at this village. It was known locally as
Glyndwr's Oak and it was reputed to have been planted by Owain himself. The villagers claimed that it was
possessed by an evil spirit which affected all who dared to harm the tree. Over the centuries the great oak
gradually decayed and when the last branches finally fell off one night in a furious gale, the villagers who
took the wood home all mysteriously set fire to their cottages! - The Demon Oak, Nannau Park, Dolgellau,
Gwynedd: A hollow oak tree known as the Ceubren yr Elbyl once stood at Nannau Park. It is said that
Owain Glyndwr once killed his cousin Hywel and concealed the body inside the trunk of this tree. Hywel
was sought in vain by his family and friends throughout the estate and the forest nearby. His wife shut
herself up in her gloomy castle and the fate of Hywel remained unknown to anyone except Glyndwr and his
companion Madog. However, in later years Glyndwr relented and instructed Madog to go to Hywel's
widow and tell her the truth. And so Madog led the family to the oak tree which was hastly split open to
reveal a white skeleton. - Even though the burial rites were read and many masses said for the dead man,
his spirit did not rest. For many years afterwards local people feared to pass the shattered oak tree at night
and called the spot 'the hollow of the demons'. It was said that frightening sounds came out of the tree and
fire hovered above it. Eventually the oak fell to the ground and was destroyed on 13 July 1813. # 49 - 82 -
705 - 706
TREFUILNGID TRE-EOCHAIR

An ancient being who predated creation. He appeared to the assembly of Tara to tell it the history of
Ireland. He was of gigantic height and he controlled the rising and setting of the sun. He carried a stone
tablet in one hand and a branch on which grew fruit, flowers and nuts concurrently. He inaugurated the
office of historian for the first time. He was master of all wisdom. See: TUAN MAC CARILL. # 454 - 548

TREGALEN

In Welsh tradition, it was the site of Arthur's final battle. Arthur was victorious and pursued his enemies but
was killed with arrows at Bwlch y Saethu in Snowdonia. See: CAMLANN. # 156 - 554

TRENDORN

Conor's servant who spies on Deirdre, and was blinded in one eye by Naisi. He declares Deirdre's beauty to
Conor. # 562

TREON

(tray'on) Father of Vivionn. # 562

TREPHINA

Daughter of Warok, chief of the Venetii, and a wife of Cunomorus, she was murdered by her husband but
restored to life by Gildas. After her restoration, she carried her severed head about with her. See: MARK. #
156

TRIADS, THE WELSH

The following 96 TRIADS are quoted from THE WELSH TRIADS second edition, edited and translated
by Rachel Bromwich, where the reader will find her appropiate notes inserted.

The abbreviations used here is:

C: Cardiff.

PEN: National Library of Wales, Peniarth MS.

R: The version of Trioedd Ynys Prydein contained in the LLYFR COCH HERGEST is dated CIRCA 1400.

W: The version of Trioedd Ynys Prydein contained in the LLYFR GWYN RHYDDERCH is dated CIRCA
1325.

WR: The version of Trioedd Ynys Prydein contained in the LLYFR GWYN and the LLYFR COCH.

TRIAD 1

Three Tribal Thrones of the island of Britain:


Arthur as Chief Prince in Mynyw (= St David's), and Dewi as Chief Bishop, and Maelgwn Gwynedd as
Chief Elder;
Arthur as Chief Prince in Celliwig in Cornwall, and Bishop Bytwini as Chief Bishop, and Caradawg
Strong-Arm as Chief Elder;
Arthur as Chief Prince in Pen Rhionydd in the North, and Gerthmwl Wledig as Chief Elder, and Cyndeyrn
Garthwys as Chief Bishop.

TRIAD 2

Three Generous men of the Island of Britain:


Nudd the Generous, son of Senyllt,
Mordaf the Generous, son of Serwan,
Rhydderch the Generous, son of Tudwal Tudglyd.
(And Arthur himself was more generous than the three.)

TRIAD 3

Three Fair Princes of the Island of Britain:


>Owain son of Urien,
>Rhun son of Maelgwn,
Rhufawn the Radiant son of Dewrarth Wledig.

TRIAD 4

Three Well-Endowed Men of the Island of Britain:


Gwalchmai son of Gwyar,
and Llachau son of Arthur,
and Rhiwallawn Broom-Hair.

TRIAD 5

Three Pillars of Battle of the Island of Britain:


Dunawd son of Pabo Pillar of Britain,
and Gwallawg son of Lleenawg,
and Cynfelyn the Leprous (?).

TRIAD 6

Three Bull-Protectors (?) of the Island of Britain:


Cynfawr Host-Protector, son of Cynwyd Cynwydion,
and Gwenddolau son of Ceidiaw,
and Urien son of Cynfarch.

TRIAD 7

Three Bull-Chieftains of the Island of Britain:


Elinwy son of Cadegr,
and Cynhafal son of Argad,
and Afaon son of Taliesin.

The three of them were sons of bards.

TRIAD 8
Three Prostrate Chieftains of the Island of Britain:
Llywarch the Old son of Elidir Llydanwyn,
and Manawydan son of Llyr Half-Speech,
and Gwgon Gwron son of Peredur son of Eliffer of the Great Retinue.
(And this is why those were called 'Prostrate Chieftains': because they would not seek a dominion, which
nobody could deny to them.)

TRIAD 9

Three Chieftains of Arthur's Court:


Gobrwy son of Echel Mighty-Thigh,
Cadr(i)eith ('Fine-Speech') son of Porthawr Gadw,
and Fleudur Fflam ('Flame').

TRIAD 10

Three Chieftains of Deira and Bernicia:


Gall son of Disgyfdawd,
and Ysgafnell son of Disgyfdawd,
and Diffydell son of Disgyfdawd.
The three of them were sons of bards.

TRIAD 11

Three Red-Speared Bards of the Island of Britain:


Tristfardd, bard of Urien,
and Dygynnelw, bard of Owain son of Urien,
and Afan Ferddig, bard of Cadwallawn son of Cadfan.

TRIAD 12

Three Frivolous Bards of the Island of Britain:


Arthur,
and Cadwallawn son of Cadfan,
and Rahawd son of Morgant.

TRIAD 13

Three Chief Officers of the Island of Britain:


Caradawg son of Brân,
and Cawrdaf son of Caradawg,
and Owain son of Maxen Wledig.

TRIAD 14

Three Seafarers of the Island of Britain:


Geraint son of Erbin,
and Gwenwynwyn son of Naf,
and March son of Meirchiawn.

TRIAD 15
Three Roving Fleets of the Island of Britain:
The Fleet of Llawr son of Eiryf,
and the Fleet of Divwng son of Alan,
and the Fleet of Solor son of Murthach.

TRIAD 16

Three Powerful Shepherds of the Island of Britain:


Riueri son of Tangwn.
and D(u)nawd the Shepherd,
and Pryder (= Care) son of Dolor (= Grief) of Deira and Bernicia.

TRIAD 17

Three Fettered Men of the Island of Britain:


Cadwaladr the Blessed,
and Rhun son of Maelgwn,>
and Rhiwallawn Broom-Hair.
(And this is why those men were called Fettered: because horses could not be obtained that were suited to
them, owing to their size; so they put fetters of gold around the small of their legs, on the cruppers of their
horses, behind their backs; and two golden plates under their knees, and because of this the knee is called
'knee-pan'.)

TRIAD 18

Three Battle-Horsemen of the Island of Britain:


Caradawg Strong-Arm,
and Me(n)waedd of Arllechwedd,
and Llyr of the Hosts.

TRIAD 18 WR.

Three Favourites of Arthur's Court, and Three Battle-Horsemen: they would never endure a PENTEULU
over them. And Arthur sang an ENGLYN:
These are my Three Battle-Horsemen:
and Lludd of the Breastplate,
and the Pillar of the Cymry, Caradawg.

TRIAD 19

Three Enemy-Subduers of the Island of Britain:


Greidiawl Enemy-Subduer son of E(n)vael Adrann,
and Gweir of Great Valour,
and Drystan son of Tallwch.

TRIAD 20

Three Red Ravagers of the Island of Britain:


Arthur,
and Rhun son of Beli,
and Morgant the Wealthy.

TRIAD 20 WR.
Three Red Ravagers of the Island of Britain:
Rhun son of Beli,
and Lle(u) Skilful Hand,
and Morgan(t) the Wealthy.
But there was one who was a Red Ravager greater than all three: Arthur was his name. For a year neither
grass nor plants used to spring up where one of the three would walk; but where Arthur went, not for seven
years.

TRIAD 21

Three Battle-Diademed Men of the Island of Britain:


Drystan son of Tallwch,
and Hueil son of Caw,
and Cai son of Cenyr of the Fine Beard.
And one was diademed above the three of them: that was Bedwyr son of Bedrawc.

TRIAD 22

Three Brave Men of the Island of Britain, three sons of Haearnwedd the Wily:
Gruddnei,
and Henben,
>and Edenawg.

TRIAD 22 WR.

Three Brave Men of the Island of Britain:


Gruddnei,
and Henben,
and Edenawg.
They would not return from battle except on their biers. And those were three sons of Gleissiar of the
North, by Haearnwedd the Wily their mother.

TRIAD 23

Three Arrogant Men of the Island of Britain:


Sawyl High-Head,
and Pasgen son of Urien,
and Rhun son of Einiawn.

TRIAD 24

Three Slaughter-Blocks of the Island of Britain:


Gilbert son of Cadgyffro,
and Morfran son of Tegid,
and Gwgawn Red-Sword.

TRIAD 25

Three Battle-Leaders of the Island of Britain:


Selyf son of Cynan Garrwyn,
and Urien son of Cynfarch,
and Afaon son of Taliesin.
(This is why they were called AERUEDOGEON: because they avenged their wrongs from their graves.)
TRIAD 26

Drystan son of Tallwch, who guarded the swine of March son of Meirchiawn, while the swineherd went to
ask Essyllt to come to a meeting with him. And Arthur was seeking (to obtain) one pig from among them,
either by deceit or by force, but he did not get it;
And Pryderi son of Pwyll, Lord of Annwfn, who guarded the swine of Pendaran Dyfed in Glyn Cuch in
Emlyn;
And Coll son of Collfrewy, who guarded Henwen, the sow of Dallwyr Dallben, who went (when) about to
bring forth (?), to Penrhyn Awstin in Cornwall, (and there she went into the sea). And at Aber Tarogi in
Gwent Is Coed she came to land. And Coll son of Collfrewy with his hand on her bristles wherever she
went, whether by sea or by land. And in the Wheat Field in Gwent she brought forth a grain of wheat and a
bee; and therefore that place is the best for wheat and bees. And from there she went to Llonion in
Pembroke, and there she brought forth a grain of barley and a bee. From thence she made for the Hill of
Cyferthwch in Eryri; there she brought forth a wolf-cub and a young eagle. And Coll son of Collfrewy gave
the eagle to Bre(R)nnach the Irishman of the North, and the wolf he gave to Me(n)waedd son of ... of
Arllechwedd; and these were (the Wolf of) Me(n)waedd and the Eagle of Brennach. And from thence she
went to the Black Stone in Llanfair in Arfon, and there she brought forth a kitten; and Coll son of Collfrewy
threw that kitten into the Menai. And she was afterwards Palug's Cat.

TRIAD 26 W

Three Powerful Swineherds of the Island of Britain:


Pryderi son of Pwyll, Lord of Annwfn, tending the swine of Penndaran Dyfed his foster-father. These swine
were the seven animals which Pwyll Lord of Annwfn brought, and gave them to Penndaran Dyfed his
foster-father. And the place where he used to keep them was in Glyn Cuch in Emlyn. And this is why he
was called a Powerful Swineherd: because no one was able either to deceive or to force him;
And the second, Drystan son of Tallwch, tending the swine of March son of Meirchyawn, while the
swineherd went with a message to Essyllt. Arthur and March and Cai and Bedwyr were (there) all four, but
they did not succeed in getting so much as one pigling - neither by force, nor by deception, nor by stealth;
And the third, Coll son of C(o)llfrewy, tending the swine of Dallwyr Dallben in Glyn Dallwyr in Cornwall.
And one of the swine was pregnant, Henwen was her name. And it was prophecied that the Island of Britain
would be the worse for the womb-burden. Then Arthur assembled the army of the Island of Britain, and set
out to seek to destroy her. And then she set off, about to bring forth (?), and at Penrhyn Awstin in Cornwall
she entered the sea, and the Powerful Swineherd after her. And in the Wheat Field in Gwent she brought
forth a grain of wheat and a bee. And therefore from that day to this the Wheat Field in Gwent is the best
place for wheat and for bees. And at Llonion in Pembroke she brought forth a grain of barley and a grain of
wheat. Therefore, the barley of Llonion is proverbial. At the Hill of Cyferthwch in Arfon she brought forth
a (wolf-cub) and a young eagle. The wolf was given to (M)ergaed and the eagle to Breat, a prince of the
North: and they were both the worse for them. And at Llanfair in Arfon under the Black Rock she brought
forth a kitten, and the Powerful Swineherd threw it from the Rock into the sea. And the sons of Palug
fostered it in Môn, to their own harm: and that was Palug's Cat, and it was one of the Three Great
Oppressions of Môn, nurtured therein. The second was Daronwy, and the third was Edwin, king of Lloegr.

TRIAD 27

Three Enchanters of the Island of Britain:


Coll son of Collfrewy,
and Menw son of Teirgwaedd,
and Drych son of Kibddar.

TRIAD 28

Three Great Enchantments of the Island of Britain:


The Enchantment of Math son of Mathonwy (which he taught to Gw(y)dion son of Dôn),
and the Enchantment of Uthyr Pendragon (which he taught to Menw son of Teirgwaedd),
and the Enchantment of Gwythelyn the Dwarf (WR: Rudlwm the Dwarf) (which he taught to Coll son of
Collfrewy his nephew).

TRIAD 29

Three Faithful War-Bands of the Island of Britain:


The War-Band of Cadwallawn son of Cadfan, who were with him seven years in Ireland; and in all that
time they did not ask him for anything, lest they should be compelled to leave him;
And the second, the War-Band of Gafran son of Aeddan, who went to sea for their lord;
And the third, the War-Band of Gwenddolau son of Ceid(i)aw at Ar(f)derydd, who continued the battle for
a fortnight and a month after their lord was slain.

The number of the War-Band of each of those men was twenty-one hundred men.

TRIAD 29 WR:

Three Faithful War-Bands of the Island of Britain:


The War-Band of Cadwallawn, when they were fettered;
and the War-Band of Gafran son of Aeddan, at the time of his complete disappearance;
and the War-Band of Gwenddolau son of Ceidiaw at Ar(f)derydd, who continued the battle for a fortnight
and a month after their lord was slain;
The number of each one of the War-Bands was twenty-one hundred men.

TRIAD 30

Three Faithless War-Bands of the Islands of Britain:


The War-Band of Goronwy the Radiant of (Penllyn), who refused to receive the poisoned spear from Lleu
Skilful-Hand on behalf of their lord, at the Stone of Goronwy at the head of the Cynfal;
and the War-Band of Gwrgi and Peredur, who abandoned their lord at Caer Greu, when they had an
appointment to fight the next day with Eda Great-Knee; and there they were both slain;
And the War-Band of Alan Fyrgan, who turned away from him by night, and let him go with his servants to
Camlan. And there he was slain.

(W: The number of each of the War-Bands was twenty-one hundred men.)

TRIAD 31

Three Noble(?) Retinues of the Island of Britain:


The Retinue of Mynyddawg of Eiddyn,
and the Retinue of Melyn son of Cynfelyn,
and the Retinue of Dryon son of Nudd.

TRIAD 31 WR

Three Noble Retinues of the Island of Britain:


The Retinue of Mynyddawg at Catraeth,
and the Retinue of Dreon the Brave at the Dyke of Ar(f)dery(dd),
and the third, the Retinue of Belyn of Llyn (in) Erethlyn in Rhos.

TRIAD 32
Three Men who performed the Three Fortunate Assassinations:
Gall son of Dysgyfdawd who slew the Two Birds of Gwenddolau. And they had a yoke of gold on them.
Two corpses of the Cymry they ate for their dinner, and two for their supper;
And Ysgafnell son of Dysgyfdawd, who slew Edelfled king of Lloegr;
And Diffydell son of Dysgyfdawd who slew Gwrgi Garwlwyd ('Rough Grey'). That Gwrgi used to make a
corpse of one of the Cymry every day, and two on each Saturday so as not to slay on Sunday.

TRIAD 33

Three Unfortunate Assassinations of the Island of Britain:


Heidyn son of Enygan, who slew Aneirin of Flowing Verse, Prince of Poets;
and Llawgad Trwm Bargod Eidyn ('Heavy Battle-Hand of the Border of Eidyn') who slew Afaon son of
Taliesin,
and Llofan Llaw Ddifo ('Ll. Severing Hand') who slew Urien son of Cynfarch.

TRIAD 33 W

Three Savage Men of the Island of Britain, who performed the Three Unfortunate Assassinations:
Llofan Llaw Ddifro ('Ll. Exiled Hand') who slew Urien son of Cynfarch,
Llongad Grwm Fargod Eidyn ('Ll. the Bent of the Border of Eidyn') who slew Afaon son of Taliesin,
and Heiden son of Efengad who slew Aneirin of Flowing Verse, daughter of Teyrnbeirdd - the man who
used to give a hundred kine every Saturday in a bath-tub to Talhaearn. And he struck her with a
woodhatchet on the head.
And that was one of the Three Hatchet-Blows.
The second (was) a woodcutter of Aberffraw who struck Golydan with a hatchet, on the head. And the
third, one of his own men struck upon Iago, son of Beli, with a hatchet, on the head.

TRIAD 34

Three Unfortunate Hatchet-Blows of the Island of Britain:


The Blow of Eidyn on the Head of Aneirin,
and the Blow on the Head of Golydan the Poet,
and the Blow on the Head of Iago son of Beli.

TRIAD 35

Three Levies that departed from this Island, and not one of them came back:
The first went with Elen of the Hosts and Cynan her brother,
The second went with Yrp of the Hosts, who came here to ask for assistance in the time of Cadial son of
Eryn. And all he asked of each Chief Fortress was twice as many (men) as would come with him to it; and
to the first Fortress there came only himself and his servant. (And it proved grievous to have given him
that.) Nevertheless that was the most complete levy that ever went from this Island, and no (man) of them
ever came back. The place where those men remained was on two islands close to the Greek sea: those
islands are Gals and Avena.
The third levy went with Caswallawn son of Beli, and Gwenwynwyn and Gwanar, sons of Lliaws son of
Nwyfre, and Arianrhod daughter of Beli their mother. And those men came from Arllechwedd. They went
with Caswallawn their uncle across the sea in pursuit of the men of Caesar. The place where those men are
is in Gascony. And the number that went in each of those Hosts was twenty-one thousand men. And those
were the Three Silver Hosts: they were so called because the gold and silver of the Island went with them.
And they were picked men.

TRIAD 35 R When a Host went to Llychlyn.


An army (of assistance) went with Yrp of the Hosts to Llychlyn. And that man came here in the time of
Cadyal of the Blows(?) to ask for a levy from this Island. And nobody came with him but Mathuthavar his
servant. This is what he asked from the ten-and-twenty Chief Fortresses that there are in this Island: that
twice as many men as went with him to each of them should come away with him (from it). And to the first
Fortress there came only himself and his servant. (And that proved grievous to the men of this Island.) And
they granted it to him. And that was the most complete levy that ever departed from this Island. And with
those men he conquered the way he went. Those men remained in the two islands close to the Greek sea:
namely, Clas and Avena.
And the second (army) went with Elen of the Hosts and Maxen Wledig to Llychlyn: and they never
returned to this Island.
And the third (army) went with Caswallawn son of Beli, and Gwennwynwyn and Gwanar, sons of Lliaw
son of Nwyfre, and Arianrhod daughter of Beli their mother. And (it was) from Erch and Heledd that those
men came. And they went with Caswallawn their uncle in pursuit of the men of Caesar from this Island.
The place where those men are is in Gascony.
The number that went with each of (those armies) was twenty-one thousand men. And those were the Three
Silver Hosts of the Island of Britain.

TRIAD 36

Three oppressions that came to this Island, and not one of them went back:
One of them (was) the people of the Coraniaid, who came here in the time of Caswallawn (= Lludd?) son of
Beli: and not one of them went back. And they came from Arabia.
The second Oppression: the Gwyddyl Ffichti. And not one of them went back.
The third Oppression: the Saxons, with Horsa and Hengist as their leaders.

TRIAD 37

Three Concealments and Three Disclosures of the Island of Britain:


The Head of Bran the Blessed, son of Llyr, which was buried in the White Hill in London. And as long as
the Head was there in that position, no Oppression would ever come to this Island;
The second: the Bones of Gwerthefyr the Blessed, which were buried in the Chief Ports of this Island;
The third: the Dragons which Lludd son of Beli buried in Dinas Emrys in Eryri.

TRIAD 37 R:

Three Fortunate Concealments of the Island of Britain:

The Head of Bran the Blessed, son of Llyr, which was concealed in the White Hill in London, with its face
towards France. And as long as it was in the position in which it was put there, no Saxon Oppression would
ever come to this Island;
The second Fortunate Concealment: the Dragons in Dinas Emrys, which Lludd son of Beli concealed;
And the third: the Bones of Gwerthefyr the Blessed, in the Chief Ports of this Island. And as long as they
remained in that concealment, no Saxon Oppression would ever come to this Island.
And they were the Three Unfortunate Disclosures when these were disclosed. And Gwrtheyrn the Thin
disclosed the bones of Gwerthefyr the Blessed for the love of a woman: that was Ronnwen the pagan
woman; And it was he who disclosed the Dragons;
b And Arthur disclosed the Head of Bran the Blessed from the White Hill, because it did not seem right to
him that this Island should be defended by the strength of anyone, but by his own.

(On this section, triads 38 -46, see TRIOEDD YNYS PRYDEIN introduction, pp. xcviii-cvii)

TRIAD 38 (These are the Triads of the Horses:)


Three Bestowed Horses of the Island of Britain:
Slender Grey, horse of Caswallawn son of Beli,
Pale Yellow of the Stud, horse of Lleu Skilful-Hand,
and Host-Splitter, horse of Caradawg Strong-Arm.

TRIAD 39

Three Chief Steeds of the Island of Britain:


Tall Black-Tinted, horse of Cynan Garrwyn,
and Eager Long Fore-Legs, horse of Cyhored son of Cynan,
and Red... Wolf-Tread, horse of Gilbert son of Cadgyffro.

TRIAD 40

Three Plundered Horses of the Island of Britain:


Cloven-Hoof, horse of Owain son of Urien,
and Long Tongue, horse of Cadwallawn son of Cadfan,
and Bucheslom, horse of Gwgawn of the Red Sword.

TRIAD 41

Three Lovers' Horses of the Island of Britain:


Grey Fetlock, horse of Dalldaf son of Cunin Cof,
and Spotted Dun, horse of Rahawd son of Morgant,
and Pale White Lively-Back, horse of Morfran son of Tegid.

TRIAD 42

Three Lively Steeds of the Island of Britain:


Grey, horse of Alser son of Maelgwn,
and Chestnut Long-Neck, horse of Cai,
and Roan Cloven-Hoof, horse of Iddon son of Ynyr Gwent.

TRIAD 43

Three Pack-Horses of the Island of Britain:


Black, horse of Brwyn son of Cunedda,
and Huge Yellow, horse of Pasgen son of Urien,
and Dun-Grey, horse of Rhydderch Hael.

TRIAD 44

Three Horses who carried the Three Horse-Burdens:


Black Moro, horse of Elidir Mwynfawr, who carried on his back seven and a half people from Penllech in
the North to Penllech in Môn. These were the seven people: Elidir Mwynfawr, and Eurgain his wife,
daughter of Maelgwn Gwynedd, and Gwyn Good Companion, and Gwyn Good Distributor, and Mynach
Naomon his counsellor, and Prydelaw the Cupbearer, his butler, and Silver Staff his servant, and
Gelbeinevin his cook, who swam with his two hands to the horse's crupper - and that was the half-person.
Corvan, horse of the sons of Eliffer, bore the second Horse-Burden: he carried on his back Gwrgi and
Peredur and Dunawd the Stout and Cynfelyn the Leprous(?), to look upon the battle-fog of (the host of)
Gwenddolau (in) Ar(f)derydd. (And no one overtook him but Dinogad son of Cynan Garwyn, (riding) upon
Swift Roan, and he won censure (?) and dishonour from then till this day.)
Heith, horse of the sons of Gwerthmwl Wledig, bore the third Horse-Burden: he carried Gweir and Gleis
and Archanad up the hill of Maelawr in Ceredigion to avenge their father.

TRIAD 45

Three Prominent Oxen of the Island of Britain:


Yellow Pale-White,
and Chestnut, Ox of Gwylwylyd,
and the Speckled Ox.

TRIAD 46

Three Prominent Cows of the Island of Britain:


Speckled, cow of Maelgwn Gwynedd,
and Grey-Skin, cow of the sons of Eliffer of the Great Warband,
and Cornillo, cow of Llawfrodedd the Bearded.

TRIAD 46 a

Three Bestowed Horses of the Island of Britain:


Slender-Hard, horse of Gwalchmai,
and Thick-Mane, horse of Gweddw,
... horse of Drudwas son of Tryffin,
and Chestnut Long-Neck, horse of Cai.

TRIAD 46 b

Three Coursing Horses of the Island of Britain:


Broad-Belly and Coal, the two horses of Collawn son of Teichi,
and Swift-Roan, horse of Dinoga(d) son of Cynan (Garwyn).

TRIAD 46 c

Three Steeds of the Island of Britain:


Gwirian Groddros, horse of Ga(rw)y the Tall,
Gwegar, horse of Elinwy,
... horse of Ellwyd,
... horse of the son of Matheu.

TRIAD 47

Three Men who received the Might of Adam:


Hercules the Strong,
and Hector the Strong,
and Samson the Strong.
They were, all three, as strong as Adam himself.

TRIAD 47 b (Pen. 216)

Here are the names of the nine bravest and most noble warriors of the whole world; of whom there are
Three Pagans, Three Jews, and Three Christians:
The Three Pagans: Ector of Troy, Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar.
The Three Jews: David the Prophet, Judas Maccabeus, Duke Joshua.
The Three Christians: Arthur, Charles (Charlemagne), Godfrey of Boulogne.

TRIAD 48

Three Men who received the Beauty of Adam:


Absalom son of David,
and Jason son of Aeson,
and Paris son of Priam.

They were, all three, as comely as Adam himself.

TRIAD 49

Three Men who received the Wisdom of Adam:


Cato the Old,
and Bede,
and Sibli the Wise.
They were, all three, as wise as Adam himself.

TRIAD 50

Three Women who received the Beauty of Eve in three third-shares:

Diadema (= Dido?), mistress of Aenas White-Shield,

and Elen the Magnificent, the woman on whose account was the destruction of Troy,

and Polixena, daughter of Priam the Old, king of Troy.

(Eve was as fair as all of the three.)

TRIAD 51

Three Dishonoured Men who were in the Island of Britain:


One of them: Afarwy son of Lludd son of Beli. He first summoned Julius Caesar and the men of Rome to
this Island, and he caused the paymant of three thousand pounds in money as tribute from this Island every
year, because of a quarrel with Caswallawn his uncle.
And the second id Gwrtheyrn the Thin, who first gave land to the Saxons in this Island, and was the first to
enter into an alliance with them. He caused the death of Custennin the Younger, son of Custennin the
Blessed, by his treachery, and exiled the two brothers Emrys Wledig and Uthur Penndragon from this
Island to Armorica, and deceitfully took the crown and the kingdom into his own possession. And in the
end Uthur and Emrys burned Gwrtheyrn in Castell Gwerthrynyawn beside the Wye, in a single
conflagration to avenge their brother.
The third and worst was Medrawd, when Arthur left with him the government of the Island of Britain, at
the same time when he himself went across the sea to oppose Lles, emperor of Rome, who had dispatched
messengers to Arthur in Caerleon to demand (payment of) tribute to him and to the men of Rome, from this
Island, in the measure that it had been paid (from the time of) Caswallawn son of Beli until the time of
Custennin the Blessed, Arthur's grandfather. This is the answer that Arthur gave to the emperor's
messengers: that the men of Rome had no greater claim to tribute from the men of this Island, than the men
of the Island of Britain had from them. For Bran son of Dyfnwal and Custennin son of Elen had been
emperors in Rome, and they were two men of this Island. And they Arthur mustered the most select
warriors of his kingdom (and led them) across the sea against the emperor. And they met beyond the
mountain of Mynneu (= the Alps), and an untold number was slain on each side that day. And in the end
Arthur encountered the emperor, and Arthur slew him. And Arthur's best men were slain there. When
Medrawd heard that Arthur's host was dispersed, he turned against Arthur, and the Saxons and the Picts and
the Scots united with him to hold this Island against Arthur. And when Arthur heard that, he turned back
with all that had survived of his army, and succeeded by violence in landing on this Island in opposition to
Medrawd. And then there took place the Battle of Camlan between Arthur and Medrawd, and was himself
wounded to death. And from that (wound) he died, and was buried in a hall on the Island of Afallach.

TRIAD 52

Three Exalted Prisoners of the Island of Britain:


Llyr Half-Speech, who was imprisoned by Euroswydd,
and the second, Mabon son of Modron,
and third, Gwair son of Geirioedd.
And one (Prisoner), who was more exalted than the three of them, was three nights in prison in Caer Oeth
and Anoeth, and three nights imprisoned by Gwen Pendragon, and three nights in an enchanted prison
under the Stone of Echymeint. This Exalted Prisoner was Arthur. And it was the same lad who released him
from each of these three prisons- Goreu, son of Custennin, his cousin.

TRIAD 53

Three Harmful Blows of the Island of Britain:


The first of them Matholwch the Irishman struck upon Branwen daughter of Llyr;
The second Gwenhwyfach struck upon Gwenhwyfar: and for that cause there took place afterwards the
Action of the Battle of Camlan;
And the third Golydan the Poet struck upon Cadwaladr the Blessed.

TRIAD 54

Three Unrestrained Ravagings of the Island of Britain:

The first of them (occurred) when Medrawd came to Arthur's Court at Celliwig in Cornwall; he left neither
food nor drink in the court that he did not consume. And he dragged Gwenhwyfar from her royal chair, and
then he struck a blow upon her;

The second Unrestrained Ravaging (occurred) when Arthur came to Medrawd's court. He left neither food
nor drink in the court;

(And the third Unrestrained Ravaging (occurred) when Aeddan the Wily came to the court of Rhydderch
the Generous at Alclud (= Dumbarton); he left neither food nor drink nor beast alive.)

TRIAD 55

Three Quests that were obtained from Powys:


The first of them is the fetching of Myngan from Meigen to Llansilin, by nine the next morning, to receive
privileges from Cadwallawn the Blessed, after the slaying of Ieuaf and Griffri;
The second is the fetching of Griffri to Bryn Griffri before the following morning, to attack Edwin;
The third is the fetching of Hywel son of Ieuaf to Ceredigiawn from the Rock of Gwynedd to fight with (=
on the side of?) Ieuaf and Iago in that battle.

TRIAD 56
Arthur's Three Great Queens:
Gwennhwyfar daughter of (Cywryd) Gwent,
and Gwenhwyfar daughter of (Gwythyr) son of Greidiawl,
>and Gwenhwyfar daughter of (G)ogfran the Giant.

TRIAD 57

And the Three Mistresses were these:


Indeg daughter of Garwy the Tall,
and Garwen ('Fair Leg') daughter of Henin the Old,
and Gwyl ('Modest') daughter of Gendawd ('Big Chin'?).

TRIAD 58

Three Amazons of the Island of Britain:


The first of them, Llewei daughter of Seitwed,
and Rore(i) daughter of Usber,
and Mederei Badellfawr ('Big Knee'?).

TRIAD 59

Three Unfortunate Counsels of the Island of Britain:


To give place for their horses' fore-feet on the land to Julius Caesar and the men of Rome, in requital for
Meinlas;
and the second: to allow Horsa and Hengist and Rhonwen into this Island;
and the third: the three-fold dividing by Arthur of his men with Medrawd at Camlan.

TRIAD 60

Three Gate-Keepers at the Action of Bangor Orchard:


Gwgon Red Sword,
and Madawg son of Rhun,
and Gwiawn son of Cyndrwyn.

And three others on the side of Lloegr:


Hawystyl the Arrogant,
and Gwaetcym Herwuden,
and Gwiner.

TRIAD 61

Three Golden Corpses of the Island of Britain:


Madawg son of Brwyn,
and Cengan Peilliawg,
and Rhu(f)awn the Radiant son of Gwyddno.

TRIAD 62

Three Fettered War-Bands of the Islands of Britain:


The War-Band of Cadwallawn Long-Arm, who each one put the fetters of their horses on their (own) feet,
when fighting with Serygei the Irishman at the Irishmens' Rocks in Môn;
And the second, the War-Band of Rhiwallawn son of Urien when fighting with the Saxons;
And the third, the War-Band of Belyn of Llyn when fighting with Edwin at Bryn Edwin in Rhos.
TRIAD 63

Three Bull-Spectres of the Island of Britain:


Three Spectre of Gwidawl,
and the Spectre of Llyr Marini,
and the Spectre of Gyrthmwl Wledig.

TRIAD 64

Three Wild Spectres of the Island of Britain:


The Spectre of Banawg,
and the Spectre of Ednyfedawg the Sprightly,
and the Spectre of Melen.

TRIAD 65

Three Unrestricted Guests of Arthur's Court, and Three Wanderers:


Llywarch the Old,
and Llemenig,
and Heledd.

TRIAD 66

Three Faithful (Women) of the Island of Britain:


Ardd(u)n wife of Cadgor son of Gorolwyn,
and Efeilian wife of Gwydyr the Heavy,
and Emerchred wife of Mabon son of Dewengan.

TRIAD 66 Pen. 47

Three Faithful Wives of the Island of Britain:


Treul the Blameless daughter of Llynghessawc Generous Hand,
and Gwenfedon daughter of Tud(w)al Tudglud, and Tegau Gold-Breast.
And one more faithful than the three: Hemythryd daughter of Mabon son of Dyfynwyn.

TRIAD 67

Three Golden Shoemakers of the Island of Britain:


Caswallawn son of Beli, when he went to Rome to seek Fflur;
and Manawydan son of Llyr, when the Enchantment was on Dyfed;
and Lleu Skilful-Hand, when he and Gwydion were seeking a name and arms from his mother Ar(i)anrhod.

TRIAD 68

Three Kings who were (sprung) from Villeins:


Gwriad son of Gwrian in the North,
and Cadafel son of Cynfeddw in Gwynedd,
and Hyfaidd son of Bleiddig in Deheubarth.

TRIAD 69
Three Defilements of the Severn:
Cadwallawn when he went to the Action of Digoll, and the forces of Cymry with him; and Edwin on the
other side, and the forces of Lloegr with him. And then the Severn was defiled from its source to its mouth;
The second, the gift of Golydan from Einiawn son of Bedd, king of Cornwall;
And the third, Calam the horse of Iddon son of Ner from Maelgwn(?).

TRIAD 70

Three Fair Womb-Burdens of the Island of Britain:


Urien son of Cynfarch and Arawn son of Cynfarch and Lleu son of Cynfarch, by Nefyn daughter of
Brychan Brycheiniog their mother;
The second, Owain and Morfudd daughter of Urien and Anarun archbishop of Llydaw, by Modron daughter
of Afallach their mother;
The third was Gwrgi and Peredur sons of (E)liffer of the Great Warband, and Arddun their sister, and ... (by
Efrddyl?), and Cornan their horse and Grey-Skin their cow.

TRIAD 70 PEN. 50.

Three Fair Womb-Burdens of the Island of Britain:B Urien and Efrddyl, children of Cynfarch the Old, who
were carried together in the womb of Nefyn daughter of Brychan their mother;
The second, Owain son of Urien and Mor(fudd) his sister who were carried together in the womb of
Modron daughter of Afallach;
The third, Gwrgi and Peredur and Ceindrech Pen Asgell ('Wing Head'), children of Eliffer and the Great
Warband, who were carried together in the womb of Efrddyl daughter of Cynfarch their mother.

TRIAD 71

Three Lovers of the Island of Britain:


Cynon son of Clydno (for Morfudd daughter of Urien);
and Caswallawn son of Beli (for Fflur daughter of Ugnach(?) the Dwarf);
and Drystan (son of Tallwch, for Essyllt, the wife of his uncle March).

TRIAD 71 PEN. 267:

Three Surpassing Bonds of Enduring Love which Three Men formerly in the time of Arthur cast upon the
Three Fairest, most Lovable, and most Talked-of Maidens who were in the Island of Britain at that time;
that is (the bond) which Tristan son of Tallwch cast upon Essyllt daughter of (Culfanawyd) Pillar of Britain;
and (the bond) which Cynon son of Clydno Eiddyn cast upon Morfudd daughter of Urien Rheged;
and (the bond) which Caradawg Strong-Arm son of Llyr M(a)rini cast upon Tegau Gold-Breast daughter of
Nudd Generous-Hand, king of the North.
And those were the Three Fairest, most Lovable, and most Talked-of Maidens who were in the Island of
Britain at that time.

TRIAD 72

Three Stubborn Men:


E(i)ddilig the Dwarf,
and Gwair of Great Valour,
and Drystan.

TRIAD 73
Three Peers of Arthur's Court:
R(a)hawd son of Morgant,
and Dalldaf son of Cunyn Cof,
and Drystan son of March.

TRIAD 74

Three who could not be expelled(?) from Arthur's Court:B Uchei son of Gwryon,
and Coledawg son of (Gwynn),
and (C)erenhyr son of Gereinyawn the Old.

TRIAD 75

Three Men of the Island of Britain who were most courteous to Guests and Strangers:
Gwalchmai son of Gwyar,
and Cadwy son of Gereint,
and Cadrieith (Fine Speech) (son of) Saidi.

TRIAD 76

Three Violent(?) Ones of the Island of Britain:


Heledd,
and Llywarch,
and Llemenig.

TRIAD 77

Three Wanderers of Arthur's Court:


Heledd,
and LLywarch,
and Llemenig.

TRIAD 78

Three Fair Maidens of the Island of Britain:


Creirwy, daughter of Ceridwen,
and Ar(i)anrhod daughter of Don,
and Gwen daughter of Cywryd son of Crydon.

TRIAD 79

Three Lively Maidens of the Island of Britain:


Angharat Tawny Wave (?), daughter of Rhydderch Hael,
and Afan, daughter of Maig Thick-Hair,
and Perwyr, daughter of Rhun of Great Wealth.

TRIAD 80

Three Faithless Wives of the Island of Britain. Three daughters of Culfanawyd of Britain:b Essyllt Fair-
Hair (Trystan's mistress),
and Penarwan (wife of Owain son of Urien),
and Bun, wife of Fflamddwyn.
And one was more faithless than those three: Gwenhwyfar, Arthur's wife, since she shamed a better man
than any (of the others).

TRIAD 81

Three Saintly Lineages of the Island of Britain:


The Lineage of Joseph of Ar(i)mathea,
and the Lineage of Cunedda Wledig,
and the Lineage of Brychan Brycheiniog.

TRIAD 81 C 18.

Three Kindreds of Saints of the Island of Britain, by a Welsh mother:


The Offspring of Brychan Brycheiniog,
and the Offspring of Cunedda Wledig,
and the Offspring of Caw of Pictland.

TRIAD 82

Three Blessed Visitors of the Island of Britain:


Dewi,
and Padarn,
and Teilo.

TRIAD 83

Three Bodies which God created for Teilo:


The first is at Llandaff in Morgannwg,
the second at Llandeilo Fawr,
and the third at Penalun in Dyfed, as the History tells us.

TRIAD 84

Three Futile Battles of the Island of Britain:


One of them was the Battle of Goddeu: it was brought about by the cause of the bitch, together with the
roebuck and the plover;
The second was the Action of Ar(f)derydd, which was brought by the cause of the lark's nest;
And the third was the worst: that was Camlan, which was brought about because of a quarrel between
Gwenhwyfar and Gwennhwy(f)ach.
This is why those (Battles) were called Futile: because they were brought about by such a barren cause as
that.

TRIAD 85

Arthur's Three Principal Courts:


Caerleon-on-Usk in Wales,
and Celliwig in Cornwall,
and Penrhyn Rhionydd in the North.

Three Principal Festivals at the Three Principal Courts:


Easter, and Christmas, and Whitsun.

TRIAD 86
Three Knights of Arthur's Court who won the Graal, and it brought them to Heaven:
Galaad son of Lawnslot of the Lake,
and Peredur son of Earl Efrawg,
and Bort son of King Bort.
And the two first were virgin of body. And the third was chaste, for only once had he committed bodily sin;
and that, through temptation, at the time when he won ... daughter of King Brangor, who was Empress in
Constantinople, and from whom was descended the greatest race in the world. All three were sprung of the
race of Joseph of Arimathea, and of the lineage of the Prophet David, as the History of the Graal testifies.

TRIAD 87

Three Skilful Bards were at Arthur's Court:


Myrddin son of Morfryn,
Myrddin Emrys,
and Taliesin.

TRIAD 88

Three Splendid Maidens of Arthur's Court:


Dyfyr Golden-Hair,
Enid daughter of Earl (Y)niwl,
and Tegau Gold-Breast.

TRIAD 89

Three Things which conquered Lloegr:


Receiving Strangers,
Freeing Prisoners,
and the Gift of the Bald Man.

TRIAD 90

Three Perpetual Harmonies of the Island of Britain:


One was at the Island of Afallach,
and the second at Caer Garadawg,
and the third at Bangor.

In each of these three places there were 2,400 religious men; and of these 100 in turn continued each hour
of the twenty-four hours of the day and night in prayer and service to God, ceaselessly and without rest for
ever.

TRIAD 91

Three Fearless Men of the Island of Britain:


The first was Gwalchmai son of Gwyar,
the second was Llachau son of Arthur,
and the third was (Peredur) son of Earl Efrog.

TRIAD 92

Three Elders of the World:


The Owl of Cwm Cowlwyd,
the Eagle of Gwernabwy,
and the Blackbird of Celli Gadarn.

TRIAD 93

Three Men who specified their sufficiency from Arthur as their Gift:
Culhwch son of Cilydd son of Celyddon Wledig,
and Huarwor son of Aflawn,
and Gordibla of Cornwall.

TRIAD 94

Three Immense Feasts that were in the Island of Britain:


One of them was the Feast which Caswallawn son of Beli made in London, where twenty thousand cattle
were slain, and a hundred thousand sheep, and fifty thousand geese and capons, and of wild and
domesticated birds more than anyone might number. (G. Owain).

Was Arthur's Feast in Caerleon-on-Usk the second, and what Feast was the third?

TRIAD 95

Three People who broke their hearts from Bewilderment:


Branwen daughter of Llyr,
and Caradog son of Bran,
and Ffaraon Dandde.

TRIAD 96

Three Wives whom Brychan Brycheiniog had. Their names were:


Eurbrawst,
and Rybrawst,
and Peresgri.

And his Offspring are one of the Three Kindreds of Saints of the Island of Britain. The second is the
Offspring of Cunedda Wledig, and the third is the Offspring of Caw of Pictland. # 104

TRIBUIT

An unidentified river, site of one of Arthur's battles. # 156 - 494

TáN N'RIGH

Kingmaking by fire. A new king is chosen by the authority of the Tán n'Righ, which means that the selected
person must be approved by holding burning branches in his hands, and while the branches are being
consumed, the fire would not touch the flesh. # 384 p 28

TRIOEDD YNYS PRYDEIN

The second edition of TRIOEDD YNYS PRYDEIN is based upon a full collation of the manuscripts. The
text reproduced is in the first instance that of Peniarth MS. 16, which represents the oldest version of TYP
that has come down to us, with the exception of a fragment of four TRIOEDD Y MEIRCH preserved in the
BLACK BOOK OF CARMARTHEN. This Rachel Bromwich call the 'Early Version'. The text of Pen. 16
ends with triad 46, so that this manuscript includes less than half of the total of ninety-six triads contained
in this volume. The remaining triads are those not found in Pen. 16, but which appear in the later
collections, as follows: Triads 47-69 are from the White Book, LLYFR GWYN RHYDDERCH; and where
the fragmentary text of TYP contained in this manuscript is defective, from the complete version of the
same series preserved in the Red Book, LLYFR COCH HERGEST. This version is designated WR. Triads
70-80 are from Pen. 47, and triads 81-6 from Pen. 50, while triads 87-96 consist of miscellaneous additions
to TRIOEDD YNYS PRYDEIN which appear for the first time in one or other of the late manuscript
collections. Rachel Bromwich has given precedence to preserving the order of the triads as these appear in
Pen. 16, although to do so has involved subordinating to this order, the order in which the triads are given
in the much more extensive collection of WR. The reason for this choice is that she believe Pen. 16 to
preserve a much older arrangement and grouping of TRIOEDD YNYS PRYDEIN. The construction of a
satisfactory STEMMA of TYP is not possible because of the nature of the material: all manuscripts omit
triads which are represented in other manuscripts, and numerous intermediary texts have undoubtedly been
lost. But the distinction

between the two main versions, the Early Version and that of WR, remains a valid one for the texts of TYP
as a whole; in following the grouping of one or other version the later manuscripts also present a text whose
affinities are with this version. But Rachel Bromwich had the hope that to show in the second edition each
of the manuscripts employed for the basic texts of triads 1-86 draws on written sources other than those that
have come down to us, some of which are of at least equal antiquity with those which have survived.

There is evidence that some at least of the triads which are represented in both of the main versions go back
ultimately to a common WRITTEN source. Triads 1-90 include all the triads contained in the first and
second series of TRIOEDD YNYS PRYDAIN in the MYVYRIAN ARCHAIOLOGY OF WALES. The
first series represents the collection of TRIOEDD YNYS PRYDAIN made by Robert Vaughan of Hengwrt
(1592-1666) from older manuscript sources. An account of the formation of the Myvyrian text will be
found in this edition. The Myvyrian second series reproduces the triads from the RED BOOK OF
HERGEST. The third series is the work of Iolo Morganwg, who in the late eighteenth century rewrote
many of the older triads in an expanded form, with the introduction of some fresh material. The
investigation of these triads belongs properly to the study of Iolo's sources and methods; and as such, it
falls outside the scope of Rachel Bromwich's second edition of TRIOEDD YNYS PRYDEIN. See all the 96
triads in the english translation, (without any notes) as: TRIADS, THE WELSH.

TRIPLE GODDESSES

Celtic goddesses frequently are shown or described in triple form. The Celts used a triple cycle for the
seasons and for many magical patterns within religion. The Triple Goddess, and The Fourfold Cycle:

I=Maiden,

II=Mother,

III=Crone and

1. East/Spring/Air/Dawn/Beginning

2. South/Summer/Fire/Noon Increasing

3. West/Autumn/Water/Evening/Maturing

4. North/ Winter/Earth/Night/Destroying.

The Triad of the Goddess rotates around the Fourfold Cycle. # 628 p 60 ff
TRISTAN

A contemporary of Arthur and a Knight of the Round Table, nephew and champion of Mark, King of
Cornwall. In one story he was the son of King Meliodas and Queen Elizabeth of Lyonesse. He was called
Tristan (Sorrow) because of the grief caused at his birth, since it killed his mother. After Lyonesse sank
beneath the sea, he became attached first to the court of King Mark, where one of his first tasks was to kill
the giant Marhalt. Cornwall refused to pay its customary tribute to Ireland, so the Irish sent over their
champion, Marhalt (Marhaus), (one may wonder if names such as Marhalt and Marhaus might preserve
some genuine memory of the fifth-century King of Tara, Muircheartach I), the queen's brother, whom
Tristan slew. Tristan was wounded and had to seek a cure in Ireland whither he went under the false name
of Pro of Iernsetir or Tantris. Later, a marriage was arranged between Mark and Iseult, daughter of King
Anguish of Ireland. Tristan went to Ireland to fetch his uncle's bride and when there he killed a dragon,
though a rascally senechal (steward) tried to seize credit for the act. On the way back, he and Iseult
unwittingly partook of a love potion which made them enamoured of each other and they became lovers.
On the night of Iseult's marriage to Mark, her maid Brangien stood in for her under cover of darkness.
There followed an affair between Tristan and Iseult and on one occasion, Tristan's blood was spilled in
Iseult's bed, giving rise to suspicion. To quell this, Iseult said she would swear on hot iron that she was no
adulteress. When it came to this, Iseult fell into the arms of Tristan who was disguised as a beggar; she was
thus able to swear that none but the king and the beggar had held her.

Tristan, seeing that his love for the queen was hopeless, hied himself to Brittany where he married Iseult of
the Fair Hands, the daughter of Hoel, the ruler. (Tristan's father-in-law is called Havelin by Eilhart, Jovelin
by Gottfried and Gilierchins in the TAVOLA RITONDA). Tristan did not sleep with his wife.. He became
fast friends with her brother, Kahedrin. He received a poisoned wound and believed Iseult of Ireland could
heal him so he sent her a message, entreating her to come. The captain of the ship which was to transport
her agreed to use white sails if she were aboard, but black if not. When the ship approached, Iseult of the
White Hands lied to him, saying the sails were black, and Tristan died. Hearing of this, Iseult of Ireland
died of a broken heart and Mark had them buried side by side. From the grave of Tristan grew a vine, from
that of Iseult a rose. They met and became inseparably entwined. In another version (Malory), Tristan was
playing his harp for Iseult of Ireland when Mark slew him by driving a sword or lance into his back. The
story seems to be Pictish in origin. Tristan's name is Pictish and, in Welsh tradition, his father is called
Tallwch, perhaps a form of the Pictish name Talorc. It is interesting to note that the Pictish King Talorc III
(perhaps legendary) was succeeded by Drust V (c. AD 550-51); were these protagonists of the original
story? Another version, perhaps derived from it, appears in the Irish CuChulain story, THE WOOING OF
EMER. The tragic tale of DIARMUID AND GRáINNE also may have contributed to the tale. Welsh
tradition transported the story from Pictland to Cornwall and the final version seems to be Breton. The
development of the story is thought to have been as follows: Irish tale DIARMUID AND GRAINNE and
the Pictish tale DRUST SON OF TALORCAN derivate the Irish episode in WOOING OF EMER which
combined led to the Pictish combination DRUST SAGA, followed by the Breton folktale THE DRAGON
and the Welsh version localized in Cornwall, and the Breton folktale MAN WITH TWO WIVES, which
formed the Breton final version. The medieval romance of Tristan underwent the following developments:

Archetype:

1. Eilhart (twelfth century)


2. Beroul (twelfth century)
3. Thomas (twelfth century) and
4. Gottfried (thirteenth century).

The Fowey Stone in Cornwall is thought to bear an inscription about a Tristan, son of Cunomorus (see
MARK), to whom the tale may have been transferred. Eilhart said Tristan was the first person to train dogs.
Malory calls him Tristram. According to Italian romance, he and Iseult had two children, bearing their
names, while French romance gave them a son, Ysaie, and a grandson, Marc. In the Icelandic TRISTRAMS
SAGA Tristan had a son by Iseult of the White Hands named Kalegras. See: PETICRIEU, SEGWARIDES,
TWENTY-FOUR KNIGHTS. # 156 - 204 - 217 - 418 - 454 - 658

TRISTRAM

The form of Tristan used by Malory. Tristram was the usual English form of Tristan, instances of it having
been noted in England from the twelfth century. # 156

TROAS

As his name indicates, he was of Trojan origin. He was the King of Thessaly and his son, Troiano, figured
in an unpublished Italian romance of the Old Table. # 156 - 238

TROIANO

The son of King Troas of Thessaly and a descendant of Hector. An unpublished romance of the Old Table
tells how he, King Remus of Rome and Uther Pendragon combined to make the Trojan race once again the
rulers of Troy. # 156 - 238

TROJAN OUTPOST

Just as there are Celtic myths, so there is a kind of protomythology which deals with the distant origins of
the Celtic peoples themselves. Archaeology has taught us to believe in the Indo-European culture which
spread from the Indus valley across most of present-day Europe, seeding various tribal groups which
remained behind to found the La Tène and Hallstatt cultures which provided a foundation for the Celtic
peoples as we know them today.

# 455 p 101 ff

TRONC

See: OBERON.

TROUT

In Europe the trout is a symbol of health and fertility. The Celts celebrated the return of the sun after the
winter months with fertility-rite dancing of 'the springing of the trout': the dancers imitated the rising of the
fish, associating it with the rising of the sun. # 161

TROY

# 454: The enslaved inhabitants of Troy were rescued and led by Brutus, great-grandson of Aeneas, to
Britain. Troy's legendary status as the origin of the British people has always figured importantly in the
island's history. Apollo, one of the protectors of Troy, is found, in native form, in the guise of
Maponus/Mabon. Taliesin may be considered to be a prophet of Troy's descendants since his poetic works
tell of their likely fate in his inspired utterances before Maelgwn.

# 730: Iman Wilkens' fascination with the Iliad and the Odyssey goes back to his schooldays, and research
into Homer has been an obsessive hobby of his ever since. Like generations of scholars, he was intrigued
by the origins of Homer's great epic poems about the Trojan War and the adventures of Odysseus - and now
believes that he has finally tracked down their source. Arguing, convincingly, that the poems do not fit the
topography, geology, climate and oceanic disturbances of the eastern Mediterranean, Wilkens relocates the
Homeric scene in western Europe and the north Atlantic, revealing the precise site of Troy itself (little east
of Cambridge) and the plain on which the Trojan War was fought. By examining the texts in detail, Wilkens
has identified over 400 place names in western Europe and concludes that the original oral version was
composed by Homer several hundred years before they were written down.

He reveals that the Trojan War was fought on a far larger scale than previously thought, by Celts from
regions as far apart as Scandinavia and Spain, and that the Odyssey describes routes and places in the
Channel and the Atlantic Ocean, and provided an oral map for illiterate Celtic seafarers. His book WHERE
TROY ONCE STOOD identifies Homer's external world and uncovers the epics' inner meanings. The
symbolic importance of Troy and its association with the spiral labyrinth and the mysteries of the Gnostic
religion is described, and the esoteric meaning of the Odyssey brought out. The result is an extraordinary
and enlightening journey into prehistory that is exciting as the voyages of Odyssey itself. One may
conclude that Wilkens' patient detective work, many of the most puzzling aspects of Homer's epic poems
now fall into place, enabling the reader - perhaps for the first time - to understand fully the meaning and
significance of Europe's oldest literary masterpieces. There is not only a symbolic relationship between the
spiral labyrinths called Troy towns and the city of Troy, but also a linguistic one. The origin of the name
Troy is found, according to K. Kerényi, in the root of the word Truare which means 'a circular movement
around a stable centre'. In the figurative sense, turning around a problem, while finding more answers to
our questions leads to solving the mystery. While the word Troy means a circular hillfort in the concrete
sense, it designates a spiral labyrinth in the figurative sense. It appears that the symbolism of the circular
labyrinth is much older than Homer's time as it goes back as early as the Stone Age. Western Europe is rich
in rock engravings of that era which show a close resemblance between the circular labyrinth and the
womb, symbol of return to the origin and (re-)birth, whence the presence of umbilical cords is equated with
Ariadne's threads. # 243 - 272 - 365 - 418 - 454 - 462 - 730

TROYNT

See: TWRCH TRWYTH.

TRUE THOMAS

The 'Ballad of True Thomas', which Child included in his collections as No. 37A, tells part of the story of
Thomas Rymour of Erceldoune, most commonly called Thomas The Rhymer. Whether or not such a
character as Merlin ever existed as a real man, it is certain that Thomas Rymour of Erceldoune was an
historic personage living in the thirteenth century. But much more important than his existence is his
reputation as a prophet, which endured until the nineteenth century. The ballad, which tells of his meeting
with the Queen of Elfland and his visit to that country, is founded on a fourteenth-century romance which
can be read in Carew Hazlitt's FAIRY TALES LEGENDS AND ROMANCES ILLUSTRATING
SHAKESPEARE. See also: THOMAS THE RHYMER. # 100 - 150 - 298

TUAN MAC CARILL

(toon mac CAR-il) The sole survivor of Partholon's party. He turned successively into a deer, a boar, an
eagle and a salmon, in which form he was eaten by the wife of King Carill. He recalled the whole history of
Ireland when the elders of Tara were attempting to chronicle its lands. He brought Trefuilngid Tre-Eochair
to verify his story. See: FINTAN. # 454 - 469

TUATHA DE DANAAN (OR DANANN)

(thoo'a-haw day DAH-nawn') The people of Dana. They ruled Ireland after Nemed, according to the Book
of Invasions, and were descended from one of his great-grandsons. They were supposed to come from the
northern isles of Greece where they had learned all the arts of magic. They brought four treasures with
them from these parts: the Stone of Fal from Falias, which screamed under the foot of every rightful king;
the Spear of Lugh, which came from Gorias; the Sword of Nuada, from Findias; and the Cauldron of the
Dagda from Murias. (See HALLOWS.) They fought long against the Fomorians and the Firbolgs, but were
eventually vanguished by the Milesians, after which they retired to the Otherworld, Tir na n'og or the Sidhe
or the Hollow Hills, as they are variously called. Perhaps they were originally Earth-gods. The dominating
peoples of Ireland's remotest past are traditionally represented as the Partholonians, the Nemedians, the Fir
Bolg, The Tuatha De Danann, and the Milesians. The accounts of their doings, although ostensibly
depicting the very earliest periods of the Irish history, were composed, for the most part, later than the
oldest sagas of the Ulster group. The Tuatha De Danann (Peoples of the Goddess Anu, or Danu) are said to
have come to Ireland from the north of Europe, where they had spent many years in learning arts and
magic. They are represented as large, strong, and beautiful beings who mingled with mortals and yet
remained superior to them. Their principal residences were Brug na Boinne, a district along the river Boyne
near Stackallen Bridge in Leinster, and the fairy-mound (sidhe = shee) of Femin in Tipperary. Certain
personages in this group, without being definitely labelled as gods, have characteristics that elevate them
above the rank of ordinary mortals. # 166 - 454 - 469 - 548 - 562

TUDWAL TUDGLYD

The wetstone of Tudwal Tudglyd was one of the Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain. # 104 - 156

TUIREN

Muirne's sister, Fionn's aunt. She married Iollan, one of the Fianna but he had a mistress in the Sidhe.
Jealous of Tuiren, the woman turned her into a hound. While in this shape she bore twin cubs, Bran and
Sceolan who became the hounds of Fionn; since they had human natures they could divine things which
other dogs could not. She was changed back into a woman after Iollan promised the sidhe woman that he
would love her alone. # 267 - 454

TUIRENN

(TEER-enn) Father of Brian, Iuchar and Iuacharba who slew Cian, father of Lugh. He went to ask mercy
for his sons and heal their wounds, but Lugh had hardened his heart, and according to Lady Gregory,
Tuirenn fell dead upon their bodies and they were buried together. # 267 - 454

TUIS

The oil of the pig belonging to Tuis was sought by Melora, Arthur's warrior daughter. After imprisonment
by the King of Asia, she escaped with the oil. Tuis himself was a King of Greece in Irish legend. The sons
of Tuirenn went to Greece to obtain his pig's skin which had healing properties. # 156 - 157 - 406

TULMAN

A Gaelic name for the house inside a fairy knowe. It seems to be a single dwelling. J. F. Campbell in
POPULAR TALES OF THE WEST HIGHLANDS VOL. II gives a brief anecdote of a tulman which
illustrates the use of good manners in dealing with the fairies, and shows them in a benevolent light. # 100 -
130

TUMULI

See: DOLMENS and MOUNDS.


TURBE

In Irish mythology, the father of Gobniu, the smith god. He is possibly the original of Trebuchet, the smith
who fashioned the Grail Sword. See: TREBUCHET. # 156

TURMWR MORFAWR

A paternal ancestor of Arthur in a number of Welsh pedigrees. # 156

TURNING ISLAND

An island on which the first Nascien was placed after his rescue by a miracle from prison; from this island
he saw the ship of Solomon. # 156

TURQUINE

A knight who overcame and captured Ector de Maris. Lancelot fought him and killed him, occasioning the
release of Ector and other prisoners. He was the brother of Sir Carados of the Dolorous Tower and greatly
hated Lancelot. # 156 - 418

TWADDELL

The King of the Pygmies, a race of individuals only two feet tall; he provided his chief physician to attend
Tom Thumb during the latter's sickness. Tom Thumb overcame King Twaddell in jousting. # 156 - 511

TWELVE SAINTS AND THE ENCHANTMENTS OF BRITAIN

A zodiacal circle, formed by 12 knights, saints, hermits or missionaries, is a recurrent image in old British
legends. Like the Grail, it is associated with periods of regeneration and sacred order, when the countryside
is prosperous and life is experienced on a high level of spiritual intensity. At such a time King Arthur set up
his Round Table, a model of the divine cosmos, as the central symbol in his court of 12 knights, each
representing a zodiacal constellation. This event belongs to no single age or locality, for relics of an
Arthurian myth cycle occur in local traditions and place names in Celtic landscapes from Scotland to
Brittany. Many different towns and hill-tops have claims to have been Camelot, Arthur's citadel, and no
doubt many of these claims are justified, for the 12part story of Arthur and his companions appears to have
been established and celebrated throughout the year by the various Celtic tribes or tribal unions within their
own territories. Medieval chroniclers told of the enchantments of Britain, and behind their tales of
adventurous or culture-bearing heroes can be detected a theme of revival through missionary groups, often
twelve in number, who aspired to re-create that former state of enchantment, when initiated bards by their
musical arts held earthly life in tune with the harmony of the heavens. One of Glastonbury's legends tells of
a foundation by 12 holy men. During the second century, in the reign of King Lucius, a missionary party,
led by two priests, Deruvian and Phagan, came to Britain from Rome and found at Glastonbury the remains
of St Joseph of Arimathea's original settlement. They also found a written account of its history. This
caused them to restore the ancient church and to appoint twelve of their number as its ministers. The twelve
lived as hermits in secluded places around Glastonbury, and whenever one of them died a new hermit was
elected in his place, so the number was always maintained. This went on until 433, the traditional date of St
Patrick's arrival in Glastonbury. The names of the 12 hermits at that time are given in the thirteenth-century
St Patrick's Charter as:

Brumban, Hyregaan, Brenwal, Wencreth, Bantommeweng, Adelwalred, Lothor, Wellias, Breden, Swelwes,
Hinloernus and Hin.
These strangely named individuals were organized into a religious community by St Patrick, who thus
became the first abbot at Glastonbury. After his death in 472, his relics attracted many Irish pilgrims to
Glastonbury. Scotland, Wales, Cornwall and Gaul were also evangelized during the sixth century by groups
of 12 holy men. St Columba had 12 companions when he left Ireland to found the monastery at Iona at the
start of his Scottish mission. His near-namesake and fellow Irishman, St Columban, brought Celtic
Christianity to Gaul with the assistance of 12 monks. They settled as hermits in the Vosges mountains and
were responsible for the renewal of culture and prosperity which followed. St Gall, Columban's successor,
led 12 disciples to a new settlement in Switzerland. The most important group of 12 Celtic saints were the
Twelve Apostles of Ireland who, early in the sixth century, formed a college for the administration of
religious affairs under the great St Finnian of Clonard in Meath. Following the missionary work of St
Patrick and his contemporaries, St Finnian reorganized the Church in Ireland on more formal lines. He
founded or reformed the monastery at Clonard to be a centre of education and law. Each of the followers
were heads of similar establishments in different parts of the country, and together they made up an
authoritative body which in some ways corresponded to the amphictyonic council of Delphi some thousand
years earlier. In both cases the main responsibility of the twelve was to manage and protect the priestly
estates and to uphold the rights of sanctuary. The names of the Apostles and their principal foundations
were:

• Ciaran the elder of Saighir


• Ciaran the younger of Clonmacnois
• Columba or Columcille, founder of several monasteries in Ireland and, with 12 followers, on the
island of Iona
• Brendan the Navigator, founder of Clonfert, who is thought by some to have sailed as far as
America and to have preached there
• Brendan of Birr
• Colman or Columba of Terryglass
• Molaisse of Devenish Island
• Canice of Aghaboe in Ossory
• Ruadan of Lorrha
• Mobi the flat-faced of Glasvenin
• Sinnel of Cluaininnis
• Nannid of Inis mac Saint

The pattern of the sacred geography of Ireland and its government by 12 tribal rulers under a high king was
perpetuated by the early Church. It was customary, when a local king converted to Christianity, for the
missionary saint to build a church and monastery on the site of the main tribal sanctuary, where formerly
the Druid priests had officiated. From the people of the tribe came the first monks and priests, many of
whom were evidently former Druids or pupils from their colleges. It seems therefore that Christianity
brought little change to the social order, and even the forms of religion were not radically altered. So much
of the native tradition was preserved and incorporated by the early Church that one may reasonably view
the Twelve Apostles of Ireland as ecclesiastical representatives of Ireland's traditional 12 tribes. St Finnian
in that case would have taken on the authority of a former Chief Druid of Ireland, attached to the court of
the high king and guiding the 12 chief priests of the provinces.

There is another hint of a circle of 12 sacred places in the life of St David, who is credited with having
founded 12 monasteries across southern England and Wales. The list of these places includes Glastonbury
where Chrisianity was established before David's time. There and probably elsewhere he reformed and
enlarged an existing sanctuary. This implies that the legend of his 12 foundations has a symbolic meaning,
its underlying reference being the traditional 12spoked wheel of sanctity, the ancient model for a heavenly
order on earth. - This 12-fold pattern is deeply rooted in Celtic mythology and the Grail legend. King
Arthur fought 12 battles, conquered 12 kingdoms and slew the 12 kings of Orkney, whom Merlin then
commemorated by a monument with 12 effigies. In the Grail romances, Sir Galahad is said to have founded
the order of the Holy Grail, appointing 12 knights as guardians of the Round Table which St Joseph first
established in Britain. St Joseph's sister bore 12 children to the Celtic hero, Bran, and another group of 12
saints, including St David's mother St Non, were the offspring of Brychan, a fifth-century king of Brecon.
In the HIGH HISTORY OF THE HOLY GRAIL are named 12 brother knights, one of whom, Alain, was
Percival's ancestor. They possessed 12 castles corresponding to the zodiacal signs. Read more about the
fascinating number of twelve in: TWELVE-TRIBE NATIONS by John Michell and Christine Rhone
(1991). # 471

TWENTY FOUR KNIGHTS OF ARTHUR'S COURT

A list of knights found in the Welsh work PEDWAR MARCHOG AR HUGAIN LLYS ARTHUR, which
dates from about the fifteenth century or earlier. The knights figuring in the list were: Gwalchmai (Gawain),
- Drudwas, Eliwlod, - Bors, - Perceval, - Galahad, - Lancelot, - Owain, - Menw, - Tristan, - Eiddilig, -
Nasiens, - Mordred, - Hoel, - Blaes, - Cadog,- Petroc, - Morfran, - Sanddef, - Glewlwyd, - Cyon, - Aron, -
and Llywarch. # 104 - 156

TWRCH TRWYTH

(tuurkh TROO'ith) This was a fierce boar, a king who was enchanted into a boar for his wickedness. He
corresponds to Torc Triath, the king of the boars in Irish mythology. He was originally almost certainly
some kind of boar deity. The boar was a cult animal amongst the Celts. One of the tasks set Culhwch was to
obtain the comb and shears from between the ears of Twrch Trwyth. The boar had slain many of Arthur's
men and, when Arthur's band caught up with it, Mabon obtained the razor and Cyledyr the Wild the shears.
These items were ciphers for the more important quest for the hallows of Britain, on which Arthur was
engaged. However, the boar escaped, but Arthur and his followers came upon it once more and procured
the comb. It was then forced into the sea and swam off, no man knew whither. # 156 - 346 - 454 - 562

TY GWYDR

Literally, a glass house. The dwelling of Merlin was thought to be one and it was said to be on the Isle of
Bardsey (Gwyned). # 156

TY NEWYDD STANDING STONES

These stones in Dyfed are also called Cerrig Meibion Arthur, 'Stones of Arthur's Sons'. Traditionally the
stones are a monument to Arthur's sons who were killed whilst hunting. # 156 - 717

TYLWYTH TEG

(terlooeth teig) The Fair Family. The most usual name for the Welsh fairies, though they are sometimes
called Bendith y Mamau, the Mother's Blessing, in an attempt to avert their kidnapping activities by
invoking a euphemistic name for the fairies. # 100

TYOLET

In French romances, a knight who had grown up in the woods and spoke the language of the animals. He
obtained the white foot of a stag by killing the lions which guarded it. By so doing he earned the hand in
marriage of a lady who had come to Arthur's court and offered herself, together with her kingdom, to
whomsoever could bring her the foot. But, as Tyolet was greatly fatigued, he gave the foot to another
knight. The other knight, thinking Tyolet dead, pretended that he had accomplished the quest himself, but
he was later exposed. See: DAUGHTER OF THE KING OF LOGRES. # 30 - 156 - 713
UALLABH

The hero of a Scottish Gaelic folktale; he is probably identical with Gawain. Arthur, who is called the King
of Ireland, married a mysterious woman who was brought to him on a bier. He fought and was defeated by
a man whom he took to be her lover. Uallabh killed the man who, it transpired, was the queen's brother and
the son of the King of Inneen. The latter later imprisoned Uallabh, but the queen's younger sister freed him
and he eventually married her and succeeded Arthur. # 156

UATH MAC IMOMAN

(ooth mok immoman)

UATHACH

She was the daughter of Scathach and her name means 'spectre'. She let CuChulain into her mother's
military academy, but he slew her lover and was forced to take over his duties, of guarding the fort.
Uathach became his mistress. # 454

UFO'S IN WALES

Records of sightings of unidentified flying objects can be found in many ancient literary sources including
the Bible. One of the earliest records of a strange object in the sky seen over Wales was found in an ancient
manuscript said to have been obtained by Geoffrey of Monmouth in the twelfth century. It was written in
the Breton Celtic tongue and was apparently first discovered by an old archdeacon of Oxford, who had
been wandering around Brittany during the reign of King Henry I of England. The manuscript turned out to
be a very old Celtic history of the British Isles. There is a strange passage in it which tells of a weird sight
seen in the skies over Wales and the Irish Sea. At the time a certain tribal ruler, Guintmias, was at war with
Uther Pendragon King of old Cornwall. " A star of wonderful magnitude and brightness suddenly appeared
in the skies over Wales, while Aurelius [or Guintmias] was defending himself. It contained a beam.
Towards the ray [ad radium], a fiery globe in the likeness of a dragon was stretched out. From its mouth
proceeded two rays [or beams] and the length of one beam was seen to stretch out beyond the region of
Wales. The other in truth was seen to lie towards the Irish Sea, and it ended in seven lesser rays". The
following brief notes provide only a couple of the fascinating unexplained sightings of strange objects in
the sky over Wales in the early nineteenth century. - In 1822 a mysterious explosion in the sky was
recorded in Cardiganshire and similar noises occurred in many parts of England at the same time. - On 25
January 1894 a disc-shaped object flew over Llanthomas and lit up the surrounding countryside with a
brilliant glare. A loud explosion was then heard. It was also observed in Herefordshire, Worcestershire and
Gloucestershire. - In C. Barber's book MYSTERIOUS WALES you may find many more sightings. # 49

UGAINY THE GREAT

(oo'gany) Ruler of Ireland, husband of Kesair, father of Laery and Covac. # 562

UI

(oo'e) Ui means Descendants. The plural of o. # 166

UI CELLAIG

(oo'e cel'i) The O'Kelly's , settled in the southern part of what is now co. Dublin. # 166
UI LIATHáIN

An Irish dynasty that ruled in Dyfed. It may have been expelled, in the Arthurian period, by Agricola. # 156
- 484

UISLIU, THE EXILE OF THE SONS OF

(see also: USNECH). This, the most stunning tale ever written in Irish, is better known as the story of
Deirdre, (q.v.); yet originally it was as much a story of treachery and honour as of romance. 'The Exile of
the Sons of Uisliu' answers the question 'Why were Fergus and so many other Ulaid chieftains in Exile at
the time of the cattle raid of Cuailnge?' At this level, Fergus is the key figure: once his word - his guarantee
of Noisiu's (Naoisi) safety has been violated, he becomes Conchobar's enemy; any other course would be
shameful. 'The Exile of the Sons of Uisliu' moves from personal exile to political exile; it thus marks the
decline of the Ulster Cycle. Underlying literature and history, of course, is myth, the familiar regeneration
pattern of old king-goddess-young king: Conchobar-Derdriu-Noisiu. Derdriu passes from Conchobar to
Noisiu and back to Conchobar; myth becomes history with Noisiu's death, and yet it is at the threatened
resumption of the pattern, with Eogan replacing Noisiu, that Derdriu kills herself. CuChulain is notable by
his absence; perhaps he arrived in the Ulster Cycle too late to play a major part (a small one being out of
the question), or perhaps he simply never fitted in. Although much of the tale is presented in verse the
poetry generally repeats and elaborates upon the narrative rather than adding to it. The tone is markedly less
severe and more romantic than that of the prose, and the lines do not have the elegant simplicity and chaste
beauty of those in 'The Wasting Sickness of Cu Chulaind' (The Sick Bed of CuChulain). But subsequent
versions of the story - and there are many - are less restrained still: Noisiu, Aindle and Arddan, having been
captured, are executed with one blow of Eogan's sword so that none will outlive the others; Derdriu seizes a
knife and kills herself as soon as Noisiu is dead; the lovers are buried next to each other, and yews growing
out of their graves intertwine. These later versions are not without their own appeal; yet it is the earliest
(surviving) recension, from the Book of Leinster, that Geffrey Gantz has translated and bring in 'Early Irish
Myths and Sagas'. 'The Exile of the Sons of Uisliu' is the inspiration (through intermediary translations and
retellings) for Yeat's play DEIRDRE, for Synge's play DEIRDRE OF THE SORROWS and for James
Stephen's novel DEIRDRE. See also: DEIRDRE, and USNECH. # 236

ULFIUS

One of Uther's knights who persuaded Merlin to work a magical spell which enabled Uther to sleep with
Igraine. He accompanied Uther on this occasion, magically disguised as Sir Brastias. When Arthur became
king, Ulfius was made his chamberlain. In the French romances he is sometimes called Urfin or Ursin. #
156 - 418

ULSTER

The kingdom of Ulster (Ulaid) founded in the reign of Kimbay (Cimbaoth) about 300 BC. 'All the
historical records of the Irish, prior to Kimbay, were dubious' - so, with remarkable critical acumen for his
age, wrote the eleventh-century historian Tierna of Clonmacnois. There is much that is dubious even in
those that follow, but we are certainly on firmer historical ground. Ulster (modern) covers 26,3 % of Ireland
and consists of nine counties: Londonderry, Antrim, Tyrone, Armagh, Fermanagh and Down, which are
within Northern Ireland, and Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan which are in the Republic. # 562

ULSTERMEN, THE DEBILITY OF THE

This tale was composed ostensibly to explain the fact that when Queen Medb, with her allies, sought to
invade Ulster all the warriors of Ulster except CuChulain were unable to fight. It also accounts for the
origin of the name Emain Macha by one of those fanciful etymologies common in the DINNSHENCHAS.
Essentially, it is typical of a large class of early Irish tales which deal with the love between mortals and
fairy beings. Cross and Slover brings the story in their ANCIENT IRISH TALES. # 166

ULSTERMEN, THE INTOXICATION OF THE

# 166: This story is an excellent example of a class of Irish tales in which the author, instead of following a
definite plot, gives free reign to his imagination, using a slender narrative as a thread on which to hang a
bewildering array of descriptive and other details that had long been familiar to professional story-tellers.
There are few wilder scenes in any literature than that of the drunken chariot heroes of Ulster losing their
way and careering southward across country from Ulster to Kerry, only to find themselves at length trapped
in an iron house concealed within wooden walls under which raging fires are lighted by their enemies. The
story is to be found in Cross' and Slover's ANCIENT IRISH TALES.

# 236: One of the wildest and most comical of the Ulaid (Irish name for Ulster) stories, 'The intoxication of
the Ulaid' reveals both a mythic and a historical subtext. The text itself, however, is a problem. The story
survives incomplete in both of our early manuscripts, and while the Lebor na huidre account takes up about
where the Book of Leinster account leaves off, the jubcture is only approximate. Moreover, the two
versions are disparate: names change (Triscatail becomes Triscoth; Roimit turns into Reordae), roles
change (the gadfly part played by Bricriu is taken up by Dubthach Doeltenga), important plot elements
(such as the iron house) disappear altogether. The Lebor na huidre version is generally less psychological
and less refined, and, while it has its own merits, it is frustrating not to know how the Book of Leinster
story would have been resolved. The mythic subtext harbours the remains of a ritual killing story. 'The
Intoxication of the Ulaid' takes place at Samuin (Samhain), which as the end of the old year and the
beginning of the new one would have been an appropriate time for a new king to replace an old one;
moreover, there are traditions that make CuChulain and Cu Rui rivals, and in 'The Death of Cu Rui',
CuChulain kills Cu Rui for the sake of his wife, Blathnait (another example of the regeneration motif found
so often in these stories). The idea appears also in 'The Destruction of Da Derga's Hostel' (which takes
place at Samuin and wherein invaders attempt to burn and perhaps drown Conare) and in 'The Destruction
of Dind Rig' (wherein Labraid burns Cobthach in an iron house).

The historical subtext treat the theme of tribal warfare that obtains in all three stories. It may well be that, in
an older recension, 'The Intoxication of the Ulaid' described an attack by the Ulaid upon Temuir, which
would have been a much more logical target. Subsequently, however, the story was grafted on to a
mythological fragment involving CuChulain and Cu Rui, and since the 'historical' Cu Rui had been
localized in the south-west, it became necessary to reconcile that tradition with the one about the attack on
Temuir. The result: Temuir Luachra (Temuir of the Rushes), located, conveniently, in south-west Ireland. In
any case, the storytellers have turned the improbability of the Ulaid's careering across Eriu into a splendidly
comic tale. What might have been a heroic foray is reduced to a drunken stagger; CuChulain's inability to
navigate from Dun Da Bend to Dun Delga except by way of Temuir Luachra (like going from London to
Canterbury by way of Edinburgh) is a humorous reflection upon his original name, Setanta, which means
'one who knows the way'; and the exchanges between Cromm Deroil and Cromm Darail are more
characteristic of comedians than of druids. # 66 - 166 - 236

UNSEELIE COURT

The Unholy Court. Members of the Seelie Court, which is the general Scottish name for the good fairies,
can be formidable enough when they are offended, but the Unseelie Court are never under any
circumstances favourable to mankind. 'The Host' that is, the band of the unsanctified dead who hover above
the earth, snatching up with them undefended mortals whom they employ to loose elf-shot against men and
cattle, so they can never be too much avoided. # 100

UR
In an Irish romance, the father of Arthur. This is due to a misunderstanding on the part of the author who
did not realize that Iubhar (the Irish name for Arthur's father) was actually a translation of Uther, so he
made Iubhar Arthur's grandfather and Ur his father. # 156

URBAN OF THE BLACK THORN

The guardian of a certain ford to which Perceval comes and overthrows him, in the DIDOT PERCEVAL.
He is aided by several women in the shape of birds, and when Perceval kills one of them it regains its
human form and is carried off by the rest to Avalon. There are references here both to the Irish battle
goddess the Morrigan, who also took the shape of a bird, and to the ravens of OWAIN AP URIEN, whose
followers also had this ability. The common bird in all cases was the raven, which was sacred to the Celts. #
185 - 438 - 454

URBIEN

Father of King Solomon of Brittany and grandfather of Constantine, Arthur's grandfather, in Gallet's
pedigree. # 55 - 156

URGAN

A giant who had a magic dog, Petitcrieu. Tristan fought and slew him as he intended to give this dog to
Iseult. # 156

URGRIU

(oor'gryü) Son of Lugaid Corr; the opponent of Finn for the chieftaincy of the Fianna; his sons appear in
the battle in which Finn was slain. # 166

URIEN

He was a historical king of the land of Rheged, a Brythonic kingdom in north-west England, around AD
570, some time later than the traditional Arthurian period. He was assassinated by an ally, possibly in AD
590, after defeating the Bernicians, the inhabitants of Bernicia in north-east England. He was the father of
Owain and also of three sons called Riwallawn, Run and Pascen. In older versions of the legend, he met
Modron at a ford and lay with her. As she was the daughter of Afallach, King of the Otherworld and herself
a shape-shifter, she promised to aid Urien and his family forever in the shape of a raven. This associates her
closely with Morrigan - of which Morgan is derived. He parted from Morgan and became a supporter of
Arthur and a Round Table Knight. Arthurian writers seem to have been vague about where he ruled. Malory
calls him King of Gore and Geoffrey terms him King of Mureif, which is generally thought to be Moray
but may be identical with Monreith. In the HISTORIA MERIADOCI (medieval Latin Arthurian romance)
he is regarded as the King of the Scots. A Welsh folktale makes him the father of Owain by the daughter of
the Otherworld King of Annwfn. TRIAD 70 calls Urien the son of Cynfarch by Nefyn, daughter of Brychan
Brycheiniog and says he had a twin sister named Efrddyl. The VULGATE MERLIN Continuation gives
him a wife called Brimesent, while another version let him die while fighting with Arthur against Mordred.
See: KYNVARCH. # 104 - 156 - 185 - 243 - 401 - 418 - 439 - 484 - 604

URSA MAJOR

The Great Bear constellation. Arthur was associated with it, perhaps from the fact that Welsh ARTH
signifies a bear. The English astronomer William Smyth (1788-1869) in his SPECULUM
HARTWELLIANUM suggests that the circular motion of the constellation may have been the origin of the
idea of the Round Table. # 156
URSIN

See: ULFIUS.

USCIAS

The master of wisdom who dwelt in Findias, one of the four cities from which the Tuatha de Danaan came
to Ireland. He gave Nuadu the Sword of Light from which no enemy came unwounded in combat. See:
HALLOWS.#258 - 454

USNECH

(oosh'ne) Father of Naoisi, Ainle and Ardan, who eloped with Deirdre; Sons of Usnach inquired for by
Conor. Usnech is probably a substitute for an older name Uisliu; a hill (now Usney or Ushnagh) in co.
Westmeath, the geographical center of Ireland. # 166 - 562

USNECH, THE EXILE OF THE SONS OF

This is one of the best known ancient Irish sagas. It is also one of the few stories of the Ulster cycle that
have been preserved on the lips of the folk down to modern times. Versions composed as early as the eighth
or ninth century exist in medieval manuscripts, and variants of the story are still to be heard in the remote
country districts of Ireland and Scotland. Folk versions of the story have been especially popular in the
Gaelic-speaking districts of Scotland, a fact perhaps due to the complementary references to Scotland in
certain forms of the narrative. 'The Exile of the Sons of Usnech' owes its popularity to the fact that it tells
the tragic love story of the beautiful but ill-starred Derdriu (Deirdre), the Helen of ancient Irish tradition.
Fated from birth to bring misfortune to others, this primitive epic woman flees from the court of the elderly
and uxorious King Conchobar with the handsome young Naisi, one of the three 'sons of Usnech,' only to
involve herself, her lover, and his brothers in sorrow and disaster. Though not so well known as her Greek
counterpart, Deirdriu still deserves to rank as one of the great tragic heroines of literature. As regards its
connection with the Ulster cycle, this tale explains how Dubtach, Fergus mac Roig, Conchobar's son
Cormac, and other Ulstermen are arrayed among the forces of Connacht, the traditional enemy of their
native province, during the Cattle-Raid of Cooley. In revenge for the murder of the 'sons of Usnech,'
Fergus, Dubtach, and Cormac slay many of their fellow-tribesmen and betake themselves with three
thousand followers to the court of Ailill and Medb of Connacht, whom they assist on the Cattle-Raid of
Cooley and other raids upon Ulster. The Deirdre story is the theme of several recent Anglo-Irish dramas. #
166

UTHER

History provides no record of the father of Arthur, although there seems to be some historical basis on his
brother, Ambrosius Aurelianus, whom he succeeded as King of Britain, and took the name Uther
Pendragon. He fell in love with Igraine, wife of Gorlois of Cornwall. During the following war between
them, Merlin magically made Uther assume the likeness of Gorlois and in this guise he visited Igraine and
became the father of Arthur. When Gorlois died, Uther married Igraine. He died in battle and was buried
side by side with his brother Ambrosius at Stonehenge. When Uther died, he was leaving the kingdom in
anarchy. The PROSE TRISTAN says Uther was in love with the wife of Argan who defeated him and made
him build a castle. The PETIT BRUT tells how he fought a dragon-serpent in Westmorland (now part of
Cumbria). Henry of Huntingdon calls him Arthur's brother while a Cumbrian legend makes him a giant. In
Cumbria, he is said to have founded his kingdom in Mallerstang and to have tried to divert the River Eden
to make a moat around his castle.

It has been suggested that Uther is a chimerical character created by a misunderstanding of the Welsh
phrase ARTHUR MAB UTHER, which was taken to mean ARTHUR SON OF UTHER but actually means
ARTHUR, TERRIBLE SON, i.e. youth. However, there is evidence for independent tradition regarding
Uther. # 51 - 156 - 221 - 243 - 418 - 524 - 697
VALERIN

King of the Tangled Wood, he lived in a castle on a high mountain, mist- and forest-bound. No one could
enter unless Valerin told his monsters to let him pass. Valerin claimed Guinevere, saying he was betrothed
to her before she was affianced and wed to Arthur. Lancelot fought for her and won, but Valerin later
carried her off and imprisoned her in a castle surrounded by snakes. She was placed in a magic sleep but,
with the aid of the wizard Malduc, she was freed. # 156 - 710

VALLEY OF THE THRUSHES

Oisin's spell broken in the Valley of the Thrushes. # 562

VALYANT

The King of Wales, he was a relation of Lancelot. # 2 - 156

VARLAN

(Brutan) A King of Gales (see WALES), newly converted to Christianity. A mysterious ship arrived in
Britain, carrying David's Sword, which Varlan used to kill his enemy, King Lambor. As a result of this act,
their kingdoms became the Waste Land. # 156

VEIL OF ILLUSION

The Veil of Illusion thrown over Caradawc by Caswallan. # 562

VELLENDRUCHER

The site in Cornwall of a legendary battle in which Arthur defeated the Danes. He was assisted by the
Seven Kings of Cornwall. # 156

VENETII

A Gaulish tribe, noted as mariners, considered still to be existing in the sixth century. Traditionally,
Trephina, daughter of their leader, marries Cunomorus. See: MARK. # 156

VERCINGETORIX

Celtic chief who was defeated by Caesar and send to Rome where he was imprisoned for six years and
finally, under Caesar's triumph, was killed. # 396 - 562

VERONICA, SAINT

See: VERRINE.

VERRINE
In the Grail story this name is used to designate Saint Veronica who, tradition claims, had a cloth with
Christ's image on it. In the saga of the Grail, Verrine used this cloth to cure Vespasian's leprosy. # 30 - 156

VESPASIAN

Roman emperor AD 69-79. The Grail story makes him the liberator of Joseph of Arimathea who had been
held prisoner in Jerusalem. # 30 - 156

VIRTUES ESTEEMED BY THE FAIRIES

The human virtues which commend themselves to fairies are those which render human intercourse
agreeable to them, for a point which is always striking us in fairy legend is the Dependence of Fairies Upon
Mortals. Two different and almost contradictory traits are asked of humans: they should be close and
private, well able to keep the fairy secrets and to guard aganst Infringements of Fairy Privacy, often fond of
solitude and contemplation; and they should be open and capable of generosity, ready to share with anyone
in need and to speak the truth about their own plans and quests. The first necessary if the traditional way of
life of the SECRET PEOPLE is to be preserved, and the second is congenial to the fairies as guardians of
fertility and growth. In the interests of fertility, true love and the affairs of lovers are always under fairy
patronage. Open, loving, free people are dear to them, but boasters and braggarts are unpopular. Gentleness
and politeness are important to success. In a Russian fairy-tale, Father Frost's heart is won because the
heroine politely refuses to complain of the cold although it is nearly killing her, and this is true to folk
tradition everywhere, except in dealing with the most sinister of the supernaturals, where bragging and the
Last Word is a recognized weapon.

Hospitality is one of the admired human virtues, and particularly hospitality towards the fairies, who must
be made welcome in the houses which they visit be neatness and good order, a freshly swept clean hearth
and clear fire, fresh, clear water set out for drinking and to wash the fairy babies, and sometimes milk,
bread and cheese. An unexpected stranger fed may well be a disguised fairy. Good fortune rests upon a
miller who sets his mill ready for use on request, a woman who freely lends a measure of meal or gives a
fairy baby a suck at her breast. Examples of all these are to be found in the Lowlands of Scotland, cited by
J. G. Campbell and William Henderson.

Fair Dealing and the keeping of promises always win respect and are often rewarded. A case in point is the
story of 'The Laird o' Co', told by Chambers in his POPULAR RHYMES OF SCOTLAND. The Laird of
Colzean Castle was accosted one day as he returned home by a small boy with an equally small can who
begged for a drink of ale for his old, sick mother. The laird called the butler to fill the can to the brim. The
butler took the can and emptied a whole cask into it without more than half-filling it. The butler in
perplexity sent to ask what he should do. The laird said: 'I promised to fill it, and filled it shall be if it takes
all the ale in my cellar.' So the butler broached a new cask, and after one drop the can was full, and the little
boy thanked him and took it away. Some years later the laird was fighting in the Low Countries and had
been taken prisoner. He was languishing there when the door opened, the fairy boy appeared and
transported him back to his own castle. A similar good fortune befell Sir Godfrey McCulloch on the eve of
his execution because he had courteously moved his back door so that his cesspool should not leak into the
living-room of a fairy man whose house was beneath his. These are two examples of grateful fairies, who
respected generosity, true dealing and courtesy when they met them. Merriment, cheerfulness, music,
dancing and good fellowship are all endearing to those fairies who may be called the Seelie Court. The evil
fairies of the Unseelie Court are incapable of affection. No man can endear himself to them, but then again,
the difference between the two are easily recognized when they display themselves before the mortal
humans. # 100 - 131 - 146 - 302

VIRTUES, THE PHILOSOPHERS THREE


'Studies, meditation and idleness', this is, according to Michel Rio's MERLIN, the three virtues of the
philosopher. # 555 p 96

VIVIANE

See: VIVIENNE.

VIVIENNE

The alternative name for Nimue in, among other stories, Tennyson's MORTE d'ARTHUR: a portrayal far
removed from the otherworldly nuances of earlier legend. See: NIMUE. # 156 - 454

VIVIONN

(Beehionn) A young giantess, daughter of Treon, from the Land of Maidens. She was slain by Aeda and
buried in the place called the Ridge of the Dead. # 562

VORTIGERN

A British king who is first mentioned by Bede, Uurtigernus was his Latin name. As Vortigern means
'overlord', it may have been a title rather than a name (see: ARTHUR, KING - THE HISTORICAL) but this
is by no means certain. He was connected with central Wales, south Wales and possibly Gloucester, from
whose alleged founder he was thought to be descended. It cannot be stated with certainty over how much of
Britain his sway extended, but he is generally regarded as historical, though H. Butler thinks it quite
possible that he is purely legendary. Nennius says he began to reign in AD 425. He may have married a
daughter of Maximus, the rebel Roman emperor who led an expedition from Britain to the Continent. He is
credited with sons called Vortimer, Catigern, Pascent and Faustus. It was Geoffrey who made him the
usurping king of Britain who invited the Saxons as mercenaries against invading Picts and Scots and to
fend off the waves of Saxon invaders who periodically encroached on British shores. The Saxon
mercenaries soon became greedy for more and more lands and began inviting more of their own kind to
join them. Vortigern attempted to arrange a peaceful meeting between the Saxons and Britons at
Stonehenge, but the Saxons brought hidden weapons into the council and, at a signal, rose up and
massacred the unarmed Britons. Vortigern was spared and fled to Wales where he attempted to build a
tower, which would not stand however. Merlin Emrys explained that it was because of the warring dragons,
one red and one white, which lay beneath the foundations. They represented the warring nations of Britons
and Saxons. A poor king, Vortigern fled again and was displaced for a while by his son, Vortimer. He was
finally caught and killed by the rightful king Ambrosius and his brother, Uther. In one version Vortigern is
thought to have perished in a fire in his tower or of a broken heart. He is possibly identical with the
unnamed proud tyrant mentioned by Gildas. # 156 - 242 - 243 - 454 - 484 - 589 - 630 - 697

VORTIMER

The son of Vortigern, he replaced his father for a while. He opposed the Saxons and said that, when he died,
he should be buried in the place at which the Saxons most frequently landed and a statue of him be erected
to frighten them off. According to Geoffrey, Vortimer's countrymen did not comply. TRIAD 37, however,
avers that his bones were buried in the chief British ports. Other traditions suggests that a statue of him was
put up at Dover. Commentators such as Brodeur regard Vortimer as a purely fictional character. # 104 - 156
- 243 - 697

VOYAGE OF MAELDUIN

See: MAELDUIN.
WACE, ROBERT

Author of Le ROMAN DE BRUT and Le ROMAN DE ROU. # 562

WADE

See: WITEGE.

WAFF

The Yorkshire name for a wraith or double; in other words, it is a kind of co-walker. It is believed to be a
death token and may be seen either by the doomed man or by a friend. William Henderson gives several
instances in FOLK LORE OF THE NORTHERN COUNTIES. If a man sees his own waff, he can avert his
fate by speaking to it severely. Henderson gives an example of a native of Guisborough who, on going into
a shop at Whitby, saw his own waff. He adressed it boldly: 'What's thou doin' here? What's thou doin' here?
Thou's after no good, I'll go bail! Get thy ways yom with thee! Get thy ways yom!' The waff slunk off,
quite ashamed of itself, and he had no further trouble with it. # 100 - 302

WALES

In the traditional Arthurian period this land was a patchwork of minor kingdoms, including Gwynedd,
Dyfed and Powys, although some Arthurian tales picture it as a single kingdom. It is variously described as
the realm of Valyant, a relation of Lancelot, or of Herzeloyde, Perceval's mother. According to the
HISTORIA MERIADOCI (medieval Latin Arthurian romance), Caradoc was its king, then Arthur and
Urien placed Meriadoc, Caradoc's son, on the throne, but Meriadoc resigned it to Urien. In the ESTOIRE
this was identified with the Waste Land. But according to Rolleston, Arthur in the traditional Arthurian saga
is wholly different from the Arthur in Welsh literature. # 156 - 562

WALWAIN

According to Layamon's Brut, a relative to Arthur, who was 'slain, and deprived life-day, through a Saxish
earl - sorry be his soul!' in the preparing for Arthur's last battle against Mordred at Camlann. # 697

WALWEITHA

The territory ruled by Gawain whence, according to William of Malmesbury, he was driven by the brother
and nephew of Hengist. It may be identical with Galloway. # 156

WANDERING DROLL TELLER, THE

In Bottrell's TRADITIONS AND HEARTHSIDE STORIES OF WEST CORNWALL (VOL.I), there is an


account of one of the wandering droll-tellers whom he had known in his youth, which gives us a useful
insight into the way in which folk-tales were presented and propagated in Cornwall. Uncle Anthony James
of Cury was an entertainer rather than a bard, and there is no indication of the careful accuracy of
transmission which was so important to the Irish, Highland and Welsh bards, where every deviation from
strict tradition was frowned upon. Here, on the contrary, a spontaneous and happy innovation was
apparently welcomed. It yet remains for someone to make an exhaustive study of different methods in
which tales were orally transmitted. This story of Uncle Anthony James of Cury was an introduction to the
story of Lutely and the Mermaid: From a period more remote than is now remembered, to the present time,
some members of the family called Lutely, who for the most part, resided in the parish of Cury, or its
vicinity, have been noted conjurors or white witches. They have long been known, all over the west, as the
'Pellar family'. The word Pellar is probably an abridgement of repeller, derived from their reputed power in
counteracting the malign influences of sorcery and witchcraft. According to an oft-told story, the wonderful
gifts of this family were aquired by a fortunate ancestor, who had the luck to find a mermaid (here by us
pronounced meremaid), left high and dry on a rock by the ebbing tide.

Some forty years ago, uncle Anthony James - an old blind man, belonging to the neighbourhood of the
gifted family with his dog, and a boy who led him, used to make their yearly tour of the country as
regularly as the seasons came round. This venerable wanderer, in his youth, had been a soldier, and had
then visited many foreign lands, about which he had much to tell; but his descriptions of outlandish people
and places were just as much fashioned after his own imagination, as were the embellishments of the
legends he related, and the airs he composed for many old ballads which he and his boy sang to the melody
of the old droll-teller's crowd (fiddle). However, in all the farm houses, where this old wanderer rested on
his journey, he and his companions received a hearty welcome, for the sake of his music and above all for
his stories, the substance of most of which every one knew by heart, yet they liked to hear these old legends
again and again, because he, or some of his audience, had always something new to add, by way of
fashioning out the droll, or to display their inventive powers. # 84 - 100

WASHER AT THE FORD OR WASHER BY THE FORD

In both Irish and Scottish legend she is the otherworldly woman who represents the dark aspect of the
Goddess. The warrior who encounters her washing bloody linen, may rightly suppose that his death on the
battle-field is not far off. Morgan as Modron appears in this connection in a sixteenth-century folk-tale.
CuChulain saw two maidens washing his bloody garments on his way to his last battle. The Washer is also
one of the guises of the Morrigan. # 454 - 548 - 563

WASTE LAND

According to Celtic tradition, the Waste Land was caused by brutal men who violated the priestesses of the
wells and springs, and stole their golden cups. 'As a result the Land became barren; the trees withered and
the waters dried up.' The imagery of the Waste Land has been described as a landscape of spiritual death,
were myths are rigidly patterned by dogma instead of evolving from the real needs and feelings of the
people. 'And this blight of the soul extends today from the cathedral close to the university campus.' Even
though the earth may retain her fertility and the waters may continue to flow, something vital is lost when
patriarchy becomes dominant and domineering.

The Wasteland is often represented in the Grail cycle in the person of the Loathly Lady, Cundrie or
Sovereignty in her hag-aspect - the ravaged face of the land before it shows again its fair face. In the Grail
story, it was the land laid waste by the Dolorous Blow at the Grail King. This sapped his generative powers
and severed the marriage bond which the king had with the land, represented by Sovereignty. At the end of
the Grail quest, when the quester asked the right question, the Wounded King was healed and the Waste
Land flowered once again. In the ESTOIRE it is identified with Wales, while in the DIDOT PERCEVAL it
comprises the whole of Britain. According to LESTOIRE DE MERLIN, it was ruled by Pellinore. See:
GASTE FOREST. # 156 - 451 - 454 - 461 - 701 p 356

WATER

Water sources were very important in Celtic religion. In some areas the local Goddess of springs was
named Coventina, (She of the Covens), appearing in the typically Celtic trinitarian form of three persons in
one. Especially revered in Britain were the waters of the Goddess Sulis at Bath, and the spring and grove of
the Goddess Arnemetia at Buxton, which used to be named Aquae Arnemetia, (Waters of the Goddess of
the Holy Grove). # 701 p 356 ff
WATER-HORSE

The Manx Water-horse Glashtin or Cobbyl Ushtey can take the form of a real horse, except for its back-to-
front hooves; it tempts people to mount it and then careers off to the nearest water to drown its rider. The
Gaelic Kelpie is also a shape-shifter horse of the waters. # 161

WATKINS, ALFRED

John Michell who have written several books, including some concerning the Earth energies, gives a note
about Alfred Watkins in the latters 1987 edition of THE OLD STRAIGHT TRACK, which we here bring in
full: Anyone living in Hereford during the early part of this century would have recognized Mr. Alfred
Watkins, the distinguished local merchant, amateur archaeologist, inventor, photographer and naturalist,
notorious in academic circles as the author of a heretical work, THE OLD STRAIGHT TRACK. Alfred
Watkins was born in Hereford in 1855. For several generations his family had farmed land in the southern
part of the county until about 1820, when his father moved to the city and started up in business as a miller,
corn dealer and brewer. On leaving school, Alfred Watkins was employed by his father as outrider or
brewer's representative, a position which brought him into close contact with the surrounding coutryside
and its inhabitants. In this way he gained an intimate knowledge of local topography and of the legends and
customs embedded in a way of life which had undergone little change in the course of centuries. Watkins
was an enthusiastic early photographer, the inventor of much apparatus, including the pinhole camera and
the Watkins exposure meter, which he manufactured through his own company in Hereford. Examples are
preserved in the city's museum, together with a large collection of his photographic plates, illustrating many
aspects of the Herefordshire landscape and the social order of the time. There also are kept the records of
the Old Straight Track Club, a society, now moribound, founded to promote interest in Watkin's great
archaeological discovery, the prehistoric 'ley' system of aligned sites.

In his Preface to THE OLD STRAIGHT TRACK, Watkins wrote, "some four years ago there stood
revealed the original sighting pegs used by the earliest track makers in marking out their travel ways." The
revelation took place when Watkins was 65 years old. Riding across the hills near Bredwardine in his native
county, he pulled up his horse to look out over the landscape below. At that moment he became aware of a
network of lines, standing out like glowing wires all over the surface of the country, intersecting at the sites
of churches, old stones and other spots of traditional sanctity. The vision is not recorded in THE OLD
STRAIGHT TRACK, but throughout his life Watkins privately maintained that he had perceived the
existence of the ley system in a single flash ("Intuition then presents itself in fleeting glimpses or snatches
of absolute knowledge and these glimpses are thus the commencement of 'cosmic sight'. Martinus THE
THIRD TESTAMENT, LIVETS BOG I, p 199 [edit.note]) and, for all his subsequent study, he added
nothing to his conviction, save only the realization of the particular significance of beacon hills as terminal
points in the alignments. Since Watkin's day our knowledge of prehistoric life and civilization has expanded
to an extent which may be considered revolutionary. The implications of the work of Sir Norman Lockyer
and, recently, of Professor Thom, relating to the mathematical and astronomical skill of the builders of
Stonehenge and other stone circles, are so fundamental, that our whole concept of society in Britain 4000
years ago should now be altogether different from that which obtained at the time when Watkins announced
his discovery of leys. Fifty years ago the possibility of accurately surveyed alignments set out across the
landscape was considered utterly remote, far beyond the capacity of the handful of painted savages who
peopled the imaginary prehistoric Britain of orthodox archaeology. Today we know that stone and mound
alignments were indeed set out over considerable distances, often directed towards mountain peaks, cairns,
and notches, just as Watkins described.

The expansion in antiquarian thought, now taking place, is due in no small measure to the insight,
scholarship and determination of a provincial visionary, a true gnostic in that he preferred the evidence of
his own senses and the voice of his own intuition to the unsopported assertions of authority. The publication
in 1922 of Watkin's address to the Woolhope Club of Hereford, EARLY BRITISH TRACKWAYS,
followed in 1925 by THE OLD STRAIGHT TRACK, provoked a violent controversy, characterised on the
part of Watkin's opponents by much ill natured abuse. Yet for many others THE OLD STRAIGHT TRACK
awoke as it were the memory of a half familiar truth. Watkins invites his readers to prove the ley system for
themselves both with map and ruler and through investigation in the field. Few who take him at his word
fail to benefit from the experiment. Even those with no particular interest in antiquities and ancient history
have enjoyed THE OLD STRAIGHT TRACK for the delightful account of a quest, which led Watkins
through many curious byways both in his native landscape and in the realm of scholarship. The clear,
modest style of THE OLD STRAIGHT TRACK has reminded some of Watkin's fellow countryman of the
Welsh border, Parson Kilvert, for both invoked the same GENIUS TERRAE BRITANNICAE from the red
Herefordshire earth that inspired their mystic predecessors, Traherne and Henry Vaughan. There would be
no poetry without heretics. John Michell, London 1970. See also LEY LINES. # 431 - 505 - 506

WAVE OF CLEENA

See: TONN CLIODHNA.

WAYLAND

See: WITEGE.

WEE FOLK, THE

One of the Scottish and Irish euphemistic names for the fairies. We find it in Allingham's poem THE
FAIRIES: 'Wee folk, good folk, trooping all together'. The Manx equivalent is THE LIL' FELLAS. # 100

WELL

Wells throughout the British Isles were formerly sacred to the underground Goddess Hel, and her Celtic
counterparts Morgan and Brigit. Today we find their names connected with wells throughout Britain. # 701
p 163

WELL OF KNOWLEDGE

Equivalent is Connla's Well. The goddess Sinend, it was said, daughter of Lodan son of Lir, went to a
certain well named Connla's Well, which is under the sea - i.e. in the Land of Youth in Fairyland. 'That is a
well,' says the bardic narrative, 'at which are the hazels of wisdom and inspirations, that is, the hazels of the
science of poetry, and in the same hour their fruit and their blossom and their foliage break forth, and then
fall upon the well in the same shower, which raises upon the water a royal surge of purple.' # 562

WELLS, HOLY (IN WALES)

In every corner of Wales one can find a holy well which according to local belief is said to possess strange
powers. Some of them are classed as healing wells, others as cursing wells, and some even combine the
powers of cursing and healing. There are also wells that can make the poor rich, the unhappy happy and the
unlucky lucky. Parishes dedicated to the Virgin Mary generally have a Ffynnon Fair (well of St Mary), the
waters of which are supposed to be purer than those of other wells. It has been suggested that the waters of
the Ffynnon Fair wells flow southwards and that this is the secret of their purity. In order to obtain a
successful cure at some of these healing wells it was sometimes necessary to follow very elaborate
instructions. For example at one particular well, 'the patient must repair to the well after sunset and wash
himself in it; then having made an offering into it of fourpence he must walk around it three times and
thrice recite the Lord's prayer. If he is of male sex he offers a cock, if a woman, a hen. The bird is conveyed
in a basket, first round the well, then round the church, when the rite of repeating the Pater Noster is again
performed. It is necessary that the patient should afterwards enter the church, creep under the altar and,
making the Bible his pillow and the communion cloth his coverlet, there remain until the break of day.
Then having made a further offering of sixpence and leaving the cock or hen as the case may be, he is at
liberty to depart. Should the bird die it is supposed that the disease has been transferred to it and the man or
woman consequently cured.' A well near Penrhos in North Wales was said to cure cancer by cursing it. The
sufferer was washed in the water, uttering curses on the disease and also dropping pins around the well.
This particalar well was later drained by an unsympathetic farmer who had become fed up with people
trespassing and causing damage to his crops.

Springs and wells in some areas were once believed to be guarded by dragons and serpents, eels and
strange fish and the killing or removal of these guardians was followed by dire consequences, frequently
taking the form of a mysterious epidemic which swept away whole families.

For the itch, and the stich,


Rheumatic and the gout,
If the devil isn't in you
The Well will take it out!

WELSH FAIRIES

See: TYLWYTH TEG.

WELSH MYTHOLOGICAL CYCLE

Both Tuatha De Danaan and the Fomoire have their counterparts in 'The Four Branches of the Mabinogi'(#
738), which may be said to constitute a Welsh 'mythological cycle'. These tales are full of marvellous
happenings and feats of magic, but such is the storyteller's artistry that what is mysterious and wonderful is
accepted as naturally and immediately as the realistic dialogue and the familiar setting. See:
MABINOGION. # 548 - 738

WELSH, ORIGIN OF THE

The origin of the Welsh were fugitives from a city named Troy. It began with tribes living in ancient Persia
who tamed some giant-birds called 'Rohs' which were very destructive to human beings. Now they trained
the wild birds to attack only the kings warriors, so they no more would have to pay tribute. The King of
Persia was wroth beyond expression and called his magician for help. The magician laid an enchantment on
the 'Rohs', so that they turned into fairies, which were doomed to live in mounds and cages and only
surface once a year. Now that the birds was no longer a danger to the Persian army, they made such fearful
havoc amongst the tribes, that these decided to leave the country. They travelled and lived by robbery, until
they built a city and called it Troy, where they were besieged for a long time. Eventually the town was
taken after a great slaughter; but a number escaped with their wives and children, and fled on to the Crimea,
whence they were driven by the Russians, so they marched away along the sea to Spain, and bearing up
through France, they stopped. Some wanted to go across the sea, and some stayed in the heart of France:
they were the Bretoons (Bretons). The others came on over in boats, and landed in England, and they were
the first people settled in Great Britain: they were the Welsh. # 170 p 93 ff (P. H. Emerson, Wales)

WEREWOLF

Certain Irish tribes claimed that their ancestors were wolves, and prayed to wolves as their tribal totems for
help and healing. # 701 p 282

WESTMER
According to Lambeth Palace Library MS 84, this was the name of the successor of Arviragus. In his reign
Joseph of Arimathea died. # 156

WHEEL

Celtic gods exhibited wheels in their hands. Altars and tomb stones were decorated with wheels. One of the
Celtic names for the Goddess, Arianrhod, designated her the Goddess of the Silver Wheel (the stars), whose
hub Castle, Caer Sidi, hidden in the underground spiritland Annwn. # 701 p 16

WHITBY ABBEY

It is said that at a particular time in summer, between ten and eleven in the morning, sunbeams fall into the
northern part of the choir of Whitby Abbey in North Yorkshire - falling in such a way that those who stand
on the western side of the churchyard see, in one of the highest windows, the resemblance of a woman
dressed in a shroud. This sun-made spectre is said to be a reappearrance of the Abbess Hilda in her shroud.
One local historian, George Franks, confirmed that he had in his possession a photograph taken by a Mr
Stonehouse 'of the exterior portion of the east end of the chancel, in which, through the southern lancet of
the top tier, the "ghost" is seen'. When the photograph is examined under a lens, this object gives the exact
appearance of a human face peering out of the window. # 702

WHITE LADIES

The use of 'White Ladies' for both ghosts and fairies is an indication of close connection between fairies
and the dead. Evans Wentz in THE FAIRY FAITH IN CELTIC COUNTRIES, tracing the supernatural
elements in the early Arthurian MATTER OF BRITAIN legends, points out that 'Gwenhwyvar' or
Guinevere originally meant 'white phantom', which has the same meaning as the Irish 'Bean Fhionn', or
White Lady of Lough Gur, who claims a human life every seven years. Douglas Hyde, in his introduction
to the Irish section of the same book, speaks in passing of the White Ladies of raths and moats as direct
descendants of the Tuatha De Danann. # 100 - 711

WHITE MAY

White may in blossom was supposed to bring death into the house, and although it was brought round on
May Morning it was hung up outside. # 100

WHITE STAG

White stags feature in a number of Arthurian tales. It was said that whoever hunted one down could kiss the
loveliest girl in Arthur's court.

One was chased by Sagremor in RIGOMER, while another was hunted in the Forest of Adventure in
EREC. Floriant pursued one which brought him to the castle of his foster-mother, Morgan Le Fay and, in
the DIDOT PERCEVAL, Perceval cut off the head of a white stag. The white stag may originally have
featured in stories of a pagan, mythical nature and these tales may have some connection with the Celtic
stag cult. See: STAG. # 156

WIDIA

See: WITEGE.

WIFE OF BATH'S TALE, THE


Chaucer's THE WIFE OF BATH'S TALE is worthy of comment for two reasons. First, it is an early and
excellent example of the complaint of the departure of the fairies after the manner of Corbet's 'Farewell,
Rewards and Fairies'. It seems that from the earliest times the fairies have always been leaving us, and yet
sometimes they never quite go. # 100 - 164

WIGALOIS

A son of Gawain by his wife Florie, niece of King Joram. When Wigalois was grown to manhood, he set
off to look for his father who had left many years before and had not been able to find his way back to
Joram's realm. Wigalois came to Arthur's castle at Cardueil. He was admitted to Arthur's court and sent by
Arthur to aid Queen Amene whose country - except for one castle - had been taken over by an evil knight,
Roaz. Wigalois accompanied the damsel Nereja, Amene's emissary, and was guided by the spectral King
Lar, Amene's murdered husband. Wigalois fought Roaz in a nightlong combat. He then married Larie,
daughter of Lar and Amene. # 156 - 746

WIGHT

A general Germanic word meaning 'being' or 'creature', but increasingly applied to either good or bad
spirits, until it came to have a supernatural connotation. In late Saxon, 'unsele wiht' is 'uncanny creature',
and in THE CANTERBURY TALES Chaucer uses the word for dangerous spirits in 'I crouche thee from
elves and fro wightes' in 'The Miller's Tale'. Kirk talks of seeing the fairies crowding in from all quarters
'like furious hardie wights'. It was not a word objected to by the fairies, for in the fairy rhyme given by
Chambers we have: Gin ye ca' me seelie wicht I'll be your friend baith day and nicht. Of course, they would
not welcome the title of 'wicked wight' by which the evil fairies of the Unseelie Court were designated. #
100 - 149 - 370

WILD HERDSMAN

This archetypal character appears in the person of Custennin, in the story of CULHWCH AND OLWEN,
but he is best seen in THE LADY OF THE FOUNTAIN, where he appears as the guardian of the beasts of
the forest. He is a black giant with a club, who beats upon the belly of a stag in order to call the beasts
together. Traces of this archetype are perceivable in the earlier texts about Merlin, who is shown in the
VITA MERLINI as riding on a stag. His function is the guardian of the totemic forces inhabiting the land;
as genius of the primal forest and instructor in wisdom he presents a threatening but enlightening challenge
to the questor. # 242-272-439-454-632

WILD HUNT

There are many Wild Hunts, for instance the Irish Hounds of Hell, the Celtic Annwr, the Dogs of Hell who
hunt the souls of the damned, the Dartmoor pack of Hounds and the North of England Wisht Hounds who
hunt high in the air on wild nights; they presage death and are said to incarnate the souls of unbaptized
children. King Arthur was also said to ride with a pack, and one tradition in England was that a small black
dog could be left behind; it covered and whined on a hearth and had to be kept and fed for a year unless
exorcized. It was sometimes led by Arthur at midday or on nights when the moon was full. In England, the
Wild Hunt was thought to have been seen in Devon and Somerset. But everywhere the concept of the Wild
Hunt was a spectral leader and his men, usually accompanied by baying hounds, who ride through the air or
over the far hills. In Glamorganshire the hunt is led by Gwynn ap Nudd. In southern England by Herne the
hunter. The Aes Sidhe have a similar connotation in Ireland. # 156 - 161 - 441 - 454

WILLOW

The willow was sacred to the Goddess Arianrhod in Celtic tradition and was called the letter S, SAILLE, in
the tree alphabet. # 701 p 475
WINCHESTER

This city was identified with Camelot. This may have been due to the Winchester Round Table. q.v. # 156

WINEFRIDE GWENFREWI, SAINT

Winefride was a niece of Beuno who lived in the sixth century and became his disciple when he visited her
family, and set up a church in the area of north-east Wales where she lived. While he was there, a local
chieftain, who had long wanted to marry the girl, became so furious at her constant refusal that one June
day he slashed at her with his sword and cut off her head as she sought refuge in the church that Beuno had
built. In the middle of the twelfth century, Robert of Shrewsbury wrote a life of Winefride in which he tells
us that immediately the evil deed was done the ground opened up to swallow her murderer, while from the
place where the girl's head fell a stream burst out of the rock. Furthermore, Beuno restored her to life,
setting her head back on her shoulders, so that only a tiny scar remained. She lived for a further fifteen
years, having entered a nunnery at Gwytherin. She was the abess when she died. # 678

WINLOGEE

In the Arthurian bas-relief in Modena Cathedral, a woman seated on the battlements with Mardoc. She may
be identical with Guinevere. # 156 - 238

WISH HOUNDS

Sometimes called Yell Hounds or Yeth Hounds. The spectral, headless hounds of Dartmoor which
sometimes meet also in the valley of Dewerstone. They also run into Cornwall, hunting the demon
Tregeagle. Their huntsman is presumably the Devil, though the ghost of Sir Francis Drake was sometimes
said to drive a hearse into Plymouth, followed by a pack of headless hounds. Hunt also suggests that
Cheney's Hounds are Wish Hounds. Hunt, who gives a short account of the Wish Hounds in POPULAR
ROMANCES OF THE WEST OF ENGLAND, suggests that they are the same as the Devil's Dandy Dogs,
but the Dandy Dogs have horns and fiery saucer eyes, while the Wish Hounds are headless. # 100 - 331

WITCH HUNT

Ireland never experienced the witch hunts that plagued England and the continent, and there was never a
witchfinder to equal the status of Matthew Hopkins who carried on his reign of terror through the length
and breadth of England during the 1640's. There were however, certain people, mainly clerics or those wise
in the ways of the country people and the country lore, who took it upon themselves to seek out those who
practised the darker side of witchcraft, and foremost amongst them was the priest men called Father
Morand, the Witchfinder. 'But what is witchcraft other than fallen and debased occult methods of what were
once great spiritual accomplishments.' John Foster Forbes # 582 Vol. 3 p 167

WITCHES, WIZARDS AND CONJURERS IN WALES

Over the years there have been many characters in Wales who have been accredited with having powers to
do strange and amazing things. They could apparently reveal the future, command spirits and compel
thieves to restore items they had stolen. Wizards and others who practised magical arts were supposed to be
able to summon spirits at will. But it would seem that some of these magicians could not control the
demons after summoning them. One old witch at Cilycwm, named Peggy, found it most difficult to control
the spirits in her house and she apparently had to go out into a field and stand within a circle of protection
with a whip in her hand. Conjurers were generally believed to possess books dealing with the black arts,
which they studied most carefully in order to control the spirits they raised. It was considered very
dangerous for anyone ignorant of the occult science to open such books as demons or evil spirits could 'pop
out of them'. Once they had escaped from the book it was not always easy to get rid of such unearthly
beings. Dr. Harries, who lived at Cwrt y Cadno near Pumpsaint, was said to possess a particular book
which he kept chained and padlocked. They said that he was even afraid of it himself for he only ventured
to open it once every twelve months and always in the presence of another wizard: a schoolmaster from
Pencader who occasionally visited him. On a certain day once a year they went out into the woods near
Cwrt y Cadno and, after drawing a circle around them, they opened the chained book. Whenever this
ceremony was performed it caused thunder and lightning throughout the Vale of Cothi.

Wizards were also believed to have the power to travel through the air. With the aid of his magic book a
wizard could summon a demon in the shape of a horse and travel through the sky on its back. In Eastern
countries there are similar tales of magicians riding through the air, for example the tale of the enchanted
horse in the ARABIAN NIGHTS. Henry Harries, son of the doctor mentioned above, was also a
remarkable wizard. He was a medical man and an astrologer to whom people came to seek advice, from all
parts of Wales and the English borders, particularly Herefordshire. He had a special way of dealing with
lunatics and could cure diseases, charm away pain, protect people from witches and foretell future events.
He claimed that if anyone told him the hour that they were born, he could tell them the hour that they
would die! He also claimed to have a magic glass into which a man could look and see the woman he was
to marry. He could also identify thieves and persons who had an 'evil eye' by causing a horn to grow out of
their foreheads! A woman from Cardiganshire, whose daughter was ill and thought to have been bewitched,
came to Cwrt y Cadno to consult him. The wise man wrote some mystic words on a piece of paper which
he gave to her saying that if her daughter was not better when she arrived home, to come and see him again.
The woman went home with the paper and to her amazement and relief she found the girl fully recovered.
Harries used to collect debts from his patients by sending them a standard letter which contained the
following warning: 'Unless the above amount is paid before the...day of...next, adverse means will be
resorted to for the recovery.' In view of his reputation this must have had quite a frightening effect on his
debitors! Witches were once believed to have entered into a pact with the Devil in order to obtain the power
to do evil. It was thought that they possessed some uncanny knowledge which they used to injure people,
especially those whom they hated. It was also believed that they could cause thunder and lightning, travel
on broomsticks through the air and even transform themselves and others into animals, especially into
horses. A story was once told in Cardiganshire of two old women who sold themselves by giving to Satan
the bread of the Communion. They attended morning service at Llanddewi Brefi Church and partook of the
Holy Communion, but instead of eating the sacred bread like other communicants they kept it in their
mouths and went out. Then they walked round the church nine times and at the ninth circuit, the Devil
came out of the church in the form of a frog, to whom they gave the bread from their mouths. By doing this
they sold themselves to Satan and became witches. Apparently after this incident they were sometimes seen
swimming in the River Teifi in the form of hares! Giraldus Cambrensis in the twelfth century wrote: 'It has
also been a frequent complaint from old times as well as in the present that certain hags in Wales as well as
in Ireland and Scotland changed themselves into the shape of hares, that sucking teats under this counterfeit
form they might stealthily rob other people's milk.'

The superstitious people of those times thought up many ways of protecting themselves from the evil magic
of the local witches. Horseshoes nailed to the door were believed to have the desired effect. It was also
believed that witches had a fear of mountain ash, so that a person who carried a branch of PEN CERDIN
was safe from their spells. In south Pembrokeshire people used to carry a twig of mountain ash when going
on a journey late at night. It would be carried in the hand or held over the horse's head to protect both the
animal and rider against all evil. # 49

WITEGE WAYLAND WIELAND VOELUND

# 156: Witege may be the name in Layamon of the maker of Arthur's hauberk, Wygar or 'wizard'. If a
personal name is intended, however, we may be dealing here with a form of Widia, the son of the legendary
smith, Wayland. Wayland, together with his father Wade and his son Widia, was brought to Britain by the
Anglo-Saxons. Witege may be mentioned in Geoffrey's VITA MERLINI.
# 454: What Wayland concern we know that he was the god of the smiths and smith of the gods. He was
credited with making many of the great magical weapons and armour of the gods, including Excalibur. Like
his prototype in Greek and Roman mythology, he was always depicted as a lame man, having been
hamstrung by King Nidud, who stole one of his swords. Wayland exacted a terrible revenge on this mortal,
luring his children to an island, killing the boy and raping the girl. Little now remains of his story, but he
has assumed a role of great importance in British mythology as something of a tutelary spirit - not unlike
Herne the hunter, another Anglo-Saxon deity. He is to be found associated with a number of ancient sites,
including Way land's Smithy in Wiltshire. # 91 - 156 - 168 - 242 - 272 - 454

WIZARDS

All wizards were not neccessarily bad, though they were exposed to the temptations of power and tended
rather to make use of it. Merlin is an example of a good wizard, though he was admittedly unscrupulous in
the affair of Uther and Igraine, when he disguised Uther as the Duke of Tintagel, so that he begot Arthur on
Igraine in the very hour in which the real duke was killed in battle. Merlin might almost count as a
supernatural wizard, for he was the child of an Incubus, who lay with a princess, and was therefore
described as 'a child without a father'. He studied magic, however, under the famous Magician Blaise of
Brittany. Michael Scot, the famous Scottish wizard, owed his introduction to magic, much as Finn had
done, to having the first taste of a magical fish of knowledge, in his case a 'White Snake' which he had been
set to watch as it cooked. He had burnt his fingers on it, and had put them to his mouth, so having the first
potent taste. Many widespread stories are attached to Michael Scot. Some of them are to be found in
WAIFS AND STRAYS OF CELTIC TRADITION. Shape shifting, which was a native power to all the
more distinguised fairies, could be aquired by wizards, as several stories of boys trained by wizards to
transformation show. One is to be found in McKay's MORE WEST HIGHLAND TALES VOL. I, 'The
Wizard's Gillie', in which a boy is hired from his father by a wizard and finally acquired as a permanent
slave by trickery. His father manages to find him. Every day he transforms himself into a saleable form and
is bought by the wizard, but so long as his father retains the strap that led him he can return in his own
shape. When the father, elated by the large price paid, forgets to remove it, he is a prisoner. But he manages
to make his escape and is pursued. A transformation conflict ensues in which the gillie finally outwits the
wizard and destroys him. Powers of indestructibility and of externalizing their souls, making them
Separable Souls, can also be acquired by mortal wizards. Thomas the Rhymer is an example of the
acquisition of supernatural knowledge by means of the fairies. He was more fortunate than Merlin, for
when he left Middle Earth he went into Fairyland, while Merlin was spell-bound under a rock. Some
wizards acquired power over fairies, like the 'Master-Man' reported by Katherine Carey at her trial in 1610.
But whether this was a magician or a wizard may be left to conjecture, since it was probably an illusion in
any case. # 100 - 464 - 691

WODEN

The chief god of the Anglo-Saxons who invaded Britain in Arthurian times. As Anglo-Saxon dynasties
claimed descent from him, it has been suggested he was a leader who was later deified. Most
commentators, however, echo J. Grimm in saying that he was always mythical. The Norse called him Odin.
See also: ODIN. # 156 - 268

WOLF

The wolf appears in a generally favourable light in Celtic and Irish myth. An Irish tribe claimed descent
from a wolf and Cormac, King of Ireland, was, like Romulus and Remus, suckled by wolves and was
always accompanied by them. They frequently appear as helpful animals and have much in common with
the dog in Irish legend; both have affinities with Celtic deities, and heroes and deities could manifest as
wolves as well as horses, bulls or salmon. In Celtic art Cernunnos, as Lord of Animals, is depicted as
accompanied by a wolf, bear and otter. # 161
WOMB

A Druidic shrine still stands in Pembrokeshire, the Pentre Evan Cromlech, called the finest in Britain. Once
it formed a dark chamber where initiates were placed for a number of days before ritual rebirth from
'Cerridwen's Womb.' The holiest symbols of Paleolithic and Neolithic humanity were symbols of the womb,
source of life, primary fountainhead of every creative process. The pre-Christian womb-shrine of
Glastonbury was formerly called Caer Wydyr. Its sacred well, running red with iron oxides, was thought to
be the blood flow from the Goddess' life-giving womb. Christian legend appropriated the Glastonbury
temple and called it the home for a while - of the Holy Grail. # 701 p 330

WOODWOSE

The Wild Man of the Wood, sometimes also called Wooser or Ooser. In medieval times they were thought
to inhabit the wild woods which then covered the land. They make frequent appearances in many forms of
artwork from medieval times onwards, and were often used in masques to portray rustic or primitive folk.
They were naked, clothed only in their hair. See: GREEN KNIGHT, and WILD HERDSMAN, and JACK
IN THE GREEN. # 100 - 454

WOODY ISLE, THE

The ancient Ireland was covered with great forests and was called Inis na bhFodhhhuidhe - the Woody Isle.
# 582 Vol. 3 p 155

WORM

The worms of Great Britain, and particularly the Celtic worms, seem to show some influence from the
Scandinavian worms or dragons, though these were sometimes winged and fire-breathing. In general
symbolism the worm represents the earth, death, dissolution, cringing, cowardice and misery, but in earlier
times the term was also applied to the Serpent 'that great worm' or to Dragons. In England there was the
great Lambton Worm of Durham which ravaged the country and could join together if cut in two, but the
worms (dragons) abound in British folklore from Scotland down to the South, and from East Anglia to
Ireland; many heroes have done battle with them. Kempe Owen rescued his sister from being enchanted
into the shape of a dragon. In Scotland the worms are usually of the seas' depths, living in deep lochs and
swallowing victims. White Horse Hill in Wiltshire has a companion hill which is called Dragon's Hill - it is
a good example of a land feature supposedly caused by the worm's frenzied writhing. # 100 - 161 - 454 -
717

WOUNDED KING

The title sometimes given to the Grail King or Fisher King who received the Dolorous Stroke through both
thighs, robbing him of his kingly and generative powers. This tradition stems from early Celtic custom
which forbade the rule of a blemished king, since this would reflect itself in the fertility of the land, causing
it to become a Waste Land. The king was believed to have a contract with the land and was mystically
married to Sovereignty. # 451 - 454 - 461

WREN

Druids considered the wren 'supreme among all birds.' It was the sacred bird of the Isle of Man, which used
to be a shrine of the dead and the dwelling-place of the Moon Goddess who cared for pagan souls.

It was the Druid King of the Birds and auguries were drawn from its chirping; in Celtic lore the wren is
prophetic and the direction from which it calls is highly significant. The bird was sacred to Taliesin. In
Scotland it was the Lady of Heaven's Hen and killing it was considered extremely unlucky; but in England
and France there was a Hunting of the Wren on St Stephen's Day, 26 December, a ceremony which rose
from an ancient pre-Christian rite. Hunters dressed ritually, killed a wren, hung it on a pole and took it in
procession, demanding money; they then buried it in the churchyard.

It was associated with the underworld and these hunting rituals were connected with the winter solstice and
the death of vegetation. In Ireland it was known as 'Fionn's doctor' and was hunted by the Wren Boys in
much the same ritual as in Britain and France on St Stephens Day. The bird was representing the Sleeping
Lord who, whether Cronos, Bran or Arthur must cede place, however great his reign. # 161 - 225 - 454 -
701 p 412

WRNACH

Culhwch had to obtain the sword of this giant as one of his tasks to earn the hand of Olwen. Kay procured
it by trickery and slew Wrnach. # 156 - 346

WYGAR

In Layamon, the name of Arthur's hauberk (armoured tunic). The poet says that it was made either by a
wizard or by someone called Witege. If the latter is the case, Witege may be identical with Widia, son of
Wayland Smith in Anglo-Saxon legend. See: WITEGE. # 156 - 697
YALE

One of the Queen's Beasts in Heraldry, the yale is antelope- or horselike with a spotted body, boar's tusks
and an elephant's tail. Its horns are unique as branching in opposite directions and reputed to be movable.
The yale appeared on the arms of John, Duke of Bedford and were later adopted by Lady Margaret
Beaufort, mother of King Henry VII. The arms may be seen on the Great Gate of Christ's College,
Cambridge. # 161

YARTHKINS

According to Mrs. Balfour in her article 'Legends of the Cars', this was one name for the fertility spirits of
the Lincolnshire Fen Country, who came from the earth and gave its increase for which they expected
tribute. When neglected they became dangerous. They were also called Tidy People, or Greencoaties, and
most often the Strangers. The Tiddy Mun seems to have been a benevolent member of the Yarthkins, and
Yallery Brown a particularly malevolent one. # 46 - 100

YDER

Son of Nuc and a Knight of the Round Table. He fell in love with Queen Guenloie who said she would not
marry him unless he brought her a knife belonging to two giants. He slew them to procure it and she
married him. Elsewhere, Yder is said to have married the daughter of Guengasoain whom he and Gawain
had killed to avenge Raguidel. See: BRENT KNOLL. # 30 - 156

YEATS, WILLIAM BUTLER

(1865-1939) He is chiefly remembered as a great poet, but he is also central to the renaissance of Irish
folklore at the end of the nineteenth century, the close associate of Douglas Hyde, Lady Wilde and Lady
Gregory. His IRISH FAIRY AND FOLK TALES (1888) is a standard work, and THE CELTIC TWILIGHT
(1893) made Irish traditions fashionable in England. He was himself a firm believer in fairies, and he
dabbled in various forms of spiritualism, but he also took part in practical matters, was an ardent nationalist
and a promoter of the arts. He was fully aware of the earthly and matter-of-fact quality of fairy tradition in
the country. In the introduction to IRISH FAIRY AND FOLK TALES he says: 'Have you ever seen a fairy
or such like?' I asked an old man in County Sligo. 'Amn't I annoyed with them,' was the answer. # 100 - 267
- 333 - 728 - 756 - 757

YELL HOUNDS OR YETH HOUNDS

See: WISH HOUNDS.

YELLOW BOOK OF LECAN

Tale of CuChulain and Connla in the Yellow Book of Lecan. # 562

YNWYL

See: ENID.

YS
A legendary city of Brittany, supposed to have been submerged, due to the agency of Dahut or Ahes, the
king's daughter. This Dahut may have contributed to the legend of Morgan, as the name Morgan was
applied to her. According to Gallet's pedigree the King of Ys, Grallo, was related to Arthur's grandfather,
Constantine. # 55 - 156

YSAIE THE SAD

The son of Tristan and Iseult, whom a hermit had raised. In his adventures he was helped by a dwarf,
Tronc, whom the fairies had given him. This dwarf later became the fairy king, Oberon. Ysaie married
Martha, the daughter of King Irion. Their son was called Marc. # 156 - 198

YSGITHYRWYN

A boar which, according to Welsh tradition, was pursued by Arthur and his hound Cabal. # 156

YSPADADDEN

(i-pa-dhad'en - or - uss-path-AD-an) The chief giant (penkawr), father of Olwen. He needed forks placed
under his eyelids before he could see. In origin, he is possibly a figure from Celtic mythology, analogous to
Balor in Irish lore. In CULHWCH AND OLWEN he is wounded in the knee, stomach and eye by Culhwch
and his companions, but cannot be killed before his daughter is married. Eventually Yspadadden was killed
by Goreu. # 156 - 272 - 346 - 439 - 454 - 562

YVAIN

French form of Owain. See: OWAIN, and OWAIN THE BASTARD. # 156
ZELOTES

Her father promised him Perse, but Ector de Maris was in love with her and rescued her from him. # 156

ZEPHYR

In PERCEFOREST, a spirit who loved Britain greatly. He gave Passaleon to Morgan and was an ancestor
of Merlin. # 156 - 198

ZITUS

The name given to Arthur in the Spanish ANALES TOLEDANOS. # 156 - 210

ZODIAC

Glastonbury, the heart of legends of chivalry and sanctity dating back far beyond written records, has long
exited the interest of scholars and seers. It was, however, not until the advent of aerial photography that its
most dramatic secret was revealed. From these photographs, Katharine Maltwood discovered a vast and
complex pattern of figures in the contours and landmarks of the area. They form, in fact, a huge land chart
of the Zodiac. The explanation as to who made it is that the Cymry of Wales came, according to their
traditions, 'from the East in the Age of Ages', (Barddas) bringing the knowledge of the stars from Asia
Minor, and laid out this zodiac, which they called in the Welsh tongue CAER SIDI. Dr. L. A. Waddell
confirms their tradition in his MAKERS OF CIVILIZATION p 6: 'Detailed proofs are given in my former
works for the Sumerian origin of the Cymry with approximate dates for the Sumerian colonizing
occupation of parts of the British Isles by several immigrations from the Sargonic period of about 2700 BC
onwards. # 420 - 421
ALTERNATE SPELLINGS OF
PROPER NOUNS

A-E Alternate Spelling


Alternate Spelling
Through all the sources consulted in the making of this encyclopedia, there does not seem
to be a standard spelling for the names of people, places and events in Celtic myth and
history, which, considering time and localities where this information was written down,
is not only a perfectly natural function but an inevitability. In this work, however, the
editor has tried to list several alternative spellings to frequently used names and terms.
Below you will find a collection of some of these names. We must emphasize that the
alternate spelling form is by no means less correct than the chosen spelling. Alternate
spellings are presented here to clarify some of the confusion caused by varient spellings of
people, place, and event names.
Ailill Ailell
Amathaon Amatheon
Amergin Amhairghin
Angus Og Oengus
Ard Macha Armagh
Arianrhod Aranrhod - Arianrod
Beltaine Beltane
Blanaid Blathnat
Blodeuwedd Blodeuedd
Boanna Boyne (the River)
Bran the Blessed Bendigeid Vran
Breunis Saunce Pyt Breuse Sans Pitie
Bricriu Nemthenga Bricriu of the Poison Tongue
Brighid Brigit - Brigid - Bride
Bugs Bug-A-Boos - Boggle-Boos - Bugbears
Cailleach Beare Cailleach Bera - Cailleach Bheur
Cathbad Cathub
Celidon Celidoine - Cellydon - Cat Coin Celidon
Celtchar Celtchair
Children of Lir Children of Llyr
Cluricaune Cluracan
Conall Cernach Conall of the Victories
Conchobar Conchobur
Connla Conlaoch
Craftiny Craiftine
Credne Credn
Crundchu Crun nchu Mac Agnoman
CuChulain Cu Chulain - Cu Chulainn - C£ Chulaind
Culhwch Kilhwch
Cundrie Kundrie
Dagda Dagdae Dana - Danu
Deirdre Deirdriu - Derdriu
Dermot Mackerval Diarmuid mac Cearbhaill
Dermot of the Love Spot Dermot O'Dyna Diarmuid - Diarmuid Diarmaid
Dindshenchas Dinnsenchus
Dolorous Blow Dolorous Stroke
Donn Cuailgne Donn Quelgny
Dwyn, Saint Donwenna - Dwynwen
Efnissien Evnissyen
Emain Macha Emuin Machae
Endellion, Saint Endelient - Endelienta Endimion
Lyly Eochaid Echu - Eochy
Erin Eire - Eyre - Ireland
Etain ta¡n
Etheldreda, Saint Aethelthryth - Edeltrudis - Audrey
Ethna Ethne
Excalibur Caladfwlch - Caladbolg - Caliburn
F-K Alternate Spelling
Fercetrniu Fercartna - Ferchertne
Ferdia Ferdiad - Fer Diad
Fergus Mac Leda Fergus Mac Leide - Fergus Mac Leite
Feryllt Fferyllt
Fiachra Fiachna
Fianna of Erin Fenians Finn
Fionn Finn Mac Cumhal Fionn Mac Cumhal - Finn Mac Cool
Fir Dhearga Fir Darrig
Fohla Fodla
Gae Bulga Gae Bolg</TD
Geasa Geis - Geas - Gease - Ges
Genii Cucullati Genius Cucullatus
Gentle Annis Gentle Annie
Gilfaethwy Gilvaethwy
Glewlwyd Gafaelfawr
Gog and Magog Gogmagog
Grainne Grania
Guendolena Guendoloena - Gwendolena
Guinevere Gwenhwyfar - Gwnhwyvar
Gwair Gweir - Gwrhyd - Ennwir
Gwenfrewi Winefride
Gwydion Gwydyon
Hadrian Adrian
Hector Ector
Hilda, Saint Hildeburh
Hreda Hretha
Hounds of Ulster Hounds of Ulaid
Igraine Igerne
Iseult Isolde
Kian Cian
Kilhwch Culhwch
Kymideu Kymeinvoll
L-S Alternate Spelling
Leprechaun Luprecan
Levarcam Levarcham
Lewy Lugaid
Llenlleawc Llwch Llawwyanawc - Lleminawc - Llenllawc
Llevelys Llefelys
Lorica Luirech
Lugaid Lewy
Lugh Lug - Lugh of the Long Arm
Luned Lunet - Linet
Mac Cuill Mac Quill
Mac Kerval Dermot
Maeve Medb
Manawydan Manawyddan
Maponos Maponus
Mara Mera
Maxen Wledig Macsen Wledig - Maximus
May Eve May Day
Melvas Meleagaunce - Meleagraunce
Merrows Murdhuacha - Mermaids
Midir Mider - Midhir - Midar
Moddey Dhoo Mauthe Doog
Morgan Morgana - Morgan Le Fay
Munsalv„sche Montsalvat
Myrddin Merlin
Naoisi No¡siu
Neman Neamhan - Nemainn
Nicht Nought Nothing Nicht Nocht Naethin
Noggle Nuggle - Nygel
Odin Woden
Oenghus Oengus Mac Og - Angus
Ogham Ogamic Oimelc - Imbolc
Oscar Osgar
Osfrid Osfrith Osthryd - Osthryth
Pach Patch
Padern Paternus
Partholon Partholan
Pechs Pehts - Picts
Pellam Pelles
Pixies Pigsies - Piskies
Rhitta Ricca - Rith
Samhain Samain - Samuin
T-Z Alternate Spelling
Taltiu Telta
Teirnyon Twyrvliant
Telltown Teltin
Thunor Tor - Thor
Tigernmas Tiernmas
Tintagel Tintagil
Tonn Clidna Tonn Cliodhna
Tuatha De Danaan Tuatha De Danann - T£atha D‚ Danand
Tudwal Tudglyd
Uisliu Usnach Ulster
Ulaid Usnech Uisliu - Usnach
Viviane Vivienne - Vivionn
Wales Cymru
Witege Wayland - Wieland - Voelund
Ethelfrid 'delr'd - Ethelred 'thelthryth -
'thelfrith
Etheldreda
'lle Aelle

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