Proceedings of the 38th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences - 2005

Visualizing Real-Time Security Threats

Using Hybrid SCADA / PMU Measurement Displays

Ray Klump, Ph.D. Robert E. Wilson, Ph.D. Kenneth E. Martin

Lewis University & Western Area Power Bonneville Power
PowerWorld Corporation Administration Administration

Abstract report data at much shorter intervals. Together, SCADA

measurements and PMUs can help identify trends in and
This paper explores ways to highlight threats to power threats to the steady-state and transient health of the grid.
system security by displaying data from phasor Table 1. System data source examples
measurement units (PMUs) and SCADA data sources
simultaneously. SCADA measurements provide a picture System Control - Node voltage magnitudes
of the steady-state health of the system, whereas PMUs and Data - Branch flow magnitudes
capture the faster variations that may indicate small- Acquisition (MW, MVAr, MVA, current)
signal stability problems. The software system described (SCADA)
in this system gathers SCADA and PMU data and displays
them on a geographic map of the system. The system uses Phasor - Standardized frequency
contour plots to show the variation of a measurement with Measurement - Node voltage magnitudes
location, even when adjacent measurement points are Unit (PMU) - Node voltage phase angles
widely spread. The system superimposes trend plots on - Branch flow magnitudes and
this display to show the past variation of a quantity over a angles (MW, MVR, MVA,
user-specified time window. The goal of the system is to current)
help operators gauge the present security of the grid.
Planning and - Planned and existing
Operations generation and transmission
1. Introduction outages (for example, from
NERC SDX)
Describing the operation of an electric power system - Maintenance log
requires access to a variety of data sources. Table 1 lists - Equipment operating limits
just some examples of data that help capture the security - Equipment ratings
and economics of the system. Many of these data are of - Load forecasts
interest not only for the present point in time but also over
an extended interval so that trends may be detected. To Transactions - Historical LMPs
make sense of all these data, system operators need - Future pricing
software that will help them infer the meaning of the data - Price forecasts
and to discern their interrelationships. Much work has - Transmission reservations
been done on the visualization of power system data; (for example, from NERC
references [1] through [13] offer a few examples. The Interchange Transaction Tags)
purpose of this paper is to explore the use of one of the - Energy sales and purchases
newest of these data sources, the data furnished by phasor - Transmission Loading Relief
measurement units, with other data available from sources incidents
such as SCADA, in an integrated platform for monitoring
the state of the system in real time. Weather - Temperatures (actual
SCADA data sources provide a comprehensive record predicted)
of system conditions but at a relatively slow refresh rate. - Jet stream patterns
Phasor measurement units are positioned at relatively few - Humidities
locations spread throughout the system but gather and - Weather fronts
- Forecasts

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 Proceedings of the 38th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences - 2005

2. Phasor Data Systems

The Global Positioning System (GPS) has made sub-
microsecond timekeeping in industrial environments
practical and affordable. With such precise timekeeping,
the difference between voltage phase angles at widely
separated substations can be measured. In addition, GPS
offers the means to reference power system frequency
measurements to the same very precise frequency
standard. The system used to measure these complex
values is called a phasor data system.
Phasor measurement is a process that derives positive-
sequence, fundamental frequency phasors from voltage or
current waveforms [14]. Phasors are used in discrete
control systems like the Wide-Area stability and voltage
Control System (WACS) [15], [16]. Reference [17]
demonstrates the relationship between a voltage signal and
its corresponding phasor representation. Phasor Figure 2. PMUs in the Western United States
Measurement Units (PMUs) currently in use sample three-
phase power line waveforms at 720 Hz or higher. They
compute phasors from these digital samples using a Where possible, PMUs are equipped with enough
Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT), and combine the three channels to measure all significant bus voltages and line
phases into a single positive sequence value. The DFT currents at the station. Typically, the units are distributed
computation is referenced to Coordinated Universal Time throughout the power system to provide coverage of
(UTC), as derived from GPS. system dynamic behavior. The PDC is located at the
The PMU sends these phasor data along with a time control (dispatch) center and correlates the data by time
stamp to a Phasor Data Concentrator (PDC) in real time at tag to create a system-wide measurement. The PDC
a data rate of 30 measurements per second. Figure 1 monitors the overall system operation, records files of data
provides a block diagram of a particular phasor during disturbances, and exports these combined
measurement system [17]. PMUs are located at a number measurements in real-time to other applications. The PDC
of substations throughout the system to provide adequate may also perform calculations on the data, applying
coverage of the monitored area. For example, Figure 2 scaling factors to convert PMU measurements to power
shows the locations of PMUs in the Western half of the system quantities such as volts and amperes.
United States. The industry is currently quite active in installing and
implementing phasor measurement systems throughout the
• PMUs at substations make measurements
North American grid. The Bonneville Power
• Data sent in real time to phasor data concentrator (PDC) Administration-Western Electricity Coordinating Council
• PDC sends data to applications, stores disturbance data, manages (BPA-WECC) Phasor Measurement Network covers the
measurement system
region shown in Figure 2, and it has worked with
• Applications include monitors, recorders, alarms, and controls
colleagues from the Eastern Interconnect Phasor Project
Analysis - (EIPP), which has been installing phasor measurement
Matlab or other
PMU disc Data stream- equipment in the Eastern Interconnect. The goal of this
to other
applications work is to measure and display frequency and phase angle
Phasor
PMU
Data throughout the North American grid.
Concentrator SCADA Monitor/
PMU disc
Master record
3. Integration of PMU Data with Software
PMU Phasor Measurements
Data from other Utility - A challenge that currently faces the industry regarding
PMU Concentrator PDC data exchange
the integration of phasor measurement units is how to
interface data concentrators made by different
Figure 1. Phasor measurement system organizations and vendors. Efforts are under way to
ensure that the PDCs used to consolidate PMU data at
different installations can communicate data with each
other and with applications designed to display their
measurements. From an application software perspective,
the ideal situation may be that all PMU data is

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 Proceedings of the 38th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences - 2005
consolidated by a single PDC so that inconsistencies
between different models’ scaling practices and reporting
formats become irrelevant, and so that the applications can
spend less time trying to establish and maintain separate
connections. It is conceivable that the PDC of one system
could transmit its content to the central PDC, passing it
through a converter if necessary. With all data passing
into the central PDC, software applications could display
angle, voltage, and frequency information throughout the
grid. Work continues on this front.
PMUs gather measurements so quickly that they appear
to publish a continuous stream of data to the PDC. PDCs
provide a time-stamped log of this stream. Visualization
applications, which communicate with the PDC, capture
snapshots of these data at a slower pace and present them
to the user at regular intervals. At any given instant, the
user sees the state of the system frozen at that point. For
the application to be able to accomplish this, there must be
some means of taking the rapidly updated content of the
PDC and extracting from it either the latest snapshot of
each data point or a picture of the system at some previous
point in time. In other words, the system needs to employ
an archive utility between the Analysis block and the PDC
in Figure 1 that extracts snapshots from the PDC data as
requested by client analysis applications. Depending on
the technology employed by the PDC, the archiver may
take several different forms. The authors have worked on
a project that extracted data from the PDC and wrote it to
flat files that the display application could read and
illustrate.
An interesting approach to interfacing PDC data with
external applications and with other PDCs utilizes a
technology called OLE for Process Control, or OPC.
Reference [18] provides a good deal of information about
OPC, including links to other OPC resources. The purpose
of OPC is to standardize how data collection and
automation devices can be connected to each other and to
human-machine interfaces. Thus, it is a set of standards,
similar in spirit to the ODBC standard that enables
applications to communicate with databases from different
vendors. Some PDCs are able to output an OPC-
compliant data stream. These devices thus serve as OPC
Servers. OPC clients, which may be another PDC, a
display application, or a bridge to an ODBC database, can
then collect and use these data. Figure 3 illustrates the
architecture of the OPC system. The appeal of the OPC
approach is that it might provide the uniformity the
industry seeks as it attempts to expand the use of PMUs
throughout the system.
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PMU 1 PMU 2 PMU n
...
PDC
OPC Server
OPC Client 1 OPC Client 2 ... OPC Client m
Clients may include visualization tools, spreadsheets, databases,
and any other application that complies to OPC standards.
Figure 3. Architecture of OPC-based interface
4. SCADA + PMU Display Details
The rapid frequency with which PMU data is collected
contrasts with the relatively slow frequency at which
remote terminal units report data collected by SCADA
devices. One of the reasons to measure and display phase
angles is to capture transient instability incidents, which
typically occur within ten seconds after an event, but may
occur on sub-second intervals. Thus, it is important that
the software be able receive and display PMU data at a
refresh rate that allows it to capture the phenomena that
PMUs are designed to monitor. This means that the
software must be able to query multiple data sources, each
at a different refresh rate. Rapid refresh of the displays
requires somewhat clever software design. The data must
be indexed efficiently so that the datum corresponding to a
particular display field may be populated quickly.
Of course, phase angles change at a frequency of 60Hz.
Displaying phase angle measurements directly will result
in a picture which changes at the frequency of the system.
Such a mercurial display will hold little value for the user.
To address this problem, a node must be identified to serve
as the angular reference. The phase angle of any node,
then, will be displayed as the phase angle measured by the
PMU minus the phase of the reference node. The angle of
the reference node will be fixed at 0, and the angles of the
other nodes will normally show only very small changes
about some center value, provided the system remains
synchronized. If the system separates, the node angles
will start to vary wildly, as parts of the system begin to
swing against other parts. An implementation detail that is
easy to overlook is that, in the subtraction that yields a
node’s angle with respect to the reference, the node’s
angle and its associated reference angle must correspond
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 Proceedings of the 38th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences - 2005
to the same point in time. Otherwise, the node’s angle will
be shown incorrectly. Thus, an angle measurement
shouldn’t be updated unless the raw measurement and the
associated reference have the same timestamp.
Because measurements may fail occasionally, the
software must permit the reference node to be reassigned
to a different location. If the PMU reports a quality flag,
the software may detect a problem at the current reference
automatically and simply select a different node that has a
valid quality flag as reference. If the PMU does not report
quality information, the software must allow the user to
select the reference node manually.
When PMU data and SCADA data are available for the
same system, it is possible to check the validity of the two
data sets by comparing their values with each other. For
example, branch flow magnitudes are usually monitored
by SCADA. If both of the branch’s terminals are
monitored by PMUs, the voltage magnitude and phase will
be available at both ends. If the impedance of the branch
between nodes k and m is known, then the power flow
equations can be used to compute the real and reactive
power flow on the branch.
Pk = VkVm [Gkm cos(δ k − δ m ) + Bkm sin (δ k − δ m )]
Qk = VkVm [Gkm sin (δ k − δ m ) − Bkm cos(δ k − δ m )]
These calculated values may be compared with the values
measured by SCADA. If the two values are significantly
different, the software should highlight the component as
having potentially incorrect metering.
In depicting the current state of the system, the
software must stress flexibility. Although much work has
been done on estimating the reliability of electric power
systems that take into account thermal, voltage, and
transient limitations (references [19] through [21] provide
a few examples), such estimates must be tailored to the
particular system, both in terms of system structure and
operating guidelines. The software must permit users to
define functions that implement the security measures they
wish to use, The software must also be able to illustrate
the variation of these functions on the displays in the same
way that it shows the variation of stock values such as
voltages and angles. The software must provide a
convenient interface for system personnel to modify these
functions as well as to select which of several it is to show.
Placing these functions on different display layers and
allowing the user to select which layers are active provides
a particularly convenient interface for supporting multiple
views of the system’s reliability.
The reliability of a system is usually demonstrated not
only by its current operating point but also by its change
over time. The software must either have access to a
database of historical data or be able to log data values as
it displays them. The data history will enable the software
to display trends in one or more measured quantities and
to highlight large rates of change in them. Large rates of
change may reveal transient stability concerns, while
slowly evolving trends may identify mid- and long-term
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voltage stability issues. The software should be able to
reveal both types of maladies.
5. Types of Displays
Table 1 provided just a few examples of the types of
data a display platform might be able to access. With so
much data available to be shown, choosing the proper
types of displays and their content becomes a very
important task. Now that the retrieval of phasor
measurements has been discussed, it is important to
appreciate the diversity of displays that exist and to
understand the benefits a geographical display can
provide.
Historically, power system maps haven’t attempted to
capture the relative locations of the measurements they try
to show. There are a number of reasons for this. In terms
of technology, if one considers the physical wall boards
that have been used for several decades, it would be
impractical and wasteful to have the board reflect the
distances between metering sites to scale, especially if
some points are very close to each other while others are
rather remote. Furthermore, the view port of such
displays, and even of many existing electronic displays, is
fixed, which means that the amount of detail shown cannot
be changed. The user may not zoom in and out to reveal
the level of detail they seek. Some electronic displays
compensate for this shortcoming by allowing the user to
click on a point of interest to open an associated display
that shows additional detail in the vicinity of that point.
However, it is still not possible to inspect the more
detailed view in the context of its broader neighborhood.
Modern displays, however, relax the restriction of
having a fixed view port. The user may increase and
decrease the zoom level of the display to reveal or conceal
the details. The visibility of a display object can be
defined to depend on the zoom level so that some objects
don’t appear until the zoom level reaches a certain value.
Furthermore, multiple objects may be placed on a display
layer. By controlling which display layers are shown and
which are hidden, one can obtain several different views
of a system from a single diagram. This reduces the
amount of effort that must be devoted to creating displays,
since a single display may be used for multiple purposes.
It also makes it easier for the user to achieve the view of
the system he needs, since the visualization tool becomes
much more flexible.
Of course, these concepts are not new. Geographic
information systems (GISs) have used the ideas of
zooming and layering for many years. However, their
introduction to the power system control room has been
slow. The primary reason for this latency is not a
reluctance to embrace new technology, although that may
occasionally play a part. There is a more practical reason.
The system operator plays a very critical role as the
guardian of the system’s reliability. Some operators have
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 Proceedings of the 38th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences - 2005

been doing their jobs for several years and are very
familiar with the displays they have used during that time.
Modifying the displays, including changing the locations
of substations or even the colors with which objects are
rendered, may impair the operator’s ability to do his job, at
least in the short term. Hence, adopting a new display
technology can be risky, and that is the primary reason
some have been reluctant to do so.
Nevertheless, geographic displays offer a number of
distinct advantages. A map that displays the relative
locations of system nodes can be used as the background
for a topographic or contour plot that shows the variation
of voltage magnitude, phase angle, load concentration,
generator capacity, or marginal price throughout the
system. A geographic map can highlight the impacts of
transfers from a set of source points to a set of sink points
on transmission paths between the two groups, thus
demonstrating the impact of loop flows on the system. Figure 4. Substation diagram
The same geographic display can be used to show voltage
variation in one instance, pricing information in another,
and temperature or storm front information in yet another,
simply by activating the appropriate display layers. In
summary, geographic views that support zooming and
panning offer operators an unprecedented degree of
flexibility in displaying system conditions and
relationships on a system map.
To ease the transition from non-geographic to
geographic displays, some utilities have crafted their first
“new techonology” displays to mimic existing displays in
layout and appearance. The project described in [11], for
example, took this approach. Once the initial set of
displays have been accepted, it may be easier to gain Figure 5. Associated geographic node view
acceptance for less conventional displays that provide a
geographic or even three-dimensional view of the system.
Some utilities that have adopted newer types of displays utilities that now enjoy access to phasor measurement
have chosen to link old-style displays and geographic data. The data alone hold promise, because real-time
displays so that the user can click on an object on either of phase angle and frequency measurements have not been
these displays to show the related portion of the other. For available before. However, these data must now be
example, in the display shown in Figure 4, if the user presented in a manner that allows users to infer
clicks on the substation object labeled “BOB138,” he will information such as
be shown the scene of Figure 5. Similarly, if he clicks on - the overall direction of power flow
any of the buses that belong to the BOB138 substation in - where a system is at risk of separating
Figure 5, he can view the associated substation display of - whether an open tie line can be reclosed
Figure 4. Establishing links between diagrams is a - the impact of a disturbance on frequency, and the
standard EMS practice. Links can be particularly powerful geographic extent of the impact.
in platforms that support geographic displays, since they A platform that can illustrate system conditions on a
allow such platforms to deliver the “best of both worlds”: geographic map enables users to display this information
standard look-and-feel combined with the flexibility of most effectively.
dynamic geographical views.
The choice of displays can mean the difference 6. Display Examples
between a successful data visualization effort and one that
fails to convey the full meaning of the data. Simply Ultimately, system display software should help users
having access to an additional data source is not present system conditions in the clearest, most dramatic
automatically a positive occurrence. If misused or way, one that makes the most sense to the operators who
misrepresented, additional data can simply result in clutter rely on it for information about the system. Thus, the
and obtuseness. This is a very important consideration for software must be extremely customizable and should
allow users to craft displays that are limited only by the

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 Proceedings of the 38th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences - 2005

user’s good judgment. The purpose of this final section is

to provide a few examples of the types of displays of
SCADA and PMU data that might prove helpful in the
control room.
PMUs make the measurement of phase angles possible.
Typically, the flow of power between two nodes varies
approximately with the sine of the angle between the two
nodes and is directed from the larger phase angle to the
smaller.
Pk = VkVm [Bkm sin (δ k − δ m )]
By capturing the geographic variation of the phase angle
over a region, one can identify the prevailing direction of
power flow through the system. For example, in Figure 6,
larger angles are shaded in yellow and orange, and smaller
angles are shaded in blue. The contour plot suggests that, Figure 7. Another view of phase angles
in general, power flows through this system from the
North and East to the Southwest. In other words, on
average, power flows from the Pacific Northwest to
California, particularly southern California. This is the
most useful information phase angle data can convey
under normal operating conditions. The contour plot does
not clarify the exact phase angle measurements. Figure 6
does this, but notice how difficult it is to distinguish the
small differences in phase angles among the nodes. The
phase angle gauges of Figure 7 reveal measurements, but
they don’t improve the user’s understanding of how the
system behaves. Figure 8. Depicting voltage magnitude
To reduce large angles across a branch or transmission
corridor, control areas will set up what are called
“inadvertent schedules” to bring the phase angles on the
two sides of the transmission path closer together. A plot
such as the one shown in Figure 9, which depicts two
regions disconnected by the open line between nodes 5
and 8 that have significantly different phase angles, could
help the operator determine when it is safe to reclose the
line.

Figure 6. Phase angle contour and power flow

An additional feature of Figure 6 is that it also conveys
voltage magnitude measurements made by the PMUs. The
blue thermometer-like gauges that neighbor each of the
nodes represent node voltage magnitudes. Figure 8
provides a close-up view. By superimposing voltage
thermometers on a background that paints a contour plot
of phase angle, a single display can demonstrate both Figure 9. Angle contours and line reclosure
voltage magnitude and angle quite clearly.
Another use of phase angle measurements is to Identifying trends in the system’s behavior is just as
determine when a line may be closed between two regions. important as capturing its most recent state. One way to
Operators cannot safely reclose a line across a large phase illustrate the change in quantities over time is superimpose
angle because of the large power swings that would result. strip charts on a geographic display of the system. A strip
chart shows how one or more measured quantities vary

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 Proceedings of the 38th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences - 2005
over a specified time interval. By displaying strip charts
near their associated equipment, a map can, for example,
demonstrate how a system is changing in response to a
recent disturbance while preserving the notion that these
individual responses are interconnected and possibly
related to each other. Figure 10 provides an example of
how such a plot might look for a display of measured
frequency at two neighboring nodes after a system
disturbance.
Figure 10. Geographically placed strip charts
The ability to recognize a trend is perhaps most
important when it is just beginning. If the user can detect
anomalous behavior when it begins, he will have more
time to try to counteract it. That is why the display shown
in Figure 11 can be extremely helpful. The display
highlights system components that have measurements
that have changed significantly over a specified time
interval. The user is able to set the warning threshold for
the rate of change for each measurement. If the rate of
change for a measurement exceeds this threshold, the
associated system object will be highlighted to draw
attention to the fact that something bad may be happening
there.
Figure 11. Highlighting rapid change
Longer-term reliability efforts focus on what is called
the n-1 criteria. This common industry practice labels a
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system reliable if no thermal overloads or voltage
violations occur for any single contingency. If overloads
and violations do occur for a contingency, then the system
has a weakness that must be addressed either through
system reinforcement or a short-term operating guideline.
Contingency analysis is a standard part of any energy
management system (EMS). The contingency analysis
module takes a list of contingencies reliability personnel
wish to monitor and applies them to a state-estimated
mathematical model of the system. The module then
reports the list of violations that occur for each
contingency. If the display tool interfaces with the output
of the contingency module, then it can produce a picture
similar to that shown in Figure 12. The red and orange
circles on some of the branches in Figure 12 identify the
worst case loadings on the branches found during the
contingency analysis. In other words, if a branch has a red
circle with a 110% value inside it, then it was forced to
carry 110% of its rated value for one of the contingencies
that were processed. The larger red circles suggest an
overload, while the smaller orange circles identify
branches that are nearly overloaded. The operator may
select any of the circles to find out the contingency that
caused the line to be loaded to that value.
Figure 12. Worst-case overloads
Note that it may be possible to produce a similar
picture even without a connection to the contingency
analysis tool. If the display tool can calculate and apply
line outage distribution factors to estimate the post-
contingency flow on each of the monitored lines for each
contingency, then it can produce a display of likely post-
contingency overloads similar to Figure 12.
7. Summary
The increasing use of phasor measurement units to
monitor the electric power system makes it possible to
display vital information that had never been available
before. PMUs enable monitors to track frequency and
phase angle values across the system. In an AC system,
power flow roughly follows phase angle differences.
Therefore, it is not necessary to measure and sum all
power flows in a path to obtain a sense of power flow;
simply consider the phase angle differences. This could
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 Proceedings of the 38th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences - 2005
be very valuable in cases such as the last few major
blackouts, where critical intervening information was
missing, so state estimation and other informational
interfaces were interrupted.
To take advantage of these new data points, operations
support personnel must carefully consider how to integrate
their traditional SCADA measurements with the much
more quickly updated PMU data. More importantly, they
must determine how best to display quantities such as
frequency, phase angle, voltage magnitude, branch flows,
and equipment violations in a way that conveys meaning
most effectively. Modern system visualization software
should help operations support staff meet these challenges
by offering a versatile communication interface for
collecting the PMU, SCADA, and other data as well as a
flexible, diverse set of plotting and drawing tools for
extracting meaning from the vast quantities of data. The
purpose of this paper was to outline the characteristics of
such software and demonstrate how it may be used.
8. Acknowledgments
A majority of the work by the second author was
funded by BPA through an interagency agreement.
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Proceedings of the IEEE, scheduled for March 2005.
[16] C. W. Taylor, R. E. Wilson, “BPA’s Wide-Area Stability
and Voltage Control System (WACS): Overview and
Large-Scale Simulations,” Proc. of IX Symposium of
Specialists in Electric Operational and Expansion
Planning (IX SEPOPE), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, May 23-27,
2004.
[17] K. E. Martin., “Phasor Measurements at the Bonneville
Power Administration,” presented at the Power Systems
and Infrastructures for the Future, Beijing, China,
September 2002.
[18] “The OPC Foundation- Dedicated to Interoperability in
Automation,” http://www.opcfoundation.org/.
[19] IEEE Working Group on Measurement Indices,
“Measuring bulk system reliability – measurements and
indeices,” IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 4,
No. 3, Aug. 1989, pp. 829-835.
[20] O. Bertoldi, R.N. Allan, G.J. Anders, R. Butler, E.N
Dialynas, G. Douard, E. Landeck, L. Salvaderi, M.T.
Schilling, “Methods and techniques for reliability
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[21] Y. V. Makarov, N.S. Moharari, “A generalized reliability
and security index,” Proc. IEEE Power Tech, 1999.
Ray Klump (M’92) earned a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering at
the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 2000. He
worked for Mid-America Interconnected Network from 1995 –
1998. He currently serves as Assistant Professor of Mathematics
and Computer Science at Lewis University and as a consultant
for PowerWorld Corporation.
Robert E. Wilson (M’77, SM’92) studied electric engineering at
8
 Proceedings of the 38th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences - 2005

the University of Nebraska (BSEE in 1969), and completed a

Ph.D. at the University of Idaho in 1992. From 1980 to 1990 and
again from 1994 to the present he worked for the Western Area
Power Administration, U.S. DOE. From 1992 to 1994 Bob
Wilson was the first Nicholson Visiting Assistant Professor of
Electrical Engineering at the University of Wyoming. Bob
Wilson is a registered Professional engineer in the state of
Colorado.

Kenneth E. Martin (M'91-SM'91) earned a BSEE at Colorado

State University and a MA in mathematics at the University of
Washington. He joined the Bonneville Power Administration in
1975 and is currently Principal Engineer in the Measurement
Systems group. Mr. Martin in a member of the IEEE Power
System Relay Committee and chairs the Synchrophasor Standard
working group. He is a registered Professional Engineer in
Washington State.

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