by

Lotis P. Patunob, M.Eng., ECE

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Microwaves
An electromagnetic waves with frequencies that ranges
from approximately 500 MHz to 300 GHz or more. And
its wavelengths fall between 1cm and 60 cm.
Wavelength
The distance between
repeating units of a
propagating wave of a
given frequency.
Designated by lambda
(λ).
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Categories of Microwave Systems:
A. Short haul – used to carry information for relatively
short distances, e.i. between cities within the same state.

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Categories of Microwave Systems:
A. Long haul – used to carry information for relatively
long distances, such as interstate.

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Advantages of Microwave Radio:
1. Radio systems do not require a right-of-way
acquisition between stations.
2. Each station requires the purchase or lease of only a
small area of land.
3. Because of their high operating frequencies,
microwave radio systems can carry large quantities of
information.
4. Short wavelengths, require relatively small antennas.

5. Radio signals are more easily propagated around

physical obstacles, such as high mountains 6
Disadvantages of Microwave Radio:
1. It is more difficult to analyze and design circuits at
microwave frequencies.
2. Measuring techniques are more difficult to perfect
and implement at microwave frequencies.
3. It is difficult to implement conventional circuit
components at microwave frequencies.
4. Transient time is more critical at microwave
frequencies.
5. Microwave frequencies propagate in a straight line,
which limits their use to line-of-sight applications. 7
Applications of Microwave:

1. Telephone communications.

2. Radar
3. Space Communications

4. Heating

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Microwave Parameters:
A. Free Space Path Loss, LFS
It is the loss that would be obtained between two
isotropic antennas in free space, where there are no
ground influences or obstructions.
It is defined as a loss incurred by an electromagnetic
wave as it propagates in a straight line through a
vacuum with no absorption or reflection of energy from
nearby objects.

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 2 Note: signal strength is 1/∞
 4d 
FSL    distance; & antenna gain ∞
  
aperture.

FSL  32.4  20 log 10 f ( MHz )  20 log 10 d ( km )

FSL  92.4  20 log 10 f (GHz )  20 log10 d ( km )
FSL  36.6  20 log 10 f ( MHz )  20 log10 d ( mi )

FSL  96.6  20 log 10 f (GHz )  20 log 10 d ( mi )

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Microwave Parameters:
B. Parabolic Antenna Gain, G
General Equation:

2
 D 
G   
  

where:D = antenna diameter in m

λ = signal wavelength in m
η = efficiency

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Microwave Parameters:
Antenna Gain for Typical Values of η (0.55 to 0.75):

2
 D
G  6 
  
Parabolic Antenna Gain for Typical Values of η
(0.55 to 0.75) in Metric system:

G  42.4  20 log10 f ( MHz )  20 log10 D( m )

G  17.8  20 log10 f ( GHz )  20 log10 D( m )

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Microwave Parameters:

Parabolic Antenna Gain for Typical Values of η

(0.55 to 0.75) in English system:

G  52.6  20 log10 f ( MHz )  20 log10 D( ft )

G  7.5  20 log10 f ( GHz )  20 log10 D( ft )

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Microwave Parameters:
C. Fade Margin, FM

It is an attenuation allowance so that anticipated

fading will still keep the signal above specified
minimum RF input.
It considers the nonideal and less predictable
characteristics of a radio wave propagation such as
multipath propagation and terrain sensitivity.

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Microwave Parameters:
Fade Margin in Metric system:

FM  130  30 log d  10 log (6abf )  10 log (1  R)

10 ( km) 10 ( MHz ) 10

FM  70  30 log d  10 log (6abf )  10 log (1  R)

10 ( km) 10 (GHz) 10
Fade Margin in English system:

FM  123.8  30 log d  10 log (6abf )  10 log (1  R)

10 ( mi) 10 ( MHz) 10

FM  63.8  30 log d  10 log (6abf )  10 log (1  R)

10 ( mi ) 10 (GHz ) 10

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Microwave Parameters:
where:R = propagation reliability

Values for “a” Description

4.0 for very smooth terrain,
over water, flat desert
1.0 for average terrain with
some roughness
0.25 for mountainous, very
rough, or very dry terrain
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Microwave Parameters:

Values for “b” Description

0.50 for hot, humid coastal areas
0.25 for normal, interior
temperate or sub-arctic area
0.125 for mountainous, very dry
but non-reflective areas

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Microwave Parameters:
D. System Reliability Estimates
D.1. Propagation Reliability for Non-diversity Systems:

R  1  Undp  x100%

where: Undp = the path unavailability or

fade probability
1.5 3 6  FM / 10
Undp  abf d (1.25 x10 ) x10
where: d = path length in mi
f = frequency in GHz
FM = fade margin in dB
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Diversity
It suggests that there is more than one transmission
path or method of transmission available bet. a
transmitter and a receiver. Its purpose is to increase the
reliability of the system by increasing its availability
Frequency diversity
It simply modulates two different RF carrier
frequencies with the same information. At the
destination, both are demodulated but the one yields the
better quality is selected.

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Diversity

Space diversity
The output of a transmitter is fed to two or more
antennas that are physically separated by an
appreciable number of wavelengths.

Receiver diversity
It is using more than one receiver for a single RF
channel.

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Microwave Parameters:
D. System Reliability Estimates
D.2. Propagation Reliability for Diversity Systems:

R  (1  U div ) x100%
where: Udiv = the path unavailability or
fade probability
U
ndp
U 
div I
div
where: Idiv = the diversity improvement factor

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Microwave Parameters:
D. System Reliability Estimates
D.3. Equipment Reliability:

R  (1  U ) x100%
where: U = unavailability or probability of outage

MTTR
U 
MTBF
where: MTTR = mean time to repair
MTBF = mean time before failure
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Microwave Parameters:
E. Received Signal Level, RSL
It is the difference from the nominal transmitter
output, antenna transmit and receive gain, from that
of the fixed losses of transmit and receive side and its
path loss.
RSL  Po(dBm)  L G L G L
TX T FS R RX
where:LTX and LRX = transmitter and receiver
total insertion losses in dB
GT and GR = transmit and receive antenna
gains in dB 23
Microwave Parameters:
where:LFS = Free Space Loss in dB
Po(dBm) = Transmitter Output Power in dBm
RSL = FM + Threshold (receiver)

where:
FM = Fade Margin in dB
Threshold (receiver) = receiver minimum RF
input in dBm; Cmin
C
C min   N ; N  KTB
N

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Microwave Parameters:
F. System Gain, Gs (dB)
It is the difference between the nominal output power
of a transmitter and the minimum rf input power to
a receiver.

S ( dB )  Po( dBm)  min .RF

G input (dBm)
P  min . RF input  losses  gains
o ( dBm) (dBm)

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Microwave Parameters:
 FM L
FS ( dB )  L f ( dB )  Lb( dB )  GT ( dB ) G R ( dB )
G
s ( dB ) dB

where:Lf(dB) = transmission line loss bet. the

distribution network and
its respective antenna (dB)
Lb(dB) = total coupling or branching loss
in the distribution network bet.
the output of a transmitter or
receiver and the transmission line
(dB)
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G. Fresnel Zone and Fresnel Radius
Fresnel zone – the area where the interference is
constructive.

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G. Fresnel Zone and Fresnel Radius
If a reflected signal is bounced within an odd-
numbered Fresnel zone, it would arrive at the
receiver in “phase addition” with the direct signal.

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Fresnel zones – are a series of concentric ellipsoids that
surround the path from the transmitter to the receiver.

Fresnel zone radius, (F1)

in Metric System:

d1( km) d 2( km)

F1( m)  547.1
f ( MHz ) D( km)

d1( km) d 2( km)

F1( m) 17.3
f ( MHz ) D( km)

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 Fresnel zone radius, (F1) in English System:

d1( mi ) d 2( mi ) d1( mi ) d 2( mi )
F1( ft )  2280 F1( ft )  72.1
f ( MHz ) D( mi ) f (GHz ) D( mi )

nth Fresnel zone radius (Fn):

Fn  F1 n
Fresnel zone clearance (Fc)
- it takes into account the
unusual conditions that Fc  0.6 F1
occur in the atmosphere.
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H. Passive Repeater
Gain of a Passive Repeater

 4A cos  
G p ( dB )  20 log  2 
  

where: A = the actual area of the passive repeater in (ft2 )

λ = wavelength = c/f in (ft)
ά = alpha, the angle bet. the incident wave and the
reflected wave in (°)

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I. Net Path Loss, NPL:
It is the total loss of the system.

( dB )  GT  LFS1  G p  LFS 2  GR
NPL

Example:
A plane passive reflector 10x16 ft is erected
21 miles from one active site and only 1 mile from
the other and ά = 50°. The operating frequency is
2000 MHz. Determine the net path loss of the
system.

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Example:
In a microwave communication system with a
normal temperate and average terrain has the
following parameters:
a. Operating frequency = 4 GHz
b. Path length = 25 mi
c. Tx/Rx antenna diameter = 3 ft.
d. Transmitter Output Power = 1 W
e. Threshold(receiver) = - 80 dBm
f. Tx total insertion loss = 5 dB
g. Rx total insertion loss = 4 dB
Deermine: LFS(dB) , FM(dB) & % Reliability
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Waveguides
It is a conducting tube through which the energy is
transmitted, in the form of electromagnetic waves.
It is an alternative to cable for frequency of 1 Ghz and
above.

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Electromagnetic Wave

It is made up of magnetic and electric fields that are at

right angles to each other and at right angles to the
direction of propagation. It travels in a straight line at
approximately the speed of light.

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Modes of Propagation - the possible direction of
distribution of energy

Classification of Modes of Propagation:

1. Transverse Electric (TE) – has the electric field
transverse the direction of propagation, while the
magnetic field is along the propagation direction

2. Transverse Magnetic (TM0) – has the magnetic field

at right angles to the direction of propagation along the
guide, and the electric field in the direction of
propagation.
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Format: TEm,n

where: n = indicates the no. of half wave variation

of the electric field along the y or b
(height) dimension.
m = indicates the no. of half wave variation
of the electric field along the x or a
(width) dimension.

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where: arrows = represent the E field perpendicular to
the sides of the guide.
x’s = represent the H field that is going into
the waveguide.
dots = represent the H field that is coming out
of the waveguide.
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Types of Waveguides:

A. Rectangular – used when energy must be coupled

from the source to a load and both are fixed in place
since they are smaller than circular waveguides for a
given wavelength.
General formula for
Cut off wavelength for
cut off wavelength, λc:
TEm,0:
 
2
2x
c
2 n 2  
m
     c m
 x  y

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Cut off wavelength for TE1,0:

  2x
c
where: TE1,0 = called the dominant mode, the mode for
the lowest frequency that can be
propagated in a waveguide
x = the width of the waveguide
y = the height of the waveguide
Note: x ≤ λ/2 for dominant mode means no propagation

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B. Circular – used for rotating systems such as radar
antenna
2r
 
c K
where: K = 1.84 for dominant mode
Example:

What is the cut off wavelength that a 2.5 cm wide

waveguide will support the dominant mode (m = 1)?
How about for the next mode (m = 2)?

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Key wavelength formula for rectangular/circular
waveguide:

Rectangular Circular
Cut off wavelength 2x 3.41r

Longest λ transmitted 1.6x 3.2r

with little attenuation
Shortest λ before next 1.1x 2.8r
mode is possible
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Group Velocity, Vg

The actual speed at which   

2
V g Vc 1  
a signal travels down the  
 c 
guide.
Phase Velocity, Vp
Vc
The rate at which the Vp 
2
wave appears to move   
1 
 

along the wall of the  c 
guide.

Note: Vg·Vp = Vc2

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 Waveguide Characteristic Impedance:
TE mode: TM mode:

377 377
Z0  Z0 
2 2
     
1  1  

  c
 c  

Example:

A 6 GHz signal is to be propagated in a waveguide

whose width is 7.5 cm. Calculate the characteristic
impedance for TE1,0 mode and TM1,1 mode if the
thickness is 3.75 cm.
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Example:

A 6 GHz signal is to be propagated in the dominant

mode in a rectangular waveguide if its group velocity
is to be 90% of the speed of light, what must be width
of the guide?

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