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PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Graduate School of Health Sciences

Foundation of Education

RE: FINAL EXAMINATION


DIRECTIONS:
• Read each item-question carefully. Choose 4 out of the five-(5) items.
• Submit the final printout on Wednesday, October 13 not later than 6pm at URC Office.
• Please observe a font size of 12 and 1.5 spacing between the lines.

Good luck and May the force be with you.

1. Discuss briefly the relevance of each discipline, anthropology, sociology, psychology,


philosophy and history in education (25%)

2. Identify one-(1) cognitive and one-(1) behavioral theories and discuss at least three-(3)
implications of such theories to education. Write the authors of the theories you are going
to choose. (25%)

3. Discuss briefly any three-(3) of these areas in Anthropology, religion, arts, culture,
language, archeology, ethnography. (25%)

4. Enculturation and acculturation are processes discuss how these concepts happen within
the context of family; school; and society. (25%)

5. Pick three-(3) philosophies that is applicable in Nursing Education. Support your choice
with philosophical reasons. (25%)

By-the-way, do you find this academic exercise meaningful?

PROFESSOR: ROBERTO, F. INES, PhD, EdD, MEd, BSE, BSIE


PHILOSOPHY
Riza C. Evangelista
Kristine Marie L. Indiongco
Encarnacion O. Mayordomo
Maria Cristina L. Sico
Angela Tuason

The Meaning of Philosophy


The role of philosophy in education is to provide the student the ability to synthesize, criticize,
assimilate and evaluate a variety and huge mass of knowledge. It is aimed to make a well-developed man-
cultured refined and well rounded. It is an important part of the student’s total development that will
provide opportunities for him to lead a life worthy of man’s dignity as an individual and as a member of
society.

The Meaning of Philosophy


Summing up, philosophy means a systematic and logical explanation of the nature, existence,
purposes and relationships of things, including human beings in the universe.

The Importance of Philosophy


The study of philosophy will provide an individual a strong foundation in meeting the demands of
his profession and in coping with the problems brought about by multifarious activities of man.
Philosophy developed from the concept which recognized man’s essential worth as a member of
society. J.A. Nicholson brought into being on a firm place the importance of philosophy in the life of a
person and of society when he eloquently stated:
“there is no other knowledge that so widens our intellectual horizon and that deepens thereby
both our understanding and our symphaties. It breaks up that “intellectual crust” of which Wordsworth
speaks the “yoke of conventional custom” that thinking tends fatally to impose upon itself. And by setting
thought free, it permits that full functioning of the life of the spirit that alone constitute the good life”

Socrates, an eminent Athenian philosopher, said, “The unexamined life is not worth living.”
Undoubtedly, the study of philosophy will always be an important feature of human experience
and its importance in the development of the complete social being, ready to take on his responsibility in
his rapidly changing world cannot be over emphasized.

THE EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES OF FILIPINO EDUCATORS

Some Filipino educators also developed their own philosophies of education. The Filipino philosophies of
education are comparable to or in some cases more sound and practical than the philosophies of education
of the great educational thinkers of the past.

1. Rizal. The school is the book in which is written the future of the nations.Show us theschools of a
people and we will tell you what those people are.

2. Mabini. “Thou shalt cultivate the special gifts which had been granted thee,working and studying
according to thy ability,never leaving the path of righteousness and justice in order to attain thine own
perfection.”

3.T.H. Pardo de Tavera. Our education should instill love for work,spirit of tolerance,respect for
law,love for peace,and practice of thrift.
4. Joerge Bocobo. To my humble way of thingking education (college) has for its supreme and
overshadowing aim the formulation of a sound and noble outlook of life.

5. Camilo Osias. Education must secure freedom efficiency and happiness for all people.

6. Rafael Palma. Education must produce individuals who are both useful to themselves and to society.

7. Francisco Benitez. The qualities that should distinguish the educated Filipinos of today are (1) power
to do, (2) knowledge of the past and current events, and (3) possession of the elements of conduct that
are the accomplishments of culture and morality.
8. Venancio Trinidad Education should aim to develop men and woman who are as deeply concerned in
the development and uplift of our communities particularly in the rural areas, as in the promotion of their
own personal or individual well-being.

FUNCTIONS OF PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION

1. Provide guidelines in the formulation of educational policies and programs and in the
construction of curricula.
2. Provide direction toward which all educational efforts should be exerted.
3. Provide theories and hypothesis in education which may be tested for their effectiveness and
efficiency.
4. Provide norms or standards for evaluation purposes.

IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION TO THE TEACHER


Philosophy of education is very important to the teacher because of the following:
1. Provides the teacher with a basis for making his decisions concerning his work.
Helps the teacher develop a wide range of interests, attitudes, and values concomitant to his
professional life as a teacher.
2. Makes the teacher more aware of his own life and work, and makes him more dynamic,
discriminating, critical, and mentally alert.
3. Philosophy of education saves time, money, and effort.

Plato

. Every individual should devote his life to what is best fitted for him to do.
Plato emphasizes that every human being should discover what his/her abilitiesare and should concentrate
his life in it so that he/she be successful in his/her life.
. The important function of education is to determine what every individual is
by nature capable and fitted of doing things.
This is the advise usually given to graduating high school students that they
have to discover what or where they are good at and this is their guide on what
course they have to take in college.
c. Poor leadership will lead to wrong decisions.
d. The physical objects are not permanent representations of unchanging ideas
and that the ideas alone give true knowledge as they are known by the mind.
The object that we see is not permanent, what is permanent is your idea of what
this object should look like. This is a true knowledge according to plato, that
you are using your mind to interpret things.
e. Social justice is giving of what is due to whom it is due.
f. Intellectual aristocracy is the rule of intellectual elite.
g. An individual who should lead society should be endowed with superior
intelligence and possessed impeccable integrity.
h. 'Then don't use compulsion,' I said to him, ' but let your children's lessons
take the form of play.
You will learn more about their natural abilities that way.' (Plato)
That learning should not give stress to the child, but he should enjoy what he
is learning and in that way he properly discovers his innate gifts.
I. ..for the object of education is to teach us to love beauty.
Education is a pleasant thing which can becompared to beauty.
J. ... It is in education that bad discipline can most easily creep in
unobserved.

Aristotle

 It is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought


without accepting it.
 Those who educate children well are more to be honored than parents,
for these gave only life, those the art of living well. (Aristotle, In
Education)
 All who have meditated on the art of governing mankind have been
convinced that the fate of empires depends on the education of youth.
(Aristotle)
 The educated differ from the uneducated as much as the living from the
dead.
 The end of education is not knowledge alone. It is the union of the
innate intellect of the individual and his will. It is knowledge express in
action.
 Virtue which is moral excellence goodness and righteousness is not
possession of knowledge. It is the state of the will.
 The process of correct thinking can be reduced to ruled like physics
and geometry and taught to any normal mind. advocates the practice of moderation
; Vices are irrational habits or practices because they often stem from
passion which often goes beyond reasons.

Socrates
• Knowledge is wisdom, which in effect, means virtue.
• The problem of evil is the result of ignorance.
• Knowledge is virtue and ignorance is vice.
• Knowledge is the basis of all right actions including the art of living.

Confucius

• Study the past if you would define the future. I am not one who was born in
the possession of knowledge; I am one who is fond of antiquity, and earnest in
seeking it there.
• Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.
• Development of moral and ethical principles promote peace and order and to
preserve human dignity.
• The family should serve as model for correct relations among men.
• Postulated the golden rule for all men to follow, "treat others as you wish
them to treat you.
• Reason and natural law constantly enjoy man to live righteously to offend no
one and to give one this due.
• Order and harmony should begin in the inner nature of man.

Locke

Tabular rasa" or "blank slate" theory- A child is born with blank mind neither
good nor bad.
• Education can help shape the pupil according to the disposition of the
teacher.
• Emphasized formal discipline moral and physical education.
• Methods of instruction should consider habit formation through drill and
exercise, memorization and reasoning.

Froebel

• Father of kindergarten"
• Creative expression should be encouraged.
• Education should be accompanied with spirit of informality and joy.
• Self-activity as a means of development.
• Individual differences should be respected.
• Knowing is the rethinking of latent ideas.
• Values are eternal.
• Play, spontaneous activity should be utilized to promote self-realization.
• a subject matter curriculum emphasizing the great and enduring ideas of
culture.
• Social development

Pestalozzi

• Education is a social process of organized growth and development.


• Education should be in accordance with the laws of natural growth and
development of the child.
• Lessons were to be learned through direct experiences with objects and places
through observation, inquiry and reasoning.
• Emphasis or method and technique of imparting knowledge and information.
• Reality is objective and is composed of matter and form; it is fixed, based on
natural law.
• Knowing consist of sensation and abstraction.
• Value are absolute and eternal based on nature's laws.
• Subject matter curriculum should be humanistic.

John Dewey

• Learn by doing
• Education is life, not preparation for life.
• Education is a social process.
• Education is growth and a continuous reconstruction of experience.
• The center of education is the child's own social activities.
• The school is primarily a social institution.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATION
Karina Joy Aure
Diane Jeane Mallari
Jose Paulo Longanilla
Ma. Rosa Vilma Torda
Dawn Marie D. Virtudez

EMPIRICAL BEGINNINGS AND BASIC CONTENTS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY


A. Introduction
Psychology is derived from two Greek words, “psyche” the soul, and “logos” the study of a
subject. In the 18th century, the term psychology started being used with more frequency. It took on the
literal meaning of "the study of the mind." Psychology is also defines as the scientific study of human or
other animal mental functions and behaviours.
Educational Psychology is a comprehensive term referring to psychology in an educational
setting, primarily in schools, but also in instructional and training programs in industrial and social
institutions. Like industrial, engineering, military, and clinical psychology, it is sometimes referred to as
an applied field, that is, one in which the objective is to solve immediate practical problems.
It is a branch of psychology concerned with the learning processes and psychological issues
associated with the teaching and training of students.
It is a dynamic discipline with immense potential applications. It includes study of subjects
such as theories of learning and motivation, span of life development, cognitive science, neurobiology,
linguistics, psychosocial studies, and moral development. Much of the research in this field is designed to
address the desire of teachers to improve their skills, methods, and testing. In a broader sense, anyone that
provides guidance, instruction, mentoring, and example to another are considered an educator. The
information gained from this discipline is of value to parents, social workers, ministers, health care
workers, organizational trainers, coaches, and persons seeking self improvement. Ultimately, the goal of
those working in the field of educational psychology is to understand the processes and conditions under
which human beings, both in childhood and throughout their lifespan, learn to become mature human
beings who fulfil their individual potential, live in service to their community, and exercise loving
stewardship over the environment.
As a college subject, it emphasizes the various kinds of behaviour which have particular
reference to education: the nature of the child at various ages and the processes of growth and
development; learning and reasoning, particularly in relation to social subjects and activities; mental
health, including difficulties between children in ability and school performance and the measurement of
these differences.
Educational psychology as a field of study has quite literally struggled throughout its history
with an identity problem. Existing by definition somewhere between psychology and education, the
discipline has experienced the crosscurrents and whirlpools often created when two great oceans meet.
Many educational-psychological problems of development that are still of current interest were discussed
in ancient times.

THEORIES OF LEARNING
The S-R Bond Theory
It is assumed that through conditioning specific responses can be directly linked with a particular
stimulus. These bonds are the result of biological processes in the human system.
Behaviorism
This theory assumes that learning is a process of building conditioned reflexes through the
substitutions of one stimulus for another. It completely denies the existence of instincts or inborn
tendencies of the individual. It is inferred that almost all that an individual becomes in relation to
this theory is a matter of conditioning of reflexes.
Gestalt theory
This theory of learning emphasizes use of insight as a basic principle and is opposed to trial and
error. Learning in terms of modification of behavior that takes place in meaningful patterns and
configuration is stressed by the Gestalt.
Functionalism
This theory assumes that behavior and mental processes are adaptive (functional). This state
behavior and mental processes enable the individual to adjust to a changing environment to
maintain equilibrium.

LEARNING
 It is described as the process of having one’s behavior modified, more or less permanently, by
what happens in the world around him

 Any change in behavior those results from experience – except changes which are due to injury or
psychological adjustments such as sensory adaptation and muscular fatigue.

 More or less permanent modification of behavior resulting from various activities, special
training, observation and experience –Munn

 Relatively permanent change of behavior as a result of practice – Hilgard

 A concept of describing changes in behavior, which is results of reinforced practice – Edwards

 Process which brings about change in the individuals ways of responding to a stimuli as a result
of practice and experiences.

 Learning is pervasive. The knowledge and skills acquired extend throughout the life of an
individual. Learning is interactive and developmental – mental process that results from past
experience.

 Learning may be deliberate. This is exemplified by solving a difficult mathematical problem. It


may also be subtle as in the case of the gradual assimilation of a particular culture.

 Learning is a lifetime process. As long as the individual interacts with forces in the environment,
he is driven by various motivations instigated by needs.

 The learning processes are characterized by motivation, goal, readiness responses, reinforcement
and generalization. These learning processes are classical conditioning, operant conditioning
(instrumental conditioning), social learning and cognitive learning.

Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning refers to the procedure to the procedures established by the Russian
psychologist Ivan Pavlov, the first investigator to study conditioning process for which he won a
novel prize.
The typical procedure for inducing classical conditioning involves presentations of a neutral stimulus
along with a stimulus of some significance. The neutral stimulus could be any event that does not
result in an overt behavioral response from the organism under investigation. Pavlov referred to this
as a conditioned stimulus (CS). Conversely, presentation of the significant stimulus necessarily
evokes an innate, often reflexive, response. Pavlov called these the unconditioned stimulus (US) and
unconditioned response (UR), respectively. If the CS and the US are repeatedly paired, eventually the
two stimuli become associated and the organism begins to produce a behavioral response to the CS.
Pavlov called this the conditioned response (CR).
Popular forms of classical conditioning that are used to study neural structures and functions that
underlie learning and memory include fear conditioning, eyeblink conditioning, and the foot
contraction conditioning of Hermissenda crassicornis.

The original and most famous example of classical conditioning involved the salivary conditioning of
Pavlov's dogs. During his research on the physiology of digestion in dogs, Pavlov noticed that, rather
than simply salivating in the presence of meat powder (an innate response to food that he called the
unconditioned response), the dogs began to salivate in the presence of the lab technician who
normally fed them. Pavlov called these psychic secretions. From this observation he predicted that, if
a particular stimulus in the dog's surroundings were present when the dog was presented with meat
powder, then this stimulus would become associated with food and cause salivation on its own. In his
initial experiment, Pavlov used a bell to call the dogs to their food and, after a few repetitions, the
dogs started to salivate in response to the bell.

The fundamental stages of classical conditioning:

1. Acquisition: During this period of learning, repeated pairings of the conditioned stimulus (CS)
and unconditioned stimulus (USC) are said to be strengthen or reinforce the association between
the two.
2. Stimulus Generalization: This is based on the principle of similarity wherein the individual’s
ability to react to the new stimuli similar to a particular conditioned response.
3. Stimulus Discrimination: This is complementary to generalization. If generalization is a
reaction to similarities, discrimination is responding differently, as when an organism makes one
response to a reinforced stimulus.
4. Extinction: This is eliminating a learned response by arousing but failing to reinforce it.

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

Summary: Classical conditioning is a reflexive or automatic type of learning in which a stimulus acquires
the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus.

Originators and Key Contributors: First described by Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), Russian physiologist, in
1903, and studied in infants by John B. Watson (1878-1958).

Keywords: stimulus-response, psychic reflexes, unconditioned stimulus, conditioned response,


respondent conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior.
Operant conditioning is distinguished from classical conditioning (also called respondent
conditioning) in that operant conditioning deals with the modification of "voluntary behavior" or
operant behavior. Operant behavior "operates" on the environment and is maintained by its
consequences, while classical conditioning deals with the conditioning of respondent behaviors which
are elicited by antecedent conditions. Behaviors conditioned via a classical conditioning procedure
are not maintained by consequences. Those consequences are the availability of food, water, praise or
some other reward. The response, which operates upon the environment, is called an operant. The
term used to represent the reward in operant conditioning is reinforcement.

In the operant conditioning, Skinner devised a Skinner box with a lever with the rat can operate.
The hungry rat is placed the conditioning apparatus which leaves it free to roam about within the
confined area. Eventually, the rat presses the bar, and later it discovers that pressing the bar brings a
pellet of food. After a few repetitions, at intervals of varying length, the rat presses at a faster rate.
The two types of reinforcements:
1. Positive reinforcement – stimuli that strengthen a response when they are presented after the
response has occurred. This is also called reward.
Examples: Food given to a hungry rat after it presses a bar is a positive reinforce.
2. Negative reinforcement – unpleasant stimuli such as frustration and pain that strengthen a
response when they are discarded after the response happened. The process of strengthening behavior
by following it with the removal of a repugnant stimulus.
Example: The response of taking aspirin is followed by the relief of headache, taking aspirin is
likely to occur when a similar pain occur again.
Stimulus Discrimination
This refers to stimulus that signals whether reinforcement is available when a response is made.
Some behaviors are reinforced only when they occur in the presence of a discriminative stimulus.
Example: The case of a first year high school student who studies only when his parents are
watching.
Generalization and Discriminations
Operant conditioning responses are very important in human behavior. This is often referred to as
stimulus control, which indicates that certain stimuli usually gain control over behavior. An
individual who does not have proper appetite to eat saw a dining table. For some people the
stimulus of a dining table implies eating. In this case, the dining table is the discriminating
stimulus, eating is the behavior and eating with gusto is reinforce.

The four types of operant conditioning:


1. Primary Reward Conditioning – This is the simplest type of operant conditioning where the
learned response is instrumental in obtaining a biologically significant reward.
2. Escape Conditioning – This is the type of operant conditioning where the organism learns a
response that is instrumental in getting out of a place where he is not comfortable.
3. Avoidance Conditioning – This is the type of learning where a response to a cue is
instrumental in avoiding or preventing the occurrence of an unpleasant or painful experience.
4. Secondary reward conditioning – This is the type of operant conditioning where there is
instrumental behavior to get at a stimulus which has no biological utility but which has been
associated in the past with some biologically significant stimulus.

General Implications of Behavioral Theories

Behavioral teaching and learning tends to focus on skills that will be used later. You learn facts
about American history, for example, because it is assumed that knowing those facts will make you a
better citizen when you are an adult. You learn basic mathematics computational skills because you may
need them when you get a job. Behavioral learning does not, however, generally ask you to actually put
the skills or knowledge you learn into use in a "real" or "authentic" situation. That will come later when
you graduate and get a job.
The behavioral emphasis on breaking down complex tasks, such as learning to read, into subskills
that are taught separately is very common in American schools today. In the elementary school
classroom, for example, students may spend many lessons on phonics skills such as consonant clusters,
vowel digraphs, and diphthongs. Other literacy skills such as appropriate uses of the comma may also be
taught in separate lessons, often by whole class lectures followed by individual drill activities.

Behaviorism

Main article: Behaviorism

Behaviorism as a theory was primarily developed by B. F. Skinner. It loosely encompasses the work of
people like Edward Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie, and Hull. What characterizes these investigators are
their underlying assumptions about the process of learning. In essence, three basic assumptions are held
to be true.[original research?] First, learning is manifested by a change in behavior. Second, the environment
shapes behavior. And third, the principles of contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond
to be formed) and reinforcement (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated)
are central to explaining the learning process. For behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of new
behavior through conditioning.

There are two types of possible conditioning:

1) Classical conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as in the case of
Pavlov's Dogs. Pavlov was interested in studying reflexes, when he saw that the dogs drooled without the
proper stimulus. Although no food was in sight, their saliva still dribbled. It turned out that the dogs were
reacting to lab coats. Every time the dogs were served food, the person who served the food was wearing
a lab coat. Therefore, the dogs reacted as if food was on its way whenever they saw a lab coat.In a series
of experiments, Pavlov then tried to figure out how these phenomena were linked. For example, he struck
a bell when the dogs were fed. If the bell was sounded in close association with their meal, the dogs
learned to associate the sound of the bell with food. After a while, at the mere sound of the bell, they
responded by drooling.

2) Operant conditioning where there is reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or a punishment. The
theory of operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner and is known as Radical Behaviorism. The
word ‘operant’ refers to the way in which behavior ‘operates on the environment’. Briefly, a behavior
may result either in reinforcement, which increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, or
punishment, which decreases the likelihood of the behavior recurring. It is important to note that, a
punishment is not considered to be applicable if it does not result in the reduction of the behavior, and so
the terms punishment and reinforcement are determined as a result of the actions. Within this framework,
behaviorists are particularly interested in measurable changes in behavior.

Educational approaches such as applied behavior analysis, curriculum based measurement, and
direct instruction have emerged from this model.[1]

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)


Summary: Bandura’s Social Learning Theory posits that people learn from one another, via observation,
imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive
learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation.

Originator: Albert Bandura

Key Terms: Modeling, reciprocal determinism

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