Académique Documents
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Ink
People have used ink for centuries. More than a thousand years ago, Muslims
improved ink making techniques. They developed new types of ink, too. Jabir
ibn Hayyan made an ink that showed up in the dark. By 1100 CE Ibn Badis was
making silver ink by grinding silver filings with distilled wine. He also described
making coloured inksÉ and secret writing!
¥ Burn linseed oil in a lamp, without much air. The equation shows the products
of the reaction.
¥ Mix the soot with water and gum arabic (sap from an Acacia senegal tree).
The soot does not dissolve. Instead, it mixes with the liquids to make a
suspension.
When you write with this ink, the carbon stays on the surface of the paper. So
the writing looks very smooth, and you can wipe it off if you make a mistake.
The first chapter of the
Lampblack ink never fades. Its quality is as good as some modern inks. Quran in Jali Diwani style
Pens
For many years, people used specially cut reeds as pens. But there was nowhere to store ink in them,
so they werenÕt very convenient. In 953 an Egyptian sultan recorded how his friend, al-MuÕizz, had a
creative idea for a new sort of pen:
We wish to construct a pen É whose ink will be contained inside it. A person can fill it with ink and write
whatever he likes.
Within a few days, a craftsman had made a pen just like this. It didnÕt spill ink Ð even when
upside down. It didnÕt leave stains on hands or clothes. And it didnÕt need an ink pot
because it had its own, hidden away.
Al-MuÕizzÕs clever idea, and the craftsmanÕs careful work, meant that people could
write with pens containing their own ink, wherever they were. Fountain pens
only became common in Europe 900 years later.
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1A
Paper
Eleven hundred years ago Muslims started making paper in Baghdad.
They learnt to make it from some Chinese prisoners:
¥ Make a pulp from the raw material and water. This separates
the fibres of the raw material.
¥ Collect the fibres on a mesh. This makes a paper web.
¥ Press the paper web and dry it in air.
The Chinese made their paper from mulberry tree bark. The Muslims
experimented with other raw materials, including hemp and cotton.
Hemp paper was particularly good. The Muslims also made paper
from linen rags Ð an early example of recycling!
Soon, huge amounts of paper were being made all over the Islamic
world. Muslims took their paper-making techniques to many other
parts of the world, too. More paper led to cheaper books, so ideas
and knowledge spread quickly.
Images from Muslim Heritage in our World, FSTC (2006), pages 84 (calligraphy) and 136 (paper making).
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1B
Ink jet printers
Have you ever used a bubble jet printer?
They’ve been around for only 20 years, but
now most home computer users wouldn’t
want to be without one.
Forcing jets of liquid through small holes isnÕt new. More than twelve hundred
years ago Banu Musa of Baghdad, Iraq, used sophisticated techniques to
make incredible water fountains that directed water in particular directions.
NOZZLE
WhatÕs in ink?
Ink has always been a mixture of a liquid ÔcarrierÕ with dyes or pigments. A thousand years ago, scientists of the
Islamic world worked hard to make better and better ink for pens. Now, scientists continue to develop inks for
both pens and printers. Most bubble jet printer ink is a mixture of chemicals. The mixture includes:
¥ A pigment to colour the ink. Pigments are tiny crystals. The most important pigment is carbon black. This
is the ÔsootÕ made by burning hydrocarbon compounds (like oil or natural gas) without much air.
Coloured ink needs coloured pigments. Years ago, these pigments were compounds of metals like lead.
Then scientists realised they were poisonous. So they developed safer coloured pigments based on carbon
compounds.
¥ A liquid to mix with the pigment crystals and carry them from the ink cartridge and onto the paper. The
pigment crystals do not dissolve in the liquid. Water is used most often. A few years ago, other liquids
were used. But scientists discovered that some of these cause cancer. So they cannot be added to ink for
home use.
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Compass
2A
Before compasses, sailors navigated by the Sun and the stars. Some
used sounding lines to measure the seaÕs depth, too. This was fine in
the seas around the Islamic world, where skies were often clear and
waters mostly shallow. But in other places sailors needed a better way
of finding their way around. This might explain why the Chinese were
probably the first to make and use a compass. The compass is described
in a Chinese book of 1044 on military techniques
The earliest written evidence of Muslims using the magnetic compass is in Muhammad al-AwfiÕs Collection
of Stories. The year was 1233. The voyage was over the Red Sea or the Persian Gulf. The compass was a
fish-shaped piece of iron. It worked like this:
IRON FISH WATER
Of course the other end of the fish magnet points north. This pole is the north-seeking pole.
The stone (lodestone) contains magnetic iron oxide, Fe3O4.
In 1242, Baylak al-Qibjaqi sailed from Tripoli to Alexandria. He wrote about his journey in The Treasure Book
of Merchants in Travels, and included a description of the compass they used. The description is so detailed
you can use it to make a compass today.
Reliable compasses meant that Muslims could travel anywhere by boat, without getting lost. So they could
trade goods Ð and exchange ideas Ð all over the world. Between 1400 and 1433 the Chinese Muslim Zheng
He used compasses on voyages all over the Indian Ocean. He made these journeys before Christopher
Columbus was born, on ships five times bigger.
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SATNAV
2B
For many years, the US military used compasses and sextants to navigate Ð
just as Muslim sailors had for centuries before them. But in the 1960s, the
US military wanted to a method that was quicker and easier to use. They
decided to develop a satellite system. The army, air force and navy came up
with designs and ideas. By 1973, the best ideas had been incorporated into
the final design of NAVSTAR GPS.
But in 1983 a South Korean aeroplane flew the wrong way. At the same time, the receiver calculates its distance
The plane was shot down, killing all 269 people on board. from two other satellites. It uses these distances to
This tragedy influenced US President ReaganÕs decision work out its location to within a few metres.
to announce that anyone could use GPS.
Ships still have compasses and sextants on board, just like the ones that Muslim sailors used and improved over 1000
years ago. Modern ships use them as a back-up to GPSÉ they donÕt need electricity and the US military canÕt switch
them off.
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Keeping clean
3A
Do you like to smell good and feel clean? If so, you probably use soap!
The earliest detailed recipe for soap making is more than 700 years old. It was written BIG CONTAINER WITH
down by a Yemeni king. The description is clear enough for someone to use today. The HOLE IN THE BOTTOM
words and pictures summarise the recipe and explain the science behind each step.
2 Put wood ash, lime (calcium oxide) and water in the top container. Leave it overnight.
The lime, and chemicals from the ash, dissolve to make an alkaline solution.
3 Take the rags out of the hole. The cloth filters the solution.
The solution flows into the lower container.
4 Add half the solution from stage 3 to an equal volume of sesame oil.
5 Beat the mixture for one hour until it thickens. Leave it for 2-3 days. COPPER
CAULDRON
MIXTURE OF
ALKALINE SOLUTION
AND SESAME OIL
6 Put the mixture in a copper cauldron.
Heat it over a hot fire. Stir so that it doesnÕt burn.
7 When the mixture thickens, add more alkaline solution from stage 3. Heat it again.
Repeat this stage until the soap is a very thick liquid. The chemical reaction is complete.
10 Pour the soap into the cloth. Leave it to harden for a day and a night.
For many years, Muslim traders took soap to Europe, Asia and Africa. It was very valuable. As more people used soap,
hygiene and health improved. Today, techniques similar to those of the early Muslims soap-makers are used all over
the world.
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Keeping clean
3B
Making soap
Soap is made in a chemical reaction of an
alkali with a fat or oil: LIQUID FAT IN
STAINLESS
fat + alkali soap + glycerol STEEL TOWER
Thorough hand-washing with soap and warm water prevents the spread of many diseases.
Armpit sweat contains oils. Bacteria feed on the oils. The bacteria make waste products
with pungent smells. This smelly waste is body odour. Antibacterial soaps contain
chemicals like triclosan, or alcohols. These chemicals kill bacteria or slow down their
growth. So bacteria that cause body odour Ð or disease Ð are removed.
But do antibacterial soaps work? Only if you leave them on your skin for two minutes.
And some scientists say that antibacterial soaps remove useful bacteria that
defend our bodies against disease. So perhaps ordinary soap is just as good at
getting us clean and stopping diseases spreadingÉ
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4A
Diamond, ruby and sapphire
Which of these gemstones would you like to give
or receive as a gift?
Al-Biruni (973 Ð 1050 CE) Al-Biruni also classified gems. He grouped them
observed gemstones according to the properties below:
carefully. He recorded his
observations in detail. ¥ Colour
¥ Powder colour
¥ Dispersion (whether white light splits up into the
colours of the rainbow when it goes through the gem)
[Rubies] possess different characteristics
with respect to brightness of the colour, ¥ Hardness
clarity, glitter, sheen, reflection, and purity ¥ Crystal shape
from blemishes, and their prices go up ¥ Density
according to these characteristics.
People had studied some of these properties many years
If scarlet blood is Éspread over a clean piece earlier. Al-Biruni and other Muslims developed the work
of silver, the resultant coloration would be of the earlier scientists. Al-Biruni also used combinations
like that of the pomegranate-coloured ruby. of properties to identify gemstones.
Crystal shape
Al-Tifashi studied crystal shape. More than 700 years ago he
described diamond crystals:
Two hundred years earlier, Al-Biruni used crystal shape to help him
decide whether a gemstone was quartz or diamond.
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4A
Density
Density is the mass of something in a certain size. Al-Biruni invented a
piece of apparatus to measure density. It worked like this:
Al-BiruniÕs results were very accurate. He used them to help him identify minerals.
Al-BiruniÕs apparatus was based on the work of the Greek scientist Archimedes, who worked out how
to use water displacement to measure volume and so calculate density.
Hardness
Hardness is the ability of a mineral to scratch other minerals. The softer mineral is the one that is
scratched. Al-Biruni experimented with hardness. He wrote:
I have started my book describing diamond before all other gems because it is the leader or master.
It scratches corundum and corundum scratches what comes below itÉHowever, corundum cannot
scratch diamond.
Today, scientists and jewellers still use some of Al-BiruniÕs techniques to identify gemstones. They also
use newer techniques and more sophisticated apparatus to help them learn more about gems.
Image above from al-Khazini's Kitab mizan al-hikma, book III, chapter 1, section 2: Hayderabad, al-Uthmaniya University Publications, 1940, p. 59, figure 14.
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4B
Genuine gems?
Sarah bought a diamond ring. It was cheaper than she
expected. Later, she worried the gemstone wasn t
genuine. She took it to another jeweller to find out.
Scientists have devised many Muslims scientists used some of these tests more than a thousand
tests to identify gemstones. years ago. Scientists developed other tests more recently. For
The jeweller used some of the example, scientists could only use refractive index once they had
properties below: found a way of measuring it. X-ray diffraction could only be used
¥ Colour once X-rays were discovered. Apparatus to measure gemstone
electrical conductivity quickly was invented after 1998. Before then,
¥ Powder colour there was no need for it as there was no Moissanite jewellery to pass
¥ Dispersion, or ÔfireÕ off as diamond!
(how much does white light
split up into the colours of
the rainbow when it goes
through the gemstone?) The jeweller found that SarahÕs gemstone split
¥ Hardness white light into the colours of the rainbow very
¥ Crystal shape well. It conducted heat well. It did not conduct
electricity. What was the gemstone?
¥ Density
¥ Refractive index Diamond Cubic zirconia Moissanite
(how much does the When was it first Discovered thousands Large amounts first Gemstones first made
direction of a light ray discovered or made? of years ago made in 1976 in 1998
change when it goes
WhatÕs in it? The element carbon, C The compound The compound silicon
into the gemstone?) zirconium dioxide, carbide, SiC
ZrO2
¥ Thermal conductivity
(how well does the Colour Most have a Colourless Many have a green
yellow/brown tinge tinge
gemstone conduct heat?)
Dispersion 0.04 0.06 0.10
¥ Electrical conductivity (biggest value has most ÔfireÕ)
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Clean air
5A
Image of Sinan from Muslim Heritage in our World, FSTC (2006), page336.
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Clean air
5B
Have you ever felt sleepy in a hot, stuffy building? Does stale air give you a headache?
Air conditioning can solve these problems. But air conditioning runs on electricity.
And generating electricity makes greenhouse gases.
The 2005 architects designed a natural ventilation system to keep the new university building cool
Ð however hot the weather. They used computer models to help them, and did lots of calculations.
The architects made a small-scale model of the building, too.
Air enters at the top of the atrium, where it passes through cooling coils. The cool air moves
downwards. It supplies air to each floor of the building. This air warms up as it goes through
classrooms and offices. Then the warmer air leaves the building.
AIR OUT
COOLING COILS The architects wanted the warm air to leave the
AIR IN AIR OUT building through huge chimneys. They asked a
scientist to check whether this would work. The
scientist made a see-through model of the
building in a water tank. He pumped in coloured
fresh and salty water to represent warm and cold
ATRIUM air. He filmed the movement of the water through
the model to track the airflow through the
building.
OFFICES AND
CLASSROOMS The tests showed up a problem. The natural
ventilation system wouldnÕt work on hot days Ð
the air was cooler inside than outside so it
ATRIUM wouldnÕt go up the chimneys. A building engineer
advised the architects to add low-level vents.
Natural ventilation in a new building
On hot days, air will exit the building through
at University College, London. these vents.
The architects have written about the new buildingÕs natural ventilation system in scientific journals
and on the Internet. They hope others will be influenced by this Ôenvironmentally-friendlyÕ method
of temperature control.
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Moon
6A
Have you ever marvelled at the Moon’s magnificence? Or wondered why its shape
changes? Or considered where it goes when you can’t see it?
People have wondered about the Moon for centuries. Four
thousand years ago, Chinese observers recorded lunar eclipses.
Around 740 BCE, Babylonians discovered an 18-year pattern of
lunar eclipses. At the same time, the Ancient Greeks used
calendars based on the cycles of the Moon. Around 500 CE, the
Indian astronomer Aryabhata worked out why eclipses happen.
At about the same time, Central American observers calculated
the phases of the Moon.
Images from Muslim Heritage in our World, FSTC (2006), pages 289 (observatory) and 303 (lunar eclipse).
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6A
Muslim astronomers made many other discoveries. Al-Khujandi calculated the tilt of the Earth. Omar
Khyayyam calculated that a year is 365.24219858156 days long. This is correct to the first 6 decimal places.
Muslim star maps were used for centuries in Europe and the Far East. Today, more than 165 stars have names
based on their original Arabic names, for example ÔAltairÕ, the flying eagle. And modern astronomers still use
instruments based on those invented Ð or improved Ð by Muslim astronomers over a thousand years ago.
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Universe
6B
But there was a problem. HubbleÕs huge curved mirror was not
curved enough. So Hubble sent blurry images back to Earth.
Scientists worked hard to solve the problem. Three years later,
astronauts fitted coin-sized mirrors to Hubble. Now the images
The Hubble Space Telescope were much clearer. HubbleÕs real work could begin.
The European Space Agency and NASA run Hubble. Scientists from all over the world ask Hubble to take
images. Astronomers publish their findings from Hubble in scientific journals. There are many dramatic
images from the telescope on the Internet. In recording and sharing their discoveries, todayÕs astronomers
are building on the work of Muslim scientists who produced detailed written records of their findings a
thousand years ago.
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7A
Winning smile
Have you ever got food stuck between your teeth?
Needed a filling? Had toothache?
Tooth disease is infectious. Many bacteria live in your mouth Ð including Streptococcus mutans. This type of
bacteria causes tooth decay. It sticks to the surface of teeth as plaque. It digests sugars to make lactic acid.
The lactic acid dissolves and weakens tooth enamel. So your teeth get holes in them.
This is a miswak twig (left). For many centuries, people have used miswak to clean their teeth.
In the sixth century, Prophet Mohammad (pbuh) used miswak before each prayer. He recommended
that others use Miswak regularly, too.
People cut miswak twigs from the twigs or roots of the Salvadora persica tree. Other trees Ð for
example walnut Ð also work well. People probably discovered which were best by trial and error.
The scientists measured the amount of Streptococcus mutans bacteria in each sample. In all four
groups, there was less after cleaning or rinsing. The greatest reduction in the amount of Streptococcus
mutans was for men in the miswak twig group.
The scientists want to do more research. They hope to study more people for a longer time. They
want to add another group and get them to brush with toothpaste. They will take into account
how much sugar the volunteers eat, and how healthy their teeth are to start with.
A miswak stick
Image of miswak twig from Muslim Heritage in our World, FSTC (2006), pages 23.
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7A
Study B Study C
Swedish scientists studied the teeth of 15 people. Norwegian scientists wanted to find out which
Each person cleaned their teeth with miswak for chemicals in miswak destroy tooth-disease bacteria.
three weeks and with a toothbrush for three weeks. They found several possibilities, including sodium
The scientists took photos of their teeth. They chloride, potassium chloride and compounds of
found that miswak removed more plaque than a sulfur and nitrogen. Some reports also claim that
toothbrush. miswak contains fluoride compounds, vitamin C
and triclosan.
Muslims Ð and others Ð in many parts of the world still clean their teeth with miswak. Modern scientific
evidence shows that using miswak is a good way of preventing tooth decay. Miswak has had a huge impact
on dental health worldwide.
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Toothpaste
7B
Not everyone in the world uses toothpaste. Many Muslims Ð and others
Ð clean their teeth with miswak twigs. Several scientific studies show
that using miswak is just as effective as Ð or even better than Ð using a
toothbrush and toothpaste.
WhatÕs in toothpaste?
Fluoride
After every meal, bacteria in your mouth digest sugars to make
lactic acid. The acid breaks down tooth enamel. Fluoride works
with calcium and phosphate particles in your saliva to make
new tooth enamel. So youÕre less likely to get holes in your
teeth. The source of fluoride in most toothpaste brands is
sodium fluoride.
Abrasives
Abrasives scrub away sticky plaque. They help remove food stains, too.
At first toothpowders Ð invented by the Egyptians in 5000 BCE Ð contained
powdered eggshells and pumice as abrasives. Greek and Roman toothpowders
included crushed bones and shells. Around 1000 CE, Persian Muslims warned
that hard abrasives damage tooth enamel. Others realised this much later Ð
in the 1700s, British toothpowder still contained hard abrasives like brick dust.
Modern toothpastes contain less hard abrasives, like silicon dioxide (silica)
or titanium dioxide.
Other ingredients
Some toothpastes contain substances like triclosan, to kill bacteria. Sensitive teeth toothpastes often contain
substances like strontium chloride to block up tiny holes. Whitening toothpastes include compounds like
hydrogen peroxide to bleach teeth.
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Pharmacy
8A
A thousand years ago, expert Muslim pharmacists knew of more than 700 medicines.
Ibn Sina listed them all alphabetically in a book, and described the uses of each one.
Other scientists listed medicines, too. Many books about medicines include reports
of personal observations and experiments. Al-BiruniÕs book mentions the findings
of other scientists, and shows that they donÕt always agree!
Several of these early books were translated from Arabic into Latin. Because the
books were so well organised, they were easy to use. And because they were based
on observation and experiment, they were reliable. The books influenced European
Manuscript with pharmacological tables ascribed pharmacists for centuries.
to Ibn al-Baytar.
Today, there are lots of different ways of taking the medicines It is vital to get the dose of a medicine correct!
you need. The same was true in the Islamic world: syrups, tablets, The Muslim scientist Al-Kindi realised this
capsules and ointments were all available. Pharmacists also mixed more than a thousand years ago. He did lots
bitter-tasting powders with honey or jam to make them taste of calculations to work out medicine doses.
better. Al-Kindi was one of the first scientists to use
maths in science.
Al-Zahrawi knew that, when taking a mixture of powdered
medicines, it was no use just mixing the powders in a bottle. The
lighter particles would go to the top, and the heavier ones to the
bottom. The patient would get the wrong dose of both medicines. A thousand years ago Ð just as today Ð some
So Al-Zahrawi made tablets from powder mixtures. He wrapped medicines were very expensive. Others werenÕt
single doses of mixed powders in silver foil, too. Al-Zahrawi also always available. So Al-Kindi looked for Ð and
experimented with catgut. As a surgeon, he had used it to stitch wrote lists of Ð alternative medicines that people
up internal organs. As the wound healed, the catgut broke down could use instead. Today, there are often
and dissolved away without infection. He tried wrapping single several alternative medicines for treating an
doses of mixed powdered medicines in catgut. Patients swallowed illness. And doctors often look at the cost
the catgut parcels. The parcels slowly disintegrated in their before deciding which to prescribe.
stomachs. This released the medicines inside them.
Images from Muslim Heritage in our World, FSTC (2006), pages 184 (top left) and 187 (lower left).
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Pharmacy 2
8B
Many people with ADHD take three doses of tablets every day. But itÕs hard to remember to take tablets
at school. Some people feel embarrassed taking Ritalin, too. So a pharmaceutical company decided to
develop a drug that lasted all day. People with ADHD would need just one tablet. They could take it in the
morning before school.
First, scientists made a tablet that released its active ingredient gradually, all day. The concentration of the
drug in the bloodstream was always the same. But this didnÕt work well. The body gets used to the drug
being in the body, and stops responding to it.
So the scientists realised they needed a drug that released its ingredients into the blood in short ÔburstsÕÉ
just like having separate doses of the drug. The capsule they devised has several layers:
¥ The first layer is a Ôdrug overcoatÕ. It dissolves quickly and gets into the bloodstream fast.
¥ The inner layers push the drug out gradually through a tiny hole. For the next eight hours, small amounts
of the drug come out of the hole. So the concentration of the drug in the bloodstream changes all
the time.
Other scientists worked out a different system. They put tiny amounts of the drug in separate
ÔbeadsÕ. Then they put the beads in a capsule. The coating on some of the beads dissolves
quickly. The drug from these beads gets into the bloodstream quickly. The coating on
the other beads dissolves slowly. These beads deliver the drug to the bloodstream
during the whole school day.
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