Modern Synthetic Textile Fibres

Acetate Fibre
First Commercial Acetate Fibre Production: 1924, Celanese Corporation.
Current Acetate Fibre Producers: Celanese Acetate; Eastman Chemical Company.

Definition for Acetate Fibre: A manufactured fibre in which the fibre forming substance is
cellulose acetate. Where not less than 92% of the hydroxyl groups are acetylated, the term
triacetate may be used as a generic description of the fibre.

Basic Principles of Acetate Fibre Production — Acetate is derived from cellulose by reacting
purified cellulose from wood pulp with acetic acid and acetic anhydride in the presence of
sulphuric acid. It is then put through a controlled, partial hydrolysis to remove the sulphate and a
sufficient number of acetate groups to give the product the desired properties. The
anhydroglucose unit, is the fundamental repeating structure of cellulose, has three hydroxyl
groups which can react to form acetate esters. The most common form of cellulose acetate fibre
has an acetate group on approximately two of every three hydroxyls. This cellulose diacetate is
known as secondary acetate, or simply as “acetate”.

After it is formed, cellulose acetate is dissolved in acetone for extrusion. As the filaments emerge
from the spinneret, the solvent is evaporated in warm air (dry spinning), producing fine filaments
of cellulose acetate.

Acetate Fibre Characteristics

• Luxurious feel and appearance
• Wide range of colours and lustres
• Excellent drapability and softness
• Relatively fast drying
• Shrink, moth and mildew resistant
• Special dyes have been developed for acetate since it does not accept dyes ordinarily used
for cotton and rayon. This dye selectivity makes it possible to obtain multi-colour effects in
fabrics made from a combination of fibres (cross-dyeing). In cross-dyeing, yarns of one
fibre (e.g., acetate) and those of another fibre (cotton or rayon) are woven into a fabric in a
desired pattern. After the fabric has been dyed in one bath, this pattern will appear in
different colours or shades according to the distribution of the respective fibres. Solution-
dyed or spun-dyed acetate provides excellent colour fastness under the effects of sunlight,
perspiration, air contaminants and washing.

Some Major Acetate Fibre Uses

• Apparel: Blouses, dresses, linings, wedding and party attire, home furnishings, draperies,
upholstery
• Industrial Uses: Cigarette filters

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Acrylic Fibre
First Commercial Acrylic Fibre Production: 1950, DuPont Company.
Current Acrylic Fibre Producers: Solutia, Inc.; Sterling Fibres.

Definition for Acrylic Fibre: A manufactured fibre in which the fibre-forming substance is any
long-chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 85% by weight of acrylonitrile units (-CH2-
CH[CN]-)x.

Basic Principles of Acrylic Fibre Production — Acrylic fibres are produced from acrylonitrile,
a petrochemical. The acrylonitrile is usually combined with small amounts of other chemicals to
improve the ability of the resulting fibre to absorb dyes. Some acrylic fibres are dry spun and
others are wet spun. Acrylic fibres are used in staple or tow-form.

Acrylic fibres are modified to give special properties best suited for particular end-uses. They are
unique among synthetic fibres because they have an uneven surface, even when extruded from a
round-hole spinneret.

Acrylic Fibre Characteristics

• Outstanding wickability & quick drying to move moisture from body surface
• Flexible aesthetics for wool-like, cotton-like, or blended appearance
• Easily washed, retains shape
• Resistant to moths, oil, and chemicals
• Dyeable to bright shades with excellent fastness
• Superior resistance to sunlight degradation

Some Major Acrylic Fibre Uses

• Apparel: Sweaters, socks, fleece wear, circular knit apparel, sportswear and childrens'
wear
• Home Furnishings: Blankets, area rugs, upholstery, pile; luggage, awnings, outdoor
furniture
• Other Uses: Craft yarns, sail cover cloth, wipe cloths
• Industrial Uses: Asbestos replacement; concrete and stucco reinforcement

Anidex Fibre
First Commercial Anidex Fibre Production: 1970, Rohm and Haas Company.

Definition for Anidex Fibre: A manufactured fibre in which the fibre-forming substance is any
long-chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 50% by weight of one or more esters of a
monohydric alcohol and acrylic acid, - (CH2=CHCOOH]-)X.

Basic Principles of Anidex Fibre Production — Anidex is wet spun as monofilament by a

proprietary process developed by Rohm and Haas.

Anidex Fibre Characteristics

• Imparts permanent stretch and recovery properties to fabrics
• Retains dimension and power in fabrics after repeated laundering and dry-cleaning
• Improves fit and comfort in apparel fabrics
• Improves fit and appearance in home furnishing fabrics

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• Provides shape control Fabrics have hand and appearance of companion fibres, no
“rubbery” feeling
• Excellent resistance to gas fading, oxidation, sunlight, oils and chlorine bleach

Some Major Anidex Fibre Uses

• Apparel: Athletic wear, blouses, career apparel, dresses; foundation garments, hosiery and
halfhose, lingerie, underwear; jackets, linings, rainwear; shirts, slacks, sportswear, suits,
sweaters, work clothes
• Home Furnishings: Slipcovers, upholstery
• Fabric: Laces

Aramid Fibre
First Commercial Aramid Fibre Production: 1961, DuPont Company.
Current Aramid Fibre Producers: DuPont Company.

Definition for Aramid Fibre: A manufactured fibre in which the fibre-forming substance is a
long-chain synthetic polyamide in which at least 85% of the amide (-CO-NH-) linkages are
attached directly between two aromatic rings.

Basic Principles of Aramid Fibre Production — Aramid is spun as a multi-filament by a

proprietary process developed by DuPont Company.

Aramid Fibre Characteristics

• No melting point
• Low flammability
• Good fabric integrity at elevated temperatures
• Para-aramid fibres, which have a slightly different molecular structure, also provide
outstanding strength-to-weight properties, high tenacity and high modulus.

Some major Aramid Fibre uses — Flame-resistant clothing, protective vests and helmets,
composites, asbestos replacement, hot air filtration fabrics, tire and mechanical rubber goods
reinforcement, ropes and cables, sail cloth, sporting goods.

Azlon Fibre

Definition for Azlon Fibre: A manufactured fibre in which the fibre-forming substance is
composed of any regenerated, naturally occurring protein.

Lyocell Fibre
First Commercial Lyocell Fibre Production: 1992, Acordis Cellulosic Fibres, Inc.
Current Lyocell Fibre Producers: Acordis Cellulosic Fibres, Inc.

Definition for Lyocell Fibre: A cellulose fibre obtained by an organic solvent spinning process
where: 1) “organic solvent” means a mixture of organic chemicals and water, and 2) “solvent
spinning” means dissolving and spinning without the formation of a derivative.

Although it is given a separate generic name, Lyocell is classified as a sub-category under

“Rayon”.

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Basic Principles of Lyocell Fibre Production — Raw cellulose is directly dissolved in an
amine oxide solvent. The solution is filtered, extruded into an aqueous bath of dilute amine
oxide, and coagulated into fibre form.

Lyocell Fibre Characteristics

• Soft, strong, absorbent
• Fibrillated during wet processing to produce special textures
• Excellent wet strength
• Wrinkle resistant
• Very versatile fabric dyable to vibrant colours, with a variety of effects and textures.
• Can be hand washable
• Simulates silk, suede, or leather touch
• Good drapability
• Biodegradable

Some Major Lyocell Fibre Uses

• Apparel: Dresses, slacks, coats, jeans

Melamine Fibre
Commercial Melamine Fibre Production: Melamine fibre is produced by BASF Corporation,
Enka, NC and marketed under the trade name, Basofil® Fibre.

Definition for Melamine Fibre: A manufactured fibre in which the fibre-forming substance is a
synthetic polymer composed of at least 50% by weight of a cross-linked melamine polymer.

Basic Principles of Melamine Fibre Production: The production process is proprietary. It is

based on a unique melamine chemistry that results in a cross-linked, non-thermoplastic polymer
of melamine units joined by methylene and dimethylene ether linkages. In the polymerisation
reaction, methylol derivatives of melamine react with each other to form a three-dimensional
structure. This structure is the basis for the fibre's heat stability, solvent resistance, and flame
resistance.

Melamine Fibre Characteristics

• White and dyeable
• Flame resistance and low thermal conductivity
• High heat dimensional stability
• Processable on standard textile equipment

Major Melamine Fibre Uses

• Fire Blocking Fabrics: Aircraft seating, fire blockers for upholstered furniture in high-risk
occupancies.
• Protective Clothing: Fire-fighters' turnout gear, insulating thermal liners, knit hoods,
molten metal splash apparel, heat resistant gloves.
• Filter Media: High capacity, high efficiency, high temperature baghouse air filters.

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Metallic Fibre
First Commercial Metallic Fibre Production: 1946, Dobeckmun Company.

Definition for Metallic Fibre: A manufactured fibre composed of metal, plastic-coated metal,
metal-coated plastic, or a core completely covered by metal.

Basic Principles of Metallic Fibre Production — In the more common process for production,
aluminium foil is coated on one or both sides with adhesive to which the desired colouring
matter has been added. A sheet of transparent plastic film is applied to each side of the adhesive-
coated foil. The assembly is then slit into narrow widths.

Metallic Fibre Characteristics and Uses — Coated metallic filaments do not tarnish. When
suitable adhesives and films are used, they are not affected by salt water, chlorinated water in
swimming pools or climatic conditions. Metallic filaments are used for decorative purposes in
apparel, braids, draperies, laces, military uniform decorations, ribbons, table linens, and
upholstery.

Microfibre
Figure 1
One of the most important developments in recent
years has been the technology to extrude extremely
fine filaments (less than 1.0 denier) while
maintaining all of the strength, uniformity and
processing characteristics expected by textile
manufacturers and consumers. These “microfibres”
are even finer than luxury natural fibres, such as silk
[Figure 1]. This comparison, coupled with their
exceptional performance, has led some in the
industry to refer to microfibres as “supernatural”.
They live up to that name.

In many
product lines, it
is the luxurious
feel and look
of the fabrics which makes microfibres so special. In
others, it is this unique physical and mechanical
performance. Consider, for example, the advantages of
polyester microfibre when used in outerwear. A raincoat or
jacket made from 100% microfibre will be much lighter
and more comfortable than one made from conventional
fibres [Figure 2]. Since the small filaments pack closely
together, they provide a wind barrier to prevent loss of
body heat and assuring comfort on chilly days. This close
packing of fibres, together with polyester's natural
resistance to wetting also gives the fabric the ability to
repel rain. The non-wetting surface of the fibres causes
Figure 2 water to form beads (like rain on a newly-waxed car).
These beads are much larger than the spaces between the

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yarns and water is effectively locked out [Figure 3]. And this is
done without the need for chemical treatments or coatings
which can make the fabric heavier and less able to "breathe".
Fabrics from microfibres, on the other hand, breathe well.
[Figure 4]. Although the spaces between the yarns are too small
to be penetrated by liquid
water, they are ample for
the passage of moisture
vapour, leaving the wearer
dry and comfortable.

This is only one example.

Microfibre yarns are now Figure 3
available for most major
generic fibres. They can
bring their outstanding performance to a wide variety of end
uses.

Figure 4 Microfibres are produced from acrylic, nylon, polyester and

rayon fibres

Modacrylic Fibre
First Commercial Modacrylic Fibre Production: 1949, Union Carbide Corporation
Current Modacrylic Fibre Producers: Solutia, Inc.

Definition for Modacrylic Fibre: A manufactured fibre in which the fibre-forming substance is
any long chain synthetic polymer composed of less than 85% but at least 35% by weight of
acrylonitrile units. (-CH2CH[CN]-)x.

Basic Principles of Modacrylic Fibre Production — Modacrylic fibres are made from resins
that are copolymers (combinations) of acrylonitrile and other materials, such as vinyl chloride,
vinylidene chloride or vinyl bromide. Modacrylic fibres are either dry spun or wet spun.

Modacrylic Fibre Characteristics

• Soft
• Resilient
• Easy to dye to bright shades
• Abrasion resistant
• Flame resistant
• Quick drying
• Resistant to acids and alkalis
• Shape retentive

The low softening temperatures of modacrylic fibres allow them to be stretched, embossed and
molded into special shapes. The fibres may be produced with controlled heat shrinkage
capacities. When fibres of different shrinkages are mixed in the surface of a pile fabric, the
application of heat develops fibres of different lengths, producing a surface that resembles
natural fur.

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Some Major Modacrylic Fibre Uses
• Apparel: Deep-pile coats, trims and linings, simulated fur, wigs and hair pieces, children's
sleepwear, career apparel
• Fabric: Fleece, knit-pile fabric backings, non-wovens
• Home Furnishings: Awnings, blankets, carpets, flame-resistant draperies and curtains,
scatter rugs
• Other Uses: Filters, industrial fabrics, paint rollers, stuffed toys.

Nylon Fibre (Polyamide)

First Commercial Nylon Fibre Production: 1939, DuPont Company.
Current Nylon Fibre Producers: Honeywell Inc; BASF Corporation; Universal Fibre Systems,
L.L.C.; DuPont Company; Solutia Inc.; Wellman, Inc.

Definition for Nylon Fibre: A manufactured fibre in which the fibre forming substance is a
long-chain synthetic polyamide in which less than 85% of the amide-linkages are attached
directly (-CO-NH-) to two aromatic rings.

Basic Principles of Nylon Fibre Production — The term nylon refers to a family of polymers
called linear polyamides. There are two common methods of making nylon for fibre applications.
In one approach, molecules with an acid (COOH) group on each end are reacted with molecules
containing amine (NH2) groups on
each end. The resulting nylon is
named on the basis of the number
of carbon atoms separating the two
acid groups and the two amines.
Thus nylon 6,6 which is widely
used for fibres is made from adipic
acid and hexamethylene diamine.
The two compounds form a salt,
known as nylon salt, an exact 1:1
ratio of acid to base. This salt is
then dried and heated under
vacuum to eliminate water and
form the polymer.

In another approach, a compound

containing an amine at one end and an acid at the other is polymerised to form a chain with
repeating units of (-NH-[CH2]n-CO-)x. If n=5, the nylon is referred to as nylon 6, another
common form of this polymer. The commercial production of nylon 6 begins with caprolactam
uses a ring-opening polymerisation.

In both cases the polyamide is melt spun and drawn after cooling to give the desired properties
for each intended use. Production of nylon industrial and carpet fibres begins with an aqueous
solution of monomers and proceeds continuously through polymerisation, spinning, drawing, or
draw-texturing.
Nylon Characteristics
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• Exceptionally strong
• Elastic
• Abrasion resistant
• Lustrous
• Easy to wash
• Resistant to damage from oil and many chemicals
• Can be precoloured or dyed in wide range of colours
• Resilient
• Low in moisture absorbency
• Filament yarns provide smooth, soft, long-lasting fabrics
• Spun yarns lend fabrics light weight and warmth

Some Major Nylon Fibre Uses

• Apparel: Blouses, dresses, foundation garments, hosiery, lingerie, underwear, raincoats,
ski apparel, windbreakers, swimwear, and cycle wear
• Home Furnishings: Bedspreads, carpets, curtains, upholstery
• Industrial and Other Uses: Tire cord, hoses, conveyer and seat belts, parachutes, racket
strings, ropes and nets, sleeping bags, tarpaulins, tents, thread

Nytril Fibre
First Commercial Nytril Fibre Production: Nytril fibres were produced commercially in the
United States during the 1950's and 1960's.

Definition for Nytril Fibre: A manufactured fibre containing at least 85% of a long-chain
polymer of vinylidene dinitrile, (CH2C[CN]2-)X, where the vinylidene dinitrile content is no less
than every other unit in the polymer chain.

Nytril Fibre Characteristics and Uses — Nytril fibres are soft and resilient. As with
modacrylic fibres, they soften at somewhat lower temperatures than acrylic fibres and are
therefore most commonly used in articles that do not require pressing. Nytril fibres can be used
in sweaters, pile fabrics, and in blends with wool where they contribute to shrink resistance and
shape retention. They have also been used in a variety of “fake fur” applications.

Olefin Fibre(Polypropylene)
First Commercial Olefin Fibre Production: 1958, olefin mono-filaments for various
specialised uses; 1961, Hercules Incorporated, textile grade multi-filament polypropylene
Current Olefin Fibre Producers: Honeywell Inc; American Fibres and Yarns Company;
Universal Fibre Systems, L.L.C.; Drake Extrusion; FibreVisions.

Definition for Olefin Fibre: A manufactured fibre in which the fibre-forming substance is any
long-chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 85% by weight of ethylene, propylene, or
other olefin units, except amorphous (non-crystalline) polyolefins.

Basic Principles of Olefin Fibre Production — Olefin fibres (polypropylene and polyethylene)
are products of the polymerisation of propylene and ethylene gases. For the products to be of use
as fibres, polymerisation must be carried out under controlled conditions with special catalysts
that give chains with few branches. Olefin fibres are characterised by their resistance to moisture
and chemicals. Of the two, polypropylene is the more favoured for general textile applications

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because of its higher melting point; and the use of polypropylene has progressed rapidly since its
introduction. The fibres resist dyeing, so coloured olefin fibres are produced by adding dye
directly to the polymer prior to or during melt spinning. A range of characteristics can be
imparted to olefin fibres with additives, variations in the polymer, and by use of different process
conditions.

Olefin Fibre Characteristics

• Able to give good bulk and cover
• Abrasion resistant
• Colourfast
• Quick drying
• Low static
• Resistant to deterioration from chemicals, mildew, perspiration, rot and weather
• Thermally bondable
• Stain and soil resistant
• Strong
• Sunlight resistant
• Dry hand; wicks body moisture from the skin
• Very comfortable
• Very lightweight (olefin fibres have the lowest specific gravity of all fibres)

Some Major Olefin Fibre Uses

• Apparel: Activewear and sportswear; socks; thermal underwear; lining fabrics
• Automotive: Interior fabrics used in or on kick panel, package shelf, seat construction,
truck liners, load decks, etc.
• Home Furnishings: Indoor and outdoor carpets; carpet backing; upholstery and wall
coverings; furniture and bedding construction fabrics
• Industrial: Carpets; disposable, durable non-woven fabrics; ropes; filter fabrics; bagging;
geotextiles

PBI Fibre - POLYBENZIMIDAZOLE

First Commercial PBI Fibre Production: 1983, Celanese
Corporation.
Current PBI Fibre Producers: Celanese Corporation.

Definition for PBI Fibre: A manufactured fibre in which the

fibre-forming substance is a long-chain aromatic polymer having
recurring imidazole groups as an integral part of the polymer
chain.

Basic Principles of PBI Fibre Production — PBI is prepared

from tetra-amino-biphenyl and diphenyl isophthalate spun via a
dry spinning process using dimethyl acetamide as the solvent.

PBI Fibre Characteristics

• No melting point
• Will not ignite
• Retains fibre integrity and suppleness upon flame exposure
• High char yield
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• Dyeable to dark shades with basic dyes following caustic pre-treatment
• Mildew and age resistant
• Abrasion resistant

Major PBI Fibre Uses — PBI is suitable for high-performance protective apparel such as
firemen's turnout coats and astronaut space suits and in applications where fire resistance is
important.

Polyester Fibre (Polyethyleneterephthalate)

First Commercial Polyester Fibre Production: 1953, DuPont Company.
Current Polyester Fibre Producers: Acordis Industrial Fibres, Inc.; Honeywell Inc; Universal
Fibre Systems, L.L.C.; DuPont Company; KoSa; Intercontinental Polymers, Inc.; Nan Ya
Plastics Corp.; Wellman, Inc.

Definition for Polyester Fibre: A

manufactured fibre in which the fibre
forming substance is any long-chain
synthetic polymer composed of at least
85% by weight of an ester of a
substituted aromatic carboxylic acid,
including but not restricted to substituted
terephthalic units, p(-R-O-CO- C6H4-CO-
O-)x and para-substituted hydroxy-
benzoate units, p(-R-O-CO-C6H4-O-)x.

Basic Principles of Polyester Fibre

Production — The most common
polyester for fibre purposes is poly
(ethylene terephthalate), or simply PET.
This is also the polymer used for many
soft drink bottles and it is becoming increasingly common to recycle them after use by re-
melting the PET and extruding it as fibre. This saves valuable petroleum raw materials, reduces
energy consumption, and eliminates solid waste sent to landfills. PET is made by reacting
ethylene glycol with either terephthalic acid or its methyl ester in the presence of an antimony
catalyst. The reaction is carried out at high temperature and vacuum to achieve the high
molecular weights need to form useful fibres. PET is melt spun.

Polyester Fibre Characteristics

• Strong
• Resistant to stretching and shrinking
• Resistant to most chemicals
• Quick drying
• Crisp and resilient when wet or dry
• Wrinkle resistant
• Mildew resistant
• Abrasion resistant
• Retains heat-set pleats and crease
• Easily washed

Some Major Polyester Fibre Uses

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• Apparel: Every form of clothing
• Home Furnishings: Carpets, curtains, draperies, sheets and pillow cases, wall coverings,
and upholstery
• Other Uses: hoses, power belting, ropes and nets, thread, tire cord, auto upholstery, sails,
floppy disk liners, and fibrefill for various products including pillows and furniture.

Rayon Fibre (Viscose)

First Commercial Rayon Fibre Production: 1910, Avtex Fibres Inc. (Formerly FMC
Corporation and American Viscose).
Current Rayon Fibre Producers: Acordis Cellulosic Fibres, Inc., Lenzing Fibres Corporation.

Definition for Rayon Fibre: A manufactured fibre composed of regenerated cellulose, in which
substituents have replaced not more than 15% of the hydrogens of the hydroxyl groups.

Basic Principles of Rayon Fibre Production — In the production of rayon, purified cellulose is
chemically converted into a soluble compound. A solution of this compound is passed through
the spinneret to form soft filaments that are then converted or “regenerated” into almost pure
cellulose. Because of the re-conversion of the soluble compound to cellulose, rayon is referred to
as a regenerated cellulose fibre. There are several types of rayon fibres in commercial use today,
named according to the process by which the cellulose is converted to the soluble form and then
regenerated. Rayon fibres are wet spun, which means that the filaments emerging from the
spinneret pass directly into chemical baths for solidifying or regeneration.

Viscose rayon is made by converting purified cellulose to xanthate, dissolving the xanthate in
dilute caustic soda and then regenerating the cellulose from the product as it emerges from the
spinneret. Most rayon is made by the viscose process.

Viscose Process
Most commercial rayon manufacturing today utilises the viscose process. This process dates to
the early 1900s, with most of the growth in production occurring between 1925 and 1955. In the
early period, production was mainly textile filament, although the first staple was produced in
1916. High performance rayons, such as tire cord, did not appear until the late 1930s, with the
advent of hot-stretching and addition of larger amounts of zinc to the spin bath. Invention of
modifiers in 1947 brought on super tire cords and marked the beginning of the high-performance
rayon fibres.

All of the early viscose production involved batch processing. In more recent times, processes
have been modified to allow some semi-continuous production. For easier understanding, the
viscose process is a batch operation. Click on each process step for a brief explanation.

Cellulose
Purified cellulose for rayon production usually comes from specially processed wood pulp. It is
sometimes referred to as “dissolving cellulose” or “dissolving pulp” to distinguish it from lower
grade pulps used for papermaking and other purposes. Dissolving cellulose is characterised by a
high α -cellulose content, i.e., it is composed of long-chain molecules, relatively free from lignin
and hemicelluloses, or other short-chain carbohydrates.

Steeping
The cellulose sheets are saturated with a solution of caustic soda (or sodium hydroxide) and
allowed to steep for enough time for the caustic solution to penetrate the cellulose and convert

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some of it into “soda cellulose”, the sodium salt of cellulose. This is necessary to facilitate
controlled oxidation of the cellulose chains and the ensuing reaction to form cellulose xanthate.

Pressing
The soda cellulose is squeezed mechanically to remove excess caustic soda solution.

Shredding
The soda cellulose is mechanically shredded to increase surface area and make the cellulose
easier to process. This shredded cellulose is often referred to as “white crumb”.

Aging
The white crumb is allowed to stand in contact with the oxygen of the ambient air. Because of
the high alkalinity of white crumb, the cellulose is partially oxidised and degraded to lower
molecular weights. This degradation must be carefully controlled to produce chain lengths short
enough to give manageable viscosities in the spinning solution, but still long enough to impart
good physical properties to the fibre product.

Xanthation
The properly aged white crumb is placed into a churn, or other mixing vessel, and treated with
gaseous carbon disulphide. The soda cellulose reacts with the CS2 to form xanthate ester groups.
The carbon disulphide also reacts with the alkaline medium to form inorganic impurities which
give the cellulose mixture a characteristic yellow colour – and this material is referred to as
“yellow crumb”. Because accessibility to the CS2 is greatly restricted in the crystalline regions of
the soda cellulose, the yellow crumb is essentially a block copolymer of cellulose and cellulose
xanthate.

Dissolving
The yellow crumb is dissolved in aqueous caustic solution. The large xanthate substituents on the
cellulose force the chains apart, reducing the inter-chain hydrogen bonds and allowing water
molecules to solvate and separate the chains, leading to solution of the otherwise insoluble
cellulose. Because of the blocks of un-xanthated cellulose in the crystalline regions, the yellow
crumb is not completely soluble at this stage. Because the cellulose xanthate solution (or more
accurately, suspension) has a very high viscosity, it has been termed “viscose”.

Ripening
The viscose is allowed to stand for a period of time to “ripen”. Two important processes occur
during ripening: Redistribution and loss of xanthate groups. The reversible xanthation reaction
allows some of the xanthate groups to revert to cellulosic hydroxyls and free CS2. This free CS2
can then escape or react with other hydroxyl on other portions of the cellulose chain. In this way,
the ordered, or crystalline, regions are gradually broken down and more complete solution is
achieved. The CS2 that is lost reduces the solubility of the cellulose and facilitates regeneration
of the cellulose after it is formed into a filament.

Filtering
The viscose is filtered to remove undissolved materials that might disrupt the spinning process or
cause defects in the rayon filament.

Degassing
Bubbles of air entrapped in the viscose must be removed prior to extrusion or they would cause
voids, or weak spots, in the fine rayon filaments.

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Spinning - (Wet Spinning)
The viscose is forced through a spinneret, a device resembling a shower-head with many small
holes. Each hole produces a fine filament of viscose. As the viscose exits the spinneret, it comes
in contact with a solution of sulfuric acid, sodium sulfate and, usually, Zn++ ions. Several
processes occur at this point which cause the cellulose to be regenerated and precipitate from
solution. Water diffuses out from the extruded viscose to increase the concentration in the
filament beyond the limit of solubility. The xanthate groups form complexes with the Zn++ which
draw the cellulose chains together. The acidic spin bath converts the xanthate functions into
unstable xantheic acid groups, which spontaneously lose CS2 and regenerate the free hydroxyls
of cellulose. (This is similar to the well-known reaction of carbonate salts with acid to form
unstable carbonic acid, which loses CO2). The result is the formation of fine filaments of
cellulose, or rayon.

Drawing
The rayon filaments are stretched while the cellulose chains are still relatively mobile. This
causes the chains to stretch out and orient along the fibre axis. As the chains become more
parallel, interchain hydrogen bonds form, giving the filaments the properties necessary for use as
textile fibres.

Washing
The freshly regenerated rayon contains many salts and other water soluble impurities which need
to be removed. Several different washing techniques may be used.

Cutting
If the rayon is to be used as staple (i.e., discreet lengths of fibre), the group of filaments (termed
“tow”) is passed through a rotary cutter to provide a fibre which can be processed in much the
same way as cotton.

Other forms of regenerated cellulose fibres that are classified by the Commission as rayon
without separate, distinctive names include high wet modulus rayon, cuprammonium rayon and
saponified rayon. High wet modulus rayon is highly modified viscose rayon that has greater
dimensional stability in washing. Cuprammonium rayon is made by converting the cellulose into
a soluble compound by combining it with copper and ammonia. The solution of this material in
caustic soda is passed through the spinneret and the cellulose is regenerated in the hardening
baths that remove the copper and ammonia and neutralise the caustic soda. Cuprammonium
rayon is usually made in fine filaments that are used in lightweight summer dresses and blouses,
sometimes in Combination with cotton to make textured fabrics with clubbed, uneven surfaces.
When extruded filaments of cellulose acetate are reconverted to cellulose, they are described as
saponified rayon, which dyes like rayon instead of acetate.

Rayon Fibre Characteristics

• Highly absorbent
• Soft and comfortable
• Easy to dye
• Drapes well

The drawing process applied in spinning may be adjusted to produce rayon fibres of extra
strength and reduced elongation. Such fibres are designated as high tenacity rayons, which have
about twice the strength and two-thirds of the stretch of regular rayon. An intermediate grade,
known as medium tenacity rayon, is also made. Its strength and stretch characteristics fall
midway between those of high tenacity and regular rayon.

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Some Major Rayon Fibre Uses
• Apparel: Accessories, blouses, dresses, jackets, lingerie, linings, millinery, slacks,
sportshirts, sportswear, suits, ties, work clothes
• Home Furnishings: Bedspreads, blankets, curtains, draperies, sheets, slipcovers,
tablecloths, upholstery
• Industrial Uses: Industrial products, medical surgical products, non-woven products, tire
cord
• Other Uses: Feminine hygiene products

Saran Fibre
First Commercial Saran Fibre Production: 1941, Firestone Plastics Company, predecessor of
Firestone Synthetic Fibres and Textiles Company.

Definition for Saran Fibre: A manufactured fibre in which the fibre-forming substance is any
long-chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 80% by weight of vinylidene chloride units, (-
CH2-CCI2-)X.

Characteristics and Saran Fibre Uses — Saran fibres wear well and resist common chemicals,
sunlight, staining, fading, mildew and the weather. Fabrics made from Saran fibres can be easily
washed with soap and water. They are non-flammable. Saran mono-filaments are comparatively
stiff and they soften at low temperatures. The fibre is heavy compared with most apparel fibres.
Saran fibres are used for upholstery in public conveyances, deck chairs, garden furniture, etc.
The weight of Saran fibres is too great for wide use as a general textile material.

Spandex Fibre (Elastane)

First Commercial Spandex Fibre Production: 1959, DuPont Company.
Current Spandex Fibre Producers: DuPont Company; Global Mfg; Bayer Corporation.

Definition for Spandex Fibre: A manufactured fibre in which the fibre forming substance is a
long-chain synthetic polymer comprised of at least 85% of a segmented polyurethane.

Basic Principles of Spandex Fibre Production — The polymer chain is a segmented block
copolymer containing long, randomly coiled, liquid, soft segments that move to a more linear,
lower entropy, structure. The hard segments act as “virtual cross-links” that tie all the polymer
chains together into an infinite network. This network prevents the polymer chains from slipping
past each other and taking on a permanent set or draw. When the stretching force is removed, the
linear, low entropy, soft segments move back to the preferred randomly coiled, higher entropy
state, causing the fibre to recover to its original shape and length. This segmented block
copolymer is formed in a multi-step proprietary process. It is extruded into a fibre as a
monofilament threadline or for most products into a multiplicity of fine filaments that are
coalesced shortly after they are formed into a single threadline.

Spandex Fibre Characteristics

• Can be stretched repeatedly and still recover to very near its original length and shape
• Generally, can be stretched more than 500% without breaking
• Stronger, more durable and higher retractive force than rubber
• Stronger, more durable and more powerful than rubber
• Lightweight, soft, smooth, supple
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• In garments, provides a combination of comfort and fit, prevents bagging and sagging
• Heat-settable — facilitates transforming puckered fabrics into flat fabrics, or flat fabrics
into permanent rounded shapes
• Dyeable
• Resistant to deterioration by body oils, perspiration, lotions or detergents
• Abrasion resistant
• When fabrics containing spandex are sewn, the needle causes little or no damage from
“needle cutting” compared to the older types of elastic materials
• Available in fibre diameters ranging from 10 denier to 2500 denier
• Available in clear and opaque lustres

Some Major Spandex Fibre Uses

• Garments where comfort and fit are desired: hosiery, swimsuits, aerobic/exercise wear, ski
pants, golf jackets, disposable diaper, waist bands, bra straps and bra side panels
• Compression garments: surgical hose, support hose, bicycle pants, foundation garments
• Shaped garments: bra cups.

Sulfar Fibre
First Commercial Sulfar Fibre Production: 1983, Phillips Fibres Corporation, A Subsidiary of
Phillips 66 Company.
Current Sulfar Fibre Producers: American Fibres and Yarns Company.

Definition for Sulfar Fibre: A manufactured fibre in which the fibre-forming substance is a
long synthetic polysulphide in which at least 85% of the sulphide (-Sn-) linkages are attached
directly to two (2) aromatic rings.

Basic Principles of Sulfar Fibre Production — The PPS (polyphenylene sulphide) polymer is
formed by reaction of sulphur with dichlorobenzene and then extruded by melt spinning to
produce both staple and filament fibres.

Sulfar Fibre Characteristics

• Sulfar is a speciality fibre characterised by remarkable resistance to thermal and chemical
attack
• Outstanding resistance to heat
• Outstanding resistance to acids and alkalis
• Excellent resistance to mildew, ageing, sunlight and abrasion
• Non-dyeable
• Resistant to bleaches and solvents under normal conditions

Major Industrial Sulfar Fibre Uses — Filter fabric for coal-fired boiler bag houses;
papermakers' felts; electrical insulation, electrolysis membranes, filter fabrics for liquid and gas
filtration; high-performance composites, gaskets and packing.

Triacetate Fibre
First Commercial Triacetate Fibre Production: 1954, Celanese Corporation.

Definition for Triacetate Fibre: Celanese Corporation; See definition for Acetate

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Basic Principles of Triacetate Fibre Production — Triacetate is derived from cellulose by
combining cellulose with acetate from acetic acid and acetate anhydride. The cellulose acetate is
dissolved in a mixture of methylene chloride and methanol for spinning. As the filaments emerge
from the spinneret the solvent is evaporated in warm air - dry spinning -leaving a fibre of almost
pure cellulose acetate. Triacetate fibres contain a higher ratio of acetate-to-cellulose than do
acetate fibres.

Triacetate Fibre Characteristics

• Shrink resistant
• Wrinkle resistant
• Easily washed
• Fabrics made from triacetate fibres maintain pleat retention and a crisp finish
• Develop their most valuable characteristics by heat treatments that are included as a part of
their normal finishing

Some Major Triacetate Fibre Uses

• Apparel: Dresses, skirts, sportswear, particularly where pleat-retention is

Vinal Fibre
Definition for Vinal Fibre: A manufactured fibre in which the fibre-forming substance is any
long-chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 50% by weight of vinyl alcohol units, (-
CH2CH[OH]-)X, and in which the total of the vinyl alcohol units and any one or more of the
various acetal units is at least 85% by weight of the fibre.

Characteristics and Vinal Fibre Uses — Vinal fibres soften at low temperatures but have high
resistance to chemicals. This makes them suitable for certain industrial uses. In some countries
other than the United States, vinal fibres are referred to as polyvinyl alcohol fibres.

Vinyon (poly(vinyl chloride) Fibre

First Commercial Vinyon Fibre Production: 1939, FMC Corporation, Fibre Division
(formerly American Viscose)

Definition for Vinyon Fibre: A manufactured fibre in which the fibre forming substance is any
long-chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 85% weight of vinyl chloride units. (-CH2
CHCl-)X.

Characteristics and Vinyon Fibre Uses - Vinyon fibres soften at low temperatures but have
high resistance to chemicals. They are most commonly used in industrial applications as a
bonding agent for non-woven fabrics and products.

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