Overall shape and dimensions

General

The Howden Cooling Fan delivery program consists of several product designs with fan
diameters from 0.710 to 20 meter. Other geometric features are:

1. Blade number
2. Blade width
3. Blade shape (straight or swept forward)
4. Blade material (FRP or aluminium)

Standard Howden Cooling Fans perform aerodynamic duties up-to 250 Pa fan static pressure
and 3000 m3/s air flow in wet and dry air-cooling installations.

Howden Cooling Fans impellers are designed for application in cooling towers, air-cooled
condensers and air-cooled heat exchangers.

The continues operating temperature range and allowable incidental upset temperature
varies per product range, we therefor refer to the respective service manuals for the allowable
temperatures per product type. The FRP impellers may be exposed to a higher maximum
temperature for a short period of time, for example during start-up or stand still. In case the
temperature of your installation exceeds the maximum allowable impeller temperature, then
please contact Howden for review of the full operating conditions.

In a humid arrangement FRP fan blades must be provided with an erosion-resistant layer on
the inlet side in order to protect the blades from impact of water droplets (leading edge
protection).

The fan diameter, the fan rotation speed and the fan blade number are the particular
parameters to match the performance of the fan to the aerodynamic duty point of the air-
cooling installation. Blade width and blade shape are the principal instruments to reduce the
noise generation of the fan.

Product lines
Howden Cooling Fan product lines can be divided into four typical shapes as presented
below. The blade pitch angles of all Howden Cooling Fans can be adjusted manually during
standstill. For available diameters and number of blades see the diameter and blade number
overview (PDF).

1
ENF / KNF / ZNF fan
Classic straight aerofoil bladed standard fan with a normal noise performance and high
efficiency.

ELF / KLF / ZLF fan

Standard low noise fan with straight aerofoil blades and high efficiency.

ELFA / ZVF fan

Very low noise fan with straight aerofoil blades which combines a good efficiency with a noise
performance that exceeds the ELF / KLF / ZLF product lines.

SX fan
Sophisticated super low noise fan with a low number of forward swept blades. The SX program
with its remarkable blade shape is the fan solution for total low noise projects.

2
Aerodynamic duty point
The aerodynamic duty point of the fan is the combination of the Air Flow Q and the Fan Static
Pressure FSP generated by the fan. The product of Q and FSP has the dimension of Power
and is called the Aerodynamic Power Nair of the fan. Nair is the so called effective power
output of the fan. The power input comes through the drive shaft and is named Drive Shaft
Power Nsh. The ratio between Nair/Nsh is the static efficiency ηst of the fan.

Air flow
The Air Flow is defined in [m3/s] at the temperature of the air when it passes through the fan.
In principle the Air Flow has a value equal to the product of the average air velocity v in the
flow section and the surface of that section. Since there is always a spread in the value of the
air velocity over the section, for the determination of the average air speed the air speed must
be read on several locations according to international standards. For instance the American
Cooling Tower Institute (CTI) advises to do air velocity readings on at least 20 locations with
a calibrated anemometer or pitot tube on equal flow sections in the fan inlet as close as
possible to the fan. Due to rotation of the air, and flow "unfriendly" duct shapes it is hardly
possible to do flow readings down stream of the fan. For the determination of its fan curves,
Howden has built a test installation according to AMCA 210-74. Here the flow is measured
over a calibrated nozzle. See figure 1. For air cooled installations this method is not possible
due to the lacking of a nozzle.

Mathematical relations

Pdyn = 0.5 * ρ * v2 {1}

Ptot = Pst + Pdyn {2}
ηst = Nair/Nsh {3}

1. Valve 5. Nozzle
2. Booster fan 6. Stream gauzes
3. Streamer 7. Engine frame
4. Stream gauzes 8. Test fan

Fig.1 Principal sketch of Howden aerodynamic test deviceaccording AMCA210

3
Static pressure
The Fan Static Pressure represents the flow resistance of an air cooled installation. It has the
SI unit [Pa]. The value of the FSP is found according to the following definition:

FSP = Pst2 - Ptot1

{4}
[Pa]
= Pst2 - Pst1 - Pdyn1

See figure 2.

FSP = Pst2 - Ptot1

F1/F2 = 5
Fig. 2: Definition of FSP

Perhaps the definition of the FSP is felt to be strange. However for an induced draught
installation this definition of the FSP corresponds exactly with the static flow resistance of the
heat exchanger section for which the influence of the velocity pressure is eliminated. This
means that the value of Pst1 will differ from the FSP due to the influence of the velocity
pressure. This can be better understand by deriving the theoretical value of Pst1 for different
cases. The law of Bernoulli defines for an ideal flow without resistance the following
relationship:

Pst + Pdyn = Constant. {5}

In any case in an flowduct the theoretic value of the dynamic pressure is:
Pdyn = 0.5 *ρ* v2 {6 }

For a configuration where no heat exchanger sectionis present andtaking the environmental
pressure zero (Pst2 = 0), according to {5},

4
Pst1= - 0.5 *ρ* v12 {7 }
See figure 3.

Whenthere isa heat exchanger section present with a flow resistance of RPa:
Pst1= - R - 0.5 *ρ* v12. {8}
Seefigure 4.

Accordingto {4} The value of FSP is then:

FSP= Pst2- Ptot1=Pst2- (Pst1+Pdyn1),
=0 - (- R - 0.5 *ρ* v12+ 0.5 *ρ* v12) = R Pa. {9}
Sothe absolute difference between FSP and Pst1is:
¦FSP¦-¦Pst1¦= -0.5 *ρ* v12 {10}

5
ID/FD differences
In principle there are two types of fan installations:
a. Forced draught
b. Induced draught
For each type of installation the definition {4} (static pressure) must be interpreted as follows:

Induced Draught (ID)

The heat exchanger section (flow resistance) is located up stream of the fan. For example,
arrangement 5.5, 5.6, 5.7 and 5.8 in figure 5. In this case Pst2 = 0 if no diffuser is used. With
diffuser Pst2 = ∆Pdiff. (See section 3-07.314, Pressure recovery by a diffusor) FSP is determined
according to equation {9} and is equal to R. Pst1 versus ambient pressure is negative and Pdyn1
positive. Theoretically the value of Pdyn1 is equal to the reduction of Pst1 according to Bernoulli's
law {5} and corresponds with the difference between ¦Pst1¦ and FSP. According to {6} the value
of Pdyn1 results from the air speed in the plenum. For an air speed v of 10 m/s this is 60 Pa. If
the air speed is 2 m/s, Pdyn1 is 2.4 Pa.

Forced Draught (FD)

In this case the heat exchanger section (flow resistance)or principal flow resistance is down
stream of the fan. For example arrangement 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4 in figure 5.

The interpretation for FSP, in section 03-07.312 Fan static pressure, is made for an ID installation. For a
FD installation the FSP is not equal to R but equal to Pst2 since Ptot1 = 0. This follows from the definition:

FSP = Pst2 - Ptot1 = Pst2 = R - 0.5 * ρ * v22 - 0

In a FD Air Cooling installation there will be no pressure recovery from dynamic pressure to
static pressure. Due to the presence of the bundles the additional kinetic energy will be
dissapated. That is why an FD installation must be designed with a FSP which is at least equal
to R.

For the identical heat exchanger section with a flow resistance of R in an ID configuration
¦Pst1¦ will differ from¦Pst2¦ in the FD configuration for two principal reasons:

1. Its theoretical difference:

Pst1(ID) = - R - 0.5 * ρ * v12 {11}

Pst2(FD) = R - 0.5 * ρ * v22 {12}

2. Besides the velocity in main flow direction, there are rotational and turbulence compo-
nents in the velocity which enlarge the real three dimensional value of v (v2>v1). Consequently
Pst2(FD) is reduced.

6
A contradictionary phenomenon is the idea that a rotating flow through a heat exchanger
section has more resistance than a unidirectional flow. This due to the higher absolute speed
of the air and due toa less favorable direction of the air (more obstructions and longer air
passage way) means an increasing value of R.

In practice this means that the design of an FD air-cooling installation is more difficult to do by
theoretical considerations only. Practical feed back from prototype tests will give the final
information for adequate design

FD ID
flow-related quality in general ± +
insensitivity to wind at fan inlet - +
insensitivity to wind at fan outlet + ±
feasibility of guarantee measurements - ±
absence of annoying noise for operators - +
suitability for high-temperature application + ±
life in case of wet application (erosion) + ±

7
Diffusor
When the air flows out the air cooling installation with a certain velocity v, according to the law
of Bernoulli {3} (page 1, norm 03-07.311) it is possible to regain static pressure from the
dynamic pressure and to reduce the FSP. However this works only for a fricton free flow. It
means a uniform and swirl free flow.

In reality it is only possible for an ID installation with an efficiency of 75 percent, and using a
diffuser or fan stack with a cone angle of between 6°-8.5°. (fig. 1). The pressure recovery
∆Pdif is calculated as follows:

∆Pdiff = 0.75*0.5*ρ(vo2-vi2) {13}

FSP need to be corrected with ∆Pdiff as follows for the case that a diffuser is used:

FSPc = FSP + ∆Pdiff {14}

8
Flow disturbances

Principles of flow disturbances

Besides the flow resistance of the heat exchanger there are other elements around the fan
that have influence on the working of the fan namely:

a. Fan inlet shape

b. Flow obstacles
c. Fan tip clearance

a. Fan inlet shape

The performance of Howden standard fans are measured with an elliptic inlet bell with a
length of 15 percent of the fan diameter and an elliptic ratio of 1:1.5. See figure 1.

Other inlet shapes like:

• inlet with radius

• cone
• flat-face flange
• cylindrical duct section,

have an unfavourable effect on the air flow around the airfoil of the fan blade. The inlet
shapes will generate swirls and wakes which disturb the angle of attack of the air flow on the
aerofoil of the fan blade. It is like the ingestion of turbulence by an air plane when it passes
turbulence and the wing sections are flapping by the turbulence. See also figure 2.

9
b. Flow obstacles
In an air- cooling installation, heat exchanger sections and fan support structures are flow
resistance elements but they also generate swirls and wakes. In an ID installation this will
have the same negative effect on the air- flow around the blade aerofoils as the non -ideal
bell inlet shape. That is why the influence of obstacles up stream of the fan is worse than
down stream the fan.

c. Tip clearance
The fan tip clearance has the following definition:

cl = 2∗s/Df {15}

where : cl = tip clearance [mm]

s = gap between blade tip and fan ring [mm]

The performance of Howden cooling fans are measured with a tip clearance of 0.01 (= 1%).
A bigger tip clearance will have the effect of a leak; A smaller one has the effect of the
closure of a leak, it means a higher pressure. In actual practice, the fan ring will never be
truly round. The clearance 2s/Df is the average value along the circumference. It is
recommended to respect the following minimum local value:

s min = 0.0025 Df {16}

This minimum tip clearance value serves to prevent the blade tips from scuffling against the
fan ring under changing operating conditions in the air cooling installation. (temperature
increase, vibrations). The tip clearance has also influence on the fan efficiency. See
section 03-07.325, power and efficiency.

Calculation of flow disturbance effects.

The interaction between disturbances and the fan is related to the generation of swirls and
wakes, which besides have a normal flow resistance effect, also have a disturbance effect on
the flow angle of attack and on the flow around the blade aerofoil. In order to find the correct
FSP, the flow disturbance influence must be elaborated by the use of characteristic
correction pressure terms ∆Pi for each type of disturbance:

FSPc = FSP + Σ ∆Pi {17}

10
FSPc = Corrected FSP
∆Pi = Additional pressure drop by i.
i = Disturbance:
inl = inlet
obi = obstacle at inlet
obo = obstacle at outlet
tpcl = tip clearance

The correction terms ∆Pi of the obstacles and the inlet device have in principle the structure
of a flow resistance term:

∆Pi = ki ∗0.5 ∗ ρ ∗ vi2 {18}

ki = flow resistance coefficient of i [-]

vi = characteristic air speed [m/s]

The influence of the tip clearance is directly defined as a ratio Rtpcl of the correction term
∆Ptpcl and FSP:

∆Ptpcl = Rtpcl ∗ FSP

The flow resistance coefficients for the inlet type, the flow obstacles and the values of Rtpcl for
the tip clearance can be found in respectively enclosure 1,2 and 3. The characteristic air
speed for all is the air speed through the fan section in the main flow direction:
vf = 4Q/(π(Df-2 – Dh2) {19}

Dh = Fan hub diameter.

11
Figure 3: Influences of various inlet shapes

12
Figure 4: Flow resistance coefficient Kobi for obstacles at inlet

13
Figure 5: Flow resistance coefficient Kobo for obstacles at inlet

14
Figure 6: Rtpcl as a function of the fan tip clearance s

15
Wind influence
Since a cooling fan operates at one side in the open air at a relatively low pressure, wind
surely influences the performance of the fan. For the same reasons as for the obstacles, the
influence of the wind is more felt when it blows on the fan inlet side than when it blows on the
wind outlet side. Special attention must be paid to situations where wind concentration
effects arise by the air -cooling installation itself or by structures close to the air cooling
installation. In particular vertical impellers with a horizontal shaft have an elevated
sensitiveness for wind effects. However also horizontal fans installed at a great height and
exposed to strong winds for sure are affected by winds. What happens is that a impeller
comes partly or fully into stall which causes an elevated, sometimes destructive dynamic
stress level See figure: 1. Up to now the influence of the wind on the fan performance is
only partly quantified. For instance the influence of the pitch angle is not clear. The same for
the wind direction to the fan. Also fans beside each other have a mutual flow effect. A single
fan "feels" the under or over pressure of its neighbor as an additional resistance. This
phenomenon is amplified by wind. It can happen with strong winds that one fan performs
perfectly and the fan beside is almost "dead". This "dead" fan is normally the fan on the up-
wind side. All these aspects makes it clear that it is not easy to quantify the influence of the
wind speed. The best suggestion is to take the dynamic wind pressure Pwi as an additional
static pressure drop.

∆Pwi = 0.5 * ρ * vwi2 {20}

16
Fan scaling rules
Scaling of the fan operation points is done according to the so called fan laws:

P :: ρ * Ut2 {21}

Q :: Ut * Df2 {22}

In order to compare different fan configurations the fan duty point (Q,FSP) is transformed
with help of the fan laws to the dimensionless figures Cp and Cf. Cp and Cf have the following
definition:
Cp = FSP/(0.5*ρ*Ut2) {23}
2
Cf = Q/(0.25*π*Df *Ut) {24}

Ut = fan tip speed [m/s]

Ut = 0,5*ω*Df {25}
ω = angular rotation speed [rad/s]
ω = 2*π*RPM/60 {26}

By considering Cp and Cf, the pure aerodynamic performance of the fan is considered without
the influence of the:

17
 • Fan diameter
• Fan rotation speed
• Air density (temperature)

By taking the dimensionless characteristics of the fan, the fan duty point can be compared
with a model fan with the same shape, for instance a model fan in a test installation.

By this way Howden is determining the characteristics of its fans. It has built a test facility
according to AMCA 210-74. In this facility fan models with a diameter of 1829 mm (= 6') can
be measured. By transforming the results into dimensionless figures, Cp,Cf, st, the results
can be applied to any fan diameter and rotation speed for fans with the same shape.
The fan solidity the dimensionless figure which characterizes the aerodynamic effective
shape of the fan. Its values is the total relative blade cord width or fan solidity . has the
following definition:

σ = z*c/(π*Df) {27}

Where:

z = number of blades

c = blade width (cord)

It can be said that fans with the same and blade aerofoil, perform aerodynamically equally,
i.e. for the same pitch angle they will always follow the same Cp/Cf. This is the basic principle
of the fan scaling rules and selection programs.

Pressure margin

About pressure margin and flow margin, Standard 661 of the American Petroleum Institute
(API) defines the following:

"Fan selection at design conditions shall ensure that at constant speed the fan can provide
by an increase in blade angle a 10 percent increase in airflow and a corresponding pressure
increase. Since this requirement is to prevent stall and inefficient operation of the fan, the
resulting increased power requirement need not govern the driver rating."

Supposing there is a square increase of flow resistance on a linear flow increase, the
consequence of applying this (API) standard is that a 10 percent flow margin results in a 21
percent pressure margin. See figure 1.

Another interesting value to know is which maximum FSP the fan can make for the set pitch
angle before stalling and the corresponding Air Flow.

Surge limit

18
 ∆P1

Allowable blade angle

Pressure Resistance Lines

Flow

Pressure margin = ∆P1/P1 * 100% or D P2/P2 * 100%

Fig.1: Definition of Pressure margin according to API 661

Axial thrust
For mechanical design features, it is interesting to know the value of the aerodynamic axial
force on the fan.

This force is called Axial Thrust and is calculated by multiplying the total pressure drop over
the fan, Ptot1,2 times the surface of the fan ring section.

Fax = Ptot1,2 * ¼π * Dr2 {31}

where
Dr = Diameter of the fan ring

Power and efficiency

The product of FSP and Q has the dimension of power and is the aerodynamic or effective
power output of an air cooling installation. The power input to the installation comes

19
through the fan drive shaft. This drive shaft power Nsh is the product of the shaft drive
torque Tsh and angular speed ωsh.

Power input:

[kW]
Nsh = Tsh*ωsh

where: {28}
[kW]
Nsh= Fan drive shaftpower
Tsh = fan drive shaft torque
[Nm]

ωsh = angular rotation speed [Nm]

Effective Poweroutput

Nair= FSP*Q [kW] {29}

where:

As for every power transforming engine also for a cooling fan the ratio between effective
power output and power input is called the efficiency ηst.

Remember {3}:

ηst = Nair/Nsh

For fans which are built in a ducting the FSP is not an interesting value. For that cases
Ptot1,2 is considered. Consequently there also exist an expression for the total efficiency:

ηtot = Ptot2,1*Q/Nsh. {30}

Correction for deviating tip clearance

The performance of the Howden standard fan curves is measured with a tip clearance of 1
percent. Deviating values of the tip clearance result into deviating fan efficiencies which
need to be corrected as follows:

shaft = Nshaft1 * (1-KR)

The following correction must be made for calculationof the fan shaft power.
20
The following correction must be made for calculation of the fan shaft power.

Nshaft1 = fan shaft power after correction for inlet shape, obstacles and diffuser

KR = ∆η stat / η stat = correction factor for efficiency at deviating clearance

Figure 1. has been plotted for some arbitrary 2s / Df values. For the applicable clearance -
design value or value measured in the installation - other the KR value can be determined
by means of interpolation.

21
Fig 1. Influence of tip clearance on fan efficiency

22
Field performance
Introduction

It is a normal interest to verify the performance of a cooling fan in its installation. However
this is not easy. The reason is that a cooling fan operates in unstable turbulent conditions,
in both senses of the word. The main feature of a cooling fan is that it makes a big air flow
over a relatively low pressure drop. Both parameters are hard to measure. A big air flow
and a low pressure drop can only be made when the cooling fan has a free air access and
a free air outlet. This makes the air cooling installation sensible for wind and other external
disturbances. There will also be velocity variations over the various flow sections, which
complicates the determination of air flows.

Tests

In principle there are two possibilities to verify the performance of a cooling fan:

1. Scale model test

A scale model test can be done with a geometric identical shaped fan on a well conditioned
test facility. Example: the Howden 6’ test facility according to AMCA 210. Procedure:
Howden 16-07.002, which is available on request. See also ISO 5801

2. Field performance test

Like it has been explained in the introduction: Field performance tests are complicated.
That is why it can only make sense to do it when international standards are carefully
applied. Useful and practical is the Recommended Practice For Airflow Testing of CTI. Also
DIN 24166 is very helpful. This last standard defines clearly the accuracy which can be
expected. Power station and industrial applications in unstable environments like air cooling
installations, are classified in category 2 and 3. Those classes define the following
accuracy’s:

Variable 2 3
Class acc to
DIN24166
Air Flow +/-5% +/-10%

Pressure drop +/-5% +/-10%

Drive power +/-8% +/-16%
Efficiency -5%
A-Sound Power +4 +6
Level dB(A) dB(A)

Also see ISO 5802

23
Noise basics
The noise phenomenon is not easy to understand. From physics point of view it is the
vibration of air at frequencies, which can be heard by human: 20-18000 Hz.
The vibrations correspond with very small air pressure variations. Beside by the human ear
also by a microphone the (sound) pressure variations can be observed.
Like for alternating electrical current, for both the air particle velocity v (this is not the sound
velocity) and the pressure variations p there has been also defined an effective value, it is the
so called r.m.s value (root mean square). When the air particle velocity v and the sound
pressure p is considered, always this effective value is meant.
The particle velocity v is proportional to the pressure p: v ~ p.

Noise is transmitted like longitudinal waves. Taking a spherical surface F with equal pressure
p there can be found an expression with the dimension of power P.

P ~ p∗v∗F [W] {1}

Because v~p, it can be stated that:
P ~ p2∗F [W] {2}

The range of audible pressures is very big: from 2.10-5 Pa for just audible to 200 Pa for the pain
threshold. However the human feeling for noise is far from proportional to that scale.
It is found to be useful to express the terms of equation {2} in the logarithm of the
dimensionless ratios which is mentioned decibels. Doing this the following quantities are
derived:

The Sound Power Level PWL or LW:

PWL = 10 lg (P/P0) [dB]

with reference value P0 = 10-12 W and

The Sound Pressure Level SPL or Lp:

SPL = 10 lg (p2/p02) [dB]

With reference value p0 2.10 –5 Pa. It is understood to be correct by knowing that the
reference value for the particle velocity v which is proportional to p, is 5.10 –8 m/s.

Applying all consequently on equation {2} results in the following useful expression:

PWL = SPL + 10 lg F [dB] {3}

This expression is that useful because it gives a relationship between the sound power of a
source (PWL) and the audible value (SPL) at a certain position with respect to the source.
Moreover since it is not possible to measure sound power the expression is also the way to
determinate the PWL of a source: This is done by measuring a SPL on a control area F
where the SPL is supposed to be equal like e sphere around the source or for big
installations at 1 meter distance. This method is well defined in several international
standards like ISO 1940/1.

24
The use of octaves and A-weighting

The human ear has a different sensitiveness/awareness for the various sound frequencies.
That is why mostly a noise value is filtered according to a logarithmic deviation into an
octave bands. The variable human awareness is elaborated by a correction, a so-called A-
weighting, for each octave band as follows:

Octave [Hz] 63 125 250 500 1k 2k 4k 8k

A-corr. [dB] -26.2 -16.1 -8.6 -3.2 0 1.2 1 -1.1

The not A-weighted spectrum is called the linear spectrum. From the A-weighted spetrum
an A weighted total value can be found by the logarithmic addition of the different A-
weighted octave values as follows:

PWL(A)=10 lg (10 0.1lg Lw(A)31.5 +100.1lgLw(A)63+........ 100.1lgLw(A)8k) [dB(A)]

An A weighted spectrum can be recognized by its unit: dB(A)

25
Fan noise
The quantification of the noise generation by a cooling fan is in principle achieved by using
general accepted standards like ISO 1680. Just measuring the noise of a fan is not enough
criteria to accurately predict the noise performance of a cooling fan. You must also know about
the influence of the operating conditions and dimensions that effect the noise performance.
Moreover, if noise production must be reduced, an even more sophisticated understanding of
the noise generating mechanism is needed. For a relatively slow running fan like the propeller
cooling fan, there are a few characteristic noise generating flow phenomena [1].

1. The so-called "rotor self noise". It is the turbulent and laminar vortex shedding at the
blade rear sections and at the blade tip.
2. The ingestion of turbulence in the main air-flow. This turbulence is generated by the
heat exchanger, fan supports or other upstream obstructions. The turbulence leads to
random variations in angles of incidence at blade leading edges, causing fluctuating
blade loads and surface pressures over a broad range of frequencies.
3. Besides the broad-band noise levels, sometimes there will be discrete peaks of sound
pressure associated with the blade passing frequency. This frequency is the product of
the fan rotation frequency and the number of blades. The noise is caused by the
pressure pulsation that is generated when a fan blade is passing a sharp and close
disturbance such as a support beam.

Figure. 2: Different noise generation fields for an axial flow fan according to [1]

From a more simple and practical point of view can be stated that the noise intensity of a
cooling fan is related to the quantity and intensity of flow-generated swirls. For the
quantification of the noise intensity and in order to compare one cooling fan configuration with
another, it is necessary to have a relationship between the noise intensity PWL and important
design parameters like pressure drop p, flow Q, the fan tip speed Utip and the fan diameter
Dfan. Through years of research and field measurements we have developed the following
formula:

The characteristic value C represents the influence of the fan shape on the noise generating
phenomena or as said before the intensity and quantity of swirls.

26
From formula (1) it becomes clear that especially the tip speed Utip has a strong influence on
the sound power level.
The correction terms ∆dB are related to characteristic noise mechanism in an air cooling
installation: The influence of obstructions and the influence of the flow inlet shape. The
correction term for the inlet shape covers the additional noise by deviating from the ideal
elliptic bell inlet shape.

Typical C-values for Howden Cooling fans are:

ENF 37 dB[A] ZNF 35.5 dB[A] KNF 37 dB[A]

ELF 35 dB[A] ZLF 35 dB[A] KLF 35 dB[A]
ELFA 33 dB[A] ZVF 33 dB[A]
SX 27 dB[A]

Bottom value, function of several parameters like, tip speed, diameter and pitch angle)

From the total PWL value of a fan, a linear spectrum is calculated by a correction table that
varies for each fan type and octave band:

Reference [1]

S.E. Wright (1976), The Acoustic Spectrum of Axial Fans, Journal of Sound and Vibration,
45(2), 165-223

27
Sound pressure level
For many projects it is required to calculate the sound pressure level on a certain position
with respect to the fan.

This standard provides some calculation methods for this purpose. The method works on
the sound pressure level calculation for both areas and positions according to figure 1 and
2.

Induced Draught installations

Fig. 1: Induced draught configuration with SPL positions and areas

Please note that due to the turbulent airstream it is not possible to accurately predict the
sound pressure level at 1 meter directly above the fan ring. Furthermore it is not possible to
meassure the sound pressure level at 1 meter below the fan ring because of the presence
of the air cooler.

Positions:

A: 1 m beside

B: 1 m above, 45° from the fan ring or the diffuser

Areas

1 and 2 (0.5 Do + 1 < R < 5 Do) according to DIN 45635 P46)

Formulas:

For A, B and area 2:

SPL = PWL - 2 - 10 logF + Cspl 1 + Cspl 2

F = control area
Cspl 1 = direction correction

28
Cspl2 = near field correction

F = 2pR2

Cspl1 = 2 - 6.8 (1 - Öcosa ) (0°£a£ 90°)

If R£ Do, Cspl2 = 4(1-R/Do), else Cspl2 = 0

For area 1

SPL = PWL - 10 log (2pR(R + h))

h = height of the fan ring or diffuser from ground level

Forced Draught Installations

Fig. 2: Forced draught configuration with SPL positions and areas

Caution
For a FD installation, reflections by ground surface can result into deviation of SPL
levels which are out of the scope of this consideration A: 1m beside

Positions

A: 1m beside

B: 1m below, 45 ° from the edge of the inlet device

Areas
1 and 2 (0.5Do +1< R<5 Do)
Formulas:

h = height of fan edge of fan inlet device

hmin = 1.5 Di

For area 1

SPL = PWL- 10 log(2πR(R+h))

For A, B and area 2

29
SPL =PWL –2 –10 logF + Cspl1 +Cspl2

F= 2πR2

Cspl = 2 –6.8(1- √cosα) (0°≤α≤90°)

If R ≤ Do, Cspl2 = 4.(1-R/Do), else Cspl2 =0

For zone C, 1 m straight below the fan:

This is a zone which is not easy to predict since there are many acoustic influence factors:

• the fan
• drive equipment
• reflections from the earth

As a rule of thumb can be stated that the SPL level in plane C is SPL in the

position B +6 dB(A).

Total noise
General

Looking to an ACHE with a view to noise we recognise several sources of noise.

Theoretically the total noise the ACHE should be calculated by adding up all individual
noise sources, however the problem is that not all noise sources of the ACHE can be
predicted accurately.

Examples of noise sources in an ACHE are:

1. Aerodynamic noise of the fan impeller.
2. Swirls in the air due to a non optimum fan inlet configuration.
3. Noise due to obstacles (e.g. driver support) in the air stream.
4. Noise of the E motor.
5. Noise of the power transmission (e.g. V belts, gear boxes).
6. Noise due to air passing the fin tubes.
7. Reflection (Non free field condition)

As an extend to the above there can be all kinds of elusive noise sources like noise due to
the interaction between all components of the ACHE, Vibrations can be generated in the
construction and can cause radiation of noise. Noise can also be amplified by the ACHE
(e.g. Plenum chamber) or fan blades which are usually hollow.

The different noise sources

Impeller, inlet obstacles

From the above mentioned noise sources the first three are relatively easy to predict
although some impeller manufacturers will only guarantee the aerodynamic noise of their
impeller in a configuration similar to their test arrangement.
The noise of the support structure or inlet type noise is not always taken into account.
The aerodynamic noise is calculated by Howden according a formula which is empirically
defined in the course of the more than 40 years experience we have. The result of this is
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shown on our fan selection sheet as impeller sound PoWer Level.
Beside this, a fan supplier should compare the type of inlet which he uses during the
laboratory testing of his impellers with the actual inlet configuration and must consider the
differences carefully. A less optimum inlet configuration in practice than during lab testing
means more swirl at the fan tip area which results in a higher power consumption and
higher impeller Sound Power Level up to +3 dB(A)
The support structure of the driving arrangement is positioned in the air stream. When it Is
close to the impeller it's influence is bigger than when it is further away.
Howden always specifies the type of inlet and obstacle data on which the given fan
performance is based. The influence of the obstacles and inlet type are also specified
separately.

E-Motors
Besides the impeller, also E-motors and transmissions generate noise. In principle the
noise levels of that equipment must be guaranteed by the suppliers. Theoretically the total
noise level of the installation, i.e. the impeller and the drive is found by the logarithmic
addition of the individual figures. However in practise this is not that simple because of the
following reasons:
· Due to the acoustic interference of components the total noise can be significant higher
than the calculated value. This is the so called construction noise effect which is caused by
the transmission of vibration from one component to the other. Together with the noise
source the component which is affected by the vibration can generate the same frequency
even at a higher level.
· In most of the times the drive components are the vibration generators which transmit
their vibration to the impeller or to the support structure. This is the reason that the
suppliers of drive components are hardly willing to guarantee the noise level for an in situ
installation, but only for on-loaded, isolated and ideal test facilities.

Power transmission
Should be considered carefully in case of gearboxes or power belts. V-belts only in
combination with super low noise fans.

Fin tubes, reflection and other elusive noise sources

Beside the fact that air passing the fin tubes causes noise, the fin tubes can also reflect the
impellers noise. Normally the Howden Impeller Sound Power level can be considered as a
total noise source. When it is divided into two directions (e.g. suction side and discharge
side) the PWL for one side is lower. Theoretically this should be 3 dB but how much this is
in practice can also depend on the fin tube reflections.
Beside the reflection of the fin tubes, ground reflections or reflection of other constructions
build near the ACHE can be of influence. Specially when the guaranteed noise value is a
sound pressure level at a certain position this must be considered carefully. Knowledge of
local circumstances is necessary to estimate this.
What remains are all possible types of noise sources which are very elusive and difficult to
predict like the generation and amplification of vibrations.
Vibrations can be generated everywhere in the ACHE but they also can pass on to another
part of the ACHE (e.g. plenum chamber or fan blades) and radiate noise at a completely
different location than where they are generated.

Whether noise sources likes this emerges in the total ACHE noise depends on a lot of
thinks like:
- Distance between fan operating frequency and ACHE natural frequency (tends the ACHE
to
go into vibrations?).
- Stiffness of the ACHE (support, plenum chamber).

31
- Conditions of the bearings.
- Alignment of the equipment.
- Value of other noise source. (When the impellers and motors are very dominant you will
have
less nuisance of other noise sources. However their influence will be more and more in
case
the previous dominant noise sources are reduced).
Managing these kind of noises is basically a matter of avoiding them instead of anything
else.
One precaution you can take is to consider the blade material you are going to apply
carefully. As mentioned earlier, fan blades (both aluminium and GRP) are usually hollow
and therefor very suitable to operate as a sound box for vibration generated elsewhere in
the ACHE.
The damping properties of the Howden glasfibre reinforced polyester (GRP) blades, is an
advantage over standard aluminium blades. Beside the fact that it will give you less risk for
resonance it also has less tendency to amplify vibrations generated somewhere else in the
ACHE but which radiates out of the impellers blades. The Howden aluminium bladed K-
series, offers a solution for both noise and vibrations due to the resilient connection of the
fan blades to the hub and an elastomer buffer.

The estimation approach

ACHE data
Number of bays : 5
Number of fans/bays : 2; Total number of fans = 10
Dimensions 1 bay : approx. 14.1 x 7.22 m
Dimensions ACHE : approx. 14.1 x 36.1 m

Theoretically the total noise should be calculated by the energetic summation of the
different noise sources of the ACHE. However not all noise sources can be predicted up
front.

Our approach is to use a ACHE characteristic value to cover all the exlusive noise sources
which are difficult to predict. Key question is what the value of this characteristic should be.
For reasons mentioned earlier this is very dependent on the general execution of the ACHE
construction, power transmission etc. but also of the total noise level of the ACHE. If only
the motor and fans are dominant enough you can neglect all other noise sources.

The Howden fan selection software offers extended possibilities for the calculation of
multiple fans.

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Noise reduction
If expression (1), as mentioned in the "fan noise" section is accepted, it is clear that the
correct approach to achieve noise reduction is to look at decreasing the characteristic value
C and/or the tip speed Utip without reducing pressure drop, flow or fan efficiency.
Reduction of the tip speed of a fan will indeed reduce the generated noise, however it will
also reduce the pressure and flow. The reduction of pressure and flow can be avoided by
making the blades wider or installing more blades, however the last way of doing enlarges
the number of blade trailing edges, which means an increase of the number of noise
sources. Making the blades wider is better. Wider blades perform aerodynamically the
same as narrow ones, but at a lower speed. It is like a sail-plane which can fly at a lower
speed than a motorized plane because of its bigger wing areas. See for instance figure 1

For the reduction of the characteristic value C, besides making the blades wider, the shape
of the blade must be changed, by sweeping it forward and/or through applying the latest
Aerotip technology.

Aerotip technology:
The research for the Aerotip was initiated by the wish to
reduce the vibration of the fan ring and supporting structure
through decreasing the pressure pulses generated by the
blade tips. This aim was achieved, however the
comparative pressure distribution readings indicate
additional advantages; an increase of the lift generated at
the blade tip resulting in a significant fan performance

improvement and a noise level reduction of 1 to 2 dB(A).

Forward sweeping:
This is the common conclusion of international research by
several institutes over the last few decades. The most
important reasons why the sweeping forward reduces the
noise production of the fan are the following:

1. The forward sweep causes a phase shifting cancellation of fan noise generated at
different radial stations on a blade and blade to blade interference. Here it concerns
what is earlier mentioned as the noise by turbulence ingestion.
2. Forward sweep severely limits the range of spanwise travel of low momentum fluid
or more simply said, it limits the grow of boundary swirls on the fan blade trailing
edges by truncating the natural growing path at the trailing edge. This effect is
related to the so called fan self noise.

33
 3. The speed component of the rotating air perpendicular to the trailing edge line is
significant smaller than for a radial blade. If it is accepted that this perpendicular
speed component generates the noisy swirls, its reduction must make the fan more
quiet.
4. The big tip angle on the leading edge side, reduces the tip vortex shedding.

Figure 3: The typical SX shape reduces the air velocity component in perpendicular to the leading edge
(vector B).

The availability of low noise and super quiet fans complicates the design of air cooling
systems: Sound attenuaters are little effective, expensive as well as power consuming.

Example: For a duty point with a static pressure drop of 110 Pa and a flow of 280 m3/s, a
classic 28' diameter fan performs well at 117 RPM with a PWL of 101 dB(A). A reduction of
15 dB(A) can be achieved in the PWL value by using a super low noise fan instead of a
classic fan.(Fig. 4)
For another application it can be interesting to reduce the number of fans without
exceeding noise demands. A super low noise fan can supply 560 m3/s (twice 280 m3/s)
over a resistance of 110 Pa with a noise level of 94.4 at 90 RPM. This is still 11.5 dB(A)
less than two classic fans according to the first configuration.
If a certain PWL value is acceptable for an application, then it is possible to operate the
tower with a super low noise fan with a much bigger flow than with a classic fan. For the
example of before, where the classic fan operates at 101 dB(A), a super low noise fan can
supply 50 percent more air through the same cooling tower at a noise level of only 97
dB(A). This is realised with a rotation speed of 100 RPM.
The conclusion is that there is a wide range of possibilities in avoiding the need for sound
attenuators which demands a new evaluation approach for the cost/benefit analysis of air
cooling installations.

Example: Differences in noise generation for a fan with 8 m. diameter and an air volume of
280 m3/s at a static pressure of 110 Pa.

34
Figure 4: Various Cooling fan options for an identical duty point. Difference in Noise
generation: up to 15 dB(A)

Figure 5: Application potential of Super Low Noise fans. Nair = Pressure * AirFlow

35
Mechanical integration
Proper integration of the Howden fan impeller in the air-cooled system is important to
satisfactory operation of the system and its lifetime expectancy. Based on our field
experience we have the following recommendations for the overall system design:

Sizing of bearings

The impeller is fitted on a drive shaft, which is part of the bearing set, gearbox or E-motor.
Our recommendation is to size the support bearings for a load situation that is generated
when one blade of the impeller is lost. (half a blade for a Howden super low noise SX fan).

Avoid vibration due to resonance

In order to avoid vibration due to resonance Howden fan impellers are designed to have a
natural frequency, which is at least twice the value of the nominal rotation frequency of the
fan.

Interference between the rotation frequency of the fan impeller and the natural frequencies
of the fan drive & support structure shall be avoided at all times. Howden recommends that
the natural frequencies of the fan drive & support structure are at least 1.5 times higher
than the rotation frequency of the fan impeller. This needs to be checked at the design
stage.

When a customer introduces a new design cooling system, or when a new fan type is
applied in an existing cooling system, then interference between the rotation frequency of
the fan impeller and the natural frequencies of the fan drive & support structure needs to be
checked by measurements. The same for interference of multiple values of the rotation
speed and natural frequencies of support structures. Special attention must be paid to
interference of the blade passing frequency of the fan and the natural frequencies of the
support structure. The blade passing frequency is the result of blade number of the fan and
the rotation speed of the fan in Hertz. The natural frequency value of the fan impeller in
operation and the blade passing frequency can be found on the output sheets of Howden's
fan selection program CF-P20.

In line with our recommendation it is advised that the shaft, which is supporting the fan
impeller, has at least two bearings, which both have an independent rigid foundation, and
that a single flange type of support structure is avoided. Particular attention must be paid
for 3 and 4 bladed fans.
Figure 1 and 2 show two examples of drive concepts: Figure 1 reviews an E-motor which is
flanged on a gearbox. This concept is sensitive for various rocking modes. In figure 2, the
E-motor is independent fixed to the fan bridge, which will be more stable:

36
Figure 1: Flanged motor, which is very sensitive for various rocking modes

Figure 2: E-motor which is independent supported on the fan bridge

Variable Frequency Drives (VFD)

A Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) is today's method for combining reduction of mechanical
loading and optimal process control.
A consequence of applying a VFD is that the rotation speed can continuously vary from
zero to nominal value. As a consequence also the excitation frequencies like the rotation
speed, the blade passing frequencies and their multiple values vary continuously.

Howden K-series aluminium fans can be used without limitation across the full range of a
VFD. There is no need to block out a range of frequencies and tip speeds due to the Anti
Vibration System (AVS) blade support design. Howden polyester fans have hardly any
sensitiveness for resonance. The natural frequency of the blades is always more than twice
the maximum nominal speed. Therefore the only theoretical risk on resonance of the
blades that remains is when the rotation speed (operation frequency= OF ) is that low that
the blade passing frequency (BPF) interferes with the blade operating natural frequency.
All these values can be found on the output of the CF-P20 selection program. From that
value the interference point is found by taking the BONF/BPF ratio. Multiplying this value by
the fan RPM gives the interfering g fan rotation speed. Multiplying the ratio BONF/BPF by
the fan tip speed gives the interfering tip speed. As long as this tip speed is lower than 35
m/s, the excitation will be that low that there does not exist a risk on resonance of the
blades. In other cases it is advised to consult Howden.

Example for a model 32 ENF 8 Howden Polyester fan:

37
BONF = 4.9 Hz
OF = 2.0 Hz
BPF = 15.7 Hz
RPM = 117.8
Tip Speed = 60.2 m/s

BONF/BPF = 0.312
* tipspeed = 18.8 m/s
A more extensive analysis with Campbell diagrams is not needed for Howden Cooling
Fans.

A more realistic risk on resonance and vibration problems is interference of the motor-fan
unit with the support structure. Recognised excitation frequencies are the operation
frequency and the blade passing frequency. Critical operation points are hardly to predict
but easily to correct during commissioning. That is why it is advised to do a few test runs
over the full operating range of the VFD during commissioning and to track on disturbing
frequencies. With a modern VFD those frequencies can be blocked for operation.

Above recommendations are intended as a general guide when customers design the
complete cooling system. As such Howden does not accept overall system responsibility or
any contractual liability for vibration problems that may occur due to resonance between
the fan rotation frequency and natural frequencies of the support structure as far as
components and engineering tasks are not part of Howden's supply.

Imbalance
The radial forces caused by imbalance of a cooling fan are calculated as follows:

Howden cooling fan impellers are balanced to G 6.3 according to ISO 1940/1.
This means that the point of gravitation of the fan has a circumferential speed of 6.3 mm/s

The theoretical permanent imbalance force FG6.3 in fact is a centrifugal force.

FG6.3 = m∗ω2∗e [N]

Where:

m = impeller mass [kg] find in dimension sheet

ω = angular speed [rad/s] calculate from RPM: ω = 2∗π∗RPM/60
e = excentricity [m] find from: e = 6.3/(ω∗1000)

This force FG6.3 will have a very low value. For the dimensioning of bearings it is advised to
calculate with a load situation that is generated when one blade of the impeller is lost (half
a blade for a Howden super low noise SX fan). Please refer to Howden standard 03-07-
341.

The theoretical radial force Frad-1bl, when one blade is lost is calculated as follows:

Frad-1bl = m1bl ∗ 0.125∗ Df ∗ ω2 [N]

38
Where:

Df = Fan Diameter [m]

m1bl = mass of one blade [kg]

m1bl can be found in the fan dimension sheet from the mass difference between two
indentical impellers with one blade difference of blade number. For example the mass of
one blade
12ENF is the difference between the mass of a 12 ENF 5 and a 12ENF4 impeller:
136 – 118= 18 kg

39
Pulse force
The pulse force on the fan casing caused by the passing of a fan blade, can be estimated
as follows:

Consider a fixed position on the fan casing where the blade is passing, each time when this
occurs, the fan casing feels an under pressure pulse from the blade tip. The value of the
under pressure is:

with ρ = the air density (kg/m3)

utip = the tip speed (m/s)

This pressure is effective on a certain area of the fancasing. Assuming that this area A is
equal to the tip section of the blade then the radial pulse force is:

Theforce on a specific area of the fancasing is a cyclic load with a

frequency of(z×n)/60 (Hz), with z = the number of blades of the fan and
n = the rotationalspeed. It has a real pulse character.

The force on a specific area of the fancasing is a cyclic load with a frequency of (z × n)/60
(Hz), with z = the number of blades of the fan and n = the rotational speed. It has a real
pulse character.

40