Sentences, utterances, propositions

Chris Potts, Ling 130a: Introduction to Linguistic Meaning, Spring 2010

Apr 1

1 Overview
When thinking about meanings, it’s essential to make a three-way distinction between sentences
(linguistic objects), propositions (meanings), and utterances (real-world events).

2 Conventions
• Sentences are given as trees or as labeled bracketings.

• Propositions are underlined.

• Utterances are inside double-quotes.

3 Contrasts
• Utterances are located in space–time and have agents (speakers). Neither sentences nor
propositions are located in space–time, nor do they have agents. They are abstract objects.

• Sentences are inherently linguistic. Utterances are events that involve linguistic objects (sen-
tences), but they are not themselves linguistic. Propositions are not linguistic (but rather
very easily specified with language).

• Summary

located in space–time? linguistic?

sentences no yes
propositions no no
utterances yes no

4 Example
(1) “I am happy” (uttered by Chris Potts) is an utterance of the sentence S

NP VP

I V AP

am happy
(equivalently, [S I am happy]) and expresses the proposition Chris Potts is happy.
Ling 130a, Stanford (Potts) Sentences, utterances, propositions

5 Can we eliminate any of these concepts? No.

(2) A single utterance can correspond to more than one proposition:
It is cold in here
“It is cold in here.”
Someone should close the window
(3) A single utterance can correspond to more than one sentence:
[S A hippo arrived]
“A hippo arrived; it had much luggage.”
[S It had much luggage]
(4) A single sentence can be used in multiple utterances:

S
“Most pencils are yellow.”
NP VP (spoken on January 17, 1956)
“Most pencils are yellow.”
most pencils V AP (spoken on April 1, 2010)

are yellow
(5) A single sentence can convey more than one proposition:

S
Ed succeeded
NP VP No one who is not Ed succeeded

Only Ed succeeded
(6) A single proposition can be expressed by more than one sentence:
[S Ed said [S that he is ill]]
Ed said he is ill
[S Ed said [S he is ill]]
(7) A single proposition can be expressed by more than one utterance:
“I am confused.”
(spoken by George)
George is confused

“George is confused.”
(spoken by a non-George)

Speaker’s meaning The proposition or propositions that a speaker intends to convey with his or
her use of a particular sentence in a particular utterance.