Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
- 5 -
Cell Structure ................................................................................................................... - 5 -
Mitosis ............................................................................................................................. - 6 -
Cytokinesis....................................................................................................................... - 9 -
Differentiation ................................................................................................................. - 9 -
Meiosis ............................................................................................................................ - 9 -
Mistakes in Meiosis ....................................................................................................... - 11 -
Abnormal Chromosome Number ............................................................................ - 11 -
Abnormal Chromosome Structure........................................................................... - 11 -
The Origin of Genetics ................................................................................................... - 12 -
Punnett Squares ............................................................................................................ - 13 -
Genetics after Mendel................................................................................................... - 14 -
Incomplete Dominance ............................................................................................ - 14 -
Co-Dominance.......................................................................................................... - 14 -
Multiple Alleles ........................................................................................................ - 14 -
Sex Linkage .................................................................................................................... - 15 -
Applications of Genetics in Society ............................................................................... - 15 -
Recombinant DNA Technology ................................................................................ - 15 -
Plasmids in Genetic Engineering .............................................................................. - 16 -
DNA Fingerprinting .................................................................................................. - 16 -
Cloning a Gene in a Bacterial Plasmid...................................................................... - 17 -
Nucleic Acids ................................................................................................................. - 18 -
Protein Synthesis ........................................................................................................... - 19 -
Transcription ............................................................................................................ - 19 -
Translation ............................................................................................................... - 20 -
Adaptation and Variation .............................................................................................. - 21 -
Selective Advantage ...................................................................................................... - 22 -
Natural Selection ........................................................................................................... - 22 -
Artificial Selection ......................................................................................................... - 24 -
Evolution ....................................................................................................................... - 24 -
Developing the Idea of Natural Selection ..................................................................... - 26 -
Evidence for Evolution .................................................................................................. - 27 -
Mechanisms of Evolution .............................................................................................. - 28 -
Genetic Drift ............................................................................................................. - 28 -
Gene Flow ................................................................................................................ - 29 -
Non-Random Mating ............................................................................................... - 29 -
Mutation .................................................................................................................. - 29 -
Natural Selection...................................................................................................... - 29 -
Stabilizing Selection............................................................................................... - 29 -
Directional Selection ............................................................................................. - 30 -
Disruptive Selection .............................................................................................. - 30 -
Pre-Zygotic Isolating Mechanisms ........................................................................... - 31 -
-2-
Post-Zygotic Isolating Mechanisms.......................................................................... - 31 -
Types of Speciation ....................................................................................................... - 32 -
Sympatric Speciation ............................................................................................... - 32 -
Allopatric Speciation ................................................................................................ - 32 -
Adaptive Radiation ........................................................................................................ - 33 -
Models of Evolution ...................................................................................................... - 33 -
Gradualism ............................................................................................................... - 33 -
Punctuated Equilibrium ........................................................................................... - 33 -
Classification of Living Things ........................................................................................ - 33 -
Classification of Living Things ........................................................................................ - 34 -
The Linnaean System of Classification .......................................................................... - 34 -
The Six Kingdoms........................................................................................................... - 35 -
Archaebacteria ......................................................................................................... - 35 -
Eubacteria ................................................................................................................ - 35 -
Protista ..................................................................................................................... - 35 -
Fungi ......................................................................................................................... - 35 -
Plantae ..................................................................................................................... - 35 -
Animalia ................................................................................................................... - 35 -
Kingdom Protista ........................................................................................................... - 36 -
Animal-Like Protists ................................................................................................. - 36 -
Fungus-Like Protists ................................................................................................. - 36 -
Plant-Like Protists .................................................................................................... - 36 -
Reproduction ........................................................................................................... - 37 -
Kingdom Bacteria - Archaebacteria and Eubacteria ..................................................... - 38 -
Classifying Bacteria by Shape ................................................................................... - 38 -
Classifying Bacteria by Gram Stain........................................................................... - 38 -
Reproduction in Bacteria ......................................................................................... - 39 -
Binary Fission ........................................................................................................... - 39 -
Conjugation .............................................................................................................. - 39 -
Endospore Formation .............................................................................................. - 39 -
Nutrition ................................................................................................................... - 40 -
Respiration ............................................................................................................... - 40 -
Viruses ........................................................................................................................... - 40 -
Life Cycles ................................................................................................................. - 40 -
Lytic Cycle ................................................................................................................. - 41 -
Lysogenic Cycle ........................................................................................................ - 41 -
Kingdom Fungi ............................................................................................................... - 42 -
Reproduction ........................................................................................................... - 42 -
Division Zygomycota ................................................................................................ - 42 -
Division Ascomycota ................................................................................................ - 43 -
Division Basidiomycota ............................................................................................ - 43 -
Imperfect Fungi ........................................................................................................ - 43 -
Fungal Associations .................................................................................................. - 44 -
Kingdom Plantae ........................................................................................................... - 44 -
-3-
Classifying Plants ...................................................................................................... - 44 -
Non-Vascular Plants (Bryophytes) ........................................................................... - 45 -
Vascular Plants (Tracheophytes).............................................................................. - 45 -
Spore Producing Plants ............................................................................................ - 45 -
Seed Producing Plants.............................................................................................. - 45 -
Gymnosperms .......................................................................................................... - 46 -
Angiosperms ............................................................................................................ - 46 -
Kingdom Animalia ......................................................................................................... - 48 -
Phylum Porifera ....................................................................................................... - 48 -
Phylum Cnidaria ....................................................................................................... - 49 -
Phylum Platyhelminthes .......................................................................................... - 49 -
Phylum Nematoda ................................................................................................... - 50 -
Phylum Annelids ...................................................................................................... - 50 -
Phylum Chordata ..................................................................................................... - 51 -
Class Vertebrate ....................................................................................................... - 51 -
Superclass Agnatha .................................................................................................. - 51 -
Class Chondrichthyes ............................................................................................... - 51 -
Class Osteichthyes ................................................................................................... - 51 -
Class Amphibia ......................................................................................................... - 51 -
Class Reptilia ............................................................................................................ - 51 -
Class Aves ................................................................................................................. - 52 -
Class Mammalia ....................................................................................................... - 52 -
Phylum Mollusca ...................................................................................................... - 52 -
Class Bivalva ............................................................................................................. - 53 -
Class Gastropoda ..................................................................................................... - 53 -
Phylum Cephalopoda ............................................................................................... - 53 -
Phylum Echinodermata ............................................................................................ - 53 -
Phylum Arthropoda.................................................................................................. - 53 -
Class Arachnida ........................................................................................................ - 53 -
Class Crustacea ........................................................................................................ - 53 -
Class Insecta ............................................................................................................. - 54 -
Class Diplopoda and Class Chilopoda ...................................................................... - 54 -
Glossary ......................................................................................................................... - 55 -
-4-
Using a Compound Microscope
Structure Function
To look through at the specimen, has 10x
Eye Piece
magnification
Contains the optical components of the
Body Tube
upper microscope
Revolving Nosepiece Rotate to change magnification lenses
Primary optical lenses: low is 4x, medium
Objective Lens
is 10x, and high is 40x magnification
Stage The specimen is placed here
Diaphragm / Condenser Adjusts the amount of light
Illuminator / Mirror Provides illumination
Base Supports the microscope, used to carry
Precise adjustment, used on medium and
Fine Adjustment Knob
high power
Coarse Adjustment Knob Imprecise adjustment, used on low power
Connects the eyepiece to the base, used to
Arm
carry
Stage Clips Hold the specimen in place
Cell Structure
-5-
Although there is a tremendous variety among cells, all cells share some common
structures: a cell membrane to protect and regulate what enters and leaves the cell, as
well as hereditary material in the form of DNA. In addition, all cells must make food for
energy and rid themselves of waste products. While no such thing as a typical cell
exists, all cells can be classified as prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
Prokaryotic O2
Mitosis
-6-
Centromere Double-
Stranded
Chromosome Single-
Stranded
Chromosome
Sister Chromatid
In humans, somatic cells (all cells on our bodies, excluding gametes) have 46
chromosomes. These chromosomes form 23 pairs called homologous pairs. Our cells
have two of each kind of chromosome: one paternal (from the father) and one maternal
(from the mother). Homologous pars are double-stranded too. For human somatic
cells, 46 is known as the diploid number, and 23 is the haploid number.
Homologous Pair
Sister Chromatids
The cell theory, as proposed by Rudolph Virchow, states that all cells are derived
from pre-existing cells.
-7-
Replicated,
Nucleus Uncondensed DNA Mitotic Spindle
Pair of Metaphase
Centrioles Plate
Separating
Chromosomes
Spindle Fibres
Shortening
Nuclear Envelope
Forming Cleavage Furrow
Interphase:
• DNA duplicates during the S phase
• centrioles double
Prophase:
• DNA condenses into chromosomes and becomes visible
• nuclear envelope breaks down
• nucleolus disappears
• centrioles begin to migrate to opposite poles of the cell, sprouting microtubules
Metaphase:
• mitotic spindle attaches to the sister chromatids at the centromere
• double-stranded chromosomes line up "single-file" at the equator (Metaphase
plate) of the cell
Anaphase:
• sister chromatids detach from one another and move to opposite poles of the
cells as the protein fibres in the mitotic spindle shorten
Telophase:
• DNA reforms chromatin
• nuclear envelope reforms
• nucleoli reappear and spindle and aster disappear
• two nuclei are visible
• cleavage furrow begins
-8-
Cytokinesis
Differentiation
Meiosis
The purpose of meiosis is to ensure that sex cells have a haploid number of
chromosomes. This ensures that, upon fertilization of an egg cell by a sperm cell, the
resulting zygote receives the correct number of chromosomes.
Meiosis only occurs in reproductive tissues. In humans, spermatogonia are sperm-
producing cells, and oogonia are egg-producing cells. Meiosis is characterized by two
major divisions called meiosis I and meiosis II.
A gamete is a specialized sex cell. The female gamete is the egg, and the male is the
sperm. Gametes are formed by meiosis because if they were produced by mitosis, the
number of chromosomes in the cell would double each time, producing new organisms.
The haploid number for human cell is n, and the diploid number is 2n, 23 and 46
respectively. Chromosomes are referred to in pairs called homologous chromosomes.
One chromosome in each pair is inherited from the mother (maternal chromosome),
and the other is inherited from the father (paternal).
-9-
Tetrad
Prophase I of meiosis is similar to Prophase of mitosis in
that the chromosomes condense, shorten and become visible.
However, in Prophase I, chromosomes undergo a process
called synapsis, such that the double-stranded pairs lie side-
by-side along their entire length. The unit formed by each
homologous pair of chromosomes now consists of four
chromatids and is called a tetrad.
In this configuration, the maternal and paternal
homologous pairs can break and exchange sections of the
chromosome in a process called crossing over. This process
allows for greater genetic variation.
Sister Chromatids
In Metaphase I, the homologous pairs are moved by the spindle fibres to the
Metaphase plate of the cell (similar to mitosis). However, in Metaphase I, the
homologous pairs do not line up "single file", because having formed a tetrad, they line
up side-by-side with their homolog.
In Anaphase I, the sister chromatids do not separate from one another as they do in
mitosis. Instead, the tetrads separate and are pulled to opposite poles of the cell.
Depending on how the chromosomes arrive at the equator, maternal and paternal
chromosomes can assort randomly.
or
- 10 -
Mistakes in Meiosis
There are two common errors in meiosis: abnormal chromosome number and
abnormal chromosome structure.
This happens during Anaphase I or Anaphase II, when one pole gets too many or
too few chromosomes.
Aneuploidy: a condition in which there are too many or too few chromosomes. Trisomy
and polysomy are conditions when there are too many chromosomes, and monosomy is
a condition when one chromosome is missing.
Non-Disjunction: the failure of chromosomes to separate and move apart
Polyploidy: the possession of more than two complete sets of chromosomes
If non-disjunction occurs during meiosis I, as a result, all four gametes produced will
have an abnormal number of chromosomes: either one too many or one too few. On
the other hand, if non-disjunction occurs during meiosis II, only two of the four gametes
produced are impacted.
- 11 -
The Origin of Genetics
- 12 -
Punnett Squares
Each gamete can only contain one of the alleles for a gene for any given trait,
because each gamete contains only one of each homologous pair of chromosomes. This
is Mendel's Law of Segregation and is a result of the separation of homologous pairs
during Meiosis I.
=T =t
Metaphase II
Gametes
- 13 -
Genetics after Mendel
Incomplete Dominance
Neither gene is completely dominant over the other. The F1 hybrids have an
appearance somewhere in between the phenotypes of the two parental varieties. A
snapdragon flower is an example of incomplete dominance.
Multiple Alleles
When there are more than two allelic forms for a gene, the organism has what is
known as multiple alleles for that particular trait. The ABO blood types are an example
of multiple alleles.
A and B are carbohydrates on the surface of the blood cells that act as blood
markers ("nametags"). Type A blood has A markers, type B blood has B markers, type
AB blood has AB markers, and type O blood doesn't have markers.
Blood type O is the universal donor, and blood type AB is the universal receptor.
- 14 -
Sex Linkage
X Y
Recombinant DNA is a technique in which gene segments from different sources are
combined in vitro (in glass) and transferred into cells where the DNA may be expressed.
Restriction enzymes are enzymes that recognize and cut up DNA. These enzymes
are very specific, recognizing short nucleotide sequences in DNA and cutting at specific
points within these sequences.
GAATTC
CTTAAG The restriction enzyme cuts the DNA into pieces at a certain point.
:::::::::: G ::::::::: ::
::
Different source of DNA
G ::::::::::
CTTAA G AATTC
CTTAA G
Recombinant DNA molecule
The DNA fragment is attached to a different source of DNA. The two fragments stick
together by complimentary base pairing. The strand is then sealed with DNA ligase - an
enzyme that allows the DNA backbone to form covalent bonds.
- 15 -
Plasmids in Genetic Engineering
Bacterium
Chromosome
Plasmid: a small ring of
DNA that carries
accessory genes separate
from the chromosome Cell containing the gene
1) The plasmid
of interest
is isolated
DNA
Once the altered plasmid has been returned to the bacterium, that bacterium is
cloned. Once there are many copies of this bacterium, its' protein can be injected into
animals (human growth hormone, heart attack therapy), or copies of the gene can be
inserted into plants and other bacteria (pest resistance for crops, bacteria can be used
to clean up toxic waste).
DNA Fingerprinting
1. Isolation of DNA. DNA must be recovered from the cells or tissues of the body.
Only a small amount of tissue, like blood, hair, or skin, is needed. For example,
the amount of DNA found at the root of one hair is usually sufficient.
2. Cutting, sizing and sorting. Special enzymes called restriction enzymes are used
to cut the DNA at specific places. For example, an enzyme called EcoR1, found in
bacteria, will cut DNA only when the sequence GAATTC occurs. The DNA pieces
are sorted according to size by a sieving technique called electrophoresis. The
DNA pieces are passed through a gel made from seaweed agarose (a jelly-like
product made from seaweed). This technique is the DNA equivalent of screening
sand through progressively finer mesh screens to determine the particle sizes.
3. Transfer of DNA to nylon. The distribution of DNA pieces if transferred to a
nylon sheet by placing the sheet on the gel and soaking it overnight.
4. Probing. Adding radioactive or colored probes to the nylon sheet produces a
pattern called the DNA fingerprint. Each probe typically sticks in only one or two
specific places on the nylon sheet.
5. DNA fingerprint. The final DNA fingerprint is built by using several probes
simultaneously. It resembles the bar codes used by grocery store scanners.
- 16 -
There are many applications of DNA fingerprinting:
• Diagnosis of inherited disorders
• Developing cures for inherited disorders
• Forensic or criminal
• Personal identification
Tetracycline
Resistance
Ampicillin
Resistance
2) Cut both DNAs Human DNA containing
with the same gene of interest
restriction enzyme
3) The human
gene is inserted
into the plasmid
- 17 -
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are polymers made from nucleotide monomers. A polymer is a long
chain of repeating units; a monomer is the basic unit of a polymer. DNA and RNA are
nucleic acids.
Monomer Polymer
Nucleotide monomers themselves are made of three sub-units:
1. Nitrogenous Base:
sugar - a ∙∙∙∙ ɹ - ɹɹɹns
• Adenine (A) | |
Two Rings
• Guanine (G) phosphate ɹɹɹɹdsoɹd
• Cytosine (C) | |
One Ring sugar - g ∙∙∙∙ ɹ - ɹɹɹns
• Thymine (T)
| |
2. Five-Carbon Sugar (Pentose): phosphate ɹɹɹɹdsoɹd
• Deoxyribose
3. Phosphate Group
O
P
In DNA, the sugar and phosphate groups form the "backbone" and the bases point
toward the interior. Bases on one strand form hydrogen bonds to bases on the other
strand. Complimentary strands (A pairs only with T, and C pairs only with G) and the
two chains form a double helix.
Therefore, if one strand of DNA has a given sequence of bases, it is possible to
predict the sequence of bases on the complimentary strand.
GATTCCGATAAC
CTAAGGCTATTG
- 18 -
Protein Synthesis
Protein synthesis is the process of assembling amino acids into polypeptides based
on "instructions" encoded on a DNA molecule. It occurs in two steps: transcription and
translation.
Transcription
Double-stranded DNA
Transcription
*
DNA mRNA
C G
G C
A T → U (Uracil)
T A
- 19 -
Translation
tRNA molecules bring the required amino acids, one at a time, to build the "primary
structure" of protein, according to the instructions on the mRNA. Each amino acid links
to the next by a peptide bond.
Protein synthesis begins when a strand of DNA unravels. The code for producing a
protein is carried in the sequence of the nucleotides in the DNA. Each group of three
nucleotides forms a codon, which represents a particular amino acid. One of the
unwound strands of DNA forms a complimentary strand called mRNA. This process is
called transcription. It takes place in the nucleus of the cells. Afterwards, the mRNA
moves into the cytoplasm, where it attaches to a ribosome. A phase of protein
synthesis called translation then begins. A cloverleaf-shaped molecule of tRNA
approaches the ribosome. At one end of this molecule are three bases (nucleotides),
known as an anticodon. At the ribosome, each anticodon aligns with its complimentary
codon on the mRNA. This occurs according to complimentary base pairing. At the other
end of the tRNA, an amino acid is attached. As the ribosome moves along the strand of
mRNA, new tRNAs are attached. This brings the amino acids close to each other. The
amino acids are joined by peptide bonds, and the resulting strand is a polypeptide.
- 20 -
Adaptation and Variation
Structural Adaptations:
• mimicry
• camouflage
• skunk scent Protection from Predators
• rose thorns
• porcupine quills
• different bird beaks
• different teeth Obtaining Food
• claws for digging
• webbed feet
• hooves Locomotion
• feathers
Behavioural Adaptations:
• mating rituals Reproduction
• hissing snakes
• locating safe places for building nests
Protection from Predators
• turtles hiding in shells
• opossums play dead
• migration Availability of Food
Physiological Adaptations:
• hibernation
(mutation)
(environmental conditions)
New Variation Adaptation
- 21 -
Selective Advantage
Natural Selection
- 22 -
Evolution:
1. Genes mutate
2. Individuals are selected
3. Populations evolve
For natural selection to occur, there must be pre-existing diversity within a species.
This is what allows changes in the population's proportions. Natural selection has no
will, purpose or direction. Rather, it is situational. A trait that at one time seemed
irrelevant may be the trait that allows a population to survive in a different situation.
DNA
Mutations
Change in Genotype
Change in Phenotype
Positive Negative
Breeding animals for certain
Health problems
characteristics
Breeding plants to express their most
Lack of genetic diversity
desirable qualities
Most of the food we eat today is artificially
Monocultures are susceptible to disease
selected
Evolution
Evolution is the process in which significant changes in the inheritable traits (genetic
material) of a species over time. Fossil evidence and geological processes are some of
the scientific evidence. The fossils and their geographic distribution provided important
scientific insights into the past.
Name Theory
"Catastrophism" and "Creationism": local catastrophes caused widespread
extinctions. Extinct species are replaced by newly created species, or by
repopulating from nearby areas.
- 24 -
Species change over time, leading to new organisms (similar organisms may
have a common ancestor)
New Organisms
Buffon
Common Ancestor
He was the first to recognize that the environment plays a role in the
evolution of a species, since species need to adapt to environmental
conditions. "Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Traits": each species gradually
Lamarck
becomes more complex and new species are formed by spontaneous
generation (arising from non-living matter). However, this theory is
incorrect.
- 25 -
Developing the Idea of Natural Selection
Darwin's journey on the Beagle provided him with important evidence which he
then used to develop his ideas about natural selection.
1. Plants and animals observed in the temperate regions of South America were more
similar to plants and animals in the South American tropics than to plants and animals in
other temperate regions in the world (the rodents in South America were structurally
similar to one another, but were quite different from the rodents Darwin had observed
on other continents).
Q: If all organisms originated in their present forms during a single event
("creation"), why was there a distinctive clustering of similar organisms in different
parts of the world?
A: Organisms living relatively close together more likely evolved from a common
ancestor.
2. Darwin found fossils of extinct animals (such as the glyptodont) that looked very
similar to animals presently living in the same region (for example, the armadillo).
Q: Why would living and fossilized organisms that looked similar be found in the
same region?
A: Extinct animals are recent ancestors. Changing environmental conditions
selected for certain traits over others.
3. Plants and animals living in the Galapagos Islands closely resemble plants and
animals living on the nearest continental coast (the west coast of South America).
Q: Why are these plants and animals similar to one another?
A: Once, they were the same species, but at one point in time, the island broke off
from the continent.
4. Species of animals (such as tortoises and finches) that at first looked identical actually
varied slightly from island to island.
Q: Why are these animals different from one another?
A: Different variations were selected for because of different environmental
conditions on the different islands (such as different predators and food sources).
5. Through his experience with artificial selection (such as breeding pigeons), Darwin
knew that traits could be passed on from parent to offspring, and that sexual
reproduction resulted in many variations within a species.
Q: Could the same thing happen in nature? Could the environment "select" the
desirable traits?
6. After reading Lyell's work, Darwin understood that geological processes are slow and
subtle - over time, they can result in substantial changes.
- 26 -
Evidence for Evolution
Anatomy:
• Homologous structures are anatomical structures that have the same
evolutionary origin and may or may not have the same structure and function (a
human arm and a bat wing). They point to a common ancestor both species
shared
• Analogous structures are body parts of organisms that do not have a common
evolutionary origin but perform similar functions (a bat wing and a butterfly
wing)
• Vestigial structures are structures that were functional in the organism's
ancestors, but are no longer functional because they have lost their use (pelvic
bone in baleen whales)
Embryology:
• When embryos are examined, similar stages of embryonic development are
evident (early stages of development in fish, bird, reptile and mammal embryos
all have a tail and gill pouches, revealing a common ancestral origin)
- 27 -
Mechanisms of Evolution
Genetic Drift
- 28 -
Gene Flow
Gene flow is the movement of genes into and out of gene pools due to migration of
individuals from one population to another. Gene flow can decrease the genetic
differences between populations. If the gene flow is extensive, neighbouring
populations can become a single population with a common genetic structure.
Non-Random Mating
Mutation
Natural Selection
Selective forces work on populations, therefore some individuals are more likely to
survive and reproduce than others. Selection causes changes in a population's allele
frequencies in three ways:
• Stabilizing Selection
• Direction Selection
• Disruptive Selection
Stabilizing Selection
The intermediate phenotype is favoured and the phenotypes at both extremes are
unfavoured, reducing genetic variation. This type of selection improves a population's
adaptations to constant aspects in the environment. An example of this type of
selection is the birth weight of babies: too light is unhealthy, and it is difficult to give
birth to a heavy baby.
- 29 -
Directional Selection
Disruptive Selection
- 30 -
Isolating Mechanisms
There are two isolating mechanisms that ensure that different species cannot
interbreed: pre-zygotic and post-zygotic isolating mechanisms. Pre-zygotic isolating
mechanisms either impede mating between species or prevent the fertilization of eggs.
Post-zygotic isolating mechanisms prevent hybrid zygotes from developing into viable,
fertile individuals.
• Hybrid Breakdown: First-generation hybrids are viable and fertile, but after
mating with another hybrid or either of the parent species, the resulting
offspring are either sterile or weak, such as the hybrids of cotton plants
• Hybrid Inviability: The interbred species are genetically incompatible, and the
development of a hybrid zygote stops, because mitosis is prevented, such as the
hybrids of sheep and goat
• Hybrid Sterility: Although two species mate and produce a viable offspring, that
offspring is sterile due to a failure of meiosis to occur, because the chromosomes
differ in number or structure, such as the mule, the cross between a horse and a
donkey
- 31 -
Types of Speciation
Sympatric Speciation
Allopatric Speciation
- 32 -
Adaptive Radiation
Adaptive radiation is the relatively fast evolution of many species from a single
ancestral species. This often happens when an organism is presented with many new,
unprecedented opportunities:
• Organisms enter a new ecological area (Darwin's Finches)
• Mass extinction (mammals after the death of dinosaurs)
• A new trait evolves (plant flowers attract pollinators)
Models of Evolution
There are two models that attempt to explain the speed of evolutionary change:
gradualism and punctuated equilibrium. Currently, both models are accepted: while
many species have evolved rapidly during periods of Earth's history, the fossil record
also shows very gradual change for some species over extended periods of time.
Gradualism
Evolutionary change is slow and steady, occurring before and after divergence. Big
changes are the result of the accumulation of small changes. However, the fossil record
does not support this model, as species are found to appear and disappear suddenly in
the record.
Punctuated Equilibrium
The biosphere is the part of the Earth inhabited by living organisms. This area is only
about 1/10,000,000,000 of the Earth's mass. Nevertheless, as many as 100 million
different organisms live here.
Aristotle identified about 1,000 different organisms approximately 2,300 years ago.
Today, biologists estimate that there are approximately 30-100 million different
organisms that exist. Many scientists tried to classify these organisms according to
specific categories: land, air or water dwellers, useful or harmful organisms, consumer
or producer, etc... As our knowledge of the number of organisms increases, a better
system was created.
John Roy, an English clergyman, tried to classify all organisms in the world in the 17th
century. He was the first to use the word "species". To be a member of the same
species, three criteria must be met:
1. the organisms must be similar in nature
2. the organisms must be able to interbreed under normal conditions
3. the offspring must be fertile
Kingdom: Animalia (animals with a notochord - the axis around which the
Phylum: Chordata spinal chord develops)
Class: Mammalia (animals that have hair and nurse their young)
Order: Primates (monkeys, baboons, etc...)
Family: Hominidae (no other living species in this family)
Genus: Homo
Species: Sapiens
- 34 -
The Six Kingdoms
To classify an organism, biologists first place them in the correct kingdom. There are
six: animalia, plantae, fungi, protista, archaebacteria and eubacteria.
Archaebacteria
These bacteria are unicellular prokaryotes. The have neither nuclei nor organelles.
They are known for living in harsh habitats (low oxygen, extreme temperatures, acid).
They are ancient bacteria, believed to be the first forms of life.
Eubacteria
Like archaebacteria, the eubacteria are also unicellular prokaryotes, lacking both
nuclei and organelles. They can be found living almost anywhere. As many as 4 million
of these "true bacteria" may exist.
Protista
Unicellular for the most part, these eukaryotes have nuclei, organelles, and several
contain chloroplasts. They are found everywhere (land or water). They are the evolved
descendants of prokaryotic bacteria. This kingdom includes all eukaryotes that are not
plantae, fungi or animalia.
Fungi
Plantae
The organisms in the plantae kingdom are multicellular eukaryotes. They have
nuclei, organelles, but unlike fungi, they have both chlorophyll and their cell walls
contain cellulose. These autotrophs can also inhabit a vast variety of environments.
They are for the most part land dwellers, but there are also plants that live on water.
Animalia
The organisms of this kingdom are multicellular eukaryotes. They have nuclei,
organelles, but not chlorophyll and cell walls. They live in many different environments.
These organisms are heterotrophic, and can be either vertebrates or invertebrates.
- 35 -
Kingdom Protista
The organisms of this kingdom have existed for about 1.5 billion years; they are the
first eukaryotes. It is a very diverse group, containing about 115,000 different species.
Because of the diversity of this group, there is no single correct way to categorize its
members. Since the species differ in many different categories, such as cell structure,
nutrition, metabolic needs, reproduction and habitat, they can be classified by any of
these diverse characteristics. Here, they will be classified by their nutrition patterns:
whether they are animal, plant, or fungi-like protists in their diet.
Animal-Like Protists
While some parasites are harmful to their hosts, others are beneficial. For example,
Giardia cause digestive problems in humans and Trypanosoma Gambiensis cause
sleeping sickness, but Trichonympha live in the termite's gut and help it digest wood.
Amoeba and other animal-like protists use endocytosis to obtain their food, a process in
which they use their pseudopodia ("false feet") to capture and take in particles to be
internally digested.
Fungus-Like Protists
Plant-Like Protists
These plant-like protists contain chlorophyll and can undergo photosynthesis. For
example, a Euglena is autotrophic in sunlight, but turns heterotrophic in the dark. Algae
such as diatoms (very abundant, glass-like shells, are a key marine food source) and
dinoflagellates (have two flagella that cause a spinning motion, are luminescent, can
have toxic effects on humans if they are concentrated in shellfish) are also autotrophic
protista.
Protists have developed many different methods to move. Some use flagella: long,
thin, tail-like structures composed of microtubules. They have a whip-like action that
propels the protist forward, such as Euglena. Others have pseudopodia: "false feet"
that are temporary projections of the cytoplasm that allow the organism to move in an
oozing, creeping motion, like Amoeba. Others yet have cilia: short, thin, hair-like
structures composed of microtubules. They have a wave-like action that propels the
protist forward. However, some protists are non-motile, meaning they have no means
of locomotion, such as the Plasmodium.
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Reproduction
Protists can reproduce in four different ways. During asexual reproduction, protists
like Paramecium undergo binary fission, similar to bacteria. During sexual reproduction,
they undergo a form of conjugation, exchanging micronuclei during meiosis. Some
protists are able to form fruiting bodies: for example, in acellular slime moulds when
food is abundant, the slime moulds exist as a mass of cytoplasm with many nuclei.
However, when food becomes scarce, they form fruiting bodies, which produce spores
that are dispersed and germinate elsewhere. Finally, some protists produce spores
without making fruiting bodies, such as Plasmodium.
Euglena
Paramecium
pellicle
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Kingdom Bacteria - Archaebacteria and Eubacteria
Bacteria are the oldest and most diverse group of organisms on the planet. They are
unicellular prokaryotes, and lack a nucleus and organelles. Bacteria live and thrive in
extreme habitats (heat and acidity). They can be harmful, but the majority are helpful.
Cell Wall
Flagellum
Plasmid
DNA
Cell Membrane
Cell Wall
There are two ways to classify bacteria: by shape and by gram stain.
Adding crystal violet stain and iodine to bacteria on a slide is another form of
classifying bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria will retain the purple because of their thick
cell walls, but gram-negative bacteria lose the purple colour and appear pink; these tend
to be pathogenic.
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Reproduction in Bacteria
Bacteria reproduce very quickly: most divide every 15-20 minutes. However, their
reproduction is limited by factors such as space, food and temperature. Because of this
speed of reproduction, there is a high mutation rate during DNA replication, which often
results in antibiotic immunity. Bacteria can reproduce both sexually and asexually, but
are also able to form endospores.
Binary Fission
This is the bacteria's form of asexual reproduction. The parent cell divides into two
identical offspring, provided there is no genetic mutation.
Cell Wall
DNA
Cytoplasm
Endospore Formation
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Nutrition
Bacteria have a source of energy and carbon to produce the organic compounds
needed for cellular metabolism.
Respiration
All living things must carry out cellular respiration to receive a supply of energy to
function. Bacteria vary on whether or not the process of cellular respiration requires
oxygen. Bacteria are classified in one of five categories based on these criteria:
Viruses
Life Cycles
Viruses have two distinct cycles: the lytic cycle and the lysogenic cycle. In the lytic
cycle, the host cell is taken over and the viruses are released after one generation, and
symptoms appear immediately. In the lysogenic cycle, the DNA of the virus is integrated
with that of the host, and the viruses are released only after several generations,
resulting in delayed symptoms.
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Lytic Cycle
Viral DNA
Lysogenic Cycle
In the lysogenic cycle, the virus does not destroy the host cell immediately. Instead,
it integrates its DNA with that of the host, and then becomes inactive. As the bacteria
reproduces, it copies the DNA of the virus along with its own. At some later point in
time (several generations later), the DNA of the virus is activated by an environmental
stimulus, and enters the lytic cycle.
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Kingdom Fungi
All fungi are saprobes: they release enzymes on dead organic matter and then
absorb the nutrients through the cell well, in contrast to slime moulds, which use
endocytosis. Although fungi can vary significantly in appearance, they have the
following structures in common:
• Hyphae: thread-like filaments that make up the body of the fungus
• Mycelium: tangled mass of hyphae used for absorbing nutrients
• Cell Wall: made from chitin rather than cellulose
Reproduction
Most fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually. Their reproduction involves the
use of spores (haploid reproductive cells). Their reproduction patterns are used to
subdivide the 100,000 species into divisions (the equivalent of phyla). There are four
main divisions:
1. Division Zygomycota (case-like fungi)
2. Division Ascomycota (sac-like fungi)
3. Division Basidiomycota (club-like fungi)
4. Imperfect Fungi
Division Zygomycota
The spores of these fungi are in caselike structures, such as bread mould. These
fungi reproduce asexually by spreading out threadlike hyphae called stolons over the
food surface. Root-like hyphae called rhizoids extend into the food and absorb nutrients
and water. Reproductive hyphae form black case-like structures called sporangia, each
containing thousands of spores. After the spores are released, they germinate and
begin to grow on a new food source.
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Division Ascomycota
The fungi in this division, such as mildews, moulds, yeasts and truffles, have spores
in a case-like structure. Spores produced sexually in an ascus (sac) are called acospores.
Spores produced asexually are called conida.
Yeasts divide asexually by budding when conditions are good. When conditions are
bad, they form acospores by sexual reproduction and remain in a dormant phase until
conditions improve.
Yeasts carry out anaerobic respiration (fermentation) in order to break down sugar
molecules and release energy for the cells. Carbon dioxide and alcohol are by-products
of this respiration. Therefore, yeasts are used extensively in baking (carbon dioxide
makes dough rise) and in wine-making. However, yeasts also cause infection and
disease in plants and animals.
Division Basidiomycota
The spores of the fungi in this division are in a club-like structure called a
sporangium. Mushrooms, rusts, smuts, puffballs and bracket fungi are all examples of
fungi from this division. Many are saprobes, but some can be parasitic. They have
complex reproductive cycles. They can cause extensive damage to crops.
Imperfect Fungi
The fungi in this division have no known sexual phases, so they cannot be classified
in any of the other three divisions. Many of these fungi are responsible for diseases in
plants and animals. One notable fungus in this division is Penicillium, the source of
penicillin. Another is Trichophyton rubrum, the fungus responsible for athlete's foot.
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Fungal Associations
Kingdom Plantae
All plants are eukaryotic multicellular organisms that can carry out photosynthesis.
They have cell walls made of cellulose, are for the most part land-dwellers, and develop
from embryos that are protected by the parent's plant tissue.
One characteristic common to plant life cycles is the alternation of generations. One
generation is haploid (n, gametophyte), and the other is diploid (2n, sporophyte).
Classifying Plants
There are two broad divisions of plants: non-vascular plants (bryophytes) and
vascular plants (tracheophytes). Vascular plants are further categorized into spore
producers and seed producers. Lastly, the seed-producing plants are grouped into cone
producers (gymnosperms) or flower producers (angiosperms).
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Non-Vascular Plants (Bryophytes)
These plants appeared on Earth 400 million years ago. They have no true stems,
leaves or transport tissues, and they grow in moist environments. This category of
plants includes mosses, liverworts and hornworts.
Bryophytes reproduce both sexually and asexually. Their asexual reproduction is
vegetative propagation, where a small segment of the parent plant breaks off and grows
into an identical new plant. Water is critical for the sexual reproduction of the
bryophytes, because the sperm have to swim from the male reproductive organ to the
female reproductive organ through it.
Peat moss grows in open, wet environments. As the moss begins to decay, it
accumulates and the lower layers are compressed by their own weight and by gravity,
Because of the moisture and the lack of oxygen, moss layers only partially decay, and
can grow up to 10m in height. Peat moss has many uses, such as fuel, soil additive, heat
and electricity.
These plants appeared 40 million years after their predecessors, the bryophytes,
approximately 360 million years ago. Unlike the non-vascular plants, these plants have
transport tissues called xylem and phloem. It is because of these newly developed
tissues that these plants are able to grow taller. They are all land-dwellers. Vascular
plants are classified into spore-producing and seed-producing plants.
Club mosses, horsetails, ferns and other plants in this category produce spores
during their reproduction. They grow in marshes and on the edges of streams and
rivers. Ferns grow in a broad range of environments.
This is by far the most successful group of plants due to their highly specialized
organs, namely leaves, stems and roots that allow them to adapt to almost any
environment. They can reproduce sexually by means of pollination: the transfer of
pollen from the place it was formed to a receptive surface. They are subdivided into
two groups: cone producers, like the ginkgo, cycads and conifers, and seed producers,
such as roses and tulips. Cone producers are called gymnosperms, literally meaning
"naked seed", and flowering plants are called angiosperms.
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Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms reproduce using cones. The male cone is called a pollen cone, and
the female equivalent is the seed cone. Gymnosperms are used extensively for
softwood, which is used for a variety of purposes, such as in construction, for pulp,
furniture, shingles, doors, fencing, decks, plywood and lumber.
Angiosperms
During self-pollination, pollen from a plant fertilizes the same plant's egg cells. In
cross-pollination, the plant's pollen is transferred from one plant to another of the same
species by vectors such as air, water or animals.
During fertilization, the pollen grain germinates when it lands on a stigma. A pollen
tube grows down into the ovary. One of the two nuclei in the pollen grain divides into
two sperm nuclei. One sperm nucleus fuses with the ovum to produce a zygote. The
other sperm fuses with the two polar nuclei of the ovum to become endosperm tissue
(3n). The endosperm stores nutrients for the developing seed. After fertilization, the
ovum develops into a seed and the ovary into a fruit. The ovary enlarges, and the other
flower parts die.
Similar to self-pollination, seed dispersal is done by mean of air, water or animal.
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Kingdom Animalia
All animals are eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophic organisms. They lack cell
walls, but are the only kingdom whose organisms have muscle and nerve tissue. Most
animals reproduce sexually.
Animals are thought to have evolved from colonial, flagellated protists. Some
colonies had cells that became specialized for things like movement or feeding, which
gave them an advantage over other colonies whose cells did not specialize.
Animals are often described and classified by the way their internal structures are
organized (their body plan):
• body symmetry (bilateral, radial, asymmetric)
• extent of cellular organisation (independent cells vs. tissues, organs and systems)
• presence of coelom and other structural and physiological modifications
Phylum Porifera
This phylum consists for the most part of sponges. They live in warm, quiet waters,
where they are sessile (stay fixed in one place). The sponge's body plan is asymmetric,
lacks a mouth, a digestive cavity, and has no muscle or nerve tissues.
Sponges reproduce both sexually and asexually. They are hermaphrodites, and
water currents carry sperm cells to other individuals. Their form of asexual
reproduction is budding.
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Phylum Cnidaria
Jellyfish, coral, sea anemone, hydrozoans and sea fans are all part of this phylum,
which includes animals with a radial symmetry and two layers of cells. The outer layer is
called the ectoderm, and the inner later can be called either the endoderm or the
gastrodermis. In between these layers is a jelly-like layer called the mesoglea.
Part Function
Muscle Fibres contract to move the animal
Nerve Net allows the organism to respond to environmental stimuli
Nematocysts stinging structure in specialized ectodermic cells (cnidocytes)
Tentacles arm-like structures that release toxic substances through the
nematocysts to paralyze prey
Gastrovascular Cavity sac with a role in digestion, circulation and gas exchange
Phylum Platyhelminthes
This phylum contains flatworms, all of which exhibit bilateral body symmetry. An
important advantage to their flat body plan is that more of the organism's surface area
can absorb nutrients, release waste and participate in gas exchange than in another
body plan.
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Planarians are 2cm-long flatworms that live in fresh water. They have a pharynx, an
organ that connects the mouth and the gastrovascular cavity which the planarian uses
for feeding. They have simple nerve cells at their anterior for sensory: eye spots are
able to sense light, and the sides of their head are sensitive to touch.
Flukes are parasitic flatworms, which spend part of their life in a mammal host.
They have an outer cuticle which protects them from being digested by the acids in the
mammal, and a sucker which they use to attach themselves to their host.
Tapeworms are very flat and slender parasites, equipped with a sucker and a cuticle.
However, they lack external body extensions for locomotion. They absorb their food
directly through their body wall (they do not have a mouth or a digestive sac).
Phylum Nematoda
This phylum is that of the roundworms. Most roundworms are scavengers which
inhabit soil and the bottom of lakes, but several are parasites, which infest plants and
animals. Roundworms have a more efficient digestive system that the flatworms, as
they have a separate exit for the waste (an anus), allowing food to move in one
direction, like all complex animals. They do not require a respiratory and a circulatory
system because their thin body wall and round shape minimizes energy consumption.
Phylum Annelids
The segmented can are found in terrestrial, marine and freshwater environments.
They have repeating, mostly identical body segments with the same structure. Because
of this segmentation, they have an improved locomotion compared to other worms, and
can grow to a greater size without losing the capacity to transport molecules and relay
messages.
Annelids have a coelom: a fluid-filled body cavity surrounded by mesoderm. It
separates the body wall from the digestive track, protects internal organs and acts like a
hydrostatic skeleton.
Annelids need a circulatory system because they are much bigger than worms of
other phyla. Since they have thin body walls, the gas exchange occurs on the surface of
the body, but only in a moist environment.
The body wall of sandworms extends outwards to serve as parapodia, improving gas
exchange and locomotion. They have bristles on the end of each parapodium called
setae, which improve the grip. They have a distinct male and female gender.
Earthworms are hermaphrodites; during copulation, they exchange sperm to fertilize
each other's eggs. The worms are born into cocoons.
Leeches are external parasites that feed on blood. They secrete an anti-clotting
agent that keeps blood flowing. They were used by doctors for a long time to let blood,
and are used today to reduce swelling and to remove pools of blood.
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Phylum Chordata
The members of this phylum have nerve chords, notochords and gill slits at one
point in their life. Their body symmetry is bilateral, they have a ventral heart, and the
body extends past the anus into a tail. They are believed to be evolved from marine
animals. This phylum is separated into seven classes.
Class Vertebrate
This is the largest class in phylum Chordate. The notochord of these organisms
develops into a backbone; they have two pairs of appendages, a skull with a large brain,
and a skin-covered body. In aquatic animals, the gas exchange takes place in the gills;
for terrestrial organisms, in occurs in the lungs.
Superclass Agnatha
This is the class of jawless fishes, such as the lamprey and the hagfish; they also do
not have paired fins.
Class Chondrichthyes
This is the class of cartilaginous fish, such as sharks, rays and skates. They are
marine animals with paired fins. They undergo internal fertilization, and are
ovoviviparous.
Class Osteichthyes
This is the class of bony fish. They have scales and undergo external fertilization.
Class Amphibia
This is the class of amphibians, such as frogs, toads and salamanders. Most live in
fresh water at some point in their life. They undergo metamorphosis, the abrupt
change in body structure (tadpole → frog), are able to breath through their skin, and
have three-chambered hearts.
Class Reptilia
This is the class of reptiles, such as crocodiles, alligators, lizards and snakes. They do
not need water to reproduce; instead, they undergo internal fertilization, and then lay
eggs. The gas exchange takes place in the lungs.
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Class Aves
This is the class of birds. They have horny scales on their legs, lay eggs, are
endotherms (warm-blooded), have feathers and have hollow bones.
Class Mammalia
This is the class of mammals. They have hair, a four-chambered heart, glands to
produce link, specialized teeth, are endotherms, and undergo internal fertilization.
There are three main types of mammals: monotremes, marsupials and placentals.
Humans fall under the last category.
Phylum Mollusca
The animals of this phylum are mostly marine, although a few are terrestrial. They
vary greatly in size, ranging from 1mm to 18m. They are the descendants of annelids.
Their moist, muscular body lacks a skeleton. Their body plan consists of three main
components:
Structure Function
Foot locomotion, feeding
Mantel thin tissue that covers gills and secretes the shell in shelled species
Visceral Mass contains internal organs
Visceral Mass
Mantel
Foot
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Class Bivalva
This class includes organisms such as clams, oysters, scallops, mussels, and other
shelled fish. They have a two-part shell connected by a hinge, are sessile, and have no
head. Clams use their foot to burrow into the sand or mud; mussels use the foot to hold
themselves in place; scallops do not have a foot. Organisms in this class use gills to
capture food from water and for gas exchange.
Class Gastropoda
This class includes organisms such as snails and slugs. They use their foot for
locomotion, and feed using a radula. The gas exchange happens through gills and moist
skin.
Phylum Cephalopoda
This class includes squids, octopuses and the nautilus. They are ocean predators
who can see prey at a great distance; they have a well-developed brain.
Phylum Echinodermata
This phylum includes starfish, sea urchins, sand dollars and sea cucumbers. All these
organisms have a radial symmetry. The adults and larvae look very different - adults
have a radial symmetry while larvae are bilateral.
Phylum Arthropoda
The organisms in this phylum are animals with an exoskeleton made of chitin and
jointed legs. They have a segmented body which they can moult (shed). They have a
hemocoel (body cavity), and open circulatory system and circulatory system, eyes and
antennae.
Class Arachnida
This class includes scorpions, spiders, mites and ticks. Their body plan consists of
two main parts: the cephalothorax (the head and body fused) and the abdomen. Most
have six pairs of appendages; their offspring hatch from eggs, and several have silk
glands, such as spiders.
Class Crustacea
This class includes shrimp, lobsters, crayfish and crabs. They have three main parts
in their body plan: the head, the thorax and the abdomen. Each body segment has
paired appendages attached to it.
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Class Insecta
Like the class Crustacea, the animals in this class have a head, thorax and abdomen.
The head has one pair of antennae, and the thorax has three pairs of legs. Flying insects
have two pairs of wings attached to the thorax (flies only have one pair of wings). Like
amphibians, they can go through metamorphosis.
Organisms from class Diplopoda are millipedes; while they do not have 1,000 legs,
each body segment has two legs attached to it. Organisms from class Chilopoda are
centipedes; they have one pair of legs attached to each body segment.
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Glossary
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Evolution: The process in which significant changes in the inheritable traits (genetic
makeup) of a species occur over time
Immutable: Unchanged and unchanging, believed (before the evolutionary theory
became accepted) to be characteristic of life forms
Fossil: Any preserved remains or traces of organism or its activity; many fossils are such
of hardened body parts, such as shells and bones
Permineralized Fossil: A fossil formed when dissolved minerals precipitate form a
solution in the space occupied by the organism's remains
Fossilization: The process by which traces of past organisms become part of
sedimentary rock layers or, more rarely, hard tar pits, volcanic ash, peat bogs or amber
Microfossils: Microscopic remains of tiny organisms or structures that have hard and
resistant outer coverings
Palaeontology: The scientific study of fossil remains
Catastrophism: Cuvier's theory that numerous global catastrophes in the past had
repeatedly caused the extinction of species that were then replaced by newly created
forms
Relative Age: An estimate of the age of a rock of fossil specimen in relation to another
specimen
Absolute Age: An estimate of the actual age of a rock or fossil specimen
Radioactive Decay: The release of subatomic particles from the nucleus of an atom,
which results in the change of a radioactive parent isotope into a daughter isotope;
when the numbers of protons is altered, a different element is formed
Radioisotopes: atoms with an unstable nuclear arrangement that undergo radioactive
decay
Parent Isotope: changes into a daughter isotope as radioactive decay occurs
Daughter Isotope: what a parent isotope changes into during radioactive decay; may be
stable or radioactive and capable of further decay
Half-Life: the time required for half of a radioactive material to undergo decay; the half-
time for any given isotope is constant
Radiometric Dating: calculation of the age of rock - and of embedded fossils and other
objects - through the measurement of the decay of radioisotopes in the rock
Sexual Selection: the perpetuation of alleles in a population for characteristics that give
males the advantage of being selected by females as a mate
Virus: non-cellular particle of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein coat, which lives as a
parasite within a host cell
Provirus: virus whose DNA has been inserted into the host cell
Recombinant DNA: DNA molecule formed when a biologist splices two different and
combines portions of DNA from two different sources
Restriction Enzyme: bacterial enzyme that cuts up foreign DNA; used in genetic
engineering to create recombinant DNA
Lysis: bursting of a host cell infected by a replicating virus
RNA: nucleic acid made of a single strand of nucleotides, involved in protein synthesis
Binary Fission: division of an organism into two identical individuals through a type of
asexual reproduction
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Gram Stain: dye made of crystal violet and iodine that biologists use to classify bacteria
based on the organism's reaction to the stain
Plasmid: Small ring of DNA in a bacterium, often used in genetic recombination
Prokaryote: single-celled organism that lacks a membrane-enclosed nucleus and
membrane-enclosed organelles
Eukaryote: organism made of one or more cells that have both a membrane-enclosed
nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles
Bacterium: single-celled prokaryote that belongs to the kingdom Archaebacteria or the
kingdom Eubacteria
Conjugation: transfer of DNA between two bacterial or protist cells that unite in a type
of sexual reproduction
Endospore: tick wall produced in some bacteria in unfavourable conditions to enclose its
DNA and cytoplasm
DNA: nucleic acid encoded with instructions to produce proteins that stores and
transmits genetic information
Saprobe: living organism that feeds on dead organisms and organic waste
Bacteriophage: virus that infects specifically bacteria
Retrovirus: virus with a complex reproductive cycle
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