H. Hibscher « J. Kiaue W. Pfluger + S. Appelt Electrical Engineering Basic Technology Wiley Eastern Limited New Delhi Bangalore Bombay Calcutta Guwahati Hyderabad Lucknow Madras Pune Special edition for the Deutsche Gesellschaft fir Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH, Eschborn (Federal Republic of Germany)Special edition within the scope of Technical Cooperation in the field of Vocational Training Original Title: Elektrotechnik Grundstufe © 1982 (3rd edition): Georg Westermann Verlag GmbH & Co., Braunschweig Licence edition: Translated by: (Late) Mr. Devpriya Sen Revised by Uwe Gruner © 1986: Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi, India First Reprint, December 1993 Published by order of the Deutsche Geselischatt flr Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH, Eschborn, Federal Republic of Germany Printed in India by Wiley Eastern Limited at A.P. Offset, Delhi 110 032.PREFACE Progress is constantly being made in electrical engineering Improved materials and modernised processing methods make pos- sible the construction of new components and open up new fields of application. Those employed in the profession must constantly strive to keep up with this development. Inspite of the changes taking place, there are some basis and universal concepts which must be imparted in vocational training This part of the process of education must be undertaken with the greatest care in order to build the foundation for professional mobil- ity and to create a basis for independent study in the future Special stress is laid on this aspect in this book. The contents of the first year of vocational training in the field of electrical engineering are dealt with here, both from the standpoint of a basic theoretical grounding, as well as from the standpoint of Proper practical activity. This book is suitable as a teaching aid @ in the dual system of education in trade and industry @ in elementary vocational training @ in the first year of vocational school @ in polytechnics and similar institutions. In addition, the book can be used as a teaching aid at technical schools and in all classroom settings, in which the fundamentals of electrical engineering are taught. At the same time, itis also suitable for self-teaching and for extension courses. Fhe main intentions in producing this book were motivation, con- cretisation and reinforcement of content The attempt has been to create motivation by means of reference to practice, clarificatory and derivative presentations, a problem oriented approach to the subject matter and colourful illustrations. The concretisation of abstract concepts from electrical engineer- ing has been attempted with the help of extensive experiments, systematic levels of abstraction and a large number of photographs and drawings. Examples, calculations, concise definitions and exercises serve to reinforce what has been learnt, Colourful highlighting of impor- tant definitions and the separate display of concepts, quantities and formula in the page margins, facilitate a rapid survey The bookCONTENTS oRwWro 2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 6.1 6.3 6.4 Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering Introduction 7 Electrical phenomena and their causes 4 Fundamentals of mechanics 9 Voltage 14 Electric current 27 Simple Electrical Circuit Setting up an electrical circuit 29 Ohm's law 29 Electrical Resistance Electrical conduction in metals 35 Resistance of conductors 36 Dependence of resistance upon temperature 42 Dependence of resistance upon voltage, magnetic field, light and pressure 47 Characteristic values and designs of resistors 48 Connections of Electrical Resistances Series connection 56 Parallel connection 67 Group connections 66 Measuring Electrical Resistance Indirect measurement of resistance with a voltmeter and an ammeter 74 Direct measurement of resistance 80 The measurement of resistance with measuring bridges 87 Energy Transfer Electrical work 86 Measuring electrical work 88 Electrical power 89 Measuring electrical power 97 29 35 56 74 86vi Contents 6.5 6.6 10.1 10.2 10.3 11. 111 11.2 11.3 12. 12.1 12.2 12.3 13. 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 14, 14.1 14.2 14.3 Electrical power in a circuit 94 Efficiency 102 Electric Heating Temperature and heat 105 Specific heat 707 Electrical heating appliances 170 Efficiency of electrical heating devices (Thermal efficiency) 174 Voltage Sources in Circuits Loaded voltage sources 116 Series connection of voltage sources 120 Parallel connection of voltage sources 722 Loaded Lines Voltage drop and power loss 125 Rating electrical lines 127 Protection of electrical lines 729 Practical Circuits Types of conductors and their applications 139 Circuit records 740 Lighting circuits 747 Electric Field Basic phenomena of electric fields 145 Laws of the electric field 157 Capacitors 762 Magnetic Field Phenomena, quantities and units of magnetism 176 The action of forces in the magnetic field (Motor principle) 194 Electromagnetic induction 202 Electrochemistry Chemical compounds 277 Conductance in fluids 220 Electrochemical voltage generation 227 Primary cells 237 Secondary cells 238 Corrosion 248 Protection against Electric Shocks Dangers of electric currents 257 Fault current circuit 260 Protecting against excessive contact voltage 263 105 116 125 138 145 176 211 257Contents vii 14.4 Safety rules for working with electrical systems 264 14.5 Steps to be taken in electrical accidents 268 15. Materials 273 15.1 General survey 273 15.2 Steel 279 15.3 Conductor materials 286 15.4 Resistance materials 299 15.5 Insulating materials 304 15.6 Jointing materials 327 15.7 Magnetic materials 330 Index 3411. FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 1,1 INTRODUCTION Although electrical engineering plays such a decisive role in our world, natural electrical phenomena—such as lightning—have not lost their power to impress the human mind. They constantly remind us of the natural forces and dangers associated with electricity. At the same time it becomes clear, what levels. of achievement were necessary in order to harness this power for humanity. Artificially produced electrical phenomena have been known for a long time. The ancient Greeks already knew that light substances, such as hair, feathers and fibres could be attracted by a piece of amber which had been rubbed with a cloth. At the existing level of knowledge, this phenomenon could only be interpreted at the time as the mani- festation of magical or divine influence. One important concept relating to these phenomena originates from this period, in that the Greek word for amber is Elektron. The electricity produced by friction was later also discovered with other materials. To begin with, its application was restricted merely to stage presen- Figs. 1.1 & 1.2: Demonstration of an electrification machine (beginning of the 19th century). Electricity was pro- duced by means of friction on a ball of sulphur. Galvani’s experiment with “animal electricity” (1791).tations. Until the end of the 18th century, there were special stage demonstrations at which one could have oneself “electrified” (fig. 1.1) Apart from such practices however, a few phen- omena were investigated in greater depth. Experi- ments with frog’s legs carried out by Aloisio Luig Galvani! led, for example, to the development o the first electrical cell. Fig. 1.4: Modern generator The basic research carried out in the 19th cen- tury led, among other things, to the invention of the incandescent lamp by Heinrich. Goebel’ in 1854. Independently of this, Thomas Alva Edison’ also invented the incandescent lamp in 1879. Its large scale production however was first begun in the year 1882. This was the first step in making elec- tricity useful to mankind. The production of electricity with the help of magnetism, was a further important development in the technical application of fundamental pheno- mena. The first generator based on this process was invented by Werner v. Siemens‘ in 1866. Thus it became possible to produce electricity simply and economically. Apart from its application in the production of energy, electrical engineering increasingly came 1, Aloisio Luigi Galvani, italian doctor, 1737—1798. 2. Heinrich Goebel, German machanic and optician, 1818— 1983. 3. Thomas Alva Edison, American inventor, 1847—1931 4. Werner von Siemens, German inventor and engineer, 1816—1892, Fiy 13 Fist qynamno Werner ¥ Slemens 1860 Fig’ 1.5: Directional antenna for trans- mission of communications by means of electromagnetic wavesinto use for the transmission of information. The transmission of information, was at first carried out only over cables, and this was later supple- mented by the wireless transmission of signals. The results of this technology are the telephone, the radio and the television set. Since those times, these have become the indispensable media for our information and entertainment. Our dependance upon electrica! appliances and power plants becomes particularly evident when they fail. In most cases, however, the responsible technician swiftly finds and repairs the damage as soon as he is informed of the failure. One distinguishes between the following main occupational branches in electrical engineering: Power engineering rofessions Industry protesions ‘Communications engineering professions Power engineering professions Trade professions << ‘ommunications engineering professions The functions of the industry professions are essentially the production, testing, commission- ing, maintenance and repair of electrical equip- ment and plants. The trade branches generally do not deal with production but rather with installa- tion and repair. A clear cut distinction between the two is however not always possible. Electrical engineering can be divided into the areas of power engineering and communication engineering, with the corresponding division between industry and trade professions remaining applicable to both of these branches. The power engineering professions deal mainly with equipment and plants which generate elec- tricity from the conversion of other forms of energy, convert electrical power into other forms of technically or economically useful energy, or those which are used in the transmission of electricity. Fig. 1.6: Electronic engineer at an energy plant locating faults. Fig. 1.7: Radio and television technician locating faults.Communication equipment and plants also require electrical energy for their operations. Elec- tricity functions here however only as a medium for transforming, processing, transmitting or receiving signals. 1.2 ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA AND THEIR CAUSES Electrical phenomena not only play a role-in technical appliances but in our natural environ- ment as well. The crackling sparks sometimes pro- duced when taking off a pullover made of synthetic fibre, and the adhesion of scraps of paper to syn- thetic materials, are examples of electrical pheno- mena. In the following sections, we will deal with the basic concepts necessary to explain these phenomena. 1.2.1 The Charging of Materials : When a rod of plastic is rubbed with a cloth, it becomes capable of attracting light objects such as scraps of paper. Sometimes, repulsion is also observed. This is a property of electricity. The rod of plastic is said to be charged. Attraction can result simply by pressing together different materials. Thus, for example, plastic foil and paper stick to each other very easily. Man is not capable of directly perceiving charged states. He does not possess any sense organ for this purpose. He can only infer the existence of a charged condition by observing its effects. Fig. 1.8: Attraction by a charged plastic rod. Suitably designed experiments must be carried oS | out in order to be able to make exact statements © : e- regarding the types of charges and their effects. So | They show that attractive and repulsive forces : exist between charged bodies. : -@ e- Repulsion takes place when the charges on the s ee bodies are of the same polarity (like charges). i : . Attraction takes place when the charges on the bodies are of different polarity (unlike charges). § > . Like charges repel . ue eee E Unlike charges attract ® Rear. There is neither attraction nor repulsion Fig. 1.9: Attraction and repulsion - between electrically neutral bodies. between charges.Experiment 1-1 Mutual interaction between charged rods Experiment A Method The plastic rods are rubbed with a woollen cloth and brought close together. Result The freely suspended plastic rod is repelled. Experiment B Method The glass rods are rubbed with a silk cloth and then brought close together. Result Freely suspended glass rod is. repelled. Experiment C Method The ¢harged plastic rod is brought close to the charged glass rod. Result The freely suspended glass rod is attracted by the plastic rod. 1.2.2. Structure of Matter All bodies are electrically neutral in the normal state. They can be charged by external influences. Their appearance does not change in this process. The charged state can be explained in terms of-the Structure of matter. All matter can be simply divided into fundamen- tal substances and compounds. Apart from these there are mixtures, which, however, consist of dif- ferent elements or compounds. Air, for instance, is a mixture of different gases. Fundamental substances are also known as ele- ments. More than one hundred elements have been discovered so far. Some of these do not occur ‘in nature. They can however be produced artificially. Elements cannot be broken down into other sub- stances by mechanical or chemical means. Examples of elements Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, sulphur, copper, aluminium, iron, magnesium. Fig. 1.10: Mixture (alloy) of silver and tungsten (magnified 500 times).Atoms’ are the smallest particles of an element which still possess its chemical properties. When atoms of different elements combine with each other, new substances are produced. These are called compounds. Examples of compounds Polyvinyichloride (PVC), rust, common salt, water, benzene, sulphuric acid. The smallest particle of a compound is called a molecule. The term molecule is applied not only to combinations of different kinds of atoms but to those of atoms of the same kind as well. Molecules are combinations of atoms of the same or of different kinds. Not all substances form compounds. Inert gases do not form molecules under normal conditions, but remain in the atomic state. Atoms are so small that they cannot be made visible even with the help of instruments. Theoreti- cal models have therefore been developed regard- ing their structure, with whose help results of experiments and processes can be explained. Bohr's’-model of the atom has proved useful for this purpose. The atom consists of a nucleus and a shell. The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. Elec- trons travel around the nucleus in circular or ellip- tical orbits. q The electrons orbit the nucleus at high speeds and thus form a shell around it. The atom apbears from outside like a hard ball (fig. 1.12). The dimensions of an atom are unimaginably 1. This term comes from the Greek word means indivisible. : 2. Niels Henrick David Bohr, Danish physicist, 1885—1962. The model of the atom named after him is fundamental to the moden theory of atomic structure and is being continu- ally developed further. Fig. 1.11: Elements in powder form (in order: a) aluminium, b) magnesium, c) sulphur, d) carbon) Matter Elements Compounds \ molecules molecules ‘different atoms same same atoms atoms ® @ oo | &® & Pel o | &@ Oxygen | Helium | Water molecules} atoms |molecules| Oz He H20 Fig. 1.12: Carbon atomsmall. The diameter of a hydrogen atom, for exam- ple, is around 10°'°m and the diameter. of the nucleus only around 10°‘m. Fig. 1.13 illustrates the proportionate dimension. All atoms are built up out of the same elementary particles—protons, neutrons and electrons. The difference between elements consists only of the number of particles which comprise their respec- tive atoms. Thus, the copper atom contains 29 protons and the zinc atom 30 protons in the nucleus. Some models of atoms are shown in fig. 1.14, in a simplified 2-dimensional form. The number of electrons in an atom is always equal to the number of protons. The number of neutrons is often different from the number of protons. Protons and electrons cause electrical phenomena. The electrons travel around the nucleus in defined paths. These are known as shells and are designated by successive letters of the alphabet. 1.2.3 Electrical Properties of Atoms The electrical properties of atoms will be explained using the hydrogen atom as an example, since this is the simplest of all atoms. It consists of only one electron and one proton. The electron travels ina circular orbit around the nucleus. In any orbital movement, however, there Fig. 1.14: 2-dimensional representation of different atoms.is a force acting from the centre of the orbit outwards—centrifugal force. We encounter this force in our everyday life as well, e.g. in a merry- go-round, in sports, while throwing the hammer, and in driving, while turning a corner. The electron would therefore fly away from the nucleus, if this force were not balanced by the force of attraction between the nucleus and the electron. This force of attraction is electrical in nature. It exists because of opposite electrical charges. The charge of the electron is regarded as negative and that of the proton is positive. The neutron is electrically neutral. Electrons are negatively charged atomic parti- cles in the shells. Protons are positively charged atomic particles in the nucleus. Neutrons are electrically neutral atomic parti- cles in the nucleus. The experiments in 1-1 can be explained in terms of this model of the atomic structure of matter: When the plastic rod is rubbed with the woollen cloth, electrons from the cloth pass over to the rod. The rod, possessing more electrons than it did to begin with, becomes negatively charged (fig. 1.16). Rubbing the glass rod with a silk cloth results in electrons passing from the rod to the cloth. The positive charges then predominate in the rod (see fig. 1.17). Opposite charges strive to neutralise each other and a force attraction therefore exists between them. Exercises for 1.2 1. What sort of charges repel each other? 2. A charged plastic ruler attracts small pieces of styropor. What sort of charges could the scale and the styropor have on them? 3. What do we call the smallest particle of an ele- ment which still possesses its chemical ~ properties? 8 Fig. 1.174. List the differences between elements and compounds. 5. Classify the following substances into elements and compounds: gypsum, glass, zinc, ceramic, ura- nium, alchohol, nitrogen, copper, carbon, alumi- hium, sulphuric acid. (Hint: you will find a periodic table of the elements in 15.1.2.). 6. Of what particles is a molecule composed of? 7. Sketch the structure of a helium atom. 8. Sketch the model of a hydrogen atom, showing the charges and forces. 1.3 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS Some electrical phenomena and their inter- relationships can only be explained with the help of concepts and quantities from machanics—a branch of physics. In order to understand the fol- lowing chapter better, we should learn a few of these concepts. Since you will probably be familiar with most of them already, we are merely recalling them briefly here. 1.3.1 Physical Quantities, Units and Equations If physical phenomena are to be compared they must be described precisely. Physical quantities serve this purpose. These are the measurable properties of physical objects, states or processes. Formula symbols are used to denote physical mag- nitudes in arbidged form. These are given in italics in printed texts. There is a unit for every quantity. The metre for instance is a unit of length. This dimension is mea- sured with its help. The signs for units are given in ordinary type in the printed text. Examples of physical quantities: length / mass m time t Examples of units: metre m kilogramme kg second sIn physics and in engineering, all measurable phenomena and objects are reduced to a few quan- tities. These are known as base quantities. They are independent of each other. Seven base quanti- ties have been established internationally with their corresponding units. These are the founda- tion of the Sl-unit system’. Since the 2nd July 1969, these have become binding in the FRG, in accordance with the ‘'Law regarding Units in Mea- surement’. The table in the margin lists the seven base magnitudes with their units. These quantities are measured with instru- ments, e.g.: the measuring scale for length in metres, ®@ the balance for mass in kiligrammes, * the clock for time in seconds, © the ammeter for current in amperes. Quantitative values can be determined by read- ing the numerical value and the unit on the meas- uring instrument being used. Every quantity therefore consists of a numerical value and a unit. It is written in the form of an equation. Examples for the method of writing a physical quantity: 1=2m m= 50 kg Quantitative value = Numerical value . unit All other quantities can be expressed in terms of the seven base quantities and their units. They are known as derived quantities and derived units.- A derived quantity is composed of basic quantities. A derived unit is composed of basic units. New symbols are often used to denote derived quantities and derived units in short form. Examples of derived quantities Area A The area of a rectangle is determined by multip- lying its length / by its breadth 6 1. SI stands for: Systéme International d' Unites 10 Fig. 1.19: Balance for measuring mass Fig. 1.20: Stop-watch for measuring time Fig. 1.21: Ammeter for measuring electric currentThe derived quantity A, is thus the product of two basic quantities, the length / and the breadth b. Likewise, the derived unit is a product. When giv- ing the unit of a physical quantity, the quantity is written in rectangular brackets and the units are _ written on the opposite side of the sign of equality (DIN'1313). Physical quantities are put together in dimen- sional equations, in order to show their relation- ship to each other. Dimensional equations and unit equations must be differentiated from each other. Dimensional equations In dimensional equations, relationships between quantities are expressed in the form of equations. Example: A =/-b. Unit equations In unit equations, units are compared with each other, With the help of these equations, one unit can be converted into another. Examples 1m=100cm = 1 m?=10* cm? 1.3.2 Force and distance Force is not an observable quantity. We can observe only its effects. It is represented symboli- cally by an arrow. The length of the arrow repres- ents the magnitude of the force in terms of a scale of measurements, and the head of the arrow indi- cates the direction in which it is exerted. The unit of force is the newton?. When force is exerted on a fixed object, the object is deformed (fig. 1.23). When a force acts upon a movable object, its motion is changed. The unit of distance is the meter. The same difnension my have many different names depending on the context, e.g. length /, breadth 4, height A, radius r, diameter d, wave- 1, Deutsches Institute fur Normung e. V. (German Standards: Institute) 2. Named after Sir Isaac Newton, English physicist, 1642- 1727. Equations with a quantities units Fig. 1.22 Force Formula symbol F Unit symbol N Distance Formula symbol s Unit symbol m Fig. 1.23: Effect of force on a fixed objectlength A. In electrical engineering for instance, we have the conductor length /, the line of flux length /, the conductor diameter d etc. 1.3.3 Work and energy Work and energy are two concepts of great importance in modern industrial society. They can be simply explained by taking the example of work done in lifting an object. The unit of work and energy is the Joule’. Lifting work is performed when, for example, one carries 10 | water from one floor to the next (e.g. from the 2nd to the 3rd floor 23.06 m). A force F = 98.1 N is required for this, which must be applied until the difference in height between the two floors has been traversed (fig. 1.24). The person carrying the water must perform work. The magnitude of this work depends upon the force F which must be applied and the differ- ence in height A (height of lift) which has to be traversed. Mechanical work is always performed when a force is applied to a body over a given distance. Work is force times distance 1J=1N-1m Work and energy bear a fixed relationship to each other. Whereas the concept of work describes an act or a process, energy relates to the state of a body or a system. Energy results from work. Energy is produced by a process of work Work produces Energy (process) (state) In accordance with DIN 1304, W can be used asa symbol for energy as well as &. If abody is to liftedto a height h, a certain amount of work has to be performed. The body then pos- esses a corresponding amount of energy. This energy of position is called potential energy E,. Work once performed, is never lost but remains available as energy. Work can once again be per- formed with this energy. ST 1. Named after James Prescott Joule, English physicist, 1818- 1889. 12 Work, Energy Formula symbol W Unit symbol J Work W=F-h (W)=Nm Fig. 1.24: The person carrying water performs lifting workEnergy is the capacity of a body or a system to perform work. In our example (imaginary experiment), the water could be allowed to flow back to the 2nd floor through a pipe. A small turbine installed on the 2nd floor could be driven by this water. Thus, the work performed earlier (lifting work) could be regained as driving work (losses are assumed to be negligible.). A pump storage power station, for example, works according to this principle. The potential energy of the water is converted into energy of movement here. This energy of movement is also known as kinetic energy &,. The energy of a body depends upot position with respect to a reference point. All points at the same height with respect to this point, possess the same potential. Fig. 1:26: Energy conversion in a pump storage station In fig. 1.27, the potential energy values for 10/ water is shown in relation to the ground floor. Work must be performed if potential energy is to be raised. When potential energy is reduced, the energy released can be used to perform work. The different forms of energy can be converted into one another. This important physical law is valid not only in machines, but in all fields. The sum of energies in a closed system is therefore always constant (conservation of energy). Fig. 1.25: Water and energy in lifting a body 13height potential 3rd floor aida, 9,18m--£ work is gained 1.4 VOLTAGE 1.4.1 Electric Charge As we already know, charging is caused by fric- tion and repulsive or attractive force results from charging. This will be investigated more closely here. For this purpose, the nature of electric charge will be explained at somewhat greater length Charge is that property of matter to which all electrical phenomena can be traced. The magnitude of charge is measured in units called coulombs'. There are two opposite sorts of charge: positive and negative (see 1.2.3). Electrons are the carriers of negative charge and Protons of positive charge. The magnitude of charge carried by an electron is equal to that car- ried by a proton. Charge of an electron: Charge of a proton. e=—1.602 - 107°C e 1,602. 10°"c Thus, if an atom contains exactly as many elec- trons as protons (which is the normal state), then the effects of the opposite charges cancel each other. The atom behaves externally as an electri- cally neutral body. 1.4.2 Generation of Voltage 1.4.2.1 Principle of Voltage Generation The equilibrium state of the neutral atom can be disturbed by outside influences, e.g. friction. The 1. Named after Charles Augustin Coulomb, French physicist, 1736-1806. 14 Fig. 1.27: Energy values and potential of 10 | water in a house, related to the ground floor Fig. 1.28: Neutral oxygen atom Charge Formula symbol Q Unit symbol Cseparation of charges can be carried out and explained easily with the help of a band generator ‘metal roller Fig. 1.29: Cross section and basic operation of a band generator The band generator is driven by a metal roller. A broad band’of rubber transmits rotary motion to a plexiglass roller, acting as a belt-drive. The band thus rubs against the plexiglass roller and “tears” electrons away from it. The electrons, with their negative charges, are transported downwards to the metal roller. The neutral state of the plexiglass and metal rollers are thereby disturbed. The plexiglass roller gives up electrons, the number of protons becomes. greater than the number of electrons, and it becomes positively charged. It ‘pulls’ electrons out from the basket through the metal ridge. These electrons, too, are transported downwards by the belt and the basket becomes positively charged as well. The metal roller, on the other hand, becomes negatively charged because an excess of electrons collects here. The separation and transport of charges do not take place unhindered. The electrons have a ten- dency to return to the plexiglass roller, since oppo- site charges attract each other. These forces of attraction have to be overcome. The opposing for- ces necessary are generated by the drive and transmitted by the band. The force acts through a distance s. An amount of work W is therefore performed, This is the mechanical process. What is the elec- trical process however? Fig. 1.31: The measuring instrument indicates a voltage 15To investigate this, we connect the band genera- tor to a measuring instrument (fig. 1.31) A tendency exists for the two charges to neutra- lise each other. This state is called electric potential. Voltage is generated by the separation of charges. Voltage or electric potential is the state of separted charges striving to neutralise each other. The unit of electric potential is the volt: Electrical potential In order to understand how voltage is generated, Formula symbol U we will analyse the experiment with the bandgen- Unit symbol V erator in imagination. To begin with, the electrons were torn away from the plexiglass roller and deposited on the rubber band. The separation of charges Q and the genera- tion of voltage U have been accomplished by per- forming work. To understand what.happens after this, we will assume that no further separation of charges takes place. If the band continues to move, no further charge accumulates o1 The charge Q remains constant. To transport this down to the metal roller, however, more work has to be done. In proportion to the additional work which has to be done, the voltage U increases. U is proportional to W: U — W Obviously the amount of work that has to be done depends not only upon the magnitude of vol- tage, but upon the magnitude of the charge to be transported as well. If a great deal of ‘charge has to be transported, correspondingly more work has to be done without an increase in voltage. Ww w-a i] Voltage is proportional to work necessary to W= 767 separate and transport unit charge: 1. Named after Alessandro Volta, Italian physicist. 1745-1827. 16Levels of voltage Human heart approx 0.001 v Lead accumulator (6 cells) 12V Low voltage network 220 Colour picture tube approx. 25,000 V High voltage network 110,000 v Fig. 1.32: Model of an alternating current generator In any voltage source, charges are separated. The voltage U is produced. This is an electrically energised state, since the charges strive to neutra- lise each other. Electrical energy is voltage times charge. This electrical energy can be released to perform work. A voltage source is therefore an energy source. The equilibrium relationship is: W = Eu Fis =U-Q IN-tm=1V-1C 1.4.2.2 Methods of Voltage Generation Voltage can be generated in several ways. Some of the methods used in physics and engineering will be briefly described in the following section. Voltage from friction An imbalance of charges is produced by rubbing plastics (see 1.2.1). Voltage from moving magnets or coils The separation of charges is brought about by moving a coil in a magnetic field or by moving the work is necessary (generator) charge separation charge neutralisation work is performed (consumer) Fig. 1.33: Principle of conversion between work and electrical energy Electrical energy ignitign electrodes | kev ing ying hammer Pie: ‘ceramic Fig. 1.34: Ignition system (generating voltage from pressure) 17magnet and keeping the coil stationary. This method is applied, for example, in the generators used in power stations. The bicycle dynamo and the dynamic microphone, too, function on the same principle. Voltage from pressure or tension in crystals By changing the pressure or tension, a separation of charges is generated on the surface of certain crystals (e.g. quartz). The magnitude of voltage generated depends upon the strength of the out- side influence (fig. 1.34): Fig. 1.38: Thermoelectric element Voltage from heat When two different metals are joined and the junction point is heated, a small voltage (a few millivolts) is generated. The magnitude of the vol- tage depends upon the temperature. This principle is used in measuring temperature (fig. 1.35). Voltage from light When light falls on certain materials (silicon, Germanium), a separation of charges takes place. This phenomenon is utilised, for instance, in light meters and in the generation of voltage in satellites (fig. 1.36). Fig. 1.36: Photo-electric elements Element, accumulator - or batter Voltage from chemical reactions © If two conductors of ,different materials are +t dipped into a fluid which conducts electricity, a separation of charges takes place. This process is used in all electro-chemical voltage sources. Voltmeter 1.4.3 Voltage Measurement Voltage exists between any two points with dif- ferent levels of charge. A charge difference or P Uu N = Fig. 1.37: Circuit for measuring voltage 18 -potential difference exists between them Voltage is electric potential difference. Voltages can be easily measured with the help of suitable instruments. The two terminal of the volt- meter are connected with the two points between which the voltage is to be measured (fig. 1.37) There are different types of voltmeters (fig. 1.38). Their special features must be taken into account when using them. Thus, for instance, the type of voltage and the polarity must be taken into consid- eration when using some voltmeters (see 1.4.4). If there is an excess of electrons at one pointand a deficit at another, then there is a voltage between these two points. This, however, is not the only possibility. For instance, there may be a voltage between two points even if there is an excess of electrons at both of them, provided the excess at one point is greater than the excess at the other Just as in the case of mechanical energy (see 1.3.3) we must fix a reference point and measure the potentials or voltages against this. In fig. 1.39. Potential +30V4-- aM +15V : +6V en goles -15V different charge concentrations are shown with the different values of voltage between them. The reference point is marked by the “ground” sign The arrows indicate the direction of voltage in each case (from + to -). The reference point can, however, be changed without changing the potential differences. Only the values of potential at each point will change 1.4.4 Types of Voltage Suitable voltage sources have been developed for various technical requirements. Depending upon their construction, they supply direct, alter- nating or mixed voltage. These differences will be dealt with in this section Fig. 1.38: Voltmeter Fig. 1.39: Examples of voltage and potentials Potential t Fig. 1.40: Oscillogram and line dia- gram of direct voltageTime-dependent electrical magnitudes can be visually represented with an oscilloscope’. Figure 1.40 shows a direct voltage with respect to time in the form of an oscillogram and the corresponding graphical representation is called a line diagram. Direct voltage is of constant magnitude (ampli- tude). It remains at the same amplitude from the moment of switching on to the moment of switch- ing off. The polarity of the voltage source does not change. Alternating voltage sources change their polar- ity constantly, and therefore the direction of vol- tage. The voltage supplied to our homes by power plants is alternating. Fig. 1.41 shows a sinusoidal alternating voltage over time, in the form of an oscillogram and the corresponding line diagram A mixed voltage is a combination of direct vol- tage and alternating voltage. Figure 1.42 shows a possible function. The level of voltage is not con- stant. It varies around a mean value. In this case, the level of the voltage varies between +3 V and +17 V. The mean value is 10 V. Exercises for 1.4 1. There is a charge difference between two points. What is this state called? 2. What is the symbol and unit for voltage? 3. Voltges can be generated by means of a band generator. Describe the mechanical and electrical processes involved. 4. There is a relationship between voltage, work and charge. Express this in a formula. 5. How does potential change when the charge remains constant and the distance between charges is increased? 6. Name some devices with which voltage can be generated, and the principle according to which it is generated in each case. 7. Draw a circuit for the measurement of voltage. 8. What must be taken into consideration when connecting up a voltmeter? 9. What are the differences between direct and alternating voltages? Fig. 1.42: Oscillogram and line diagram for a mixed voltage[> 1. A compound work made up of the word “oscillation” (Latin derivation) and “scope” (Greek derivation): instrument for optical observation or investigation. 20 Direct voltage Alternating voltage ™~ Mixed voltage S Fig. 1.41: Oscillogram and line dia- gram for alternating voltage +17V +10V; +3V- a10. Draw the function of a mixed voltage. 11. With which measuring instrument can voltage with respect to time be visually represented. 1.5 ELECTRIC CURRENT 1.5.1 Circuit and Current Direction In the voltage source, charges are separated and voltage is generated. The voltage tends to reverse the separation of charges. The forces which are applied to separate the charges, however, prevent this reversal from taking place inside the voltage source itself. Fig. 1.43: Electric circuit Fig. 1.44: Movement of electrons between the atomic nuclei Fig. 1.45: Model representation of electron flow in an electrical circuit If a load circuit is connected across the terminals of the voltage source, then the separation of charges can be reversed. This is known as a closed circuit (fig. 1.43) When such a circuit is set up, the separation of charges decréases and the voltage therefore drops. As a result of this, the charge-separating forces within the voltage source begin to predomi- nate and charges are separated again. The original state is immediately restored. Charges (electrons) flow through the conductors 21and the load. Since charges are being separated continuously in the voltage source at the same time, electrons flow through it as well. A close circuit of charge flow is therefore created. The movement of charge is electric current. This consists not only of the movement of nega- tive charges but of positive charges as well (e.g. in fluids). What is important is that charges flow only in one direction. Electric current is the directional flow of charges. The movement of charges towards neutralisa- tion can only take place if there is a voltage. Voltage and current are therefore related to each other as - ~ cause and effect. Voltage causes current (cause) (effect) Voltage is the cause of current. Electrons move in the conductor at a very low speed—merely a few millimeters a minute. The reason for this is that the immobile atomic nuclei act as obstacles to the electrons. The elec- trons move between them ina sort of zig-zag path. As soon as the current is switched on, an incan- descent bulb, for instance, lights up. The effect of the current is therefore instantaneous. The voltage source exercises a “‘pressure’’ on the free electrons in the conductor from the nega- tive pole (repulsion) and a “suction” from the posi- tive pole (attraction), whose effects spread through the entire circuit immediately (see fig. 1.46). In an electrical circuit, the electrons flow from the _N (-) pole to the P (+) pole outside the voltage source, and from P to N inside it. This is the direc- tion of electron flow. Certain phenomena related to current flow had, however, already been discovered before the flow of charge in an electrical circuit could bé explained theoretically. In formulating the laws which had been discovered, it was assumed that current from the positive pole to the negative pole outside the voltage source. i: The direction in which a current is assumed to be flowing, is irrelevant to its efféct (e.g. the lighting up of an electric lamp). Thus the conventionally 22 Fig. 1.46: Spread of pressure and suc- tion effect in an electrical circuitestablished direction of current was retained in engineering. The direction of current conventionally assumed in engineering is from the positive pole to the nega- tive pole outside the voltage source. The direction of current flow is indicated by an arrow in circuit diagrams, just as the polarity of | voltage is. Fig. 1.45 shows the direction of cur- rent flow in a circuit, outside the voltage source as well as inside it. 1.5.2 Current Strength In addition to knowing whether and in what direction a current is flowing, it is important to know the magnitude of charge flow as well. This is quite easy to picture in the imagination. If one could count the electrons passing a given cross-section of a conductor every second, then this would be a measure of current strength. Measuring current strength is therefore some- what like carrying out a sort of “traffic census” of electrons in a conductor. This strength of electric current is the quantity of charge which flows across a given cross- section of a conductor every second. Po = aac N——_ * a) direction of electron flow —_b) conventional direction of current flow used in engi- neering Fig 1.47: Direction of flow of electrons and direction of current flow conventionally used in engineering The unit of current strength is the ampere’. If one assumes a constant flow of current, then twice the quantity of charge will pass through a given cross-section in twice the time. In order to calculate the quantity of charge flowing per unit time, the entire charge must be divided by the measuring time. 1. Named after André-M: 1836. je Ampere, French physicist 1775- cross-section of conductor Electrons flowing per second through this cross-section Fig. 1.48: Pictorial representation of current strength Current strength Formula symbol / Unit symbol 2 t l= A 23uantity of charge Current strength ——_emny of Sheree _ time If one wishes to transpose the equation so as'to determine Q, then one obtains the following relationship: Charge is current strength multiplied by time 1C=1A-1s In practice. charge is usually quantified in ampere-seconds instead of coulombs. Computing the number of electrons in 1 As Accurrent of 1 A flows through a conductor over a period of 1 second. How many electrons have passed through the conductor if the charge carried by a single electron is 1.6 x 10°” A s? A current strength / = 1 A is flowing when a charge of 1 As passes through a conductor cross- section every second. Thus, the number of elec- trons which flow through this cross-section is: 1As 16x10°As Acurrent strength of 1 Ais equivalent to the flow of charge carried by 6.25 10’* electrons every second. = 0.625-10"° This is an unimaginably huge number. Written Ammeter down in full, it reads 6250 000 000 000 000 000 Fig. 1.49: Circuit for measuring current 24Magnitudes of current strength Exposure meter approx 0.0001 A Incandescent lamp, approx 0.45A Electric iron approx 2A Tram approx SOA Aluminium smelting furnace approx 15 000A Lightning approx 100 000 A 1.5.3 Current Measurement Electric current is the directional flow of charge, in a conductor for instance. If this flow of charge is to be measured, the conductor of the electrical circuit must be cut at some point andthe terminals _ Fig. 1.60: Different sorts of ammeters of the measuring instrument be connected to the two ends at the point of disconnection. The entire current must pass through the measuring unit (fig. 1.49). There are different types of ammeters. Their spe- cific features must be taken into account. In some instruments, the current must flow in only one direction (from + to ) 1.5.4 Types of Current Voltage is the cause of electrical current. If a direct voltage is applied to an electrical circuit, a direct current will flow through it. The movement of = charges is uni-directional. Fig, 1.51: If an alternating or mixed voltage is appliedtoan ‘Surrent electrical circuit, an alternating or a mixed cur- rent will flow through it. Alternating current changes direction periodi- cally. The electrons move back and forth constantly. 1.5.5 Effects of Electric Current Electric currents have the following effects: t Line diagram of a direct * Heating effect Light effect Magnetic effect Chemical effect a . Physiological effect Fig. 1.52: Line diagram of an alternat- These effects are used in numerous ways by __ ing current technology. Some ices for using these effects will be mentioned and briefly described here. The fundamental laws associated with these effectswill be dealt with in this section, along with basic experiments. Heating effect In the devices shown in figure 1.54, the heating effect of electric current is put to use. The current flows through a thin metal wire and heats it. Lighting effect If the current strengthis high enough, the wire is not only heated, but begins to glow as well, emit- ting light. This effect ‘is used in incandescent lamps. Under certain conditions, gases too can conduct electricity. In fluorescent lamps and in the sodium vapour lamp, this effect is used to generate light. Fig. 1.53: Line diagram of a mixed current Fig. 1.54: Examples of heating effect: immersion heater, solder- ing iron Magnetic effect Whenever current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is generated around it. This effect can be magnified by using coiled conductors (coils). This effect is put to use in the electromagnet shown in figure. 1.56, to lift up iron parts. Fig. 1.55: Examples of light effect. From left to right: Sodium vapour lamp, carbon filament lamp, incandescent lamp, mer- cury vapour lamp Fig. 1.56: Example of magnetic effect. electromagnet 26Chemical effect When an electrical current flows through a con- ductive, non-metallic fluid solution (electrolyte), solution and deposited on the electrodes. The dis- solved materials (solute) can thus be extracted from the solvent (see 13.2.2). Deposition takes place on the surface of the elec- trodes. Under certain circumstances, the deposit adheres to the electrode, giving rise to a surface finish (electroplating) (see 13.2.4.1). Physiological effects : When anelectric current flows through a human body or the body of an animal, it gives rise to physi- ological effects (see 14.1.1). It causes convulsions Fig. 1.57: Example of the physiological effects of an electric current: Electric shock used in resuscitation with a defibrillator. 27of the muscles. Although this effect can be damag- ing, electric current in suitable doses is also used therapeutically in medicine. For this purpose, law current strengths of a few uA are used. Exercise for 1.5 1. Enumerate the conditions under which an electric current can flow. 2. Why does the voltage (potential difference) between the terminals of a voltage source remain constant even when electrons flow out of it? 3. What is the direction of current inside the vol- tage source? 4. What is meant by electric current flow? 5. Classify the terms current and voltage in terms of cause and effect. 6. What is the direction of current conventionally assumed in engineering and how does it relate to the direction of flow of electrons? 7. Draw a voltage source connected to an electric lamp. Indicate the direction of flow of electrons. 8. What is the formula symbol and the unit of electric current strength? 9. Express the following values in amperes: 3.6 mA; 25 pA; 6.8 kA. 10. Write out the following values of current strength without using power of 10:420- 10° A, 95 + 107A, 110-10°A. 11. What is the formula symbol and the unit of charge? 12. Drawa circuit for the measurement of current strength. 28