Vincent Ho

Period 4
12/21/10
Homework #17 : Chapter 17 (due Mon)
ONE Concept Map: 10 points

Gene to Proteins
Objectives
The Connection Between Genes and Proteins
1. Explain why dwarf peas have shorter stems than tall varieties.
Dwarf peas are shorter than tall varieties because they lack gibberellins, the growth hormones
which normally stimulate the stem elongation. Their failure to make gibberellins is due their
lack of the enzyme required for its synthesis. This protein is missing due to a malfunction of
the gene coding for it.
2. Explain the reasoning that led Archibald Garrod to first suggest that genes dictate
phenotypes through enzymes.
Archibald Garrod was the first to suggest that genes dictate phenotypes through the proteins
that catalyze specific chemical reactions in the cell... enzymes. His ideas were based upon
inherited diseases which caused an inability to produce certain enzymes, particularly
alkaptonuria. This condition causes urine to turn black to due the presence of a chemical
which turns dark when exposed to air. Garrod believed that most people have enzymes that
break down alkapton. Many decades later, research was conducted that supported his
hypothesis. It was confirmed that genes dictate specific enzyme production.
3. Describe Beadle and Tatum’s experiments with Neurospora and explain the contribution they
made to our understanding of how genes control metabolism.
Beadle & Edward Tatum’s experiments involved assailing the bread mold, Neurospora with
X-rays. Then, they searched among the survivors to find mutants whose nutritional needs
differed from the norm. These mutants could not live on the minimal medium given to normal
Neurospora. They couldn’t not synthesis important molecules from the nutrients given. Once
given complete growth medium, however, the mutants could survive. Beadle & Tatum tried to
characterize the specific metabolic defects by growing them on various complete mediums in
different vials. The supplement added that allowed for growth would indicate the defect.
Then, they went on to determine the mutants’ three classes based on genetic crosses.
Each mutant was found to be defective in only 1 gene. Beadle & Tatum were thus able to
demonstrate the relationship between enzymes and genes. In addition, their experiment was
strong support for their hypothesis: one gene, one enzyme, which stated that a gene’s function
is to dictate a specific enzyme’s production.
4. Distinguish between the “one gene–one enzyme” hypothesis and the “one gene–one
polypeptide” hypothesis and explain why the original hypothesis was changed.
The “one gene—one enzyme” hypothesis was altered because genes code for proteins, and
not all proteins are enzymes. The hypothesis of “one gene—one protein” was then altered
again when it was discovered through later research that proteins are composed of several
polypeptides, and that each polypeptide has it’s own gene. Thus, the hypothesis is now “one
gene—one gene polypeptide.”
5. Explain how RNA differs from DNA.
While DNA and RNA are chemically similar, the former has deoxyribose and the latter
ribose. In addition, for nitrogenous bases, thymine in DNA is replaced by uracil in RNA.
RNA is the nucleic acid which links DNA and protein synthesis, as genes cannot build
proteins directly. RNA molecules are always single stranded.
6. Briefly explain how information flows from gene to protein.
Information in DNA is in the form of specific sequences of nucleotides, or genes.
Transcription occurs, synthesis a copy of the DNA, called messenger RNA (mRNA). DNA
and mRNA contains the same information. Protein synthesis is then directed during
translation, when polypeptides are produced using the direction from mRNA.
 7. Distinguish between transcription and translation.
Transcription is RNA synthesis under DNA’s direction. The end product is messenger RNA,
which is generally referred to as mRNA. Translation is the synthesis of a polypeptide under
the direction of the mRNA from transcription.
8. Compare where transcription and translation occur in prokaryotes and in eukaryotes.
In prokaryotes, mRNA produced by transcription is immediately translated. On the other
hand, eukaryotes much process the mRNA before translation can occur. The nuclear envelope
separates the two steps. In addition, prokaryotes have sequences that signal the end of
transcription. With eukaryotes, polymerase eventually falls off DNA.
9. Define codon and explain the relationship between the linear sequence of codons on mRNA
and the linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide.
The mRNA transcribed from DNA forms triplets called codons. Codons specify the
placement of amino acids along a polypeptide. The series of codons, however, must be read in
the correct frame for the correct linear sequence of amino acids.
10. Explain the early techniques used to identify what amino acids are specified by the triplets
UUU, AAA, GGG, and CCC.
The early technique for identifying the amino acids synthesized by the base triplets UUU,
AAA, GGG, and CCC were discovered by Marshall Nirenberg. By creating an artificial
mRNA molecule made only of the specific repeated base, Nirenberg knew that the one amino
acid produced would have been coded by the codon containing the base repeated three times.
11. Explain why polypeptides begin with methionine when they are synthesized.
Polypeptides begin with methionine when they are synthesized because that amino acid is a
promoter, or codon that initiates the process. Methionine indicates the start of translation.
12. Explain what it means to say that the genetic code is redundant and unambiguous.
The genetic code is redundant, but unambiguous, meaning that while several codons can be
for the same amino acid, no codons can specify two amino acids. The codons that do code for
the same amino acid tend to differ only in their third base.
13. Explain the significance of the reading frame during translation.
The reading frame is significant during translation because the genetic code’s message will
not be correct if the starting point is not right. Then, from the start, all codons must be read in
groups of three nucleotides.
14. Explain the evolutionary significance of a nearly universal genetic code.
The genetic code is almost universal, meaning it is shared by organisms ranging from bacteria
to plants to animals. This means that in lab research, genes can be transcribed and translated
from one species to another. Bacteria can thus synthesize specific human proteins after the
appropriate genes are inserted. In terms of evolutionary significance, the genetic code shows
that all living things arose from a common ancestor. It is a reminder of the kinship of all life
on Earth.

The Synthesis and Processing of RNA

15. Explain how RNA polymerase recognizes where transcription should begin. Describe the
promoter, the terminator, and the transcription unit.
RNA polymerase recognizes where transcription begins by detecting the promoter’s location.
RNA polymerase then attaches to the promoter, initiating transcription. At the terminator, a
special sequence, the signal is given to end transcription. Transcribing produces the
transcription unit.
16. Explain the general process of transcription, including the three major steps of initiation,
elongation, and termination.
The general process of transcription includes initiation, where transcription actually begins.
RNA polymerase recognizes a promoter which begins the process. Elongation is when the
codons of a gene are copied. The transcription process is then ended through termination.
17. Explain how RNA is modified after transcription in eukaryotic cells.
 When RNA is processed after transcription. Both ends are altered, leaving an end with a head
and another with a tail. Some interior parts are also removed and the rest are spliced together.
18. Define and explain the role of ribozymes.
Ribozymes are RNA that works like enzymes. The discovery of ribozymes rendered the
statement that “All biological catalysts are proteins” obsolete.
19. Describe the functional and evolutionary significance of introns.
Introns are non-coded segments of nucleotides, and are evolutionary significance as they
protect the mRNA from hydrolyzing agents in the cytoplasm.

The Synthesis of Protein

20. Describe the structure and functions of tRNA.
tRNA, like other RNA molecules, is transcribed from DNA templates. It is used repeatedly in
the cytoplasm as it picks up its designated amino acid in the cytosol. It deposits the amino
acid at the ribosome and returns to the cytosol to pick up another amino acid. TRNA is
consisted of about 80 nucleotides that folds back on itself to create a three dimensional figure.
21. Explain the significance of wobble.
The wobble is the third position at the base of an anti-codon. If U on the anti-codon is in this
position, it is able to bind with A or G.
22. Explain how tRNA is joined to the appropriate amino acid.
Each tRNA is connected to the correct amino acid by aminoacyl-tRNA synthase. Aminoacyl-
tRNA synthase has an active site for a specific tRNA and amino acid combination.
23. Describe the structure and functions of ribosomes.
Ribosomes help with the specific pairing of anti-codons in tRNA with mRNA codons during
protein synthesis. A ribosome is composed of a large and small sub-unit. The sub-units are
made up of proteins and rRNA, which is the most abundant RNA in the cell.
24. Describe the process of translation (including initiation, elongation, and termination) and
explain which enzymes, protein factors, and energy sources are needed for each stage.
Like transcription, translation can also be separated into the same three stages: initiation,
elongation, and termination. Initiation takes an mRNA, tRNA with the first amino acid, and
two ribosomal sub-units. Elongation consists of a series of three step cycles as each amino
acid is added. Termination occurs when one of the three stop codons reaches the A site.
25. Describe the significance of polyribosomes.
Polyribosomes are multiple ribosomes that may trail along mRNA. Ribosomes require less
than minutes to convert an averaged sized mRNA into a polypeptide.
26. Explain what determines the primary structure of a protein and describe how a polypeptide
must be modified before it becomes fully functional.
The primary structure of a protein is determined by its coiling and folding into 3-D shape
during/after synthesis. This in turn determines the secondary & tertiary structure. Polypeptides
must be modified with posttranslational modifications before becoming fully functional
proteins. This may involve adding sugars, lipids, or etc. Certain animo acids may be removed.
Then, two or more polypeptides may unite to form one protein.
27. Describe what determines whether a ribosome will be free in the cytosol or attached to the
rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Free and bound ribosomes have the same structure, but synthesize different kinds of proteins.
28. Describe two properties of RNA that allow it to perform so many different functions.
The ability of RNA to form hydrogen bonds contributes to its many functions. It can bond
with the nucleic acids of both DNA and RNA
29. Compare protein synthesis in prokaryotes and in eukaryotes.
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes have different ribosomes and how transcription is terminated. A
major difference is that prokaryotes can transcribe and translate the same gene
simultaneously, resulting with the new protein to be able to diffuse to its operating site
 quickly.
30. Define point mutations. Distinguish between base-pair substitutions and base-pair insertions.
Give examples of each and note the significance of such changes.
Point mutation is a chemical change in a single base pair of a gene. Base-pair substitution is
when the nucleotide pair is replaced with a pair of complimentary nucleotides. This may have
little or no impact on protein function. Insertions are additions the nucleotide pairs. This has a
disastrous effect on the protein, unless it occurs in a multiple of three, which then forms a
frameshift mutation.
31. Describe several examples of mutagens and explain how they cause mutations.
Mutagens are chemical or physical agents that interact with DNA to cause a mutation.
Physical mutagens may be high-energy radiation, such as X-rays and ultraviolet light.
Chemical mutagens may be base analogues that substitute DNA, but pair incorrectly, interfere
with DNA replication by going in DNA and distorting the double helix shape, some change
the bases to change their pairing properties.
32. Describe the historical evolution of the concept of a gene.
The Mendelian view of a gene sees it as a unit of inheritance that affects phenotype, which is
useful in certain context. This evolved into the one gene – one polypeptide definition. This
however has further evolved into the current definition of a gene: A gene is a region of DNA
whose final product is either a polypeptide or an RNA molecule.

Concept Map Words:

59 cap mutation signal peptide

A site nonsense mutation signal-recognition particle
alternative RNA splicing one gene–one polypeptide (SRP)
aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase hypothesis spliceosome
anticodon P site TATA box
base-pair substitution point mutation template strand
codon poly-A tail terminator
deletion polyribosome (polysome) transcription
domain primary transcript transcription factor
E site promoter transcription initiation
exon reading frame complex
frameshift mutation ribosomal RNA (rRNA) transcription unit
insertion ribosome transfer RNA (tRNA)
intron ribozyme translation
messenger RNA (mRNA) RNA polymerase triplet code
missense mutation RNA processing wobble
mutagen RNA splicing

Memorize the Word Roots

anti- 5 opposite (anticodon: a specialized base triplet on one end of a tRNA molecule that recognizes a
particular complementary codon on an mRNA molecule)
exo- 5 out, outside, without (exon: a coding region of a eukaryotic gene that is expressed)
intro- 5 within (intron: a noncoding, intervening sequence within a eukaryotic gene)
muta- 5 change; -gen 5 producing (mutagen: a physical or chemical agent that causes mutations)
poly- 5 many (polyA tail: the modified end of the 39 end of an mRNA molecule consisting of the addition
of some 50 to 250 adenine nucleotides)
trans- 5 across; -script 5 write (transcription: the synthesis of RNA on a DNA template)