Electronics II

Electronics II
Lecture Notes Operational Amplifier
Operational Amplifier
1. Op-amp Equivalent Circuit
Consider the following amplifier with a feedback resistor Rf and an input voltage source
applied to the its negative terminal:

When analyzing this circuit, one may use the nodal method to get Vx, and Vo. The voltage
gain will then be:
Vo (AR f − ro )Ri
=−
VS [ ]
ro + R f + ( A + 1)R S Ri + (ro + R f )R S
Good amplifiers have Ri → ∞ , and if we assume that, then the voltage gain will reduce to:
Vo AR f − ro
=−
VS ro + R f + ( A + 1)RS
Also, if ro → 0 , which would make the amplifier better, then:
Vo AR f
=−
VS R f + ( A + 1)RS
Finally, if the internal voltage gain is large, A → ∞ , then we have:
Vo Rf
=−
VS RS
Operational amplifiers have such characteristics, i.e., infinite input impedance, zero output
impedance, and infinite voltage gain. (Nothing is perfect, but infinity means very large).
Let’s then replace the amplifier of the above circuit by the symbol of an Op-Amp in one of
the following circuits:

For the convenience, mostly we choose the second notation, where the ports of the op-
amp are flipped.

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© 2004 King Abdulaziz University Dr. Amjad Hajjar Electrical & Computer
Engineering Department
 Electronics II

Electronics II
Lecture Notes Operational Amplifier
2. Op-Amp Circuits Analysis
When analyzing a circuit that contains op-amps, one should first make sure that there is a
feedback from the output node to the negative port, otherwise, the infinite gain of the
amplifier will make its output either ± ∞ depends on the voltage difference of its inputs.

When the op-amp has a negative feedback, then it implies the following:

1. all the currents entering the op-amp are zeros

2. the voltage difference of its ports is zero

Example:
Consider again the original circuit which we started. Since there is a negative feedback on
the op-amp, then we can say:
1. v + = v −
2. i + = i − = 0

And v + = 0 since it is directly connected to ground.

Thus, v − = 0 from which we can calculate i s as:
V − 0 VS
is = S =
RS RS
Now, the output voltage can be calculated by going KCL through Rf, and:
V
Vo = −i s R f + 0 = − S R f
RS
From which the gain is the same as before:
Vo Rf
=−
VS RS

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© 2004 King Abdulaziz University Dr. Amjad Hajjar Electrical & Computer
Engineering Department
 Electronics II

Electronics II
Lecture Notes Operational Amplifier
3. Op-Amp Circuits Applications
In the following, you find a very useful list of op-amp applications used frequently. Students
can analyze these circuits and check for the equations.

1. Inverting Amplifier
Rf
Vo = − VS
RS

Rin = R S

2. Non-inverting Amplifier
 Rf 
Vo = 1 + VS
 R 

Rin = ∞

3. Buffer
Vo = V S

Rin = ∞

4. Inverting Adder
n
Vo = − ∑ Ai vi
i =1

Rf
where, Ai =
Ri

5. Non-inverting Adder
n
Vo = + K ∑ Ai vi
i =1

 R f  Rp
where, K = 1 +  ,
 R  R f

Rf
Ai = ,
Ri
R p = R1 // R2 // ... // Rn

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© 2004 King Abdulaziz University Dr. Amjad Hajjar Electrical & Computer
Engineering Department
 Electronics II

Electronics II
Lecture Notes Operational Amplifier
6. General Add-Subtract
n m
Vo = ∑ Ai v pi − ∑ Bi v ni
i =1 i =1

Rf Rf
where, Ai = , Bi =
R pi Rni
Let A = ∑ Ai , B = ∑ Bi
Let C = A − B − 1
If
 Rf
C ≥ 0 R x = ∞ Ry =
C
 R
C < 0 R = − f Ry = ∞

x
C

Example: Design a circuit that implements vo = 8v a + 6vb + 3v c − 7v1 − v 2 − 5v3 with a

feedback R f = 120kΩ . [From Rashid’s book]
 Ra = 15kΩ R1 = 17.14kΩ Rx = ∞

Answer:  Rb = 20kΩ R2 = 120kΩ R y = 40kΩ
 R = 40kΩ R = 24kΩ
 c 3

7. Resistance Change
Detector

vo =
E
R + Rx
(
R x − R x' )

8. Large Gain Amplifier

vo = −(K + 2 )v S

Rin = R

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© 2004 King Abdulaziz University Dr. Amjad Hajjar Electrical & Computer
Engineering Department
 Electronics II

Electronics II
Lecture Notes Operational Amplifier

9. Instrumentation
Amplifier (Fixed Gain)

Rf
vo =
R
(v +
− v− )

10. Instrumentation
Amplifier (Variable
Gain)
R f  2 Ra  +
vo =
R 
1 +
Rg 
(
 v − v− )


11. Keyboard to
Voltage E
vo =   n
 16 

where n is the key

depressed,
V
E < CC , e.g. E=4V
2

Not pressing any

key corresponds to
 n
Rx =  2 − R n=0.
 16 
12. Positive Half-Wave
Rectifier

 Rf

v o = − R v s vs > 0
0 vs < 0

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© 2004 King Abdulaziz University Dr. Amjad Hajjar Electrical & Computer
Engineering Department
 Electronics II

Electronics II
Lecture Notes Operational Amplifier
13. Negative Half-
Wave Rectifier

0 vs > 0

vo =  R f
− R v s vs < 0

14. Full-Wave Rectifier

Rf
vo = − vs
R

15. Opto-coupler
R1 + R2
TX: io = − vs
R1 R2 RS

RX: vo = − R f is

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© 2004 King Abdulaziz University Dr. Amjad Hajjar Electrical & Computer
Engineering Department
 Electronics II

Electronics II
Lecture Notes Operational Amplifier
4. Differential Equations (Analog Computers)

16. Integrator

1
RC ∫
vo = − v s (t )dt

17. Differentiator

d
vo = − RC v s (t )
dt

18. Differential
Integrator

1
vo = −
RC ∫ (v1 − v2 )dt

Integrators can be used to solve differential equations. Consider this example:

y ′′ = ay ′ + by + cx
with the initial conditions of y ′′(0) = h and y′(0) = k

Let’s assume that we have y ′′ as an input signal, and we want to obtain y ′ and y from it
using integrators. The right-hand-side of the differential equation can be formed using a
general add-subtract circuit as shown previously. The block diagram of such a system is:

Now since the RHS of the differential equation equals y ′′ , we close the loop of the above
block back to the assumed input. The solution to the equation would then be y .

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© 2004 King Abdulaziz University Dr. Amjad Hajjar Electrical & Computer
Engineering Department
 Electronics II

Electronics II
Lecture Notes Operational Amplifier
Example: Design a circuit that solves the following differential equation:
y ′′ = 2 y ′ − y + 5 sin 3t
with the initial conditions of y ′(0) = 0 and y (0) = 2 .

Let’s choose all RC = 1 for all the integrators as a starting point and figure out the resistors’
values of the adder. Let R = 100kΩ thus C = 10 µF , and:

• we will have − y ′ out of the first integrator; thus we need a gain of −2 at the adder
• then we will have + y after the 2nd integrator, hence we need a gain of −1
• let’s assume we have a sine-wave generator with the specified frequency and an
amplitude of 1V; therefore, a gain of +5 is needed at the adder

The adder needed is then:

vo = −2v1 − v2 + 5v3
which can be implemented using the general add-subtract circuit. We have:
A=5
B = 2 +1 = 3
C = 5 − 3 −1 = 1
Let R f = 40kΩ (as a guess), that makes:
Rx = ∞ R1 = 20kΩ
R y = 40kΩ R2 = 40kΩ
R3 = 8kΩ
and finally the circuit is:

Here, since there is only one input signal to the positive port, we can omit the 8kΩ resistor.

How about Differentiators? Differentiators may also be used to solve differential

equations, however, the integrators are used instead because they:
1. have less noise,
2. are more stable,
3. are easier to introduce initial conditions.
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© 2004 King Abdulaziz University Dr. Amjad Hajjar Electrical & Computer
Engineering Department
 Electronics II

Electronics II
Lecture Notes Operational Amplifier
5. Digital / Analog Converters

5.1 Binary Numbers

Integer numbers can be represented in Binary numbers where digits are either 0 or 1. In
the decimal system, we count 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and then 10, 11, 12, and so on.
Here, there are 10 digits 0 to 9. In the binary system, we count 0, 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, and
so on.

5.2 Digital to Analog Converters

Suppose you have a binary number a n−1 a n−1 K a 2 a1 a0 of n digits. Then the equivalent
decimal number is:
n −1
A = ∑ 2 i ai
i =0
Example: Convert the binary number 10010010 to decimal.
A = 0 × 2 0 + 1× 21 + 0 × 2 2 + 0 × 2 3 + 1× 2 4 + 0 × 2 5 + 0 × 2 6 + 1× 2 7 = 146
A = 0 ×1 + 1× 2 + 0 × 4 + 0 × 8 + 1× 16 + 0 × 32 + 0 × 64 + 1× 128 = 146
Note that the weights of the digits are multiplied by 2.

Now, how to build a circuit to convert binary number of n digits to decimal number?

1. Weighted Adder 2. R-2R Ladder

n −1 n −1
1
vo = − ∑ 2 i a i vo = ∑2 a i
i
i =0 2 n−1 i =0

In both circuits, one can adjust the output gain by varying the Rf.

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© 2004 King Abdulaziz University Dr. Amjad Hajjar Electrical & Computer
Engineering Department
 Electronics II

Electronics II
Lecture Notes Operational Amplifier

5.3 Analog to Digital Converters

Decimal or analog input can vary from (− ∞ : +∞ ) with decimal point such as + 3.9887 or
− 0.000023 . Let’s assume that our input is a positive real number in the range [0 : Va ].
Converting an analog signal to digital involves the following steps:

1. Sampling points every Ts seconds.

2. Quantizing the range [0 : Va ] into levels of 2 n where n is the number of wanted digits
3. Sampled points are then approximated to the nearest level

In the example show, let Va = 3.5 , Ts = 0.2 , and let n = 3 . After sampling and quantization,
we get the output to the right of the analog input.
3.5 7

3 6

2.5 5

2 4

1.5 3

1 2

0.5 1

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Notice the change in the time axis and in the level axis from analog
to sequence. Here, we say that our input is a sequence x = {1.5, 3,
2.5, 1.5, 1.5, 2, 0.5, 0, 2} is changed to the levels z = {3, 6, 5, 3, 3, 4, 1,
0, 4}. Or in binary, z = {011, 110, 101, 011, 011, 100, 001, 000, 100}.
One possible circuit that can implement this ADC is shown to the
right. Notice that yi ' s are not the final binary outputs. An encoder
digital circuit is then used to produce z 2 z1 z 0 .

This configuration, however, is not practical especially when the

number of levels increases, say 128 or 512. Instead, other
configurations are used.

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© 2004 King Abdulaziz University Dr. Amjad Hajjar Electrical & Computer
Engineering Department