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On the cover: A young woman shows her henna-decorated hands as she prepares for her
wedding. © www.istockphoto.com/Mihir Panchal
On the back cover: The Temple at Khajuharo, India, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
© www.istockphoto.com/Keith Molloy
On pages 21, 53, 85, 122, 184, 240, 267, 296, 329, 331, 333, 335: Indian youth perform a
Punjabi traditional folk dance, the Giddha, during Republic Day celebrations at the Guru
Nanak Stadium in Amritsar on January 26, 2010. NarinderNanu/AFP/Getty Images
22
CONTENTS
Introduction 14
Gupta Scripts 82
Grantha Alphabet 83
Devanagari 83
Chapter 3: Hinduism 85
The Term Hinduism 85
General Nature of Hinduism 86
The Five Tensile Strands 87
Doctrine 87
Practice 88
Society 89
Story 90
Devotion 90
Central Conceptions 91
109
Veda, Brahmans, and Issues
of Religious Authority 91
Doctrine of Atman-Brahman 92
Karma, Samsara, and Moksha 92
Dharma and the Three Paths 93
Ashramas: The Four Stages of Life 94
Practical Hinduism 95
Devotion 97
Deities 97
Worship 99
Divination, Spirit Possession,
and Healing 101
Women’s Religious Practices 102
Pilgrimage 103
Rituals, Social Practices, and Institutions 104
Temple Worship 104
Shaiva Rites 106
Vaishnava Rites 107 114
Sacred Times and Festivals 107
Diwali 109
Cultural Expressions: Visual Arts,
Theatre, and Dance 110
Types of Symbols 110
The Arts 112
Hinduism and the World Beyond 117
Hinduism and Islam 117
Hinduism and Christianity 118
Diasporic Hinduism 119
132
The rock-cut Kailasa temple, part of the Ellora Caves in Maharashtra, India, was built in the 8th
century AD. It is more than 100 feet (30 metres) high. Abraham Nowitz/National Geographic/
Getty Images
16 | The Culture of India
non-violence to all living creatures. The Mahatma Gandhi was another promi-
fundamental ethical virtue of Jainism is nent figure who put the Vedic doctrine
ahimsa (“noninjury”), the standard by of ahimsa into practice in the fight for
which all actions are judged. The name India’s independence from the British.
Jainism comes from the Sanskrit verb The art of India art dates back to lime-
meaning “to conquer.” Jain monks and stone statuettes and bronze artifacts from
nuns believe they must fight against the craft workshops of Mohenjo-daro and
passions and bodily senses to gain omni- Harappa, two of the outstanding cities of
science and purity of soul. the Indus Valley civilization.
Sikhism, which originated in the In northern India, the Mauryan
northern state of Punjab, combines ele- empire, which ruled from 321 to 185 BC,
ments of Hinduism and Islam and today ushered in new styles in art, shown by
is one of the largest minority religions. examples such as highly polished stone
The Parsis, Zoroastrians from Persia, add pillars with beautifully modeled lions
to the mix, having migrated to western roaring from them. Between the first
India when Islam spread through their and third centuries AD, a distinctive
homeland in present-day Iran. style of relief carving developed in such
Christianity, thought to have first places as Mathura, in which stories
been brought by St. Thomas, the only were told in rows of intricately detailed
apostle to travel eastward, was later figures. Mathura was also noted for its
spread through colonizing efforts by sculptures of Buddha. The golden age
Europeans such as the Portuguese and of sculpture in North India was over
the British. Today, the largest population by the 12th century, when Muslim rul-
of Christians in India is Roman Catholic. ers, who decried representational art,
There also are numerous tribal groups in had taken over most of the region. Yet,
India who live in remote areas and typi- despite the traditional Islamic prohi-
cally follow animistic religions. bitions against painting pictures of
Religion in India historically has been people, the Islamic Mughal dynasty,
closely related to Indian philosophy, par- which ruled from the mid-16th century,
ticularly with respect to Hinduism and ushered in new styles of painting, such
Buddhism. The concepts of samsara— as tiny miniatures showing scenes from
the cycle of life, death, and rebirth—and stories, portraits, and other features.
moksha, the release from this cycle, are South India, which mostly maintained
central to Indian philosophy. Various itself as a Hindu stronghold, had its
forms of meditation, including Yoga, are own artistic standards. Some of the
considered methods by which to break most memorable artistic achievements
this cycle. This thread of Vedic philoso- of South Indian art are the elegant
phy runs from ancient times until today. bronze statues of Shaiva and Vaishnava
18 | The Culture of India
gods that were created during the early that is far removed from the village ori-
(9th-century) rule of the Chola dynasty. gins of these dances. Musicians are now
Chola bronzes have a technical sophis- creating bhangra songs that speak about
tication and beauty that impress even contemporary concerns, such as AIDS
today. and prejudice. Festivals in just about all
Indian music plays an integral role the religious traditions will include some
in Indian life. These old traditions span form of the many folk dances of India.
everything from the folk music of tribal Classical dance meanwhile is still
groups to well-established classical performed in India. Some of these dance-
Indian music systems. The instruments drama styles are the sensuous bharata
range from simple flutes to multi-string natyam and manipuri, danced by women;
sitars. Musical forms include songs sung the fierce kathakali, danced by men;
together in groups and long, instru- and the kathak, danced by both. These
mental and vocal expositions on exotic classical forms are often used by danc-
scales known as ragas. A raga, meaning ers to enact stories from ancient Hindu
“to colour,” serves as a basis for compo- text such as the Mahabharata and the
sition and improvisation. So does the Ramayana.
second element of Indian music, tala, a Texts such as these, with their narra-
time measure. tives of mythological heroes, romances,
The Hindustani classical music tra- and social and political events are also
dition, found mainly in North India, is brought to life by actors in rural settings
based on the sitar and the tabla drums. in folk theatre. These productions often
Ragas are based on seasons, times of use dance, exaggerated makeup, masks
day, and various moods. The Karnatic and music to dramatize tales, but differ-
tradition of South India features another ent forms of folk theatre sport their own
lute-like instrument, the vina, in place conventions. In the ramlila, for instance,
of the sitar, and the double-ended mri- characters playing the gods Krishna
dangam drum instead of the tablas. The and Rama are always young boys, while
rhythms of the two regions differ, as do some characters can remove their masks
the musical scales. and remain on stage. In the jatra, only
In addition to its classical music, one character, the vivek, or “conscience,”
modern India is awash in the trendy sings as he comments on the action.
music of Bollywood films. Bollywood is India’s architecture is also world
India’s version of Hollywood, only it is famous. From the centres of the Indus
much bigger in terms of film output and valley civilization is evident an early ele-
audience. ment of urban planning—city streets on
Folk dances such as the bhangra and a grid pattern. And at Mohenjo-daro, for
the dandiya raas are exceedingly popular instance, visitors can see the remains of
with the younger, more urban generation craft workshops, a granary, and the ruins
Introduction | 19
of the massive Great Bath, which is 897 Emperor Shah Jahan in the memory of
sq. feet (83 sq. metres) large. his favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal.
The temples at Ellora and Ajanta, The British also contributed a number
in the western state of Maharashtra, are of fine buildings to India. One example
huge monoliths painstakingly hewn is Mumbai’s arresting Victoria Terminus
from rock. These temples are rich in stat- railway station, now called the Chhatrapati
ues carved by monks paying homage Shivaji Terminus, which displays a spec-
to Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism. tacular Victorian Gothic Revival style.
Religion has played an important role in Like the geography of the Indian
many of India’s most impressive archi- subcontinent itself, which ranges from
tectural achievements, from towering the Himalayan highlands of Ladakh in
Hindu temples, their roofs garnished with the extreme north to the tropical nature
carvings of gods and goddesses, to mag- reserves of Kerala in the south, India’s
nificent Persian-influenced mosques built culture incorporates a wide range of
during the Mughal dynasty, such as the styles and substance while projecting
Jāmi‘ Masjid (Great Mosque) in the city of a commonality that is immediately and
Fatehpur Sikri. The most famous Mughal distinctly Indian. This volume will offer
building, however, is the Taj Mahal, a an insight into the many fascinating, rich,
monument rich in inlaid marble built by and colourful layers of Indian culture.
CHAPTER 1
The Peoples of
India and the
Caste System
Ghat (stepped bathing place) on the Yamuna River at Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India. Globe
the Andaman Islands, the Philippines, in southern India, the Badaga have
New Guinea, and other areas. increased very rapidly, from fewer than
20,000 in 1871 to about 140,000 in the late
Andamanese 20th century. Their language is closely
akin to Kannada as spoken in Karnataka
The Andamanese, united by use of a state to the north of the Nilgiris. The
common language, constitute the main name Badaga means “northerner,” and
aboriginal group of the Andaman Islands it is clear that the Badaga came into
in the Bay of Bengal. Most have been the Nilgiris from the north, perhaps
absorbed into modern Indian life, but impelled by economic or political pres-
traditional culture survives among such sures. The time of their migration has
groups as the Jarawa and Onge of the been dated sometime after the found-
lesser islands. Late 20th-century estimates ing of the Lingayat Hindu sect in the
indicated approximately 50 speakers of 12th century and before 1602, when their
Andamanese languages and perhaps 550 settlement in the area was noted by
ethnic Andamanese. Roman Catholic priests.
Until the mid-19th century, the The Badaga were divided into six
remoteness of these peoples and their main endogamous groups that were
strong territorial defenses helped them ranked in ritual order. The two highest
to avoid outside influences. Some of the castes were priests and vegetarians; the
Andamanese continue to live by hunt- lowest caste worked as servants for the
ing and collecting. The bow, once the other five. Traditional Badaga religion
only indigenous weapon, was used both and economy also relied on goods and
for fishing and for hunting wild pigs; the services supplied by the other Nilgiri
Andamanese had no traps or fishhooks. peoples—Kota, Toda, and Kurumba.
Turtle, dugong, and fish are caught with The Badaga generally are agricul-
nets and harpoons; the latter are used turists, but many are engaged in other
from single-outrigger canoes. Pottery professions. In addition to grain, Badaga
is made, and iron, obtained from ship- farmers grow large crops of potatoes and
wrecks, has been used for arrowheads, vegetables. Many have altered their tra-
knives, and adzes from at least the 18th ditional practices. Improved agriculture,
century. It is shaped by breaking and local and national policies, and high-caste
grinding, a technique derived from the Hindu tradition are the major concerns of
working of shell. the contemporary Badaga.
Badaga Bhil
The largest tribal group living in The Bhil of western India are an ethnic
the Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu state group of nearly 2.5 million people. Many
The Peoples of India and the Caste System | 25
are tribal, and they have been known for India, particularly in the Indian state of
rugged independence, sometimes associ- Sikkim. They speak various languages of
ated with banditry. the Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-
They are distributed widely in upland Tibetan language family.
areas from Ajmer in Rajasthan on the The Bhutia are mountain dwell-
north to Thana in Maharashtra on the ers, living in small villages and isolated
south, and eastward as far as Indore in homesteads separated by almost impass-
Madhya Pradesh. Nearly all of them able terrain. They practice a terraced
engage in agriculture, some of them using agriculture on the mountain slopes, their
the slash-and-burn (jhum) method—in main crops being rice, corn (maize), and
which secondary jungle is burnt and a potatoes. Some of them are animal breed-
crop is raised for one or two years in the ers, known for their cattle and yaks.
ash—but most employing the plow. The Their religion is Tibetan Buddhism,
highland Bhil generally live in scattered with an admixture of the pre-Buddhist
houses made of wattle and thatch. shamanism known as Bon. They recog-
The relationship between the Bhil nize the Dalai Lama as their spiritual
and neighbouring peoples is not clear. leader. Their traditional society was
The Bhil follow Rajasthani kinship usages feudal, with most of the population work-
in Rajasthan and Maharashtrian usages ing as tenants of a landowning nobility,
in Maharashtra, but with easier marriage although there were few marked differ-
and divorce procedures. Most Bhil wor- ences in ways of life between landowners
ship local deities in varied pantheons and tenants. There were also slaves, most
only slightly touching the practices of of them descended from captives taken
higher Hinduism; a few aristocratic seg- in raids on Indian territory. In the 1960s
ments such as the Bhilala and some plains the Bhutanese government formally
groups employ Brahman priests; others abolished slavery and sought to break up
are converts to Islam. Their dialects are the large estates; the nobility were also
akin to Gujarati or to other Indo-Aryan deprived of their hereditary titles.
languages rather than to the Munda or The Bhutia trace their descent
Dravidian tongues of most tribal peoples. patrilineally. They are predominantly
monogamous, but polygamy is still prac-
Bhutia ticed in some areas.
1.5 million in the early 21st century. house for bachelors and many features
Dominant in Assam until about 1825, of their religion link them with the Naga
they are now the largest minority group and other hill tribes of Assam, but the
in that state. They are concentrated in the growing influence of Hindu ideas and
northern areas of the Brahmaputra River customs works toward assimilation into
valley. Most of them are settled farmers, the caste society of the Assam plains.
though they formerly practiced shifting Among the Garo, the village headman
cultivation. The Bodo consist of a large is usually the husband of the heiress, the
number of tribes. Their western tribes senior woman of the landowning lineage.
include the Cutiya, Plains Kachari, Rabha, He transmits his headman’s office to his
Garo, Mech, Koch, Dhimal, and Jaijong; sister’s son, who marries the headman’s
the eastern tribes include the Dimasa (or daughter (the next heiress). The lineages
Hill Kachari), Galong (or Gallong), Hojai, of the male headmen and the female
Lalung, Tippera, and Moran. heiresses are thus in perpetual alliance.
The Bodo tribes are not culturally Political title and land title are both
uniform. The social system of some, transmitted matrilineally, one through
such as the Garo, is matrilineal (descent one lineage, the other through the other.
traced through the maternal line), while There are a dozen subtribes, with varying
other tribes are patrilineal. Several of the customs and dialects, but all are divided
Bodo tribes were so influenced by Hindu into matrilineal clans. Marriages involve
social and religious concepts that in members of different clans. Polygamy is
modern times they have regarded them- practiced. A man must marry his wife’s
selves as Hindu castes. Thus the Koch, father’s widow, who is in such cases the
for example, lay claim to the high Hindu husband’s father’s sister, actual or clas-
status of Kshatriya (the warrior and rul- sificatory. Such a wife takes precedence
ing class); their claim is not generally over her daughter, to whom the husband
admitted, however, and many of the sub- is already married. A man’s sister’s son,
divisions of the Koch rank very low in the called his nokrom, stands therefore in inti-
caste hierarchy. mate relationship to him, as the husband
The Kachari tribe is divided into of one of his daughters and ultimately of
clans named after aspects of nature (e.g., his widow and the vehicle through which
heaven, earth, rivers, animals, and plants). his family’s interest in the property of his
Descent and succession to property are wife is secured for the next generation,
in the male line. They have a tribal reli- for no male can inherit property.
gion, with an extensive pantheon of
village and household gods. Marriage Bohras
is usually arranged by the parents and
involves the payment of a bride-price. The name Bohra (Bohora) is applied in
Such institutions as the community general to any Shī‘ī Isma‘īlī Muslim of the
The Peoples of India and the Caste System | 27
Musta‘lī group living in western India. The The Bundela territories were impor-
name is a corruption of a Gujarati word, tant because through them ran the route
vahaurau, meaning “to trade.” The Bohras from the Deccan to the Ganges-Yamuna
include, in addition to this Shī‘ī majority, Doab (river basin). But they were hilly,
often of the merchant class, a Sunnī minor- remote, and difficult to control. The
ity who are usually peasant farmers. The Mughals suppressed many insurrections
Musta‘lī group, which originated in Egypt until the Bundelas called in the Marathas
and later moved its religious centre to (1729). After many vicissitudes the tract
Yemen, gained a foothold in India through passed under British control in the early
missionaries of the 11th century. After 19th century. The fortress of Kalinjar was
1539, by which time the Indian commu- taken in 1812.
nity had grown quite large, the seat of the
group was moved from Yemen to Sidhpur, Gond
India. A split resulted in 1588 in the Bohra
community between followers of Dā’ūd The Gond are aboriginal peoples of cen-
ibn Qut·b Shāh and Sulaymān, who both tral India, numbering about 2 million.
claimed leadership of the community. The They live in the states of Madhya Pradesh,
followers of Dā’ūd and Sulaymān have Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, and
since remained the two major groups Orissa. The majority speak various and,
within the Bohras, with no significant dog- in part, mutually unintelligible dialects
matic differences, the dā‘ī, or leader, of the of Gondi, an unwritten language of the
Dā’ūdīs residing in Mumbai, the leader of Dravidian family. Some Gond have lost
the Sulaymānī in Yemen. their own language and speak Hindi,
Marathi, or Telugu, whichever language
Bundela is dominant in their area.
There is no cultural uniformity
The Bundelas are a Rajput clan for whom among the Gond. The most devel-
the region of Bundelkhand in north- oped are the Raj Gond, who once had
central India is named. The Bundelas, an elaborate feudal order. Local rajas,
whose origins are obscure, emerged in linked by ties of blood or marriage to
the 14th century. They won prominence a royal house, exercised authority over
when they resisted the Afghan emperor, groups of villages. Aside from the forti-
Shēr Shah of Sūr, who was killed while fied seats of the rajas, settlements were
besieging their fortress of Kalinjar in formerly of little permanence; cultiva-
1545. The Bundela Bir Singh of Orchha, in tion, even though practiced with plows
collusion with Akbar’s son, Prince Salim and oxen, involved frequent shifting
(later Jahāngīr), ambushed and killed the of fields and clearing of new tracts of
Mughal emperor’s confidant, Abu al-Fad· l forest land. The Raj Gond continue to
‘Allāmī, in 1602. stand outside the Hindu caste system,
28 | The Culture of India
neither acknowledging the superiority of moved, and the commonly owned land of
Brahmans nor feeling bound by Hindu each clan contains several village sites
rules such as the ban on killing cows. occupied in rotation over the years.
The highlands of Bastar in Madhya Bisonhorn Maria, so called after their
Pradesh are the home of three important dance headdresses, live in less hilly coun-
Gond tribes: the Muria, the Bisonhorn try and have more permanent fields that
Maria, and the Hill Maria. The last, who they cultivate with plows and bullocks.
inhabit the rugged Abujhmar Hills, are The Muria are known for their youth
the least developed. Their traditional type dormitories, or ghotul, in the framework
of agriculture is slash-and-burn (jhum) of which the unmarried of both sexes
cultivation on hill slopes. Hoes and dig- lead a highly organized social life; they
ging sticks are still used more often receive training in civic duties and in
than plows. The villages are periodically sexual practices.
Indian women of the Muria Gond tribe in Chhattisgarh state collect drinking water. Noah
Seelam/AFP/Getty Images
The Peoples of India and the Caste System | 29
of uncertain ethnic origin. The Kharia are The Khasi have a distinctive culture. Both
usually subdivided into three groups: Hill inheritance of property and succession to
Kharia, Dhelki, and Dudh. All are patri- tribal office run through the female line,
lineal, with the family as the basic unit, passing from the mother to the youngest
and are led by a tribal government con- daughter. Office and the management
sisting of a priest, a headman, and village of property, however, are in the hands of
leaders. The Hill Kharia speak an Indo- men identified by these women and not
Iranian language and seem otherwise to in the hands of women themselves. This
be a totally separate group. The Dhelki system has been modified by the conver-
and the Dudh, both of whom speak the sion of many Khasi to Christianity, by the
Kharia language, recognize each other— consequent conflict of ritual obligations
but not the Hill Kharia—as Kharia. under the tribal religion and the demands
The Dudh are the most numerous of the new religion, and by the right of the
and progressive branch; they live along people to make wills in respect of self-
the Sankh and South Koel rivers. The acquired property.
Dhelki are concentrated near Gangpur. The Khasi speak a Mon-Khmer lan-
Both live in settled villages, and intervil- guage of the Austroasiatic stock. They
lage federations enforce the feeling of are divided into several clans. Wet rice
social solidarity. They traditionally build (paddy) provides the main subsistence;
separate large dormitories for unmar- it is cultivated in the valley bottoms and
ried men and women, but this practice in terrace gardens built on the hillsides.
has been abandoned by Christian Kharia. Many of the farmers still cultivate only
The Kharia’s traditional religion includes by the slash-and-burn method, in which
a form of sun worship, in which each fam- secondary jungle is burnt over and a crop
ily head makes five sacrifices to Bero, the raised for one or two years in the ash.
sun god, to protect his generation. Under the system of administration
The Hill Kharia live in small groups set up in the district in the 1950s, the
in remote areas of the Simlipal Range Khasi’s elected councils enjoy a measure
in Orissa state. They depend on shift- of political autonomy under the guidance
ing agriculture, growing rice and millet, of a deputy commissioner. In addition,
but constantly face the problem of land seats in the state assembly and in the
scarcity. They also collect silk cocoons, national parliament are reserved for rep-
honey, and beeswax for trade. resentatives of the tribal people.
Khasi Khoja
The Khasi live in the Khasi and Jaintia The Khoja (Persian: Khvajeh) are a caste
hills of the state of Meghalaya in India. of Indian Muslims who were converted
The Peoples of India and the Caste System | 31
from Hinduism to Islam in the 14th cen- neighbours to the west, north, and east
tury by the Persian pīr (religious leader, and with Telugu-speaking groups to
or teacher) Sad· r-ul-Dīn and adopted as the south. By degrees they have taken
members of the Nizārī Ismā‘īlī sect of the on the language and customs of their
Shī‘ites. Forced to feign either Hinduism, neighbours. In the Baudh Plains there
Sunni Islam, or Ithna ‘Ashariyah in order are Khond who speak only Oriya; farther
to preserve themselves from persecution, into the hills the Khond are bilingual;
some Khojas, in time, became followers in the remoter jungles Kui alone is spo-
of those faiths. ken. There is an analogous gradation in
The term Khoja is not a religious the practice of Hindu customs concern-
designation but a purely caste distinc- ing caste and untouchability and in the
tion that was carried over from the Hindu knowledge of Hindu deities. The process
background of the group. Thus, there of acculturation progressed rapidly in the
are both Sunni and Shī‘ite Khojas. Other late 20th century.
Nizārī Ismā‘īlīs share the same beliefs,
practices, and even language with the Koli
Khojas; however, one cannot enter the
caste except by birth. The Koli constitute a large caste living in
Khojas live primarily in India and the central and western mountain area of
East Africa. Every province with large India, and they numbered about 650,000
numbers of them has an Ismā‘īlī council, in the late 20th century. The largest group
the decisions of which are recognized of Koli live in Maharashtra and Gujarat
as legal by the state. As Nizārī Ismā‘īlīs, states. Although identified as cultivators
Khojas are followers of the Aga Khan. and labourers, many Koli survive only
by gathering firewood and hiring out as
Khond labourers, subsisting on berries and man-
goes in summer when food is scarce. The
The Khond (Kond, Kandh, Kondh) people, coastal Koli fish, and a few literate Koli
whose numbers are estimated to exceed are employed in Mumbai schools or local
800,000, live in the hills and jungles of government.
Orissa state, India. Most Khond speak Kui The Koli are organized into several
and its southern dialect, Kuwi, belonging clans and are largely Hinduized but
to the Dravidian language family. Most retain some of their former animism.
are now rice cultivators, but there are still They believe sickness is caused by an
groups, such as the Kuttia Khond, who angry spirit or deity and that a second
practice slash-and-burn agriculture. marriage may awaken the spirit of the
The Khond have been in contact first spouse. Traditionally classified as
for many centuries with Oriya-speaking a tribe, they were redesignated as a low
32 | The Culture of India
Hindu caste, containing the subcastes A village has two or three streets, each
Agri and Ahir. inhabited by the members of a single
patrilineal clan. Most adult Kota also
Korku speak Tamil, another Dravidian tongue.
They were traditionally artisans and
The tribal Korku people of central musicians. Each Kota family was associ-
India are concentrated in the states of ated with a number of Badaga and Toda
Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. At families for whom they provided metal
the end of the 20th century, they num- tools, wooden implements, and pots.
bered about 560,000. However, poverty They also furnished the music necessary
and restricted use of ancestral land due for the ceremonies of their neighbours.
to government attempts to save the From its associated families the Kota
Bengal tiger have led to malnutrition and family received a share of grain from the
even starvation among the Korku. Most Badaga harvest and some dairy products
are settled agriculturalists, and many from the Toda. The Kota also cooperated
have substantial farms; others shifted with the jungle-dwelling Kurumbas, who
as recently as the late 19th century from provided forest products and magical
slash-and-burn jungle cultivation (jhum) protection. Because the Kota handled
to forestry and field labour. The Korku animal carcasses and had other menial
live in villages of thatched houses. They occupations, their neighbours consid-
have hereditary headmen and trace ered them to be of inferior caste.
their descent along paternal lines. They Aboriginal Kota religion entails a
speak a language of the Munda family family trinity of two brother deities and
(Austroasiatic). the goddess-wife of the elder. Each deity
In religion the Korku are Hindus. has a priest and a diviner in every vil-
Their ceremonies resemble those of lage. The diviner becomes possessed on
the low castes in that they employ their appropriate occasions and speaks with
own priests and mediums instead of the voice of god.
Brahmans. After 1930 the traditional interde-
pendence among the Nilgiri groups was
Kota abandoned, and only a few Kota families
continue to supply tools and music. Kota
The Kota are a group of indigenous, livelihood depends mainly upon the cul-
Dravidian-speaking peoples of the Nilgiri tivation of grain and potatoes.
Hills in the south of India. They lived
in seven villages totalling about 2,300 Kuki
inhabitants during the 1970s; these were
interspersed among settlements of the The Kuki are a Southeast Asian people liv-
other Nilgiri peoples, Badaga and Toda. ing in the Mizo (formerly Lushai) Hills on
The Peoples of India and the Caste System | 33
the border between India and Myanmar Sikkim since the 18th century and in the
(Burma) and numbering about 12,000 in late 20th century comprised about two-
the 1970s. They have been largely assimi- thirds of the population.
lated by the more populous Mizo and have The Lepcha are primarily monoga-
adopted Mizo customs and language. mous, although a married man may
Traditionally the Kuki lived in small invite a younger unmarried brother to
settlements in the jungles, each ruled by live with him and share his fields and his
its own chief. The youngest son of the wife. Occasionally, also, a man may have
chief inherited his father’s property, while more than one wife. The Lepcha trace
the other sons were provided with wives their descent through the paternal line
from the village and sent out to found and have large patrilineal clans.
villages of their own. The Kuki live an They were converted to Tibetan
isolated existence in the bamboo forests, Buddhism by the Bhutia, but still retain
which provide them with their building their earlier pantheon of spirits and their
and handicraft materials. They grow rice, shamans, who cure illnesses, intercede
first burning off the jungle to clear the with the gods, and preside over the rites
ground. They hunt wild animals and keep accompanying birth, marriage, and death.
dogs, pigs, buffalo, goats, and poultry. Traditionally hunters and gatherers,
the Lepcha now also engage in farming
Lepcha and cattle breeding.
Boat on a canal south of Logtak Lake, near Imphal, Manipur, India. Most of Manipur’s popu-
lation is made up of Meithei people. Gerald Cubitt
36 | The Culture of India
horse breeders, and polo is a national a man to exchange a sister or close female
game. Hockey, boat races, theatrical per- relative for his bride. Following Hindu tra-
formances, and dancing (well known dition, the Mina cremate their dead while
throughout India as the Manipuri style) the Meo observe burial rites.
are other pastimes.
Mizo
Mina
The Mizo, also called Lushai (Lushei), are
The Mina (Meo, Mewati) are a tribe and a Tibeto-Burman-speaking people who
caste inhabiting Rajasthan and Punjab numbered about 540,000 in the late 20th
states in northern India, as well as Punjab century. They inhabit the mountainous
province, Pakistan. They speak Hindi and tract on the India-Myanmar (Burma) bor-
claim descent from the Rajputs. The Mina der known as the Mizo (formerly Lushai)
may have originated in Inner Asia, and Hills, in the Indian state of Mizoram. Like
tradition suggests that they migrated to the Kuki tribes, with which they have
India in the 7th century with the Rajputs, affinities, the Mizo traditionally prac-
but no other link between the two has been ticed shifting slash-and-burn cultivation,
substantiated. In the 11th century, the Meo moving their villages frequently. Their
branch of the Mina tribe converted from migratory habits facilitated rapid expan-
Hinduism to Islam, but they retained sion in the 18th and 19th centuries at the
Hindu dress. Although the Mina and Meo expense of weaker Kuki clans.
are regarded as variants, some Meo claim Mizo villages traditionally were situ-
that their ancestral home is Jaipur. ated on the crests of hills or spurs and,
Originally a nomadic, warlike people until the pacification of the country
practicing animal breeding and known for under British rule, were fortified by stock-
lawlessness, today most Mina and Meo are ades. Every village, though comprising
farmers with respected social positions. In members of several distinct clans, was
the late 20th century the Mina in India an independent political unit ruled by
numbered more than 1,100,000, and the a hereditary chief. The stratified Mizo
Meo, concentrated in northeastern Punjab, society consisted originally of chiefs,
Pakistan, numbered more than 300,000. commoners, serfs, and slaves (war cap-
Both are divided into 12 exogamous clans, tives). The British suppressed feuding
led by a headman (muqaddam) and a and headhunting but administered the
council (panch) of tribe members. They area through the indigenous chiefs.
trace descent patrilineally (through the
male line) and divide themselves into three Munda
classes: landlords, farmers, and watchmen.
Both the Mina and Meo permit widow The name Munda refers to any of sev-
divorce and remarriage, and the Meo allow eral more or less distinct tribal groups
The Peoples of India and the Caste System | 37
inhabiting a broad belt in central and Sino-Tibetan languages. Almost every vil-
eastern India and speaking various lage has its own dialect; to communicate
Munda languages of the Austroasiatic with other Naga groups they typically use
stock. They numbered approximately broken Assamese (Nagamese), English, or
9 million in the early 21st century. In Hindi. The largest tribes are the Konyaks,
the Chota Nagpur Plateau in southern Aos, Tangkhuls, Semas, and Angamis.
Bihar, adjacent parts of West Bengal and Most Nagas live in small villages
Madhya Pradesh, and the hill districts of strategically placed on hillsides and
Orissa, they form a numerically impor- located near water. Shifting cultivation
tant part of the population. (jhum) is commonly practiced, although
Munda history and origins are mat- some tribes practice terracing. Rice and
ters of conjecture. The territory they now millet are staples. Manufactures and
occupy was until recently difficult to reach arts include weaving (on simple tension
and remote from the great centres of looms) and wood carving. Naga fisher-
Indian civilization; it is hilly, forested, and men are noted for the use of intoxicants
relatively poor for agriculture. It is believed to kill or incapacitate fish.
that the Munda were once more widely Tribal organization has ranged from
distributed but retreated to their present autocracy to democracy, and power may
homelands with the advance and spread of reside in a council of elders or tribal
other peoples. Nevertheless, they have not council. Descent is traced through the
lived in complete isolation and share (with paternal line; clan and kindred are funda-
some tribal variation) many culture traits mental to social organization.
with other Indian peoples. Most Munda As a result of missionary efforts dat-
peoples are agriculturists. Along with ing to the 19th-century British occupation
their languages, the Munda have tended of the area, a sizable majority of Nagas
to preserve their own culture, although are Christians.
the government of India encourages their In response to nationalist political
assimilation to the larger Indian society. sentiment among the Nagas, the gov-
ernment of India created the state of
Naga Nagaland in 1961.
on the Rohtas Plateau, but they were dis- They speak languages belonging to the
lodged by other populations and migrated Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European
to Chota Nagpur, where they settled in the family and are also called Parbate, Khasa,
vicinity of Munda-speaking tribes. or Chetri. The people are historically
Speakers of Oraon number about ancient, having been mentioned by the
1,900,000, but in urban areas, and par- authors Pliny and Herodotus and figuring
ticularly among Christians, many Oraon in India’s epic poem, the Mahabharata.
speak Hindi as their mother tongue. The Their numbers were estimated to be
tribe is divided into numerous clans asso- about 20 million in the early 21st century.
ciated with animal, plant, and mineral The great majority of the Pahari are
totems. Every village has a headman and a Hindus, but their caste structure is less
hereditary priest; a number of neighbour- orthodox and less complex than that of the
ing villages constitute a confederation, plains to the south. Usually they are divided
the affairs of which are conducted by a into the high “clean” or “twice-born” castes
representative council. (Khasia, or Ka) and the low “unclean” or
An important feature of the social life “polluting” castes (Dom). Most of the high-
of a village is the bachelors’ dormitory caste Pahari are farmers; the Dom work in
for unmarried males. The bachelors sleep a variety of occupations and may be gold-
together in the dormitory, which is usu- smiths, leather workers, tailors, musicians,
ally on the outskirts of the village. There drummers, and sweepers.
is a separate house for the females. The The Pahari have historically practiced
dormitory institution serves in the social- a wide variety of marriage arrangements,
izing and training of the young. including polyandry (several brothers
The traditional religion of the Oraon sharing one or more wives), polygyny
comprises the cult of a supreme god, (several wives sharing a husband), group
Dharmes, the worship of ancestors, and marriages (with an equal number of hus-
the propitiation of numerous tutelary bands and wives), and monogamy. Girls
deities and spirits. Hinduism has influ- may be married before age 10, though
enced the ritual and certain beliefs. Many they do not cohabit with their husbands
Oraon, including the majority of the edu- until they are mature.
cated, have become Christians. The Pahari are an agricultural
people, cultivating terraces on the hill-
Pahari sides. Their chief crops are potatoes and
rice. Other crops include wheat, barley,
The Pahari people of India form a major- onions, tomatoes, tobacco, and various
ity of the population of Himalayan India vegetables. Sheep, goats, and cattle are
(in Himachal Pradesh and northern kept. The spinning of wool is done by
Uttar Pradesh), as well as three-fifths of everyone, while weaving is carried on by
the population of neighbouring Nepal. members of a lower caste.
The Peoples of India and the Caste System | 39
Santhal Savara
The tribal Santhal (Manjhi) people of The Savara (Saora, Sora, Saura) of eastern
eastern India, numbered about more than India are distributed mainly in the states of
5 million in the late 20th century. Their Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,
greatest concentration is in the states of and Bihar, with total numbers of about
Bihar, West Bengal, and Orissa. Smaller 310,000, most of whom are in Orissa.
40 | The Culture of India
Most Savara have become Hinduized Muslims, and Jains among them. In the
and generally speak the Oriya language. recent past, the Tamil area was also the
Their traditional form of Munda dia- home of the movement that calls for the
lect is preserved among those living desanskritization and debrahmanization
in the hills, however. The Savara of the of Tamil culture, language, and literature.
hill country are divided into subtribes The Tamil have a long history of
mainly on the basis of occupation: the achievement; sea travel, city life, and
Jati Savara are cultivators; the Arsi, commerce seem to have developed
weavers of cloth; the Muli, workers in early among them. Tamil trade with the
iron; the Kindal, basket makers; and the ancient Greeks and Romans is verified
Kumbi, potters. The traditional social by literary, linguistic, and archaeologi-
unit is the extended family, including cal evidence. The Tamil have the oldest
both males and females descended from cultivated Dravidian language, and their
a common male ancestor. rich literary tradition extends back to the
early Christian era. The Chera, Chola,
Tamil Pandya, and Pallava dynasties ruled over
the Tamil area before the Vijayanagar
The Tamil people, originally of southern empire extended its hegemony in the 14th
India, make up the majority of the popula- century, and these earlier dynasties pro-
tion of Tamil Nadu state and also inhabit duced many great kingdoms. Under them
parts of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra the Tamil people built great temples, irri-
Pradesh states, all situated in the south- gation tanks, dams, and roads, and they
ernmost third of India. Their language, played an important role in the transmis-
also called Tamil, is one of the princi- sion of Indian culture to Southeast Asia.
pal languages of the Dravidian family. The Chola, for example, were known for
Altogether they numbered about 57 mil- their naval power and brought the Malay
lion in the late 20th century. kingdom of Sri Vijaya under their suzer-
The Tamil area in India is a centre ainty in AD 1025. Though the Tamil area
of traditional Hinduism. Tamil schools was integrated culturally with the rest of
of personal religious devotion (bhakti) India for a long time, politically it was for
have long been important in Hinduism, most of the time a separate entity until
being enshrined in a literature dating the advent of British rule in India.
back to the 6th century AD. Buddhism The Tamil in Sri Lanka today are of
and Jainism were widespread among various groups and castes, though they
the Tamil in the early Christian era, are all Hindus. The so-called Ceylon
and these religions’ literatures predate Tamil, constituting approximately half
the early bhakti literature in the Tamil of them, are concentrated in the northern
area. Although the present-day Tamil part of the island. They are relatively well-
are mostly Hindus, there are Christians, educated, and many of them hold clerical
The Peoples of India and the Caste System | 41
had almost doubled in numbers by and much of it has been reforested. This
the mid-2000s because of improved threatens to undermine Toda culture by
health facilities. The Toda language is greatly diminishing the buffalo herds.
Dravidian but is the most aberrant of
that linguistic stock. Caste
Toda settlements contain from three
to seven small thatched houses scattered A unique development of Hindu soci-
over the pasture slopes. Built on a wooden eties, castes are the ranked, hereditary
framework, the typical house has an social groups, often linked with occupa-
arched roof in the shape of a half barrel. tion and marriage within their own group,
The Toda traditionally trade dairy prod- that together constitute traditional soci-
ucts, as well as cane and bamboo articles, eties in South Asia, particularly among
with the other Nilgiri peoples, receiv- Hindus in India.
ing Badaga grain and cloth and Kota Use of the term caste to character-
tools and pottery in exchange. Kurumba ize social organization in South Asia,
people play music for Toda funerals and particularly among the Hindus, dates
supply various forest products. to the middle of the 16th century. Casta
Toda religion centres on the all- (from Latin castus, “chaste”) in the
important buffalo. Ritual must be sense of purity of breed was employed
performed for almost every dairy activ- by Portuguese observers to describe the
ity, from milking and giving the herds division of Hindu society in western and
salt to churning butter and shifting pas- southwestern India into socially ranked
tures seasonally. There are ceremonies occupational categories. In an effort to
for the ordination of dairymen-priests, for maintain vertical social distance, these
rebuilding dairies, and for rethatching groups practiced mutual exclusion in mat-
funerary temples. These rites and the ters relating to eating and, presumably,
complex funeral rituals are the major marrying. Subsequently, cast, or caste,
occasions of social intercourse, when became established in English and major
intricate poetic songs alluding to the European languages (notably Dutch and
buffalo cult are composed and chanted. French) in the same specific sense. Caste
Polyandry is fairly common; several is generally believed to be an ancient,
men, usually brothers, may share one wife. abiding, and unique Indian institution
When a Toda woman becomes pregnant upheld by a complex cultural ideology.
one of her husbands ceremonially pres-
ents her with a toy bow and arrow, thus Varnas
proclaiming himself the social father of
her children. It is essential to distinguish between
Some Toda pasture land has come large-scale and small-scale views of caste
under recent cultivation by other peoples society, which may respectively be said
The Peoples of India and the Caste System | 43
to represent theory and practice, or ide- have been based mainly on personal skills
ology and the existing social reality. On rather than birth, status, or wealth. By the
the large scale, contemporary students of end of the Rigvedic period, however, the
Hindu society recall an ancient four-fold hereditary principle of social rank had
arrangement of socioeconomic catego- taken root. Thus the Purusha (Universal
ries called the varnas, which is traced Man) hymn of the Rigveda (probably a
back to an oral tradition preserved in late addition to the text) describes the cre-
the Rigveda (dating from perhaps 1000 ation of humanity in the form of varnas
BC). The Sanskrit word varna has many from a self-sacrificial rite: Brahmans were
connotations including description, selec- the mouth of Purusha, from his arms were
tion, classification, and colour. Of these, it made the Rajanyas, from his two thighs, the
is colour that appears to have been the Vaishyas, and the Sudras were born from
intended meaning of the word as used by his feet. The extent to which the ideology’s
the authors of the Rigveda. The “Aryans” hierarchical ordering of the four groups
(arya, “noble,” “distinguished”) were the mirrored the social reality is unknown.
branch of Indo-European peoples that The highest ranked among the var-
migrated about 1500 BC to northwestern nas, the Brahmans, were priests and the
India (the Indus Valley and the Punjab masters and teachers of sacred knowledge
Plain), where they encountered the local, (veda). Next in rank but hardly socially
dark-skinned people they called the daha inferior was the ruling class of Rajanya
(enemies) or the dasyus (servants). It is (kinsmen of the king), later renamed
also likely that the daha included earlier Kshatriya, those endowed with sover-
immigrants from Iran. The tendency of eignty and, as warriors, responsible for
some 20th-century writers to reduce the the protection of the dominion (kshatra).
ancient bipolar classification to racial A complex, mutually reinforcing relation-
differences on the basis of skin colour is ship of sacerdotal authority and temporal
misleading and rightly no longer in vogue. power was obviously shaped over a long
The Indo-Europeans and the dasyus period of time.
may have been antagonistic ethnic groups Clearly ranked below the two top
divided by physical features, culture, and categories were the Vaishyas (from
language. Whatever their relations, it is vish, “those settled on soils”), compris-
likely that they gradually became inte- ing agriculturists and merchants. These
grated into an internally plural social three varnas together were deemed to be
order significantly influenced by the prior “twice-born” (dvija), as the male mem-
social organization of the Indo-Europeans. bers were entitled to go through a rite of
A threefold division of society into priests, initiation during childhood. This second
warriors, and commoners was a part of birth entitled them to participate in spec-
the Indo-European heritage. In an early ified sacraments and gave them access
period, membership in a varna appears to to sacred knowledge. They were also
44 | The Culture of India
living below the line of pollution. As for is the dissociation of ritual status from
“untouchability,” this was declared unlaw- secular economic and political power.
ful in the Indian constitution framed after Although a great many spheres of life
independence and adopted in 1949–50. in modern India are little influenced by
Two routes have been available to caste, most marriages are nevertheless
castes seeking upward mobility. The tra- arranged within the caste. This is in part
ditional route consists of the adoption of because most people live in rural com-
certain critical elements of the way of life munities and because the arrangement
of clean (upper) castes, such as the ritual of marriages is a family activity carried
of initiation into the status of a clean out through existing networks of kinship
jati, wearing of the sacred thread (a loop and caste.
of thread worn next to the skin over the
left shoulder and across the right hip) Cultural Milieu
symbolic of such status, vegetarianism,
teetotalism, abstention from work that is The tempo of life in this large and diverse
considered polluting or demeaning, and polyglot nation varies from region to
prohibition of the remarriage of widows. region and from community to commu-
The process is gradual and not always nity. By the early 21st century the lifestyle
successful. The critical test of success lies of middle-class and affluent urban fami-
in the willingness, first, of higher castes lies differed little from that of urbanites
to accept cooked food from members of in Europe, East Asia, or the Americas.
the upwardly mobile jati and, second, of For the most part, however, the flow of
equivalent-status castes to provide them rural life continued much as it always
services that are deemed demeaning. had. Many small villages remained iso-
Within the framework of traditional lated from most forms of media and
values, socially ambitious castes have communications, and work was largely
also been known, when possible, to sup- done by hand or by the use of animal
plement the criterion of ritual purity by power. Traditional forms of work and
the secular criteria of numerical strength, recreation only slowly have given way to
economic well-being (notably in the habits and pastimes imported from the
form of land ownership), and the ability outside world. The pace of globalization
to mobilize physical force to emerge as was slow in much of rural India, and even
the wielders of power in village affairs in urban areas Western tastes in food,
and in local politics. Such a jati is usu- dress, and entertainment were adopted
ally referred to as the “dominant caste.” with discrimination. Indian fashions
It is important to distinguish between have remained the norm; Indians have
status and dominance, although in histor- continued to prefer traditional cuisine to
ical practice they usually coincided. An Western fare; and, though Indian youths
important aspect of social change today are as obsessed as those in the West with
46 | The Culture of India
pop culture, Indians produce their own based on gender, age, and, in the case
films and music (albeit, strongly influ- of a woman, the number of her male
enced by Western styles), which have children. The senior male of the house-
been extremely popular domestically and hold—whether father, grandfather, or
have been successfully marketed abroad. uncle—typically is the recognized fam-
Throughout India, custom and reli- ily head, and his wife is the person who
gious ritual are still widely observed and regulates the tasks assigned to female
practiced. Among Hindus, religious and family members. Males enjoy higher
social custom follows the samskara, a status than females; boys are often pam-
series of personal sacraments and rites pered while girls are relatively neglected.
conducted at various stages throughout This is reflected in significantly differ-
life. Observant members of other con- ent rates of mortality and morbidity
fessional communities follow their own between the sexes, allegedly (though reli-
rites and rituals. Among all groups, caste able statistics are lacking) in occasional
protocols have continued to play a role female infanticide, and increasingly in
in enforcing norms and values, despite the abortion of female fetuses following
decades of state legislation to alleviate prenatal gender testing. This pattern of
caste bias. preference is largely connected to the
institution of dowry, since the family’s
Family and Kinship obligation to provide a suitable dowry to
the bride’s new family represents a major
For almost all Indians the family is the financial liability. Traditionally, women
most important social unit. There is a were expected to treat their husbands
strong preference for extended families, as if they were gods, and obedience of
consisting of two or more married couples wives to husbands has remained a strong
(often of more than a single genera- social norm. This expectation of devo-
tion), who share finances and a common tion may follow a husband to the grave;
kitchen. Marriage is virtually universal, within some caste groups, widows are
divorce rare, and virtually every marriage not allowed to remarry even if they are
produces children. Almost all marriages bereaved at a young age.
are arranged by family elders on the Hindu marriage has traditionally
basis of caste, degree of consanguinity, been viewed as the “gift of a maiden”
economic status, education (if any), and (kanyadan) from the bride’s father to the
astrology. A bride traditionally moves to household of the groom. This gift is also
her husband’s house. However, nonar- accompanied by a dowry, which generally
ranged “love marriages” are increasingly consists of items suitable to start a young
common in cities. couple in married life. In some cases,
Within families, there is a clear however, dowries demanded by grooms
order of social precedence and influence and their families have become quite
The Peoples of India and the Caste System | 47
The Chariot Festival of the Jagannatha temple, Puri, Orissa, India. © Dinodia/Dinodia
Photo Library
Indian men wearing dhotis, from a 19th-century painting. Courtesy of the Victoria and Albert
Museum, London
50 | The Culture of India
(especially in rural areas) frequently wear worn, or in hot weather, when the head
little more than a broadcloth dhoti, worn may be protected by a turban. The more-
as a loose skirtlike loincloth, or, in parts affluent and higher-caste men are likely
of the south and east, the tighter wrap- to wear a tailored shirt, increasingly of
around lungi. In both cases the body Western style. Muslims, Sikhs, and urban
remains bare above the waist, except in dwellers generally are more inclined to
cooler weather, when a shawl also may be wear tailored clothing, including various
types of trousers, jackets, and vests.
Although throughout most of India
women wear saris and short blouses,
the way in which a sari is wrapped var-
ies greatly from one region to another.
In Punjab, as well as among older female
students and many city dwellers, the char-
acteristic dress is the shalwar-kamiz, a
one of which was spoken by more than languages. For example, the Hindi census
60,000 people. category includes not only Hindi proper
Lending order to this linguistic mix (about 422,050,000 speakers in 2001) but
are a number of written, or literary, lan- also such languages as Bhojpuri (about
guages used on the subcontinent, each of 33,100,000), Magahi (about 13,975,000),
which often differs markedly from the ver- and Maithili (more than 12,175,000).
nacular with which it is associated. Many Other Indo-Aryan languages that
people are bilingual or multilingual, have been officially recognized in the con-
knowing their local vernacular dialect stitution are as follows (the approximate
(“mother tongue”), its associated written numbers of speakers for each are drawn
variant, and, perhaps, one or more other from the census report of 2001): Asamiya
languages. (Assamese, about 13,175,000 speakers),
Bangla (Bengali, 83,875,000), Gujarati
Indian Languages (46,100,000), Kashmiri (5,525,000),
Konkani (2,500,000), Marathi (71,950,000),
The languages spoken in India are classi- Nepali (2,875,000), Oriya (33,025,000),
fied as belonging to the following families: Punjabi (29,100,000), Sindhi (2,550,000),
Indo-European (the Indo-Aryan branch and Urdu (51,550,000).
in particular), Dravidian, Austroasiatic
(Munda in particular), and Sino-Tibetan General Characteristics
(Tibeto-Burman in particular).
Linguists generally recognize three
Indo-Aryan (Indic) major divisions of Indo-Aryan languages:
Old, Middle, and New (or Modern) Indo-
In the early 21st century, Indo-Aryan Aryan. These divisions are primarily
languages were spoken by more than linguistic and are named in the order in
800 million people, primarily in India, which they initially appeared, with later
Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri divisions coexisting with rather than
Lanka. According to the 2001 census of completely replacing earlier ones.
India, Indo-Aryan languages accounted Old Indo-Aryan includes different
for more than 790,625,000 speakers, dialects and linguistic states that are
or more than 75 percent of the popula- referred to in common as Sanskrit. The
tion. By 2003 the constitution of India most archaic Old Indo-Aryan is found
included 22 officially recognized, or in Hindu sacred texts called the Vedas,
Scheduled, languages. However, this which date to approximately 1500 BC.
number does not distinguish among There is a clear-cut difference between
many speech communities that could Vedic and post-Vedic Sanskrit in that the
legitimately be considered distinct former has certain formations that the
Indian Languages and Writing Systems | 55
The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda at Vadodara, Gujarat, India. Gujarati is the
official language of Gujarat, used for educational and government purposes. Vidyavrata
Modern standard Hindi evolved the sounds /g/ and /x/ were replaced by
from the interaction of early speakers of /k/ and /kh/, respectively. Contact with
Khari Boli with Muslim invaders from the English language has also enriched
Afghanistan, Iran, Turkey, Central Asia, Hindi. Many English words, such as but-
and elsewhere. As the new immigrants ton, pencil, petrol, and college are fully
settled and began to adjust to the Indian assimilated in the Hindi lexicon.
social environment, their languages— Hindi has borrowed a number of
which were ultimately lost—enriched prefixes and suffixes from Persian that,
Khari Boli. when combined with indigenous roots,
Most of the Persian words that were have created new words. Similarly, the
assimilated with Hindi concerned admin- process of hybridization with English
istration, such as bahi ‘account book,’ has produced a large number of derived
faujdari ‘criminal (case),’ vazir ‘minister,’ nominals, such as kaungresi (congress
and musahib ‘courtier.’ Words such as + i), Ameriki (America + i), and vais-
dalil ‘argument,’ faisla ‘judgment,’ and cansalari (vice-chancellor + i), in which
gavahi ‘witness’ have been completely the base word is English and the suffix is
assimilated and are usually not recog- typically Hindi. Nouns that mix contribu-
nized as loanwords. Persian names for tions from English and Persian, such as
items of dress and bedding (e.g., pajama, table-kursi ‘tables and chairs’ and school-
chador), cuisine (e.g., korma, kabab), cos- imarat ‘school building,’ are also found.
metics (e.g., sabun ‘soap,’ hina ‘henna’), In spoken Hindi, English-based complex
furniture (e.g., kursi ‘chair,’ mez ‘table’), verbs are used as well. For instance, one
construction (e.g., divar ‘wall,’ kursi can say either aram karna or rest karna
‘plinth’), a large number of adjectives ‘to rest,’ parhai karna or study karna ‘to
and their nominal derivatives (e.g., abad study,’ and bahas karna or plead karna
‘inhabited’ and abadi ‘population’), and a ‘to plead.’
wide range of other items and concepts In earlier Hindi the relative clause
are so much a part of the Hindi language was placed either at the beginning or at
that purists of the postindependence the end of the main clause. For instance,
period have been unsuccessful in purg- one could render ‘the boy who came here
ing them. yesterday is my friend’ in several ways: wo
While borrowing Persian and Arabic larka mera dosht hai jo kal yaha aya tha,
words, Hindi also borrowed phonemes, literally ‘that boy my friend is who yester-
such as /f/ and /z/, though these were day came here’; jo larka kal yaha aya tha,
sometimes replaced by /ph/ and /j/. wo mera dosht hai, literally ‘which boy
For instance, Hindi renders the word for yesterday here came, he my friend is’; or
‘force’ as either zor or jor and the word for wo larka jo kal yaha aya tha, mera dosht
‘sight’ as nazar or najar. In most cases hai, literally ‘that boy who yesterday here
Indian Languages and Writing Systems | 59
came, my friend is.’ After colonization, Hindi originated in just such a multi-
Hindi syntax was influenced by English, lingual situation centuries ago, so may
though in a limited way. For instance, urbanism instigate the development of
until the mid-19th century, Hindi had no an even richer lexicon and even more
form for indirect narration—one could flexible syntactic devices.
formerly say Ram ne kaha, mein nahi Pressure on standard Hindi is felt not
aaoonga ‘Ram said, “I won’t come,”’ and only from non-Hindi speakers but also
now one can also say Ram ne kaha ki wo from the many Hindi speakers who have
nahi ayega ‘Ram said that he won’t come.’ recently switched over from their dialects
From the mid-20th century, the use to standard Hindi without having entirely
of Hindi on national television increased eliminated the influences of those regional
the use of a linguistic device called code languages. In such cases, sound systems
switching, in which the speaker creates often retain a regional touch; for instance,
sentences by combining a Hindi phrase Biharis use /s/ in place of /sh/, and the
with another in English, as in I told him hill peoples (the so-called Scheduled
that mai bimar hu ‘I told him that I am Tribes) of Uttar Pradesh use /sh/ for /s/.
sick.’ This device differs from code mix- The syntax of such speakers may also
ing, in which words of different origins have recognizable variants; for example,
are mixed: usne sick leave ki application instead of the standard Hindi form mujhey
de hai ‘he has applied for sick leave.’ jana hai ‘I have to go,’ Punjabis and
In 1931 linguist Sumit Kumar Delhites say maine jana hae, Hindi speak-
Chatterjee conducted a study in Calcutta ers of Teangana say maiku jana hai, and
(now Kolkata) detailing the use of a people of western Madhya Pradesh and
lingua franca that he called Bazaar Maharashtra say apanko jana hai.
Hindustani. It had minimal grammatical The Central Hindi Directorate, a
forms and a simplified basic vocabulary government agency with the mission of
used by both Europeans and Indians standardizing and modernizing Hindi, is
who spoke such languages as Asamiya, moving the language closer to Sanskrit.
Bangla, Oriya, Tamil, and Hindi. In Non-Hindi speakers, however, are pull-
the early 21st century, what came to be ing the language in another direction
known simply as Hindustani—a collo- by using increasing numbers of English
quial spoken language that, depending words and phrases and by simplifying
on geographic location, draws exten- the complex rules of subject-verb agree-
sively from Hindi and Sanskrit or from ment found in standard Hindi. Notably,
Urdu and Persian—continued to be the both groups are motivated by the same
lingua franca of Kolkata and other cos- goal—to widen the scope of Hindi by
mopolitan and industrial cities that had making it more comprehensible to non-
drawn people from all parts of India. As Hindi speakers.
60 | The Culture of India
Indian women in Kolkata celebrate Vasantotsav, the Bengali festival of spring on February 28,
2010. Deshakalyan Chowdhury/AFP/Getty Images
62 | The Culture of India
two cities, Sylhet and Chittagong, have some newspapers and publishers have
developed dialects with lexical and pho- their own house styles. Not surprisingly,
nological characteristics that are mostly these independent efforts to standardize
unintelligible to other speakers of Bangla. Bangla orthography have helped to cre-
The Bangla script is derived from ate a degree of confusion.
Brahmi, one of the two ancient Indian
scripts, and particularly from the eastern Dogri
variety of Brahmi. Bangla script followed
a different line of development from that Dogri is spoken in the Indian state of
of Devanagari and Oriyan scripts, but the Jammu and Kashmir. The earliest writ-
characters of Bangla and Asamiya scripts ten reference to it (using the paleonym
generally coincided. By the 12th cen- [ancient name] Duggar) is found in the
tury AD the Bangla alphabet was nearly Nuh sipihr (“The Nine Heavens”), written
complete, although natural changes by the poet Amīr Khosrow in AD 1317.
continued to take place until the 16th Dogri is descended from Classical
century. Some conscious alterations were Sanskrit, the language of the Vedas
also made in the 19th century. (1500–1200 BC). The development of
Bangla is written from left to right. Dogri from the Vedic period to its present
There are no capital letters. The script form has been traced through changes in
is characterized by many conjuncts, phonology. For example, the word son
upstrokes, downstrokes, and other fea- is rendered as putra in Old Indo-Aryan
tures that hang from a horizontal line. (perhaps 1200–250 BC), putta in Middle
The punctuation marks, save one, are all Indo-Aryan (approximately 400 BC–AD
taken from 19th-century English. 1100), and putter in Dogri (since perhaps
Bangla spelling was more or less AD 1100). Documented phonological
standardized through a set of reforms changes include nasalization, metathesis
that were initiated by the University of (the transposition of phonemes within a
Calcutta in 1936. However, the standard- word), and shifts in voice and aspiration.
ization process continued throughout the Dogri uses length, nasalization, juncture,
20th and into the early 21st century. For stress, and three tones (level, falling,
instance, the Bangla Academy in Dhaka and rising) to differentiate between its
prefers a set of alternatives offered by the 10 vowel phonemes and 28 consonant
1936 reforms, while the Bangla Academy phonemes.
in West Bengal has proposed new Dogri vocabulary (but not gram-
reforms. Visva-Bharati, the university matical structure) has been influenced
founded by the Bengali poet and Nobelist by other languages, notably Persian and
Rabindranath Tagore, has also effected English. Within the language, variety is
several spelling variations. Finally, for the most part geographically based.
Indian Languages and Writing Systems | 63
Dogri was once written in Dogra between speakers who are Parsi and
or Dogra Akkhar, the official script of those who are Bohra.
Jammu and Kashmir state during the
reign of Ranbir Singh (1857–85). However, Kashmiri
Dogra was for the most part replaced by
Devanagari script during the 20th century. Kashmiri is spoken in the Vale of
Kashmir and the surrounding hills. By
Gujarati origin it is a Dardic language, but it has
become predominantly Indo-Aryan in
Most of the 46 million people who speak character. Reflecting the history of the
Gujarati reside in the Indian state of area, the Kashmiri vocabulary is mixed,
Gujarat, though there are significant containing Dardic, Sanskrit, Punjabi, and
diaspora communities around the world, Persian elements. Religious differences
especially in the United Kingdom and are evident in vocabulary and choice of
the United States. alphabet. Muslims employ Persian and
The development of the language can Arabic words freely; they also use the
traced to approximately the 12th century Persian form of the alphabet to write
AD. Gujarati inflection is fairly complex, Kashmiri, although the Persian alphabet
marking three genders (masculine, femi- is not truly suited to the task, because
nine, and neuter), two numbers (singular it lacks symbols for the many Kashmiri
and plural), and three cases (nominative, vowel sounds. Kashmiri Hindus favour
oblique, and agentive-locative) for nouns. words derived from Sanskrit and write
It is usually written with a cursive form of Kashmiri in the Sarada alphabet, a script
Devanagari script. of Indian origin. In printed books, the
Differences in religion, caste, ethnic- Devanagari character is used. There is
ity, profession, and education overlap a small amount of Kashmiri literature.
with regional distinctions to create a The only important spoken dialects are
complex system of language varieties in Kishtwari, Poguli, and Rambani.
which sharp dialect boundaries cannot
be drawn. Linguists have discerned two Konkani
general pairs of dialect groups, however.
The first is based on differing phonology: Konkani, the language of some 2.5 mil-
some groups use a “tight” phonation, lion people, is spoken on the central west
spoken with a raised larynx; others use a coast of India, where it is the official lan-
“murmured” phonation, spoken with the guage of Goa state. It is also associated
intermittent lowering of the larynx. The particularly with the city of Mangalore
second dialect pair is based on ethnic- (Mangaluru) in southwestern Karnataka
ity, as there are recognizable distinctions and is spoken especially along the west
64 | The Culture of India
coast of Maharashtra state. Because of the Marathi. Like Hindi, Marathi has lost
language’s proximity to Marathi, it bears most of its inflectional system to indicate
some resemblance to that language, but case, using instead postpositions (like
it precedes Marathi in date of origina- prepositions, only following the word)
tion. The first known Konkani inscription with an oblique “case” to serve the func-
dates to 1187. tion originally filled by inflection.
Maithili Nepali
With Magadhi (Magahi) and Bhojpuri, Nepali (also called Gurkha, Gorkhali,
Maithili is one of the major languages of Gurkhali, or Khaskura) is spoken by
Bihar state. Maithili is the language of old more than 17 million people, more than
Mithila (the area of ancient Videha, now 2.8 million of whom live in parts of India
Tirhut), which is dominated by ortho- bordering on Nepal.
doxy and the Maithil Brahman way of life. Patterns of phonological change
Maithili is the only Bihari language with suggest that Nepali is related to the
a script of its own, called Tirhuta, and a languages of northwestern India, and
strong literary history; one of the earliest particularly to Sindhi, Lahnda, and
and most celebrated writers in Maithili Punjabi. Comparative reconstructions of
was Vidyapati (Bidpai; 15th century), vocabulary have supported this appraisal,
noted for his lyrics of love and devotion. relating Nepali to proto-Dardic, Pahari,
Sindhi, Lahnda, and Punjabi.
Marathi Investigations of archaeology and
history indicate that modern Nepali
Marathi is spoken in western and central is a descendant of the language spo-
India. Its range extends from north of ken by the ancient Khasha people. The
Mumbai down the western coast past Goa word Khasha appears in Sanskrit legal,
and eastward across the Deccan; in 1966 it historical, and literary texts such as the
became the official language of the state Manu-smriti (1st century BC), Kalhana’s
of Maharashtra. The standard form of Rajatarangini (AD 1148), and the
speech is that of the city of Pune (Poona). Puranas (AD 350–1500). The Khashas
Descended from the Maharashtri ruled over a vast territory comprising
Prakrit, Marathi has a significant litera- what are now western Nepal, parts of
ture. Books are printed in Devanagari Garhwal and Kumaon (India), and parts
script, which is also used for handwriting, of southwestern Tibet. Ashoka Challa
although for handwriting there is also (AD 1255–78) called himself khasha-
an alternate cursive form of Devanagari rajadhiraja (“emperor of the Khashas”)
called Modi. Eastern Hindi is the Indo- in a copperplate inscription found in
Aryan language most closely related to Bodh Gaya. His descendants used old
Indian Languages and Writing Systems | 65
Oriya allows compounding, but unlike in Punjab, a territory that was divided
Sanskrit it does not allow elision (the between India and Pakistan during parti-
slurring or omission of a final unstressed tion; the former territory now comprises
vowel). The use of compounds is more a both Punjab state in India and Punjab
feature of written than of spoken Oriya. province in Pakistan. Smaller speech
Oriya has 6 pure vowels, 9 diphthongs, 28 communities exist in Canada, Malaysia,
consonants (3 of them retroflex—i.e., pro- South Africa, the United Arab Emirates,
duced with the tip of the tongue curled the United Kingdom, the United States,
back toward the hard palate), 4 semivow- and elsewhere.
els, and no consonant-ending words. There are two major varieties of
Oriya grammar distinguishes between Punjabi. The western variety is known
singular and plural number; first, second, as Lahnda, while the eastern variety is
and third person; and masculine and femi- known as Gurmukhi. Punjabi is gener-
nine gender. It is an inflectionally rich ally written with either Perso-Arabic
language. Nominals carry number and script or the Gurmukhi alphabet, which
case inflections, while adjectives carry was devised by the Sikh Guru Angad
inflections indicating degree and, for the (ruled 1539–52) for scriptural use; it is
tatsama adjectives, gender. now employed for general purposes as
In Oriya inscriptions from between well. Occasionally, Punjabi is written with
the 12th and the 14th century, word Devanagari script.
order is relatively free, and verb–object The Punjabi language evolved from
sequence (with the subject before or Shauraseni Apabhramsha. Traces of
after) is not infrequent. Other historical earlier Prakrits, especially Pali, and of
changes include the loss of some plural proto-Indo-Aryan and pre-Indo-Aryan
markers and some postpositions. The languages also appear in Punjabi phonol-
indirect speech, relative clauses, and ogy and morphology.
passive constructions found in English The most distinctive feature of modern
have emerged in Oriya, although these Punjabi is its use of tones to differentiate
are considered nonstandard forms. New words that are otherwise identical. The
discursive forms such as the essay and language uses three contour tones (tones
news reporting and analysis have also that change over the course of a word).
come to Oriya from English. Scholarly These are realized over two successive syl-
speech and writing still remain fairly lables and are expressed phonetically as
Sanskritized, however. high rising-falling, mid rising-falling, and
very low rising.
Punjabi Punjabi does not have the voiced
aspirates of other Indo-Aryan languages.
The Punjabi (Panjabi) language is spo- Generally, the consonant /h/ corre-
ken by more than 100 million people sponds to high tone. Through analogic
Indian Languages and Writing Systems | 67
prior to Kalidasa, who mentions him; and the Mountain Man”), from approxi-
Kalidasa, dated anywhere from the mately the 7th century; Magha, whose
1st century BC to the 4th century AD, Shishupalavadha (“The Slaying of
whose works include Shakuntala (more Shishupala”) dates to the late 7th cen-
fully, Abhijnanashakuntala; “Shakuntala tury; and from about the early 8th century
Recalled Through Recognition” or Bhavabhuti, who wrote Mahaviracarita
“The Recognition of Shakuntala”), (“Deeds of the Great Hero”),
Vikramorvashiya (“Urvashi Won Through Malatimadhava (“Malati and Madhava”),
Valour”), Kumarasambhava (“The Birth and Uttararamacarita (“The Last Deed of
of Kumara”), and Raghuvamsha (“The Rama”). The two epics Ramayana (“Life
Lineage of Raghu”); Shudraka and his of Rama”) and Mahabharata (“Great Tale
Mrcchakatika (“Little Clay Cart”), pos- of the Bharatas”) were also composed in
sibly dating to the 3rd century AD; Sanskrit, and the former is esteemed as
Bharavi and his Kiratarjuniya (“Arjuna the first poetic work (adikavya) of India.
This illuminated Sikh manuscript shows Devanagari script. Réunion des Musées Nationaux/
Art Resource, NY
Indian Languages and Writing Systems | 69
Historically, the Sindh region suffered collected and compiled from oral tra-
frequent invasions. It was conquered by dition and published in more than 40
the forces of Islam in AD 712 and remained volumes by the Sindhi Adabi Board, a gov-
under Muslim rule until the British con- ernment institution that was established
quest in 1843. Hence, the Sindhi language in 1955 for the promotion of the language.
borrowed many Arabic and Persian words. Written Sindhi literature is first attested
In spite of this, the basic vocabulary and in the 8th century AD, when references
grammatical structure of Sindhi has to an independent, Sindhi version of the
remained mostly unchanged. Mahabharata appear. However, the earli-
Sindhi has been one of the major est well-attested written records in Sindhi
literary languages of the Indo-Pakistan belong to the 15th century AD.
subcontinent, though its literary promi- Medieval Sindhi devotional litera-
nence is being surpassed in some areas ture (1500–1843) comprises Sufi poetry
by Urdu. Sindhi is written mainly in and Advaita Vedanta poetry. Sindhi
two scripts. The first is a modified and literature has flourished during the mod-
enlarged form of the Arabic alphabet that ern period (since 1843), although the
was standardized by the British govern- language and literary style of contem-
ment in 1852 and consists of 52 characters; porary Sindhi writings in Pakistan and
it is known as the Arabic-Sindhi script. India had noticeably diverged by the
The second is the Devanagari-Sindhi late 20th century; authors from the for-
script, comprising Devanagari and an mer country were borrowing extensively
additional four letters used to express from Persian and Arabic vocabulary,
the special implosive sounds of Sindhi. while those from the latter were highly
Use of the Devanagari-Sindhi script has influenced by Hindi.
helped to preserve and promote the lit-
erary and cultural heritage of the region Urdu
and its language.
In addition, Sindhi can be written Urdu is spoken by more than 50 million
with an indigenous script (also called people in India and by millions more in
Sindhi) that derives from proto-Devana- Pakistan. Significant speech communi-
gari, Brahmi, and Indus valley scripts. A ties exist in the United Arab Emirates,
small number of traders use it for com- the United Kingdom, and the United
mercial correspondence, and it is the States as well. Notably, Urdu and Hindi
script of choice for the religious texts of are mutually intelligible.
Isma‘ili Khoja Muslims. Sindhi can be Urdu developed in the 12th century
written with the Gurmukhi alphabet and AD from the regional Apabhramsha
Gujarati characters as well. of northwestern India, serving as a lin-
The folk literature of Sindhi is as guistic modus vivendi after the Muslim
old as the language itself. It has been conquest. Its first major poet was Amīr
Indian Languages and Writing Systems | 71
division of the East India Company) intro- parent language called Proto-Dravidian.
duced the notion of a Dravidian family. The second area of investigation focused
His Dissertation of the Telugu Language on the study of the various inscriptions,
was initially published as “Note to the literary texts, and regional dialects of the
Introduction” of British linguist A.D. four literary languages, which allowed
Campbell’s A Grammar of the Teloogoo scholars to identify the historical evolu-
Language. Ellis’s monograph provided tion of those languages. A third area of
lexical and grammatical evidence to sup- interest involved the discovery and lin-
port the hypothesis that Tamil, Telugu, guistic description of new languages
Kannada, Malayalam, Tulu, Kodagu, and within the family.
Malto were members of “the family of Several new languages were added
languages which may be appropriately to the Dravidian family in the 20th cen-
called the dialects of Southern India.” tury, including Kota, Kolami, Parji, Pengo,
The next major publication on Ollari, Konda/Kubi, Kondekor Gadaba,
the Dravidian languages was Robert Irula, and Toda. Progress was also made in
Caldwell’s A Comparative Grammar of describing nonliterary languages, notably
the Dravidian or South Indian Family Brahui, Kurukh, Malto, Kui, Kuvi, Gondi
of Languages (1856). A missionary who (various dialects), Kodagu, and Tulu.
left his native Scotland for a lifetime of The most significant and monu-
work in India, he demonstrated that the mental work of the 20th century was
Dravidian languages were not geneti- A Dravidian Etymological Dictionary
cally related to Sanskrit, thus disproving ([DED] 1961; revised 1984) by British
a view that had been held by Indian schol- linguist Thomas Burrow and Canadian
ars for more than two millennia. Caldwell linguist Murray B. Emeneau. Much that
identified 12 Dravidian languages; to the has been accomplished in compara-
7 already noted by Ellis, he added Toda tive phonology and reconstruction is
and Kota of South Dravidian, Gondi and indebted to this work. The early 21st
Kui-Kuvi of South-Central Dravidian, and century saw a continuation of studies in
Kurukh of North Dravidian. He also dis- comparative morphology, though much
cussed Brahui. work on the comparative syntax of the
The 20th century was marked by con- family remains to be done.
siderable research and publication on the
Dravidian language family and its mem- Kannada
bers, particularly in three realms of study.
The first was the collection of cognates Kannada, also called Kanarese or
(related words) and the discovery of Kannana, is the official language of the
sound correspondences (related sounds) state of Karnataka in southern India. It
among the different languages; these led is also spoken in the states that border
to the reconstruction of the hypothetical Karnataka. Early 21st-century census data
74 | The Culture of India
indicated that some 38 million individu- with Hubli-Dharwad, and the coastal
als spoke Kannada as their first language; with Mangalore. The prestige variet-
another 9 to 10 million were thought to ies are based on the Mysore-Bangalore
speak it as a secondary language. In variety. Social varieties are currently
2008 the government of India granted characterized by education and class or
Kannada classical-language status. caste, resulting in at least three distinct
Kannada is the second oldest of the social dialects: Brahman, non-Brahman,
four major Dravidian languages with a and Scheduled Caste (Dalit; formerly
literary tradition. The oldest Kannada untouchable). A diglossia or dichotomy
inscription was discovered at the small also exists between formal literary variet-
community of Halmidi and dates to about ies and spoken varieties.
AD 450. The Kannada script evolved Kannada literature began with the
from southern varieties of the Ashokan Kavirajamarga of Nripatunga (9th century
Brahmi script. The Kannada script is AD) and was followed by Pampa’s Bharata
closely related to the Telugu script; (AD 941). The earliest extant grammar
both emerged from an Old Kannarese is by Nagavarma and dates to the early
(Karnataka) script. Three historical 12th century; the grammar of Keshiraja
stages are recognized: Old Kannada (AD 1260) is still respected. Kannada lit-
(450–1200), Middle Kannada (1200–1700), erature was influenced by the Lingayat
and Modern Kannada (1700–present). (Virasaiva) and the Haridasa movements.
The word order is subject–object– In the 16th century the Haridasa move-
verb, as in the other Dravidian languages. ment of vernacular devotional song
Verbs are marked for person, number, reached its zenith with Purandaradasa
and gender. The case-marking pattern is and Kanakadasa, the former considered
nominative-accusative, with experiencer the father of Karnatak music, the classi-
subjects taking the dative inflection. Most cal music of southern India.
inflection is rendered through affixation,
especially of suffixes. The language uses Malayalam
typical Dravidian retroflex consonants
(sounds pronounced with the tip of the Malayalam is spoken mainly in India,
tongue curled back against the roof of where it is the official language of the
the mouth), such as /d· /, /n·/, and /t· /, as state of Kerala and the union territory of
well as a series of voiced and voiceless Lakshadweep. It is also spoken by bilin-
aspirates borrowed from the Indo-Aryan gual communities in contiguous parts of
language family. Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. In the early
Three regional varieties of Kannada 21st century, Malayalam was spoken by
are identifiable. The southern vari- more than 35 million people.
ety is associated with the cities of Malayalam has three important
Mysore and Bangalore, the northern regional dialects and a number of smaller
Indian Languages and Writing Systems | 75
between the form spoken in India and spoken dialects—a situation known as
that spoken in Jaffna (Sri Lanka), capi- diglossia.
tal of a former Tamil city-state, and its Like the other Dravidian languages,
surrounds. Within Tamil Nadu there are Telugu has a series of retroflex conso-
phonological differences between the nants (/d· /, /n· /, and /t· /) pronounced with
northern, western, and southern speech. the tip of the tongue curled back against
Regional varieties of the language inter- the roof of the mouth. Grammatical cat-
sect with varieties that are based on egories such as case, number, person,
social class or caste. and tense are denoted with suffixes.
Like the other Dravidian languages, Reduplication, the repetition of words
Tamil is characterized by a series of retro- or syllables to create new or emphatic
flex consonants (/d· /, /n· /, and /t· /) made meanings, is common (e.g., pakapaka
by curling the tip of the tongue back to ‘suddenly bursting out laughing,’ garag-
the roof of the mouth. Structurally, Tamil ara ‘clean, neat, nice’).
is a verb-final language that allows flex-
ibility regarding the order of the subject Other Languages and
and the object in a sentence. Lingua Francas
replaced the old. To take a relatively in its own subdivision of the so-called
simple case, the Lotha Naga of India are a Kamarupan group—a geographic (or
Scheduled (officially recognized) Tribe of areal) rather than a genetic designa-
fewer than 100,000 people, yet the people tion but one that must suffice until more
and their language are called by at least definitive information becomes available.
three exonyms—Chizima, Choimi, and
Miklai, by the neighbouring Angami, Bodo
Sema, and Assamese peoples, respec-
tively. The paleonyms Lolo, Lushai, Abor, The Bodo language, which has several
Dafla, and Mikir have for the most part dialects, belongs to the Tibeto-Burman
been replaced by Yi, Mizo, Adi, Nyishi, branch of Sino-Tibetan languages. It is
and Karbi, respectively. spoken in the northeastern Indian states of
Assam and Meghalaya and in Bangladesh.
Manipuri It is related to Dimasa, Tripura, and
Lalunga languages, and it is written in
Also called Meithei (Manipuri: Meiteilon), Latin, Devanagari, and Bengali scripts.
Manipuri is spoken predominantly in
Manipur, a northeastern state of India. Indian English
Smaller speech communities exist in
the Indian states of Assam, Mizoram, English, which is an official language
and Tripura, and it is also spoken in of India, is its most widely used lin-
Bangladesh and Myanmar. There are gua franca. The great size of India’s
approximately 1.9 million speakers of population makes it one of the largest
Manipuri, which is used as a lingua franca English-speaking communities in the
among the 29 different ethnic groups of world, although English is claimed as the
Manipur. In 1992 it became the first TB mother tongue by only a small number
language to receive recognition as an of Indians and is spoken fluently by less
official, or “Scheduled,” language of India. than 5 percent of the population. English
Manipuri has its own script, locally serves as the language linking the central
known as Meitei Mayek. Manipur state government with the states, especially
and its surroundings are the locus from with those in which Hindi is not widely
which the Tibeto-Burman family spread understood. English is also the princi-
and diversified, making the genetic pal language of commerce, the language
assignment of the region’s languages of instruction in almost all of the coun-
very difficult. During the 19th and 20th try’s prestigious universities and private
centuries, different linguists conjectured schools, and the language of scientific
that Manipuri belonged to one of several research. The English-language press
TB subdivisions. In the early 21st cen- remains highly influential; scholarly
tury, the consensus view placed Manipuri publication is predominantly in English
80 | The Culture of India
speak Hindi, and sizable portions of this somewhat by Brahmi, which eventually
group, especially those who live in cities, superseded it.
are known to use Hindustani rather than
Sanskritized Hindi in ordinary speech. Brahmi
Thus, while Hindustani may not survive
as a literary language, it continues to Of Aramaic derivation or inspiration,
thrive as a vernacular. the Brahmi script can be traced to the
8th or 7th century BC, when it may have
Indic Writing Systems been introduced to Indian merchants by
people of Semitic origin. Brahmi is semi-
Two scripts are attested in ancient India: alphabetic, each consonant having either
the syllabic Kharosthi and semialpha- an inherent a sound pronounced after it
betic Brahmi scripts of ancient India. No or a diacritic mark to show another vowel;
systems of writing subsequently devel- initial vowels have separate characters. In
oped from the Kharosthi script. Brahmi, most cases Brahmi and its derivatives are
however, is thought to be the forerunner written from left to right, but a coin of the
of all of the scripts used for writing the 4th century BC, discovered in Madhya
languages of India, Tibet, Southeast Asia, Pradesh, is inscribed with Brahmi char-
and Indonesia (exceptions include those acters running from right to left. Among
areas in which native writing systems the many descendants of Brahmi are
have been replaced by the Latin or Arabic Devanagari (used for Sanskrit, Hindi,
alphabet or by Chinese). and other Indian languages), the Bangla
and Gujarati scripts, and those of the
Kharosthi Dravidian languages.
the most part via Devanagari) of most “round.” The Tulu-Malayalam script is a
later Indian scripts. variety of Grantha dating from the 8th or
The original Gupta alphabet had 9th century AD. The modern Tamil script
37 letters, including 5 vowels, and was may also be derived from Grantha, but
written from left to right. Four main this is not certain.
subtypes of Gupta script developed Originally used for writing Sanskrit
from the original alphabet: eastern, only, Grantha in its later varieties is also
western, southern, and Central Asian. used to write a number of the Dravidian
The Central Asian Gupta can be fur- languages indigenous to southern India.
ther divided into Central Asian Slanting The script has 35 letters, five of them
Gupta and its Agnean and Kuchean vari- vowels, and is written from left to right.
ants and Central Asian Cursive Gupta,
or Khotanese. A western branch of east- Devanagari
ern Gupta gave rise to the Siddhamatrka
script (c. AD 500), which, in turn, evolved The Devanagari script is used to write
into the Devanagari alphabet (c. AD the Sanskrit, Prakrit, Hindi, Marathi, and
700), the most widespread of the modern Nepali languages, developed from the
Indian scripts. North Indian monumental script known
as Gupta and ultimately from the Brahmi
Grantha Alphabet alphabet, from which all modern Indian
writing systems are derived. In use from
The earliest inscriptions in Grantha, the 7th century AD and occurring in
dating from the 5th–6th century AD, its mature form from the 11th century
are on copper plates from the kingdom onward, Devanagari is characterized by
of the Pallavas (near modern Chennai long, horizontal strokes at the tops of the
[Madras]). The form of the alphabet letters, usually joined in modern usage
used in these inscriptions, classified as to form a continuous horizontal line
Early Grantha, is seen primarily on cop- through the script when written.
per plates and stone monuments. Middle The word Devanagari is from the
Grantha, the form of the script used Sanskrit words deva, meaning “god,” and
from the mid-7th to the end of the 8th nāgarī (lipi), meaning “[script] of the
century, is also known from inscriptions city.” The script is also called Nagari.
on copper and stone. The script used The Devanagari writing system is a
from the 9th to the 14th century is called combination of syllabary and alphabet.
Transitional Grantha; from approxi- One of its more notable characteristics
mately 1300 on, the modern script has is the convention that a consonantal
been in use. Currently two varieties are symbol lacking diacritics is read as the
used: Brahmanic, or “square,” and Jain, or consonant followed by the letter a—that
84 | The Culture of India
is, the a is implied rather than written as are pronounced by stopping and then
a separate character. releasing the airflow, such as k, c, t· , t, p),
Another notable characteristic is semivowels (y, r, l, v), and spirants (ś, s·, s,
that the most common traditional list- h; h comes last because it has no unique
ing of Devanagari symbols follows a place of articulation).
phonetic order in which the vowels are The name of each vowel is desig-
recited before the consonants; in con- nated by its sound plus the suffix -kāra;
trast, most alphabets follow an order that thus, akāra is the name for a and ākāra
mixes vowels and consonants together for ā. A consonant is usually referred to
(e.g., A, B, C). Furthermore, Devanagari by its sound plus the default vowel a and
arranges the vowels and consonants the suffix -kāra: kakāra is the name for k,
in an order that starts with sounds pro- khakāra for kh, gakāra for g, ghakāra for
nounced at the back of the oral cavity gh, n· akāra for n· , yakāra for y, śakāra for
and proceeds to sounds produced at the ś, hakāra for h, and so on. The names of
front of the mouth. a few letters are irregular, notably repha
The Devanagari consonants are (for r), anusvāra (for m · ), and those of ˘hk,
divided into classes of stops (sounds that hp, and h·, as noted earlier.
˘
CHAPTER 3
Hinduism
author of an influential Sanskrit diction- set Hinduism on a par with other religious
ary. Initially it was an outsiders’ term, traditions and to teach it systematically to
building on centuries-old usages of Hindu youths. They add a new layer to an
the word Hindu. Early travelers to the elaborate tradition of explaining practice
Indus valley, beginning with the Greeks and doctrine that dates to the 1st millen-
and Persians, spoke of its inhabitants nium BC. The roots of this tradition can
as “Hindu” (Greek: ‘indoi), and, in the be traced back much farther—textually,
16th century, residents of India them- to the schools of commentary and debate
selves began very slowly to employ the preserved in epic and Vedic writings
term to distinguish themselves from the from the 2nd millennium BC; and visu-
Turks. Gradually the distinction became ally, through artistic representations of
primarily religious rather than ethnic, yakshas (luminous spirits associated with
geographic, or cultural. specific locales and natural phenomena)
Since the late 19th century, Hindus and nagas (cobralike divinities), which
have reacted to the term Hinduism in were worshipped from about 400 BC. The
several ways. Some have rejected it in roots of the tradition are also sometimes
favour of indigenous formulations. Those traced back to the female terra-cotta figu-
preferring Veda or Vedic religion want rines found ubiquitously in excavations
to embrace an ancient textual core and of sites associated with the Indus valley
the tradition of Brahman learning that civilization (3rd–2nd millennium BC)
preserved and interpreted it. Those pre- and sometimes interpreted as goddesses.
ferring sanatana dharma (“eternal law”) In recognition of this ancient tradition
emphasize a broader tradition of belief of self-explanation, present-day Hindus
and practice (such as worship through often assert that theirs is the world’s old-
images, dietary codes, and the venera- est religion.
tion of the cow) that is not necessarily
mediated by Brahmans (members of General Nature
the highest social class who are usually of Hinduism
priests). Still others, perhaps the majority,
have simply accepted the term Hinduism More strikingly than any other major
or its analogues, especially hindu dharma religious community, Hindus accept—
(Hindu moral and religious law), in vari- and indeed celebrate—the organic,
ous Indic languages. multileveled, and sometimes internally
Since the early 20th century, text- inconsistent nature of their tradition.
books on Hinduism have been written This expansiveness is made possible by
by Hindus themselves, often under the the widely shared Hindu view that truth
rubric of sanatana dharma. These efforts or reality cannot be encapsulated in
at self-explanation have been intended to any creedal formulation, a perspective
Hinduism | 87
and the individual’s deep bonds to family, much more influential commonalities
society, and the divinities associated with appear in the worship of icons or images
these concepts. (pratima, murti, or arca). Broadly, this
is called puja (“honouring [the deity]”),
Practice or archana if performed in a temple by
a priest. It echoes conventions of hos-
The second strand in the fabric of pitality that might be performed for an
Hinduism is practice. Many Hindus, in honoured guest, especially the giving
fact, would place this first. Despite India’s and sharing of food. Such food is called
enormous diversity, a common gram- prasada (Hindi, prasad: “grace”), reflect-
mar of ritual behaviour connects various ing the recognition that when human
places, strata, and periods of Hindu life. beings make offerings to deities, the
While it is true that various elements of initiative is not really theirs. They are
Vedic ritual survive in modern practice actually responding to the generosity
and thereby serve a unifying function, that bore them into a world fecund with
A Hindu worship service in Pune (Poona), India, following an ancient ritual. C.M. Natu
Hinduism | 89
life and possibility. The divine personal- with an understanding of truth or reality
ity installed as a home or temple image as being similarly plural and multilay-
receives prasada, tasting it (Hindus dif- ered—though it is not clear whether the
fer as to whether this is a real or symbolic influence has proceeded chiefly from
act, gross or subtle) and offering the religious doctrine to society or vice
remains to worshipers. Consuming these versa. Seeking its own answer to this
leftovers, worshipers accept their status conundrum, a well-known Vedic hymn
as beings inferior to and dependent upon (Rigveda 10.90) describes how, at the
the divine. An element of tension arises beginning of time, a primordial person
because the logic of puja and prasada underwent a process of sacrifice that pro-
seems to accord all humans an equal sta- duced a four-part cosmos and its human
tus with respect to God, yet exclusionary counterpart, a four-part social order com-
rules have often been sanctified rather prising Brahmans (priests), Kshatriyas
than challenged by prasada-based ritual. (nobles), Vaishyas (commoners), and
Specifically, lower-caste people and those Sudras (servants).
perceived as outsiders or carriers of pol- The social domain, like the realms
lution have historically been forbidden to of religious practice and doctrine, is
enter certain Hindu temples, a practice marked by a characteristic tension. There
that continues even today. is the view that each person or group
approaches truth in a way that is necessar-
Society ily distinct, reflecting its own perspective.
Only by allowing each to speak and act
The third strand that has served to orga- in such terms can a society constitute
nize Hindu life is society. Early visitors itself as a proper representation of truth
to India from Greece and China and, or reality. Yet this context-sensitive habit
later, others such as the Persian scholar of thought can too easily be used to legit-
and scientist al-Bīrūnī, who traveled imate social systems based on privilege
to India in the early 11th century, were and prejudice. If it is believed that no
struck by the highly stratified (if locally standards apply universally, one group
variant) social structure that has come can too easily justify its dominance over
to be called familiarly the caste sys- another. Historically, therefore, certain
tem. While it is true that there is a vast Hindus, while espousing tolerance at
disparity between the ancient vision of the level of doctrine, have maintained
society as divided into four ideal classes caste distinction in the social realm.
(varnas) and the contemporary reality of Responding to such oppression, espe-
thousands of endogamous birth-groups cially when justified by allegedly Hindu
(jatis, literally “births”), few would deny norms, lower-caste groups have some-
that Indian society is notably plural and times insisted, “We are not Hindus!” Yet
hierarchical. This fact has much to do their own communities may enact similar
90 | The Culture of India
Story
time: bhakti (“sharing” or “devotion”), a tradition. This approach has its costs, for
broad tradition of a loving God that is it may seem to give priority to aspects
especially associated with the lives and of the tradition that appear in its earli-
words of vernacular poet-saints through- est extant texts. These texts owe their
out India. Devotional poems attributed preservation mainly to the labours of
to these inspired figures, who represent upper-caste men, especially Brahmans,
both genders and all social classes, have and often reveal far too little about the
elaborated a store of images and moods perspectives of others. They should be
to which access can be had in a score of read, therefore, both with and against the
languages; bhakti verse first appeared grain, with due attention paid to silences
in Tamil in South India and moved and absent rebuttals on behalf of women,
northward into other regions with dif- regional communities, and people of low
ferent languages. Individual poems are status—all of whom nowadays call them-
sometimes strikingly similar from one selves Hindus or identify with groups
language or century to another, with- that can sensibly be placed within the
out there being any trace of mediation broad Hindu span.
through the pan-Indian, distinctly upper-
caste language Sanskrit. Often, individual Veda, Brahmans, and Issues
motifs in the lives of bhakti poet-saints of Religious Authority
also bear strong family resemblances.
With its central affirmation that religious For members of the upper castes, a
enthusiasm is more fundamental than principal characteristic of Hinduism
rigidities of practice or doctrine, bhakti has traditionally been a recognition
provides a common challenge to other of the Veda, the most ancient body of
aspects of Hindu life. At the same time, Indian religious literature, as an abso-
it contributes to a common Hindu heri- lute authority revealing fundamental
tage—even a common heritage of protest. and unassailable truth. The Veda is also
Yet certain expressions of bhakti are far regarded as the basis of all the later shas-
more confrontational than others in their tra texts, which stressed the religious
criticism of caste, image worship, and the merits of the Brahmans—including, for
performance of vows, pilgrimages, and example, the medical corpus known
acts of self-mortification. as the Ayur Veda. Parts of the Veda are
quoted in essential Hindu rituals (such
Central Conceptions as the wedding ceremony), and it is
the source of many enduring patterns
In the following sections, various aspects of Hindu thought, yet its contents are
of this complex whole will be addressed, practically unknown to most Hindus.
relying primarily on a historical perspec- Still, most Hindus venerate it from a dis-
tive of the development of the Hindu tance, and groups who reject its authority
92 | The Culture of India
in turn, are crosscut by the obligations classes should first become a chaste
appropriate to one’s gender and stage of student (brahmacharin); then become
life (ashrama). In principle then, Hindu a married householder (grihastha), dis-
ethics is exquisitely context-sensitive, charging his debts to his ancestors by
and Hindus expect and celebrate a wide begetting sons and to the gods by sac-
variety of individual behaviours. rificing; then retire (as a vanaprastha),
with or without his wife, to the forest to
Ashramas: The Four Stages devote himself to spiritual contempla-
of Life tion; and finally, but not mandatorily,
become a homeless wandering ascetic
European and American scholars have (sannyasin). The situation of the forest
often overemphasized the so-called “life- dweller was always a delicate compro-
negating” aspects of Hinduism—the mise that remained problematic on the
rigorous disciplines of Yoga, for example. mythological level and was often omitted
The polarity of asceticism and sensual- or rejected in practical life.
ity, which assumes the form of a conflict Although the householder was often
between the aspiration for liberation extolled—some authorities, regarding
and the heartfelt desire to have descen- studentship a mere preparation for this
dants and continue earthly life, manifests ashrama, went so far as to brand all other
itself in Hindu social life as the tension stages inferior—there were always people
between the different goals and stages who became wandering ascetics imme-
of life. For many centuries the relative diately after studentship. Theorists were
value of an active life and the perfor- inclined to reconcile the divergent views
mance of meritorious works (pravritti), and practices by allowing the ascetic way
as opposed to the renunciation of all of life to those who were entirely free
worldly interests and activity (nivriti), has from worldly desire (owing to the effects
been a much-debated issue. While philo- of restrained conduct in former lives),
sophical works such as the Upanishads even if they had not gone through the tra-
emphasized renunciation, the dharma ditional prior stages.
texts argued that the householder who The texts describing such life stages
maintains his sacred fire, begets chil- were written by men for men; they paid
dren, and performs his ritual duties well scant attention to stages appropriate for
also earns religious merit. Nearly 2,000 women. The Manu-smriti (200 BC–AD
years ago these dharma texts elaborated 300; Laws of Manu), for example, was
the social doctrine of the four ashramas content to regard marriage as the female
(“abodes”). This concept was an attempt equivalent of initiation into the life of a
to harmonize the conflicting tendencies student, thereby effectively denying the
of Hinduism into one system. It held that student stage of life to girls. Furthermore,
a male member of any of the three higher in the householder stage, a woman’s
Hinduism | 95
purpose was summarized under the The presumption that assigns “practi-
heading of service to her husband. What cal” Hinduism to peasants, labourers, or
we know of actual practice, however, tribal peoples—while assuming that the
challenges the idea that these patriarchal high-born, wealthy, and educated would
norms were ever perfectly enacted or be concerned with spiritual enlighten-
that women entirely accepted the values ment and Hinduism’s ultimate aim of
they presupposed. While some women liberation (moksha)—is false. Hindu farm-
became ascetics, many more focused ers care about their souls at least as much
their religious lives on realizing a state as do Hindu business or professional
of blessedness that was understood to men and women (if less single-mindedly
be at once this-worldly and expressive than world renouncers, who come from
of a larger cosmic well-being. Women all ranks of life). Farmers’ uncertain live-
have often directed the cultivation of the lihoods, however, may influence them to
auspicious life-giving force (shakti) they dedicate more time and energy to ritu-
possess to the benefit of their husbands als designed to obtain prosperity or to
and families, but, as an ideal, this force remove troubles, to bring rain to parched
has independent status. fields or to prevent damaging hail, to
advance their children’s education and
Practical Hinduism careers, or to protect their families from
ill health. Although rural Hindus may
Practical Hinduism is both a quest to have little time for meditative practices,
achieve well-being and a set of strate- they are fully aware of ultimate truths
gies for locating sources of affliction transcending the everyday. By the same
and removing or appeasing them. token, the pious urban elite, if more likely
Characterized in this way, it has much to pursue spiritual disciplines, frequently
in common with the popular beliefs sponsor worship in temples or homes to
and practices of many other religions. ensure worldly success. At all levels of the
For example, Roman Catholicism as social hierarchy, Hinduism lives through
practiced in many parts of Europe or artistic performances: dance and dance-
Mahayana Buddhism in Korea and drama, representational arts, poetry,
Taiwan involve, as does Hinduism, peti- music, and song serve not only to please
tions and offerings to enshrined divine deities but to transmit the religion’s
powers in order to engage their help meaningful narratives and vital truths.
with all manner of problems and desires. Both adherents of the faith and those
Thus, religions which could hardly differ who study it describe Hinduism as a
more vastly in their understanding of the way of life. Thus, they implicitly contrast
nature of divinity, reality, and causality Hinduism to religions that appear to be
may nonetheless converge at the level of primarily located in spaces and times set
popular piety. apart from the everyday—such as “church
96 | The Culture of India
on Sunday.” Although Hindus have mag- each one first to test its sweetness before
nificent sacred architecture and a vital giving it to her lord, and in so doing she
tradition of calendrical festivals, the “way contaminates the berries with saliva, a
of life” description means that religious major source of pollution. Although the
attitudes and acts permeate ordinary berries are highly unacceptable accord-
places, times, and activities. For example, ing to the standards of ritual purity,
bathing, dressing, cooking, eating, dispos- Rama accepts them and eats them bliss-
ing of leftovers, and washing the dishes fully. The message is that the polluted
may all be subject to ritual prescriptions offerings of a lowborn person given to
in Hindu households. Motivations for God with a heart full of love are far more
such ritualized actions are ascribed to pleasing than any ritually pure gift from
considerations of purity—an interest that a less-devout being. Purity of heart, there-
is often linked to maintaining status in a fore, is more important than bodily purity.
hierarchical social system. The capacity to see both sides of
When Hindus interact with deities, most matters—cognitive flexibility rather
considerations of purity may or may not than dogmatic fixity—is one of the
be important. In some Vaishnava tradi- most important characteristics of prac-
tions, for example, one must remain in a tical Hinduism, which lacks dogma
relatively pure state in order to be fit to altogether. In this regard, persistent con-
worship. A Brahman priest of a Krishna tinuities with Hinduism’s ancient roots
temple in the Vallabha sect might refuse in Vedic traditions can be discerned.
food and water from the hands of non- The elaborate sacrificial rituals of Vedic
Brahmans, not to show he is better than religion have often been described as
they are but because his work in the being focused on obtaining the goods
temple demands that he maintain such of life—neatly summarized as prosper-
boundaries. Should he inadvertently ity, health, and progeny—from divine
lower his own ritual purity, he might dis- powers through exacting ritual behav-
please or offend the deity with whom he is iours. However, in the Upanishads, the
in regular contact, which could threaten last of the Vedic texts, voices emerge
human well-being in general. that care for neither the rituals nor their
Vaishnava traditions, however, promised fruits but are concerned above
include an alternative perspective that all with learning the nature of ultimate
is conveyed in a well-known tale about reality and how the human soul may
Rama. This tale, frequently portrayed in recognize that indescribable essence
poetry and art, tells of an outcaste tribal in itself. One quest never supplants the
woman named Shabari who meets Rama other. In Hinduism today there remains
in the forest. Her simple-hearted love for a vital creative tension between, on the
him is so great that she offers him wild one hand, faith in the efficacy of ritual
berries, which are all she has. She bites and desire for its worldly fruits and,
Hinduism | 97
on the other, disregard for all external in prayers uttered before a shrine, or in
practices and material results. Farmers the lighting of incense.
consistently deride the notion that sins
are washed away in the waters of sacred Deities
rivers, yet they spend small fortunes to
travel to and bathe in them. As one Hindu author Sitansu Chakravarti
helpfully explains in Hinduism: A Way of
Devotion Life (1991),
Durga killing the buffalo demon Mahisasura, Rajasthani miniature of the Mewar school, mid-
17th century, in a private collection. Pramod Chandra
This family that honours Dev Narayan or the central icons from the temple
and Sundar Mata also worships lineage of Puri in Orissa—are placed in their
deities at home. Ritual attention to the home shrine. Home shrines in general
spirits of deceased uncles and infants accumulate sacred objects and images
ensures their household’s well-being, and eclectically. Images are treasured and are
each domestic group takes similar care of believed to manifest miraculous powers,
loved ones who have died. Several mem- but images are also understood to be life-
bers of the Gujar family portrayed here less and dispensable—another reflection
have taken a once-in-a-lifetime pilgrim- of the Hindu genius for seeing both sides.
age as far as Haridwar in Uttar Pradesh,
Gaya in south-central Bihar, and Puri Worship
in eastern Orissa. Mementos of these
journeys—such as framed images of the Worship, or puja, is the central action of
sacred Ganges River’s descent to earth practical Hinduism. Scholars describe
100 | The Culture of India
the deity’s altar is another physical mode wants to know: Will my wish be fulfilled?
of engagement with divine power. Hindu Will my prayer be granted? The answers
worship is accurately described as involv- to such yes-no questions may be revealed
ing all the senses. by any of a number of practices. Plucking
Worship is by no means confined to grains between thumb and finger from a
temples. It may be performed at a home pile and counting them to see if they add
altar, a wayside shrine, or anywhere a dev- up to an auspicious number, pressing
otee decides to mark off a sacred space. flowers to the wall and waiting for them to
Actions at home may be far less elaborate fall, and pouring clarified butter on coals
than those at temples, more routinized as and seeing if a flame rises up are common
part of daily household life, and are per- practices in more than one region of India.
formed without priestly expertise. South A more elaborate mode of com-
Indian housewives traditionally turn municating with divine power is spirit
their thresholds into auspicious altars for possession, in which a human being,
the goddess each morning as they draw male or female, is thought to act as a
ritual designs, which are almost instantly vehicle for a deity’s mind and voice.
trampled back into dust. This practice is also found in every
Conceptually distinct from worship geographic region where Hinduism
yet often conflated with it is seva, or flourishes. Although more common to
service. This refers to regular, respect- rural areas, it is not absent from urban
ful attentions to the needs of enshrined religion. A possessed priest or priestess
deities, or icons (murti). Service in many is able to provide answers more complex
temples is twice daily or more often. At than “yes” or “no.” A medium possessed
shrines it may involve bathing an icon, by a deity may identify certain spirits of
changing its ornaments, ringing bells, the dead who are troubling someone with
and waving lights before it (arati). In symptoms of physical and mental illness.
temples the person who does seva is nor- Usually these spirits are understood to
mally a ritual expert, regularly present. cause trouble because they are not satis-
Although seva is never done with an aim fied with the attention they are getting.
in mind, it is understood to keep the gods The medium will prescribe ritual actions
beneficently inclined, and flawed seva designed to transform the spirit from
may cause trouble. Performing seva is a source of affliction to a benevolent or
good for the soul of the server. neutral power or to send the spirit away.
Purely malevolent beings, including jeal-
Divination, Spirit Possession, ous “witches” or nameless wandering
and Healing ghosts, are cajoled, bullied, or even fright-
ened into departure.
Simple practices of divination are com- Practical Hinduism is greatly con-
mon to practical Hinduism. Everyone cerned with maintaining mental and
102 | The Culture of India
physical health. Although a possessed describing the origins of the ritual. The
priest occasionally forbids resort to doc- event may conclude with the consump-
tors and their remedies, in the majority tion of special food to break the fast.
of cases healing rituals operate in con- Vows are often associated with calendri-
junction with medicines, injections, and cal cycles, whether solar, lunar, or both.
operations. Familial problems are often For example, each day of the week is
untangled with the help of a possessed identified with a particular deity: Monday
priest in consultations sometimes lik- with Shiva, Tuesday with Hanuman,
ened by observers to group therapy. Wednesday with Ganesha, and so forth. If
a woman undertakes a Monday vrata, she
Women’s Religious Practices will fast and worship Shiva and tell his
story every Monday. Or, a person may do
Women’s rituals comprise an important an eleventh vrata, a vow for the eleventh
part of practical Hinduism. Some male- day of the lunar calendar, which would
authored Hindu scriptures limit women’s come twice a month in the waxing and
religious roles, consider women more waning halves of the moon. Some vows
subject than men to bodily impurities, are undertaken for the occasional potent
and subordinate them to their fathers and convergence of both calendrical systems,
husbands. Priests in temples and other such as somavati amavasa, a Monday
public spaces are predominantly—though dark moon.
not exclusively—male. Most domestic Women’s ritually performed stories
Hindu rituals, however, lie in the hands feature heroines who may be devotees
and hearts of women. Women perform of the deity being honoured, daughters
their own seva and puja at permanent or of female devotees, or persons ignorant
temporary domestic shrines, are the chief of that particular deity who then learn
ritual experts at many calendrical festi- about its power and blessings in the
vals, and are responsible for many ritual course of severe tribulations. Notably,
aspects of weddings and other life-cycle the heroines of women’s devotional
celebrations. Women more frequently stories exemplify moral virtues, ritual
than men undertake personal vows knowledge, devotional fervour, and
(vrata)—individually or collectively—to transformative agency. The power accu-
ensure the well-being of their families. mulated by women through their ritual
The elements of a vrata usually actions should never be used exclusively
include a partial fast, simple worship in for their own well-being. Selflessness is a
a domestic space temporarily purified very important virtue that is exemplified
for this purpose, and often the retelling by self-denial in fasting. Nonetheless,
of one or more stories honouring the because women’s well-being is connected
deities and exemplifying the rewards or to familial well-being, women see their
Hinduism | 103
Pilgrims bathing in the Ganges River at Haridwar, India. Paul Popper Ltd.
104 | The Culture of India
pilgrimage is in the Rigveda (c. 1500 because stories and tales of effective and
BC), in which the “wanderer” is praised. attractive ritual acts circulate along with
Numerous later texts, including the epic pilgrims.
Mahabharata (c. 300 BC–AD 300) and Pilgrimage sites are often located
several of the mythological Puranas (c. in spots of great natural beauty thought
AD 300–750), elaborate on the capaci- to be pleasing to deities as well as
ties of particular sacred sites to grant humans. Environmental activists draw
boons, such as health, wealth, progeny, on the mythology of the sacred land-
and deliverance after death. Texts enjoin scapes to inspire Hindu populations to
Hindu pilgrims to perform rites on behalf adopt sustainable environmental prac-
of ancestors and recently deceased kin. tices. The Sanskrit and Hindi word for
Sanskrit sources as well as devotional lit- pilgrimage centre is tirtha, literally a
erature in regional vernacular languages river ford or crossing place. The concept
praise certain places and their miracu- of a ford is associated with pilgrimage
lous capacities. centres not simply because many are on
Pilgrimage has been increasingly riverbanks but because they are meta-
popular since the 20th century, facili- phorically places for transition, either to
tated by ever-improving transportation. the other side of particular worldly trou-
Movement over actual distance is criti- bles or beyond the endless cycle of birth
cal to pilgrimage, for what is important is and death.
not just visiting a sacred space but leav-
ing home. Most pilgrimage centres hold Rituals, Social Practices,
periodic religious fairs called melas to and Institutions
mark auspicious astrological moments
or important anniversaries. In 2001, for A number of rituals, social practices, and
example, the Kumbh Mela in Allahabad institutions are associated with Hinduism.
was attended during a six-week period by These vary considerably according to
tens of millions of pilgrims. beliefs and doctrines.
Because of shared elements in rituals,
a pilgrim from western Rajasthan does Temple Worship
not feel alienated in the eastern pilgrim-
age town of Puri, even though the spoken Image worship in sectarian Hinduism
language, the landscape and climate, the takes place both in small household
deities’ names and appearances, and the shrines and in the temple. Many Hindu
food offerings are markedly different authorities claim that regular temple
from those the pilgrim knows at home. worship to one of the deities of the devo-
Moreover, pilgrimage works to propa- tional cults procures the same results for
gate practices among diverse regions the worshiper as did the performance
Hinduism | 105
of one of the great Vedic sacrifices, and village shrines with simple statuettes
one who provides the patronage for the to great temple-cities whose bound-
construction of a temple is called a “sac- ary walls, pierced by monumental gates
rificer” (yajamana). (gopura), enclose various buildings,
Building a temple, which belongs to courtyards, pools for ceremonial bathing,
whoever paid for it or to the community and sometimes even schools, hospitals,
that occupies it, is believed to be a meri- and monasteries.
torious deed recommended to anyone Temple services, which may be held
desirous of heavenly reward. The choice by any qualified member of the commu-
of a site, which should be serene and nity, are neither collective nor carried out
lovely, is determined by astrology and at fixed times. Those present experience,
divination as well as by its proximity to as spectators, the fortifying and benefi-
human dwellings. The size and artistic cial influence radiating from the sacred
value of temples range widely, from small acts. Sometimes worshipers assemble to
106 | The Culture of India
meditate, to take part in chanting, or to lis- on every member of the community. The
ten to an exposition of doctrine. The puja spiritual power of the guru is bestowed
(worship) performed in public “for the upon the newborn and converts, who
well-being of the world” is, though some- receive the eightfold shield (which pro-
times more elaborate, largely identical tects devotees from ignorance of the
with that executed for personal interest. supremacy of God and guides them to
There are, however, many regional dif- final beatitude) and the lingam. The min-
ferences and even significant variations iature lingam, the centre and basis of all
within the same community. their religious practices and observances,
which they always bear on their body, is
Shaiva Rites held to be God himself concretely repre-
sented. Worship is due it twice or three
Ascetic tendencies were much in evi- times a day. When a Lingayat “is absorbed
dence among the Pashupatas, the oldest into the lingam” (i.e., dies), his body is not
Shaiva tradition in northern India. Their cremated, as is customary in Hinduism,
Yoga, consisting of a constant meditative but is interred, like ascetics of other
contact with God in solitude, required groups. Lingayats who have reached a
that they frequent places for cremating certain level of holiness are believed to
bodies. One group that emerged out die in the state of emancipation.
of the Pashupata sect carried human Shaivism, though inclined in doctri-
skulls (hence the name Kapalikas, from nal matters to inclusiveness, inculcates
kapala, “skull”). The Kapalikas used the some fundamental lines of conduct: one
skulls as bowls for liquor into which should worship one’s spiritual preceptor
they projected and worshipped Shiva as (guru) as God himself, follow his path,
Kapalika, the “Skull Bearer,” or Bhairava, consider him to be present in oneself,
the “Frightful One,” and then drank to and dissociate oneself from all opinions
become intoxicated. Their belief was that and practices that are incompatible with
an ostentatious indifference to anything the Shaiva creed. Yet some of Shiva’s dev-
worldly was the best method of severing otees also worship other gods, and the
the ties of samsara. “Shaivization” of various ancient tradi-
The view and way of life peculiar to tions is sometimes rather superficial.
the Virashaivas, or Lingayats (Lingam- Like many other Indian religions,
Bearers), in southwestern India is the Shaiva-siddhanta has developed an
characterized by a deviation from com- elaborate system of ethical philosophy,
mon Hindu traditions and institutions primarily with a view to preparing the
such as sacrificial rites, temple wor- way for those who aspire to liberation.
ship, pilgrimages, child marriages, and Because dharma leads to happiness, there
inequality of the sexes. Initiation (diksa) is no distinction between sacred and sec-
is, on the other hand, an obligation laid ular duties. All deeds are performed as
Hinduism | 107
Vaishnava Rites
Holi festival, coloured powder at each people who live along the west coast of
other—eating, drinking, lovemaking, India from Mumbai to Goa, the descen-
licentiousness, feeding the poor, and dants of heroes who died on the battlefield
other activities of a religious or traditional perform a dance, sword in hand, in hon-
character. The original purpose of these our of their ancestors until they believe
activities was to purify, avert malicious themselves possessed by the spirits of
influences, renew society, bridge over the heroes. In Bengal swings are made for
critical moments, and stimulate or resus- Krishna; in other regions a bonfire is also
citate the vital powers of nature (hence essential. The tradition that accounts for
the term utsava, meaning both the gen- the festival of Holi describes how young
eration of power and a festival). Because Prahlada, in spite of his demonic father’s
Hindu festivals relate to the cyclical life opposition, worshipped Vishnu and was
of nature, they are supposed to prevent it carried into the fire by the female demon
from stagnating. These cyclic festivals— Holika, the embodiment of evil, who was
which may last for many days—continue believed to be immune to the ravages
to be celebrated throughout India. of fire. Through Vishnu’s intervention,
Such festivals refresh the mood of the Prahlada emerged unharmed, while
participants, further the consciousness of Holika was burned to ashes. The bonfires
their own power, and help to compensate are intended to commemorate this event
for their sensations of fear and inferior- or rather to reiterate the triumph of vir-
ity concerning the forces of nature. Such tue and religion over evil and sacrilege.
mixtures of worship and pleasure require This explains why objects representing
the participation of the entire community the sickness and impurities of the past
and create harmony among its members, year—the new year begins immediately
even if not all contemporary participants after Holi—are thrown into the bonfire,
are aware of the festival’s original charac- and it is considered inauspicious not to
ter. There are also innumerable festivities look at it. Moreover, people pay or for-
in honour of specific gods, celebrated by give debts, reconcile quarrels, and try to
individual temples, villages, and reli- rid themselves of the evils, conflicts, and
gious communities. impurities they have accumulated during
An important festival, formerly cel- the preceding months, translating the
ebrating Kama, the god of sexual desire, central conception of the festival into a
survives in the Holi, a saturnalia con- justification for dealing anew with con-
nected with the spring equinox and in tinuing situations in their lives.
western India with the wheat harvest. Hindus celebrate a number of other
Although commemorated throughout important festivals, including Diwali, in
India, the rituals associated with Holi which all classes of society participate,
vary regionally. Among the Marathas, a though it is believed to have been given
Hinduism | 109
Diwali
One of the major religious festivals in Hinduism,
Diwali (Divali) lasts for five days from the 13th day
of the dark half of the lunar month Ashvina to the
second day of the light half of Karttika. (The corre-
sponding dates in the Gregorian calendar usually
fall in late October and November.) The name is
derived from the Sanskrit term dipavali meaning
“row of lights,” which are lit on the new-moon night
to bid the presence of Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth.
In Bengal, however, the goddess Kali is worshiped,
and in north India the festival also celebrates the
return of Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, and Hanuman to
the city of Ayodhya, where Rama’s rule of righteous-
ness would commence.
During the festival, small earthenware lamps
filled with oil are lighted and placed in rows along
the parapets of temples and houses and set adrift
on rivers and streams. The fourth day—the main
Diwali festival day and the beginning of the lunar
month of Karttika—marks the beginning of the new
Krishna and Radha, detail of a
year according to the Vikrama calendar. Merchants
Kishangarh painting, mid-18th
perform religious ceremonies and open new account
century; in a private collection.
books. It is generally a time for visiting, exchanging
P. Chandra
gifts, cleaning and decorating houses, feasting, set-
ting off fireworks displays, and wearing new clothes.
Gambling is encouraged during this season as a way of ensuring good luck for the coming
year and in remembrance of the games of dice played by the Lord Shiva and Parvati on Mount
Kailasa or similar contests between Radha and Krishna. Ritually, in honour of Lakshmi, the
female player always wins.
Diwali is also an important festival in Jainism. For the Jain community, many of whose
members belong to the merchant class, the day commemorates the passing into nirvana of
Mahavira, the most recent of the Jain Tirthankaras. The lighting of the lamps is explained as a
material substitute for the light of holy knowledge that was extinguished with Mahavira’s pass-
ing. Since the 18th century Diwali has been celebrated in Sikhism as the time Guru Hargobind
returned to Amritsar from a supposed captivity in Gwalior—apparently an echo of Rama’s
return to Ayodhya. Residents of Amritsar are said to have lighted lamps throughout the city to
celebrate the occasion.
110 | The Culture of India
The Arts
Religious Organization
of Sacred Architecture
Temples must be erected on sites that
are shubha—i.e., suitable, beautiful, aus-
picious, and near water—because it is
thought that the gods will not come to
other places. However, temples are not
necessarily designed to be congenial to
their surroundings, because a manifesta-
tion of the sacred is an irruption, a break
in phenomenal continuity. Temples are
understood to be visible representa-
tions of a cosmic pillar, and their sites
are said to be navels of the world and are
Agni with characteristic symbol of
believed to ensure communication with
the ram, wood carving; in the Guimet
the gods. Their outward appearance must
Museum, Paris. Giraudon/Art Resource,
New York raise the expectation of meeting with
God. Their erection is a reconstruction
114 | The Culture of India
Hinduism | 115
Detail of a wall of the Lakshmana temple at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, India, c. 941.
P. Chandra
116 | The Culture of India
goddess. Thus, these carvings simultane- five activities: he unfolds the universe out
ously express a celebration of samsara of the drum held in one of his right hands;
and a movement toward moksha. he preserves it by uplifting his other
right hand in abhaya-mudra; he reab-
Theatre and Dance sorbs it with his upper left hand, which
bears a tongue of flame; his transcenden-
Theatrical performances are events that tal essence is hidden behind the garb
can be used to secure blessings and of apparitions, and grace is bestowed
happiness; the element of recreation is and release made visible by the foot
indissolubly blended with edification that is held aloft and to which the hands
and spiritual elevation. The structure and are made to point; and the other foot,
character of classical Indian drama reveal planted on the ground, gives an abode
its origin and function: it developed from to the tired souls struggling in samsara.
a magico-religious ceremony, which sur- Another dance pose adopted by Shiva is
vives as a ritual introduction, and begins the doomsday tandava, executed in his
and closes with benedictions. Drama destructive Bhairava manifestation, usu-
is produced for festive occasions with a ally with 10 arms and accompanied by
view to spiritual and religious success Devi and demons. The related myth is
(siddhi), which must also be prompted that Shiva conquered a mighty elephant
by appropriate behaviour from the demon whom he forced to dance until he
spectators; there must be a happy end- fell dead; then, wrapped in the blood-drip-
ing; the themes are borrowed from epic ping skin of his victim, the god executed
and legendary history; the development a horrendous dance of victory.
and unraveling of the plot are retarded; There are halls for sacred dances
and the envy of malign influences is annexed to some temples because of this
averted by the almost obligatory buf- association with the divine. The rhyth-
foon (vidusaka, “the spoiler”). There are mic movement has a compelling force,
also, in addition to films, which often use generating and concentrating power or
the same religious and mythic themes, releasing superfluous energy. It induces
yatras, a combination of stage play and the experience of the divine and trans-
various festivities that have contributed forms the dancer into whatever he or she
much to the spread of the Puranic view impersonates. Thus, many tribal dances
of life. consist of symbolic enactments of events
Dancing is not only an aesthetic (harvest, battles) in the hope that they will
pursuit but also a divine service. The be accomplished successfully. Musicians
dance executed by Shiva as king of danc- and dancers accompany processions to
ers (Nataraja), the visible symbol of the expel the demons of cholera or cattle
rhythm of the universe, represents God’s plague. Even today, religious themes and
Hinduism | 117
India since the middle of the 1st mil- century, when Hindu activists attacked
lennium, the great expansion of Indian Dalit Christians and their churches in
Christianity followed the efforts of mis- various parts of India, especially Orissa
sionaries working under the protection of and Gujarat. A far more typical senti-
British colonial rule. Their denigration of ment is expressed in the eagerness of
selected features of Hindu practice—most Hindus of all social stations, especially
notably image worship, suttee, and child the middle class, to send their children
marriage (the first two were also criti- to high-quality (often English-language)
cized by Muslims)—was shared by certain schools established and maintained by
Hindus. Beginning in the 19th century Christian organizations. No great fear
and continuing into the 21st, a move- exists that the religious element in the
ment that might be called neo-Vedanta curriculum will cause Hindu children to
has emphasized the monism of certain abandon their parents’ faith.
Upanishads, decried “popular” Hindu
“degenerations” such as the worship of Diasporic Hinduism
idols, acted as an agent of social reform,
and championed dialogue between other Since the appearance of Swami
religious communities. Vivekananda at the World’s Parliament
Many Hindus are ready to accept the of Religions in Chicago in 1893 and the
ethical teachings of the Gospels, particu- subsequent establishment of the Vedanta
larly the Sermon on the Mount (whose Society in various American and British
influence on Gandhi is well known), cities, Hinduism has had a growing
but reject the theological superstruc- missionary profile outside the Indian
ture. They regard Christian conceptions subcontinent. Conversion as understood
about love and its social consequences by Christians or Muslims is usually not
as a kind of bhakti and tend to vener- the aim. As seen in the Vedanta Society,
ate Jesus as a saint, yet many resent the Hindu perspectives are held to be suffi-
organization, the reliance on authorities, ciently capacious that they do not require
and the exclusiveness of Christianity, new adherents to abandon traditions
considering these as obstacles to har- of worship with which they are familiar,
monious cooperation. They subscribe merely to see them as part of a greater
to Gandhi’s opinion that missionar- whole. The Vedic formula “Truth is one,
ies should confine their activities to but scholars speak of it in many ways”
humanitarian service and look askance (“Akam sat vipra bahudhe vadanti”)
at conversion, finding also in Hinduism is much quoted. Many transnational
what might be attractive in Christianity. Hindu communities—including Radha
Such sentiments took an unusually Soami Satsang Beas, Transcendental
extreme form at the end of the 20th Meditation, the self-realization fellowship
120 | The Culture of India
Siddha Yoga, the Sathya Sai Baba Satsang, immigration laws in 1965, once abroad
and the International Society for Krishna they are more apt to embrace the reform-
Consciousness (ISKCON, popularly ist guru-centred Swaminarayan faith than
called Hare Krishna)—have focused on they would be in their native Gujarat,
specific gurus, particularly in their stages though this is by no means universal.
of most rapid growth. They frequently Professional-class emigrants from
emphasize techniques of spiritual dis- South India have spearheaded the
cipline more than doctrine. Of these construction of a series of impressive
groups, only ISKCON has a deeply Shrivaishnava-style temples throughout
exclusivist cast—which makes it, in fact, the United States, sometimes receiving
generally more doctrinaire than the financial and technical assistance from
Gaudiya Vaishnava lineages out of which the great Vaishnava temple institutions
its founding guru, A.C. Bhaktivedanta, at Tirupati. The placement of some of
emerged. these temples, such as the Penn Hills
At least as important as these guru- temple near Pittsburgh, Pa., reveals the
centred communities in the increasingly desire to evoke Tirupati’s natural envi-
international texture of Hindu life are ronment on American soil. Similarly,
communities of Hindus who have emi- Telugu-speaking priests from the
grated from South Asia to other parts of Tirupati region have been imported to
the world. Their character differs mark- serve at temples such as the historically
edly according to region, class, and important Ganesha temple, constructed
the time at which emigration occurred. from a preexisting church in Queens,
Tamils in Malaysia celebrate a festival New York, in 1975–77. Yet the popula-
to the god Murukan (Thaipusam) that tion worshipping at these temples is
accommodates body-piercing vows far more mixed than that in India. This
long outlawed in India itself. Formerly produces on the one hand sectarian and
indentured labourers who settled on the regional eclecticism and on the other
Caribbean island of Trinidad in the mid- hand a vigorous attempt to establish
19th century have consolidated doctrine doctrinal common ground. As Hindu
and practice from various locales in scholar Vasudha Narayanan observed,
Gangetic India, with the result that Rama educational materials produced at such
and Shita have a heightened profile. temples typically hold that Hinduism
Many migrants from rural western India, is not a religion but a way of life, that
especially Gujarat, became urbanized in it insists in principle on religious toler-
East Africa in the late 19th century and ance, that its Godhead is functionally
resettled in Britain. Like those Gujaratis trinitarian (the male trimurti of Brahma,
who came directly to the United States Vishnu, and Shiva is meant, although
from India since the liberalization of U.S. temple worship is often very active at
Hinduism | 121
goddesses’ shrines), and that Hindu prestige and enable them to communi-
rituals have inner meanings consonant cate constantly with Hindus living in
with scientific principles and are condu- South Asia, and because their experience
cive to good health. as minorities tends to set them apart from
Pacific and ecumenical as this their families in India itself, their contri-
sounds, members of such temples are bution to the evolution of Hinduism has
also important contributors to the VHP, been a very interesting one.
whose efforts since 1964 to find common “Hinduism” was originally an outsid-
ground among disparate Hindu groups er’s word, and it designates a multitude
have sometimes also contributed to dis- of realities defined by period, time, sect,
plays of Hindu nationalism such as were class, and caste. Yet the veins and bones
seen at Ayodhya in 1992. As the 21st cen- that hold this complex organism together
tury opened, there was a vivid struggle are not just chimeras of external percep-
between “left” and “right” within the tion. Hindus themselves—particularly
Hindu fold, with diasporic groups playing diasporic Hindus—affirm them, continu-
a more important role than ever before. ing and even accelerating a process of
Because of their wealth and education, self-definition that has been going on
because globalizing processes lend them for millennia.
CHAPTER 4
Other Indigenous
Indian Religions
and Indian
Philosophy
H induism, Buddhism, and Jainism originated in the same
milieu: the circles of world renouncers of the 6th century
BC. All share certain non-Vedic practices (such as renuncia-
tion itself and various Yogic meditational techniques) and
doctrines (such as the belief in rebirth and the goal of lib-
eration from perpetual transmigration), but Buddhists and
Jains do not accept the authority of the Vedic tradition and
therefore are regarded as less than orthodox by Hindus. From
the 6th to the 11th century there was strong and sometimes
bloody competition for royal patronage between the three
communities—with Brahmans representing Hindu values—
as well as between Vaishnavas and Shaivas. In general, the
Brahman groups prevailed. In a typically absorptive gesture,
Hindus in time recognized the Buddha as an incarnation of
Vishnu, usually the ninth; it was often held, however, that
Vishnu assumed this form to mislead and destroy the enemies
of the Veda. Hence, the Buddha avatar is rarely worshipped
by Hindus, though it is often highly respected by them. At
an institutional level, certain Buddhist shrines, such as the
one marking the Buddha’s enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, have
remained partly under the supervision of Hindu ascetics and
are visited by Hindu pilgrims.
Other Indigenous Indian Religions and Indian Philosophy | 123
Buddhists living near the Chinese faith, formerly too few to be treated by
(Tibetan) border generally follow the census, have dramatically increased
Tibetan Buddhism, sometimes desig- in number as a result of active proselyti-
nated as Vajrayana (Sanskrit: “Vehicle zation. There are also some Zoroastrians
of the Thunderbolt”), while those living (the Parsis), largely concentrated in
near the border with Myanmar adhere to Mumbai and in coastal Gujarat, who
the Theravada (Pali: “Way of the Elders”). wield influence out of all proportion to
Neo-Buddhists in Maharashtra do not their small numbers because of their
have a clear sectarian affiliation. prominence during the colonial period.
Hinduism has much in common with Several tiny but sociologically interest-
Jainism, which until the 20th century ing communities of Jews are located
remained an Indian religion, especially in along the western coast. India’s tribal
social institutions and ritual life; for this peoples live mostly in the northeast; they
reason, many Hindus still consider it a practice various forms of animism, which
Hindu sect. The points of difference—e.g., is perhaps the country’s oldest religious
a stricter practice of ahimsa (“nonin- tradition.
jury”) and the absence of sacrifices for
the deceased in Jainism—do not give SIKHISM
offense to orthodox Hindus. Moreover,
many Jain laypeople worship images as The practitioners of Sikhism are known
Hindus do, though with a different ratio- as Sikhs. They call their faith Gurmat
nale. There are even places outside India (Punjabi: “the Way of the Guru”).
where Hindus and Jains have joined to According to Sikh tradition, Sikhism was
build a single temple, sharing the wor- established by Guru Nanak (1469–1539)
ship space. and subsequently led by a succession of
nine other Gurus. All 10 human Gurus,
RELIgIONS Sikhs believe, were inhabited by a single
spirit. Upon the death of the 10th, Guru
Other important religious minorities in Gobind Singh (1666–1708), the spirit
India include Christians, most heavily of the eternal Guru transferred itself to
concentrated in the northeast, Mumbai, the sacred scripture of Sikhism, Guru
and the far south; and Sikhs, mostly Granth Sahib (“The Granth as the Guru”),
in Punjab and some adjacent areas. also known as the Adi Granth (“First
Buddhists live mostly in Maharashtra, Volume”), which thereafter was regarded
Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Jammu as the sole Guru. In the early 21st century
and Kashmir; and Jains are most prom- there were nearly 25 million Sikhs world-
inent in Maharashtra, Gujarat, and wide, the great majority of them living in
Rajasthan. Those practicing the Bahā’ī the Indian state of Punjab.
124 | The Culture of India
the Guru’s death in 1539, though only the Ravi River in the Punjab. After visit-
a tiny fraction of the material found in ing southern Punjab, he died in Kartarpur,
them can be affirmed as factual. having appointed a loyal disciple as his
The first janam-sakhis were attrib- successor.
uted to the lifelong companion of Nanak, The hagiographic character of the
Bhai Bala (1466–1544), who composed Puratan tradition is well illustrated by the
an account of the Guru’s life that was story of Nanak’s visit to Mecca. Having
filled with miracles and wonder sto- entered the city, Nanak lay down with his
ries. By the end of the 19th century, the feet pointing at the mihrab (the niche in
Bala version had begun to create seri- a mosque indicating the direction of the
ous unease among Sikh scholars, who Ka‘bah). An outraged qāz·ī ( judge) found
were greatly relieved when a more ratio- him there and demanded an explana-
nal version, since known as the Puratan tion. In reply Nanak asked him to drag
(“Ancient”) tradition, was discovered in his feet away from the mihrab. This the
London, where it had arrived as a gift for qāz·ī did, only to discover that, wherever
the library of the East India Company. he placed Nanak’s feet, there the mihrab
Although it too contained fantastic ele- moved. The lesson of the story is that
ments, it had far fewer miracle stories God is everywhere, not in any particular
than the Bala version, and it presented a direction.
more plausible account of the course of Another popular Puratan story con-
Guru Nanak’s journeys. When supple- cerns Nanak’s visit to the “Land Ruled
mented by references from a discourse by Women” in eastern India. Mardana,
by the poet Bhai Gurdas (1551–1637), the Nanak’s faithful minstrel and travel com-
Puratan seems to provide a satisfactory panion, went ahead to beg for food but
description of the life of Guru Nanak. was turned into a sheep by one of the
According to this version, Nanak women. When Nanak arrived, he caused
made five trips, one in each of the four a pot to adhere to the woman’s head and
directions of the cardinal points of the restored Mardana to his original form
compass, followed by one within the after instructing him to say “Vahi Guru”
Punjab. He traveled first to the east and (“Praise to the Guru”). The women then
then to the south, reaching Sri Lanka. tried all manner of fearsome magic on
He then journeyed to the north, deep in the pair, without success. After the queen
the Himalayas, where he debated with of the Land Ruled by Women, Nur Shah,
Nath masters known as Siddhs, who failed in her attempt to seduce Nanak,
were believed to have attained immor- the women finally submitted.
tality through the practice of Yoga. His Nanak was certainly no admirer of
trip to the west took him to Baghdad, the Naths, who apparently competed with
Mecca, and Medina. He then settled in him for converts. (The janam-sakhi anec-
Kartarpur, a village on the right bank of dotes give considerable prominence to
126 | The Culture of India
debates between Nanak and the Siddhs, Gobind Singh, it was enshrined in the
in which Nanak invariably gets the bet- holy scripture of the Sikhs, the Guru
ter of his opponents.) By contrast, he Granth Sahib.
accepted the message of the Sants, giv- The fourth Guru, Ram Das, intro-
ing it expression in hymns of the most duced two significant changes: he
compelling beauty. He taught that all introduced the appointment of masands
people are subject to the transmigration (vicars), charged with the care of defined
of souls and that the sole and sufficient congregations (sangats), and he founded
means of liberation from the cycle of the important centre of Amritsar. The
rebirth is meditation on the divine nam chief contribution of Arjan, the fifth Guru,
(Persian: “name”). According to Nanak, was the compilation of the Sikhs’ sacred
the nam encompasses the whole of cre- scripture, using the Goindval Pothis,
ation—everything outside the believer which had been prepared at the instruc-
and everything within him. Having heard tions of Guru Amar Das. All of the Gurus
the divine word (shabad) through a grace continued the teaching of Nanak con-
bestowed by God, or Akal Purakh (one cerning liberation through meditation
of Nanak’s names for God), and having on the divine name. The first five Gurus
chosen to accept the word, the believer were, therefore, one as far as the central
undertakes nam simaran, or meditation belief was concerned.
on the name. Through this discipline, Under the sixth Guru, however, the
he gradually begins to perceive mani- doctrine of miri/piri emerged. Like his
fold signs of the nam, and the means of predecessors, the Guru still engaged in
liberation are progressively revealed. piri, spiritual leadership, but to it he now
Ascending to ever-higher levels of mys- added miri, the rule of a worldly leader.
tical experience, the believer is blessed The Panth was thus no longer an exclu-
with a mounting sense of peace and joy. sively religious community but was
Eventually the sach khand (“abode of also a military one that was commonly
truth”) is reached, and the believer passes involved in open warfare. All Sikhs were
into a condition of perfect and absolute expected to accept the new dual author-
union with Akal Purakh. ity of the Gurus.
Sikhs believe that the “voice” with The final contribution of the Gurus
which the word is uttered within the came with Gobind Singh. As before, there
believer’s being is that of the spirit of the was no weakening of the doctrine affirm-
eternal Guru. Because Nanak performed ing meditation on the divine name. Guru
the discipline of nam simaran, the eter- Gobind Singh, however, believed that
nal Guru took flesh and dwelt within him. the forces of good and evil fell out of bal-
Upon Nanak’s death the eternal Guru ance on occasion, and at times the latter
was embodied, in turn, in each of Nanak’s increased enormously. Akal Purakh then
successors until, with the death of Guru intervened in human history to correct
Other Indigenous Indian Religions and Indian Philosophy | 127
the balance, choosing as his agents par- spent his life looking for a Guru. While
ticular individuals who fought the forces on a trip to the Ganges River, he decided
of evil that had acquired excessive power. to become a Sikh when he overheard the
Gobind Singh believed that the Mughals, daughter of Angad singing a hymn by
through Emperor Aurangzeb, had tipped Nanak. Amar Das, who was 73 years old
the scale too far toward evil and that he when he became Guru, assumed respon-
had been divinely appointed to restore sibility for the Panth at a time when it
the balance between good and evil. He was settling down after the first flush of
also believed that drawing the sword was its early years. Many Sikhs had been born
justified to rein in evil. into the Panth, and the enthusiasm and
excitement that characterized the religion
Guru Angad under Nanak had dissipated. Believing
that rituals were necessary to confirm the
In 1539 Nanak died, having first appointed Sikhs in their faith, Amar Das ordered the
Guru Angad (1504–52) as his successor. digging of a sacred well (baoli), which
Originally known as Lahina, Angad had he designated as a pilgrimage site; cre-
been a worshipper of the Hindu goddess ated three festival days (Baisakhi, Maghi,
Durga. While leading a party to the holy and Diwali); and compiled a scripture
site of Javalamukhi (a temple in a town of sacred hymns, the so-called Goindval
of the same name in Himachal Pradesh Pothis. In addition, because the Sikhs had
state, India), he passed by Kartarpur and spread throughout the Punjab, he estab-
was instantly won over by the beauty of lished manjis (dioceses) to help spread
Nanak’s hymns. Thereafter the future the faith and better organize its adher-
Guru was completely loyal to his new ents. Despite these changes, there was no
master, and his behaviour persuaded weakening of the obligation to meditate
Nanak that he would be a more suit- on the nam.
able successor than either of the Guru’s
two sons. A thoroughly obedient disciple, Guru Ram Das
Angad made no innovations in Nanak’s
teachings, and the period of his leader- Guru Ram Das (1534–81), the fourth Guru,
ship was uneventful. was the son-in-law of Guru Amar Das. He
is perhaps best known as the founder of
Guru Amar Das the town of Amritsar (“Pool of Nectar”),
which became the capital of the Sikh reli-
When Angad died, the title of Guru was gion and the location of the Harimandir
passed to Amar Das (1479–1574), who (later known as the Golden Temple), the
was distinguished by his total loyalty chief house of worship in Sikhism. He
to the second Guru. According to tradi- also replaced the manjis with masands
tion, Amar Das was a Vaishnava who had (vicars), who were charged with the care
128 | The Culture of India
a much more suitable position because news about the Sikhs and offerings of
it was outside the territory directly con- money to pay the expenses of the Panth.
trolled by the Mughal administration. The period of peace did not last,
There he remained until his death in 1644. however. Guru Har Rai faced the same
Before he died, the question of who problems with the Mughals as Guru Arjan
should succeed him emerged. Although had. Aurangzeb, the successful contender
it was certain that the successor should for the Mughal throne, defeated his elder
be a descendant of his, it was far from brother Dara Shikoh and established him-
clear which of his children or grandchil- self in Delhi. He then sent a message to
dren should take his place. Hargobind Har Rai requiring him to deliver his son
had three wives who bore him six chil- Ram Rai as a hostage for Har Rai’s reputed
dren. The eldest son, Gurditta, who was support of Dara Shikoh. Aurangzeb evi-
evidently his favourite for the position, dently wished to educate the future Guru
had predeceased him, and none of the in Mughal ways and to convert him into
remaining five seemed suitable for the a supporter of the Mughal throne. In an
position. The older son of Gurditta, Dhir episode that illustrated the success of
Mal, was rejected because, from his seat this quest, Aurangzeb once asked Ram
in Jalandhar district, he had formed an Rai to explain an apparently demeaning
alliance with Emperor Shāh Jahān. This line in the Adi Granth, which claimed that
meant that the younger son of Gurditta, earthenware pots were mitti musalaman
Har Rai, would become the seventh Guru. ki, or formed from deceased Muslim bod-
But Dhir Mal continued to make trouble for ies. Ram Rai replied that the words had
the orthodox Panth and attracted many been miscopied. The original text should
Sikhs as his followers. He also claimed have been mitti beiman ki, the dust that
to possess the sacred scripture prepared is formed from the bodies of faithless
by Guru Arjan and used it to buttress his people. When this answer was reported
claims to be the only legitimate Guru. to Har Rai, he declared his intention
never to see Ram Rai again. Because he
Guru Har Rai had committed the serious crime of alter-
ing the words of Guru Nanak, Ram Rai
The period of Guru Har Rai (1630–61) could never be the Guru, and the position
was a relatively peaceful one. He with- passed instead to his younger brother,
drew from Kiratpur and moved farther Hari Krishen, who inherited the title
back into the Shiwalik Hills, settling with when he was only five years old.
a small retinue at Sirmur. From there he
occasionally emerged onto the plains Guru Hari Krishen
of the Punjab to visit and preach to the
Sikhs. In this regard he was well served Aurangzeb summoned Guru Hari Krishen
by several masands, who brought him (1656–64) to Delhi from the Shiwalik Hills.
130 | The Culture of India
While in Delhi, Hari Krishen contracted made by Guru Arjan; the canon was then
smallpox, which proved fatal. Before he closed, and the Adi Granth has remained
died, he uttered the words “Baba Bakale,” inviolable ever since. The second con-
which indicated to his followers the iden- cerns the manner of Tegh Bahadur’s
tity of his successor, the baba (“old man”) death. Sikh tradition maintains that he
who is in the village of Bakala. Hari was arrested by Mughal authorities for
Krishen meant to identify Tegh Bahadur, having aided Kashmiri Brahmans against
who dwelt in Bakala and was the son of Mughal attempts to convert them to
Guru Hargobind by his second wife and Islam. Offered the choice of conversion
the half brother of Guru Hari Krishen’s or death, he chose the latter and was
grandfather. immediately beheaded.
A Sikh who witnessed the execution
Guru Tegh Bahadur spirited away Tegh Bahadur’s headless
body and lodged it in his house outside
As soon as these words became known, Delhi. To cremate the body without rais-
many hopeful persons rushed to Bakala ing suspicion, he burned the whole house.
to claim the title. Sikh tradition records Meanwhile, three outcaste Sikhs secured
that Makhan Shah, a trader, had been the head of the Guru and carried it in
caught by a violent storm at sea and in secret up to Anandpur, a service which
his distress vowed to give the Sikh Guru earned them and all their successors the
501 gold mohurs (coins) if he should be right to be called Ranghreta Sikhs, an
spared. After the storm abated, the survi- honoured group of outcaste followers
vor traveled to the Punjab, and, learning of the Guru. Arriving in Anandpur, they
that the Guru resided in Bakala, he pro- produced the severed head amidst cries
ceeded there. He discovered that several of great lamentation.
people claimed the title following the
death of Guru Hari Krishen. He decided Guru Gobind Singh and
to test them all, laying before each claim- the Founding of the Khalsa
ant two gold mohurs. Finally he reached
Tegh Bahadur, who asked him for the Following the death of Tegh Bahadur,
remainder of what he had promised. Guru Gobind Singh (1666–1708), the most
Rushing up to the rooftop, Makhan Shah important of all the Gurus with the excep-
proclaimed that he had indeed found the tion of Guru Nanak, assumed leadership
true Guru. of the Sikhs. Gobind Rai, whose name
The period of Guru Tegh Bahadur was altered to Gobind Singh possibly at
(1621–75) is important for two reasons. the time of the creation of the Khalsa,
The first is that several hymns that Tegh was born in Patna, the only child of Guru
Bahadur wrote were added by Guru Tegh Bahadur. At the age of five he was
Gobind Singh to the collection originally brought to Anandpur and educated in
Other Indigenous Indian Religions and Indian Philosophy | 131
Sanskrit and Persian and in the arts of Guru Gobind Singh explained that
poetry and warfare. His father’s execu- he desired the Panj Piare to be the begin-
tion in Delhi by Aurangzeb must have ning of a new order, the Khalsa (“the
made a deep impression on the child. Pure,” from the Persian khalisah, also
For several years after his succession as meaning “pure”). The masands (many of
Guru, he continued his education in the whom had become quarrelsome or cor-
Shiwalik Hills. He grew to manhood as rupt) would be eliminated, and all Sikhs,
the ruler of a small Shiwalik state, par- through their initiation into the Khalsa,
ticipating in various wars against other would owe allegiance directly to the
Shiwalik chieftains and demonstrating a Guru. Gobind Singh then commenced
particular delight in the sport of hunting. the amrit sanskar (“nectar ceremony”),
According to Sikh tradition, on the service of initiation for the Panj Piare.
Baisakhi Day (the Indian New Year) late When the rite was concluded, the Guru
in the 17th century (the exact year is uncer- himself was initiated by the Panj Piare.
tain, though it was probably 1699), a fair The order was then opened to anyone
was held at Anandpur, and all Sikhs were wishing to join, and Sikh tradition reports
ordered to attend. The Guru remained that enormous crowds responded.
concealed until the celebrations were at It should be noted that, contrary to
their height, when he suddenly appeared the belief of many Sikhs, some central
from a tent carrying a drawn sword and features of the present-day Khalsa did
demanding the head of one of his loyal fol- not exist in Gobind Singh’s time. For
lowers. At once the crowd became silent, example, although the Guru required that
wondering what had happened. The those initiated into the Khalsa carry arms
Guru repeated the command, and even- and never cut their hair (so that at least
tually Daya Singh volunteered and was the men would never be able to deny
taken behind a screen to be dispatched. their identity as Khalsa Sikhs), the wear-
Gobind Singh then reappeared, his sword ing of the “Five Ks”—kes or kesh (uncut
dripping blood, and demanded a second hair), kangha (comb), kachha (short trou-
victim. He too was escorted behind the sers), kara (steel bracelet), and kirpan
screen, and again the sound of the sword (ceremonial sword)—did not become an
could be heard. In this manner five loyal obligation of all Sikhs until the establish-
Sikhs agreed to die for their master. ment of the Singh Sabha, a religious and
When he had apparently dispatched the educational reform movement of the late
fifth, the screen was removed, and all five 19th and the early 20th century. The Sikh
were seen to be very much alive. At their wedding ceremony, in which the bride
feet lay five slaughtered goats. The five and groom walk around the Guru Granth
volunteers became the Panj Piare, the Sahib, is also a modern development, hav-
“Cherished Five,” who had proved that ing replaced the essentially Hindu rite, in
their loyalty was beyond question. which the bride and groom walk around
132 | The Culture of India
Other Indigenous Indian Religions and Indian Philosophy | 133
a sacred fire, by the Anand Marriage Act governor of Sirhind, who cruelly executed
of 1909. The names Singh (“Lion”) for them by bricking them up alive. The fate
Sikh males and Kaur (“Princess”) for Sikh of these two children has remained an
females, formerly adopted upon initia- agonizing tale for Sikhs ever since.
tion into the Khalsa, are now bestowed to From Anandpur Gobind Singh
all Sikhs in a birth and naming ceremony. escaped to southern Punjab, where he
All of these changes have been incor- inflicted a defeat on his pursuers at
porated into the Rahit, the Sikh code of Muktsar. He then moved on to Damdama,
belief and conduct, which reached nearly remaining there until 1706 and, accord-
its final form in the early 20th century. ing to tradition, occupying himself with
Guru Gobind Singh believed that the the final revision of the Adi Granth. When
forces of good and evil in the world some- Aurangzeb died in 1707, Gobind Singh
times fall out of balance. When the forces agreed to accompany Aurangzeb’s suc-
of evil become too great, Akal Purakh cessor, Bahādur Shāh, to southern India.
intervenes in human history to correct Arriving at Nanded on the banks of the
the balance, using particular human indi- Godavari River in 1708, he was assassi-
viduals as his agents. In Gobind Singh’s nated by agents of the governor of Sirhind.
time the forces of evil, represented by the Guru Gobind Singh is without doubt
Mughals under Aurangzeb, had gained the beau ideal of the Sikhs. Illustrations
the ascendance, and it was Gobind of him and of Guru Nanak are commonly
Singh’s task, he believed, to right the bal- found in Sikh homes. He is regarded as
ance. In the service of this mission, the the supreme exemplar of all that a Sikh
Sikhs were justified in drawing the sword. of the Khalsa (a Gursikh) should be. His
He expressed this conviction in Zafar- bravery is admired, his nobility esteemed,
nama (“Epistle of Victory”), a letter that his goodness profoundly revered. The
he addressed late in life to Aurangzeb. duty of every Khalsa member, therefore,
Soon after the creation of the Khalsa, is to follow his path and to perform works
the Guru was attacked by other Shiwalik that would be worthy of him.
chieftains in league with the Mughal gov-
ernor of the town of Sirhind. In 1704 he was The 18th and 19th Centuries
compelled to withdraw from Anandpur,
losing two of his four sons in the battle The most significant figure in Sikh his-
that followed. The two remaining sons tory of the 18th century is Lacchman
were taken prisoner and delivered to the Dev, who was probably born in Punch in
This Indian Sikh man, wearing his traditional turban and sword, takes a ritual bath at the
Golden Temple in Amritsar, Punjab province, on the eve of the 540th birthday of Guru Nanak
on November 2, 2009. Narinder Nanu/AFP/Getty Images
134 | The Culture of India
Kashmir and had become a Vaishnava put to the sword. Thereafter much of the
ascetic known as Madho Das. He jour- Punjab was plunged into turmoil, though
neyed to the south and was in the vicinity Banda’s army clearly was the dominant
of Nanded at the time of Guru Gobind force in the early years of the rebellion.
Singh’s arrival. The two met shortly Many of the peasants had rallied to
before the Guru’s death, and Madho Banda, and the Mughals were exceed-
Das was instantly converted to the Sikh ingly hard-pressed to maintain control.
faith and renamed Banda (“the Slave”). Finally, after six years of fighting, Banda
The Guru also conferred on him the title was cornered in the village of Gurdas
of Bahadur (“the Brave”); he has been Nangal, where he chose to construct a
known as Banda Bahadur ever since. defense by flooding a surrounding canal.
According to tradition, Banda This proved to be a mistake, since the
Bahadur was commissioned by Gobind Mughals only had to wait until hunger
Singh to mount a campaign in the Punjab drove Banda’s army to surrender. Banda
against the governor of Sirhind. A hukam- was put in chains and carried to Delhi in
nama, or letter of command, from the a cage, and in June 1716 he was tortured
Guru was entrusted to him certifying that and barbarously executed.
he was the Guru’s servant and encourag- Although Banda is greatly admired
ing all Sikhs to join him. Arriving in the by Sikhs for his bravery and his loyalty to
Punjab with a group of 25 Sikhs, Banda the 10th Guru, he has never commanded
issued a call to join him, and, partly the complete approval of the Panth. This
because the peasants were struggling is presumably because he introduced
against the excessive land tax of the changes to the Khalsa, including a new
Mughals, he had considerable success. greeting, “Fateh darshan” (“Facing vic-
The fact that he had been commissioned tory!”), in place of the traditional “Fateh
by the 10th Guru also counted for much. Vahi Guruji” (“Victory to the Guru!”). He
The process evidently took some time, also required his followers to be vegetar-
and it was not until late 1709 that Banda ians and to wear red garments instead of
and his army of peasants were able to the traditional blue. Those who accepted
mount an attack, sacking the towns of these changes were called Bandai Sikhs,
Samana and Sadhaura. while those opposed to them—led by
Banda then turned his attention to the Mata Sundari, one of Guru Gobind
town of Sirhind and its governor, who had Singh’s widows—called themselves the
bricked up the two younger sons of Guru Tat Khalsa (the “True” Khalsa or “Pure”
Gobind Singh. For this and many other Khalsa), which should not be confused
crimes, the Sikhs believed that he mer- with the Tat Khalsa segment of the Singh
ited death. Banda’s army, fighting with Sabha, discussed below.
great determination, attacked and over- After the execution of Banda, the Sikhs
whelmed Sirhind, and the governor was endured several decades of persecution
Other Indigenous Indian Religions and Indian Philosophy | 135
by the Mughals, though there were occa- fought its way to the outskirts of Amritsar
sional periods of peace. Only the Sikhs and then hurled the head toward the
of the Khalsa—whose identity could be Harimandir, the head landing very close
easily recognized by their uncut hair to the shrine; the place where the head is
and flowing beards—were persecuted; believed to have landed is marked by a
other Sikhs were seldom affected. This hexagonal stone.
period, nonetheless, is remembered by By the end of Ah·mad Shāh’s inva-
Sikhs as one of great suffering, accom- sions in 1769, the Punjab was largely in
panied by acts of great bravery by many the hands of 12 misls, and, with the exter-
Khalsa Sikhs in their struggle against the nal threat removed, the misls turned to
Mughal authorities in Lahore. fighting between themselves. Eventually,
Beginning in 1747, the ruler of one misldar (commander), Ranjit Singh,
Afghanistan, Ah·mad Shāh Durrānī, led the leader of the Sukerchakia misl
a series of nine invasions of the Punjab (named after the town of Sukkarchak in
that eventually brought Mughal power in what is now northeastern Punjab prov-
the region to an end. In rural areas, the ince, Pakistan), which included territories
Sikhs took advantage of the weakening north and west of Lahore, won almost
of Mughal control to form several groups complete control of the Punjab. The
later known as misls or misals. Beginning lone exception was the Phulkian misl (so
as warrior bands, the emergent misls called after its founder, Phul, the disciple
and their sardars (chieftains) gradually of Guru Har Rai) on the southeastern
established their authority over quite border of the Punjab, which survived
extensive areas. because the English East India Company
As Mughal power declined, the misls had reached the Sutlej River and Ranjit
eventually faced the Afghan army of Singh recognized that he was not yet
Ah·mad Shāh, with whom an important ready to fight the British army. For their
Sikh tradition is associated. After the part, the British recognized that Ranjit
Afghans occupied the Harimandir in Singh was in the process of establishing
1757, Dip Singh, a member of the Shahid a strong kingdom, and, for as long as it
misl, pledged to free the shrine or die survived, they were content to have it as a
in the attempt. His small army was met buffer state between their territories and
by a much larger one several kilometres their ultimate objective, Afghanistan.
from Amritsar, and in the ensuing battle Sikhs remember Ranjit Singh with
Dip Singh’s head was cut off. According respect and affection as their greatest
to one version of events, the body of Dip leader after the Gurus. He succeeded as
Singh, holding the head in one hand, Sukerchakia misldar when his father died
continued fighting, eventually dropping in 1792. By 1799 he had entered Lahore,
dead in the precincts of the Harimandir. and in 1801 he proclaimed himself maha-
Another account reports that the body raja of the Punjab. He sheathed the two
136 | The Culture of India
upper stories of the Harimandir in gold with grants of land and other privileges.
leaf, thereby converting it into what Peace and prosperity within the Punjab
became known as the Golden Temple. made possible the founding of the first
Within the kingdom that replaced the Singh Sabha, a religious and educational
misl system, Sikhs of the Khalsa received reform movement, in Amritsar in 1873.
special consideration, but places were Its purpose was to demonstrate that
also found for Hindus and Muslims. Sikhs were not involved in the Indian
The army was Ranjit Singh’s particular Mutiny and to respond to signs of decay
interest. His objective was to create an within the Panth, such as haircutting and
entirely new army on a Western model, tobacco smoking. Because the men who
and for this purpose he employed numer- gathered in Amritsar were, for the most
ous Europeans, only the British being part, large landowners and persons of
excepted. When his new army was ready high status, the positions they adopted
to do battle, the city of Multan, the Vale were generally conservative. In response
of Kashmir, and the citadel of Peshawar a more radical branch of the Singh
were all added to the kingdom of the Sabha was established in Lahore in 1879.
Punjab. The Amritsar group came to be known
Notwithstanding his many accom- as the Sanatan (“Traditional”) Sikhs,
plishments, Ranjit Singh failed to provide whereas the radical Lahore branch was
a firm financial footing for his govern- known as the Tat Khalsa.
ment, nor was he interested in training The differences between the two
a successor. When he died in 1839, he groups were considerable. The Sanatan
was succeeded by his eldest son, Kharak Sikhs regarded themselves as part of
Singh, though effective authority was the wider Hindu community (then the
exercised by Kharak Singh’s son Nau dominant view within the Panth), and
Nihal Singh. Kharak Singh died in 1840 they tolerated such things as idols in the
as a result of excessive opium consump- Golden Temple. The Tat Khalsa, on the
tion, and Nau Nihal Singh was killed by other hand, insisted that Sikhism was a
a falling arch on the day of his father’s distinct and independent faith. The pam-
funeral. The Punjab quickly descended phlet Ham Hindu Nahin (1898; “We Are
into chaos, and, following two wars with Not Hindus”), by the Tat Khalsa writer
the British, the state was annexed in 1849 Kahn Singh Nabha, provided an effective
to become a part of British India. After slogan for the movement. Other radical
annexation, the British favoured the Sikhs adherents, influenced by Western stan-
for recruitment as soldiers, and many dards of scholarship, set out to revise
Sikhs made the British army their career. and rationalize the rahit-namas (the
For their loyalty to the British admin- manuals containing the Rahit), removing
istration during the unsuccessful Indian parts that were erroneous, inconsistent,
Mutiny of 1857–58, the Sikhs were rewarded or antiquated. Many prohibitions were
Other Indigenous Indian Religions and Indian Philosophy | 137
Granth must be present at the gurdwara, everyone must sit in a straight line, nei-
and all attending must enter with heads ther ahead to lay claim to higher status
covered and feet bare. nor behind to denote inferiority. Indeed,
the distinctive Sikh langar originated
The Worship Service as a protest against the caste system.
Another signal of the Sikhs’ rejection
Sikhs show their reverence by bowing of caste is the distribution of the karah
their foreheads to the floor before the prasad, which is prepared or donated by
sacred scripture. Worship consists largely people of all castes.
of singing hymns from the scripture, and In two areas of Sikh society, however,
every service concludes with Ardas, a set caste is still observed. Sikhs are normally
prayer that is divided into three parts. expected to marry within their caste: Jat
The first part consists of a declaration of marries Jat, Khatri marries Khatri, and
the virtues of all the Gurus, and the last Dalit marries Dalit. In addition, Sikhs of
part is a brief salutation to the divine some castes tend to establish gurdwaras
name; neither part can be changed. The intended for their caste only. Members of
middle part of the Ardas is a list, in a the Ramgarhia caste, for example, identify
generally agreed form, of the trials and their gurdwaras in this way (particularly
the triumphs of the Khalsa, which are those established in the United Kingdom),
recited in clusters by a prayer leader. The as do members of the Dalit caste.
congregation responds to each cluster More than 60 percent of Sikhs belong
with a fervent “Vahiguru,” which origi- to the Jat caste, which is a rural caste.
nally meant “Praise to the Guru” but is The Khatri and Arora castes, both mer-
now accepted as the most common word cantile castes, form a very small minority,
for God. The conclusion of the service though they are influential within the
is followed by the distribution of karah Sikh community. Other castes repre-
prasad, a sacramental food that consists sented among the Sikhs, in addition to
of equal parts of coarsely refined wheat the distinctive Sikh caste of Ramgarhias
flour, clarified butter, and raw sugar. (artisans), are the Ahluwalias (formerly
Kalals [brewers] who have raised their
The Rejection of Caste status considerably) and the two Dalit
castes, known in Sikh terminology as
The Adi Granth contains a forthright the Mazhabis (the Chuhras) and the
condemnation of caste, and conse- Ramdasias (the Chamars).
quently there is no toleration of caste in
its presence (normally in a gurdwara). Rites and Festivals
The Gurus denounced caste as holding
no importance whatsoever for access Sikh Rahit Marayada, the manual that
to liberation. In the langar, therefore, specifies the duties of Sikhs, names four
140 | The Culture of India
rituals that qualify as rites of passage. ka Khalsa, Vahi Guruji ki fateh” (“Praise
The first is a birth and naming ceremony, to the Guru’s Khalsa! Praise to the Guru’s
held in a gurdwara when the mother is victory!”). Amrit is sprinkled over the ini-
able to rise and bathe after giving birth. tiates’ hair and eyes five times, and they
A hymn is selected at random from the drink the remainder of the amrit from
Guru Granth Sahib, and a name begin- the same bowl. They repeat five times
ning with the first letter of the hymn is the Mul Mantra (the superscription at
chosen. Singh is added to the names of the beginning of the Guru Granth Sahib),
males and Kaur to females. A second rite after which the Rahit is expounded to
is the anand karaj (“blissful union”), or them by one of the five Sikhs. They are
marriage ceremony, which clearly dis- required to wear the Five Ks and to avoid
tinguishes Sikhs from Hindus. The bride four particular sins: cutting one’s hair, eat-
and groom are required to proceed four ing halal meat, having sexual intercourse
times around the Guru Granth Sahib with anyone other than one’s spouse, and
to the singing of Guru Ram Das’s Suhi using tobacco. The Sikh who commits
Chhant 2, which differs from the Hindu any of these cardinal sins must publicly
custom of circling a sacred fire. The third confess and be reinitiated. Anyone who
rite—regarded as the most important—is violates the Rahit and does not confess is
the amrit sanskar, the ceremony for ini- branded a patit (apostate). If a candidate
tiation into the Khalsa. The fourth rite has not received a name from the Guru
is the funeral ceremony. In all cases the Granth Sahib, one is conferred. Finally,
distinction between Sikhs and Hindus is karah prasad is distributed, all taking it
emphasized. from the same dish.
The initiation rite, as set down in Sikh Sikhism observes eight major fes-
Rahit Marayada, is conducted by six ini- tivals, as well as several others of lesser
tiated Sikhs, five of whom conduct the importance. Four of the main festivals
actual rite while the sixth sits in atten- are gurpurabs, or events commemorat-
dance on the Guru Granth Sahib, which ing important incidents in the lives of the
must be present on such occasions. The Gurus, such as the birthdays of Nanak
ritual involves pouring water into a large and Gobind Singh and the martyrdoms
iron bowl and adding soluble sweets. of Arjan and Tegh Bahadur. The remain-
This represents the amrit (“nectar”), ing four are the installation of the Guru
which is stirred with a double-edged Granth Sahib, the New Year festival
sword by one of the five Sikhs. After the of Baisakhi, Diwali, and Hola Mahalla.
recitation of certain works of the Gurus, Festivals are marked by processions in
which is followed by Ardas, the candi- the streets and visits to gurdwaras, par-
dates for initiation drink five handfuls ticularly to those associated with one of
of amrit offered to them. Each time, the the Gurus or with some historical event.
Sikh giving it to them cries, “Vahi Guruji Speeches are commonly made to crowds
Other Indigenous Indian Religions and Indian Philosophy | 141
of worshipers. Diwali, the Festival of doctrine of nam simaran. With the advent
Light, is observed by both Hindus and of the Tat Khalsa this goal was largely
Sikhs; the Sikh celebration centres on the achieved, and today the Nirankaris differ
Golden Temple, which is illuminated for from orthodox Sikhs only in their recog-
the occasion. For Sikhs, Diwali commemo- nition of a continuing line of Gurus. The
rates the release of Guru Hargobind from Nam-Dharis also recognize a continuing
imprisonment by the Mughal emperor line, believing that Guru Gobind Singh
Jahāngīr in Gwalior. Hola Mahalla, which did not die in Nander but lived in secret
is held the day after the Hindu festival of until he passed the title to Balak Singh.
Holi, was established by Gobind Singh Under the second Nam-Dhari Guru, Ram
as an alternative to the Hindu holiday. Singh, the movement’s centre moved to
It was originally observed with displays Bhaini Sahib, where trouble with British
of martial skills and mock battles and is authorities led to Ram Singh’s impris-
now celebrated with military parades. onment in Rangoon, Burma (Yangon,
Myanmar). Almost all Nam-Dharis are
Sects and Other Groups from the carpenter caste, and most adult
male Nam-Dharis are easily recognized
In addition to the orthodox, there are by their white homespun turbans, which
several Sikh sects. Four of these are par- they tie horizontally across the forehead.
ticularly important. Sikhs can be grouped The third sect, the Akhand Kirtani
not only by their sect but also by their Jatha, emerged during the early 20th
style of dress and by the strictness with century. The members of this group are
which they observe the Rahit. Contrary to distinguished by their divergent inter-
common belief, not all Sikhs wear uncut pretation of one of the Five Ks. Instead
hair and turbans—two groups do, and two of accepting the kes, or uncut hair, they
do not. Of these four groups, three have maintain that the command really stands
names to distinguish them; the fourth, for keski, which means a small turban that
though unnamed, is numerous and is normally worn under the main turban.
includes many Sikhs of the diaspora. In this group, men and women must wear
this variety of turban. The group is strict
Sects in its beliefs, attaching great importance
to kirtan, or the singing of hymns, and
Of the four significant sects, the frequently devoting the whole night to
Nirankaris and the Nam-Dharis, or Kuka the exercise. Leadership of the sect is now
Sikhs, emerged in northwestern Punjab largely in the hands of the trading castes,
during the latter part of Ranjit Singh’s though it originally comprised followers
reign. The Nirankaris were members of Randhir Singh, who was a Jat.
of trading castes and followers of Baba Another group that requires women
Dayal, who had preached a return to the to wear turbans is the Sikh Dharma of
142 | The Culture of India
the Western Hemisphere, founded in the name Kaur, and all accept the Rahit to a
United States in 1971 by Harbhajan Singh, greater or lesser degree. Many are punc-
who was always known as Yogi Bhajan. It is tilious in their acceptance of it, obeying
commonly known as the 3HO movement all the regulations laid down in Sikh Rahit
(Healthy Happy Holy Organization), Marayada. Others are rather less obser-
though this is, strictly speaking, the name vant, though they are usually careful not
only of its educational branch. Most of its to violate the Rahit while they are in the
followers are white Americans who lay public gaze.
considerable emphasis on the discipline The Kes-Dhari Sikhs constitute a very
of meditation and who practice what they substantial part of the Panth, especially
call kundalini Yoga. The Sikh Dharma’s in the Punjab, though their exact num-
relations with the orthodox Khalsa are bers there and in the rest of the world are
distinctly mixed, with many other Sikhs impossible to determine. Although the
questioning both its teachings and its vast majority of Kes-Dharis have not been
economic activities. The group’s obser- initiated into the Khalsa, in practice they
vance of the Rahit is, however, generally are regarded (and regard themselves) as
acknowledged to be of a very high order. Khalsa Sikhs.
A second group comprises those who
Other Groups have undertaken initiation. Because this
involves amrit (“nectar”), these Sikhs
As mentioned above, style of dress and are known as Amrit-Dhari Sikhs. They are
strictness of observance are other ways also, of course, Kes-Dharis. Thus, all Amrit-
of distinguishing among Sikhs. The Kes- Dharis are Kes-Dharis, though not all
Dhari, for example, is composed of Sikhs Kes-Dharis are Amrit-Dharis. Here too any
who wear the kes, uncut hair, required as estimate of numbers must rely on guess-
one of the Five Ks, and includes all those work, but it is likely that Amrit-Dharis
whom the popular view regards as Sikhs. account for 15 to 18 percent of all Sikhs.
Not all Kes-Dharis wear all of the Five Ks, The Sahaj-Dharis are one of two
but they will at least wear the wrist ring groups of Sikhs that do not wear uncut
(the kara), and the men will have beards hair. They also reject other injunctions of
and wear the Sikh turban. In some cases, the Rahit, and they do not adopt typical
beards may be surreptitiously trimmed, Sikh personal names. Tat Khalsa schol-
and, instead of wearing a standard kir- ars once believed that sahaj-dhari meant
pan (ceremonial sword), members may “slow-adopter” and was used to designate
carry a tiny replica measuring barely one Sikhs who were on the path to full Khalsa
centimetre in length, which is fastened membership. It is more probable, how-
to the comb (kangha) that holds the ever, that the term is derived from Guru
hair in place under the turban. All males Nanak’s use of the word sahaj, meaning
bear the name Singh and all females the the ineffable bliss of the soul’s liberation.
Other Indigenous Indian Religions and Indian Philosophy | 143
Sahaj-Dhari Sikhism is based partly third was Guru Gobind Singh’s founding
on caste, attracting many members of of the Khalsa, its distinctive code to be
relatively high castes who do not observe observed by all who were initiated. At his
the Rahit for fear of losing their high- death came the fourth event, the passing
caste status. Thus, the group includes of the mystical Guru from its 10 human
many members of the trading castes bearers to the Guru Granth Sahib. The
but very few Jats, the agrarian caste that final event took place early in the 20th
constitutes more than 60 percent of the century, when Sikhism underwent a pro-
Panth. It is impossible to determine the found reformation at the hands of the Tat
exact number of Sahaj-Dharis, partly Khalsa. Sikhs are universally proud of the
because many families of the trading distinct faith thus created.
castes have only the eldest son initiated
and leave the remainder of the family free Jainism
to call themselves Sikh or Hindu.
The fourth category of Sikhs consists Jainism teaches a path to spiritual purity
of those who have a traditional Kes- and enlightenment through a disci-
Dhari background but who cut their hair plined mode of life founded upon the
and wear distinctive turbans only when tradition of ahimsa, nonviolence to all
they attend a service in their gurdwaras. living creatures. Beginning in the 7th–5th
Although they do not always use their century BC, Jainism evolved into a cul-
formal Khalsa names, they do use Singh tural system that has made significant
or Kaur. This variety of Sikh is particu- contributions to Indian philosophy and
larly common in countries outside India. logic, art and architecture, mathematics,
There is still no widely accepted term for astronomy and astrology, and literature.
them, though they are frequently called Along with Hinduism and Buddhism, it is
Mona Sikhs, mona meaning “shaven.” one of the three most ancient Indian reli-
This term, however, is unsuitable because gious traditions still in existence.
it does not clearly distinguish this group While often employing concepts
of Sikhs from the Sahaj-Dharis and shared with Hinduism and Buddhism,
because it has pejorative overtones. the result of a common cultural and lin-
guistic background, the Jain tradition
Conclusion must be regarded as an independent phe-
nomenon. It is an integral part of South
The Sikhs understand their religion as Asian religious belief and practice, but it
the product of five pivotal events. The first is not a Hindu sect or Buddhist heresy, as
was the teaching of Guru Nanak: his mes- earlier scholars believed.
sage of liberation through meditation on The name Jainism derives from the
the divine name. The second was the arm- Sanskrit verb ji, “to conquer.” It refers to
ing of the Sikhs by Guru Hargobind. The the ascetic battle that it is believed Jain
144 | The Culture of India
by the eventual founder of the Ajivika and denigrate the other. These accounts
sect, Goshala Maskariputra, Mahavira were written centuries after the fact
spent the next 12½ years following a and are valueless as genuine histori-
path of solitary and intense asceticism. cal testimony. The consolidation of the
He then converted 11 disciples (called Shvetambara-Digambara division was
ganadharas), all of whom were origi- probably the result of a series of coun-
nally Brahmans. Two of these disciples, cils held to codify and preserve the Jain
Indrabhuti Gautama and Sudharman, scriptures, which had existed as oral tra-
both of whom survived Mahavira, are dition long after Mahavira’s death. Of
regarded as the founders of the historical the councils recorded in Jain history, the
Jain monastic community, and a third, last one, held at Valabhi in Saurashtra (in
Jambu, is believed to be the last person modern Gujarat) in either AD 453 or 456,
of the current age to gain enlightenment. without Digambara participation, codi-
Mahavira is believed to have died at fied the Shvetambara canon that is still
Pavapuri, near modern Patna. in use. The Digambara monastic com-
The community appears to have munity denounced the codification, and
grown quickly. According to Jain tra- the schism between the two communities
dition, it numbered 14,000 monks and became irrevocable.
36,000 nuns at the time of Mahavira’s During this period, Jainism spread
death. From the beginning the community westward to Ujjain, where it apparently
was subject to schisms over technicalities enjoyed royal patronage. Later, in the
of doctrine, however, these were easily 1st century BC, according to tradition,
resolved. The only schism to have a last- a monk named Kalakacarya apparently
ing effect concerned a dispute over proper overthrew King Gardabhilla of Ujjain
monastic practice, with the Shvetambara and orchestrated his replacement with
(“White-robed”) sect arguing that monks the Shahi kings (who were probably of
and nuns should wear white robes and the Scythian or Persian origin). During the
Digambaras (“Sky-clad,” i.e., naked) claim- reign of the Gupta dynasty (AD 320–c.
ing that a true monk (but not a nun) should 600), a time of Hindu self-assertion, the
be naked. This controversy gave rise to a bulk of the Jain community migrated
further dispute as to whether or not a soul to central and western India, becoming
can attain liberation from a female body stronger there than it had been in its orig-
(a possibility the Digambaras deny). inal home in the Ganges basin.
This sectarian division, still existent
today, probably took time to assume Early Medieval Developments
formal shape. Its exact origins remain (500–1100)
unclear, in part because the stories
describing the origins of the schism were There is archaeological evidence of the
designed to justify each sect’s authority presence of Jain monks in southern
146 | The Culture of India
India from before the Common era, and During this period Digambara writ-
the Digambara sect has had a signifi- ers produced numerous philosophical
cant presence in what is now the state treatises, commentaries, and poems,
of Karnataka for almost 2,000 years. which were written in Prakrit, Kannada,
The early medieval period was the time and Sanskrit. A number of kings pro-
of Digambara Jainism’s greatest flow- vided patronage for this literary activity,
ering. Enjoying success in modern-day and some wrote various works of litera-
Karnataka and in neighbouring Tamil ture themselves. The monk Jinasena, for
Nadu state, the Digambaras gained the example, wrote Sanskrit philosophical
patronage of prominent monarchs of treatises and poetry with the support of
three major dynasties in the early medi- the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha
eval period—the Gangas in Karnataka I. An author in Kannada and Sanskrit,
(3rd–11th century); the Rashtrakutas, Amoghavarsha apparently renounced his
whose kingdom was just north of the throne and became a disciple of Jinasena
Ganga realm (8th–12th century); and the in the early 9th century.
Hoysalas in Karnataka (11th–14th cen- The Shvetambaras in the north were
tury). Digambara monks are reputed to less prominently embroiled in dynastic
have engineered the succession of the politics than their southern counterparts,
Ganga and the Hoysala dynasties, thus though there is evidence of such activity
stabilizing uncertain political situations in Gujarat and Rajasthan. They supported
and guaranteeing Jain political protec- the accession of kings such as Vanaraja
tion and support. in the 8th century and Kumarapala,
The Digambaras’ involvement in whose accession was masterminded by
politics allowed Jainism to prosper in Hemacandra, the great Shvetambara
Karnataka and the Deccan. Many politi- scholar and minister of state, in the 12th
cal and aristocratic figures had Jain century. The Shvetambaras were no less
monks as spiritual teachers and advis- productive than their Digambara con-
ers. Epigraphical evidence reveals an temporaries in the amount and variety
elaborate patronage system through of literature they produced during this
which kings, queens, state ministers, period.
and military generals endowed the Jain While Mahavira had rejected the
community with tax revenues and with claims of the caste system that privi-
direct grants for the construction and leged Brahman authority on the basis
upkeep of temples. Most famously, in of innate purity, a formalized caste sys-
the 10th century the Ganga general tem nonetheless gradually appeared
Chamundaraya oversaw the creation of a among the Digambara laity in the south.
colossal statue of Bahubali (locally called This hierarchy was depicted and sanc-
Gommateshvara; son of Rishabhanatha, tioned by Jinasena in his Adipurana, a
the first Tirthankara) at Shravana Belgola. legendary biography of the Tirthankara
Other Indigenous Indian Religions and Indian Philosophy | 147
Rishabhanatha and his two sons Bahubali Jain community perhaps suffered most
and Bharata. The hierarchy differed from from the sudden shift of political control
the Hindu system in that the Kshatriyas from indigenous to foreign hands and the
were assigned a place of prominence over loss of direct access to sources of power.
the Brahmans and in its connection of While some Jain laymen and monks
purity, at least theoretically, with a moral served Muslim rulers as political advisers
rather than a ritual source. In addition, or teachers—including Hiravijaya, who
Jinasena did not see the caste system as taught the Moghul emperor Akbar—the
an inherent part of the universe, as did Shvetambara community was gradually
Hindu theologians and lawgivers. compelled to redefine itself and today
thrives as a mercantile group.
Late Medieval–Early Modern At roughly the same time, various
Developments (1100–1800) Shvetambara monastic subsects (gac-
cha) appeared, forming on the basis of
In the period of their greatest influence both regional and teacher associations.
(6th–late 12th century), Jain monks of Some of the most important of these
both sects, perhaps influenced by intense subsects still exist, such as the Kharatara
lay patronage, turned from living as wan- Gaccha (founded 11th century) and the
dering ascetics to permanent residence Tapa Gaccha (founded 13th century). The
in temples or monasteries. A legacy of gacchas included lay followers, often dif-
this transformation is the contemporary fered markedly from one another over
Digambara practice of the bhattaraka, issues of lineage, ritual, and the sacred
through which a cleric takes monastic calendar, and claimed to represent the
initiation but, rather than assuming a life true Jainism. According to tradition,
of naked ascetic wandering, becomes an their leading teachers sought to reform
orange-robed administrator and guard- lax monastic practice and participated in
ian of holy places and temples. Some the conversion of Hindu Rajput clans in
medieval Jain writers saw this compro- western India that subsequently became
mise with ancient scriptural requirements Shvetambara Jain caste groups.
as both a cause of and evidence for the Although most gacchas accepted the
religion’s inexorable decline. However, practice of image worship, the Lumpaka,
Jainism’s marginalization in India can or Lonka Gaccha, did not. Founded by the
best be ascribed to sociopolitical factors. mid-15th-century layman Lonka Shah, the
The Shvetambara Jain community’s Lonka Gaccha denied the scriptural war-
eclipse was greatly accelerated by the suc- ranty of image worship and in the 17th
cessful invasion of western and northern century emerged as the non-image-wor-
India by Muslim forces in the 12th cen- shiping Sthanakavasi sect. At the end of the
tury. Although it faced persecution and 18th century, the Sthanakavasi underwent
the destruction of important shrines, the a schism when Acarya Bhikshu founded
148 | The Culture of India
or a large room, jiva can fill both the stop the influx of new karmans and elimi-
smaller and the larger bodies it occupies. nate the acquired ones.
The soul assumes the exact dimensions Karmic particles are acquired as the
of the body it occupies, but it is not iden- result of intentional “passionate” action,
tical with that body. On death it assumes though the very earliest Jain teachings
the shape of the last physical body that on this subject claimed that any action,
housed it. even if unintentional, attracted karman.
Matter (pudgala) has the character- Acquired karmans can be annihilated
istics of touch, taste, smell, and colour; through a process called nirjara (“wearing
however, its essential characteristic is lack away”), which includes fasting, restrict-
of consciousness. The smallest unit of ing diet, controlling taste, retreating to
matter is the atom (paramanu). Heat, light, lonely places, along with mortifications
and shade are all forms of fine matter. of the body, atonement and expiation for
The nonsentient nonmaterial sub- sins, modesty, service, study, meditation,
stances are space, time, and the principles and renunciation of the ego. Nirjara is,
of motion and its arrest. They are always thus, the calculated cessation of passion-
pure and are not subject to defilement. ate action.
The principles of motion and its arrest Because of karman a soul is impris-
permeate the universe; they do not exist oned in a succession of bodies and
independently but rather form a necessary passes through various stages of spiri-
precondition for any object’s movement or tual development before becoming free
coming to rest. from all karmic bondage. These stages
of development (gunasthanas) involve
Karman progressive manifestations of the innate
faculties of knowledge and power and are
The fundamental tenet of Jain doctrine accompanied by decreasing sinfulness
is that all phenomena are linked in a uni- and increasing purity.
versal chain of cause and effect. Every
event has a definite cause. By nature Theories of Knowledge
each soul is pure, possessing infinite as Applied to Liberation
knowledge, bliss, and power; however,
these faculties are restricted throughout In Jain thought, four stages of percep-
time by the soul’s contact with matter. tion—observation, will to recognize,
This matter, which produces the chain determination, and impression—lead to
of cause and effect, of birth and death, is subjective cognition (matijnana), the
karman (anglicized as karma), an atomic first of five kinds of knowledge (jnana).
substance and not a process, as it is in The second kind, shrutajnana, derives
Hinduism and Buddhism. To be free from from the scriptures and general infor-
the shackles of karman, a person must mation. Both are mediated cognition,
152 | The Culture of India
because it arises from ideas of attachment Sthanakavasis and the Terapanthis, the
and aversion, grounded in passionate mukhavastrika must be worn at all times.
states, which result from negligence or After initiation a monk must adhere to
lack of care in behaviour. Jainism enjoins the “great vows” (mahavratas) to avoid
avoidance of all forms of injury—whether injuring any life-form, lying, stealing,
committed by body, mind, or speech— having sexual intercourse, or accepting
and subscribes emphatically to the personal possessions. To help him keep
teaching that “nonviolence is the highest his vows, a monk’s life is carefully regu-
form of religious practice.” For Jains, this lated in all details by specific ordinances
principle, which manifests itself most and by the oversight of his superiors. For
obviously in the form of vegetarianism, is example, to help him observe the vow
the single most important component of of nonviolence, a monk may not take
their tradition’s message. Notable in this his simple, vegetarian meals after dark,
connection is the friendship between the because to do so would increase the pos-
Jain layman Raychandrabhai Mehta and sibility of harming insects that might be
Mohandas (later Mahatma) Gandhi, who attracted to the food. In addition, drink-
considered his interactions with Mehta ing water must first be boiled to ensure
to have been important in formulating that there are no life-forms in it. Monks
his own ideas on the use of nonviolence are expected to suffer with equanim-
as a political tactic. ity hardships imposed by the weather,
geographic terrain, travel, or physical
Ritual Practices and abuse; however, exceptions are allowed
Religious Institutions in emergencies, since a monk who sur-
vives a calamity can purify himself by
Along with Buddhism, Jainism is the confession and by practicing even more
only surviving religion to have begun as rigorous austerities.
a purely monastic religion. The rules for Digambara monks take the same
the laity are derived from monastic rules. “great vows” as do the Shvetambara, but
in acknowledgement of a much more
Monks, Nuns, and Their Practices intense interpretation of the vow of
nonpossession, full-fledged Digambara
Shvetambara monks are allowed to monks remain naked, while lower-grade
retain a few possessions such as a robe, Digambara monks wear a loincloth and
an alms bowl, a whisk broom, and a keep with them one piece of cloth not
mukhavastrika (a piece of cloth held more than 1.5 yards (1.4 metres) long.
over the mouth to protect against the Digambara monks use a peacock-feather
ingestion of small insects), which are duster to sweep the ground where they
presented by a senior monk at the time of walk to avoid injuring any life-forms
initiation. For the non-image-worshiping and drink water from a gourd. They beg
154 | The Culture of India
for their only meal of the day using the ritual calendar: equanimity (samayika, a
cupped palms of their hand as an alms form of contemplative activity, which, in
bowl. They regard their interpretation of theory operates throughout the monk’s
the Jain monastic vocation as more in entire career); praise of the Tirthankaras;
accord with the ancient model than that obeisance to the Tirthankaras, teachers,
followed by the Shvetambaras. and scriptures; confession; resolution
All Jain renunciants must exercise to avoid sinful activities; and “abandon-
the three guptis (care in thought, speech, ment of the body” (standing or sitting in
and action) and the five samitis (types a meditative posture).
of vigilance over conduct). Essential The type of austerities in which a
to regular monastic ritual are the six monk engages, the length of time he
“obligatory actions” (avashyaka), prac- practices them, and their severity are
ticed daily and at important times of the carefully regulated by his preceptor, who
Two Indian Jain monks walk barefoot in Mumbai, India. Jain monks spread word of the
Jain religion and preach the principle of ahimsa, or non-violence. Sebastian D’Souza/AFP/
Getty Images
Other Indigenous Indian Religions and Indian Philosophy | 155
takes into account the monk’s spiritual community of renunciants. The medieval
development, his capacity to withstand period was a time of particularly intense
the austerities, and his ability to under- reflection by both Shvetambara and
stand how they help further his spiritual Digambara monks on the role of the laity.
progress. The theoretical culmination Many treatises discussing the layman’s
of a monk’s ascetic rigours is the act of religious behaviour and vows were pro-
sallekhana, in which he lies on one side on duced between the 5th and 17th century.
a bed of thorny grass and ceases to move According to these writings, lay behaviour
or eat. This act of ritual starvation is the should mirror the ascetic “great vows.”
monk’s ultimate act of nonattendance, by Jain doctrine, however, holds that while
which he lets go of the body for the sake the ascetic path can lead to the destruc-
of his soul. Jain ideology views this as the tion (nirjara) of karman, the lay path
ultimate act of self-control and triumph allows only for the warding off (samvara)
over the passions, rather than simply as of new karman and thus does not radi-
suicide. While widely followed in ancient cally alter an individual’s karmic status.
and medieval times, sallekhana is much The layman (Jainism’s focus is invari-
less common today. ably upon the male) is enjoined to observe
Both the Shvetambaras and eight basic rules of behaviour, which vary
Digambaras allow the initiation of nuns, but usually include the avoidance of night
and among the Shvetambaras, nuns eating, as well as a diet that excludes meat,
outnumber monks by a ratio of approxi- wine, honey, and types of fruits and roots
mately 3 to 1. Nevertheless, the status of deemed to harbour life-forms. There are
Jain nuns is less prestigious than that of also 12 vows to be taken: five anuvratas
monks, to whom they are obliged by con- (“little vows”), three gunavratas, and four
vention and textual stipulation to defer, shikshavratas. The anuvratas are vows
despite the fact that these nuns are often to abstain from violence, falsehood, and
women of great learning and spiritual stealing; to be content with one’s own
attainment. In Digambara Jainism, nuns, wife; and to limit one’s possessions. The
who wear robes, accept the necessity of other vows are supplementary and meant
being reborn as men before they can to strengthen and protect the anuvratas.
advance significantly on the ascetic path. They involve avoidance of unnecessary
travel, of harmful activities, and of the
Religious Activity of the Laity pursuit of pleasure; fasting and control of
diet; offering gifts and service to monks,
While Jain literature from earliest times the poor, and fellow believers; and volun-
emphasizes the place of the monk and tary death if the observance of the major
his concerns, it is clear that almost from vows proves impossible.
the religion’s outset the majority of Jains Lay people are further enjoined to
have been laypersons who support the perform the six “obligatory actions”
156 | The Culture of India
Jain worshipers offer prayers at Hutheesing Jain Temple in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, in 2009,
during the first day of the holiday of Holy Parushan Parva. Sam Panthaky/AFP/Getty Images
Other Indigenous Indian Religions and Indian Philosophy | 157
provides the laity a rounded social world. been uncovered in excavations of a Jain
Typically, Jain lay life is characterized by stupa, or funerary monument, at Mathura
strict vegetarianism, disciplined business in Uttar Pradesh. The earliest images
or professional activity, and respon- of Tirthankaras are all nude and distin-
sible conduct of family affairs with a view guished by carved inscriptions of their
to establishing a sound social reputation. names on the pedestals. By the 5th cen-
Lay Jains believe that pious activity— tury, symbols specific to each Tirthankara
including fasting and almsgiving, and (e.g., a lion for Mahavira) began to appear.
especially the practice of nonviolence— The practice of associating one of the 24
enables an individual not only to advance shasanadevatas (“doctrine goddesses”)
a little further along the path to final liber- with images of individual Tirthankaras
ation but to improve his current material began in the 9th century. Some of these
situation. As a result, there is a stark con- goddesses, such as Ambika (“Little
trast between the great prosperity of the Mother”), who is associated with the
Jain lay community and the austere self- Tirthankara Arishtanemi, continue to
denial of the monks and nuns it supports. have great importance for the Jain devo-
Until very recently Jainism had tee. The images are generally located
not developed any distinctive life-cycle near the entrance to Jain temples and can
rituals for events such as birth and mar- be propitiated for aid in worldly matters.
riage, although in the 9th century the Closely associated with the obliga-
Digambara monk Jinasena attempted to tory rites of the laity, worship (puja) can
legislate in this area. In general, practice be made to all liberated souls, to monks,
has tended to conform to prevailing local and to the scriptures. The focus for most
custom, provided this does not infringe image-worshiping Jains (murtipujaka) is
on basic Jain principles. the icon of the Tirthankara located in the
central shrine room of the temple or, alter-
Image Worship natively, in a domestic shrine. Temples
also house subsidiary Tirthankara
Temple worship is mentioned in early images. Although Tirthankaras remain
texts that describe gods paying homage unaffected by offerings and worship
to images and relics of Tirthankaras in and cannot, as individuals who are lib-
heavenly eternal shrines. While Mahavira erated from rebirth, respond in any way,
himself appears to have made no state- such devotional actions serve as a form
ment regarding image worship, it quickly of meditative discipline. Daily worship
became a vital part of the Jain tradition. includes hymns of praise and prayers,
Numerous images of Tirthankaras in the recitation of sacred formulas and
the sitting and standing postures dat- the names of the Tirthankaras, and idol
ing from the early Common era have worship—bathing the image and making
158 | The Culture of India
offerings to it of flowers, fruit, and rice. the one hand, pacification by forgiving
Shvetambaras also decorate images with and service with wholehearted effort and
clothing and ornaments. A long-standing devotion and, on the other, staying at one
debate within both Jain communities place for the monsoon season. The festi-
concerns the relative value of external val is characterized by fasting, preaching,
acts of worship and internalized acts of and scriptural recitation. On its last day,
mental discipline and meditation. Monks Samvatsari (“Annual”), alms are dis-
and nuns of all sects are prohibited from tributed to the poor, and a Jina image
displays of physical worship. is ceremonially paraded through the
streets. A communal confession is per-
Festivals formed by the laity, and letters are sent
asking for forgiveness and the removal of
Important days in the Jain calendar are all ill feelings about conscious or uncon-
called parvan, and on these days religious scious misdeeds during the past year. The
observances, such as structured periods equivalent Digambara festival is called
of fasting and festivals, take place. The Dashalakshanaparvan (“Observance Day
principal Jain festivals can generally be of the 10 Religious Qualities”) and cen-
connected with the five major events in tres on the public display of an important
the life of each Tirthankara: descent into text, the Tattvartha-sutra.
his mother’s womb, birth, renunciation, On the full-moon day of the month
attainment of omniscience, and final of Karttika (October–November), at the
emancipation. same time that Hindus celebrate Diwali
The Jain calendar includes many fes- (the festival of lights), Jains commemo-
tivals. Among them is the Shvetambara rate the nirvana (final liberation) of
fasting ceremony, oli, which is celebrated Mahavira by lighting lamps. Another
for nine days twice a year (in March–April important Shvetambara ceremony,
and September–October) and which Jnanapancami (literally “Knowledge
corresponds to the mythical celestial wor- Fifth,” where “Fifth” signifies a date),
ship of the images of the Tirthankaras. occurs five days later and is celebrated
The most significant time of the Jain with temple worship and with rever-
ritual year, however, is the four-month ence of the scriptures. The equivalent
period, generally running from late July Digambara festival takes place in May–
to early November, when monks and June. Mahavira Jayanti, the birthday of
nuns abandon the wandering life and Mahavira, is celebrated by both sects in
live in the midst of lay communities. For early April with public processions.
Shvetambaras, the single most impor- The most famous of all Jain festivals,
tant festival, Paryushana, occurs in the Mastakabhisheka (“Head Anointment”),
month of Bhadrapada (August–September). is performed every 12 years at the
Paryushana (“Abiding”) designates, on Digambara sacred complex at Shravana
Other Indigenous Indian Religions and Indian Philosophy | 159
Belgola (“White Lake of the Ascetics”) Sanskrit language and dialects that have
in Karnataka state. In this ceremony, enabled them to hone their religious
the 57-foot- (17-metre-) high statue of debates. For example, all three traditions
Bahubali is anointed from above with a share a notion of karman as the actions
variety of substances (water, milk, flow- of individuals that determine their future
ers, etc.) in the presence of an audience births; yet each has attached unique con-
that can approach one million. notations to the concept. This is also true
with terms such as dharma (often trans-
Pilgrimage lated “duty,” “righteousness,” or “religious
path”), yoga (“ascetic discipline”), and
Pilgrimage, viewed as a particularly yajna (“sacrifice,” or “worship”). This
meritorious activity, is popular among Sanskritic discourse has shaped the reli-
renunciants and laity alike. Places of gious and philosophical speculations,
pilgrimage were created during the medi- as well as the polemics, of each of these
eval period at sites marking the principal traditions.
events in the lives of Tirthankaras, some The same circumstance occurs in the
of which were destroyed during the ritual and literature of each religion. In the
Muslim invasions, which started in ritual sphere, for example, the abhiseka,
the eighth century. Parasnath Hill and or head-anointing ritual, has had great
Rajgir in Bihar state and Shatrunjaya and significance in all three religions. The
Girnar hills on the Kathiawar Peninsula best-known example of this ritual is the
are among such important ancient pil- one performed every 12 to 14 years on the
grimage sites. Other shrines that have statue of Bahubali at the Jain pilgrimage
become pilgrimage destinations are site at Shravana Belgola. The structure
Shravana Belgola in Karnataka state, of this ritual is similar in each religious
Mounts Abu and Kesariaji in Rajasthan context, but it has a unique meaning in
state, and Antariksha Parshvanatha in each tradition. In the literary sphere, each
Akola district of Maharashtra. For those tradition developed an extensive corpus
unable to go on pilgrimage to the most of canonical and commentarial litera-
famous sites, it is possible to worship ture, and each has developed a body of
their depictions in local temples. Small narrative literature. For example, so great
regional networks of shrines are also was the influence of the story of Rama in
regarded as simulacra of the great pil- the classical Hindu Ramayana that the
grimage sites. Buddhists and Jains felt obliged to retell
the story in their own terms. Jain litera-
Jainism and Other Religions ture includes 16 different versions of this
story in Sanskrit and Prakrit.
Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism share Muslim influence on Jainism can
many key concepts derived from the be seen in a number of areas. It has
160 | The Culture of India
been suggested that the concept of birth and death. Many modern scholars
ashatanas—activities that are unsuit- believe that the historical Buddha lived
able or indecent in a temple—reveals a from about 563 to about 483 BC. Many oth-
notion of the sanctity of the temple that ers believe that he lived about 100 years
recalls Muslim barakah (“holiness”) later (from about 448 to 368 BC). At this
more than any traditional Jain attitude. time in India, there was much discontent
The most obvious Islamic influence is in with Brahmanic (Hindu high-caste) sac-
the repudiation of image worship by the rifice and ritual. In northwestern India
Shvetambara Lonkasaha sect. there were ascetics who tried to create
Jain influence at the Mughal court of a more personal and spiritual religious
Akbar is a bright chapter in Jain history. experience than that found in the Vedas
Akbar honoured Hiravijaya Suri, then the (Hindu sacred scriptures). In the litera-
leader of the Shvetambara Tapa Gaccha. ture that grew out of this movement, the
His disciples and other monks gained the Upanishads, a new emphasis on renuncia-
respect of the Mughal emperors Jahangir tion and transcendental knowledge can be
and Shah Jahan and even the Muslim found. Northeastern India, which was less
chauvinist Aurangzeb. Moreover, Akbar influenced by those who had developed
prohibited animal slaughter near impor- the main tenets and practices of the Vedic
tant Jain sites during the Paryushana Hindu faith, became the breeding ground
festival. Jahangir also issued decrees of many new sects. Society in this area
for the protection of Shatrunjaya, and was troubled by the breakdown of tribal
Aurangzeb recognized Jain proprietary unity and the expansion of several petty
rights over Mount Shatrunjaya. Mughal kingdoms. Religiously, this was a time of
painting, influential in different schools doubt, turmoil, and experimentation.
of Indian painting, also influenced Jain A proto-Samkhya group (i.e.,
miniature painting. In this way these one based on the Samkhya school of
ancient religions demonstrated respect Hinduism founded by Kapila) was
for other traditions, which is one of the already well established in the area. New
great strengths of Indian civilization. sects abounded, including various skep-
tics (e.g., Sanjaya Belatthiputta), atomists
Buddhism (e.g., Pakudha Kaccayana), materialists
(e.g., Ajita Kesakambali), and antinomi-
Buddhism arose in northeastern India ans (i.e., those against rules or laws—e.g.,
sometime between the late 6th century Purana Kassapa). The most important
and the early 4th century BC, a period of sects to arise at the time of the Buddha,
great social change and intense religious however, were the Ajivikas (Ajivakas),
activity. There is disagreement among who emphasized the rule of fate (niyati),
scholars about the dates of the Buddha’s and the Jains, who stressed the need to
Other Indigenous Indian Religions and Indian Philosophy | 161
free the soul from matter. Although the involved the practice of Yoga. According
Jains, like the Buddhists, have often been to tradition, the Buddha himself was a
regarded as atheists, their beliefs are yogi—that is, a miracle-working ascetic.
actually more complicated. Unlike early Buddhism, like many of the sects that
Buddhists, both the Ajivikas and the developed in northeastern India at the
Jains believed in the permanence of the time, was constituted by the presence of a
elements that constitute the universe, as charismatic teacher, by the teachings this
well as in the existence of the soul. leader promulgated, and by a community
Despite the bewildering variety of of adherents that was often made up of
religious communities, many shared the renunciant members and lay supporters.
same vocabulary—nirvana (transcendent In the case of Buddhism, this pattern is
freedom), atman (“self” or “soul”), yoga reflected in the Triratna—i.e., the “Three
(“union”), karma (“causality”), Tathagata Jewels” of Buddha (the teacher),
(“one who has come” or “one who has thus dharma (the teaching), and sangha (the
gone”), buddha (“enlightened one”), sam- community).
sara (“eternal recurrence” or “becoming”), In the centuries following the found-
and dhamma (“rule” or “law”)—and most er’s death, Buddhism developed in two
buddha
(fl. c. 6th–4th century BC, Lumbini, near Kapilavastu, Shakya republic, Kosala kingdom [now
in Nepal]—d. Kusinara, Malla republic, Magadha kingdom [now Kasia, India])
Born Siddhartha Gautama, Buddha became the spiritual leader and founder of Buddhism. The
term buddha (Sanskrit: “awakened one”) is a title rather than a name, and Buddhists believe
that there are an infinite number of past and future buddhas. The historical Buddha, referred
to as the Buddha Gautama or simply as the Buddha, was born a prince of the Shakyas, on the
India-Nepal border. He is said to have lived a sheltered life of luxury that was interrupted
when he left the palace and encountered an old man, a sick man, and a corpse. Renouncing
his princely life, he spent six years seeking out teachers and trying various ascetic prac-
tices, including fasting, to gain enlightenment. Unsatisfied with the results, he meditated
beneath the bodhi tree, where, after temptations by Mara, he realized the Four Noble Truths
and achieved enlightenment. At Sarnath he preached his first sermon to his companions,
outlining the Eightfold Path, which offered a middle way between self-indulgence and self-
mortification and led to the liberation of nirvana. The five ascetics who heard this sermon
became not only his first disciples but also arhats who would enter nirvana upon death. His
mission fulfilled, the Buddha died after eating a meal that may accidentally have contained
spoiled pork and escaped the cycle of rebirth; his body was cremated, and stupas were built
over his relics.
162 | The Culture of India
This 2nd-century BC stone statue of Buddha begging for alms is located in the Ajanta caves
in Maharashtra, India. Dinodia Photos/Hulton Archive/Getty Images
164 | The Culture of India
was already associated with the doctrine and for being or nonbeing (samudaya),
of karma (Sanskrit: karman; literally “act” the truth that this craving can be elimi-
or “deed”) in pre-Buddhist India, and it nated (nirodhu), and the truth that this
was accepted by virtually all Buddhist tra- elimination is the result of following a
ditions. According to the doctrine, good methodical way or path (magga).
conduct brings a pleasant and happy
result and creates a tendency toward sim- The Law of Dependent Origination
ilar good acts, while bad conduct brings
an evil result and creates a tendency The Buddha, according to the early
toward similar evil acts. Some karmic acts texts, also discovered the law of depen-
bear fruit in the same life in which they dent origination (paticca-samuppada),
are committed, others in the immediately whereby one condition arises out of
succeeding one, and others in future lives another, which in turn arises out of prior
that are more remote. This furnishes the conditions. Every mode of being presup-
basic context for the moral life. poses another immediately preceding
The acceptance by Buddhists of the mode from which the subsequent mode
teachings of karma and rebirth and the derives, in a chain of causes. According to
concept of the no-self gives rise to a the classical rendering, the 12 links in the
difficult problem: how can rebirth take chain are: ignorance (avijja), karmic pre-
place without a permanent subject to be dispositions (sankharas), consciousness
reborn? Indian non-Buddhist philoso- (vinnana), form and body (nama-rupa),
phers attacked this point in Buddhist the five sense organs and the mind
thought, and many modern scholars (salayatana), contact (phassa), feeling-
have also considered it to be an insol- response (vedana), craving (tanha),
uble problem. The relation between grasping for an object (upadana), action
existences in rebirth has been explained toward life (bhava), birth (jati), and old
by the analogy of fire, which maintains age and death (jaramarana). According
itself unchanged in appearance and to this law, the misery that is bound with
yet is different in every moment—what sensate existence is accounted for by a
may be called the continuity of an ever- methodical chain of causation. Despite
changing identity. a diversity of interpretations, the law of
dependent origination of the various
The Four Noble Truths aspects of becoming remains fundamen-
tally the same in all schools of Buddhism.
Awareness of these fundamental reali-
ties led the Buddha to formulate the Four The Eightfold Path
Noble Truths: the truth of misery (duk-
kha), the truth that misery originates The law of dependent origination, how-
within us from the craving for pleasure ever, raises the question of how one may
166 | The Culture of India
escape the continually renewed cycle heart of the fierce fires of lust, anger, and
of birth, suffering, and death. It is not delusion. But nirvana is not extinction,
enough to know that misery pervades all and indeed the craving for annihilation
existence and to know the way in which or nonexistence was expressly repudi-
life evolves; there must also be a means to ated by the Buddha. Buddhists search for
overcome this process. The means to this salvation, not just nonbeing. Although
end is found in the Eightfold Path, which nirvana is often presented negatively as
is constituted by right views, right aspi- “release from suffering,” it is more accu-
rations, right speech, right conduct, right rate to describe it in a more positive
livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, fashion: as an ultimate goal to be sought
and right meditational attainment. and cherished.
In some early texts the Buddha left
Nirvana unanswered certain questions regarding
the destiny of persons who have reached
The aim of Buddhist practice is to be rid of this ultimate goal. He even refused to
the delusion of ego and thus free oneself speculate as to whether fully purified
from the fetters of this mundane world. saints, after death, continued to exist or
One who is successful in doing so is said ceased to exist. Such questions, he main-
to have overcome the round of rebirths tained, were not relevant to the practice
and to have achieved enlightenment. of the path and could not in any event
This is the final goal in most Buddhist be answered from within the confines
traditions, though in some cases (par- of ordinary human existence. Indeed, he
ticularly though not exclusively in some asserted that any discussion of the nature
Pure Land schools in China and Japan) of nirvana would only distort or misrep-
the attainment of an ultimate paradise resent it. But he also asserted with even
or a heavenly abode is not clearly distin- more insistence that nirvana can be expe-
guished from the attainment of release. rienced—and experienced in the present
The living process is again likened to existence—by those who, knowing the
a fire. Its remedy is the extinction of the Buddhist truth, practice the Buddhist
fire of illusion, passions, and cravings. The path.
Buddha, the Enlightened One, is one who
is no longer kindled or inflamed. Many Expansion of Buddhism
poetic terms are used to describe the
state of the enlightened human being— The Buddha was a charismatic leader
the harbour of refuge, the cool cave, the who founded a distinctive religious com-
place of bliss, the farther shore. The term munity based on his unique teachings.
that has become famous in the West is Some of the members of that community
nirvana, translated as passing away or were, like the Buddha himself, wander-
dying out—that is, the dying out in the ing ascetics. Others were laypersons who
Other Indigenous Indian Religions and Indian Philosophy | 167
venerated the Buddha, followed certain Chandragupta (c. 321–c. 297 BC), patron-
aspects of his teachings, and provided ized Jainism and, according to some
the wandering ascetics with the material traditions, finally became a Jain monk.
support that they required. His grandson, Ashoka, who ruled over
In the centuries following the the greater part of the subcontinent from
Buddha’s death, the story of his life was about 268 to 232 BC, traditionally played
remembered and embellished, his teach- an important role in Buddhist history
ings were preserved and developed, and because of his support of Buddhism dur-
the community that he had established ing his lifetime. He exerted even more
became a significant religious force. Many influence posthumously, through stories
of the wandering ascetics who followed that depicted him as a chakravartin (“a
the Buddha settled in permanent monastic great wheel-rolling monarch”). He is por-
establishments and developed monastic trayed as a paragon of Buddhist kingship
rules. At the same time, the Buddhist laity who accomplished many fabulous feats
came to include important members of of piety and devotion. It is therefore very
the economic and political elite. difficult to distinguish the Ashoka of his-
During its first century of existence, tory from the Ashoka of Buddhist legend
Buddhism spread from its place of ori- and myth.
gin in Magadha and Kosala throughout The first actual Buddhist “texts” that
much of northern India, including the are still extant are inscriptions (including
areas of Mathura and Ujjayani in the west. a number of well-known Ashokan pillars)
According to Buddhist tradition, invita- that Ashoka had written and displayed in
tions to the Council of Vesali (Sanskrit: various places throughout his vast king-
Vaishali), held just over a century after dom. According to these inscriptions,
the Buddha’s death, were sent to monks Ashoka attempted to establish in his realm
living throughout northern and central a “true dhamma” based on the virtues of
India. By the middle of the 3rd century self-control, impartiality, cheerfulness,
BC, Buddhism had gained the favour of truthfulness, and goodness. Although he
a Mauryan king, Ashoka, who had estab- promoted Buddhism, he did not found a
lished an empire that extended from the state church, and he was known for his
Himalayas in the north to almost as far as respect for other religious traditions. He
Sri Lanka in the south. sought to maintain unity in the Buddhist
To the rulers of the republics and monastic community, however, and he
kingdoms arising in northeastern India, promoted an ethic that focused on the lay-
the patronage of newly emerging sects man’s obligations in this world. His aim,
such as Buddhism was one way of as articulated in his edicts, was to create
counterbalancing the political power a religious and social milieu that would
exercised by Brahmans (high-caste enable all “children of the king” to live hap-
Hindus). The first Mauryan emperor, pily in this life and to attain heaven in the
168 | The Culture of India
the Tipitaka (which had taken the form Buddhism Under the Guptas
of written scriptures by the early centu- and Palas
ries of the Common Era), held distinctive
doctrinal positions, and practiced unique By the time of the Gupta dynasty (c. AD
forms of monastic discipline. The tradi- 320–c. 600), Buddhism in India was being
tional number of schools is 18, but the influenced by the revival of Brahmanic
situation was very complicated, and exact religion and the rising tide of bhakti
identifications are hard to make. (a devotional movement that empha-
About the beginning of the sized the intense love of a devotee for a
Common Era, distinctively Mahayana personal god). During this period, for
tendencies began to take shape. It example, some Hindus practiced devo-
should be emphasized, however, that tion to the Buddha, whom they regarded
many Hinayana and Mahayana adher- as an avatar (incarnation) of the Hindu
ents continued to live together in the deity Vishnu, and some Buddhists vener-
same monastic institutions. In the 2nd ated Hindu deities who were an integral
or 3rd century, the Madhyamika school, part of the wider religious context in
which has remained one of the major which they lived.
schools of Mahayana philosophy, was Throughout the Gupta and Pala
established, and many other expres- periods, Hinayana Buddhists remained
sions of Mahayana belief, practice, and a major segment of the Indian Buddhist
communal life appeared. By the begin- community. Their continued cultivation
ning of the Gupta era, the Mahayana had of various aspects of Buddhist teaching
become the most dynamic and creative led to the emergence of the Yogacara
Buddhist tradition in India. school, the second great tradition of
At this time Buddhism also expanded Mahayana philosophy. A third major
beyond the Indian subcontinent. It is Buddhist tradition, the Vajrayana or
most likely that Ashoka sent a diplomatic Esoteric tradition, developed out of the
mission to Sri Lanka and that Buddhism Mahayana school and became a pow-
was established there during his reign. erful and dynamic religious force. The
By the beginning of the Common Era, new form of text associated with this
Buddhism, which had become very strong tradition, the tantras, appeared during
in northwestern India, had followed the the Gupta period, and there are indica-
great trade routes into Central Asia and tions that distinctively Tantric rituals
China. According to later tradition, this began to be employed at this time as
expansion was greatly facilitated by well. It was during the Pala period
Kanishka, a great Kushana king of the (8th–12th centuries), however, that the
1st or 2nd century AD, who ruled over an Vajrayana/Esoteric tradition emerged
area that included portions of northern as the most dynamic component of
India and Central Asia. Indian Buddhist life.
170 | The Culture of India
Also during the Gupta period, there Asian people. In the northeast Xuanzang
emerged a new Buddhist institution, the visited various holy places and studied
Mahavihara (“Great Monastery”), which Yogacara philosophy at Nalanda. After
often functioned as a university. This visiting Assam and southern India, he
institution enjoyed great success dur- returned to China, carrying with him cop-
ing the reign of the Pala kings. The most ies of more than 600 sutras.
famous of these Mahaviharas, located at After the destruction of numerous
Nalanda, became a major centre for the Buddhist monasteries in the 6th cen-
study of Buddhist texts and the refine- tury AD by the Huns, Buddhism revived,
ment of Buddhist thought, particularly especially in the northeast, where it flour-
Mahayana and Vajrayana thought. The ished for many more centuries under
monks at Nalanda also developed a the kings of the Pala dynasty. The kings
curriculum that went far beyond tradi- protected the Mahaviharas, built new
tional Buddhism and included much centres at Odantapuri, near Nalanda, and
Indian scientific and cultural knowledge. established a system of supervision for
In subsequent years other important all such institutions. Under the Palas the
Mahaviharas were established, each with Vajrayana/Esoteric form of Buddhism
its own distinctive emphases and charac- became a major intellectual and religious
teristics. These great Buddhist monastic force. Its adherents introduced important
research and educational institutions innovations into Buddhist doctrine and
exerted a profound religious and cultural symbolism. They also advocated the prac-
influence not only in India but through- tice of new Tantric forms of ritual practice
out many other parts of Asia as well. that were designed both to generate mag-
Although Buddhist institutions ical power and to facilitate more rapid
seemed to be faring well under the Guptas, progress along the path to enlighten-
Chinese pilgrims visiting India between ment. During the reigns of the later Pala
AD 400 and 700 discerned a decline in the kings, contacts with China decreased as
Buddhist community and the beginning Indian Buddhists turned their attention
of the absorption of Indian Buddhism by toward Tibet and Southeast Asia.
Hinduism. Among these pilgrims was
Faxian, who left China in 399, crossed the The Demise of Buddhism
Gobi Desert, visited various holy places in in India
India, and returned to China with numer-
ous Buddhist scriptures and statues. The With the collapse of the Pala dynasty in
most famous of the Chinese travelers, how- the 12th century, Indian Buddhism suf-
ever, was the 7th-century monk Xuanzang. fered yet another setback, from which it
When he arrived in northwestern India, he did not recover. Although small pockets
found “millions of monasteries” reduced of influence remained, the Buddhist pres-
to ruins by the Huns, a nomadic Central ence in India became negligible.
Other Indigenous Indian Religions and Indian Philosophy | 171
Scholars do not know all the factors monasteries had become very wealthy, so
that contributed to Buddhism’s demise in much so that they were able to employ
its homeland. Some have maintained that indentured slaves and paid labourers to
it was so tolerant of other faiths that it was care for the monks and to tend the lands
simply reabsorbed by a revitalized Hindu they owned. Thus, after the Muslim invad-
tradition. This did occur, though Indian ers sacked the Indian monasteries in the
Mahayanists were occasionally hostile 12th and 13th centuries, the Buddhist laity
toward bhakti and toward Hinduism in showed little interest in a resurgence.
general. Another factor, however, was
probably much more important. Indian Contemporary Revival
Buddhism, having become primarily
a monastic movement, seems to have In the 19th century Buddhism was virtu-
lost touch with its lay supporters. Many ally extinct in India. In far eastern Bengal
Prayer flags and pilgrim under the Bo tree at Bodh Gaya, Bihar, India. Milt and Joan Mann/
CameraMann International
172 | The Culture of India
and Assam, a few Buddhists preserved a refugee community, both in India and
tradition that dated back to pre-Muslim around the world, was established in
times, and some of them experienced a Dharmsala, but many Tibetan refugees
Theravada-oriented reform that was ini- settled in other areas of the subcontinent
tiated by a Burmese monk who visited as well. Another very small factor was the
the area in the mid-19th century. By the incorporation of Sikkim—a region with a
end of that century, a very small num- predominantly Buddhist population now
ber of Indian intellectuals had become in the northeastern part of India—into the
interested in Buddhism through Western Republic of India in 1975.
scholarship or through the activities of The most important cause of the
the Theosophical Society, one of whose contemporary revival of Buddhism in
leaders was the American Henry Olcott. India was the mass conversion, in 1956, of
The Sinhalese reformer Anagarika hundreds of thousands of Hindus living
Dharmapala also exerted some influence, primarily in Maharashtra state who had
particularly through his work as one of previously been members of the so-called
the founders of the Mahabodhi Society, Scheduled castes (Dalits; formerly called
which focused its initial efforts on restor- untouchables). This conversion was ini-
ing Buddhist control of the pilgrimage tiated by Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, a
site at Bodh Gaya, the presumed site of leader of the Scheduled castes who was
the Buddha’s enlightenment. also a major figure in the Indian inde-
Beginning in the early 20th cen- pendence movement, a critic of the caste
tury, a few Indian intellectuals became policies of Mahatma Gandhi, a framer
increasingly interested in Buddhism as of India’s constitution, and a member of
a more rational and egalitarian alterna- India’s first independent government. As
tive to Hinduism. Although this interest early as 1935 Ambedkar decided to lead
remained limited to a very tiny segment his people away from Hinduism in favour
of the intellectual elite, a small Buddhist of a religion that did not recognize caste
movement with a broader constituency distinctions. After a delay of more than 20
developed in South India. Even as late years, he determined that Buddhism was
as 1950, however, an official government the appropriate choice. He also decided
census identified fewer than 200,000 that 1956—the year in which Theravada
Buddhists in the country, most of them Buddhists were celebrating the 2,500th
residing in east Bengal and Assam. year of the death of the Buddha—was the
Since 1950 the number of Buddhists appropriate time. A dramatic conversion
in India has increased dramatically. One ceremony, held in Nagpur, was attended
very small factor in this increase was the by hundreds of thousands of people.
flood of Buddhist refugees from Tibet Since 1956 more than three million per-
following the Chinese invasion of that sons (a very conservative estimate) have
country in 1959. The centre of the Tibetan joined the new Buddhist community.
Other Indigenous Indian Religions and Indian Philosophy | 173
Young Indian Buddhist monks play at the main entrance of the Tawang Monastery in
Arunachal Pradesh state in India. Diptendu Dutta/AFP/Getty Images
The Buddhism of Ambedkar’s com- character of the Mahar (the largest of the
munity is based on the teachings found Scheduled castes); and its recognition of
in the ancient Pali texts and has much in Ambedkar himself as a saviour figure who
common with the Theravada Buddhist is often considered to be a bodhisattva
communities of Sri Lanka and Southeast (future buddha). Another distinguishing
Asia. There are important differences characteristic of the Mahar Buddhists
that distinguish the new group, how- is the absence of a strong monastic
ever. They include the community’s community, which has allowed layper-
reliance on Ambedkar’s own interpreta- sons to assume the primary leadership
tions, which are presented in his book roles. During the last several decades,
The Buddha and His Dhamma; the the group has produced its own corpus
community’s emphasis on a mythology of Buddhist songs and many vernacu-
concerning the Buddhist and aristocratic lar books and pamphlets that deal with
174 | The Culture of India
The Hindu deity Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu, mounted on a horse pulling Arjuna, hero of the
epic poem Mahabharata; 17th-century illustration. Photos.com/Jupiterimages
Other Indigenous Indian Religions and Indian Philosophy | 175
assume that moksha is possible, and the presented as well as in the mode in which
“impossibility of moksha” (anirmoksha) it historically develops. Out of the presys-
is regarded as a material fallacy likely to tematic age of the Vedic hymns and the
vitiate a philosophical theory. Upanishads and many diverse philosoph-
In addition to karma, the lack of ical ideas current in the pre-Buddhistic
two other concerns further differenti- era, there emerged with the rise of the
ates Indian philosophical thought from age of the sutras (aphoristic summaries
Western thought in general. Since the of the main points of a system) a neat
time of the Greeks, Western thought has classification of systems (darshanas), a
been concerned with mathematics, and, classification that was never to be contra-
in the Christian Era, with history. Neither dicted and to which no further systems
mathematics nor history has ever raised are added. No new school was founded,
philosophical problems for the Indian. In no new darshana came into existence.
the lists of pramanas, or ways of knowing But this conformism, like conformism
accepted by the different schools, there is to the Vedas, did not check the rise of
none that includes mathematical knowl- independent thinking, new innovations,
edge or historical knowledge. Possibly or original insights. There is, apparently,
connected with their indifference toward an underlying assumption in the Indian
mathematics is the significant fact that tradition that no individual can claim to
Indian philosophers have not developed have seen the truth for the first time and,
formal logic. The theory of the syllogism therefore, that an individual can only
(a valid deductive argument having two explicate, state, and defend in a new form
premises and a conclusion) is, however, a truth that had been seen, stated, and
developed, and much sophistication has defended by countless others before him:
been achieved in logical theory. Indian hence the tradition of expounding one’s
logic offers an instructive example of a thoughts by affiliating oneself to one of
logic of cognitions (jnanani) rather than the darshanas.
of abstract propositions—a logic not sun- If one is to be counted as a great
dered and kept isolated from psychology master (acarya), one has to write a
and epistemology, because it is meant to commentary (bhasya) on the sutras of
be the logic of man’s actual striving to thesutra darshana concerned, or one
know what is true of the world. must comment on one of the bhasyas and
write a tika (subcommentary). The usual
Forms of Argument and order is sutra–bhasya–varttika (collec-
Presentation tion of critical notes)–tika. At any stage,
a person may introduce a new and origi-
There is, in relation to Western thought, nal point of view, but at no stage can he
a striking difference in the manner in claim originality for himself. Not even an
which Indian philosophical thinking is author of the sutras could do that, for he
178 | The Culture of India
was only systematizing the thoughts and the rise of the systems. The myths of
insights of countless predecessors. The creation and dissolution of the universe
development of Indian philosophical persisted in the theistic systems but were
thought has thus been able to combine, transformed into metaphors and models.
in an almost unique manner, conformity With the Nyaya (problem of knowledge)–
to tradition and adventure in thinking. Vaishesika (analysis of nature) systems,
for example, the model of a potter mak-
Roles of Sacred Texts, ing pots determined much philosophical
Mythology, and Theism thinking, as did that of a magician conjur-
ing up tricks in the Advaita (nondualist)
The role of the sacred texts in the growth Vedanta. The nirukta (etymology) of
of Indian philosophy is different in each Yaska, a 5th-century-BC Sanskrit scholar,
of the different systems. In those systems tells of various attempts to interpret diffi-
that may be called adhyatmavidya, or cult Vedic mythologies: the adhidaivata
sciences of spirituality, the sacred texts (pertaining to the deities), the aitihasika
play a much greater role than they do (pertaining to the tradition), the adhi-
in the logical systems (anviksikividya). yajna (pertaining to the sacrifices), and
In the case of the former, Shankara, a the adhyamika (pertaining to the spirit).
leading Advaita Vedanta philosopher Such interpretations apparently pre-
(c. 788–820), perhaps best laid down the vailed in the Upanishads; the myths were
principles: reasoning should be allowed turned into symbols, though some of
freedom only as long as it does not them persisted as models and metaphors.
conflict with the scriptures. In matters The issue of theism vis-à-vis athe-
regarding supersensible reality, reason- ism, in the ordinary senses of the English
ing left to itself cannot deliver certainty, words, played an important role in Indian
for, according to Shankara, every thesis thought. The ancient Indian tradition,
established by reasoning may be coun- however, classified the classical systems
tered by an opposite thesis supported by (darshanas) into orthodox (astika) and
equally strong, if not stronger, reasoning. unorthodox (nastika). Astika does not
The sacred scriptures, embodying as they mean “theistic,” nor does nastika mean
do the results of intuitive experiences of “atheistic.” Panini, a 5th-century-BC
seers, therefore, should be accepted as grammarian, stated that the former is
authoritative, and reasoning should be one who believes in a transcendent world
made subordinate to them. (asti paralokah) and the latter is one who
Whereas the sacred texts thus con- does not believe in it (nasti paralokah).
tinued to exercise some influence on Astika may also mean one who accepts
philosophical thinking, the influence of the authority of the Vedas; nastika then
mythology declined considerably with means one who does not accept that
Other Indigenous Indian Religions and Indian Philosophy | 179
and richer and a negative attitude empha- possibility of knowledge. There were also
sizing asceticism and renunciation; in materialists, the chief of which were the
the great variety of skeptics, naturalists, Ajivikas (deterministic ascetics) and the
determinists, indeterminists, accidental- Lokayatas (the name by which Carvaka
ists, and no-soul theorists that filled the doctrines—denying the authority of
Ganges Plain; in the rise of the hereti- the Vedas and the soul—are generally
cal, unorthodox schools of Jainism and known). Furthermore, there existed the
Buddhism protesting against the Vedic two unorthodox schools of yadrchha-
religion and the Upanis·adic theory of vada (accidentalists) and svabhavavaha
atman; and in the continuing confronta- (naturalists), who rejected the supernatu-
tion, mutually enriching and nourishing, ral. Kapila, the legendary founder of the
that occurred between the Brahmanic Samkhya school, supposedly flourished
(Hindu priestly) and Buddhist logicians, during the 7th century BC. Pre-Mahavira
epistemologists, and dialecticians. The Jaina ideas were already in existence
Indo-Europeans, however, were soon when Mahavira (flourished 6th century
followed by a host of foreign invaders, BC), the founder of Jainism, initiated
Greeks, Shakas and Hunas from Central his reform. Gautama the Buddha (flour-
Asia, Pashtuns, Mongols, and Mughals ished 6th–5th centuries BC) apparently
(Muslims). Both religious thought and was familiar with all of these intellectual
philosophical discussion received con- ideas and was as dissatisfied with them
tinuous challenges and confrontations. as with the Vedic orthodoxy. He sought
The resulting responses have a dialecti- to forge a new path—though not new in
cal character: sometimes new ideas have all respects—that was to assure blessed-
been absorbed and orthodoxy has been ness to man. Orthodoxy, however, sought
modified; sometimes orthodoxy has been to preserve itself in a vast Kalpa- (ritual)
strengthened and codified in order to sutra literature—with three parts: the
be preserved in the face of the dangers Shrauta-, based on shruti (revelation); the
of such confrontation; sometimes, as in Grhya-, based on smrti (tradition); and
the religious life of the Christian Middle the Dharma-, or rules of religious law,
Ages, bold attempts at synthesis of ideas sutras—whereas the philosophers tried to
have been made. Nevertheless, through codify their doctrines in systematic form,
all the vicissitudes of social and cul- leading to the rise of the philosophical
tural life, Brahmanical thought has been sutras. Though the writing of the sutras
able to maintain a fairly strong current of continued over a long period, the sutras of
continuity. most of the various darshanas probably
In the chaotic intellectual climate of were completed between the 6th and 3rd
the pre-Mauryan era, there were skep- centuries BC. Two of the sutras appear to
tics (ajnanikah) who questioned the have been composed in the pre-Maurya
Other Indigenous Indian Religions and Indian Philosophy | 181
period, but after the rise of Buddhism; of yajna (“sacrifice”). Already in the pre-
these works are the Mimamsa-sutras of Christian era, Buddhism had split up
Jaimini (c. 400 BC) and the Vedanta- into several major sects, and the founda-
sutras of Badarayana (c. 500–200 BC). tions for the rise of Mahayana (“Greater
The Maurya period brought, for the Vehicle”) Buddhism had been laid.
first time, a strong centralized state. The
Greeks had been ousted, and a new self- The Logical Period
confidence characterized the beginning
of the period. This seems to have been the The logical period of Indian thought
period in which the epics Mahabharata began with the Kusanas (1st–2nd
and Ramayana were initiated, though centuries). Gautama (author of the
their composition went on through several Nyaya-sutras; probably flourished at the
centuries before they took the forms they beginning of the Christian Era) and his
now have. Manu, a legendary lawgiver, 5th-century commentator Vatsyayana
codified the Dharma-shastra; Kautilya, a established the foundations of the Nyaya
minister of King Chandragupta Maurya, as a school almost exclusively preoccu-
systematized the science of political pied with logical and epistemological
economy (Artha-shastra); and Patanjali, issues. The Madhyamika (“Middle Way”)
an ancient author or authors, composed school of Buddhism—also known as
the Yoga-sutras. Brahmanism tried to the Shunyavada (“Way of Emptiness”)
adjust itself to the new communities school—arose, and the analytical investi-
and cultures that were admitted into its gations of Nagarjuna (c. 200), the great
fold: new gods—or rather, old Vedic gods propounder of Shunyavada (dialectical
that had been rejuvenated—were wor- thinking), reached great heights. Though
shipped; the Hindu trinity of Brahma Buddhist logic in the strict sense of the
(the creator), Vishnu (the preserver), and term had not yet come into being, an
Shiva (the destroyer) came into being; increasingly rigorous logical style of
and the Pashupata (Shaivite), Bhagavata philosophizing developed among the
(Vaishnavite), and the Tantra (esoteric proponents of these schools of thought.
meditative) systems were initiated. The During the reign of the Guptas, there
Bhagavadgita—the most famous work of was a revival of Brahmanism of a gentler
this period—symbolized the spirit of the and more refined form. Vaishnavism of
creative synthesis of the age. A new ideal the Vasudeva cult, centring on the prince-
of karma as opposed to the more ancient god Krishna and advocating renunciation
one of renunciation was emphasized. by action, and Shaivism prospered, along
Orthodox notions were reinterpreted and with Buddhism and Jainism. Both the
given a new symbolic meaning, as, for Mahayana and the Hinayana (“Lesser
example, the Gita does with the notion Vehicle”), or Theravada (“Way of the
182 | The Culture of India
Elders”), schools flourished. The most Buddhism, for all practical purposes, had
notable feature, however, was the rise disappeared from the country. Hinduism
of the Buddhist Yogacara school, of had absorbed Buddhist ideas and prac-
which Asanga (4th century AD) and his tices and reasserted itself, with the
brother Vasubandhu were the great pio- Buddha appearing in Hindu writings as
neers. Toward the end of the 5th century, an incarnation of Vishnu. The Muslim
Dignaga, a Buddhist logician, wrote the conquest created a need for orthodoxy
Pramanasamuccaya (“Compendium of to readjust itself to a new situation. In
the Means of True Knowledge”), a work this period the great works on Hindu law
that laid the foundations of Buddhist logic. were written. Jainism, of all the “unorth-
The greatest names of Indian phi- odox” schools, retained its purity, and
losophy belong to the post-Gupta period great Jaina works, such as Devasuri’s
from the 7th to the 10th century. At that Pramananayatattvalokalamkara (“The
time Buddhism was on the decline and Ornament of the Light of Truth of the
the Tantric cults were rising, a situation Different Points of View Regarding
that led to the development of the tantric the Means of True Knowledge,” 12th
forms of Buddhism. Shaivism was thriving century AD) and Prabhachandra’s
in Kashmir, and Vaishnavism in the south- Prameyakamalamartanda (“The Sun
ern part of India. The great philosophers of the Lotus of the Objects of True
Mimamshakas Kumarila (7th century), Knowledge,” 11th century AD), were
Prabhakara (7th–8th centuries), Mandana written during this period. Under the
Mishra (8th century), Shalikanatha (9th Chola kings (c. 850–1279) and later in the
century), and Parthasarathi Mishra (10th Vijayanagara kingdom (which, along with
century) belong to this age. The greatest Mithilā in the north, remained strong-
Indian philosopher of the period, however, holds of Hinduism until the middle of the
was Shankara. All of these men defended 16th century), Vais·n·avism flourished. The
Brahmanism against the “unorthodox” philosopher Yamunacarya (flourished
schools, especially against the criti- AD 1050) taught the path of prapatti, or
cisms of Buddhism. The debate between complete surrender to God. The philoso-
Brahmanism and Buddhism was contin- phers Ramanuja (11th century), Madhva,
ued, on a logical level, by philosophers of and Nimbarka (c. 12th century) developed
the Nyaya school—Uddyotakara, Vacaspati theistic systems of Vedanta and severely
Mishra, and Udayana (Udayanacarya). criticized Shankara’s Advaita Vedanta.
Toward the end of the 12th century,
The Ultralogical Period creative work of the highest order began
to take place in the fields of logic and
Muslim rule in India had consolidated epistemology in Mithila and Bengal. The
itself by the 11th century, by which time 12th–13th-century philosopher Gangesa’s
Other Indigenous Indian Religions and Indian Philosophy | 183
Tattvacintaman·i (“The Jewel of Thought included both love of God and love of
on the Nature of Things”) laid the foun- humanity.
dations of the school of Navya-Nyaya The British period in Indian history
(“New-Nyaya”). Four great members of was primarily a period of discovery of
this school were Pakshadhara Mishra the ancient tradition (e.g., the two his-
of Mithila, Vasudeva Sarvabhauma tories by Radhakrishnan, scholar and
(16th century), his disciple Raghunatha president of India from 1962 to 1967,
Shiromani (both of Bengal), and and S.N. Dasgupta) and of comparison
Gadadhara Bhattacaryya. and synthesis of Indian philosophy with
Religious life was marked by the rise the philosophical ideas from the West.
of great mystic saints, chief of which Among modern creative thinkers have
are Ramananda, Kabir, Caitanya, and been Mahatma Gandhi, who espoused
Guru Nanak, who emphasized the path new ideas in the fields of social, politi-
of bhakti, or devotion, a wide sense of cal, and educational philosophy; Sri
humanity, freedom of thought, and a Aurobindo, an exponent of a new school
sense of unity of all religions. Somewhat of Vedanta that he calls Integral Advaita;
earlier than these were the great Muslim and K.C. Bhattacharyya, who developed
Sufi (mystic) saints, including Khwāja a phenomenologically oriented philoso-
Mu’in-ud-Din H·asan, who emphasized phy of subjectivity that is conceived as
asceticism and taught a philosophy that freedom from object.
CHAPTER 5
Indian Visual Arts
form the northern boundary, are the lofti- rhetoric is believed to be necessary; the
est of mountains and are conceived to be flavour (rasa) to be expressed in music,
the embodiment of nobility, the abode of dance, sculpture, or painting requires a
immaculate snow, and the symbol of a literary background. Thus all the arts are
cultural ideal. Similarly, the great rivers closely linked together.
such as the Brahmaputra and the Indus The arts were cultivated in South
are regarded as the mothers of their Asia not only as a noble pastime but also
respective regions, assuring prosperity in a spirit of dedication, as an offering to a
through their perennial supply of water. god. Passages in literature refer to princes
The association of lakes and springs studying works of art for possible defects.
with water sprites and sylvan fairies, One inscription that mentions the name
called nagas and yakshas, is common of the sutra-dhara (“architect”) of the
throughout the region. Karkota, the name 8th-century Mallikārjuna temple at
of an early dynasty, itself signifies naga Pattadakal epitomizes the accomplish-
worship in Kashmir. Sculptures of nagas ments and ideals, in both theory and
and yakshas found in widespread sites practice, of the artist.
suggest a common spirit of adoration, Artists traditionally have enjoyed
as do sculptures, paintings, temples, and a high position in South Asian societ-
religious texts that for centuries were pre- ies. Poets, musicians, and dancers held
served within an oral tradition without honoured seats in the royal court. An
losing their immaculate intonation. The inscription mentions the appreciation
same classical dance is seen in sculpture bestowed by Rajendra Chola on a talented
in Gandhara in Pakistan, in Bharhut in dancer, and the architect of the temple at
the north, and in Amaravati in the south. Tiruvorriyur, who was also patronized by
The relation of the various arts to Rajendra, was eulogized for his encyclo-
each other is very close in South Asia, paedic knowledge of architecture and art.
where proficiency in several arts is neces- Nonetheless, the folk arts were closely
sary for specialization in any one. Thus, linked with the elite arts. Tribal group
it is believed that without a good knowl- dances, for example, shared common
edge of dance there can be no proficiency elements with classical art, dance, and
in sculpture, for dance, like painting or music. Among the artistic traditions of
sculpture, is a depiction of all the world. the Indian subcontinent, sculpture in the
For its rhythmic movements and expo- round (citra) is considered the highest
sition of emotion, dance also requires artistic expression of form, and sculpture
musical accompaniments; hence, knowl- in relief (ardhacitra) is next in impor-
edge of musical rhythm is essential. For tance. Painting (citrabhasa, literally “the
the stirring of emotion either in music semblance of sculpture”) ranks third.
or in dance, knowledge of literature and Feeling for volume was so great that the
186 | The Culture of India
to the Islamic period. The political his- At the same time, Indian art stresses the
tory of India is itself quite vague, and plasticity of forms; sculpture is generally
the areas in possession of a dynasty at characterized by emphatic mass and vol-
various points in its history are even less ume; architecture is often sculpture on a
susceptible to precise definition. For all colossal scale; and the elements of paint-
these reasons, the classification of Indian ing, particularly of the early period, are
art adopted here is not based on dynas- modelled by line and colour.
ties, for such a division has little meaning.
Nevertheless, names of certain dynasties Indian and Foreign Art
are used, for these have passed into com-
mon usage. When this is done, however, Thanks to its geographical situation, the
the name must be understood as little Indian subcontinent has been constantly
more than a convenient way of labelling fed by artistic traditions emanating from
a particular period. West and Central Asia. The Indian art-
ist has shown a remarkable capacity for
The Materials of Indian Art accepting these foreign influences natu-
rally and assimilating and transforming
Indian art employs various materials, them to accord with the nature of his own
such as wood, brick, clay, stone, and style. The process occurred frequently:
metal. Most wooden monuments of the in the Maurya period; in the first two
early period have perished but have centuries AD, when the Kushan dynasty
been imitated in stone. Clay and brick attained imperial supremacy in the north;
were also abundantly used; but, particu- and at a much later period, in the 16th
larly in later times, the favoured material century, when the Mughals patronized a
seems to have been stone, in the dress- new school of architecture and painting.
ing (facing and smoothing) and carving
of which the Indian artist attained great Indian Art and Religion
excellence. The material may have influ-
enced the form somewhat, but essentially Indian art is religious inasmuch as it is
Indian art tends to impose the form on largely dedicated to the service of one of
the material. Thus, materials are gener- several great religions. It may be didactic
ally regarded as interchangeable: wooden or edificatory as is the relief sculpture of
and clay forms are imitated in stone, the last two centuries BC through the first
and stone is imitated in bronze, and in two centuries AD; or, by representing the
turn stone sculpture assumes qualities divinity in symbolic form (whether archi-
appropriate to metal. It is as though the tectural or figural), its purpose may be to
nature of the material presented a chal- induce contemplation and thereby put
lenge that had to be met and overcome. the worshipper in communication with
Indian Visual Arts | 189
the divine. Not all Indian art, however, The Artist and Patron
is purely religious, and some of it is only
nominally so. There were periods when Works of art in India were produced by art-
humanistic currents flowed strongly ists at the behest of a patron, who might
under the guise of edificatory or contem- commission an object to worship for spiri-
plative imagery, the art inspired by and tual or material ends, in fulfillment of a vow,
delighting in the life of this world. for the discharge of virtues enjoined by
Although Indian art is religious, scripture, or even for personal glory. Once
there is no such thing as a sectarian the artist received his commission, he fash-
Hindu or Buddhist art, for style is a func- ioned the work of art according to his skill,
tion of time and place and not of religion. gained by apprenticeship, and the written
Thus it is not strictly correct to speak canons of his art, which possessed a holy
of Hindu or Buddhist art, but, rather, of character. There were prescribed rules for
Indian art that happens to render Hindu proportionate measurement, iconography,
or Buddhist themes. For example, an and the like, often with a symbolic signifi-
image of Vishnu and an image of Buddha cance. This is not to say that the individual
of the same period are stylistically the artist was invariably aware of the symbolic
same, religion having little to do with the meaning of the prescribed standards,
mode of artistic expression. Nor should based as these were on complex meta-
this be surprising in view of the fact that physical and theological considerations;
the artists belonged to nondenomina- but the symbolism nevertheless formed
tional guilds, ready to lend their services part of the fabric of his work, ready to add
to any patron, whether Hindu, Buddhist, an extra dimension of meaning to the ini-
or Jaina. tiated and knowledgeable spectator.
The religious nature of Indian art In these conditions it is not surpris-
accounts to some extent for its essentially ing that the artist as a person is for the
symbolic and abstract nature. It scrupu- most part anonymous, very few names
lously avoids illusionistic effects, evoked of artists having survived. It was the skill
by imitation of the physical and ephem- with which the work of art was made to
eral world of the senses; instead, objects conform to established ideals, rather than
are made in imitation of ideal, divine pro- the artist who possessed the skill, that
totypes, whose source is the inner world held the place of first importance.
of the mind. This attitude may account
for the relative absence of portraiture The Appreciation
and for the fact that, even when it is of Indian Art
attempted, the emphasis is on the ideal
person behind the human lineaments According to Indian aesthetic theory, a
rather than on the physical likeness. work of art possesses distinct “flavours”
190 | The Culture of India
(rasa), the “tasting” of which consti- the 10th century onward, thus cannot be
tutes the aesthetic experience. Because studied in isolation but must be consid-
the work of art operates at various lev- ered as part of a larger entity to the total
els, granting to the spectator what he is effect of which it contributes and from
capable of receiving by virtue of his intel- which it in turn gains meaning.
lectual and emotional preparation, the The subject matter of Indian sculpture
appreciation of the beauty of form and is almost invariably religious. This does
line is considered an appropriate activity not mean that it cannot be understood
of the educated and cultured man. The as a work of art apart from its religious
supreme aesthetic experience, however, significance; but, at the same time, an
is believed to be much deeper and cog- understanding of its motivation and
nate to the experience of the Godhead. intent enriches one’s appreciation. Much
From this point of view, the work of art of what is represented is the recounting
is in a sense irrelevant and unnecessary of legend and myth, particularly in the
for a person at a high level of spiritual two centuries BC, when narrative relief
progress; and for the devout layman its was much in vogue. The work at this
excellence is measured by its efficacy in time, didactic and edificatory in intent,
promoting spiritual development. generally expresses itself in forms that
are surprisingly earthy and sensuous.
Indian Sculpture The anthropomorphic representation of
the Buddha is avoided, and the subsid-
On the Indian subcontinent, sculpture iary gods and goddesses are very much
seems to have been the favoured medium creatures of this earth. The Buddha image
of artistic expression. Even architecture formulated around the 1st century AD is
and the little painting that has survived not what one would expect of the medita-
from the early periods partake of the tive, compassionate, Master of the Law; he
nature of sculpture. Particularly is this is presented rather as an energetic, earthy
true of rock-cut architecture, which is being radiating strength and power.
often little more than sculpture on a The foundations of traditional Hindu
colossal scale. Structural buildings are imagery were also laid about the same
also profusely adorned with sculpture time that the Buddha image was first
that is often inseparable from it. The close formulated: images with several arms,
relationship between architecture and and sometimes heads, representing the
sculpture has to be taken into account Indian mind’s attempt to define visually
when considering individual works that, the infiniteness of divinity. In subsequent
even if complete in themselves, are also periods the image with many arms became
fragments belonging to a larger con- a commonplace in Hindu, Buddhist, and
text. Indian sculpture, particularly from Jaina iconography. Although the various
Indian Visual Arts | 191
pantheons expanded, they continued to years, but it is nevertheless clear that the
share features of common derivation, distinguishing quality of Indian sculp-
expressing the belief that beyond the ture is its emphatic plasticity so obvious
phenomenal multiplicity of forms lay the in Sanchi I and Mathura sculpture from
unity of the Godhead. the 1st–3rd century AD. Forms are seen
In addition to the major religions, as swelling from within in response to the
there has always existed in India a power of an inner life, the sculptor’s func-
substratum of folk beliefs and cults tion being to make these more manifest.
dedicated to the worship of powers that At the same time a vision of form that
preside over the operation of the life pro- is carved from without rather than mod-
cesses of nature. These fertility cults, best elled from within is also present, as for
expressed in the worship of the male and example at Bharhut. The history of much
female divinities yakshas and yakshis, of Indian sculpture, marked by periods
played an important part in the develop- of high achievement bursting with cre-
ment of Indian art. Among the perennial ativity followed by periods in which the
motifs that spring from the cults, those potentialities so postulated are gradually
expressing life and abundance—such as worked out, is essentially the interaction
the lotus, the pot overflowing with veg- of these two dominant tendencies.
etation, water, or the like, the tree, the
amorous couple, and above all the yak- Indus Valley Civilization
shas and yakshis themselves—are most (c. 2500–1800 BC)
significant. The images of these divini-
ties, in particular, are the source of a Sculpture found in excavated cities
great deal of artistic imagery and played consists of small pieces, generally terra-
a leading part in the development of cotta objects, soapstone, or steatite, seals
iconographic types such as the images of carved for the most part with animals,
the Buddha, the goddess Shri, and other and a few statuettes of stone and bronze.
divinities. The maternal as the ideal of The terra-cotta figurines are summarily
female beauty, which is manifested artis- modelled and provided with elaborate
tically in the emphasis on full breasts jewelry, which was fashioned separately
and wide hips, can be traced to the same and applied to the surface of the piece.
beliefs. The very richness and exuber- Most of the work is simple, but a small
ance of much Indian art is an expression group of human heads with horns are
of the view of life that equates beauty very sensitively modelled. Animal figures
with abundance. are common, particularly bulls, which are
It is difficult to generalize about often carved with a sure understanding
the style of a sculptural tradition that of their bulky, massive form. This plas-
extended over a period of almost 5,000 tic quality is also found in the humped
192 | The Culture of India
Indian Visual Arts | 193
bulls engraved on steatite seals, where composed of trefoil motifs. The tight,
the modelling is more refined and sensi- compressed shape of the body and the
tive. A humpless beast, generally called expansive modelling of the head dem-
a “unicorn,” is another favourite animal, onstrate that the two aspects of form
but it is frequently quite stylized. In addi- revealed in Indus Valley art were not
tion to bisons, elephants, rhinoceroses, compartmentalized but interacted with
and tigers, seals are carved with images each other. This can also be seen in the
of apparent religious significance, often interplay of modelled form and textured
strongly pictographic. surface frequently found in works pro-
The terra-cotta sculpture and the duced by this civilization.
seals both show two clear and distinct
stylistic trends, one plastic and sensu- Maurya Period
ous, the other linear and abstract. These (c. 3rd Century BC)
appear during the same period and are
also seen in the small group of stone and Little is known of Indian art in the period
bronze sculptures that date from this between the Indus Valley civilization and
period (National Museum, New Delhi). the reign of the Maurya emperor Ashoka.
Of extraordinarily full and refined model- When sculpture again began to be found,
ling is a fragmentary torso from Harappa, it was remarkable for its maturity, seem-
barely four inches (10 centimetres) high ingly fully formed at birth. The most
but of imposing monumentality; the famous examples are great circular stone
same feeling for massive form is pres- pillars, products of Ashoka’s imperial
ent in a lesser known bronze buffalo. A workshop, found over an area stretching
jaunty bronze dancing girl with head from the neighbourhood of Delhi to Bihar.
tilted upward (about 4½ inches [11 cen- Made of fine-grained sandstone quarried
timetres] high), from Mohenjo-daro, and at Chunar near Varanasi (Benares), the
a headless figure of a male dancer from monolithic shafts taper gently toward the
Harappa, shoulders twisted in a circu- top. They are without a base and, in the
lar movement, clearly demonstrate, in better preserved examples, are capped
the attenuated and wiry tension of their by campaniform lotus capitals support-
forms, the second component of Indus ing an animal emblem. The entire pillar
Valley art. Of great interest is a famous was carefully burnished to a bright lustre
bearded figure from Mohenjo-daro wear- commonly called the “Maurya polish.”
ing a robe decorated with a pattern The most famous of these monuments
This terra-cotta figurine found at an Indus Valley excavation, shows jewelry that was made
separately and attached to the sculpture, a typical feature of Indus Valley civilization art.
Larry Burrows/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images
194 | The Culture of India
the rather formal, heraldic lions could Patna (ancient Pataliputra, the Maurya
not be more complete, the sculpture capital), two of which are representations
clearly testifies to the simultaneous exis- of yakshas, the popular male divinities
tence of a style different from that of the associated with cults of fertility, and the
lion capitals. The style might very well third, found at Didarganj (a section of
represent the indigenous tradition of Patna), a representation of a yakshi, or
plastic form that appears consistently female divinity. Stylistically the images
in later art and also in some of the ani- are very similar. The standing yakshas
mal capitals made in the imperial atelier, (Indian Museum, Kolkata) are powerful
notably the damaged elephant that once creatures; the ponderous weight of their
crowned the pillar at Sankisa and, above bodies, together with a certain refined
all, the splendid bull from Rampurva. appreciation of the soft flesh, is admi-
In this great work of art, the two oppos- rably rendered. The Didarganj yakshi
ing concepts of form merge in a work of (Patna Museum), a masterpiece, displays
harmonious power. The pronounced nat- the Indian ideal of female beauty, the
uralism comes from the same source as heavy hips and full breasts strongly
do the lions, but the tense line and hard emphasizing the maternal aspect. In a
modelling yield to a form that wells from nude torso discovered at Lopanipur, the
within and at the same time is given sta- sophisticated and sensitive treatment
bility and strength by a vision imposed of the surfaces and the gentle blending
from without. planes that avoid all harsh accents pro-
The sudden appearance of Maurya art duce a work of much refinement.
with seemingly no tradition behind it has Small stone discs (also called ring
led to speculation that it was the creation stones because several of them are per-
of foreign artists, either Achaemenian or forated in the centre), found from Taxila
Hellenistic. Persian influence, particu- to Patna, are clearly connected with the
larly in the lotus capitals and the figures cult of a nude mother goddess. They
of lions can hardly be denied, but what is represent Maurya sculpture on a smaller
remarkable is the drastic reinterpretation and more intimate scale but character-
of alien forms by Indian artists. This is a ized by the same refined and exquisite
process that is repeatedly seen in the his- workmanship. They are executed in bas-
tory of Indian art. relief, which became the favourite form of
Besides the animal sculpture, some sculpture in the subsequent period.
human figures, more or less life size, can The terra-cotta art of the Maurya
also be assigned to the Maurya period, period is best represented by a substan-
though scholarly opinion is by no means tial group of figurines, modelled for the
unanimous on the point. Among the most most part, the clay sculptor performing
important are three images discovered at work in his medium at the same level
196 | The Culture of India
as the artist working in stone. Patna has those of Bhaja, Pitalkhora, and Karli. In
yielded a large number of such works, the southeast, the important school of
but examples are found throughout the Andhradesha flourished in the Krishna
Gangetic Plain. The clothing and jewelry River Valley at Amaravati, Jaggayyapeta,
on the figurines are heavy and elaborate, and associated sites; and in eastern India,
the modelling, particularly of the head, is what is now the modern state of Orissa,
sensitive, and the expression is often one made its contribution in the rock-cut
of great charm and refinement. There sculptures at Udayagiri-Khandagiri. The
are also more archaic examples, distin- distinctive schools, though spread over a
guished by flat bodies, enormous hips, subcontinent, were not isolated from each
and modelled heads and breasts. other. The contacts fostered by a flourish-
ing trade and by the constant movement
Second and First of pilgrims were always very close, and it
Centuries BC was never long before developments in
one part of India were echoed in another.
The Maurya empire collapsed in the Judging from extant remains, artists
early years of the 2nd century BC, and of the earlier period (c. 3rd century BC)
with it passed the art with which it was preferred figures carved in the round,
intimately related. The sculpture that is relief sculpture being quantitatively
found throughout India from the middle quite insignificant. By contrast, it was
of the 2nd century BC is startlingly differ- sculpture in low relief that was favoured
ent, but the process by which this change in the first two centuries BC; the earlier
took place in a relatively short period tradition was not quite forgotten, but fig-
of time is not fully understood. Several ures carved in the round are relatively
schools, sharing common features but few. Although there is no stylistic differ-
nevertheless possessing distinct indi- ence, relief sculpture is here considered
vidual characteristics, are known to first according to the various regional
have existed. The history of the schools schools, and sculpture in the round is
of northern India is somewhat obscure, treated separately.
largely due to the great destruction
wrought in the Gangetic heartland; but Relief Sculpture of Northern
there appears to have flourished there and Central India
and in adjacent areas a school of great
importance represented by the remains Among the most important, and perhaps
discovered at Bharhut, Sanchi, Mathura, the earliest, remains in northern India are
and Bodh Gaya. Western India had its reliefs from the great stupa at Bharhut,
own school, as revealed in the sculptures dating approximately to the middle of the
decorating the cave temples, notably 2nd century BC. The work, suggesting a
Indian Visual Arts | 197
style imitating wooden sculpture, is char- confined within its own space. The faces
acterized by essentially cubical forms, are masklike, without trace of emotion,
flat planes that meet at sharp angles, and lending a solemn and hieratic quality to
very elaborate and precisely detailed their expression. Trapped between the
ornamentation of surfaces. Most of the background and a frontal plane beyond
sculpture was confined to the railing of which they are not allowed to project, the
the stupa. Some of the supporting posts figures are in a sense strictly two-dimen-
bear large image of yakshas and yakshis of sional, more so than in any other style of
popular religion, now clearly pressed into Indian sculpture. Often, however—par-
the service of Buddhism, while most of ticularly in the treatment of animals—the
the others are decorated with medallions artist is more relaxed, giving glimpses of
in the centre and crescent-shaped motifs, intimate observation and a natural ren-
or lunates, at the top and bottom, all filled dering that anticipates the direction of
with lotus motifs. Some medallions con- future development. Like the posts, the
tain amorous couples, the overflowing top part, or coping, of the stone rail is also
pot, the goddess Śrī standing on lotuses carved on both faces; on one of them is a
while being ceremonially bathed by ele- continuous creeper bearing lotus flowers,
phants and other symbols of abundance; leaves, and buds; on the other, again the
still others contain the earliest illustra- winding stem of a creeper, but bearing
tions of events in the Buddha’s life and of other good things of life—such as clothes,
narratives of his former incarnations as jewelry, and fruits—and also scenes illus-
related in the Jataka tales (a collection of trating Jataka stories.
tales about the Buddha). Although com- Bharhut is an extremely important
positions are crowded, great economy of monument inasmuch as it seems to mark
expression is evident because the artist a new beginning after the refined and
confines himself to the representation naturalistic art of the Maurya empire.
of essentials. Figures are often carved in The sophistication, in spite of the archaic,
horizontal rows, sometimes asymmetri- hieratic manner, would indicate that a
cally, adapting themselves awkwardly considerable body of sculptural tradition,
to the circular space of the medallion. particularly in wood, preceded it; but of
Continuous narrative, in which events this no traces have survived. Be that as it
succeeding in time are shown in the same may, Bharhut states for the first time, and
space, is often resorted to—the first occur- at some length, themes and motifs that
rence of what was to become a favourite would henceforth remain a part of Indian
narrative technique. There is no attempt sculpture.
at establishing any interrelationship, psy- Stray finds of sculpture at Mathura
chological or compositional, between the and other sites in modern Uttar Pradesh
various figures, each of which is strictly indicate that the Bharhut style was
198 | The Culture of India
spread over a large part of northern India, movement, and a keen appreciation for
particularly the region roughly between the forms of nature, all of which endow
that city and Varanasi and Bodh Gaya the sculpture with a naïve and sensuous
in the east. A closely related style is also beauty unparalleled in Indian art.
found at Sanchi in eastern Malava, where Departures from the Bharhut style
a representative example is the sculp- are particularly striking in the narra-
ture of the railing of Stupa II. Although tive reliefs. Their greater depth, taken
the themes and motifs found at Bharhut together with their crowded composi-
occur here, narrative representations are tion, results in the background, visible at
all but absent. The style is almost identi- Bharhut, being submerged in shadow.
cal; the stiff and rigid contours are a little The figures, in all their richness and
softer, but both the scale and richness of abundance, flow out from the dark
Bharhut are missing. ground, secured in place by the frame
It is the sculpture of the four gate- of the panels. The Bharhut angular sil-
ways (toranas) of the Great Stupa (Stupa houette and the rigid, severe outline of
I) at Sanchi, however, that is the principal the body yields at Sanchi to a gently
glory of that site, carrying the promise of swelling plasticity, animated by a soft,
the Bharhut style to its fulfillment. The breathing quality that molds the con-
toranas, four in number, were attached tours without strain or tension. There is
to the plain railing around the middle a pronounced concern with the organi-
of the 1st century BC. They consist of zation of composition, and the narration
square posts with capitals supporting a is often leisurely and discursive; the art-
triple architrave, or molded band, with ist does not just tell the basic story but
voluted (turned in the shape of a spiral, also lingers over the details, amplifying
scroll-shaped ornament) ends and a top them to give a vivid picture of everyday
crowned with Buddhist symbols. Bracket life. The emotional monotone of Bharhut
figures, in the form of yakshis, serve as survives in some Sanchi sculptures,
additional supports. All parts of these but in others it is superseded by joy-
gates, strongly reminiscent of wooden ous faces and the emotional impact of
construction, are covered from top to bot- vivid gesture and movement. Dejection
tom with the most exquisite sculpture. is written large on the faces of the sol-
Subjects and motifs found at Bharhut are diers of Māra’s army, who had tried to
also found here, the same profusely flow- disturb the Buddha’s meditation, as they
ering lotus stem and associated motifs, stagger away from the scene of defeat,
the same compositions with figures basi- and the sensuousness of the amorous
cally arranged in horizontal rows, the scenes is successfully evoked by the ten-
same love for clear detail; but to all of der and intimate gestures of the couples.
these are added a truly voluminous sense No longer transfixed in their own space,
of form, a smoother and more energetic they turn to look at each other lovingly,
Indian Visual Arts | 199
This detail shows a yakshi (a benevolent female spirit) on the East Gate to the Great Stupa in
Sanchi, India. Eliot Elisofon/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images
200 | The Culture of India
responding to each other with a deeply cling, but the style is remarkably differ-
felt understanding. ent. The modelling shows a concern for
Long and elaborate bas-reliefs carved the charms of the body, stressing the tac-
on the architraves of the toranas are tile nature of its flesh. The heavy jewelry
the summit of the Sanchi sculptor’s art. and clothing that conceal the body are
Among the finest are representations drastically reduced, revealing its nudity.
of the wars for the relics, the defeat of The soft, melting sensuousness of the
Mara, the Vishvantara Jataka, and the female form is so greatly emphasized that
Shaddanta Jataka. The compositions the belly and the folds of flesh at the waist
are rich and crowded with figures, and are almost flabby, redeemed only by the
are arranged with great skill. Particularly smooth, firm breasts and the tender arms
striking is the masterly handling of ani- and limbs.
mals, notably the elephant, whose fleshy By comparison, reliefs adorning the
body and graceful movement are cap- railing around the Mahabodhi temple at
tured unerringly. Deer, water buffaloes, Bodh Gaya (of about the same date or a
bulls, monkeys—all of the beasts and little earlier) are in a somewhat impover-
birds of the forests—are rendered with a ished idiom, lacking the rich proliferation
sense of intimacy indicating the artist’s both of Bharhut and Sanchi. The posts
sense of the fellowship of man and animal have the usual medallions, lunates filled
in the world of nature. The lush Indian with lotuses, and reliefs depicting the
landscape is often carved with ornamen- familiar scenes of Buddhist myth and
tal trees, waterfalls, pools, mountains, and legend. The artistry of Bodh Gaya, how-
rivers. The Sanchi sculptor also shows ever, is of a lower level of achievement
a marked preference for architectural than that at either Bharhut or Sanchi: the
settings, filling his compositions with relief is deeper than that at Bharhut but
numerous buildings that often provide shallower than that at the Great Stupa of
the spatial context for the action. Entire Sanchi; and crowded compositions are
cities, with surrounding walls, elaborate lacking, as are the clear and precise orna-
gate houses, and palatial mansions, are ment and the rich floral motifs. The Bodh
depicted. Depth is achieved by rendering Gaya sculptor, however, though abbre-
side views, and multiple perspective con- viating even further the iconography of
tinues to be the rule. Bharhut, breaks up, as does the Sanchi
The several large images of yakshis sculptor, the spatial isolation that so
serving as brackets supporting the low- uncompromisingly separated each indi-
ermost architraves of the toranas are vidual figure at that site.
unique achievements. Like the same The great school of Mathura, also,
goddesses at Bharhut, they are shown seems to have come into existence about
in association with a tree to which they the 2nd century BC, though its period
Indian Visual Arts | 201
of greatest activity falls in the first two marble rather than the sandstone invari-
centuries AD. The city was repeatedly ably used in the north.
sacked in the course of the centuries, The style of the Andhradesha school
which may account for the paucity of developed in a manner consistent with
materials, but enough has been dis- other regions of India, becoming more
covered to reveal that the style, in its voluminous and shedding the early rigid-
early stages, was very similar to that ity fairly rapidly. A group of sculptures at
of Bharhut, characterized by flat two- Amaravati are characterized by the same
dimensional sculpture decorated with qualities that distinguish the work at the
abundant and precise ornament. Several Great Stupa of Sanchi: full and lissome
fragments discovered at the site show forms, modelling that emphasizes mass
the gradual stages by which this style and weight, and sensuously rendered
evolved, leading to the sculpture of the surfaces.
Great Stupa at Sanchi on the one hand
and to Bodh Gaya on the other. Relief Sculpture of Western India
spreading forms of Bhaja and in the fine well as the figure of a lover blissfully
striations used in depicting ornaments drunk on wine offered to him by his
and pleated cloth, techniques natural and beloved. These features are also found in
appropriate to the fashioning of wet clay. the later sculpture of the Great Stupa at
The fact that there are some similarities Sanchi and, to a more pronounced extent,
to the Bharhut style—the stilted postures in the sculpture of the Mathura school of
of the figures and the flat contours of the the 1st centuries AD—for example, in the
body, for example—indicates that the happily smiling yakshis from Bhutesar.
beginnings of the western Indian school The cave temple at Kondane has,
would also have to be placed about the above the entrance hall, four beautiful
middle of the 2nd century BC. panels depicting pairs of dancers. The
The next major group of sculptures forms retain the robust and full model-
in western India have been found at ling of the more developed sculpture at
Pitalkhora. The colossal plinth of a mon- Pitalkhora, but to this is added an ease
astery decorated with a row of elephants, of movement and considerable rhythmic
the large figures of the door guardians, grace. Traces of the terra-cotta tradition
and several fragments recovered during are now totally absent; nor do they occur
the course of excavations are among the in the next phase, best represented by a
more important remains. A great propor- group of sculptures found in the rock-
tion of the work represents an advance cut temples and monasteries at Bedsa
over the style of Bhaja, though features and Nasik and in the caitya, or temple
derived from terra-cotta sculpture con- proper, at Karli. Sculpture at all these
tinue to be found: the figures are carved sites shows many affinities to the Great
in greater depth and volume, but the tex- Stupa at Sanchi and should be approxi-
ture of the drapery, the soft contours of mately contemporary or a little earlier.
the body, and the high relief of the jewelry, Easily the most outstanding achieve-
which sometimes gives the impression ments of this region and period, and for
of having been fashioned separately that matter one of the greatest achieve-
and then applied, testify to the continu- ments of the Indian sculptor, are the
ing strength of the terra-cotta tradition. large panels, depicting amorous couples,
Although the hard line and sharp cutting located in the entrance porch of the Karli
of some sculpture is reminiscent of the caitya. Here the promise of early work
earlier, wood-carving tradition as seen achieves its fulfillment, the full weighty
at Bharhut, the forms are more appropri- forms imbued with a warm, joyous life
ate to the stone medium. Moreover, the and a free, assured movement. The
expression is more explicit; and for the resemblance to work at the Great Stupa
first time, both gently smiling and boldly of Sanchi is obvious, though these figures
laughing figures of yakshas appear, as at Karli are on a much larger scale and
Indian Visual Arts | 203
the two hands are broken and the head is The widespread nature of the cult is
considerably damaged, it is an image of evidenced by the occurrence of yaksha
great strength. Its squat neck, its head set images throughout India. Fragments in
close to the body, which tends toward cor- the round (not to speak of the relief rep-
pulence, its swelling belly restrained by a resentations in a Buddhist context) of the
flat band, and a broad chest adorned with 2nd to 1st centuries BC have been found
necklaces—all of these features contrib- from Madhyadesha, Orissa, Rajasthan,
ute to an image turgid with earthy power. Andhradesha, and Maharashtra. At
The back is flat and cursively finished, so Pitalkhora there is an exceptionally fine
that the figure has the appearance more image of a yaksha conceived as a pot-
of a bifacial relief than of an image carved bellied dwarf carrying a shallow bowl
in the round. Although the forms retain on his head; the features, with a gently
some of the cubical modelling of Bharhut, laughing mouth, are suffused with good
the swelling limbs and torso have a mas- humour. Similar yakshas, employed as
sive weightiness that makes the image an atlantes (male figures used as supporting
appropriate representation of a divinity elements), are also found on the western
that presides over the productive pro- gateway of the Great Stupa at Sanchi and
cesses of nature and endows plenty and at other sites, notably Sarnath.
abundance on his worshippers. The latest in the series of cult images
The Mathura region seems to have is the image of the Yaksha Manibhadra,
been an important centre of yaksha wor- from Pawaya (Gwalior Museum). The
ship, for several images, most of them sculpture is at present headless, but the
fragmentary, have been discovered there. rest of the body is well preserved. The
Some images have also been found from right hand holds a fly whisk that flares
the ancient city of Vidisha (Vidisha over the shoulder; the modelling of the
Museum), one of which is even larger legs and torso is sensitive, and the folds
than the Parkham example and is in a bet- of the garment wrapped around the body
ter state of preservation. The god holds a are full and voluminous, recalling the
bag in one hand (the other was held below style of sculpture at Sanchi.
the chest), and the hair is tied in a large The terra-cotta sculpture of the
top knot over the forehead. The image is period consists mainly of relief plaques
accompanied by a female consort (yak- made from molds found at numerous
shi), wide-hipped and full-breasted, who sites in northern India. These generally
also emphasizes and personifies the pow- depict popular divinities; a richly dressed
ers of fertility. female figure loaded with profuse
Bust of a goddess, c. 9th century, from the fort at Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India. P. Chandra
206 | The Culture of India
features seen in earlier art but now much striving for diverse and varied effects of
more emphatically stylized. The bodies of posture, movement, expression, and even
the animals also begin to be overpowered dress and ornament that brings about
by vegetal forms, the tails, for example, vital changes in the nature of Indian
terminating in foliate tips; in a later age, sculpture. A remarkable group of rail-
this tendency results in the almost total ing posts decorated with yakshi images,
disintegration of animal shapes under which were recovered from Bhutesar near
the pressure of the floral. Mathura (Archaeological Museum), rep-
It is not to these bas-reliefs, however, resent an even more refined achievement
that one turns for the most delightful cre- than the Kankali Tila figures. The heavy
ations of the Mathura school (for they are proportions, in spite of the full breasts
in fact the last vestiges of a style rapidly and the wide hips, have been overcome;
passing out of favour) but to the large the happy faces express carefree joy, and
number of railing pillars usually carved the postures of the body are so alive with
with representation of yakshis engaged rhythm as to give the impression of a
in playful and enticing activities such as dancing figure.
plucking blossoms from trees or leaning Mathura, during this period, was
on its branches, dancing, bathing under ruled by the Kushan dynasty. A group
a waterfall, and adorning themselves. of portrait sculptures of these rulers
Among the most beautiful of these is a (Archaeological Museum), recovered
group that was recovered from Kankali from a village called Māt in the environs
Tila and now in the State Museum at of Mathura, gives an interesting glimpse
Lucknow. The modelling of the figures is of the foreign influences entering India
generally heavy, the soft, plump bodies at the time. One of them (unfortunately
suffused with a slow, languorous move- lacking the head) represents the emperor
ment. What is important, however, is the Kaniska wearing heavy boots, a tunic,
emotion, which is no longer expressed and a coat, and leaning on a mace. The
in the face alone but in the whole atti- image is quite different not only in dress
tude of the body. The pensive mood of but also in style from other contemporary
a woman holding a lamp, for instance, works, being essentially linear, with the
is evoked not only by the serene fea- forms entirely set into the surface. The
tures of the face but by the gentle sway surfaces have little ornamentation and
of the relaxed body. Present throughout are marked by extreme simplicity; they
is a fresh movement of life, a marked are also uncompromisingly stiff and rigid.
Mathura is famed for its Buddhist-influenced art. This bas-relief detail comes from a temple
in Mathura. Brand X Pictures/Dinodia Photos/Getty Images
210 | The Culture of India
The origins of the Gandhara style are compositions range from simple hori-
ultimately Greco-Roman, though, recently, zontal placement of figures to rich and
emphasis has been placed on Roman art complex arrangements, which often
as the more immediate source. It has also attempt to render space illusionistically.
been suggested that the school was cre- In the course of time, Indian influ-
ated by foreign craftsmen imported into ence was increasingly felt in the art of
India and by their Indian pupils. Gandhara, and an abstract vision began
The Gandhara school is also cred- to obscure the Greco-Roman naturalism
ited by some scholars with the invention of the earlier forms. In spite of the new
of the anthropomorphic Buddha image. influence (and the many graceful but
Whether this is correct or not, the cloying stucco sculptures that are rep-
Gandhara image is quite different from resentative of this late phase) the style
that of Mathura and illustrates the differ- shows no signs of vital change. This con-
ence between the two schools. Instead of servatism, together with the large artistic
the powerful images directly descended production, gives an overall impression of
from yaksha prototypes, the Gandhara considerable monotony. Without any real
version is an adaptation of an Apollo roots in India and with marked foreign
figure, with rather sweet and sentimen- features, the avenues of natural develop-
tal features. The definite volume and ment seem to have been closed to the
substance given to the pleated folds of school, which thus finally disappeared.
the monastic robes make this image Nevertheless it made vital contributions
more naturalistic than anything found in to the art of Central and eastern Asia, and
Indian art. At the same time, the icono- several features, drastically transformed,
graphical features are of Indian origin. were incorporated in Gupta art.
Large numbers of bodhisattva images
conceived in the image of royalty, some Andhradesha
with strongly individualized facial fea-
tures, have also been found. Besides the schools of Mathura and
In contrast to Mathura, narrative relief Gandhara, a most accomplished school
sculpture was very popular in Gandhara of sculpture flourished in Andhradesha
art. Again, in composition and iconogra- during the three centuries AD, the most
phy these reliefs are largely dependent important centres being Amaravati and
on the earlier Indian schools, but the Nagarjunakonda. The remains consist
style is quite distinct. Instead of contin- mainly of carved railings and rectangular
uous narrative, incidents separated in slabs that decorated the great Buddhist
time are separately represented, though stupas, which have largely disappeared.
often arranged in sequence. Violent The finds are thus fragmentary and
emotions are realistically rendered. The belong to several phases of construction
212 | The Culture of India
or to separate monuments spanning the which the figures are carved, while the
1st, 2nd, and 3rd centuries AD. figures themselves flow out in an endless
Unlike the school of Mathura, which movement from the ground. The setting
concentrates on the carving of single is dramatic in the extreme. The loving
figures, the Amaravati school carried to workmanship, reminiscent of ivory carv-
the fullest limit of its development the ing, and the superb technical proficiency
ancient tradition of relief sculpture, which mark the Amaravati reliefs as the culmi-
flourished in the two centuries BC at sites nating point of the entire relief style.
such as Bharhut, Sanchi, and Amaravati The figures, of both men and women,
itself. The marble railing posts are deco- are of unprecedented suppleness and
rated with central medallions and lunates plasticity, the forms rendered in every
at the top and bottom, all filled with lotus variety of torsion and flexion. A fluent,
flowers of a very rich design. Often the gliding line, often more appropriate to
medallions also contain reliefs illustrat- painting than to sculpture, encloses the
ing scenes from the Buddha’s life and figures, and pervading the whole is a
from the Jataka stories, and these are the subtle voluptuousness. The reliefs are
principal glory of the site. often only nominally religious, a pretext
Two broad phases in the devel- for the sculptor’s pleasure in represent-
opment of narrative relief can be ing the leisured and sophisticated life of
distinguished. In the first, the artist the time.
builds on the achievements of early relief Nagarjunakonda sculpture marks the
sculpture as seen on the Great Stupa of last phase of the relief style. The figures
Sanchi. The forms are still comparatively become stiffer and puppet-like, the pat-
heavy, the figures increasingly soft and terns of movement frozen and mechanical
fleshy, the movement freer but still per- but still possessing the energy and rich-
vaded by a sense of calm repose. This ness that always characterize this style.
type of work, represented by relatively The Buddha is represented in
few examples, is followed by a phase Andhradesha by both symbolic and
in which the compositions achieve an anthropomorphic forms. The icono-
extraordinary elaboration and complex- graphic formula developed shows him
ity. Most striking is the restless, energetic clad in a rather thick garment with styl-
movement, often nervous and flurried, ized folds, and the postures are not as
that possesses the participants in any formal and hieratic as the Mathura.
given scene. Complex relationships This type of Buddha exercised consider-
and patterns are established between able influence in the development of the
the figures; and space is so articulated Buddha image in Sri Lanka. In several
that the eye participates in the swirl- other features as well, the Andhra style
ing inner movement of the composition also contributed to the development of
that effectually dissolves the ground on early sculpture in Southeast Asia.
Indian Visual Arts | 213
Gupta Period (c. 4th–6th The impetus for the new schools seems to
Centuries AD) have come from Mathura, which is hardly
surprising in view of the preponderant
During the 4th and the 5th centuries, role played by the city in the preceding
when much of northern India was ruled period. The transformation into the new
by the Gupta dynasty, Indian sculpture idiom is best illustrated by a splendid
entered what has been called its classic image of the Buddha which is dated AD
phase. The promise of the earlier schools 384 (Indian Museum, Kolkata [Calcutta]).
was now fully realized, and at the same Memories of the rather massive and
time new forms and artistic ideals were ponderous weight of the earlier style
formulated that served as the source for are present, but the calm face no longer
development in succeeding centuries. looks out at the world; rather, the vision
The more or less sensuous and earthy is turned within, the mood being one of
rendering of form was drastically trans- serene contemplation. The style, which
formed, so that artistic expression closely consistently uses the local red sandstone,
conformed to the religious vision. The undergoes further refinement, seen in a
forms are refined and treated with sure series of magnificent life-size Buddha
and unsurpassed elegance. The volumes, images of the 5th century (now scattered
impelled by an inner life, still swell from in museums throughout the world). The
within but are restrained and controlled, more delicate face radiates a feeling of
made to flow in smooth and abstract calm inner bliss, and the body is most
rhythms in an organic and unified con- subtly modelled by smoothly flowing
cept in which the sensual and the spiritual planes that both suggest the swelling
are inextricably blended. The edificatory, force of life and subordinate it to the spir-
didactic intent of early relief sculpture is itual vision of the whole. Mathura images
abandoned; instead, the works produced generally show the Buddha wearing a
214 | The Culture of India
diaphanous robe, the folds of which are does not quite possess the static, stead-
rendered by stringlike ridges in a rein- fast quality of Mathura. The robes are no
terpretation of a Gandhara convention. longer ridged with folds but are plain,
The gestures of the hand are delicate and and the surface of the stone is even more
varied. The hair is usually rendered by abstractly handled than is the Mathura.
rows of small curls that conceal the coni- The faces are heart-shaped, the transi-
cal protuberance. These Mathura images tions from one part of the body to another
established an iconographical type that smoother, so that the images have great
became the norm for the Buddha image. refinement even if they do not possess
In addition to the Buddha figure, the strength of Mathura. The character-
Mathura has yielded large numbers of istic Sarnath style, the preferred material
images of the various Hindu divinities, of which is the local buff Chunar sand-
particularly Vishnu-Krishna. This is in stone, seems to have developed in the
keeping with the increasing strength of late 5th century, the few earlier works
the various Hindu cults and the intimate being closer to the Mathura school. The
association of Mathura with the god most famous image from the site and
Krishna. The famous image of Vishnu one of the masterpieces of Indian art
from Katra Keshavadeva in Mathura is is that of the seated Buddha preaching
one of the finest (National Museum, New (Sarnath Museum). It is exceptionally
Delhi). The god is conceived as a royal well preserved and delicately carved. The
figure, wearing a crown and appropriate face, with serene features and a gentle
jewelry, his features imbued with a digni- smile playing on the lips, suggests the
fied calm that is suitable to his function joy of supreme spiritual achievement.
as the preserver and is also characteristic The halo behind the Buddha is also very
of most Gupta art. beautifully carved, with exquisite floral
patterns. Large numbers of Buddha and
Sarnath bodhisattva images have been excavated
at Sarnath and are to be found in the
This famous centre of Indian art devel- museum at the site and in major collec-
oped a sweeter and more elegant version tions throughout the world.
of the Buddha image than Mathura’s.
Instead of the rather strict frontal pos- Central India
ture, the weight of the body is thrown
more on one leg, resulting in a very In addition to the major schools of Sarnath
subtle contrapposto position, in which and Mathura, important sculpture of the
the hips, shoulders, and head are turned 5th and 6th centuries is found at several
in different directions. This lends a cer- sites in central India. The sculptures
tain movement to the figure, so that it here are often in their original locations,
Indian Visual Arts | 215
surviving not as isolated images torn the carving and decoration, sumptuous,
from their architectural context but in the sturdy forms recalling Mathura rather
association with the temples of which than the attenuated grace of Sarnath. The
they formed a part. At Udayagiri, near door frame of the sanctum of this temple
Vidisha, are a series of simple rock-cut is an especially fine example of architec-
caves of the opening years of the 5th cen- tural decoration popular in this period.
tury. The sculpture, made of soft stone, Bands of floral scrolls, amorous couples,
has suffered greatly, but whatever has sur- and flying angels of great elegance are
vived reveals a style that stresses strength carved around the entrance. Particularly
and power. Perhaps the most magnificent impressive are groups of worshippers at
work is a great relief panel depicting the the base, their swaying bodies related to
boar incarnation of Vishnu lifting the each other with an easy rhythm.
earth goddess from the watery deeps into
which she had been dragged by a demon. Maharashtra
The massive figure of the god, with the
body of a man and the head of a boar, is A great revival of artistic activity seems to
carved in a surging movement across the have taken place in this region during the
face of the rock, the goddess resting eas- reign of the Vakataka dynasty and its suc-
ily on his shoulder, while a host of beings, cessors, best expressed in the splendid
human and divine, celebrate this great sculpture decorating the cave temples of
triumph. Ajanta and Elephanta. The idioms estab-
The Shiva temple at Bhumara has lished in the North were adapted here to
also yielded some sculpture of fine the needs of a style that conceived figures
quality. The stone is carved with great on a massive scale, as determined by the
precision and skill, nowhere more evi- demands of the great expanses of rock out
dent than in the handling of exuberant of which they were carved. Although the
floral ornament. Little in Indian decora- sculpture at Ajanta (mostly of the late 5th
tive sculpture can match the brilliance of century) combines the old weightiness
the large panels filled with lotus stems with the new restraint and elegance, the
and floriated scrolls discovered at this style finds its supreme expression in the
site and at Nachna Kuthara. magnificent cave temple at Elephanta.
Some of the finest Gupta sculpture The central image of this great temple
adorns the walls of the Vishnu temple at is of immense size and in deep relief. It
Deogarh. Particularly striking are three represents Shiva in his cosmic aspect,
large relief panels depicting Vishnu lying the central head clam, introspective,
on the serpent Shsa, the elephant’s res- self-sufficient, and transcending time,
cue, and the penance of Nara-Narayana. the heads to the sides, in their sensuous
The compositions tend to be dramatic; beauty and awesome terror, reflecting the
216 | The Culture of India
creative and the destructive aspects of Bhitargaon, and Shravasti are works
the supreme divinity. on a more popular level, possessing an
earthy ponderousness. A large number
Other Regions of figurines, particularly fragments of
heads with elaborate coiffures and deli-
The impact of the Gupta style of the 5th cate, smiling features, have been found
and 6th centuries was felt in many parts at Rajghat in Varanasi (Benares) and at
of India, though actual remains thus far other sites.
discovered are more abundant in some
parts than in others. There appears to Medieval Indian Sculpture
have been, in Bihar, a distinct school
characterized by rather heavy, com- Indian sculpture from the 7th century
pact forms; and Gujarat and southern onward developed, broadly speaking,
Rajasthan developed an individual style into two styles that flourished in north-
of considerable voluptuousness and ern and southern India, respectively. In
plasticity. Among the notable sculpture each of these regions there also devel-
of the Idar region are groups of mother oped additional local idioms, so that
goddesses whose massive forms are ren- there was a wide variety of schools. All,
dered with an easy grace and intimacy. however, evolved in a consistent manner,
In the Karnataka country, to the south, the earlier phase marked by relatively
the cave temples of Badami reveal yet plastic forms, the later phase by a style
another distinct idiom, somewhat direct that emphasizes a more linear rendering.
and elemental but nevertheless belong- The sculpture was used mainly as a part
ing to the same general style, with local of the architectural decor, and the quan-
variations, that prevailed over the greater tity required was vast. This often entailed
part of India. a mechanical production, with the result
that works of quality are few in propor-
Terra-Cotta tion to the numbers.
Besides the two main idioms, the local
Terra-cotta sculpture, like art in other schools of Maharashtra and Karnataka
mediums, was greatly developed. Fairly are of particular interest because they
large and elaborate plaques were used to possess considerable individuality and
adorn brick stupas and Hindu temples often show both northern and southern
from Sind to Bengal. The polychrome features.
relief images of the Buddha from Mirpur Sculpture in bronze was also produced
Khas are delicate and slender, with traces in fairly large quantities in this period.
of Gandhara feeling. Representations Again, several local schools can be distin-
of divinities and mythological scenes guished, the most important of which are
from temples in Bikaner, Ahichhatra, those of eastern and southern India.
Indian Visual Arts | 217
Atrium of the Great Sas-Bahu Temple at Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India. Milt and Joan
Mann/CameraMann International
of inferior quality; the hard, metallic A brief revival took place in parts of
carving and angular, stylized line some- Gujarat and Rajasthan in the 15th cen-
times result in works possessing a cold tury, but the sculpture merely imitated
brilliance. the work of the late medieval phase. The
The 12th century marks the end of pure geometry of their forms, however,
traditional sculpture all over northern sometimes results in works possessing a
India, except for a few pockets not yet curious archaistic power.
penetrated by the Islamic invasions. A Sculpture in eastern India (consist-
rigid line imposed itself on the forms, ing of Bangladesh and the modern Indian
which in turn became desiccated and states of Bihar, West Bengal, and Orissa),
hard, so that whatever unity of surface though sharing in the broad pattern of
may have existed was entirely shattered. development of the rest of northern India,
Indian Visual Arts | 219
the numerous animals, including the ele- Madura and the masses of stucco sculp-
phant herd with its young, show the same ture adorning the immense entrances,
intimate feeling for animal life that char- or gopuras, testifying to the prodigious
acterizes all Indian sculpture, but in a output and the undistinguished quality
manner that has seldom been surpassed. of the work produced.
The light, aerial forms gained stabil- South Indian bronze sculpture has a
ity and strength in subsequent centuries, special place in the history of Indian art.
culminating in superb sculptures adorn- A large number of images were made
ing small, elegant shrines built during the (some of them still in worship in the mid-
late 9th century when the Chola dynasty 20th century and others unearthed from
was consolidating its power. The temples the ground by chance), but examples
at Tiruvalishvaram, Kodumbalur, Kilaiyur, before the 8th century are quite rare. In
Shrinivasanalur, Kumbakonam, and a bronze, as in stone, the 9th and 10th cen-
host of other sites of this period are only turies were periods of high achievement,
sparingly adorned with sculpture, but it is and many images of excellent quality
of superb quality. With the 10th and 11th have survived. They are all cast by the
centuries, South Indian sculpture, like lost-wax, or cire perdue, process (in which
its counterpart in the north though to a a wax model is used) and technically are
lesser degree, was carved in flatter planes very accomplished. In the early stages
and more angular forms, and the fresh, the forms were smooth and flowing, with
blooming life of earlier work is gradu- a fine balance maintained between the
ally lost. This can be seen, for example, in body and the complex jewelry, the lines
the sculpture of the numerous temples of of which follow and reinforce every move-
Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram. ment of the plastic surface. The bronzes
The subsequent phase, extending up of the later period lose this cohesiveness,
to the 13th century, is represented by the ornament, by virtue of its hardness,
work at Darasuram and Tribhuvanam; tending to divide and fragment the body
although the forms become increasingly it covers. The modelling also became
congealed, brittle works of fine quality— flatter and sharper, though not quite as
often capturing outer movement with rapidly in bronze sculpture as in stone.
great skill—continue to be produced. Ancient traditions of workmanship sur-
Sculpture in southern India continued vive to the present day, and a few guilds
when artistic activity was interrupted in of craftsmen continue to make compe-
the north by the Islamic invasions but, tent if somewhat lifeless images.
in spite of technical virtuosity, became Most South Indian bronze images
progressively lifeless. Artistic activity are representations of Hindu divinities,
continued in the south into the 17th cen- notably Vishnu and Shiva. One particular
tury, the elaborately sculptured halls at form deserves special notice as a striking
Indian Visual Arts | 221
This 11th-century statue of Shiva as Nataraja (Lord of the Dance) is an elegant example of
one of the bronze sculptures of the Chola dynasty of southern India. Shaun Curry/AFP/
Getty Images
as the 10th century AD. A faint idea of the are a natural outgrowth of the long tra-
painter’s art in the Indus Valley civilization ditions of relief sculpture and reflect the
can be had from the pottery, elaborately splendour and maturity of contempo-
decorated with leaf designs and geometri- rary sculpture. The large images of the
cal patterns. bodhisattvas in Cave 1, combining rich
elegance with spiritual serenity, reflect
Ancient Wall Painting a vision that sees the shifting world of
matter and the transcendental calm of
The earliest substantial remains are those Nirvana as essentially one.
found in rock-cut cave temples at Ajanta, Except for a large and magnifi-
in western India. They belong to the 2nd cent painting of a dance scene found at
or 1st century BC and are in a style remi- the rock-cut cave at Bagh—a painting
niscent of the relief sculpture at Sanchi. executed in a style closely resembling
Also found at Ajanta are the most substan- Ajanta—hardly any other work of this
tial remains of Indian painting of about great period survives. Cave temples at
the 5th century AD and a little later, when Badami, in the Karnataka country, and
ancient Indian civilization was in full Sittanavasal, in Tamil Nadu, probably
flower. The paintings, the work of several of the late 6th and 7th centuries AD are
ateliers, decorate the walls and ceilings of already but echoes of the style of the 5th
the numerous cave temples and monas- century, which appears to have died out
teries at the site. They are executed in the around this time.
tempera technique on smooth surfaces,
prepared by application of plaster. The Eastern Indian Style
themes, nominally Buddhist, illustrate
the major events of the Buddha’s life, the Small illustrations on palm leaf, chiefly
Jataka tales, and the various divinities painted at the great Buddhist establish-
of the expanding Buddhist pantheon. ments of eastern India, appear to have
The ceilings are covered with rich motifs, conserved some elements of this ancient
based generally upon the lotus stem and style; but they have lost its dramatic
the world of animals and birds. The style impact, which is replaced by a studied
is unlike anything seen in later Indian art, preciosity and an inhibited meticulous-
expansive, free, and dynamic. The grace- ness. The surviving paintings date from
ful figures are painted by a sweeping and the 11th and 12th centuries and are con-
accomplished brush; and they are given ventional icons of the numerous Buddhist
body and substance by modelling in gods and goddesses, narrative represen-
colour and by a schematic distribution of tations having largely disappeared. With
light and shade that has little to do with the destruction of these Buddhist centres
scientific chiaroscuro. The narrative com- by the Islamic invader, the east Indian
positions, handled with utmost dexterity, style seems to have come to an end.
224 | The Culture of India
Western Indian Style the western Indian style is the eye pro-
jecting beyond the face shown in profile,
The style of Ajanta is succeeded in meant to represent the second eye, which
western India by what has been appro- would not be visible in this posture. The
priately named the western Indian style. colours are few and pure: yellow, green,
Among the earliest examples are a few blue, black, and red, which was preferred
surviving wall paintings of the Kailasa for the background. In the beginning, the
temple (mid-8th century) at Ellora and illustrations are simple icons in small
the Jaina temples, built at the same site panels; but gradually they become more
a hundred years later. The plastic sense elaborate, with scenes from the lives of
of form, so evident at Ajanta, is emphati- the various Jaina saviours as told in the
cally replaced by a style that even at this Kalpa-sutra and from the adventures
early stage is heavily dependent on line. of the monk Kalaka as related in the
The contours of the figures are sharp and Kalakaharyakatha the most favoured.
angular, the forms dry and abstract; and Even greater elaboration was pos-
the fluent, stately rhythms of Ajanta have sible with the increasing availability of
become laboured and halting. paper from the late 14th century; with
The most copious examples of this larger surfaces to paint on, by the middle
style, however, have survived not on the of the 15th century artists were produc-
walls of temples but in the large number ing opulent manuscripts, such as the
of illustrated manuscripts commissioned Kalpa-sutra in the Devasanopada library,
by members of the Jaina community. Ahmadabad. The text is written in gold on
The earliest of these are contemporary coloured ground, the margins gorgeously
with eastern Indian manuscripts and are illuminated with richest decorative and
also painted on palm leaf; but the style, figural patterns, and the main paintings
instead of attempting to cling to ancient often occupying the entire page. Blue
traditions, moves steadily in the direction and gold, in addition to red, are used with
already established at Ellora. It is a perfect increasing lavishness, testifying to the
counterpart of contemporary sculpture prosperity of the patron. The use of such
in western India, relying for its effect costly materials, however, did not neces-
on line, which progressively becomes sarily produce works of quality, and one
more angular and wiry until all natural- is often left with the impression of cur-
ism has been deliberately erased. The sive and hasty workmanship. With some
figures are almost always shown in pro- variations—but hardly any substantial
file, the full-face view generally reserved departures from the bounds that it had
for representations of the tirthankaras, set for itself—the style endured through-
or the Jaina saviours. A convention that out the 16th century and even extended
appears unfailingly for the duration of into the 17th. The political subjugation
Indian Visual Arts | 225
of the country by the forces of Islam handily transported, must have been eas-
may have contributed to the conserva- ily available. As a result there appears to
tism of the style but did not result in its have developed what can only be called
total elimination, as seems to have been an Indo-Persian style, based essentially
the case in eastern India. Indeed, in the on the schools of Iran but affected to
course of its long life, the western Indian a greater or lesser extent by the indi-
school became a national style, painting vidual tastes of the Indian rulers and
at other centres in India interpreting and by the local styles. The earliest known
elaborating its forms in their own indi- examples are paintings dating from the
vidual manner. In the province of Orissa, 15th century onward. The most impor-
painting on palm leaf and in a manner tant are the Khamseh (“Quintet”) of Amīr
entirely dependent on the western Indian Khosrow of Delhi (Freer Gallery of Art,
style has continued up to the present day. Washington, D.C.), a Bostān painted in
Mandu (National Museum, New Delhi),
Transition to the Mughal and, most interesting of all, a manu-
and Rajasthani Styles script of the Ne‘mat-nāmeh (India Office
Library, London) painted for a sultan of
The belief held earlier by scholars that Malwa in the opening years of the 16th
the new Islamic rulers of India did not century. Its illustrations are derived from
patronize any painting until the rise of the Turkmen style of Shīrāz but show
the Mughal dynasty in the 16th century is clear Indian features adapted from the
being abandoned in the face of the literary local version of the western Indian style.
testimony and the discovery or recogni- Though the western Indian style
tion of illustrated manuscripts that were was essentially conservative, it was not
painted at Indian courts. Nor should unfailingly so. It began to show signs
this be surprising, as the Muslim kings of an inner change most notably in two
of India had before them the example manuscripts from Mandu, a Kalpa-sutra
of other rulers of the Islamic world who and a Kalakaharyakatha of about 1439,
were great patrons of painting in spite of and a Kalpa-sutra painted at Jaunpur
the injunctions of orthodox Islam against in 1465. These works were done in the
the portrayal of living beings. The taste opulent manner of the 15th century, but
of these Indian rulers, however, did not for the first time the quality of the line
turn to the western Indian style but to the is different, and the uncompromisingly
flourishing traditions of Islamic paint- abstract expression begins to make way
ing abroad, notably neighbouring Iran. for a more human and emotional mood.
As many painters as architects had in By the opening years of the 16th century,
all probability been invited from foreign a new and vigorous style had come into
countries; and illustrated manuscripts, being. Although derived from the western
226 | The Culture of India
Indian style, it is clearly independent, full Persian master, Mīr Sayyid ‘Alī; but the
of the most vital energy, deeply felt, and distinctive style that evolved here owed
profoundly moving. The earliest dated not a little to the highly individual tastes
example is an Aranyaka Parva of the of Akbar himself, who took an interest
Mahabharata (1516; The Asiatic Society in the work, inspecting the atelier fre-
of Mumbai), and among the finest are quently and rewarding painters whose
series illustrating the Bhagavata-Purana work was pleasing.
and the Caurapancashika of Bilhana, The work of the Mughal atelier in
scattered in collections all over the world. this early formative stage was largely
A technically more refined variant of this confined to the illustration of books
style, preferring the pale, cool colours on a wide variety of subjects: histories,
of Persian derivation, a fine line, and romances, poetic works, myths, legends,
meticulous ornamentation, exists con- and fables, of both Indian and Persian
temporaneously and is best illustrated by origin. The manuscripts were first written
a manuscript of the ballad Candamyana by calligraphers, with blank spaces left
by Mullā Dāūd (c. first half of the 16th for the illustrations. These were executed
century; Prince of Wales Museum of largely by groups of painters, including
Western India, Mumbai). The early 16th a colourist, who did most of the actual
century thus appears to have been a painting, and specialists in portraiture
period of inventiveness and set the stage and in the mixing of colours. Chief of
for the development of the Mughal and the group was the designer, generally an
Rajput schools, which thrived from the artist of top quality, who formulated the
16th to the 19th century. composition and sketched in the rough
outline. A thin wash of white, through
Akbar Period (1556–1605) which the initial drawing was visible, was
then applied and the colours filled in. The
Although the Mughal dynasty came to colourist’s work proceeded slowly, the
power in India with the great victory colour being applied in several thin lay-
won by Babar at the Battle of Panipat in ers and frequently rubbed down with an
1526, the Mughal style was almost exclu- agate burnisher, a process that resulted
sively the creation of Akbar. Trained in the glowing, enamel-like finish. The
in painting at an early age by a Persian colours used were mostly mineral but
master, Khwāja ‘Abd-ul-S·amad, who was sometimes consisted of vegetable dyes;
employed by his father, Humāyūn, Akbar and the brushes, many of them exceed-
created a large atelier, which he staffed ingly fine, were made from squirrel’s tail
with artists recruited from all parts of or camel hair.
India. The atelier, at least in the initial The earliest paintings (c. 1560–70)
stages, was under the superintendence of the school of Akbar are illustrations
of Akbar’s teacher and another great of T·ūt· ī-nāmeh (“Parrot Book”; Cleveland
Indian Visual Arts | 227
Museum of Art) and the stupendous illus- hundred illustrations, the prolific out-
trations of the Dāstān-e Amīr H · amzeh put of the atelier made possible by the
(“Stories of Amīr H · amzeh”; Museum of division of labour that was in effect.
Applied Arts, Vienna), which originally Historical events are recreated with
consisted of 1,400 paintings of an unusu- remarkable inventiveness, though the
ally large size (approximately 25 inches explosive and almost frantic energy of
by 16 inches [65 by 40 centimetres]), of the Dāstān-e Amīr-H · amzeh has begun to
which only about 200 have survived. The subside. The scale was smaller and the
T·ūt· ī-nāmeh shows the Mughal style in work began to acquire a studied richness.
the process of formation: the hand of art- The narrative method employed by these
ists belonging to the various non-Mughal Mughal paintings, like that of traditional
traditions is clearly recognizable, but the literature, is infinitely discursive; and the
style also reveals an intense effort to cope painter did not hesitate to provide a fairly
with the demands of a new patron. The detailed picture of contemporary life—
transition is achieved in the Dāstān-e Amīr both of the people and of the court—and
H· amzeh, in which the uncertainties are of the rich fauna and flora of India. Like
overcome in a homogeneous style, quite Indian artists of all periods, the Mughal
unlike Persian work in its leaning toward painter showed a remarkable empa-
naturalism and filled with swift, vigorous thy for animals, for through them flows
movement and bold colour. The forms are the same life that flows through human
individually modelled, except for the geo- beings. This sense of kinship allowed
metrical ornament used as architectural him to achieve unqualified success in the
decor; the figures are superbly interre- illustration of animal fables such as the
lated in closely unified compositions, in Anwār-e Suhaylī (“Lights of Caropus”),
which depth is indicated by a preference of which several copies were painted, the
for diagonals; and much attention is paid earliest dated 1570 (School of Oriental
to the expression of emotion. One of the and African Studies, London). It was in
last manifestations of this bold and vigor- the illustrations to Persian translations of
ous early manner is the Dārāb-nameh (c. the Hindu epics, the Mahabharata and
1580) in the British Museum. the Ramayana, that the Mughal painter
Immediately following were some revealed to the full the richness of his
very important historical manuscripts, imagination and his unending resource-
including the Tārīkh-e Khāndān-e fulness. With little precedent to rely on,
Tīmūrīyeh (“History of the House of he was nevertheless seldom dismayed by
Timur,” c. 1580–85; Khuda Baksh Library, the subject and created a whole series of
Patna) and other works concerned with convincing compositions. Because most
the affairs of the Timurid dynasty, to of the painters of the atelier were Hindus,
which the Mughals belonged. Each of the subjects must have been close to their
these manuscripts contains several hearts; and, given the opportunity by a
228 | The Culture of India
tolerant and sympathetic patron, they rose Also prepared in the late 1590s were
to great heights. It is no wonder, there- magnificent copies of the Akbar-nāmeh
fore, that the Razm-nāmeh (City Palace (“History of Akbar”; Victoria and Albert
Museum, Jaipur), as the Mahabharata is Museum, London) and the Kitāb-e
known in Persian, is one of the outstand- Changīz-nāmeh (“History of Genghis
ing masterpieces of the age. Khan”; Gulistan Library, Tehran). These
In addition to large books contain- copiously illustrated volumes were pro-
ing numerous illustrations, which were duced by artists working jointly, but the
the products of the combined efforts of quality of refinement is similar to that of
many artists, the imperial atelier also the poetic manuscripts.
cultivated a more intimate manner that Of the large number of painters who
specialized in the illustration of books, worked in the imperial atelier, the most
generally poetic works, with a smaller outstanding were Dasvant and Basavan.
number of illustrations. The paintings The former played the leading part in the
were done by a single master artist who, illustration of the Razm-nāmeh. Basavan,
working alone, had ample scope to dis- who is preferred by some to Dasvant,
play his virtuosity. In style the works painted in a very distinctive style, which
tend to be finely detailed and exquisitely delighted in the tactile and the plastic,
coloured. A Dīvān (“Anthology”) of and with an unerring grasp of psycho-
Anwarī (Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, logical relationships.
Massachusetts), dated 1589, is a rela-
tively early example of this manner. The Jahāngīr Period (1605–27)
paintings are very small, none larger
than five inches by 2 ½ inches (12 by 6 The emperor Jahāngīr, even as a prince,
centimetres) and most delicately exe- showed a keen interest in painting and
cuted. Very similar in size and quality maintained an atelier of his own. His
are the miniatures illustrating the Dīvān tastes, however, were not the same as
of H· āfez· (Reza Library, Rāmpur). On a those of his father, and this is reflected in
larger scale but in the same mood are the painting, which underwent a signifi-
the manuscripts that represent the most cant change. The tradition of illustrating
delicate and refined works of the reign books began to die out, though a few
of Akbar: the Bahāristān of Jāmī (1595; manuscripts, in continuation of the old
Bodleian Library, Oxford), a Khamseh style, were produced. For Jahāngīr much
of Nez· āmī (1593; British Museum, preferred portraiture; and this tradition,
London), a Khamseh of Amīr Khosrow also initiated in the reign of his father,
(1598; Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore and was greatly developed. Among the most
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York), elaborate works of his reign are the great
and an Anwār-e Suhaylī (1595–96; Bharat court scenes, several of which have sur-
Kala Bhavan, Vārānasī). vived, showing Jahāngīr surrounded by
Indian Visual Arts | 229
his numerous courtiers. These are essen- with a wide range of taste and a curious,
tially large-scale exercises in portraiture, enquiring mind.
the artist taking great pains to reproduce Jahāngīr esteemed the art of painting
the likeness of every figure. and honoured his painters. His favourite
The compositions of these paintings was Abū al-Hasan, who was designated
have lost entirely the bustle and move- Nādir-ul-Zamān (“Wonder of the Age”).
ment so evident in the works of Akbar’s Several pictures by the master are known,
reign. The figures are more formally among them a perceptive study of
ordered, their comportment in keeping Jahāngīr looking at a portrait of his father.
with the strict rules of etiquette enforced Also much admired was Ustād Mans·ūr,
in the Mughal court. The colours are designated Nādir-ul-‘As·r (“Wonder of
subdued and harmonious, the bright the Time”), whose studies of birds and
glowing palette of the Akbarī artist animals are unparalleled. Bishandās was
having been quickly abandoned. The singled out by the emperor as unique in
brushwork is exceedingly fine. Technical the art of portraiture. Manohar, the son
virtuosity, however, is not all that was of Basavan, Govardhan, and Daulat are
attained, for beneath the surface of the other important painters of this reign.
great portraits of the reign there is a
deep and often spiritual understanding Shāh Jahān Period (1628–58)
of the character of the person and the
drama of human life. Under Shāh Jahān, attention seems to
Many of the paintings produced have shifted to architecture, but painting
at the imperial atelier are preserved in in the tradition of Jahāngīr continued.
the albums assembled for Jahāngīr and The style, however, becomes noticeably
his son Shāh Jahān. The Muraqqah-e rigid. The portraits resemble hieratic
Gulshan is the most spectacular. (Most effigies, lacking the breath of life so
surviving folios from this album are in evident in the work of Jahāngīr’s time.
the Gulistan Library in Tehran and the The colouring is jewel-like in its bril-
National Museums of Berlin.) There are liance, and the outward splendour quite
assembled masterpieces from Iran, curi- dazzling. The best work is found in the
osities from Europe, works produced in Shāhjahānnāmeh (“History of Shāh
the reign of Akbar, and many of the finest Jahān”) of the Windsor Castle Library
paintings of Jahāngīr’s master painters, and in several albums assembled for the
all surrounded by the most magnificent emperor. Govardhan and Bichitra, who
borders decorated with a wide variety had begun their careers in the reign of
of floral and geometrical designs. The Jahāngīr, were among the outstand-
album gives a fairly complete idea of ing painters; several works by them are
Jahāngīr as a patron, collector, and con- quite above the general level produced
noisseur of the arts, revealing a person in this reign.
230 | The Culture of India
Company School
The style of miniature painting that developed in India in the second half of the 18th century
was known as Company school or Patna painting. It was so called because it developed in
response to the tastes of the British serving with the East India Company. The style first emerged
in Murshidabad, West Bengal, and then spread to other centres of British trade: Benares (now
Varanasi), Delhi, Lucknow, and Patna.
The paintings were executed in watercolours on paper and on mica. Favourite subjects
were scenes of Indian daily life, local rulers, and sets of festivals and ceremonies, in line with
the “cult of the picturesque” then current in British artistic circles. Most successful were the
studies of natural life, but the style was generally of a hybrid and undistinguished quality.
Indian Visual Arts | 231
the most important are the Nujūm-ul- particularly favoured were depictions
‘ulūm (“The Stars of the Sciences,” 1590; of his early life as the cowherd of Vraja,
Chester Beatty Library, Dublin) and the and the mystical love of Vraja’s maidens
Tārīf-e H·useyn-Shāhī (Bharata Itihasa for him, as celebrated in the Bhagavata-
Samshodhaka Mandala, Pune), painted Purana, the Gitagovinda of Jayadeva,
about 1565 in the neighbouring state of and the Braj Bhasha verses written by
Ahmadnagar. The sultanate of Golconda Surdas and other poets. The style of the
also produced work of high quality—for painting, no less than the literature, is a
example, a manuscript of the Dīvān of product of the new religious movements,
Muh·ammad Qulī Qut·b Shāh in the Salar all of which stressed personal devotion to
Jang Library, Hyderabad, and a series of Krishna as the way to salvation. Related
distinguished portraits up to the end of popular themes were pictorial represen-
the 17th century (dispersed in various col- tations of the musical modes (ragamala)
lections). The state of Hyderabad, founded and illustrations of poetical works such
in the early 18th century and headed by as the Rasikapriya of Keshavadasa, which
a grandee of the Mughal empire, was a dealt with the sentiment of love, analyz-
great centre of painting. The work that was ing its varieties and endlessly classifying
produced there reflects both Golconda the types of lovers and beloveds and their
traditions and increasing Mughal and emotions. Portraits, seldom found in the
Rajasthani influences. early phase, became increasingly com-
mon in the 18th century—as did court
Rajasthani Style scenes, scenes of sporting and hunting
events, and other scenes concerned with
This style appears to have come into the courtly life of the great chiefs and feu-
being in the 16th century, about the same dal lords of Rajasthan.
time the Mughal school was evolving The Rajasthani style developed vari-
under the patronage of Akbar; but, rather ous distinct schools, most of them centring
than a sharp break from the indigenous in the several states of Rajasthan, namely
traditions, it represented a direct and Mewar, Bundi, Kotah, Markar, Bikaner,
natural evolution. Throughout the early Kishangarh, and Jaipur (Amber). It also
phase, almost up to the end of the 17th had centres outside the geographical limits
century, it retained its essentially hieratic of present-day Rajasthan, notably Gujarat,
and abstract character, as opposed to the Malwa, and Bundelkhand. The study of
naturalistic tendencies cultivated by the Rajasthani painting is still in its infancy,
Mughal atelier. The subject matter of this for most of the material has been avail-
style is essentially Hindu, devoted mainly able for study only since the mid-1940s.
to the illustration of myths and legends, The Mughal and Rajasthani styles
the epics, and above all the life of Krishna; were always in contact with each other,
232 | The Culture of India
but in general the Rajasthani schools and a wave of Mughal influence began to
were not essentially affected by the affect the school in the opening years of
work produced at the Mughal court dur- the 18th century. Portraits, court scenes,
ing the greater part of the 17th century. and events in the everyday world of the
This became less true in the 18th cen- ruling classes are increasingly found.
tury, when the sharp distinction between Although the emotional fervour of the
the two became progressively obscured, 17th century was never again attained,
though each retained its distinctive fea- this work is often of considerable charm.
tures right up to the end. The 19th century continued to create
work in the tradition of the 18th, one
Mewar of the most important centres being
Nathdwara (Rajasthan), the seat of the
The Mewar school is among the most Vallabha sect. Large numbers of pictures,
important. The earliest dated examples produced here for the pilgrim trade, were
are represented by a ragamala series spread over all parts of Rajasthan, north-
painted at Chawand in 1605 (Gopi ern India, Gujarat, and the Deccan.
Krishna Kanoria Collection, Patna).
These simple paintings, filled with bright Bundi and Kotah
colour, are only a step removed from the
pre-Rajasthani phase. The style became A school as important as that of Mewar
more elaborate in the first quarter of the developed at Bundi and later at Kotah,
17th century when another ragamala, which was formed by a partition of the
painted at Udaipur in 1628 (formerly in parent state and ruled by a junior branch
the Khajanchi Collection, Bikaner; now of the Bundi family. The earliest exam-
dispersed in various collections), showed ples are represented by a ragamala series
some superficial acquaintance with the of extraordinarily rich quality, probably
Mughal manner. This phase, lasting until dating from the end of the 16th century.
about 1660, was one of the most impor- From the very beginning the Bundi style
tant for the development of painting all seemed to have found Mughal painting
over Rajasthan. Ambitious and exten- an inspiring source, but its workmanship
sive illustrations of the Bhagavata, the was as distinctively Rajasthani as the
Ramayana, the poems of Surdas, and work of Mewar. The artists of this school
the Gitagovinda were completed, all full always displayed a pronounced prefer-
of strength and vitality. The name of ence for vivid movement, which is unique
Sāhabadī is intimately connected with in all of Rajasthan. Toward the second half
this phase; another well-known painter of the 17th century, work at Bundi came
is Manohar. The intensity and richness unmistakably under the influence of
associated with their atelier began to Mewar; many miniatures, including sev-
fade toward the close of the 17th century, eral series illustrating the Rasikapriya,
Indian Visual Arts | 233
Krishna lifting Mount Govardhana, Mewar miniature painting, early 18th century; in a pri-
vate collection. P. Chandra
234 | The Culture of India
Malwa Bikaner
It has been suggested but not definitely Of all Rajasthani schools, the Bikaner
determined that the school itself does style, from its very inception in the
not belong to Malwa but to some other mid-17th century, shows the greatest
area, probably Bundelkhand. In contrast indebtedness to the Mughal style. This is
to the Bundi school, miniatures gener- due to the presence in the Bikaneratelier
ally thought to have been painted in of artists who had previously worked in
Malwa are quite archaistic, with man- the Mughal manner at Delhi. They and
nerisms inherited from the 16th century their descendants continued to paint in a
retained until the end of the 17th. The ear- style that could only be classed as a pro-
liest work is an illustrated version of the vincial Mughal manner had it not been for
Rasikapriya (1634), followed by a series the quick absorption of influences from
illustrating a Sanskrit poem called the the Rajasthani environment and a sympa-
Amaru Shataka (1652). There are also thy for the religious and literary themes
illustrations of the musical modes (raga- favoured by the royal Hindu patrons.
mala), the Bhagavata-Purana, and other Delicacy of line and colour are consistent
Hindu devotional and literary works. The characteristics of Bikaner painting even
compositions of all of these pictures is when, toward the end of the 18th century, it
uncompromisingly flat, the space divided assumed stylistic features associated with
into registers and panels, each filled with the more orthodox Rajasthani schools.
a patch of colour and occupied by figures
that convey the action. This conservative Kishangarh
style disappeared after the close of the 17th
century. The course of Malwa painting in The Kishangarh school, which came
the 18th century and later is not known. into being toward the mid-18th century,
Indian Visual Arts | 235
was also indebted to the contemporary the Pahari style, so-named because of its
Mughal style but combined a rich and prevalence in the erstwhile hill states of
refined technique with deeply moving the Himalayas, stretching roughly from
religious fervour. Its inspiring patron in Jammu to Garhwal. It can be divided
the formative phase was Savant Singh, into two main schools, the Basohli and
more of a devotee and a poet than a king. the Kangra, but it must be understood
The style established by him, character- that these schools were not confined to
ized by pronounced mystical leanings the centres after which they are named
and a distinctive facial type, continued to but extended all over the area. Unlike
the middle of the 19th century, though at Rajasthan, the area covered by the Pahari
a clearly lower level of achievement. style is small, and the probability of art-
ists travelling from one area to another
Jaipur (Amber) in search of livelihood was much greater.
Thus, attempts to distinguish regional
The rulers of the state were closely allied schools are fraught with controversy, and
to the Mughal dynasty, but paintings it has been suggested that a classifica-
of the late 16th and early 17th centu- tion based upon ateliers and families is
ries possessed all of the elements of the likely to be more tenable than those pres-
Rajasthani style. Little is known about ently current among scholars. Because
the school until the opening years of the the Basohli and the Kangra schools show
18th century, when stiff, formal examples considerable divergences, scholars have
appear in the reign of Savai Jai Singh. postulated the existence of a transitional
The finest works, dating from the reign phase, named the pre-Kangra style.
of Pratap Singh, are sumptuous in effect
and include some splendid portraits and Basohli School
some large paintings of the sports of
Krishna. Although the entire 19th cen- The origins of this remarkable style are
tury was extremely productive, the work not yet understood, but it is clear that the
was rather undistinguished and increas- style was flourishing toward the close of
ingly affected by Western influences. the 17th century. The earliest dated paint-
Of the Rajasthani styles of this period, ings are illustrations to the Rasamanjari
the Jaipur school was the most popular, of Bhanudatta (a Sanskrit work on poet-
examples having been found all over ics), executed for a ruler of Basohli (1690;
northern India. Boston Museum of Fine Arts). Bold
colour, vigorous drawing, and primitive
Pahari Style intensity of feeling are outstanding quali-
ties in these paintings, quite surpassing
Closely allied to the Rajasthani schools the work of the plains. In addition to other
both in subject matter and technique is Hindu works such as the Gitagovinda
236 | The Culture of India
and the Bhagavata-Purana, a fairly large being replaced by feeble works in a vari-
number of idealized portraits have also ety of idioms, all strongly influenced by
been discovered. the West. A reaction set in during the
early 20th century, symbolized by what
Kangra School is called the Bengal school. The glories
of Indian art were rediscovered, and the
The Basohli style began to fade by school consciously tried to produce what
the mid-18th century, being gradually it considered a truly Indian art inspired
replaced by the Kangra style, named by the creations of the past. Its leading
after the state of Kangra but, like the artist was Abanindranath Tagore and its
Basohli style, of much wider prevalence. theoretician was E.B. Havell, the principal
A curvilinear line, easy flowing rhythms, of the Calcutta School of Art. Nostalgic
calmer colours, and a mood of sweet lyri- in mood, the work was mainly sentimen-
cism easily distinguish the work from tal though often of considerable charm.
that of the Basohli style. The reasons for The Bengal school did a great deal to
this change are to be sought in strong reshape contemporary taste and to make
influences from the plains, notably the Indian artists aware of their own heri-
Mughal styles of Delhi and Lucknow. tage. Amrita Sher-Gil, who was inspired
These influences account for the more by the Postimpressionists, made Indian
refined technique; but whatever was bor- painters aware of new directions. Mid-
rowed was transmuted and given a fresh 20th-century Indian painting is very
and tender aspect. Among the greatest much a part of the international scene,
works are large series illustrating the the artists painting in a variety of idioms,
Bhagavata-Purana (National Museum, often attempting to come to terms with
New Delhi), the Gitagovinda, and the their heritage and with the emergence of
Satsai of Bihari (both in the collection India as a modern culture.
of the maharaja of Tehri-Garhwal), all
painted in 1775–80. The corpus of work Indian Decorative Arts
produced is very large and, although
it seldom fails to please, works of high Fragmentary ivory furniture (c. 1st cen-
achievement are rare. The school flour- tury AD) excavated at Begram is one of
ished from about 1770 to almost the end the few indications of the existence in
of the 19th century, but the finest work ancient India of a secular art concerned
was produced largely from 1775 to 1820. with the production of luxurious and
richly decorated objects meant for daily
Modern Period use. Objects that can be clearly designated
as works of decorative art become much
Toward the late 19th century traditional more extensive for the later periods, dur-
Indian painting was rapidly dying out, ing which Islamic traditions were having
Indian Visual Arts | 237
a profound effect on Indian artistic tradi- that ivory craftsmanship was always
tions. The reign of the Mughal emperors, vital. Ancient traditions, relatively unaf-
in particular, produced works of the most fected by Islamic influence, continued in
elaborate and exquisite craftsmanship; southern India up to modern times. An
the decorative tradition is clearly pre- exquisitely carved box from Vijayanagar
served in architectural ornament, though (16th century; Prince of Wales Museum
surviving decorative objects themselves, of Western India, Mumbai) is representa-
particularly before the 17th century, tive; many other exquisite objects of this
are far fewer than might be expected. period and later are among the treasures
Economic conditions, including competi- of South Indian temples.
tion with machine-made goods imported There is even less evidence of what
from English factories, and a change in the decorative work in metal was like. The
taste from increasing European influence practice of re-using the metal by melting
had disastrous consequences for tradi- unserviceable items may account for the
tional craftsmanship, especially in the paucity of objects, for there is little doubt
late 19th and 20th centuries. that the craft was always flourishing. A
hoard found at Kolhapur, consisting of
Pre-Islamic Period plates, various kinds of vessels, lamps
and objets d’art, including a superb
Of the very few objects surviving from bronze elephant with riders, constitutes
the pre-Islamic period, the most impor- the most important surviving group of
tant are fragments of ivory caskets, metal objects and is datable to about the
chairs, and footstools found at Begram, 2nd century AD. Some fine examples of
in eastern Afghanistan, but obviously of ritual utensils, notably elaborate incense
Indian origin and strongly reminiscent of burners, of the 8th–9th century have been
the school of Mathura in the 1st century excavated at Nālandā; and a large num-
AD. The work is profusely decorated with ber of 14th-century ceremonial vessels of
carved panels and confirms the wide repu- complex design and excellent workman-
tation for superb ivories that India had in ship, and apparently belonging to the
ancient times. Nothing as spectacular has local temple, were discovered at Kollur, in
come down from the succeeding periods, Mysore state.
but stray examples such as the so-called Gold played an extremely important
Charlemagne chessman (c. 8th century; role in the manufacture of jewelry, but
Cabinet des Medailles, Paris) and two once again the finds are hardly com-
magnificent throne legs, of Orissan work- mensurate with tradition. Small amounts
manship, carved in the shape of griffins of gold jewelry have been excavated at
with elephant heads (13th century; Freer Mohenjo-daro and Harappa (3rd millen-
Gallery of Art, Washington D.C., and nium BC); and, in the historical period,
Philadelphia Museum of Art), indicate a very important group, of delicate
238 | The Culture of India
melodies of some of the hill tribes in accompany the singers, who often dance
central India to the highly cultivated art while they sing.
music heard in concert halls in the large In each area and even within a single
cities. This variety reflects the heteroge- area, different social groups have their
neous population of the subcontinent in own individual songs whose origins are
terms of ethnic heritage, religion, lan- lost in antiquity. The songs are passed on
guage, and social status. from one generation to another, and in
most cases the composers are unknown.
Rural Areas Apart from folk songs, one also hears
outdoor instrumental music in villages.
In the villages, music is not just a form The music is provided by an ensemble of
of entertainment but is an essential ele- varying size, which consists basically of
ment in many of the activities of daily life an oboe type of instrument (usually a
and plays a prominent part in most ritu- shehnai in North India and nagaswaram
als. These include life-cycle events, such in the south) and a variety of drums.
as birth, initiation, marriage, and death; Sometimes straight, curved, or S-shaped
events of the agricultural cycle, such as horns may be added. These groups play
planting, transplanting, harvesting, and at weddings, funerals, and religious pro-
threshing; and a variety of work songs. cessions. The musicians are professional
Much of this music could be described as or semiprofessional and usually belong
functional, for it serves a utilitarian pur- to a very low caste. Such ensembles are
pose; for instance, a harvest song might found in tribal and other predominantly
well give thanks to God for a bountiful rural societies as well as in villages and
harvest, but underlying this is the idea cities.
that singing this song in its traditional Other professional music is also
manner will help to ensure that the next found in the rural regions. Most areas are
harvest will be equally fruitful. These visited by religious mendicants, many
songs are usually sung by all the mem- of whom travel around the countryside
bers participating in the activity and are singing devotional songs, accompany-
sung not for a human audience but for ing themselves either with a one-, two-,
a spiritual one. They are often sung in or three-stringed lute that generally
the form of leader and chorus, and the provides only a drone or with a frame
musical accompaniment, if any, is gen- (tambourine-like) drum. They carry with
erally provided by drone instruments them a small begging bowl and main-
(those sustaining or reiterating a given tain themselves entirely on what they
note or notes), usually of the lute fam- receive in alms. There are also itinerant
ily, or percussion instruments, such as magicians, snake charmers, acrobats, and
drums, clappers, and pairs of cymbals. storytellers who travel in the rural areas.
Occasionally, a fiddle or flute might also Music is often involved in their acts, and
242 | The Culture of India
the storyteller generally sings his tales, most Indian popular songs—but also
which may be taken from the two epics, contributing to changing musical tastes
the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, and aesthetics across the countryside.
or from the Puranas, the legends that Conversely, film music and other popu-
describe the adventures of the incarna- lar genres, such as the now ubiquitous
tions of God as they rid the world of evil. bhangra music, have clearly been inspired
Sometimes the narrative songs are con- by rural traditions. Although many dis-
cerned with historical characters and tinct rural and urban musics continue to
describe the wars and the heroic deeds be practiced in the 21st century, the tradi-
of the regional rulers. Some storytellers tions are increasingly intertwined.
specialize in generally tragic stories of
romance and of lovers. Classical Music
During certain religious festivals,
the villages might be visited by a travel- Many different forms of music can be
ling band of players who enact some of heard in the cities. Of these, best known
the mythological episodes connected in the West are the classical music of
with the festival. Such performances are North India (including Pakistan), also
accompanied by music and may also called Hindustani music, and that of
include dances. During the festivals vil- South India, also called Karnatak music.
lagers may visit neighbourhood shrines Both classical systems are supported by
or temples, there encountering religious an extensive body of literature and elabo-
mendicants singing devotional songs and rate musical theory. Until modern times,
perhaps watching elaborate enactments classical music was patronized by the
of the episodes connected with the festi- princely courts and to some extent also
val. Thus, the villagers become familiar by wealthy noblemen. Since India gained
with the mythological and philosophical independence in 1947, and with the abo-
aspects of their religion, in spite of low lition of the princely kingdoms, the
levels of literacy in many rural areas and emphasis has shifted to the milieu of large
the difficulties of communication via the concert halls. The concertgoer, radio, and
overland infrastructure, which may be the cinema are now the main patrons of
limited to a narrow dirt road traversed by the classical musicians. Meanwhile, the
bullock carts. growth of university music programs,
Especially since the mid-20th century, particularly involving classical music,
there has been considerable interac- has placed greater emphasis on music
tion between rural and urban cultures. history and theory and has provided a
Travelling cinemas, set up quickly and further source of income for musicolo-
easily in tents, have visited the rural areas gists and musicians. The traditional
for many years, not only bringing Western- system of private instruction, however,
influenced film music—the source of still continues to this day.
Indian Music | 243
India’s music, both classical and popular, has drawn more fans in recent years. Here, musi-
cians perform during the Indian musical Bharati at the ICC Center on January 2, 2007, in
Berlin, Germany. Christian Jakubaszek/Getty Images
The second element of Indian music, its inspiration from a number of sources,
tala, is best described as time measure and both Indian and Western; classical, folk,
has two main constituents; the duration of and devotional music are the main Indian
the time measure in terms of time units sources, while Western influence is seen
that vary according to the tempo chosen; most obviously in the use of large orches-
and the distribution of stress within the tras that employ both Western and Indian
time measure. Tala, like raga, serves as a instruments. The influence of Western
basis for composition and improvisation. popular music, too, is very evident. In
Indian classical music is gener- spite of the eclectic nature of Indian film
ally performed by small ensembles of music, most of the songs maintain an
not more than five or six musicians. Indian feeling that arises largely from the
Improvisation plays a major part in a per- vocal technique of the singers and the
formance, and great emphasis is placed ornamentation of the melody line. This
on the creativity and sensitivity of the music is a continuously developing form,
soloist. A performance of a raga usually and much of it has incorporated har-
goes through well-defined stages, begin- mony, counterpoint, and other features of
ning with an improvised melodic prelude Western music. But the film music differs
that is followed by a composed piece set from typical Western music in that the
in a particular time measure. The compo- melody line is generally not dictated by
sition is generally quite short and serves harmonic progressions and in that the
as a frame of reference to which the soloist harmonies used are incidental additions.
returns at the conclusion of his improvi- Aside from classical and film music,
sation. There is no set duration for the there are several other forms of urban
performance of a raga. A characteristic music, some of which closely resemble the
feature of North Indian classical music is music of the rural areas. In city streets one
the gradual acceleration of tempo, which is likely to encounter an outdoor band of
leads to a final climax. oboes and drums announcing a wedding
or a funeral. Street musicians, religious
Nonclassical Music mendicants, snake charmers, storytellers,
of the Cities and magicians perform at every avail-
able opportunity, and work songs are
Classical music interests only a small sung by construction workers and other
proportion of the peoples of South Asia, labourers. In private homes, still other
even in the cities. Since about the 1930s forms of music are performed, ranging
a new genre, associated with the cinema, from religious chanting to traditional folk
has achieved extraordinary popularity. and devotional songs. In public places of
Most Indian films are very much like entertainment, the listener may encoun-
Western musicals and generally include ter, apart from classical and film music,
six or more songs. Film music derives theatrical music from one of the many
Indian Music | 245
Popular Indian film star Shilpa Shetty performs on stage during a preview of a musical called
Miss Bollywood. Andreas Rentz/Getty Images
forms of regional theatre. In the lowbrow when used, is skeletal and more a tool of
places of entertainment, courtesans still the theorist than of the practicing musi-
sing and dance in traditional fashion. In cian, the music of past generations is
the larger cities there are performances irrevocably lost. References to music in
of Western chamber music and occa- ancient texts, aesthetic formulations, and
sionally symphony concerts, as well as depictions and written discussions of
popular dance music, rock, and jazz in the musical instruments can offer clues. In
night clubs. rare instances an ancient musical style
may be preserved in unbroken oral tradi-
ANTIQuITy tion. For most historical eras and styles,
surviving treatises explaining musical
In a musical tradition in which improvisa- scales and modes—the framework of
tion predominates, and written notation, melody—provide a particularly important
246 | The Culture of India
means of recapturing at least a sugges- new home in northern India until a siz-
tion of the music of former times, and able body of oral religious poetry had
tracing the musical theory of the past been composed.
makes clear the position of the present
musical system. Compilation of Hymns
Little is known of the musical culture
of the Indus valley civilization of the 3rd By about 1000 BC this body of chanted
and 2nd millennia BC. Some musical poetry had apparently grown to unman-
instruments, such as the arched, or bow- ageable proportions, and the best of the
shaped, harp and more than one variety poems were formed into an anthology
of drum, have been identified from the called Rigveda, which was then canon-
small terra-cotta figures and among ized. It was not committed to writing,
the pictographs on the seals that were but text and chanting formula were care-
probably used by merchants. Further, fully handed down by word of mouth
it has been suggested that a bronze from one generation to the next, up to
statuette of a dancing girl represents a the present period.
class of temple dancers similar to those The poems in the Rigveda are
found much later in Hindu culture. It is arranged according to the priestly fami-
known that the Indus civilization had lies who used and, presumably, had
established trade connections with the composed the hymns. Shortly after this
Mesopotamian civilizations, so that it a new Veda, called the Yajurveda, basi-
is possible that the bow harp found in cally a methodical rearrangement of the
Sumeria would also have been known in verses of the Rigveda with certain addi-
the Indus valley. tions in prose, was created to serve as a
kind of manual for the priest officiating
Vedic Chant at the sacrifices. At approximately the
same time, a third Veda, the Samaveda,
It is generally thought among scholars was created for liturgical purposes. The
that the Indus valley civilization was Samaveda was also derived from the
terminated by the arrival of bands of sem- hymns of the Rigveda, but the words
inomadic tribesmen, the Indo-Europeans, were distorted by the repetition of sylla-
who descended into India from the north- bles, pauses, prolongations, and phonetic
west, probably in the first half of the 2nd changes, as well as the insertion of cer-
millennium BC. An important aspect of tain meaningless syllables believed to
Vedic religious life was the bard-priest have magical significance. A fourth Veda,
who composed hymns in praise of gods, the Atharvaveda, was accepted as a Veda
to be sung or chanted at sacrifices. This considerably later and is quite unrelated
tradition was continued in the invaders’ to the other three. It represents the more
Indian Music | 247
on pitch, others on stress; and one theory suggesting that the Samavedic tones
proposes that it referred to the relative possibly derived from the accents. The
height of the tongue. Samavedic hymns as chanted by the
In the most common style of Tamil Aiyar Brahmins are based on a
Rigvedic and Yajurvedic chanting found mode similar to the D mode (D-d on the
today, that of the Tamil Aiyar Brahmins, white notes of the piano; i.e., the eccle-
it is clear that the accent is differentiated siastical Dorian mode). But the hymns
in terms of pitch. This chanting is based seem to use three different-sized inter-
on three tones; the udatta and the non- vals, in contrast to the two sizes found
accented syllables (called prachaya) are in the Western church modes. They are
recited at a middle tone, the preceding approximately a whole tone, a semitone,
anudatta syllable at a low tone, and the and an intermediate tone. Once again,
following svarita syllable either at the the intervals are not consistent and vary
high tone (when the syllable is short) both from one chanter to another and
or as a combination of middle tone and within the framework of a single chant.
high tone. The intonation of these tones The chants are entirely unaccompanied
is not precise, but the lower interval is by instruments, and this may account
very often about a whole tone, while for some of the extreme variation of
the upper interval tends to be slightly intonation.
smaller than a whole tone but slightly The changes brought by the 20th
larger than a semitone. In this style of century weakened the traditional promi-
chanting the duration of the tones is also nent position of the Vedic chant. The
relative to the length of the syllables, the Atharvaveda is seldom heard in India
short syllables generally being half the now. Samavedic chant, associated pri-
duration of the long. marily with the large public sacrifices,
The more musical chanting of the also appears to be dying out. Even the
Samaveda employs five, six, or seven Rigveda and Yajurveda are virtually
tones and is said to be the source of the extinct in some places, and South India is
later secular and classical music. From now the main stronghold of Vedic chant.
some of the phonetic texts that follow
the Vedic literature, it is apparent that The Classical Period
certain elements of musical theory were
known in Vedic circles, and there are ref- The ritual of the Vedas involves only
erences to three octave registers (sthana), the three upper classes, or castes, of
each containing seven notes (yama). Indo-European society: the Brahman, or
An auxiliary text of the Samaveda, the priestly class; the Kshatriya, or prince-
Naradishiksha, correlates the Vedic warriors; and the Vaishya, or merchants.
tones with the accents described above, The fourth caste, the Sudra, or labourers,
Indian Music | 249
were excluded from Vedic rites. The pri- provided by an orchestra (which included
mary sources of religious education and singers) located offstage, in what was
inspiration for the Sudra were derived very like an orchestra pit. Melodies were
from what is sometimes called the fifth composed on a system of modes, or jatis,
Veda: the epic poems Ramayana and each of which was thought to evoke one
Mahabharata, as well as the collections or more particular sentiments (rasa) by
of legends, called the Puranas, depict- its emphasis on specific notes. The modes
ing the lives of the various incarnations were derived in turn from the 14 murcha-
of the Hindu deities. The Ramayana and nas—seven pairs of ascending seven-note
the Mahabharata were originally secular series beginning on each of the notes of
in character, describing the heroic deeds two closely related heptatonic (seven-
of kings and noblemen, many of whom note) parent scales, called sadjagrama
are not recorded in history. Subsequently, and madhyamagrama. The murchanas
religious matter was added, including were thus more or less analogous to the
the very famous sermon Bhagavadgita European modal scales that begin pro-
(“Song of the Lord”), which has been gressively on D, E, F, G, etc. A third parent
referred to as the most important docu- scale, gandharagrama, was mentioned in
ment of Hinduism; and many of the several texts of the period and some even
heroes of the epics were identified as earlier but is not included in the system
incarnations of the Hindu deities. The laid out in the Natya-shastra.
legends were probably sung and recited
by wandering minstrels and bards even Qualities of the Scales
before the advent of the Christian Era, in
much the same way as they still are. The The two parent scales differed in the
stories were also enacted on the stage, positioning of just one note, which was
particularly at the time of the religious microtonally flatter in one of the scales.
festivals. The earliest extant account of The microtonal difference, referred
drama is to be found in the Natya-shastra to as pramana (“measuring”) shruti,
(“Treatise on the Dramatic Arts”), a text presumably served as a standard of mea-
that has been dated variously from the surement. In terms of this standard, it
2nd century BC to the 5th century AD was determined that the intervals of the
and even later. It is virtually a handbook murchanas were of three different sizes,
for the producer of stage plays and deals consisting of two, three, or four shrutis,
with all aspects of drama, including and that the octave comprised 22 shrutis.
dance and music. An interval of one shruti was not used.
Theatrical music of the period appar- Several modern scholars have suggested
ently included songs sung on stage by that the shrutis were of unequal size;
the actors, as well as background music from the evidence in the Natya-shastra,
250 | The Culture of India
it would appear, however, that they were lacking in the other and vice versa. In
thought to be equal. There has been no each of the parent scales there are two
attempt to determine the exact size of the nonconsonances, one of which is the
shrutis in any of the traditional Indian tritone (interval of three Western whole
musical treatises until relatively modern tones, such as F-B) of 11 shrutis inevi-
times (18th century). table in all diatonic scales (seven-note
The term shruti was also used to define scales of the major scale and murchana
consonance and dissonance, as these type) and which in medieval Europe was
terms were understood in the period. described as diabolus in musica (“the
In this connection, four terms are men- devil in music”).
tioned: vadi, comparable to the Western The second is a microtonal nonconso-
term sonant, meaning “having sound”; nance unique to this ancient Indian system.
samvadi, comparable to the Western con- The nonconsonance arises from
sonant (concordant; reposeful); vivadi, variances of one shruti from the funda-
comparable to dissonant (discordant; mental consonances of the fourth and
lacking repose); and anuvadi, compa- the fifth—a variance of about a quarter
rable to assonant (neither consonant tone. In the sadjagrama scale the inter-
nor dissonant). As in the ancient Greek val ri-pa (E- to A) contains 10 shrutis; i.e.,
Pythagorean system, which influenced one more than the nine of the consonant
Western music, only fourths and fifths fourth. Comparably, in the madhyama-
(intervals of four or five tones in a Western grama scale the interval sa-pa (D to A- )
scale) were considered consonant. In the contains 12 shrutis, or one fewer than the
Indian system of measurement, tones consonant fifth. These variances involve
separated by either nine or 13 shrutis cor- the consonant relationships of two
respond in size to Western fourths and melodically prominent notes, the first
fifths and are described as being conso- and the fifth. In the madhyamagrama
nant to each other. “Dissonant” in this the first note, sa, has no consonant fifth,
system referred only to the minor second, and perhaps for this reason this scale
an interval of two shrutis, and to its inver- is said to begin not on the sa (D) but
sion (complementary interval), the major on its fourth, the note ma (G); hence, it
seventh (20 shrutis). All other tones, resembles the G mode—i.e., the ecclesi-
including the major third, were thought astical Mixolydian mode—whereas the
to be assonant. sadjagrama resembles the D mode, the
The musical difference between the ecclesiastical Dorian.
two parent scales is best seen not in terms There is a striking resemblance of
of the microtonal deviation mentioned the sadjagrama scale to the intervals
earlier but rather in terms of a musically used by the Tamil Aiyar Brahmins in
influential consonance found in one but their chanting of the Samaveda. Not
Indian Music | 251
and deshi. The term marga (literally “the each of the ragas. In the ancient system,
path”) apparently refers to the ancient tra- the jatis were something like the ancient
ditional musical material, whereas deshi Greek and medieval church modes in
(literally “the vulgar dialect spoken in the that each was derived from a parent
provinces”) designates the musical prac- scale by altering the ground note and
tice that was evolving in the provinces, the tessitura (range). In modern Indian
which may have had a more secular basis. music, however, the ragas are all trans-
Although the title Brihaddeshi (“The posed to a common ground note. This
Great Deshi”) suggests that the latter change may well be connected with the
music might have been the focus of the introduction of the drone and the evo-
treatise and that the grama-ragas were lution of the long-necked-lute family
possibly out of date by the time it was on which the drone is usually played.
written, the surviving portion of the text In the old system, with the changing
does not support such a theory. ground note, it would have been neces-
The mammoth 13th-century text sary to retune drone instruments from
Sangitaratnakara (“Ocean of Music one raga to another, which would have
and Dance”), composed by the theorist been a cumbersome and impractical
Sharngadeva, is often said to be one of operation to carry out during a recital. It
the most important landmarks in Indian may have been this factor that provided
music history. It was composed in the the impetus for the change to the stan-
Deccan (south-central India) shortly dard ground-note system. There is no
before the conquest of this region by conclusive evidence to show just when
the Muslim invaders and thus gives an this change might have taken place, and
account of Indian music before the full it is not clear whether the Brihaddeshi
impact of Muslim influence. A large and the Sangitaratnakara are using the
part of this work is devoted to marga— old ground-note system or one similar to
that is, the ancient music that includes that used in modern times.
the system of jatis and grama-ragas—
but Sharngadeva mentions a total of The Islamic Period
264 ragas. Despite the use in both the
Brihaddeshi and the Sangitaratnakara The Muslim conquest of India can be
of a notation equivalent to the Western said to have begun in the 12th century,
tonic sol–fa (i.e., with syllables, as do– although Sindh (now in Pakistan) had
re–mi…) to illustrate the ragas, modern been conquered by the Arabs as early
scholars have not yet been able to recon- as the 8th century. Muslim writers such
struct them with assurance. as al-Jāh·iz· and al-Mas‘ūdī had already
The basic difficulty scholars face commented favourably on Indian music
lies in determining the intervals used in in the 9th and 10th centuries, and the
254 | The Culture of India
Muslims in India seem to have been very The Muslim patronage of music was
much attracted by it. largely effective in the north of India and
has had a profound influence on North
Impact on Musical Genres Indian music. Perhaps the main result of
and Aesthetics this influence was to de-emphasize the
importance of the words of the songs,
In the beginning of the 14th century, which were mostly based on Hindu devo-
the great poet Amīr Khosrow, who was tional themes. In addition, the songs had
considered to be extremely proficient in been generally composed in Sanskrit, a
both Persian and Indian music, wrote language that had ceased to be a medium
that Indian music was superior to the of communication except among scholars
music of any other country. Further, it is and priests. Sanskrit songs were gradually
stated that, after the Muslim conquest of replaced by compositions in the various
the Deccan under Malik Kāfūr (c. 1310), dialects of Hindi, Braj Bhasha, Bhojpuri,
a large number of Hindu musicians were and Dakhani, as well as in Urdu and Persian.
taken with the royal armies and settled Nevertheless, the problems of communica-
in the north. Although orthodox Islam tion, in terms of both language and subject
considered music illegal, the acceptance matter, were not easily reconciled.
of the Sufi doctrines, in which music was A new approach to religion was,
an accepted means to the realization of in any case, sweeping through India
God, enabled Muslim rulers and noble- at about this time. This emphasized
men to extend their patronage to this devotion (bhakti) as a primary means
art. At the courts of the Mughal emper- to achieving union with God, bypass-
ors Akbar, Jahāngīr, and Shah Jahān, ing the traditional Hindu beliefs of the
music flourished on a grand scale. Apart transmigration of the soul from body to
from Indian musicians, there were also body in the lengthy process of purifica-
musicians from Persia, Afghanistan, tion before it could achieve the Godhead.
and Kashmir in the employ of these rul- The Islamic Sufi movement was based on
ers; nevertheless, it appears that it was an approach similar to that of the bhakti
Indian music that was most favoured. movements and also gained many con-
Famous Indian musicians, such as Svami verts in India. A manifestation of these
Haridas and Tansen, are legendary per- devotional cults was the growth of a new
formers and innovators of this period. form of mystic-devotional poetry com-
After the example set by Amīr Khosrow, posed by wandering mendicants who
Muslim musicians took an active inter- had dedicated their lives to the realiza-
est in the performance of Indian music tion of God. Many of these mendicants
and added to the repertoire by inventing have been sanctified and are referred to
new ragas, talas, and musical forms, as as poet-saints or singer-saints, since their
well as new instruments. poems were invariably set to music. A
Indian Music | 255
The list could have extended further, River of Raga”), probably of the 16th cen-
except that apparently no pitch distinc- tury, 12 melas are mentioned:
tion was made between the enharmonic
pairs D–E♭♭, D♯–E♭, A–B♭♭, and A♯–
B♭. (Enharmonic notes have different
pitch names but sound either the same
pitch or, in some tuning systems, have
very slight differences in pitch.)
By utilizing all possible combina-
tions of a lower with an upper tetrachord,
36 melas, or raga scales, were derived; a
further 36 were formed by using F♯ in
place of the F in the lower tetrachord.
The melas were named in such a way
that the first two syllables of the name,
when applied in a code, gave the num- Although it appears from the descrip-
ber of that mela in the sequence. The tion of saranga and megha melas that
musician, given the number, could eas- enharmonic intervals were used, there is
ily reconstruct the scale of the mela. The good reason to believe that the E♯ and
names of the melas were often derived A♯ in the two melas really represent their
from prominent ragas in those melas, chromatic counterparts, F and B♭, and that
with a two-syllable prefix that supplied F and F♯ (and B and B♭) do not appear in
the code numbers; for instance, the name sequence. The A+ in the mela purava is said
of the mela Dhira-shankarabharana is to be raised by one shruti. The description
derived from the raga Shankarabharana, of the ragas in these melas shows that the
the two syllables dhira giving the code North Indian system was by this time also
number 29, which indicates a scale based on 12 semitones.
similar to the Western major scale, or
C mode. The Caturdandiprakashika The Modern Period
acknowledges the theoretical nature
of its analytical system and mentions With the collapse of the Mughal empire
clearly that only 19 of the possible 72 in the 18th century and the emergence of
melas were in use at the time that the the British as a dominant power in India,
text was written. the subcontinent was divided into many
Although North Indian texts also princely states. Music continued to be
describe ragas in terms of melas or thatas, patronized by the rulers, although the
there is no attempt to arrange them sys- courts were never again to achieve their
tematically. In the Ragatarangini (“The former opulence.
Indian Music | 257
Musically, there has been a continu- the South Indian melas shown above in
ous evolution from the Islamic period to Theoretical developments):
the present, and both North and South
Indian classical music have continued to
expand. South Indian music has clearly
been influenced more by theory than has
that of the North. The 72-mela system
continues to be the basis of classifying
the ragas in South India, but it has had
more than a classificatory significance.
Many new ragas have been composed
in the past few centuries, some of them
inspired by the theoretical scales of the The thatas do not cover all the ragas
mela system. As a result, there are now used in North Indian music, but there is
ragas in all of the 72 melas. reason to believe that most of the ragas
In North Indian music, theory has had having scales other than the above are
little influence on performance practice. relatively modern innovations. New ragas
This can be ascribed to the language prob- are constantly being created, and some
lem, an especially significant influence North Indian musicians are using the
on the many Muslim musicians in North vast potential of the South Indian mela
India, who were not able to cope with the system as their source of inspiration.
Sanskrit musical literature. Thus, there Mela and thata are theoretical devices
had been no attempt to systematize the for the classification of ragas. Ragas have
music, and there was a considerable gap scalar elements, such as specified ascend-
between performance and theory until ing and descending movements, that
the present century. Vishnu Narayana might or might not employ adjacent steps.
Bhatkande, one of the leading Indian They may also employ oblique or zigzag
musicologists of this century, contributed movements. Ragas can be heptatonic,
a great deal toward diminishing the gap. hexatonic, or pentatonic and may also have
Being both a scholar and a performer, accidentals (sharpened or flattened notes)
he devoted much effort to collecting that occur only in specific melodic con-
and notating representative versions texts. A further distinction between scale
of a number of ragas from musicians and raga is found in the varying emphasis
belonging to different family traditions, placed on different notes in a raga. Ragas,
or gharanas. Based on this collection, he furthermore, also have melodic elements,
concluded that most of the ragas of North such as certain recurrent nuclear motives
Indian music can be grouped into the (brief melodic fragments) that enable the
following scales, called thatas (compare raga to be identified more easily. One scale
258 | The Culture of India
type can be the basis for perhaps 20 or 30 variable long; thus, if the long unit is five
ragas, in which case it is the nonscalar times the short, a tala pattern such as
elements that provide the distinguishing dhruva-tala will be 5 + 2 + 5 + 5, or 17 units.
features of each raga in the group. Several of these talas have the same total
duration but are distinguished from each
Rhythmic Organization other by their internal subdivisions. In
the course of a performance, the vocal-
Just as the system of classifying raga is ist as well as the audience may mark the
better organized in South Indian music, time by clapping, hand waving, and fin-
so too is the system of classifying tala, or ger counting.
time measure. In North Indian music the In addition to the suladi-talas, there
talas are fewer and not organized in any are four chapu-talas that are used in
systematic manner. South Indian classical music. Said to
derive from folk music, they consist of
South India two sections of unequal length, 1 + 2, 2 + 3,
3 + 4, and 4 + 5. Of these, the 3 + 4 com-
The main group is composed of 35 talas, bination is the most prominent. On rare
called the suladi-talas. Each tala is com- occasions a performer may use one of the
posed of one, two, or three different units: “classical” talas referred to in Sanskrit
short, medium, and long. The medium texts. These generally involve long time
unit is twice the duration of the short; the cycles composed of as many as 100 short
long unit is, however, a variable and may units. The most frequently heard time
be three, four, five, seven, or nine times measures, however, are adi-tala, a modi-
the duration of the short. There are seven fied eight-beat version of triputa-tala
basic tala patterns, and, because the long (4 + 2 + 2); mishra-chapu-tala (3 + 4); and
unit of these talas can be of five different rupaka-tala (4 + 2). The difficult and long
durations, the total number of talas in this talas are used primarily as a tour de force.
system is 35. The basic tala patterns are: Each tala may be performed in either
slow, medium, or quick tempo. There
is no gradual acceleration as in North
Indian music.
North India
a clap or a wave, with the greatest empha- begins with an improvised section, called
sis falling on beat 1 of the cycle, which alapa, played in free time without accom-
is called sam. North Indian talas have paniment of drums. It may have various
a further feature, the khali (“empty”), a sections and might on occasion last half
conscious negation of stress occurring an hour or longer. It is followed by a com-
at one or more points in each tala where posed piece in the same raga, set in a
one would expect a beat. It often falls at particular tala.
the halfway point in the time cycle and
is marked by a wave of the hand. There South India
is nothing comparable to the khali in
the South Indian system. A further dis- In South Indian music all composed
tinguishing feature found only in North pieces are primarily for the voice and
Indian talas is the emphasis placed on have lyrics. In North India, however,
the characteristic drum pattern of each there are also some purely instrumen-
tala, called theka. Two talas might have tal compositions, called gat and dhun.
the same duration and subdivisions but The emphasis on the composition var-
might, nevertheless, be differentiated ies in the different forms of song and,
from each other by different characteris- to some extent, in the interpretation of
tic drum patterns. In addition, the talas the performer. In South Indian music
are also associated with different forms the composed piece is generally empha-
of song and even particular tempi. The sized more than in the North. Much of
usual North Indian talas range from six the South Indian repertoire of compo-
to 16 time units in duration. The most sitions stems from three composers,
popular are tin-tala (4 + 4 + 4 + 4), eka-tala Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, and
(2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2), jhap-tala (2 + 3 + 2 + Syama Sastri, contemporaries who lived
3), kaharava (4 + 4), rupaka-tala (3 + 2 + 2), in the second half of the 18th and the
and dadra (3 + 3). Tin-tala should not be beginning of the 19th centuries. The
confused with Western 4/4, or common devotional songs that they composed,
time, for the time cycle repeats only after called kriti, are a delicate blend of text,
16 units and is more like four bars of com- melody, and rhythm and are the most
mon time. popular items of a South Indian con-
cert. The composed elements in these
Musical Forms and songs sometimes include sections such
Instruments as niraval, melodic variations with the
same text, and svara-kalpana, pas-
Both raga and tala provide bases for com- sages using the Indian equivalent of
position and improvisation in Indian the sol–fa syllables, which are otherwise
classical music. A performance usually improvised.
260 | The Culture of India
The longest item in the South Indian Pada and javali are two kinds of love
concert, called ragam-tanam-pallavi, is, songs using the poetic imagery char-
on the other hand, mostly improvised. It acteristic of the romantic-devotional
begins with a long alapa, called ragam movement mentioned earlier. Tillana has
in this context, presumably because this a text composed mostly of meaningless
elaborate, gradually developing alapa syllables, which may include the ono-
is intended to display the raga being matopoeic syllables used to represent
performed in as complete a manner as the different drum sounds. This is a very
possible, without the limitations imposed rhythmic piece and is usually sung in fast
by a fixed time measure. This is followed tempo.
by another improvised section, tanam, in The ensemble used in present-day
which the singer uses meaningless words South Indian classical music consists of
to produce more or less regular rhythms, a singer or a main melody instrument,
but still without reference to time mea- a secondary melody instrument, one or
sure. This section, too, is without drum more rhythmic percussion instruments,
accompaniment. The final section, pal- and one or more drone instruments. The
lavi, is a composition of words and most commonly heard main melody
melody set in a particular tala, usually instruments are the vina, a long-necked,
a long or complex one. The pallavi may fretted, plucked lute with seven strings;
have been composed by the performer the venu, a side-blown bamboo flute; the
himself and be unfamiliar to his accom- nagaswaram, a long, oboe-like, double-
panists, usually a violinist who echoes reed instrument with finger holes; the
the singer’s phrases and a drummer who violin, imported from the West in the 18th
plays the mridangam, a double-ended century, played while seated on the floor
drum. The statement of the composition with the scroll resting on the player’s
is followed by elaborate rhythmic and left foot; and the gottuvadyam, a long-
melodic variations that the accompanists necked lute without frets, played like the
are expected to follow. It is customary to Hawaiian guitar, with a sliding stop in the
have a drum solo at the end of the pal- left hand.
lavi, and the performance concludes with The violin is by far the most com-
a brief restatement of the pallavi. mon secondary melody instrument in
Other forms used in South Indian South India. It plays in unison where
classical music derive largely from the the passage is composed but imitates
musical repertoire of bharata natyam, the voice or main melody instrument in
the classical South Indian dance. The the improvised passages. Of the rhythm
varnam, a completely composed piece, instruments, the mridangam, a double-
serves mainly as a warming up and is conical, two-headed drum, is the most
performed at the beginning of a concert. common. Others include the kanjira, a
Indian Music | 261
tambourine; the ghatam, an earthenware sargam tanas, passages using the Indian
pot without skin covering; the morsing, a equivalent of the sol–fa syllables, and the
metallic jew’s harp; and the tavil, a slightly a-kar tanas, which are rapid runs sung
barrel-shaped, double-ended drum, which to the syllable aah. The second type of
accompanies the nagaswaram. The most khayal, which may be as much as eight
prominent drone instrument is the four- times faster than the slow and is generally
stringed tamboura, a long-necked lute set in a different tala, follows the slow. Its
without frets. It accompanies the voice composed portion is usually quite short,
and all melody instruments, except the and the main features of the improvisa-
nagaswaram, which is usually accompa- tion are the a-kar tanas. Occasionally, a
nied by the ottu, a longer version of the composition called tarana, made up of
nagaswaram but without finger holes. A meaningless syllables, may replace the
hand-pumped harmonium drone, called fast-tempo khayal.
shruti or shruti box, sometimes replaces The thumri is another North Indian
the ottu or the tamboura. vocal form and is based on the roman-
tic-devotional literature inspired by the
North India bhakti movement. The text is usually
derived from the Radha-Krishna theme
The most common vocal form in North and is of primary importance. The words
Indian classical music at the present time are strictly adhered to, and the singer
is the khayal, a Muslim word meaning attempts to interpret them with his
“imagination.” The khayal is contrasted melodic improvisations. It is quite usual
to the dhruvapada (now known as dhru- for a singer to deviate momentarily from
pad), which means “fixed words.” The the raga in which the composition is set,
two forms existed side by side in the by using accidentals and evoking other
Islamic period, and it is only since the ragas that might be suggested by the
19th century that the khayal has been words, but he always returns to the origi-
predominant. There are two types of nal raga.
khayal. The first is sung in extremely Some of the North Indian musical
slow tempo, with each syllable of the text forms are very like the South Indian.
having extensive melisma (prolongation The vocal forms dhrupad and dhamar
of a syllable over many notes), so that the resemble the ragam-tanam-pallavi. They
words are virtually unrecognizable. It is begin with an elaborate alapa followed
not usually preceded by a lengthy alapa; by the more rhythmic but unmeasured
instead, alapa-like phrases are generally non-tom using meaningless syllables
sung against the very slow time mea- such as te, re, na, nom, and tom. Then
sure to the accompaniment of the drums. follow the four composed sections of
Also characteristic of the khayal are the the dhrupad or dhamar, the latter being
262 | The Culture of India
A group of Indian musicians, the two in the foreground playing the tabla (left) and sitar. Bert
Hardy/Hulton Archive/Getty Images
Tabla
The pair of small unmatched drums that
is fundamental (since the 18th century)
to Hindustani music of northern India,
Pakistan, and Bangladesh is the tabla. The
higher-pitched of the two drums, which is
played with the right hand, is also referred
to individually as the tabla or as the daya
(dahina or dayan, meaning “right”). It is a
single-headed drum usually of wood and hav-
ing the profile of two truncated cones bulging
at the centre, the lower portion shorter. It is
about 25 cm (10 inches) in height and 15 cm
(6 inches) across. Skin tension is maintained
by thong lacings and wooden dowels that are
tapped with a hammer in retuning. It is usu-
ally tuned to the tonic, or ground note, of the
raga (melodic pattern).
The baya (bahina or bayan, meaning
“left”), played with the left hand, is a deep
kettledrum measuring about 25 cm (10
inches) in height, and the drum face is about
20 cm (8 inches) in diameter. It is usually
made of copper but may also be made of
An Indian worker repairs a tabla, a tra-
clay or wood, with a hoop and thong lacings
ditional Indian two-headed drum. Noah
to maintain skin tension. Pressure from the
Seelam/AFP/Getty Images
heel of the player’s hand changes the tone
colour and pitch. The tuning of the baya
varies, but it may be a fifth or an octave below the daya. A disk of black tuning paste placed
on the skin of each drum affects pitch and also generates overtones characteristic of the
drums’ sound. The musician plays the tabla while seated, with the baya to the left of the daya.
Sound is produced on the drums through a variety of different finger and hand strokes. Each
drum stroke can be expressed by a corresponding vocable, used for both teaching and per-
formance purposes. The intricate music of the drums reflects the rhythmic pattern (tala) of
the piece.
Tabla can be documented in India from the late 18th century. Originally associated with
courtesan dance traditions, tabla now are used in a variety of genres and styles of Hindustani
music. Distinguished players of the tabla include Alla Rakha and his son Zakir Hussain.
Indian Music | 265
century) was an expert kathak dancer to celebrate the glory of their particular
and producer of Krishnalore plays in deities. During the Dashahara festival
which his palace maids danced as the every village in North India enacts for
gopis (milkmaids who were devotees of a fortnight the story of Rama’s life, with
Krishna). Maharajas of Travancore and songs, dances, and pageants. The jatra
Mysore competed with each other for the in West Bengal is a year-round dramatic
excellence of their dance troupes. In the activity, but the number of troupes swells
20th century the maharaja of Varanasi to many thousands in Kolkata during the
carried on this tradition by being patron Puja festival. The hill and tribal people
and producer of the spectacular ramlila, dance all night to celebrate their commu-
a 31-day cycle play on Rama’s life that he nity festivals and weddings rich in masks,
witnessed every night while sitting on pageants, and carnivals. In more-remote
his royal elephant. On special nights the areas of South Asia, people may not have
spectators numbered more than 30,000. seen a drama, but there will be hardly a
Dance is a part of all Hindu rituals. person who has not witnessed or taken
Farmers dance for a plentiful harvest, part in a community dance.
hunters for a rich bag, fishermen for a In folk theatre, traditional dance,
good catch. Seasonal festivals, religious classical music, and poetical symposia,
fairs, marriages, and births are celebrated performances are held in the open air or
by community dancing. A warrior dances in a well-lit canopied courtyard so that
before the image of his goddess and the players can see the spectators and be
receives her blessings before he leaves motivated by their reactions.
for battle. A temple girl dances to please For the usually all-night folk dramas,
her god. The gods dance in joy, in anger, people come with their children, straw
in triumph. The world itself was created mats, and snacks, making themselves
by the Cosmic Dance of Lord Shiva, who at home. At these performances there is
is called Nataraja, the king of dancers, a constant inflow and outflow of spec-
and worshipped by actors and dancers as tators. Some go to sleep, asking their
their patron. neighbours to awaken them for favourite
Religious festivals are still the most scenes. Stalls selling betel leaves, pea-
important occasions for dance and nuts, and spicy fried things, adorned with
theatrical activity. The ramlila krish- flowers and incense and lighted by oil
nalala and raslila in North India (Uttar lamps, surround the open-air arena.
Pradesh, Delhi, Rajasthan, Haryana, and The clown, an essential character in
Punjab), the chhau masked dance-drama every folk play, comments on the audi-
in Saraikela region in Jharkhand, and ence and contemporary events. Zealous
the bhagavatha mela in Melatur village spectators offer donations and gifts in
in Tamil Nadu are performed annually appreciation of their favourite actor or
Indian Performing Arts | 269
Cluster of betel nuts, seeds of the betel palm (Areca catechu). Betel nuts are traditionally
sold at folk plays. Wayne Lukas–Group IV—The National Audubon Society Collection/Photo
Researchers
dancer, who receives them in the middle response. During a kathak dance, the
of the performance and thanks the donor drummer, in order to test the perfection
by singing or dancing a particular piece of the dancer, disguises the main beat of
of his choice. The audience thus con- his drum by slurs and offbeats, a secret he
stantly throws sparks to the performer, shares with the audience and announces
who throws them back. People laugh, by a loud thump that is synchronized
weep, sigh, or suddenly fall silent during with the dancer’s stamping of the foot.
a moving scene. At this point in the dance, the spectators
In both folk and classical forms of shout, swaying their heads in admira-
drama, the performer may lengthen or tion. They show their approval and
shorten his piece according to audience disapproval through delighted groans
270 | The Culture of India
or sullen headshakes as the performance takes the form of dance when the rhythm
goes on. In the raslila, the audience joins becomes fast.
in singing the refrain and marks the beat In folk theatre this relationship
by hand clapping. At a climactic point is even more apparent. Raslila dance
the people rock and sway, rhythmically sequences are interspersed with the
clapping and singing. These practices singing as a decorative frill, to accen-
bind the performers, chanters, and spec- tuate emotional appeal, or to mark the
tators together in a sense of aesthetic climax of a song. The yakshagana hero
pleasure. gives a brisk dance number to announce
Instrumental music and singing are his entry. In many folk forms of opera
integral parts of Indian dance and theatre. (bhavai, terukkuttu, and nautanki), the
Musicians, chanters, and drummers sit characters sing and dance at the same
on the stage in view, a tradition observed time or alternate. Ballad singers from
throughout almost all of Asia. They watch the states of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh
the dancer and play on their instruments dramatize their singing by strong facial
following his movements, whereas in the gestures and rhythmic ankle bells and
West the movements of a ballerina are execute dance phrases between the nar-
timed and controlled by the already writ- rative singing. On the other hand, no one
ten music. An Indian dancer is constantly can imagine a dancer who is not at the
reacting to the accompanying musician, same time a musician. This double aes-
and vice versa. He may signal the chant- thetic discipline enriches both of these
ers and drummers and even instruct them arts, and the Indian audience is condi-
during the performance without spoiling tioned to this tradition.
its aesthetic effect.
In some classical dance forms, such Indian Dance
as kuchipudi, the dancer sings in voice-
less whispers as she dances. In bharata Dance in India can be organized into
natyam the dance movements are like three categories: classical, folk, and mod-
sculpted music in space, and the accom- ern. Classical dance forms are among
panying musician is invariably a dance the best-preserved and oldest practiced
guru (teacher). In kathak the rhythmic in the 21st century. The royal courts, the
syllables beaten out by the dancer with temples, and the guru to pupil teach-
her feet are vocalized by the singer and ing tradition have kept this art alive and
then chirped out by the drummer. No stable. Folk dancing has remained in
folk dancing is complete without the use rural areas as an expression of the daily
of drum and vocal singing. Women’s folk work and rituals of village communities.
singing such as the giddha in the Punjab Modern Indian dance, a product of the
and the men’s kirtan in West Bengal 20th century, is a creative mixture of the
Indian Performing Arts | 271
architecture, production, makeup, cos- hand, for example, in which all the fingers
tumes, masks, and various bhavas are extended and held close together
(“emotions”) and rasas (“sentiments”). with the thumb bent, can represent heat,
No other book of ancient times contains rain, a crowd of men, the night, a forest,
such an exhaustive study of dramaturgy. a horse, or a flight of birds. The pataka
hand with the third finger bent (tripa-
Techniques and Types taka) can mean a crown, a tree, marriage,
of Classical Dance fire, a door, or a king. In karkata (“crab”),
one of the combined hand gestures, the
According to the Natya-shastra, the fingers of the hands are interlocked, and
dancer-actor communicates the meaning this may indicate a honeycomb, yawning
of a play through four kinds of abhinaya after sleep, or a conch shell. Of course,
(histrionic representations): angika, for each of these different meanings, a
transmitting emotion through the styl- hasta is given a different body posture or
ized movements of parts of the body; action.
vachika, speech, song, pitch of vowels, The male or female classical dancer
and intonation; aharya, costumes and portraying a story in a solo performance
makeup; and sattvika, the entire psycho- simultaneously plays two or three prin-
logical resources of the dancer-actor. cipal characters by alternating facial
The actor is equipped with a com- expressions, gestures, and moods.
plicated repertoire of stylized gestures. Krishna, his jealous wife Satyabhama,
Conventionalized movements are pre- and his gentle wife Rukmini, for example,
scribed for every part of the body, the may be played by one person.
eyes and hands being the most impor- The aesthetic pleasure of Hindu
tant. There are 13 movements of the head, dance and theatre is determined by how
seven of the eyebrows, six for the nose, six successful the artist is in expressing a par-
for the cheek, seven for the chin, nine for ticular emotion (bhava) and evoking the
the neck, five for the breasts, and 36 for rasa. Literally, rasa means “taste” or “fla-
the eyes. There are 32 movements of feet, vour.” The rasa is that exalted sentiment
16 on the ground and 16 in the air. Various or mood that the spectator experiences
positions of the feet (strutting, minc- after witnessing a performance. The crit-
ing, tromping, splaying, beating, etc.) are ics do not generally concern themselves
carefully worked out. There are 24 single- so much about plot construction or tech-
hand gestures (asamyuta-hasta) and 13 nical perfection of a poem or play as
for combined hands (samyuta-hasta). about the rasa of a particular work. There
One gesture (hasta) may mean more are nine rasas: erotic, comic, pathetic,
than 30 different things quite unrelated furious, heroic, terrible, odious, marvel-
to each other. The pataka gesture of the ous, and spiritually peaceful. There are
Indian Performing Arts | 273
nine corresponding bhavas: love, laugh- devadasis, temple dancing girls who
ter, pathos, anger, energy, fear, disgust, devoted their lives to their gods through
wonder, and quietude. this medium. Muslim invasions from
Four distinct schools of classi- the north destroyed the powerful Hindu
cal Indian dance—bharata natyam, kingdoms in the south but could not
kathakali, kathak, and manipuri—exist in disrupt their arts, which took shelter in
the 21st century, along with two types of the temples. After the 16th century the
temperament—tandava, representing the Muslims overpowered the south com-
fearful male energy of Shiva, and lasya, pletely until the British came, thus giving
representing the lyrical grace of Shiva’s a setback to Hindu dance. Slowly the
wife Parvati. Bharata natyam, which takes institution of devadasi fell into disre-
its name from Bharata’s Natya-shastra, pute, and temple dancing girls became
has the lasya character, and its home is synonymous with prostitutes. In the lat-
Tamil Nadu, in South India. Kathakali, a ter half of the 19th century in Tanjore
pantomimic dance-drama in the tandava (Thanjavur), four talented dancers who
mood with towering headgear and elabo- were brothers—Chinniyah, Punniah,
rate facial makeup, originated in Kerala. Vadivelu, and Shivanandam—revived the
Kathak is a mixture of lasya and tandava original purity of dasi attam by study-
characterized by intricate footwork and ing and following the ancient texts and
mathematical precision of rhythmic pat- temple friezes, with missing links sup-
terns; it flourishes in the north. Manipuri, plied by the socially spurned devadasis.
with its swaying and gliding movements, Their popularized form of dasi attam was
is lasya, and it has been preserved in called bharata natyam.
Manipur state in the Assam Hills. In 1958 A performance of bharata natyam
the Sangeet Natak Akademi (National lasts for about two hours and consists
Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama) in of six parts, beginning with allarippu
New Delhi bestowed classical status on (Telegu language, “to decorate with flow-
two other schools of dance—kuchipudi, ers”), a devotional prologue that shows off
from Andhra Pradesh, and orissi, from the elegance and grace of the dancer. The
Orissa. These two styles overlap the second part is jatisvaram, a brilliant blaze
bharata natyam school and therefore of jatis (“dance phrases”) with svaras
are not as distinctly different in tempera- (“musical sounds”). This is followed by
ment and style as other forms. shabdam, the singing words that prepare
the dancer to interpret through abhinaya
The Bharata Natyam School (gesture language) interspersed with
pure dance. The fourth part is varnam,
Bharata natyam (also called dasi attam) a combination of expressive and pure
has survived to the present through the dance. Then follow the padams, songs in
274 | The Culture of India
Telegu, Tamil, or Kannada that the dancer who injected vigour into bharata natyam
dramatizes by facial expressions and by his choreography, and his son-in-law,
hand gestures. The accompanying singer Chokkalingam Pillai.
chants the line again and again, and the
dancer enacts the clashing and contrast- The Kathakali School
ing meanings. Her virtuosity consists of
exhausting all possible shades of sugges- Kathakali (katha, “story”; kali, “perfor-
tion. The performance ends with tillana, a mance”) originated in the 17th century in
pure dance accompanied by meaningless Kerala, the lush tropical coastal strip of
musical syllables chanted to punctuate South India washed by the Arabian Sea.
the rhythm. The dancer explodes into It was devised by the raja of Kottarakkara,
leaps and jumps forward and backward, who, angry over the refusal of a neigh-
from right and left, in a state of ecstasy. bouring prince to allow his dancers to
Tillana ends with three clangs of the perform a Sanskrit dance-drama in his
cymbals while the dancer executes a court, decided to create his own dance
triple blaze of jatis, thumping her feet troupe using Malayalam, the spoken
with a jingling flourish of ankle bells. language of the people. This school has
Bharata natyam has attained world its own hastas, based on a regional text
recognition as one of the most exquisite influenced by the Natya-shastra and
forms of classical dance. Its aspirants later treatises. It also has marked ele-
go to Tamil Nadu to learn from gurus ments of energetic ritualistic dances. The
who still live in villages. Because of its makeup has its roots in the grotesque
lasya character, performing artists have pre-Hindu demon masks. Themes are
always been women. But their teachers taken mainly from the Ramayana, the
have invariably been old men who chant Shiva-purana, the Bhagavata-purana, the
the lines to tiny cymbals, controlling Mahabharata, and other religious texts.
the complex rhythm without dancing The superhuman characters represent
themselves. primal forces of good and evil at war.
The major performers associ- Because of its terrifying vigour, men play
ated with the bharata natyam school all the roles.
of dance in the 20th century were T. Most kathakali characters (except
Balasaraswathi, especially known for her those of women, Brahmans, and sages)
abhinaya (expressive interpretation) of wear towering headgear and billowing
padams; Rukmini Devi, who popularized skirts and have their fingers fitted with
bharata natyam among the upper classes long silver nails to accentuate hand
in the 1930s; Yamini Krishnamurthi; and gestures. The principal characters are
Shanta Rao. Two of the most important classified into seven types. (1) Pachcha
gurus were Minakshisundaram Pillai, (“green”) is the noble hero whose face
Indian Performing Arts | 275
Kalamandalam Krishna Nair. The danc- them, and adds complex rhythmic pat-
ers Guru Gopi Nath and Krishnan Kutty terns. The mathematical precision in
have both emphasized simplification of doubling and quadrupling the beat with
the use of towering headgear and thick- quick transfers and shifts makes the
crusted, elaborate makeup, so that the art onlookers dizzy.
may be more commonly understood. A female kathak dancer generally
wears a brocade blouse, a long, wide,
The Kathak School shimmering silk skirt, a transparent tis-
sue scarf of gold threads, and a heavy
Kathak, born of the marriage of Hindu cluster of ankle bells. A musician, gener-
and Muslim cultures, flourished in North ally the guru, sits beside the drummer on
India under Mughal influence. Kathak the floor and vocalizes the complicated
dancers retain their 17th-century cos- syllables of the drum that the dancer
tumes but are steeped in Radha and beats out with her feet. Kathak’s basic
Krishna love lore. Krishna, playing his dance posture and some of the steps can
flute in the Vrindavana woods on the bank be traced to the rasilla of Braj Bhoomi.
of the Yamuna River, is surrounded by the The musical refrain, which is called
gopis (“milkmaids”). Their play is the eter- lehra, provides the base on which the
nal game of the god and his devotees, the drummer and the dancer execute a rich
hide-and-seek of man and woman. This tapestry of rhythmic patterns. Beats are
spiritual relationship is deeply passion- called matras and the footwork tatkar.
ate, with erotic love-play. Slowly the dance Important elements of the dance are
degenerated and found shelter in bawdy chakkars, torahs, and tihais. Chakkar
houses, where professional dancing girls denotes whirling with great speed and
practiced the art to make themselves stopping for a fraction of time after each
more tantalizing. In the beginning of the whirl within the prescribed beat while at
20th century it was reclaimed and revived, the same time maintaining the beauty
however, mainly through the efforts of the form. Torah is a composition con-
of Kalkaprasad Maharaj, whose three sisting of rhythmic syllables. Tihai is the
sons—Achchan, Lachchu, and Shambhu— repetition of a phrase of rhythmic syl-
perfected the art. lables used to adorn the concluding part
Because of its mixed lasya and tan- of a torah. There are two styles of kathak:
dava temperament, kathak is popular Jaipur gharana and Lucknow gharana.
with both females and males. In bharata While the Lucknow gharana excels in
natyam, footwork is synchronized with bhava, the Jaipur gharana specializes in
hand gestures and eye movements, but brilliance of footwork.
kathak has no such rigid technique. It In the 20th century the major per-
takes its movements from life, stylizes formers of kathak included Shambhu
Indian Performing Arts | 277
Maharaj, who specialized in bhavapra- in sharp contrast with the other three
darshan (“display of emotion”), and schools of dance, in which the face and
Sunder Prasad, who concentrated on the eyes are a major source of expression.
tala and layakari aspects of the dance. The manipuri drummer, his bare
Birju Maharaj, Gopi Krishan, Sitara Devi, torso in a white dhoti with a red bor-
and Damayanti Joshi all have important der tucked up above his knees, dances
reputations in India as well as abroad. while he plays on the drum. He slaps and
thumps; the drum rumbles and howls
The Manipuri School and chuckles. Drunk with its rhythm,
the drummer dances in wild, frenzied
Manipuri has survived in the sheltered leaps. His energetic and electric move-
valley of Manipur in the Assam Hills. ments are a masculine counterpart to
It remained aloof not only from foreign the slow, undulating patterns woven by
influences but also from the main Indian the female dancer.
trends. Its isolation was broken only in Chief 20th-century exponents of
the 1920s, when Rabindranath Tagore manipuri included Atomba Singh, who
visited the valley and invited a leading preserved the tradition of ras dancing,
guru of the area, Atomba Singh, to teach and Amubi Singh.
at his school in Santiniketan. The supple
movements of manipuri dance were suit- The Kuchipudi School
able for Tagore’s lyrical dramas, and he
therefore employed them in his plays and Kuchipudi dance-dramas owe their ori-
introduced the dance as a part of the cur- gin to the small village of Kuchipudi
riculum at his institution. (Kuchelapuram) in Andhra Pradesh.
The manipuri dancer wears a large, Their form was originated in the 17th
stiff skirt that is glittering with round century by Sidhyendra Yogi, creator
mirror pieces and a shimmering gauze of the superb dance-drama Bhama
veil. Her hair is done up in a high rolled Kalapam, which is the story of charm-
crown that is adorned with chains of ing Satyabhama, jealous wife of Lord
white blossoms, and her luminous cheeks Krishna. Sidhyendra Yogi taught the
and forehead are decorated with dots of art to Brahman boys of Kuchipudi and
sandalwood paste. gave a performance with them in 1675
Known for its femininity, manipuri for the nawab of Golconda, who was so
is marked by a slow, swooning rhythm. pleased that he granted Kuchipudi to
The dancer, with her hips thrust back and the Brahman Bhavathas for the pres-
head tilted on one side, turns and sways ervation of this art. Even into the 20th
and glides as if in a dream. The immo- century, every Brahman of Kuchipudi
bility of her face, like that of a mask, is was expected to perform at least once in
278 | The Culture of India
songs with Karnatak music. Kuravanchi Konkan coast of west-central India, the
is a dance-drama of lyrical beauty prev- kolyacha is an enactment of the rowing
alent in Tamil Nadu. It is performed by of a boat. Women wave handkerchiefs to
four to eight women, with a gypsy for- their male partners, who move with slid-
tune-teller as initiator of the story of a ing steps. For wedding parties, young
lady pining for her lover. Formally, it is a Kolis dance in the streets carrying house-
mixture of the folk and classical types of hold utensils for the newlywed couple,
Indian dance. who join the dance at its climax.
The national social folk dance of
Folk Dance Rajasthan is the ghoomar, danced by
women in long full skirts and colour-
Indian folk dances have an inexhaust- ful chuneris (squares of cloth draping
ible variety of forms and rhythms. They head and shoulders and tucked in front
differ according to region, occupation, at the waist). Especially spectacular are
and caste. The Adivasis (aboriginal tribes) the kachchi ghori dancers of this region.
of central and eastern India (Murias, Equipped with shields and long swords,
Bhils, Gonds, Juangs, and Santals) are the upper part of their bodies each
the most uninhibited in their dancing. arrayed in the traditional attire of a bride-
There is hardly a national fair or festival groom and the lower part concealed by
where these dances are not performed. a brilliant-coloured papier-mâché horse
The most impressive occasion occurs built up on a bamboo frame, they enact
every January 26 on Republic Day, when jousting contests at marriages and festi-
dancers from all parts of India come to vals. Bawaris generally are expert in this
New Delhi to dance in the vast arena of form of folk dance.
the National Stadium and along a five- In the Punjab region, which spans
mile parade route. parts of India and Pakistan, the most
It is difficult to categorize Indian dynamic social folk dance is the male har-
folk dances, but generally they fall into vest dance, bhangra. This dance is always
four groups: social (concerned with such punctuated by a song. At the end of every
labours as tilling, sowing, fishing, and line the drum thunders. The last line is
hunting); religious (in praise of deities or taken up by all the dancers in a chorus.
in celebration of spiritual fulfillment); rit- In ecstasy they spring, bellow, shout, and
ualistic (to propitiate a deity with magical gallop in a circle, madly wiggling their
rites); and masked (a type that appears in shoulders and hips. Any man of any age
all the above categories). can join.
The kolyacha is among the better- The Lambadi women of Andhra
known examples of social folk dance. Pradesh wear mirror-speckled head-
A fisherman’s dance indigenous to the dresses and skirts and cover their arms
280 | The Culture of India
This young dancer from Rajasthan performs a traditional ghoomar dance during celebrations
for the 14th National Youth Festival in Amritsar in 2009. Narinder Nanu/AFP/Getty Images
with broad, white bone bracelets. They The women, their heads surmounted
dance in slow, swaying movements, with by broad, solid-brass chaplets and their
men acting as singers and drummers. breasts covered with heavy metal neck-
Their social dance is imbued with impas- laces, carry sticks in their right hands
sioned grace and lyricism. like drum majorettes. Fifty to 100 men
The bison-horn dance of the Muria and women dance at a time. The male
tribe in Madhya Pradesh is performed by “bison” attack and fight each other,
both men and women, who traditionally spearing up leaves with their horns and
have lived on equal terms. The men wear chasing the female dancers, while imi-
a horned headdress with a tall tuft of tating various movements of a bison.
feathers and a fringe of cowry shells dan- The Juang tribe in Orissa performs
gling over their faces. A drum shaped bird and animal dances with vivid mim-
like a log is slung around their necks. ing and powerful muscular agility.
Indian Performing Arts | 281
bhangra
Bhangra is a folk dance and a music of the Punjab (northwestern India and northeastern
Pakistan) and the popular music genre that emerged from it in the mid-to-late 20th cen-
tury. Cultivated in two separate but interactive styles—one centred in South Asia, the other
within the South Asian community of the United Kingdom—the newer bhangra blends various
Western popular musics with the original Punjabi tradition. It enjoys an immense following in
South Asia and within the South Asian diaspora.
The term bhangra originally designated a particular dance performed by Sikh and
Muslim men in the farming districts of the Punjab region of South Asia. The dance was
associated primarily with the spring harvest festival Baisakhi, and it is from one of the
major products of the harvest—bhang (hemp)—that bhangra drew its name. In a typical
These Indian young people perform bhangra, a traditional Punjabi folk dance, during
Republic Day in Amritsar, India, on January 26, 2010. Narinder Nanu/AFP/Getty Images
Indian Performing Arts | 283
performance, several dancers executed vigorous kicks, leaps, and bends of the body to the
accompaniment of short songs called boliyan and, most significantly, to the beat of a dhol
(double-headed drum). Struck with a heavy beater on one end and with a lighter stick on the
other, the dhol imbued the music with a syncopated (accents on the weak beats), swinging
rhythmic character that has generally remained the hallmark of any music that has come to
bear the bhangra name.
In the mid-20th century the bhangra dance began to gain popularity beyond the Punjab,
and, as it did so, it became divorced from the agricultural cycle, emerging as a regular feature
of wedding festivities, birthday parties, local fairs, and other celebrations. With the change in
context came changes in other aspects of tradition. The term bhangra expanded to encompass
not only the dance but also the instrumental and vocal music that was associated with it; the
large dhol was replaced by the similar yet smaller dholak, played with the hands; various local
instruments—such as the flute, zither, fiddle, harmonium (a portable, hand-pumped organ),
and tabla—were added to the accompaniment; and the topics of the song texts broadened from
agricultural themes to include literary, romantic, and subtly comic material. In the later 20th
century, guitar, mandolin, saxophone, synthesizer, drum set, and other Western instruments
were added to the ensemble.
Bit by bit, bhangra began to amass an audience that extended beyond the boundaries of
South Asia to Britain. There the music gained momentum as a positive emblem of South Asian
identity, particularly in Southall, the predominantly South Asian suburb of London’s West End.
Aside from matters of musical style, British bhangra differed from South Asian bhangra in
other significant ways. These events provided a venue for men and women to dance together as
couples to the sound of South Asian music. The new bhangra eventually seeped into the night-
club scene.
In the mid-1990s, however, British musicians, began to use their music as a vehicle for
poignant social commentary. Not only did these and other artists address such issues as
racial conflict and the HIV/AIDS epidemic, but they tapped stylistic features of reggae, rap,
and other African American and Afro-Caribbean popular music genres. Alongside these top-
ical changes, the song texts shifted increasingly from Punjabi to English or to a mixture of
the two. Meanwhile, bhangra in South Asia experienced similar changes, although its style
generally retained a clearer link to its rural folk roots. Gurdas Maan is largely credited for
elevating Punjabi music from a regional tradition to one that draws audiences throughout
South Asia. Expanding the music’s listenership was indeed one of Maan’s priorities; to that
end, he sang in a simplified Punjabi for Hindi-speaking audiences and also composed songs
in Urdu, a language closely related to Hindi and spoken in northern India and Pakistan.
Both bhangras have continued to develop—albeit along somewhat different trajectories—in
the 21st century. The South Asian style enjoys a tremendous following, particularly within South
Asia. The British style, by contrast, has a strong listenership not only in the United Kingdom but
also within South Asian communities of Canada and the United States.
284 | The Culture of India
predominantly human features slightly be her partner in the ballet Radha and
modified to suggest what they are por- Krishna. Young Shankar returned to India
traying. With serene expressions painted fired with enthusiasm. After studying the
in simple, flat colours, they differ radi- essentials of the four major styles of clas-
cally from the elaborate facial makeup sical dance, he created new ballets with
of kathakali or the exaggerated ghoul- complex choreography and music, mix-
ishness of the Kandyan masks. His face ing the sounds from wooden clappers and
being expressionless, the chhau dancer’s metal cymbals with those of traditional
body communicates the total emotional instruments. He used classical and folk
and psychological tensions of a charac- rhythms. Employing Western stage tech-
ter. His feet have a gesture language; his niques, he presented his ballets with a skill
toes are agile, functional, and expressive. and style previously unknown to Indian
The dancer is mute; no song is sung. Only audiences. These ballets included Shiva-
instrumental music accompanies him. In Parvati and Lanka Dahan (“The Burning
another form of chhau, practiced in the of Lanka”), in which he used wooden
Mayurbhanj district of Orissa, the actors masks from Sri Lanka. In Rhythm of Life
do not wear masks, but through deliber- (1938) and in Labour and Machinery
ately stiff and immobile faces they give (1939), he employed contemporary politi-
the illusion of a mask. The style of their cal and social themes. He established
dance is vigorous and acrobatic. a culture centre at Almora in 1939 and
during its four years’ existence created a
Modern Indian Dance whole generation of modern dancers.
Shanti Bardhan, a junior colleague
While in the West the theatrical ele- of Uday Shankar, produced some of
ments of spoken words, music, and dance the most imaginative dance-dramas of
developed independently and evolved the 20th century. After founding the
in the forms of drama, opera, and ballet, Little Ballet Troupe in Andheri, now in
Indian theatrical tradition continued to Mumbai, in 1952 he produced Ramayana,
combine the three in its dramas. Indian in which the actors moved and danced
films still follow this rule (the heroine like puppets. His posthumous production
suddenly bursts into a song or dances Panchatantra (The Winning of Friends) is
for the hero). Since the mid-20th century, based on an ancient fable of four friends
dance in the form of ballet with choreog- (Mouse, Turtle, Deer, and Crow), in which
raphy in the Western sense has emerged he used masks and the mimed move-
as a distinct form. ments of animals and birds.
Modern Indian ballet started with Narendra Sharma and Sachin
Uday Shankar, who went to England to Shankar, both pupils of Uday Shankar,
study the plastic arts and was chosen by continued his tradition. Other impor-
the Russian ballerina Anna Pavlova to tant figures who have shaped modern
Indian Performing Arts | 285
Indian dance include Menaka, Ram companies, and academies are found in
Gopal, and Mrinalini Sarabhai, who has Kautilya’s book on statesmanship, the
experimented with conveying modern Artha-shastra (4th century BC).
themes through the bharata natyam and
kathakali styles. Classical Theatre
both dealing with courtesans and crooks. Aristotle’s theory of catharsis bears no
King Mahendravikramavarman’s 7th- resemblance to Bharata’s theory of rasa.
century-AD Bhagavad-Ajjukiya (“The The Greek conception of tragedy is
Harlot and the Monk”) and Mattavilasa totally absent in Sanskrit dramas, as is
(“Drunken Revelry”) are examples of the aesthetic principle that prohibits any
prahasana. death or defeat of the hero on stage.
There are three structural types of There were two types of Hindu pro-
classical theatre: oblong, square, and tri- ductions: the lokadharmi, or realistic
angular, each further divided into large, theatre, with natural presentation of
medium, and small sizes. According to the human behaviour and properties catering
Natya-shastra, the playhouse was “like a to the popular taste, and the natyadharmi,
mountain cave” with two floors at differ- or stylized drama, which, using gesture
ent levels, small windows so that outside language and symbols, was considered
noise and wind would not interfere with more artistic. In Shakuntala the king
the acoustics, and a backstage for actors enters riding an imaginary chariot, and
to do makeup, costumes, and offstage Shakuntala plucks flowers that are not
noise effects. Bharata disapproved of a there; in “The Little Clay Cart” the thief
large playhouse and recommended the breaks through a nonexistent wall, and
medium-size structure meant for court Maitreya passes through Vasantasena’s
productions. seven courtyards by miming.
The ancient Hindus insisted on a A classical play traditionally opened
small playhouse, because dramas were with the nandi, a benediction of eight
acted in a highly stylized gesture lan- to 12 lines of verse in praise of the gods,
guage with subtle movements of eyes after which the sutra-dhara (stage man-
and hands. Hindu theatre differed from ager) entered with his wife and described
its Greek counterpart in temperament the place and occasion of the action. The
and method of production. The three last sentence of his prologue served as a
unities rigidly followed by the Greeks bridge leading to the action of the play.
were totally unknown to Sanskrit dra- In Shakuntala he refers to the bewitch-
matists. Less time was consumed by a ing song of his wife, which has made him
Greek program of three tragedies and forget his surroundings as the pursuit
a farce than by a single Sanskrit drama, of a deer has made the king forget his
with its subsidiary plots and wide vari- state affairs. At this point the king enters,
ety of characters and moods. The Greeks riding his hunting chariot, and the spec-
laid emphasis on plot and speech, the tators are plunged into action of the play.
Hindus on the four types of acting and The vidushaka (clown) is a noble,
visual demonstration. People were audi- good-hearted, blundering fool, the
ences to the Greeks and spectators to the trusted friend of the hero. A bald-headed
Hindus. The aesthetic rules also differed. glutton, comic in speech and manners, he
Indian Performing Arts | 287
employs music, dance, drumming, exag- In most folk forms the art of the actor
gerated makeup, masks, and a singing is hereditary. He learns by watching his
chorus. Thematically, it deals with myth- elders throughout childhood. He starts
ological heroes, medieval romances, and with drumming, then dancing, plays
social and political events, and it is a rich female roles, and then major roles.
store of customs, beliefs, legends, and rit- All roles are played by men except
uals. It is a “total theatre,” invading all the that of the tamasha woman, who is always
senses of the spectators. a dancer-singer-actress. Since the mid-
The most crystalized forms are the 20th century, women have increasingly
jatra of Bengal, the nautanki, ramlila, played female roles in the jatra, but they
and raslila of North India, the bhavai of have yet to achieve the artistic stature of
Gujarat, the tamasha of Maharashtra, the their professional male counterparts.
terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu, and the yak- In the ramlila and raslila the princi-
shagana of Karnataka. pal characters—Rama and Krishna—are
Folk theatre is performed in the always played by boys under age 14,
open on a variety of arena stages; round, because tradition decreed they must
square, rectangular, multiple-set. The be pure and innocent. They are consid-
bhavai, enacted on a ground-level circle, ered representatives of the gods and are
and the jatra, on a 16-foot (5-metre) worshipped on these occasions. In the
square platform, have gangways that run ramlila the vyas (“director”), present on
through the surrounding audience and the stage throughout the performance,
connect the stage to the dressing room. prompts and directs the characters loudly
Actors enter and exit through these enough for the audience to hear. This is
gangways, which serve a function similar not regarded as disturbing, because it is
to the hanamichi of the Japanese Kabuki an accepted part of the tradition. Adult
theatre. In the ramlila the action some- roles such as Ravana and Hanuman are
times occurs simultaneously at various sometimes played by the same individual
levels on a multiple set. Actors in nau- throughout his life.
tanki and bhavai sit on the stage in full Of the nonreligious forms, the jatra
view instead of exiting and sing or play and the tamasha are most important. The
an instrument as a part of the chorus. jatra, also popular in Orissa and eastern
In the ramlila the actor playing Ravana Bihar, originated in Bengal in the 15th
removes his 10-headed mask when he is century as a result of the bhakti move-
not acting and continues sitting on his ment, in which devotees of Krishna went
throne, but for the spectators he is the- singing and dancing in processions and
atrically absent. Asides, soliloquies, and in their frenzied singing sometimes went
monologues abound. Scenes melt into into acting trances. This singing with
one another, and the action continues in dramatic elements gradually came to be
spite of change of locale. known as jatra, which means “to go in a
Indian Performing Arts | 289
This young actor is dressed in jewels and makeup to perform in the Ramlila, the stage play of
the great Hindu epic the Ramayana, in Varanasi (Benares), Uttar Pradesh, India. John Henry
Claude Wilson/Robert Harding World Imagery/Getty Images
procession.” In the 19th century the jatra warns of impending dangers, and plays
became secularized when the repertoire the double of everybody. Through his
swelled with love stories and social and songs he externalizes the inner feelings
political themes. Until the beginning of of the characters and reveals the inner
the 20th century, the dialogue was pri- meaning of their outer actions.
marily sung. The length has been cut The tamasha (a Persian word mean-
from all night to four hours. The jatra ing “fun,” “play,” or “spectacle”) originated
performance consists of action-packed at the beginning of the 18th century in
dialogue with only about six songs. The Maharashtra as an entertainment for the
singing chorus is represented by a single camping Mughal armies. This theatrical
character, the vivek (“conscience”), who form was created by singing girls and
can appear at any moment in the play. He dancers imported from North India and
comments on the action, philosophizes, the local acrobats and tumblers of the
290 | The Culture of India
lower-caste Dombari and Kolhati com- and princesses of the Mughal period.
munities with their traditional manner Generally, the puppeteer and his nephew
of singing. It flourished in the courts of or son operate the strings from behind,
Maratha rulers of the 18th and 19th cen- while the puppeteer’s wife sits on her
turies and attained its artistic apogee haunches in front of the miniature stage
during the reign of Baji Rao II (1796–1818). playing the drums and commenting on
Its uninhibited lavani-style singing and the action. The puppeteer chirps, whim-
powerful drumming and dancing give it pers, and squeals in animal–bird voices
an erotic flavor. The most famous tama- and creates battles and tragic moments,
sha poet and performer was Ram Joshi expresses pathos, anger, and laughter.
(1762–1812) of Sholapur, an upper-class In Andhra Pradesh the puppets, called
Brahman who married the courtesan tholu bommalata (“the dance of leather
Bayabai. Another famous singer-poet was dolls”), are fashioned of translucent,
Patthe Bapu Rao (1868–1941), a Brahman coloured leather. These are projected on
who married a beautiful low-caste dancer, a small screen, like colour photographic
Pawala. They were the biggest tamasha transparencies. Animals, birds, gods, and
stars during the first quarter of the 20th demons dominate the screen. The puppe-
century. The tamasha actress, commonly teer manipulates them from behind with
called the nautchi (meaning “nautch girl,” two sticks. Strong lamps are arranged
or “prostitute”) is the life and soul of the so that the size, position, and angle of
performance. Because of their bawdy ele- the puppets change with the distance of
ments, women never see tamasha plays, the light. They are similar to the wayang
nor do respectable men. kulit puppets of Indonesia but are much
In the 20th century, jatra and tama- smaller and quicker-moving.
sha both became highly organized and In the absence of a powerful Indian
commercially run. Troupes are now in city theatre (with the exception of a few
heavy demand and work for nine months. in Kolkata, Mumbai, and Tamil Nadu),
Hundreds of tamasha troupes with many folk theatre has kept the rural audiences
dancer-actresses tour the rural areas, ulti- entertained for centuries and has played
mately providing a living for thousands an important part in the growth of mod-
of people. The jatra is the most success- ern theatres in different languages. The
ful commercially. Its star actors draw 19th-century dramatist Bharatendu
more than any other professional actor in Harishchandra, who was responsible for
the theatrical centre of Kolkata. the birth of Hindi drama, used folk con-
Popular in North India are the put- ventions—the opening prayer song,
liwalas (“puppeteers”) of Rajasthan, tableaux, comic interludes, duets, styl-
who operate marionettes made of wood ized speech—and combined these with
and bright-coloured cloth. The puppet Western theatrical forms in vogue at
plays deal with kings, lovers, bandits, that time. Parsi companies adapted the
Indian Performing Arts | 291
In Rajasthan, performances with ornately decorated and clothed traditional string puppets
such as these are a popular form of entertainment. Christopher and Sally Gable/Dorling
Kindersley/Getty Images
clubs performed Shakespeare, Molière, and villains of these plays came to rep-
and Restoration comedies, introduc- resent the Indian freedom fighter against
ing Western dramatic structure and the the British oppressor. Girish’s historical
proscenium stage to the Indian intel- tragedies Mir Qasim (1906), Chhatrapati
ligentsia. With the help of Golak Nath (1907), and Sirajuddaulah (1909) bring
Dass, a local linguist, Gerasim Lebedev, out the tragic grandeur of heroes who
a Russian bandmaster in a British mili- fail because of some inner weakness or
tary unit, produced the first Bangla play, betrayal of their colleagues. D.L. Roy
Chhadmabes (“The Disguise”), in 1795 on emphasized the same aspect of national-
a Western-style stage with Bengali play- ism in his historical dramas Mebarapatan
ers of both sexes. Subsequently, Bengali (The Fall of Mebar), Shahjahan (1910),
playwrights began synthesizing Western and Chandragupta (1911).
styles with their own folk and Sanskrit Girish introduced professional effi-
heritage. With growing national con- ciency and showmanship. His style of
sciousness, theatre became a platform acting was flamboyant, with fiery grace.
for social reform and propaganda against Actors such as Amar Datta and Dani
British rule. Among the most important Babu carried his style into the early 1920s.
playwrights were Michael Madhu Sudan The acting and production methods of
(1824–73), Dina Bandhu Mitra (1843–87), the Star, the Minerva, and the Manmohan
Girish Chandra Ghosh (1844–1912), and Theatres (all professional) were modelled
D.L. Roy (1863–1913). on Girish’s pioneer work.
The success of Dina Bandhu Mitra’s The first elements of realism
Nildarpan (“Mirror of the Indigo”), deal- were introduced in the 1920s by Sisir
ing with the tyranny of the British indigo Kumar Bhaduri, Naresh Mitra, Ahindra
planters over the rural Bengali farm Chowdhuri, and Durga Das Banerji,
labourers, paved the way for professional together with the actresses Probha Devi
theatre. The actor-director-writer Girish and Kanka Vati. In his Srirangam Theatre
Chandra Ghosh founded in 1872 the (closed in 1954), Sisir performed two
National Theatre, the first Bangla profes- most memorable roles: the again Mughal
sional company, and took Nildarpan on emperor Aurangzeb and the shrewd
tour, giving performances in the North Hindu philosopher-politician Chanakya.
Indian cities of Delhi and Lucknow. The Sisir’s style was refined by actor-director
instigatory speeches and lurid scenes of Sombhu Mitra and his actress wife Tripti,
British brutality resulted in the banning who worked in the Left-wing People’s
of this production. To overcome censor- Theatre movement in the 1940s. With
ship difficulties, playwrights turned to other actors they founded the Bahurupee
historical and mythological themes with group in 1949 and produced many Tagore
veiled symbolism that was clearly under- plays including Rakta Karabi (“Red
stood by Indian audiences. The heroes Oleanders”) and Bisarjan (“Sacrifice”).
Indian Performing Arts | 293
1944 and brought robust realism to Hindi who had tremendous emotional depth
drama, then closed down in 1960 with a and range, rare in actresses on the Hindi
sense of completion after many tours stage. Out of Prithvi’s eight productions,
throughout India. Prithvi’s sons, nephews, in which he always played the lead, the
and old associates worked in his large most successful was Pathan (1946), which
company, which became a training centre ran for 558 nights. It deals with the friend-
for many actors who later joined the films. ship between a tribal Muslim leader and
Among these was the outstanding stage a Hindu administrator and is set in the
actress Zohra Sehgal, a former dance rugged frontier from which Prithvi came.
partner of Uday Shankar in the 1930s This tragedy of two archetypes in which
Indian Performing Arts | 295
the tribal leader sacrifices his son to save E. Alkazi, and Utpal Dutt all had their
the life of his friend’s son had intensity of earlier training in English productions.
action, smoldering passion, and unity of Norah Richards, an Irish-born actress
mood and achieved the highest quality of who came to the Punjab in 1911, produced
realism on the Hindi stage to this day. in 1914 the first Punjabi play, Dulhan
Among the actors who molded (“The Bride”), written by her pupil I.C.
regional-language theatres are Shri Nanda. For 50 years she promoted rural
Narayan Rao Rajhans (popularly known drama and inspired actors and produc-
as the Bala Gandharva of the Maharashtra ers, including Prithvi Raj Kapoor.
stage), Jayashankar Bhojak Sundari of India’s genius still lies in its dance-
Gujarat, and Sthanam Narasimhrao of dramas, which have a unique form based
Andhra. All three specialized in female on centuries of unbroken tradition. There
roles and were star attractions during the are very few professional theatre compa-
first quarter of the 20th century. nies in the whole of India, but thousands
In the second half of the 20th cen- of amateur productions are staged every
tury, two outstanding actor-directors year by organized groups. Out of this
were Ebrahim Alkazi, director of the intense experimental activity, the Indians
National School of Drama in New Delhi, have aimed to create a national theatre
and Utpal Dutt, who founded the Calcutta that incorporates contemporary, inter-
Little Theatre Group in 1947, which origi- nationally recognized techniques but
nally performed plays in English and in retains a distinctly Indian flavour.
1954 changed to productions in Bangla. Many centres for theatrical training
Dutt was an actor fully committed to the that were established in the mid-20th
revolutionary ideology of the Chinese century have continued to operate in the
communist leader Mao Zedong. He 21st century, despite some name changes
acted on open-air stages in rural areas of and mergers with other institutions.
Bengal, where he exerted a strong artistic Among the most important of these are
and political influence. the National School of Drama in New
Since Lebedev in 1795 there has been Delhi, Sangeet Natak Akademi (National
a continuous stream of Western-trained Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama) in
actors and producers who have been New Delhi, and the National Institute for
revitalizing regional-language theatri- the Performing Arts in Mumbai. Bharatiya
cal groups. Nawab Wajid Ali Shah had Natya Sangh, the union of all Indian the-
visiting French opera composers in his atre groups, was founded in 1949 and is
mid-19th-century court. Tagore did his centered in New Delhi. Affiliated with
first opera, Valmiki Pratibha (“The Genius UNESCO’s branch of the International
of Valmiki”), in 1881, after returning from Theatre Institute, it organizes drama fes-
England, where he became familiar with tivals and seminars, as well as serving as
Western harmonies. Prithvi Raj Kapoor, a centre for information.
CHAPTER 8
Indian
Architecture
T he favoured material of early Indian architecture appears
to have been wood, but little has survived the rigours of
the climate. Wooden forms, however, affected work in other
mediums and were sometimes quite literally copied, as, for
example, in early cave temples of western India. The princi-
ples of wooden construction also played an important part in
determining the shape of Indian architecture and its various
elements and components.
Baked or sun-dried brick has a history as ancient as that
of wood; among the earliest remains are buildings excavated
at sites of the Indus Valley civilization. The use of brick is
once again evident from about the 6th century BC, and its
popularity was undiminished in subsequent centuries. Many
brick monuments have been discovered, particularly in areas
in which good clay was easily available, such as the Gangetic
Basin. Although more durable than wood, few brick buildings
from before the 5th century AD have survived in a good state
of preservation.
Traditions of stone architecture appear to be more
recent than wood or brick, the earliest examples of the use
of dressed stone for building purposes not predating the
6th century BC. The Indian architect, however, soon gained
great proficiency in its use, and, by the 7th century AD, the
use of stone for monumental buildings of considerable size
had become quite popular. The preference for stone can also
Indian Architecture | 297
period: the mound was sometimes pro- antechamber, roughly rectangular and
vided with a parasol surrounded by a provided with a barrel vault. Remains
miniature railing on the top, raised on a of structural buildings have been exca-
terrace, and the whole surrounded by a vated at Bairat and Vidisha, where wood
large railing consisting of posts, cross- and brick shrines with timber domes and
bars, and a coping (the capping on the vaults once existed. A temple (No. 40) at
top course), all secured by tenons and Sanchi was apsidal in plan and perhaps
mortices in a technique appropriate to had a barrel-vault roof of timber.
craftsmanship in wood. The essential A hall excavated at Kumrahar in
feature of the stupa, however, always Patna had a high wooden platform of
remained the domical mound, the other most excellent workmanship, on which
elements being optional. stood eight rows of 10 columns each,
Along with stupas were erected roof- which once supported a second story.
less, or hypaethral, shrines enclosing a Only one stone pillar has been recov-
sacred object such as a tree or an altar. ered, and it is circular in shape and made
Temples of brick and timber with vaulted of sandstone that has been polished to a
or domical roofs were also constructed, high lustre. The capitals that topped them
on plans that were generally elliptical, must have been similar to others found
circular, quadrilateral, or apsidal (i.e., hav- in neighbouring Lohanipur and almost
ing an apse, or semicircular plan, at the certainly consisted of one or two pairs
sanctum end). These structures have not of addorsed (set back to back) animals,
survived, but some idea of their shape recalling Persepolitan examples. Indeed,
has been obtained from the excavated there is much about Maurya architecture
foundations and the few examples imitat- and sculpture to suggest Iranian influ-
ing wooden originals that were cut into ence, however substantially transformed
the rock, notably the Sudama and the in the Indian environment.
Lomas Rsi caves in the Nagarjuni and
Barabar hills near Gaya. The latter has an Early Indian Architecture
intersesting entrance showing an edged (2nd Century BC–3rd
barrel-vault roof (an arch shaped like Century AD)
a half cylinder) in profile supported on
raked pillars, the ogee arch (an arch with Except for stupas, architectural remains
curving sides, concave above and con- from the 2nd century BC (downfall of the
vex toward the top) so formed filled with Maurya dynasty) to the 4th century AD
a trellis to let in light and air. The inte- (rise of the Gupta dynasty) continue to be
riors of most caves are highly polished rare, indicating that most of the work was
and consist of two chambers: a shrine, done in brick and timber. Once again,
elliptical or circular in plan with a domed examples cut into the rock and closely
roof (Sudama cave); and an adjacent imitating wooden forms give a fairly
Indian Architecture | 299
accurate idea of at least some types of rest of the building. In the apsidal end
buildings in this period. is placed the object to be worshipped,
The stupas become progressively generally a stupa, the hall being meant
larger and more elaborate. The railings for the gathered congregation. In front
continue to imitate wooden construc- of the hall is a porch, separated from it
tion and are often profusely carved, as by a screen wall provided with a door
at Bharhut, Sanchi II, and Amaravati. of considerable size, together with an
These were also provided with elaborate arched opening on top clearly derived
gateways, consisting of posts supporting from wooden buildings of the Lomas Rsi
from one to three architraves, again imi- type and permitting air and dim light to
tating wooden forms and covered with filter into the interior. Other influences of
sculpture (Bharahut, Sanchi I, III). In the wooden construction are equally striking,
course of time an attempt was made to particularly in the vaulting ribs that cover
give height to the stupas by multiply- the entire ceiling and that are sometimes
ing the terraces that supported the dome actually of wood, as at Bhaja, where the
and by increasing the number of parasols pillars are also raked in imitation of the
on top. In Gandhara and southeastern exigencies of wooden construction. The
India, particularly, sculptured decora- pillars are generally octagonal with a pot-
tion was extended to the stupa proper, so shaped base and a capital of addorsed
that terraces, drums, and domes—as well animals placed on a bell-shaped, or cam-
as railing—were decorated with figural paniform, lotus in the Maurya tradition.
and ornamental sculpture in bas-relief. The most significant example is at Karli,
Stupas in Gandhara were not provided dating approximately to the closing
with railings but, instead, had rows of years of the 1st century BC. The Bhaja
small temples arranged on a rectangular caitya is certainly the earliest, and impor-
plan. tant examples are to be found at Bedsa,
Cave temples of western India, cut Kondane, Pitalkhora, Ajanta, and Nasik.
into the scarp of the Western Ghats Toward the end of the period, a quad-
and stretching from Gujarat to southern rilateral plan appears more and more
Maharashtra, constitute the most exten- frequently, as, for example, at Kuda and
sive architectural remains of the period. Sailarwadi.
Two main types of buildings can be dis- In addition to the caitya, or temple
tinguished, the temple proper (caitya) proper, numerous monasteries (viharas)
and the monastery (vihara, sangharama). are also cut into the rock. These are gen-
The former is generally an apsidal hall erally provided with a pillared porch and
with a central nave flanked by aisles. The a screen wall pierced with doorways lead-
apse is covered by a half dome; and two ing into the interior, which consists of a
rows of pillars, which demarcate the nave, “courtyard” or congregation hall in the
support a barrel-vault roof that covers the three walls of which are the monks’ cells.
300 | The Culture of India
The surviving rock-cut examples are all series of temples that marks the opening
of one story, though the facade of the phase of an architecture that is no longer
great monastery at Pitalkhora simulates content with merely imitating wooden
a building of several stories. building but initiates a new movement,
Monasteries carved into the rock ultimately leading to the great and elabo-
are also known from Orissa (Udayagiri- rate temples of the 8th century onward.
Khandagiri), in eastern India. These are Two main temple types have been dis-
much humbler than their counterparts tinguished in the Gupta period. The first
in western India, and consist of a row of consists of a square, dark sanctum with
cells that open out into a porch, the hall a small, pillared porch in front, both cov-
being absent. At Uparkot in Junagadh, ered with flat roofs. This type of temple
Gujarat, is a remarkable series of rock-cut answers the simplest needs of worship,
structures dating from the 3rd–4th cen- a chamber to house the deity and a roof
tury AD, which appear to be secular in to shelter the devotee. Temple No. 17 at
character and in all probability served as Sanchi is a classic example of this flat-
royal pleasure houses. roofed type. The plain walls are of ashlar
The large number of representations masonry (made up of squared stone
of buildings found on relief sculpture blocks), composed of sizable blocks,
from sites such as Bharhut, Sanchi, which are spanned by large slabs that
Mathura, and Amaravati are a rich constitute the ceiling. The pillars of the
source of information about early Indian porch have a campaniform lotus capital,
architecture. They depict walled and one of the last times this form appears
moated cities with massive gates, elabo- in Indian architecture. Another temple
rate multi-storied residences, pavilions of this type is the Kankali Devi shrine at
with a variety of domes, together with Tigowa, which has more elaborate pillars,
the simple, thatched-roofed huts that provided with the overflowing vase, or the
remained the basis of most Indian archi- vase-and-foliage (ghata-pallava), capital
tectural forms. A striking feature of this that became the basic north Indian order.
early Indian architecture is the consistent It is the second type of temple that
and profuse use of arched windows and points the way to future developments. It
doors, which are extremely important also has a square sanctum, or cella, but
elements of the architectural decor. instead of a flat roof there is a pyramidal
superstructure (shikhara). Among the
The Gupta Period most interesting examples are a brick
(4th–6th Centuries AD) temple at Bhitargaon and the Vishnu
temple at Deogarh, built entirely of stone.
Dating toward the close of the 4th and The pyramidal superstructure of each
the beginning of the 5th century AD is a consists essentially of piled-up cornice
Indian Architecture | 301
moldings of diminishing size, which are symbolic meaning, served no other pur-
decorated primarily with chandrashala pose than to emphasize the importance
(ogee arch) ornament derived from the of the sanctum. The principle of gain-
arched windows and doors so frequently ing height not by the superimposition
found in the last centuries BC and the of ornamental cornice moldings with
earliest centuries AD. The sanctums of chandrashala decoration but by the mul-
both temples are square in plan, with tiplication of stories, each imitating the
three sides provided with central offsets story below, also distinguished the later
(vertical buttress-like projections) that architectural style of southern India.
extend from the base of the walls right The great Mahabodhi temple at Bodh
up to the top of the shikhara (spire); the Gaya, commemorating the spot where
section of the central offset that extends the Buddha attained enlightenment,
across the wall is conceived in the form of though burdened with later restorations,
a niche, in which is placed an image. The is essentially a temple of this period.
Deogarh temple is also noteworthy for It has a particularly majestic shikhara,
the large terrace with four corner shrines decorated with ornamental niches and
(now ruined) on which it is placed, pre- chandrashalas, rising over a square sanc-
figuring the quincunx, or panchayatana, tum to a great height.
grouping (one structure in each corner Along with temples, stupas contin-
and one in the middle) popular in the ued to be built. These also aspired to
later period. The doorway surround, too, height, which was achieved by multipli-
is very elaborate, carved with several cation and heightening of the supporting
bands carrying floral and figural motifs. terraces and elongating the drum and
At the base of the surround are rows of dome. A good example of this new form
worshippers, and in the crossette (projec- is the Dhamekh at Sarnath. Along more
tion at the corner) on top are images of conventional lines, but quite elaborate,
graceful river goddesses. are the brick stupas in Sind, notably a
The Parvati Devi temple at Nacna fine example at Mirpur Khas.
Kutthara, also of this period, is interest- The rock-cut temple and monastery
ing for the covered circumambulatory tradition also continued in this period,
provided around the sanctum and the notably in western India, where the exca-
large hall in front. When first discovered, vations—especially at Ajanta acquire
the temple had an entire chamber above extreme richness and magnificence. The
the sanctum (which subsequently col- monasteries are characterized by the
lapsed). Though provided with a door, introduction of images into some of the
there seems to have been no access to cells, so that they partake of the nature
it; thus, for all practical purposes it con- of temples instead of being simple resi-
stituted a false story and, aside from a dences. Temples with an apsidal plan and
302 | The Culture of India
Indian Architecture | 303
A particularly rich and pleasing vari- be made, but among the most impor-
ety of North Indian shikhara, popular tant are the styles of Orissa, central
in Malwa, western India, and northern India, Rajasthan, and Gujarat. The style
Deccan, is the bhumija type. It has a cen- of Kashmir is distinct from the rest of
tral projection on each of the four faces, northern India in several respects, and
the quadrants so formed filled with min- hardly any examples of the great schools
iature spires in vertical and horizontal that flourished in modern Uttar Pradesh,
rows right up to the top. Bihar, and Bengal are left standing. The
Although basically reflecting a North Indian style also extended for
homogeneous architectural style, temple some time into the Karnataka territory,
architecture in northern India developed situated in the southern Deccan, though
a number of distinct regional schools. the architecture of Tamil Nadu was rela-
A detailed elucidation of all has yet to tively unaffected by it.
306 | The Culture of India
Surya Deula (Sun Temple), Konarak, Orissa state, India. Frederick M. Asher
Indian Architecture | 307
a considerable height (over 125 feet [40 identified. The first flourished at Gwalior
metres]); the wall is divided into two and adjacent areas (ancient Gopadri);
horizontal rows, or registers, replete with the second in modern Bundelkhand,
statuary; and the attached hall is exqui- known in ancient times as Jejakabhukti;
sitely and minutely carved. the third in the eastern and southeastern
The most famous of all Orissan tem- parts in the ancient country of Dahala, of
ples, however, is the colossal building at which Tripuri, near modern Jabalpur, was
Konarak, dedicated to Surya, the sun god. the capital; and the fourth in the west, in
The temple and its accompanying hall are an area bordering Gujarat and Rajasthan
conceived in the form of a great chariot in the fertile land of Malava (Malwa).
drawn by horses. The shikhara over the The earliest examples in the Gwalior
sanctum has entirely collapsed; and all area are a group of small shrines at
that survives are the ruins of the sanctum Naresar, a few miles from Gwalior proper;
and the gudhamandapa, or enclosed hall, dating to the 8th century, the shrines have
and also a separate dancing hall. Of these, latina spires and sparsely ornamented
the gudhamandapa is now the most con- walls. In the 9th century a series of mag-
spicuous, its gigantic phamsana shikhara nificent temples was built, including the
rising in three stages and adorned with Mala-de at Dyaraspur, the Shiva temples
colossal figures of musicians and dancers. at Mahka and Indore, and a temple dedi-
Because the Orissan style usually cated to an unidentified mother goddess
favours a latina shikhara over the sanc- at Barwa-Sagar. The period appears to
tum, the shekhari spire of the Railani have been one of experimentation, a vari-
temple (11th century) at Bhuvaneshvara ety of plans and spires having been tried.
(Bhubaneswar) is quite exceptional. Of The Mala-de temple is an early example of
particular interest as a late survival of the shekhari type in its formative stages;
early building traditions is the Vaital the Indore temple has a star-shaped plan;
Deul (8th century), the sanctum of which and the Barwa-Sagar example has a twin
is rectangular in plan, its shikhara imi- latina spire over a rectangular sanctum.
tating a pointed barrel vault. Besides The masonry work is of the finest quality
Bhuvaneshvara, important groups of and the architectural ornament is crisply
temples are to be found at Khiching and carved. (The figural sculptures are few.)
Mukhalingam. The temple at Umri, with a latina spire,
is small and exquisitely finished; but the
Central India largest and perhaps the finest temple is
the Teli-ka-Mandir on Gwalior Fort, rect-
The area roughly covered by the modern angular in plan and capped by a pointed
state of Madhya Pradesh was the centre barrel vault, recalling once again the
of several vigorous schools of architec- survival of ancient roof forms. The walls
ture, of which at least four have been are decorated with niches (empty at
308 | The Culture of India
intermediate hall. Both the ambulatory and among the most distinguished are
and the gudhamandapa are provided the Vishvanatha and the Parshvanatha
with lateral, balconied arms, or transepts, temples. The Duladeo temple, which
which let in light and air. Each hall has does not have an ambulatory, represents
its own pyramidal shikhara, all skillfully the closing phase of the group and prob-
correlated to ascend gradually to the ably belongs to the 12th century.
main shekhari spire over the sanctum. The earliest temples of the Dahala
Extraordinary richness of carving, both area, dating from the 8th–9th century, are
in the interior and on the exterior, where the simple shrines at Bandhogarh, which
the walls carry as many as three rows of consist of a sanctum with latina spire
sculpture, and a skillful handling of the and porch. To the 10th century, when the
main spire to suggest ascent are distin- local Kalacuri dynasty was rapidly gain-
guishing features of the style. The largest ing power, belong the remarkable Shiva
temple of the group, very similar to the temples at Chandrehe and Masaun, the
Lakshmana, is the Kandariya Mahaheo; former being circular in plan, with a latina
spire covered with rich chandrashala has five rows of aediculae. The large
tracery. The Gola Math at Maihar has hall has three entrance porches, one to
the more conventional square sanctum, the front and two to the sides, and walls
with a very elegant latina shikhara, the that are richly carved. The whole com-
walls of which are adorned with two plex, including seven subsidiary shrines,
rows of figural sculpture. There must is placed on a broad, tall platform. The
have existed at Gurgi a large number of Siddheshvara temple at Nemawar (early
temples, though all of them now are in 12th century) is even larger than the
total ruin. Judging from a colossal image Udayeshvara, though the proportions
of Shiva-Parvati and a huge entrance, are not as well balanced and the qual-
which have somehow survived, the main ity of the carving is inferior. Structures
temple must have been of very great size. in the bhumija manner continued to be
Another important site is Amarkantak, made in Malava up to the 15th century;
where there are a large group of temples, the Malvai temple at Alirajpur is a good
the most important of which is the Karna. example of the late phase.
Although generally of the 11th century, From Malava, the bhumija style
they are quite simple, lacking the rich spread to the neighbouring regions. To the
sculptural decoration so characteristic of north in Rajasthan, the Mahanaleshvara
the period. By contrast, the Virateshvara temple at Menal (c. 11th century), the
temple at Sohagpur, with an unusually Sun temple at Jhalrapatan (11th cen-
tall and narrow shekhari spire, is covered tury), the Shiva temple at Ramgarh (12th
with sculptural ornamentation as rich as century), and the Endeshvara temple
that of Khajuraho. (12th century) at Bijolian are important
The Malava region, ruled largely by examples. To the west, in Gujarat, are
the Paramara dynasty, appears to have temples at Limkheda and Sarnal of the
been the first to develop the bhumija 11th and 12th centuries. The style was
type of shikhara (10th century). The particularly favoured in Maharashtra, to
finest and most representative group the south. Among surviving examples,
of these structures is at Un. Though, the most impressive is the Ambarnath
unfortunately, they are considerably temple near Mumbai (11th century);
damaged, judging from the remains, they Balsane and Sinnar also have pleasing
must have been very elegant structures. temples. The style continued up to the
The best preserved and easily the fin- 16th century, many examples having
est bhumija temple is the Udayeshvara been found in north Deccan and Berar.
(1059–82), situated at Udaipur in Madhya The bhumija style also spread to the east
Pradesh. The shikhara, based on a stel- of Malava; the Bhand Dewal at Arang
late plan, is divided into quadrants by (11th century), for example, is a Dahala
four latas, or offsets, each one of which adaptation.
Indian Architecture | 311
Ellora Caves
Near the village of Ellora (Elura) in northwest-central Maharashtra state, western India, are
a series of 34 magnificent rock-cut temples. They are located 19 miles (30 km) northwest of
Aurangabad and 50 miles (80 km) southwest of the Ajanta Caves. Spread over a distance of 1.2
miles (2 km), the temples were cut from basaltic cliffs and have elaborate facades and interior
walls. The Ellora complex was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983.
The 12 Buddhist caves (in the south) date from about 200 BC to AD 600, the 17 Hindu
temples (in the centre) date from about AD 500 to 900, and the 5 Jaina temples (in the north)
date from about 800 to 1000. The Hindu caves are the most dramatic in design, and the
Buddhist caves contain the simplest ornamentation. Ellora served as a group of monasteries
(viharas) and temples (caityas); some of the caves include sleeping cells that were carved for
itinerant monks.
The most remarkable of the cave temples is Kailasa (Kailasanatha; cave 16), named for
the mountain in the Kailas Range of the Himalayas where the Hindu god Shiva resides. Unlike
other temples at the site, which were first delved horizontally into the rock face, the Kailasa
complex was excavated downward from a basaltic slope and is therefore largely exposed to
sunlight. Construction of the temple in the 8th century, beginning in the reign of Krishna I (c.
756–773), involved the removal of 150,000 to 200,000 tons of solid rock. The complex mea-
sures some 164 feet (50 metres) long, 108 feet (33 metres) wide, and 100 feet (30 metres)
high and has four levels, or stories. It contains elaborately carved monoliths and halls with
stairs, doorways, windows, and numerous fixed sculptures. One of its better-known decora-
tions is a scene of Vishnu transformed into a man-lion and battling a demon. Just beyond
the entrance, in the main courtyard, is a monument to Shiva’s bull Nandi. Along the walls of
the temple, at the second-story level, are life-size sculptures of elephants and other animals.
Among the depictions within the halls is that of the 10-headed demon king Ravana shak-
ing Kailasa mountain in a show of strength. Erotic and voluptuous representations of Hindu
divinities and mythological figures also grace the temple. Some features have been damaged
or destroyed over the centuries, such as a rock-hewn footbridge that once joined two upper-
story thresholds.
The Vishvakarma cave (cave 10) has carvings of Hindu and Buddhist figures as well as a
lively scene of dancing dwarfs. Notable among the Jaina temples is cave 32, which includes
fine carvings of lotus flowers and other elaborate ornaments. Each year the caves attract large
crowds of religious pilgrims and tourists. The annual Ellora Festival of Classical Dance and
Music is held there in the third week of March.
312 | The Culture of India
Someshvara temple (c. 1020) is the most temple at Gop (c. 600), with a tall terrace
important and clearly shows the move- and a cylindrical sanctum with high
ment toward increasing elaboration and walls capped by a phamsana roof, and
ornamentation. Each of the constitu- other temples in Saurashtra show the
ent parts became more complex; the formative phases of the style. Its distinc-
moldings of the plinth, for example, are tive features are clear in an interesting
multiplied to include bands of elephants, group of temples from Roda (c. 8th cen-
horses, and soldiers. The walls are cov- tury). The sanctum is square in plan
ered with sculpture, and the spire is of the and has latina spires that are weighty
rich shekhari type. Situated in Rajasthan, and majestic. The walls are relatively
but again in the composite style, are plain, with niches, housing images, pro-
the extraordinarily sumptuous temples vided only on the central projection. The
known as the Vimala Vasahi (1031) and masonry work is exceptionally good, a
the Luna Vasahi (1230) at Mt. Abu. The characteristic of Gujarat architecture
Vimala Vasahi consists of a sanctum, throughout its history. The Ranakdevi
a gudhamandapa, and a magnificent temple at Wadhwan, of the early 10th
assembly hall added in mid-12th century. century, is also characterized by plain
The plain, uncarved exterior walls of the walls and a latina spire, while the Shiva
rectangular enclosure of the temple have temple at Kerakot has a shekhari spire
on the inside rows of cells containing and also a gudhamandapa. The great
images of divinities. The interiors are Sun Temple at Modhera, datable to the
very richly carved, the coffered ceilings early years of the 11th century, repre-
loaded with a wealth of detail. The Luna sents a fully developed Gujarat style of
Vasahi is even more elaborate, though the great magnificence. The temple consists
quality of the work had begun to decline of a sanctum (now in ruins), a gudha-
perceptibly. mandapa, an open hall of extraordinary
Traditional architecture continued richness, and an arched entrance in
even after the Islamic invasions, particu- front of which was the great tank. The
larly during the reign of Rana Kumbha of Navalakha temple at Sejakpur contin-
Mewar (c. 1430–69). During this period, ued this tradition. The Rudramala at
the tall nine-storied Kirttistambha and Siddhapur, the most magnificent temple
other temples at Chittaurgarh and also of the 12th century, is now in a much
the great Chaumukha temple at Ranakpur ruined condition, with only the torana
(1438) were built. (gateway) and some subsidiary struc-
tures remaining. Successively damaged
Gujarat and rebuilt, the Somanatha at Prabhasa
Patan was the most famous temple of
Gujarat was the home of one of the rich- Gujarat, its best known structure dating
est regional styles of northern India. A from the time of Kumarapala (mid-12th
314 | The Culture of India
which evolved a distinct manner, basi- late 10th century onward (sometimes
cally South Indian but with features of called the vesara style), this arrangement
North Indian origin. The Karnatic style of the superstructure is loaded with deco-
extended northward into Maharashtra, ration, thus considerably obscuring the
where the Kailasa temple at Ellora is the component elements. At the same time,
most famous example. these elements—particularly the central
A typical South Indian temple con- offset with its subsidiaries that carry chan-
sists of a hall and a square sanctum that drashala motifs—are so manipulated that
has a superstructure of the kutina type. they tend to form distinct vertical bands,
Pyramidal in form, the kutina spire con- in this respect closely recalling the shi-
sists of stepped stories, each of which kharas of northern India.
simulates the main story and is conceived The design of the hall-temple roofed
as having its own “wall” enclosed by a by a barrel vault, popular in the last cen-
parapet. The parapet itself is composed turies BC and the earliest centuries AD,
of miniature shrines strung together: was adopted in southern India for the
square ones (called kutas) at the corners great entrance buildings, or gopuras, that
and rectangular ones with barrel-vault give access to the sacred enclosures in
roofs (called shalas) in the centre, the which the temples stand. Relatively small
space between them connected by min- and inconspicuous in the early examples,
iature wall elements called harantaras. they had, by the mid-12th century, out-
(Conspicuous in the early temples, these stripped the main temple in size.
stepped stories of the superstructure with
their parapets became more and more Tamil Nadu (7th–18th Century)
ornamental, so that in the course of time
they evolved into more or less decorative The early phase, which, broadly speaking,
bands around the pyramidal superstruc- coincided with the political supremacy of
ture.) On top of the stepped structure is the Pallava dynasty (c. 650–893), is best
a necking that supports a solid dome, represented by the important monu-
or cupola (instead of the North Indian ments at Mahabalipuram. Besides a fine
grooved disc), which in turn is crowned group of small cave temples (early 7th
by a pot and finial. The walls of the century), among the earliest examples
sanctum rise above a series of mold- of their type in southern India, there are
ings, constituting the foundation block, here several monolithic temples carved
or socle (adhisthana), that differ from out of the rock, the largest of which is the
North Indian temples; and the surface massive three-storied Dharmaraja-ratha
of the walls does not have the prominent (c. 650). The finest temple at this site and
offsets seen in North Indian temples but of this period is an elegant complex of
is instead divided by pilasters. In the three shrines called the Shore Temple (c.
Karnatic version, particularly from the 700), not cut out of rock but built of stone.
316 | The Culture of India
The Talapurishvara temple at Panamalai I, the temple was begun about 1003 and
is another excellent example. The capi- completed about seven years later. The
tal city of Kanchipuram also possesses main walls are raised in two stories,
some fine temples—for example, the above which the superstructure rises to
Kailasanatha (dating a little later than a height of 190 feet (60 metres). It has
the Shore Temple), with its stately super- 16 stories, each of which consists of a
structure and subsidiary shrines attached wall with a parapet of shrines carved in
to the walls. The enclosure wall has a relatively low relief. The great temple at
series of small shrines on all sides and a Gangaikondacholapuram, built (1030–
small gopura. Another splendid temple at 40) by the Chola king Rajendra I, is
Kanchipuram is the Vaikuntha Perumal somewhat smaller than the Brhadishvara;
(mid-8th century), which has an interest- but the constituent elements of its
ing arrangement of three sanctums, one superstructure, whose outline is con-
above the other, encased within the body cave, are carved in bolder relief, giving
of the superstructure. the whole a rather emphatic plastic-
The 9th century marked a fresh move- ity. The Airavateshvara (1146–73) and
ment in the South Indian style, revealed Kampahareshvara (1178–1223) temples
in several small, simple, but most elegant at Darasuram and Tribhuvanam follow
temples set up during the ascendancy the tradition of the 11th century but are
of the Chola and other contemporary smaller and considerably more ornate.
dynasties. Most important of a large They bring to a close a great phase of
number of unpretentious and beautiful South Indian architecture extending
shrines that dot the Tamil countryside from the 11th to the 13th century.
are the Vijayalaya Cholishvara temple at From the middle of the 12th century
Narttamalai (mid-9th century), with its onward, the gopuras, or entrance build-
circular sanctum, spherical cupola, and ings, to temple enclosures began to be
massive, plain walls; the twin shrines greatly emphasized. They are extremely
called Agastyishvara and Cholishvara, large and elaborately decorated with
at Kilaiyur (late 9th century); and the sculpture, quite dominating the archi-
splendid group of two temples (origi- tectural ensemble. Their construction
nally three) known as the Muvarkovil, at is similar to that of the main temple
Kodumbalur (c. 875). except that they are rectangular in plan
These simple beginnings led rapidly and capped by a barrel vault rather than
(in about a century) to the mightiest of a cupola, and only the base is of stone,
all temples in the South Indian style, the superstructure being made of brick
the Brhadishvara, or Rajarajeshvara, and plaster. Among the finest examples
temple, built at the Chola capital of are the Sundara Pandya gopura (13th
Thanjavur. A royal dedication of Rajaraja century) of the Jambukeshvara temple
Indian Architecture | 317
at Tiruchchirappalli and the gopuras of at Badami, one cave temple is dated 578,
a great Shiva temple at Chidambaram, and two cave temples at Aihole are early
built largely in the 12th–13th century. 8th century. Among structural temples
Even larger gopuras, if not of such fine built during the rule of the Chalukyas
quality, continued to be built up to the of Bahami are examples in the North
17th century. Such great emphasis was Indian style; but, because the Karnataka
placed on the construction of gopuras region was more receptive to southern
that enclosure walls, which were not really influences, there are a large number of
necessary, were especially built to justify examples that are basically South Indian
their erection. In the course of time sev- with only a few North Indian elements.
eral walls and gopuras were successively The Durga temple (c. 7th century) at
built, each enclosing the other so that Aihole is apsidal in plan, echoing early
at the present day one often has to pass architectural traditions; the northern
through a succession of walls with their latina shikhara is in all probability a later
gopuras before reaching the main shrine. addition. The Malegitti Shivalaya temple
A particularly interesting example is the at Bahami (early 8th century), consist-
Ranganatha temple at Srirangam, which ing of a sanctum, a hall with a parapet of
has seven enclosure walls and numerous shalas and kutas (rectangular and square
gopuras, halls, and temples constructed miniature shrines), and an open porch, is
in the course of several centuries. The similar to examples in Tamil Nadu. The
gopuras of the Minakshi temple at Virupaksha at Pattadkal (c. 733–746) is
Madurai are also good representative the most imposing and elaborate temple
examples of this period. in the South Indian manner. It is placed
In addition to the gopuras, temples within an enclosure, to which access is
also continued to be built. Although through a gopura; and the superstructure,
they never achieved colossal size, they consisting of four stories, has a projec-
are often of very fine workmanship. The tion in the front, a feature inspired by
Subrahmanya temple of the 17th century, the prominent projections, or shukanasa,
built in the compound of the Brhadishvara of North Indian temples. Belonging to
temple at Thanjavur, indicates the vital- the 9th century is the triple shrine (the
ity of architectural traditions even at this three sanctums sharing the same man-
late date. dapa, or hall) at Kambadahalli and the
extremely refined and elaborately carved
Karnataka Bhoganandishvara temple at Nandi.
The Chavundarayabasti (c. 982–995) at
The early phase, as in Tamil Nadu, opens Shravana-Belgola is also an impressive
with the rock-cut cave temples. Of the building, with an elegant superstructure
elaborate and richly sculptured group of three stories.
318 | The Culture of India
that imitate timber originals required for displays a strong Indian quality. The first
draining away the water. use of the true arch in India is found in
the ruined tomb of Balban (died 1287).
Islamic Architecture of the From 1296 to 1316 ‘Alā’-ud-Dīn Khaljī
Delhi and Provincial attempted to expand the Qūwat-ul-Islām
Sultanates mosque, which already had been enlarged
in 1230, to three times its size; but he was
Although the province of Sind was cap- unable to complete the work. All that
tured by the Arabs as early as 712, the has survived of it is the Alai Dark· āzah, a
earliest examples of Islamic architec- beautiful entrance.
ture to survive in the subcontinent date In contrast to this early phase, the
from the closing years of the 12th cen- style of the 14th century at Delhi, ush-
tury; they are located at Delhi, the main ered in by the Tughluq dynasty, is
seat of Muslim power throughout the impoverished and austere. The build-
centuries. The Qūwat-ul-Islām mosque ings, with a few exceptions, are made
(completed 1196), consisting of cloisters of coarse rubble masonry and overlaid
around a courtyard with the sanctuary to with plaster. The tomb of Ghiyās-ud-Dīn
the west, was built from the remains of Tughluq (c. 1320–25), placed in a little
demolished temples. In 1198 an arched fortress, has sloping walls faced with
facade (maqs·ūrah) was built in front to panels of stone and marble. Also to be
give the building an Islamic aspect, but ascribed to his reign is the magnificent
its rich floral decoration and corbelled tomb of Shāh Rukn-e ‘Ālam at Multān
(supported by brackets projecting from in Pakistan, which is built of brick and
the wall) arches are Indian in character. faced with exquisite tile work. The Kot·la
The Qut·b Mīnār, a tall (288 feet [87.7 m] Fīrūz Shāh (1354–70), with its mosques,
high), fluted tower provided with bal- palaces, and tombs, is now in ruins but
conies, stood outside this mosque. The represents the major building activity of
Ar·hāi-dīn-kā-jhompr· ā mosque (c. 1119), Fīrūz Shāh, who took a great interest in
built at Ajmer, was similar to the Delhi architecture.
mosque, the maqs·ūrah consisting of Many mosques and tombs of this
engrailed (sides ornamented with sev- period and of the 15th century are found
eral arcs) corbel arches decorated with in Delhi and its environs; the most
greater restraint than the Qut·b example. notable of them are the Begampur and
The earliest Islamic tomb to survive is Khir·kī mosques and an octagonal tomb
the Sultān Gharī, built in 1231, but the of Khān-e Jahān Tilangānī. In the early
finest is the tomb of Iltutmish, who ruled 16th century, Shēr Shāh Sūr refined upon
from 1211 to 1236. The interior, covered this style, the Qal‘ah-e Kuhnah Masjid
with Arabic inscriptions, in its richness and his tomb at Sasaram (c. 1540) being
320 | The Culture of India
Tomb and palace of Fīrūz Shah, Delhi, India, c. 1380 AD. P. Chandra
Fine examples dating from the sec- effect. The city of Bidar possesses many
ond half of the 15th century are the remains, including a remarkable series
small but exquisite mosques of Muh·āfiz of 12 tombs, the most elaborate of which
Khān (1492) and Rānī Sabra’i (1514) at is that of ‘Alā-ud-Dīn Ah·mad Bahmanī
Ahmadabad and the handsome Jāmi‘ (died 1457), which has extremely fine
Masjid at the city of Champaner. decorations in coloured tile. Some of the
The Deccan was another great centre, finest examples of Islamic architecture
but in contrast to Gujarat it took little in the Deccan, however, are in Bijapur.
from the indigenous building traditions. The most important buildings of this
Among the earliest works is the Jāmi‘ city are the great Jāmi‘ Masjid (begun
Masjid at Gulbarga (1367), with its extraor- in 1558) with its superb arched clois-
dinary cloisters consisting of wide arches ters; the ornate Ibrāhīm Rawza; and the
on low piers, producing a most solemn Dol Gunbad (built by Muh·ammad ‘Ādil
322 | The Culture of India
Shāh), a tomb of exceptional size and palaces, all in ruin, built by Rana Kumbha
grandeur, with one of the largest domes (c. 1430–69) at Chittaurgarh, and the
in existence. superb Man Mandir palace at Gwalior
The Hindu kingdoms that managed to (1486–1516), a rich and magnificent work
retain varying degrees of independence that exerted considerable influence on
during the period of Islamic supremacy the development of Mughal architecture
also produced important works. These at Fatehpur Sikri.
structures naturally bore the imprint
of what survived of traditional Indian Islamic Architecture
architecture to a greater extent than of the Mughal Style
did those monuments patronized by
Muslims. Among the Hindu structures The advent of the Mughal dynasty marks
of this period are the extensive series of a striking revival of Islamic architecture
Indian Architecture | 323
Buland Darwaza (Victory Gate) of the Jāmi‘ Masjid (Great Mosque) at Fatehpur Sikri, Uttar
Pradesh, India. Shostal Associates
in northern India: Persian, Indian, and immense walls carefully designed and
the various provincial styles were suc- faced with dressed stone throughout.
cessfully fused to produce works of The most important achievements, how-
unusual refinement and quality. The ever, are to be found at Fatehpur Sikri;
tomb of Humāyūn, begun in 1564, inau- the Jāmi‘ Masjid (1571), with the colossal
gurates the new style. Built entirely gateway known as the Buland Darwāza,
of red sandstone and marble, it shows for example, is one of the finest mosques
considerable Persian influence. The of the Mughal period.
great fort at Agra (1565–74) and the city Other notable buildings include
of Fatehpur Sikri (1569–74) represent the palace of Jodha Bal, which has a
the building activities of the emperor strongly indigenous aspect; the exqui-
Akbar. The former has the massive so- sitely carved Turkish Sultana’s house;
called Delhi gate (1566) and lengthy and the Panch-Mahal; the Dīvān-e ‘Āmm; and
324 | The Culture of India
Interior of Jodha Bai’s palace, Fatehpur Sikri, Uttar Pradesh, India. Frederick M. Asher
Indian Architecture | 325
the so-called hall of private audience. fine buildings, chiefly at Lahore. The
Most of the buildings are of post and tomb of his father-in-law I‘timāh-ul-
lintel construction, arches being used Dawla, at Agra, is small but of exquisite
very sparingly. The tomb of the emperor, workmanship, built entirely of delicately
at Sikandara, near Agra, is of unique inlaid marble. The reign of Shāh Jahān
design, in the shape of a truncated (1628–58) is as remarkable for its archi-
square pyramid 340 feet (103 metres) tectural achievements as was that of
on each side. It consists of five terraces, Akbar. He built the great Red Fort at
four of red sandstone and the uppermost Delhi (1639–48), with its dazzling hall of
of white marble. Begun about 1602, it public audience, the flat roof of which
was completed in 1613, during the reign rests on rows of columns and pointed,
of Akbar’s son Jahāngīr. Architectural or cusped, arches, and the Jāmi‘ Masjid
undertakings in this emperor’s reign (1650–56), which is among the finest
were not very ambitious, but there are mosques in India.
But it is the Taj Mahal (c. 1632–c. elegant towers, or minars) and is crowned
1649), built as a tomb for Queen Mumtāz by a graceful dome. Other notable build-
Mah·al, that is the greatest masterpiece ings of the reign of Shāh Jahān include
of his reign. All the resources of the the Motī Masjid (c. 1648–55) and the Jāmi‘
empire were put into its construction. Masjid at Agra (1548–55).
In addition to the mausoleum proper, Architectural monuments of the
the complex included a wide variety of reign of Aurangzeb represent a distinct
accessory buildings of great beauty. The decline; the tomb of Rābī‘ah Begam at
marble mausoleum rises up from a tall Aurangabad, for example (1679), is a poor
terrace (at the four corners of which are copy of the Taj Mahal.
The Pearl Mosque (Moti Masjid) and the fort at Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. Picturepoint
Indian Architecture | 327
Bibika Makbara tomb, near Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India, the mausoleum of Rābī‘ah
Begam, Aurangzeb’s wife. Frederick M. Asher
328 | The Culture of India
The Rumi Darwaza, or Turkish Gate, in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India. The Rumi Darwaza
was modeled (1784) after the Sublime Porte (Bab-i Hümayun) in Istanbul. © Ann & Bury
Peerless Slide Resources & Picture Library
Chota Nagpur Plateau, 22, 29, 37, 76 221, 268, 273, 278, 307, 309, 310, 311,
Christianity, 30, 37, 38, 40, 117, 118–119, 123, 313, 317
176, 177, 180, 181, 238, 249, 330 Sita, 90, 109
chutneys, 48 Sundar Mata, 98, 99
classical dance, 185, 270, 271–278, 284, 294, 311 Vishnu, 92, 97, 98, 108, 110, 112, 115, 120, 122,
classical music, 74, 240, 242–245, 248, 257, 258, 124, 169, 181, 182, 189, 206, 214, 215, 219,
259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 265, 266, 268, 278 220, 255, 300, 311, 312
classical theatre, 285–287 Delhi, 57, 71, 80, 98, 117, 129, 130, 138, 193, 230,
clothing, 49–51, 158, 196, 200, 201 234, 236, 268, 292, 319, 325, 327
Commonwealth of Nations, 80, 144, 330 Devanagari script, 55, 57, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67,
cricket, 51 70, 79, 81, 82, 83–84
Criminal Tribes Acts, 39 Devi, 90, 97, 112, 116, 206
cuisine, 48–49 dharma, 86, 87, 93–94, 106, 156, 159, 161, 187
dhotis, 50, 275, 277
Digambara, 145, 146, 147, 148, 150, 153, 155,
D 157, 158
Dahala, 307, 309, 310 Diwali, 48, 108, 109, 127, 140, 141, 158
dal, 48 Dogri, 62–63, 294
Dalai Lama, 25 dowries, 46, 47
Dasgupta, S.N., 179, 183 Dravidian languages, 65, 71–76
Deccan, 27, 34, 64, 80, 81, 146, 230, 232, 253, Durga, 90, 98, 110, 127, 281, 292, 317
254, 303, 305, 310, 321 Dussehra, 48
deities dynasties
Brahma, 120, 181 Chalukya, 76
Devi, 90, 97, 112, 116, 206 Chandela, 308
Dev Narayan, 98, 99 Chera, 40
Durga, 90, 98, 110, 127, 281, 292, 317 Chola, 40, 182, 184, 220, 316
Ganesha, 120, 278 Ganga, 146
Hanuman, 109, 275, 288 Gupta, 82–83, 145, 167, 168, 169–170, 181,
Indra 201, 278 182, 187, 213–217, 298, 300
Kali, 109, 222, 281 Hoysala, 146, 222, 318
Krishna, 34, 90, 96, 97, 108, 109, 113, 120, Kacchapaghata, 308
149, 181, 196, 214, 231, 235, 255, 261, 268, Kalacuri, 309
272, 275, 276, 277, 278, 288 Kushan, 169, 179, 186, 188, 206, 209, 210
Lakshmana, 90, 109, 217, 275, 308, 309 Mauryan, 167, 168, 179, 180
Lakshmi, 98, 109, 110, 278 Mughal, 27, 49, 117, 118, 124, 127, 128, 129,
Parvati, 90, 98, 109, 273, 301, 310 130, 133, 134, 135, 141, 160, 180, 184, 186,
Rama, 90, 96, 109, 110, 118, 120, 149, 159 188, 222, 225, 226, 227, 229, 230–231, 232,
Shakti, 92, 110, 111 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 254, 256, 276,
Shiva, 90, 92, 97, 102, 106, 109, 111, 112, 289, 292, 322, 323, 327
113, 116, 120, 181, 206, 215, 217, 219, 220, Pala, 169–170
338 | The Culture of India
F H
family and kinship, 46–47 Hargobind, Guru, 128–129
Fatehpur Sikri, 322, 323 Hari Krishen, Guru, 129–130
festivals, 48, 96, 102, 107–110, 139–141, 158–159, Har Rai, Guru, 129
230, 242, 249, 267, 268, 279, 294, 295 Haryana, 55, 57, 268
field hockey, 51 headhunting, 34, 36
Five Tensile Strands, 87–91 Herodotus, 38
folk dance, 279–284 Himalayas, 65, 125, 167, 184, 235, 281, 311
folk music, 240–242 Hindi (language), 27, 36, 37, 38, 39, 51, 54, 55,
folk theatre, 287–291 56–59, 64, 65, 70, 71, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 88,
Four Noble Truths, 161, 165 104, 254, 283, 290, 293, 294, 295, 330
Hindu art, 112–116
Hinduism
G central conceptions of, 91–117
Gandhi, Indira, 138 and Christianity, 118–119
Gandhi, Mohandas (Mahatma), 81, 119, 153, deities of, 97–99
172, 183 devotion, 97
Ganges River, 27, 99, 127, 219 diaspora of, 119–121
Gangetic Basin, 27, 144, 145 divination, 101
garhasthya, 44 and healing, 101–102
Gautama, Siddhartha, 161 and Islam, 117–118
Goa, 34, 63, 64, 108, 238, 327 and pilgrimage, 103–104
Gobind Singh, Guru, 130–133 rituals of, 104–110
Golden Temple, 127, 136, 138, 141 Shaiva rites, 106–107
Gond, 27–29, 71, 279 temples, 89, 95, 96, 99, 101, 102, 104–106,
Gondi, 37, 72, 73 108, 110, 111, 113, 115, 116, 117, 118, 120, 121,
gopuras, 220, 319, 316, 317 123, 216, 217, 222, 223, 224, 307, 308
Index | 339
Jammu, 22, 62, 63, 117, 123, 235, 294 Kolkata, 51, 59, 61, 81, 195, 213, 268, 290
Jarawa, 24 Konkani, 54, 63–64
Jat, 39, 40, 128, 138, 139, 141, 143 Korku, 32, 77
Jataka, 197, 200, 206, 212, 223 korma, 48, 58
jatis, 44–45, 89, 93, 165, 249, 251–252, 253, 255, Kota, 24, 29, 32, 42, 73
268, 273, 274 Kotah, 231, 232–234
Jati Savara, 40 Krishna, 34, 90, 96, 97, 108, 109, 113, 120, 149,
Jews/Judaism, 123 181, 196, 214, 231, 235, 255, 261, 268, 272,
jiva, 92, 150–151, 152 275, 276, 277, 278, 288
Kshatriya, 26, 34, 43, 89, 93, 144, 147, 248
Kui, 31, 73
K Kuki, 32–33, 36
kabaddi, 5 Kumarila, Mimamshakas, 182
Kadar, 29 Kunbi, 34
Kama, 108 Kurukh, 37, 72, 73
Kama-sutra, 176 Kurumbas, 32
Kannada (language), 24, 29, 72, 73–74, 76, Kushan dynasty, 169, 179, 186, 188, 206,
146, 274 209, 210
kanyadan, 46 Kuttia Khond, 31
karmans (karma),15, 149 Kuwi, 31
Karnataka, 24, 40, 63, 72, 73, 74, 146, 148, 159,
216, 222, 223, 288, 303, 305, 314, 317
Kashmir (region), 22, 44, 62, 63, 67, 107, 117,
L
134, 136, 182, 185, 219, 254, 281, 294, Ladakh, 19, 22, 28
305, 314 Lahnda, 64, 66
Kashmiri (language), 54, 63 Lakshmana, 90, 109, 217, 275, 308, 309
kathakali, 27, 273, 275, 278, 284–285 Lamaist, 33
Kerala, 29, 40, 72, 74, 117, 273, 274, 281, 285, languages, 53–84
287, 293, 318 Lepcha, 33
kes, 131, 141, 142–143 lingam, 106, 111
Kes-Dharis, 142 Lingayat Hindu, 24
Khalsa, 130–131, 133, 134–136, 137, 139, 140, Lokayatas, 180
141, 142, 143 lungi, 50
Kharia, 29–30, 77 Lushai, 32, 36, 79
Khari Boli, 57–58, 80–81
Kharosthi, 82
Khojas, 31
M
kho-kho, 51 Madhva, 107, 182
Khond, 31 Madhya Pradesh, 25, 27–28, 32, 37, 39, 53,
kirpan, 131, 142 55, 57, 59, 68–70, 76, 82, 115, 280, 303,
Koli, 31 307, 310
Index | 341
Magar, 33 232, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 254, 256,
Mahabharata, 18, 38, 68, 70, 76, 90, 104, 181, 276, 289, 292, 322, 323, 327
184, 226, 227–228, 240, 242, 249, 274 Mumbai, 27, 31, 34, 64, 108, 123, 226, 237, 238,
Maharashtra, 25, 27, 31, 32, 34, 48, 55, 59, 64, 240, 284, 290, 293, 295, 310
123, 159, 172, 205, 216, 222, 281, 288–289, Munda (language), 25, 29, 32, 36–37, 38, 39,
295, 299, 310, 315, 318 40, 54, 76–79
Mahavira, 144–146, 157, 158, 180, 312 muqaddam, 36
mahr, 47 Muria, 28, 280
Maithili, 54, 57, 64 music, 240–266
mandala, 110–111, 231 Muslim empire, 49
Mandana Mishra, 182 Myanmar (Burma), 22, 25, 33, 36, 78, 79, 123, 141
Manipuri (language), 34, 36, 76, 79, 273,
277, 285
Maratha, 34, 267, 290
N
Marathi, 27, 54, 55, 64, 65, 79, 83 Naga, 26, 34, 37, 51, 53
marriage, 25, 26, 27, 29, 31, 33, 34, 36, 38, 39, Nagaland, 37, 117
42, 45, 46, 47, 57, 94, 106, 119, 133, 137, 140, Nagarjunakonda, 206, 211, 212
157, 241, 271, 294 Nagarjuni Hills, 297, 298
masala, 48 nagas, 185
Mathura, 118, 157, 167, 191, 196–197, 200, 202, nagaswaram, 241, 260, 261
203, 205, 206, 207, 209, 210, 211–212, Nagpur, 34, 172
213–214, 237, 300 Nanak, Guru, 124–127
Mauryan dynasty, 168 Natha era, 67, 80, 144
media, 45, 51–52, 55, 57, 69, 80, 242, Nepal, 25, 33, 38, 54, 64, 65, 78, 161, 219
265, 266 Nepali (language), 54, 64–65, 83
Mehta, Raychandrabhai, 153 New Delhi, 80, 193, 214, 225, 236, 273, 279,
Meithei, 34–36, 79 285, 295
Mina, 36 newspapers, 51, 62, 294
missionaries, 27, 78, 119 Nilgiri, 24, 32, 42
Mizo, 32–33, 34, 36, 79 Nilgiri Hills, 32, 41
Mizoram, 36, 79, 117, 171, 202, 203, 223, 297, Nirvana, 109, 158, 161, 166, 223
299–300, 301
modern dance, 284–285
modern music, 251, 252, 253
O
modern theatre, 291–295 Olympic Games, 51
moksha, 87, 92, 93, 95, 116, 152, 175, 176–177 Onge, 24
monasteries, 105, 147, 168–170 Oraon, 37–38
Mongols, 21, 180 Orissa, 27, 29, 30, 31, 37, 39, 55, 65, 77, 99, 115,
Mughal dynasty, 27, 49, 117, 118, 124, 127, 128, 117, 119, 194, 196, 203, 205, 217–219, 225,
129, 130, 133, 134, 135, 141, 160, 180, 184, 270, 273, 278, 280, 284, 288, 300, 305, 306
186, 188, 222, 225, 226, 227, 229, 230–231, Oriya, 31, 40, 54, 55, 59, 60, 65–66, 81
342 | The Culture of India
U Vishnu, 92, 97, 98, 108, 110, 112, 115, 120, 122,
124, 169, 181, 182, 189, 206, 214, 215, 219,
Upanishads, 92, 94, 96, 119, 160, 175, 177, 220, 255, 300, 311, 312
178, 247 visual arts, 15, 112, 186
Urdu, 54, 55, 56, 59, 70–71, 81, 254,
283, 293
W
Uttar Pradesh, 55, 57, 59, 99, 117, 157, 197,
268, 305, 308, 320 wall paintings, ancient, 223, 224
weaving, 37, 38, 238
West Bengal, 22, 33, 37, 39, 55, 60, 61, 62, 77,
V 117, 218, 230, 268, 270, 285, 320
Western musical influence, 265–266
Vaishnavism, 181, 182
Vaishya, 43, 44, 89, 93, 110, 248
Vajrayana, 123, 162, 169, 170 Y
Vakataka dynasty, 215 yantra, 110–111
vanaprastha, 44, 94 Yemen, 27, 56
varnas, 42–44, 89, 93 yoga, 80, 93, 94, 106, 120, 124, 125, 142, 152,
varnashrama dharma, 44 159, 161, 174, 179, 181
Vasantpanchami, 48 Yogacara, 169, 170, 182
Vedas, 54, 62, 67, 69, 92, 97, 160, 175, 176, 177, yoni, 111
178, 180, 247, 248
Vedic chant, 246–248
vegetarianism, 45, 148–149, 153, 157 Z
Vijayanagar empire, 40, 148 Zoroastrians, 123