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Physics Project
Anushrav 2
Rai,
XII-
H
LAB CERTIFICATE
Teacher’s Signature
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Anushrav Rai
Physics Project
Galvanometer 5
Operation
Physics Project
When a direct current (DC) flows through the coil, the coil generates a
magnetic field. This field acts against the permanent magnet. The coil
twists, pushing against the spring, and moves the pointer. The hand points at
a scale indicating the electric current. Careful design of the pole pieces
ensures that the magnetic field is uniform, so that the angular deflection of
the pointer is proportional to the current. A useful meter generally contains
provision for damping the mechanical resonance of the moving coil and
pointer, so that the pointer settles quickly to its position without
oscillation.
resistor is placed in series in the circuit the current will be less than
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full scale and an appropriately calibrated scale can display the value of the
previously-unknown resistor.
Because the pointer of the meter is usually a small distance above the scale
of the meter, parallax error can occur when the operator attempts to read the
scale line that "lines up" with the pointer. To counter this, some meters
include a mirror along the markings of the principal scale. The accuracy of
the reading from a mirrored scale is improved by positioning one's head while
reading the scale so that the pointer and the reflection of the pointer are
aligned; at this point, the operator's eye must be directly above the pointer
and any parallax error has been minimized.
Tangent galvanometer
In operation, the instrument is first rotated until the magnetic field of the
Earth, indicated by the compass needle, is parallel with the plane of the
coil. Then the unknown current is applied to the coil. This creates a second
magnetic field on the axis of the coil, perpendicular to the Earth's magnetic
field. The compass needle responds to the vector sum of the two fields, and
deflects to an angle equal to the tangent of the ratio of the two fields.
From the angle read from the compass's scale, the current could be found from
a table.[2]
The current supply wires have to be wound in a small helix, like a pig's
tail, otherwise the field due to the wire will affect the compass needle and
an incorrect reading will be obtained.
[edit]Theory
The galvanometer is oriented so that the plane of the coil is parallel to the
local magnetic meridian, that is the horizontal component BH of the Earth's
magnetic field. When a current passes through the galvanometer coil, a
second magnetic field B perpendicular to the coil is created, of strength:
Physics Project
or
• Galvanometer
• Ammeter, 0 to 1 A, DC 10
• Cell, 1.5 V in holder
• Power supply, low voltage, DC
• Crocodile clips, 2
• Lamp in holder, 12 V, 36 W or 24 W
• Eureka wire, 28 SWG or thicker
• Leads, 4 mm, 6
Procedure
Making an ammeter
b For that loop line or shunt, connect a short piece of alloy wire across the 11
terminals of your galvanometer, as in the diagram. Take care! If, when
adjusting the shunt, you let the whole big current go through the
galvanometer, even momentarily, you might damage the galvanometer badly.
c Start with a very short shunt, straight across from terminal to terminal.
Make a very rough test of that by connecting in series a lamp, your shunted
galvanometer, a commercial ammeter (for comparison) and one 1.5-volt cell -
just for a safe first trial.
d Switch on the current just for a moment, to see whether the pointer moves
too far or too little.
e Adjust the length of shunt by trial and error. Shorten or lengthen the
shunt until your home-made ammeter seems to read roughly what you want it to
read.
f Disconnect the battery from your test circuit and replace it with the power
Physics Project
supply, set to give 12 V. Adjust the shunt more carefully till you have a
good ammeter. 12
g A commercial ammeter is constructed like this. It is a milliammeter with a
shunt. Sometimes the basic instrument has several removable shunts to make it
an ammeter with a choice of several ranges-as in the case of multimeters
where you can select a range by turning a dial.
Teaching notes
1 Those who are keen to use their knowledge of resistance can have a go at
converting a milliammeter to an ammeter. This is the job which a meter shunt
does. The correct resistance has to be connected in parallel with the
milliammeter in order to allow it to register amps. It does this by sending
most of the circuit’s current through the shunt and tapping a small fraction
of it to send through the meter.
Focal length
The focal length of an optical system is a measure of how strongly the system
converges (focuses) or diverges (defocuses) light. For an optical system in
air, it is the distance over which initially collimatedrays are brought to
a focus. A system with a shorter focal length has greater optical power than
one with a long focal length; that is, it bends the rays more strongly,
bringing them to a focus in a shorter distance.
In telescopy and most photography, longer focal length or lower optical power
is associated with largermagnification of distant objects, and a
narrower angle of view. Conversely, shorter focal length or higher optical
power is associated with a wider angle of view. In microscopy, on the other
hand, a short objective lens focal length leads to higher magnification.
Physics Project
13
Front focal length (FFL) or Front focal distance (FFD) is the distance
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from the front focal point of the system to the vertex of the first
optical surface.[1][2]
Back focal length (BFL) or Back focal distance (BFD) is the distance from
the vertex of the last optical surface of the system to the rear focal
point.[1][2]
For an optical system in air, the effective focal length gives the distance
from the front and rear principal planes to the corresponding focal points.
If the surrounding medium is not air, then the distance is multiplied by
the refractive index of the medium. Some authors call this distance the front
(rear) focal length, distinguishing it from the front (rear) focal distance,
defined above.[1]
In general, the focal length or EFL is the value that describes the ability
of the optical system to focus light, and is the value used to calculate
the magnification of the system. The other parameters are used in determining
where an image will be formed for a given object position.
For the case of a lens of thickness d in air, and surfaces with radii of
curvature R1 and R2, the effective focal length f is given by:
where n is the refractive index of the lens medium. The quantity 1/f is
also known as the optical power of the lens.
15
Metre rule 1
White screen 1
16
12 V d.c. power supply 1
distance v.
Physics Project
1 1 1 17
= +
f u v
The formula can be used for both converging and diverging lens; the
only difference
lenses.
White
screen
4. Place the convex lens on a lens holder between the screen and
the ray box as
shown below.
Physics Project
conve
Screen
Ray
v
u box
Metre
xrule
lens 18
5. Adjust the distance of the lens from the screen until a sharp
image of the
6. Record the object distance u, the image distance v from the lens,
the size of
7. Keep the screen and the ray box in the same position and move the
lens back
Physics Project
and forth between the object and the screen to find another
position resulting 19
in a focused image.
8. Record the object distance, image distance and size of the image
for each
position.
9. Move the screen about 10 cm closer to the object and again adjust
the
distance, image distance and size of the image for each position.
10. Continue moving the screen closer and adjusting the lens until
you determine
the lens position such that the image distance is equal to the
object distance.