DESIGN OF BRIDGES

• BRIDGE: STRUCTURE WHICH PROVIDES

PASSAGE OVER AN OBSTACLE WITHOUT
CLOSING THE WAY BENEATH
REQUIRED PASSAGE MAY BE FOR A ROAD,
A RAILWAY,PEDESTRIANS, A CANAL OR A
PIPE LINE
OBSTACLE TO BE CROSSED-RIVER, A ROAD,
RAILWAY OR A VALLEY
 IMPORTANCE OF BRIDGES
INVENTIONS WHICH ABRIDGE DISTANCE
HAVE DONE THE MOST FOR THE
CIVILISATION OF THE SOCIETY
BRIDGES FIGURED PROMINENTLY IN
HUMAN HISTORY
CITIES HAVE BEEN DEVELOPEDAT A
BRIDGE HEAD OR WHERE AT FIRST RIVER
COULD BE FORDED AT ANY TIME OF THE
YEAR
EXAMPLE-LONDON,CAMBRIDGE,OXFORD
ETC
GREAT BATTLES HAVE BEEN FOUGHT FOR
CITIES AND BRIDGES
MOBILITY OF AN ARMY DURING WAR IS
OFTEN AFFECTED BY THE AVAILABILITY
OR OTHERWISE OF BRIDGES TO CROSS
RIVERS.
THAT’S WHY MILITARY TRAINING PUTS
SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON LEARNING HOW TO
DESTROY EXISTING BRIDGES WHILE
RETREATING AND HOW TO BUILD NEW
ONES QUICKLY WHILE ADVANCING
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED BEFORE THE
CONSTRUCITON OF A BRIDGE
1. THE NEED FOR THE STRUCTURE AND
ITS LOCATION
2. THE TRAFFIC THAT WILL PASS OVER
THE STRUCTURE ON COMPLETION AND
IN FUTURE(IN RESPECT OF THE VOLUME
OF THE TRAFFIC AS WELL AS THE
AXLE/WHEEL LOAD)
3. CHARACTERSTICS OF THE STREAM/
RIVER/ CANAL
4. SUB SOIL CONDITIONS
5. ALTERNATIVE SITES EITHER BY
LONGITUDINAL SHIFT OF THE PROPOSED
STRUCTURE OR BY LATERAL SHIFT OF
THE ALIGNMENT ITSELF
6. CONSTRUCTION PROBLEMS THAT ARE
LIKELY TO ARISE AND
7. COST AND ECONOMICS
 COMPONENTS OF A BRIDGE
A. DECKING, CONSISTING OF DECK SLAB,
GIRDERS, TRUSSES, ETC
B. BEARINGS FOR DECKING
C. ABUTMENTS AND PIERS
D. FOUNDATIONS FOR THE ABUTMENTS AND
PIERS
E. RIVER TRAINING WORKS, LIKE REVETMENT
FOR SLOPES AT ABUTMENTS, APRONS AT
THE BED LEVEL, ETC
F. APPROACHES TO THE BRIDE TO CONNECT
THE BRIDGE PROPER TO THE ROADS ON
EITHER SIDE AND
G. HAND RAILS AND GUARD STONES ETC
THE COMPONENTS ABOVE THE LEVEL OF
BEARINGS ARE GROUPED AS SUPER
STRUCTURE, WHILE THE PARTS BELOW
THE BEARING LEVEL ARE CLASSED AS
SUB STRUCTURE. THE PORTION BELOW
THE BED LEVEL OF THE RIVER IS CALLED
THE FOUNDATION. THE COMPONENTS
BELOW THE BEARING AND ABOVE THE
FOUNDATION ARE OFTEN REFERRED AS
SUB STRUCTURE.
 CLASSIFICATION
BRIDGES MAY BE CLASSIFIED IN MANY WAYS
a. ACCORDING TO FUNCTION AS AQUADUCT
(CANAL OVER A RIVER), VIADUCT (ROAD OR
RAILWAY OVER A VALLEY), PEDASTRIAN,
HIGHWAY, RAILWAY, ROAD-CUM-RAIL OR A
PIPELINE BRIDGE
b. ACCORDING TO THE MATERIAL OF
CONSTRUCTION OF SUPER STRUCTURE AS
TIMBER, MASONRY, IRON, STEEL, REINFORCED
CONCRETE, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE,
COMPOSITE OR ALUMINIUM BRIDGE
c. ACCORDING TO THE FORM OR TYPE OF SUPER
STRUCTURE AS SLAB, BEAM, TRUSS, ARCH,
CABLE STAYED OR SUSPENSION BRIDGE
d. ACCORDING TO THE INTERSPAN
RELATIONS AS SIMPLE, CONTINUOUS OR
CANTILEVER BRIDGE
e. ACCORDING TO THE POSITION OF THE
BRIDGE FLOOR RELATIVE TO THE SUPER
STRUCTURE AS DECK THROUGH, HALF
THROUGH OR SUSPENDED BRIDGE
f. ACCORDING TO THE METHOD OF
CONNECTIONS OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS
OF THE SUPERSTRUCTURE, PARTICULARLY
FOR STELL CONSTRUCTION, AS PIN-
CONNECTED, REVETED OR WELDED
BRIDGE
 g. ACCORDING TO THE LOAD LEVEL
RELATIVE TO THE HIGHEST FLOOD LEVEL
OF THE RIVER BELOW, PARTICULARLY
FOR A HIGHWAY BRIDGE, AS HIGH-LEVEL
OR SUBMERSIBLE BEIDGE.
h. ACCORDING TO THE METHOD OF
CLEARANCE FOR NAVIGATION AS HIGH
LEVEL, MOVABLE-BASCULE, MOVABLE
SWING OR TRANSPORTER BRIDGE
i. ACCORDING TO THE SPAN LENGTH AS
CULVERT (LESS THAN 8M) MINOR BRIDGE
(8 TO 30M) MAJOR BRIDGE(ABOVE 30M) OR
LONG SPAN BRIDGE(ABOVE 120M)
j. ACCORDING TO THE DEGREE OF
REDUNDANCY AS DETERMINATE OR
INDETERMINATE BRIDGE
k. ACCORDING TO ANTICIPATED TYPE
OF SERVICE AND DURATION OF USE
AS PERMANENT, TEMPORARY
MILITARY(PONTOON, BAILEY)
BRIDGE
 STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR ROAD BRIDGES

THE INDIAN ROAD CONGRESS (IRC) HAS FORMULATED

STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS AND CODES OF PRACTICE FOR
ROAD BRIDGES WITH A VIEW TO ESTABLISH A COMMON
PROCEDURE FOR THE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF
ROAD BRIDGES IN INDIA.
THE IRC BRIDGE CODE AS AVAILABLE NOW CONSISTS OF
EIGHT SECTIONS AS BELOW
1. SECTION I - GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN
2. SECTION II - LOADS AND STRESSES
3. SECTION III - CEMENT CONCRETE (PLAIN AND REINFORCED)
4. SECTION IV - BRICK, STONE AND BLOCK MASONRY
5. SECTION V - STEEL ROAD BRIDGES
6. SECTION VI - COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
7. SECTION VII -FOUNDATIONS AND SUBSTRUCTURE
8. SECTION VIII - BEARINGS.
 SECTION I GIVES THE SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE
PRELIMINARY DATA TO BE COLLECTED,
DETERMINATION OF DESIGN DISCHARGE,
CLEARANCES, FOUNDATIONS ETC.
SECTION II SPECIFIES THE LOADINGS FOR WHICH
THE BRIDGES HAVE TO BE DESIGNED.
THE OTHER SECTION GIVES RULES FOR GUIDANCE
IN DESIGN OF THE BRIDGE SUPERSTRUCTURE IN
MASONRY, REINFORCED CONCRETE, STEEL AND
COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION, FOUNDATIONS AND
BEARINGS. GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR THE
DESIGN OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BRIDGES
ARE GIVEN IN A SEPARATE PUBLICATION.
 WIDTH OF CARRIAGEWAY
THE WIDTH OF CARRIAGEWAY REQUIRED WILL
DEPEND ON THE INTENSITY AND VOLUME OF
TRAFFIC ANTICIPATED TO USE THE BRIDGE. THE
WIDTH OF CARRIAGEWAY IS EXPRESSED IN
TERMS OF TRAFFIC LANES, EACH LANE
MEASURING THE WIDTH REQUIRED TO
ACCOMMODATE ONE TRAIN OF CLASS A
VEHICLES.
EXCEPT ON MINOR VILLAGE ROADS, ALL BRIDGES
MUST PROVIDE FOR AT LEAST TWO-LANE WIDTH.
THE MINIMUM WIDTH OF CARRIAGE WAY IS
4.25M FOR ONE LANE BRIDGE AND 7.5M FOR A
TWO-LANE BRIDGE. FOR EVERY ADDITIONAL
LANE, A MINIMUM OF 3.5M MUST BE ALLOWED.
BRIDGE MUST HAVE CARRIAGEWAYS OF TWO OR
FOUR LANES OR MULTIPLES OF TWO LANES; THREE
LANE BRIDGES SHOULD NOT BE CONSTRUCTED,
AS THESE WILL BE CONDUCIVE TO THE
OCCURRENCE OF ACCIDENTS. IN CASE OF A WIDE
BRIDGE, IT IS DESIRABLE TO PROVIDE A CENTRAL
VERGE OF AT LEAST 1.2M WIDTHS IN ORDER TO
SEPARATE THE TWO OPPOSING LINES OF TRAFFIC,
IN SUCH A CASE THE INDIVIDUAL CARRIAGE ON
EITHER SIDE OF THE VERGE SHOULD PROVIDE
FOR A MINIMUM OF TWO LANES OF TRAFFIC. IF
THE BRIDGE IS TO CARRY A TRAMWAY OR
RAILWAY IN ADDITION, THE WIDTH OF THE
BRIDGE SHOULD BE INCREASED SUITABLY.
FROM CONSIDERATION OF SAFETY AND
EFFECTIVE UTILIZATION OF CARRIAGEWAY, IT IS
DESIRABLE TO PROVIDE FOOTPATH OF AT LEAST
1.5M WIDTHS ON EITHER SIDE OF THE
CARRIAGEWAY FOR ALL BRIDGES. IN URBAN
AREAS, IT MAY BE NECESSARY ALSO TO
PROVIDE FOR SEPARATE CYCLE TRACKS
BESIDES THE CARRIAGEWAY.
 LOADS TO BE CONSIDERED
WHILE DESIGNING ROAD BRIDGES AND
CULVERTS, THE FOLLOWING LOADS,
FORCES AND STRESSES SHOULD BE
CONSIDERED, WHERE APPLICABLE:
A. DEAD LOAD
B.LIVE LOAD
C.SNOW LOAD
D. IMPACT OR DYNAMIC EFFECT DUE TO
VEHICLES
E. IMPACT DUE TO FLOATING BODIES OR
VESSELS
F. WIND LOAD
 G. LONGITUDINAL FORCES CAUSED BY THE
TRACTIVE EFFORT OF VEHICLES OR BY BRAKING OF
VEHICLES
H. LONGITUDINAL FORCES DUE TO FRICTIONAL
RESISTANCE OF EXPANSION BEARINGS
I. CENTRIFUGAL FORCES DUE TO CURVATURE
J. HORIZONTAL FORCES DUE TO WATER CURRENTS
K. BUOYANCY
L. EARTH PRESSURE, INCLUDING LIVE LOAD
SURCHARGE
M. TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
N. DEFORMATION EFFECTS
O. SECONDARY EFFECTS
P. ERECTION STRESS
Q. FORCES AND EFFECTS DUE TO EARTH QUAKE
R. WAVE PRESSURE
ALL MEMBERS SHOULD BE DESIGNED TO SUSTAIN
ANY COMBINATION OF THE ABOVE FORCES THAT
CAN COEXIST
TYPICAL COMBINATION OF LOADS AND FORCES TO
BE CONSIDERED IN DESIGN AND ALLOWABLE
INCREASE IN PERMISSIBLE STRESSES FOR
CERTAIN COMBINATIONS ARE GIVEN IN THE
CODE.
UNDER ANY COMBINATIONS MAXIMUM STRESS IN
STEEL MEMBERS SHOULD NOT EXCEED THE YIELD
STRENGTH OF STEEL.
 IRC STANDARD LIVE LOADS
LIVE LOADS ARE THOSE CAUSED BY VEHICLES,
WHICH PASS OVER THE BRIDGE AND ARE
TRANSIENT IN NATURE. THESE LOADS CANNOT
BE ESTIMATED PRECISELY, AND THE DESIGNER
HAS VERY LITTLE CONTROL OVER THEM ONCE
THE BRIDGE IS OPENED TO TRAFFIC. HOWEVER
HYPOTHETICAL LOADINGS, WHICH ARE
REASONABLY REALISTIC NEED TO BE EVOLVED
AND SPECIFIED TO SERVE AS DESIGN CRITERIA.
THERE ARE FOUR TYPES OF STANDARD LOADINGS
FOR WHICH ROAD BRIDGES ARE DESIGNED.
IRC CLASS AA LOADING
IRC CLASS AA LOADING (REFER TO IRC
LOADING DIAGRAMS)
THIS LOADING CONSISTS OF EITHER A
TRACKED VEHICLE OF 700 KN OR A
WHEELED VEHICLE OF 400 KN WITH
DIMENSTIONS AS SHOWN IN FIG. THE
TRACKED VEHICLE SIMULATES A
COMBAT TANK USED BY THE ARMY. THE
GROUND CONTACT LENGTH OF THE
TRACK IS 3.6M AND THE NOSE TO TAIL
LENGTH OF THE VEHICLE IS 7.2M. THE
NOSE TO TAIL SPACING BETWEEN TWO
SUCCESSIVE VEHICLES SHALL NOT BE
LESS THAN 90M. FOR MULTI-LANE
BRIDGES AND CULVERTS,
ONE TRAIN OF CLASS AA TRACKED OR WHEELED
VEHICLES WHICHEVER CREATES SEVERER
CONDITIONS SHALL BE CONSIDERED FOR EVERY
TWO-LANE WIDTH. NO OTHER LIVE LOAD SHALL
BE CONSIDERED ON ANY PART OF THE ABOVE
TWO-LANE CARRIAGEWAY WHEN THE CLASS AA
TRAIN OF VEHICLES IS ON THE BRIDGE. THE CLASS
AA LOADING IS TO BE ADOPTED FOR BRIDGES
LOCATED WITHIN CERTAIN MUNICIPAL
LOCALITIES AND ALONG SPECIFIED HIGHWAYS.
NORMALLY, STRUCTURES ON NATIONAL
HIGHWAYS AND STATE HIGHWAYS ARE PROVIDED
FOR THESE LOADINGS. STRUCTURES DESIGNED
FOR CLASS AA LOADING SHOULD ALSO BE
CHECKED FOR CLASS A LOADING, SINCE UNDER
CERTAIN CONDITIONS, SEVER STRESSES MAY BE
OBTAINED UNDER CLASS A LOADING.
IRC CLASS 70R LOADING
IRC CLASS 70 R LOADING (REFER TO IRC LOADING
DIAGRAMS)
IN RECENT YEARS, THERE IS AN
INCREASING TENDENCY TO SPECIFY THIS
LOADING IN PLACE OF CLASS AA
LOADING. THIS LOADING CONSISTS OF A
TRACKED VEHICLE OF 700KN OR A
WHEELED VEHICLE OF TOTAL LOAD OF
1000KN. THE TRACKED VEHICLE IS
SIMILAR TO THAT OF CLASS AA EXCEPT
THAT THE CONTACT LENGTH OF THE
TRACK IS 4.57M, THE NOSE TO TAIL
LENGTH OF THE VEHICLE IS 7.92M AND
THE SPECIFIED MINIMUM SPACING
BETWEEN SUCCESSIVE VEHICLES IS 30M.
THE WHEELED VEHICLE IS 15.22M LONG AND HAS
SEVEN AXLES WITH LOADS TOTALING TO 1000KN.
IN ADDITION, THE EFFECTS ON THE BRIDGE
COMPONENTS DUE TO A BOGIE LOADING OF 400KN
ARE ALSO TO BE CHECKED. THE DIMENSIONS OF
THE CLASS 70R LOADING VEHICLES ARE SHOWN IN
FIG. THE SPECIFIED SPACING BETWEEN VEHICLES IS
MEASURED FROM THE REAR MOST POINT OF
GROUND CONTACT OF THE LEADING VEHICLE TO
THE FORWARD MOST POINT OF GROUND CONTACT
OF THE FOLLOWING VEHICLE IN CASE OF TRACKED
VEHICLES; FOR WHEELED VEHICLES IT IS
MEASURED FROM THE CENTER OF THE REAR MOST
WHEEL OF THE LEADING VEHICLE TO THE CENTER
OF THE FIRST AXLE OF THE FOLLOWING VEHICLE.
IRC CLASS A AND IRC CLASS B
LOADING
 IRC CLASS A LOADING: (REFER TO IRC
LOADING DIAGRAMS)
CLASS A LOADING CONSISTS OF A WHEEL LOAD
TRAIN COMPOSED OF A DRIVING VEHICLE AND
TRAILERS OF SPECIFIED AXLE SPACING AND
LOADS, AS SHOWN IN FIGS
THE NOSE TO TAIL SPACING BETWEEN TWO
SUCCESSIVE TRAINS SHALL NOT BE LESS THAN
18.5 M. NO OTHER LIVE LOAD SHALL COVER ANY
PART OF THE CARRIAGEWAY WHEN A TRAIN OF
VEHICLES IS ON THE BRIDGE. THE GROUND
CONTACT AREA FOR THE DIFFERENT WHEELS
AND THE MINIMUM SPECIFIED CLEARANCES ARE
INDICATED IN THE FIGURES. CLASS A LOADING
IS TO BE NORMALLY ADOPTED ON ALL ROADS
ON WHICH PERMANENT BRIDGES AND CULVERTS
ARE CONSTRUCTED.
IRC CLASS B LOADING (REFER TO IRC LOADING
DIAGRAMS)
CLASS B LOADING COMPRISES A WHEEL LOAD TRAIN
SIMILAR TO THAT OF CLASS A LOADING BUT WITH
SMALLER AXLE LOADS AS SHOWN IN FIG. THIS
LOADING IS INTENDED TO BE ADOPTED FOR
TEMPORARY STRUCTURES; TIMBER BRIDGES AND
BRIDGES IN SPECIFIED AREAS.
THE STANDARD LOADS ARE TO BE ARRANGED IN SUCH A
MANNER AS TO PRODUCE THE SEVEREST BENDING
MOMENT OR SHEAR AT ANY SECTION CONSIDERED.
THE LOADING VEHICLES ARE TO BE ALIGNED SO AS TO
TRAVEL PARALLEL TO THE LENGTH OF THE BRIDGE.
WHEN THESE VEHICLES ARE ON THE SPAN, NO OTHER
LIVE LOAD NEED BE CONSIDERED AS ACTING OVER
THE UNOCCUPIED AREA. VEHICLES IN ADJACENT
LANES ARE TO BE ASSUMED TO BE MOVING IN A
DIRECTION PRODUCING MAXIMUM STRESSES.
 IMPACT EFFECT
LIVE LOAD TRAIN PRODUCE HIGHER STRESSES
THAN THOSE WHICH WOULD BE CAUSED IF THE
LOADING VEHICLES WERE STATIONARY. IN
ORDER TO TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE INCREASE
IN STRESSES DUE TO DYNAMIC ACTION AND
STILL PROCEED WITH SIMPLER STATISTICAL
ANALYSIS, AN IMPACT ALLOWANCE IS MADE.
FOR FOOT BRIDGES, NO ALLOWANCE NEED BE
MACE FOR IMPACT. THE IMPACT ALLOWANCE IS
EXPRESSED AS A FRACTION OR PERCENTAGE OF
THE APPLIED LIVE LOAD, AND IS COMPUTED AS
BELOW;
A. FOR I.R.C CLASS A OR B LOADING
I = A/(B+L)
WHERE I = IMPACT FACTOR FRACTION
A = CONSTANT OF VALUE 4.5 FOR R.C. BRIDGE AND
9.0 FOR STEEL BRIDGES
B = CONSTANT OF VALUE 6.0 FOR REINFORCED
CONCRETE BRIDGES
L = SPAN IN METERS.
FOR SPANS LESS THAN 3 METERS,
IMPACT FACTOR IS 0.5 FOR R.C. BRIDGES AND
0.545 FOR STEEL BRIDGES WHEN SPAN EXCEEDS
45 METERS, THE IMPACT FACTOR IS TAKEN AS
0.154 FOR STEEL BRIDGES AND 0.088 FOR R.C
BRIDGES. ALTERNATIVELY, THE IMPACT FACTOR
FRACTION MAY BE DETERMINED FROM THE
CURVES GIVEN IN FIG
B. FOR IRC CLASS AA OR 70 R LOADING:
A. FOR SPANS LESS THAN 9M
I. FOR TRACKED VEHICLE 25% FOR SPANS UPTO 5M
LINEARLY REDUCING TO 10% FOR SPANS OF 9M
II. FOR WHEELED VEHICLE 25%
B. FOR SPANS OF 9M AND MORE
C. FOR TRACKED VEHICLE - FOR R.C. BRIDGES,
10% UPTO SPAN OF 40M AND IN ACCORDANCE
WITH FIG 3.6 FOR SPANS EXCEEDING 40M. FOR
STEEL BRIDGES, 10% FOR ALL SPANS
D. FOR WHEELED VEHICLE - FOR R.C BRIDGES,
25% FOR SPANS UPTO 12M AND IN
ACCORDANCE WITH FIG FOR SPANS
EXCEEDING 12M. FOR STEEL BRIDGES, 25% FOR
SPANS UPTO 23M, AND AS IN FIG. FOR SPANS
EXCEEDING 23M.
THE SPAN LENGTH TO BE CONSIDERED IN THE ABOVE
COMPUTATIONS IS DETERMINED AS BELOW:
I. SIMPLY SUPPORTED, CONTINUOUS OR ARCH SPANS
THE EFFECTIVE SPAN ON WHICH THE LOAD IS
PLACED
II. BRIDGES HAVING CANTILEVER ARM WITHOUT
SUSPENDED SPAN - 0.75 OF EFFECTIVE CANTILEVER
ARM FOR LOADS ON THE CANTILEVER ARM AND
THE EFFECTIVE SPAN BETWEEN SUPPORTS FOR
LOADS ON THE MAIN SPAN.
WHEN THERE IS A FILLING OF NOT LESS THAN 0.6M
INCLUDING THE ROAD CRUST AS IN SPANDREL
FILLED ARCHES, THE IMPACT ALLOWANCE MAY
BE TAKEN AS HALF THAT COMPUTED BY THE
ABOVE PROCEDURE.
 FULL IMPACT ALLOWANCE SHOULD BE MADE FOR
DESIGN OF BEARINGS. BUT FOR COMPUTING THE
PRESSURE AT DIFFERENT LEVELS OF THE
SUBSTRUCTURE, A REDUCED IMPACT ALLOWANCE
IS MADE BY MULTIPLYING THE APPROPRIATE
IMPACT FRACTION BY FACTOR AS BELOW:

I. AT THE BOTTOM OF BED BLOCK - 0.5

II. FOR TOP 3M OF THE SUB-STRUCTURE BELOW THE
BE BLOCK , 0.5 DECREASING UNIFORMLY TO ZERO
III. FOR PORTION OF THE SUBSTRUCTURE MORE
THAN 3M BELOW THE BED BLOCK - 0.0
 APPLICATION OF LIVE LOADS ON DECK
SLABS:
ANY RATIONAL METHOD MAY BE USED FOR CALCULATING
THE EFFECT OF CONCENTRATED LOADS ON DECK SLABS.
THE DISPOSITION OF THE LOADING SHOULD BE SO
ARRANGED AS TO PRODUCE THE MAXIMUM BENDING
MOMENT OR SHEAR FOR THE DECK SLAB.
IN CASE OF DECK SLABS SPANNING IN ONE DIRECTION OR
CANTILEVER SLABS, THE BENDING MOMENT PER UNIT
WIDTH OF SLAB CAUSED BY CONCENTRATED LOADS CAN
BE CALCULATED BY ESTIMATING THE WIDTH OF SLAB
THAT MAY BE TAKEN AS EFFECTIVE IN RESISTING THE
BENDING MOMENT DUE TO THE CONCENTRATED LOADS.
FOR PRECAST SLABS, THE ACTUAL WIDTH OF EACH
PRECAST UNIT SHOULD BE TAKEN AS THE WIDTH OF
SLAB. SLABS DESIGNED ON THIS BASIS NEED NOT BE
CHECKED FOR SHEAR.
 SLABS SUPPORTED ON TWO
OPPOSITE SIDES
The maximum bending moment caused by a wheel load may
be assumed to be resisted by an effective width of slab-
measured parallel to the supporting edges.
The effective width of a single concentrated load is computed
from equation
be = k x (1-x/l) + bw --------(1)
 
Where be = the effective width of slab on which the load acts.
L = the effective span in the case of simply supported slabs
and equal to the clear span in the case of continuous slabs.
X= the distance of the center of gravity of the concentrated
load from the near support.
 
bw = the breadth of the concentration area, of the load, i.e., the
dimenison of the tyre or track contact area over the road
surface of the slab in a direction at right angles to the span
plus twice the thickness of the wearing coat or surface finish
above the structural slab.
K = a constant having values as shown in table depending on
the ratio LI/L where be is the width of the slab.
 
Obviously the effective width should no exceed the actual
width of the slab. Further, when a concentrated load is close to
the unsupported edge of a slab, the effective width shall not
exceed the above value nor half the above plus the distance of
the load from the unsupported edge.
For two or more concentrated loads in a line in the direction of
the span, the bending moment per meter width of slab shall be
calculated separately for each load according to its appropriate
effective width of slab from eqn 1.
 
For two or more concentrated loads in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of the span, it may sometimes
happen that the computed effective widths for two adjacent
loads overlap. In such cases, the resultant effective width will
be equal to the sum of individual widths minus the overlap
 CANTILEVER SLAB
The effective width of dispersion measured parallel to the
supported edge, for concentrated loads on a cantilever solid
slab is to be obtained from eqn.
be = 1.2x + bw ……. -------------------- 1
Where be =effective width
X = distance of the center of gravity of the
concentrated load from the face of the cantilever support.
bw = the breadth of the concentration area of the load, i.e., the
dimension of the tyre or track contact area over the road
surface of the slab in a direction parallel to the supporting
edge of the cantilever plus twice the thickness of the wearing
coat over the structural slab.
The effective width should be limited to one-third the length
measured parallel to the support. Further, when the
concentrated load is placed near one of the two extreme ends
of the length of the cantilever slab in the direction parallel to
the support, the effective width should not exceed the above
value, nor should it exceed half the above value plus the
distance of the concentrated load from the nearer extreme end,
measured in the direction parallel to the fixed edge when two
or more loads act on the slab, and when effective width for
one load overlaps the effective width of the adjacent load, the
resultant effective width should be taken as the sum of the
respective effective widths for each load minus the width of
overlap.
 
 DISPERSION OF LIVE LOAD
THROUGH DECK SLAB
The effective length of slab on which a wheel load or track
load acts shall be taken as equal to the dimension of the tyre
contact area over the wearing surface of slab in the direction
of the span plus twice the overall thickness of the slab
inclusive of the thickness of the wearing surface
 DISTRIBUTION REINFORCEMENT

The distribution reinforcement in slabs spanning in one

direction shall be provided at right angles to the main
reinforcement. This reinforcement is provided to produce a
resisting moment equal to 0.3 times the live load moment and
0.2 times the dead load moment, in cantilever slabs, the
distribution steel is computed to resist a moment equal to 0.3
times the live load moment and 0.2 times the dead load
moment, and the steel is provided half at the top and half at the
bottom of the slab. The pitch of the distribution bars shall not
exceed three times the effective depth of the slab or 300mm
whichever is less.
 SLABS SPANNING IN TWO DIRECTIONS
FOR SLABS SPANNING IN TWO DIRECTIONS, THE MOMENTS
IN THE TWO DIRECTIONS CAN BE OBTAINED BY ANY
RATIONAL METHOD. THE USE OF CURVES GIVEN BY
M.PIGEAUD IS RECOMMENDED.
PIGEAUD'S METHOD IS APPLICABLE TO RECTANGULAR
SLABS SUPPORTED FREELY ON ALL FOUR SIDES AND
SUBJECTED TO A SYMMETRICALLY PLACED LOAD.
LET L AND B BE THE SPAN LENGTHS IN THE LONG AND
SHORT SPAN DIRECTIONS
'A' AND 'B' BE THE DIMENSIONS OF THE TYRE CONTACT AREA
IN LONG AND SHORT SPAN DIRECTIONS
U AND V BE THE DIMENSIONS OF THE LOAD SPREAD AFTER
ALLOWING FOR DISPERSION THROUGH THE DECK SLAB.
K BE THE RATIO OF SHORT SPAN TO LONG SPAN
M1 AND M2 BE THE MOMENTS ALONG THE SHORT AND LONG
SPANS
m1 AND m2 BE THE CO-EFFICIENT FOR MOMENTS ALONG
THE SHORT AND LONG SPANS.
'µ' BE THE VALUE OF POISSON'S RATIO, GENERALLY TAKEN AS 0.15
FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE.
'P' BE THE LOAD FROM THE WHEEL UNDER CONSIDERATION

THE DISPERSION OF LOAD MAY BE ASSUMED TO BE AT 45 DEGEES

THROUGH THE WEARING COAT AND DECK SLAB. IT IS ALSO
SOMETIMES ASSUMED TO BE AT 45 DEGREES THROUGH WEARING
COAT BUT AT A STEEPER ANGLE THROUGH THE DECK SLAB. THE
LATTER ASSUMPTION IS USED HERE.
THE VALUES OF MOMENTS ALONG THE SHORTER AND LONGER
DIRECTIONS WOULD DEPEND ON THE RATIOS K, U/B AND V/L .
BENDING MOMENT CO-EFFICIENTS m1 AND m2 FOR DIFFERENT VALUES
OF K ARE GIVEN IN THE FORM OF CURVES, FROM WHICH THE VALUES
OF M1 AND M2 FOR THE PARTICULAR SET OF u/B AND v/L VALUES CAN
BE OBTAINED. THEM M1 AND M2 ARE CALCULATED FROM EQUATIONS
M1= (m1+µ m2)P-------(1)

M2= (m2 +µ m1)P-------(2)

WHEN THE SLABS ARE CONTINUOUS, THE SAME PROCEDURE AS ABOVE

MAY BE ADOPTED AND THE MAXIMUM MIDSPAN MOMENTS MAY BE
TAKEN AS 0.8 OF THOSE FOR THE CASE OF FREE SUPPORTS.
PIGEAUD'S METHOD HAS THE FOLLOWING LIMITATIONS

I. ONLY LOADS PLACED AT THE CENTER CAN BE CONSIDERED. IN

PRACTICE, A NUMBER OF WHEEL LOADS MAY OCCUR ON A
SINGLE SLAB PANEL, WHILE ONE LOAD CAN BE PLACED AT THE
CENTER, OTHER LOADS WILL BE NON-CENTRAL. SOME
APPROXIMATION WILL HAVE TO BE USED WHILE CONSIDERING THE
NON-CENTRAL LOADS.
II. WHEN v/L IS SMALL, THE READING OF VA.LUES OF m1 AND m2
FROM THE CURVES BECOMES LESS ACCURATE
III. THIS METHOD IS MOST USEFUL WHEN 'K' IS MORE THAN 0.55
 CULVERTS
CULVERTS ARE CROSS DRAINAGE WORKS WITH
CLEAR SPAN LESS THAN 8M. IN ANY HIGHWAY OR
RAILWAY PROJECT, THE MAJORITY OF CROSS
DRAINAGE WORKS FALL UNDER THIS CATEGORY.
HENCE THIS STRUCTURES ARE COLLECTIVELY
IMPORTANT IN ANY PROJECT, THOUGH THE COST OF
INDIVIDUAL STRUCTURES MAY BE RELATIVELY
SMALL.
CULVERTS MAY BE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING
TO FUNCTION AS HIGHWAY OR RAILWAY CULVERT.
THE LOADINGS AND STRUCTURAL DETAILS OF THE
SUPERSTRUCTURE WOULD BE DIFFERENT FOR
THESE TWO CLASSES.
BASED ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE STRUCTURE , THEY
CAN BE OF THE FOLLOWING TYPES.
(A) REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB CULVERT
(B) PIPE CULVERT
(C) BOX CULVERT
(D) STONE ARCH CULVERT
(E) STEEL GIRDER CULVERT FOR RAILWAYS

THE CLEAR ROADWAY BETWEEN KERBS IS KEPT AT 7.5M

FOR IMPORTANT ROADS TO SUIT TWO
LANE TRAFFIC. HOWEVER FOR CULVERTS ON NATIONAL
HIGHWAYS, IT IS DESIRABLE TO KEEP THE DISTANCE B/W
THE OUTER TO OUTER OF PARAPETS TO BE EQUAL TO THE
FORMATION WIDTH(9.8M), ESPECIALLY WHEN THE CLEAR
SPAN OF THE CULVERT IS LESS THAN 6M. KERBS OF WIDTH
600MM AND
HEIGHT 300MM ABOVE TOP OF DECK SLAB ARE DESIRABLE.
 REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB CULVERT
REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB CULVERTS ARE ECONOMICAL
FOR SPANS UPTO ABOUT 8M. THE THICKNESS OF THE SLAB
AND HENCE THE DEAD LOAD ARE QUITE CONSIDERABLE.
HOWEVER, THE CONSTRUCTION IS RELATIVELY SIMPLER
DUE TO EASIER FABRICATION OF FORMWORK AND
REINFORCEMENTS AND EASIER PLACING OF CONCRETE.
THIS TYPE OF CULVERT CAN BE USED BOTH FOR HIGHWAY
AND RAILWAY.
THE COMPONENTS OF A CULVERT WITH R.C DECK
SLAB ARE THE FOLLOWING:
(A) DECK SLAB
(B) ABUTMENTS AND WING WALLS
(C) FOUNDATIONS
(D) PARAPETS, KERBS ETC
 DECK SLAB
THE DECK SLAB SHOULD BE DESIGNED AS ONE WAY SLAB
TO CARRY THE DEAD LOAD AND THE PRESCRIBED LIVE
LOAD WITH IMPACT AND STILL TO HAVE STRESSES WITHIN
THE PERMISSIBLE LIMITS. FOR A CULVERT ON A STATE
HIGHWAY, THE CLEAR ROADWAY BETWEEN THE KERBS
WILL BE 7.5M FOR TWO LANE TRAFFIC. THE DECK SLAB
SHOULD BE DESIGNED FOR THE WORST EFFECT OF EITHER
ONE LANE OF IRC CLASSAA TRACKED VEHICLE OR ONE
LANE OF CLASS AA WHEELED LOADING OR TWO LANES OF
CLASS A LOAD TRAINS. THUS ACCORDING TO THE PRESENT
PRACTICE, IT IS NECESSARY TO COMPUTE THE MAXIMUM
LIVE LOAD BENDING MOMENT FOR THREE CONDITIONS OF
LOADING AND THEN ADOPT FOR THE DESIGN THE GREATEST
OF THE THREE VALUES
FROM THE EXPERIENCE IT HAS SHOWN THAT, FOR THE
COMPUTATION OF LIVE LOAD BENDING MOMENT, ONLY ONE
LOADING CONDITION NEED BE CONSIDERED, NAMELY
CLASS AA WHEELED VEHICLE FOR SPANS UPTO 4M AND
CLASS AA TRACKED VEHICLE FOR SPANS EXCEEDING 4M. IF
THE SHEAR IE DESIRED TO BE COMPUTED, CLASS AA
WHEELED VEHICLE IS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR SPANS UPTO
6M AND TRACKED VEHICLE BEYOND 6M FOR SINGLE LANE
BRIDGES. HOWEVER, FOR TWO LANE BRIDGES, THE SHEAR
DUE TO CLASS AA TRACKED VEHICLE CONTROLS THE
DESIGN FOR ALL SPANS FROM 1M TO 8M. THE DESIGN
MOMENT FOR DISTRIBUTORS IS TAKEN AS 0.3M OF THE LIVE
LOAD MOMENT PLUS 0.2 OF THE DEAD LOAD MOMENT.
WEARING COAT OVER THE DECK SLAB FOR CULVERTS MAY
BE OF CEMENT CONCRETE WITH AVERAGE THICKNESS OF
75MM OR OF ASPHALTIC CONCRETE WITH AVERAGE
THICKNESS OF 80 MM.
 EFFECTIVE WIDTH OF DISPERSION
THE BENDING MOMENT PER UNIT WIDTH SLAB
CAUSED BY CONCENTRATED LOAD CAN BE
CALCULATED BY ESTIMATING THE WIDTH OF SLAB
THAT MAY BE TAKEN AS EFFECTIVE IN RESISTING
THE BENDING MOMENT DUE TO THE
CONCENTRATED LOAD.
ABUTMENTS AND WING WALLS
THE SECTIONS SHOULD BE SO DIMENSIONED THAT
THE WALLS CAN SUSTAIN THE PRESCRIBED LEAD
AND LIVE LOADS, BESIDES THE EARTH PRESSURES
WITHOUT OVERTURNING OR SLIDING. FURTHER,
THE PRESSURE ON THE SOIL SHOULD BE WITHIN
THE ALLOWABLE PRESSURE. EQUIVALENT
SURCHARGE FOR LIVE LOAD AS GIVEN IN CLAUSE
217 OF IRC BRIDGE CODE IE TO BE TAKEN INTO
CONSIDERATION. IN FIG THE FRONT BATTER IS
KEPT AT 1/12 OF THE HEIGHT OF THE WALL, WHILE
THE REAR BATTER IS VARIED TO SUIT THE SOIL
PRESSURE REQUIREMENTS. IN CASE OF WING
WALLS, A SLIGHT MODIFICATION IS ALSO MADE IN
THE FRONT OFFSET, DEPENDING ON THE
ALLOWABLE SOIL BEARING PRESSURE, TYPICAL
VALUES FOR A,B AND C AS INDICATED IN FIG. ARE
GIVEN IN TABLE1. FOR TWO CHOSEN VALUES OF
ALLOWABLE SOIL PRESSURE, I.E., 200 AND 400
KN/M2. THESE DIMENSIONS MAY BE ADOPTED FOR
CULVERTS AND IN SPECIAL CASES DETAILED
CALCULATIONS MAY BE PERFORMED.
 
TABLE
 
1. DIMENSIONS OF ABUTMENTS AND WING
WALLS FOR SLAB BRIDGES.
 

    Value in meter for Height H in meters

1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

  A 0.75 0.9 1.2 1.65 2.60

B 0.20 0.3 0.45 0.65 1.06

C 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45

  A 0.3 0.45 0.55 0.75 0.95

B 0.2 0.3 0.45 0.65 0.85

C 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15

THE FOUNDATIONS SHOULD BE TAKEN BELOW THE
SCOUR DEPTH TO A DEPTH WHERE THE VARIATION
IN THE MOISTURE CONTENT OF THE SUBSOIL WILL
BE ABSENT. THE DEPTH OF FOUNDATION SHOWN
SHOULD BE CONSIDERED THE MINIMUM, UNLESS
ROCK IS ENCOUNTERED AT A HIGHER LEVEL. IN
LATTER CASE, THE MASONRY SHOULD BE NEELED
ON THE ROCK FOR A DEPTH OF ABOUT 200MM, OR
CONNECTED BY DOWELS TO THE ROCK IF THE ROCK
SURFACE IS SLOPING.
THE PURPOSE OF THE FOOTING IS TO SERVER AS A
SEAL IN POOR SOIL OR AS A BEDDING COURSE IN
WATER BEARING STRATA FOR THE MAIN MASONNY
ABOVE. THE FOOTING IS NOT TAKEN AS EFFECTIVE
IN DESIGNING THE ABUTMENT SECTION, WHEN THE
CLEAN SPAN IS LESS THAN H/6 + 1.5M, THE BOTTOM
FOOTINGS OF THE TWO ABUTMENTS OF A SINGLE
SPAN CULVERT SHOULD BE COMBINED.
IF THE ENTIRE ABUTMENT IS OF MASS CONCRETE,
NO SPECIAL TREATMENT EXCEPT LEVELING IS
REQUIRED FOR THE BRIDGE SEAT. IF THE MAIN
ABUTMENT IS OF BRICK OR STONE MASONRY, A
BED BLOCK OF CONCRETE IS PROVIDED FOR A
THICKNESS OF ABOUT 225MM. WING WALLS MAY
BE EITHER SPLAYED AT AN ANGLE OF 45º OR TAKEN
PERPENDICULAR TO THE ABUTMENT. IF SPLAYED,
THE HEIGHT OF WALL WILL REDUCE AS IT EXTENDS
AWAY FROM THE ABUTMENT. AT THE LOW END,
THE HEIGHT OF WALL SHOULD NOT BE MORE THAN
1.2M. IF THE WALL IS AT RIGHT ANGLES TO THE
ABUTMENT, SUITABLE REVETMENT SHOULD BE
PROVIDED TO RETAIN THE EARTH OF
EMBANKMENT.
THE EARTH FILLING BEHIND THE ABUTMENTS AND
WINGS SHOULD BE SPECIALLY CONSOLIDATED IN
ORDER TO AVOID AN EXCESSIVE DEPRESSION
IMMEDIATELY CLEAR OF THE BRIDGE DECK. A
POROUS BACKFILL OF ABOUT 500MM THICKNESS
SHOULD BE PROVIDED IMMEDIATELY BEHIND THE
ABUTMENT, WITH 150MM DIAMETER WEEP HOLES
PLACED AT SUITABLE INTERVALS WITH A GENTLE
SLOPE SO AS TO BE 150 MM ABOVE NORMAL WATER
LEVEL ON THE VENT SIDE, TO ENSURE DRAINAGE
FOR FILLING BEHIND THE ABUTMENTS.
HANDRAILS OR PARAPETS SHOULD BE PROVIDED
OVER THE KERBS ON EITHER SIDE OF THE ROAD
OVER THE DECK SLAB. FOR SMALL CULVERTS
PARAPET WALLS OF HEIGHT 750MM WILL BE
ADEQUATE. FOR SPANS ABOVE 6M, A COMBINATION
OF R.C. POSTS AND RAILS MAY BE MORE PLEASING.