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1) Krumbein and Sloss: Stratigraphy and sedimentation.

2) Andrew D. Mail: The Geology of Stratigraphic sequence.
3) Hakuyu Okada: The evolution of Sedimentology
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ãsing the center of the marine
basin as the point of reference, any
change that shifts the boundary
between marine and nonmarine
deposition, or the boundary
between deposition and erosion,
outward from the basin center is a
process of transgression. The
converse is regression.
Changes in sea-level or base level
cause marked displacement of
sedimentary environment and the
deposits formed within them. The
effects of these displacements are
most distinct near the basin
margins.
ãnits A to I are time stratigraphic
units identified by well established
biostratigraphic zones, sandstones,
shales and limestones represent
strandline, nearshore and offshore
environments respectively offlap
relationships and F ± I represents
transgression and overlap
relationship.
|
* 3'
 |
* 3%%
* *

01. Displacement of nearshore environments 01. Displacement towards marine point of

progressively away from marine point of reference.
reference.
02. Offshore lithosome overlie nearshore (fine 02. Nearshore lithosome overlie offshore.
grained above coarse)
03. Lithosome becomes younger away from 03. Lithosome becomes younger towards marine
marine point of reference. point of reference.
04. Depositional limits successively more distant 04. Depositional limits successively closer to
from marine point of reference. marine point of reference.
05. Covered and protected from erosion by 05. Exposed to erosion, and commonly not preserved.
younger units.
06. Pinchout common. 06. Truncation common.
Most long term changes in sea level that have produced sequences
separated by unconformities have resulted from changes in the rate at
which new lithosphere has formed along mid ocean ridges. Mid ocean
ridges are great swelling of the seafloor where new lithosphere rises up
and remain swollen from heat rising within it. The lithosphere cools
and shrinks as it moves away from the ridge axis. Consequently, the
seafloor descends on either side of a ridge. Lithospheric plates have
been more active at some times than others in the course of Earth¶s
history. At times of intense plate tectonic activity, rates of spreading
tended to be high and so much heat has flowed to the ridges that
individual ridges have stood relatively tall. The large total volume of
ridges has displaced ocean water, pushing sea level upward and causing
broad continental areas to flood. At such times, marine deposition on
continents has formed sequences. When plate tectonic activity has
become less intense again, total ridge volume shrunk over millions of
years and sea level has declined correspondingly. ãnconformities have
then formed as seas have receded from continents, producing sequence
boundaries.
Changes in the volume of mid
oceanic ridges have moved sea
level upland down at rates on
the order of ten meters per
million years.

Expansion and contraction of

continental glaciers have
caused much more rapid and
dramatic changes in sea level.
Many times during Ice Age,
sea level has fallen by as much
as 100 meters within few
thousand years when glaciers
have expanded over the land,
³locking up´ water and thus
removing it from global water
cycle.
The advent of high quality offshore seismic data led to a new way of
looking at sedimentary sequences, termed Sequence Stratigraphy. The
seismic sequence stratigraphic analysis is carried out in logical series
of steps.

The fundamental unit of Sequence Stratigraphy is the depositional

sequence. This is defined as ³a stratigraphic unit composed of a
relatively conformable succession of genetically related strata
bounded at its top & base by unconformities or their correlative
conformities´, (Vail et. al, 1977)
In order to construct stratigraphy based on acoustic data, key
reflector structures showing the successional relationships must be
recognized on seismic reflection profiles. This is a fundamental
requirement for establishing a stratigraphy based on the contact
relationships between strata as seismic reflectors.
Seismic reflection profile data contain details of bedding surfaces,
unconformity surfaces, and the continuity of lithofacies, bedding
and bed thickness. The basic patterns of these features are shown
by the continuity of reflection and the boundary shapes of each
reflection surface.
Well stratified sediments show a continuous reflection with well-
traceable parallel structures, where as massive sediments show
chaotic or contorted reflections and / or no reflections. The basic
styles of reflections are represented mainly by onlap, downlap,
toplap and offlap.
 The boundaries of depositional
sequences may be associated with
 /   / &$ 


. The onlap takes place at
the base of the succession, & the offlap
occurs at or near the top. These
architectural characteristics record the
lateral shift in depositional
environments in response to base level
change & subsidence downlap surfaces
develop during transition from onlap to offlap. They typically develop
above flooding surfaces, as basin margin depositional systems begins to
prograde seaward. The dipping, prograding unit is called 
%
, &
they lapout down ward onto the downlap surface as lateral progradation
takes place takes place. The word lapout is used as a general term for all
these types of stratigraphic terminations. The broad characterization of the
stratigraphic units may be determined from their seismic facies. The styles
of seismic facies reflection patterns are best seen in sections parallel to
depositional dip.
3 is the contact relation between the bottom profile of a basin and the
horizontal basin-filling strata. The younger layers successively extend
more widely than the distribution of the lower layers. Such a structure is
characteristic of the lower surface of layers of basin-fill sediments. It is
also important to accept that onlap reflects a relative rise of sea level.
#$ is the style where the down-end of inclined strata contacts
the horizontal surface of older sediments, showing a convergent
relation between the progradational strata and the basement.

  is a style in which the uppermost part of inclined strata is

suddenly cut and covered by horizontal strata. This is the structure of
unconformity. Toplap follows minor erosion or non-deposition and
major erosion with large relief giving an erosional truncation.

3%% is a pattern of reflectors where the upper end of inclined strata

migrates towards the central part of a basin and younger beds are,
therefore, progressively further away from the basin margin. This
phenomenon suggests a regression with lowering sea-level.
Parallel or subparallel reflections
indicate uniform rates of deposition.
Divergent reflections result from
differential subsidence rates such as in a
half graben or across a shelf margin
hinge zone. Prograding clinoform
reflection are particularly common on
continental margins, where they reflect
deltaic or continental slope outgrowth.
Variations in the patterns of progradation
reflect different combinations of
depositional energy, subsidence rates,
sediment supply, water depth & sea level
position. Sigmoidal clinoform have low
depositional dip, (less than 10) whereas
oblique clinoforms may show
depositional dips upto 100.
Parallel oblique clinoform show no topsets. This implies shallow
water depths. Complex sigmoid oblique clinoform patterns implies
periods of sea level. Still stand with the development of truncated
topsets alternating with periods of sea-level rise, Hummocky
clinoform patterns are generally considered as strata forming small,
interfingering clinoform lobes building into shallow water such as
offlapping lobes of delta undergoing distributary switching. Shingled
clinoforms reflect offlaping sediment bodies on continental shelf.

Chaotic reflection may reflect slumped or contorted sediment masses

or those with abundant channels or cut & fill structures. Disrupted
reflection are usually caused by faults.

A marine flooding surface is a surface that separates older from

younger strata, across which there is evidence of abrupt increase in
water depth. These are readily recognizable in the stratigraphic
record.
The term parasequence encompass ³a relatively conformable succession
of genetically related beds bounded by marine flooding surfaces & their
correlative surfaces. Parasequences are progradational & therefore the
beds within parasequences shoal upward.´ A # 

 |  is ³a
three dimensional assemblage of lithofacies, genetically linked by active
(modern) or inferred (ancient) processes & environments.´ A | 

 is ³a linkage of contemporaneous depositional system.´ Each is
defined objectively by stratal geometries at bounding surfaces, position
within the sequence, & internal parasequence stacking pattern. Each is
interpreted to be associated with a specific segment of the eustatic curve.
(i.e. eustatic lowland).
The Exon sequence model contains four basic system tracts.
The 4$ | & |  
 4| develops on the continental slope &
basin floor at times of low relative sea level. It may contain several
components, including a) slope fans b) basin floor fans c) lowstand wedge
consisting of aggradational fill of incised valleys & progradational wedge
which may downlap onto the basin floor fan.
The top of the low stand system tract is marked by transgressive
surface, above which is a 


' |  
 |. This
may be thin succession of marine shales, a basin floor gravel lap, or
retrogradational succession of shelf deposits, including marine shale
& sandstone or platform (subtidal - supritidal) carbonates.
The top of the transgressive system tract correspond to the maximum
flooding surface, above which is a !
 & |  
 !|.
This forms the top of the stratigraphic sequence. It consist of shelf to
nonmarine, deposits arranged in successive facies succession.
Clinoform architectures are characteristics.
| % -

 |  
 |-| may be deposited at times of
slow fall in relative sea level, when sea level does not drop below the
edge of the continental shelf. It consists of shelf & slope clastics or
carbonates arranged in progradational geometries & bounded at the
top by transgressive surface.
The sequence boundaries are drawn at the unconformity surfaces.
Two types of unconformity are recognized.
A  0 unconformity develops where sea level fall is rapid, more
rapid than tectonic subsidence. The coastline may move out to near
the shelf sedge, the development of incised fluival valleys on the
shelf takes place, clastic detritus is transported down these fluvial
systems to the base of the continental slope, forming lowstand
system tracts. High stand deposits below the unconformity may be
deeply eroded.
A  5 unconformity develops when relative sea level falls slowly,
resulting a gradual seaward shifting of facies tract, but only minor
subaerial exposure & erosion. A shelf margin system tract is formed
under these conditions. Type 2 unconformity are more difficult to
identify as they are not characterized by deep erosion or major facies
shift.
According to Vail et. al (1977) cycles of sea level change, can be
correlated around the world, indicating that they are not a response
to local tectonic events but the result of global or eustatic sea level
changes.
According to them seismic surveys can be used to erect a sequence
Stratigraphy with a hierarchy of cycles on four different scales &
these cycles can be correlated universally because seismic reflectors
are chronostratigraphic horizons.
The %

 
&
cycles are believed to have a span of    67 **,
& to be driven by break up of continental plates. It is a result of
assembly of supercontinents by sea floor spreading & their subsequent
rifting and dispersal. The complete cycle takes 577 8 677 ** 
 & 
&
 , with span of 9  67 ** are also believed tobe
driven by plate movements. They are attributed to volume changes in
oceanic spreading centers. The third order cycle are on a scale of
5,00,000 7*6 ** years to 9 ** & are believed to be driven by long
term tectonic processes, & short term climatic changes. These are the
parasequences, are believed to span 07/777  67/777  
 & are
supposed to be driven by climatic cyclic events.
Some of  %&   
 of sequence Stratigraphy are
    
, notably the tetra cyclic nature of global
transgressions and regressions, and the synchronicity of seismic
reflectors. The main contribution of sequence Stratigraphy to

  : 

 is that it has drawn attention to the fact that
high stands of the sea favor the & 

 % 

) and drops
in sea level leads to transport of sand off the continental shelf, to be
deposited as submarine fans on the basin floor.
Thank You