Chapter 30

1. Name five terrestrial adaptations that contributed to the success of seed plants.
Five terrestrial adaptation that contributed to the success of seed plants are the
Seed- can be transported far distances, protects the fertile offspring, and provides nutrients to
grow.
Reduction of the gametophyte generation- increases the time for the gametes to be made and the
chances of the gametes fertilizing.
heterospory- Producing two types of spores, microspores (males) and megaspores (female) on
the same plant. This increases the chance of fertilization.
Ovules- Provides nutrients for the growing offspring.
Pollen- are tiny and light therefore easier to transport. It can be transported by means of
organisms, wind and rain.
2. Compare the size and independence of the gametophytes of bryophytes with those of
seed plants.
Bryophytes or seedless plants have gametophytes that are visible to the naked eye while
angiosperms, plants will fruiting seeds and gymnosperms, plants with naked seeds have
gametophytes are microscopic. Seeds plants have a simpler and advantageous gametophyte
generation. Gametophytes also develop from spores in the sporangia of seeds plants develop
from the sporangia of the parental saprophyte and obtain nutrients from their parents in the form
of a cotyledon.
3. Describe the ovule of a seed plant.
The ovule of a seed plant consists of the megasporangium, the spore producing organ.
Megaspores the female spore of the plant. Integuments or the testa, the protective layer of the
seeds.
4. Contrast the male gametophytes of bryophytes with those of seed plants.
The gametophytes of seed plants are more adapted than the gametophytes of bryophytes. Seed
plants have pollen grains that can travel great distances by organism, wind, rain, etc. The sperm
of seed plants also have flagella unlike bryophyte. Therefore the flagella can transport the sperm
to the eggs without water like bryophytes.
5. Explain why pollen grains were an important adaptation for successful reproduction on
land.
Pollen grains were an important adaption for successful reproduction on land because it is light
and the sperm have flagella. The flagella can transport the sperm to the egg without water. Pollen
could also travel far distances via organism, rain, wind, etc. most importantly it contributed to
the diversity of plant life by being able to pollinate other plants of the same and sometime other
species.
6. Explain how a seed can be said to include contributions from three distinct generations.
Seeds are able to survive harsh conditions because it has a hard protective coating. The seeds are
also able to travel far from the parent generation via organism, rain, wind, etc. seeds are also
multicellular.
7. Compare spores with seeds as dispersal stages in plant life cycles.
Much like the moss spore, the seed can withstand harsh condition and travel great distances and
populate new areas of land. The differences are that moss spores are single celled, have no
protective coating and cotyledon. The seed is multicellular and have a protective shell that makes
them resistant to harsh conditions. It can also preserve the seed for weeks to years.
8. Explain how climatic changes with the formation of the supercontinent Pangaea favored
the spread of gymnosperms.
Certain climatic changes with the formation of the supercontinent Pangaea favored the spread of
gymnosperms because the land had a lot of warmer and dryer conditions that are perfect for the
spread of the gymnosperms. The gametophytes could spread and quickly bloom.
9. List and distinguish among the four phyla of gymnosperms.
-Ginkophyta- (present) presently only composed of a single existing species of plants called the
Ginkgo biblba. They have fan like leaves that turn a golden yellow shade in the fall.
-Cycadophyta- (only in the Mesozoic era) Have large cones that contain seeds and palm like
leaves.
-Gnetophyta- (present) very diverse. Have three differing genus, Weltwitschia, Gentum, and
Ephedr. Weltwitschia have very large strap like leaves. Gentum are tropical and are either trees
or vines. Ephedra are shrubs that grow in the African desert.
-Coniferophyta. (present) are also known as woody plants. They are the largest of the
gymnosperm phylum. the produce cones.
10. Describe the life history of a pine. Indicate which structures are part of the
gametophyte generation and which are part of the saprophyte generation.
Most conifer species have both ovulate and cones. The tree is a sporophyte that have ovulate
cones which have several mega sporangium, female spores. Male spores, microsporophytes are
at a separate location not far from the cone and under goes meiosis, producing haploid
microspores. The haploid microspores form a pollen tube. The microspore is then taken in b the
megosporangium. Four haploid cells are produces but only one survives to form the megaspore.
The female egg develops and fertilization can then occur. The seed is the ovule of the plant.
11. Identify the following floral structures and describe a function for each:
a. sepal: a form of modified leave whose job is to close and protect the flower until fully
matured.
b. petal: Another modified leaf that attracts with its bright colors, organisms, preferable
insects to help pollinate the species.
c. stamen: male organ of the flower and produces pollen.
d.carpel: female organ of the flower and produces an ovule.
e. filament: The long thin stalk of a stamen.
f. anther: Part of ever angiosperm. Part of the male organ of the flower that is the pollen sac
of the stamen. There is where pollen is formed.
g. stigma: Part of the flower’s female organ. is a large sticky part of the carpel and is sticky
to trap pollen.
h. style: part of the female organ of the flower. Like the filament, it is the stalk of the carpel
i. ovary: Part of the female organ of the flower. The section of the carpal that contains the
eggs and eventually becomes the seed.
j. ovule: The structure of the female organ of the flower that develops within the ovary and
contains the female gametophytes
12. Define fruit. Explain how fruits may be adapted to disperse seeds.
Fruit- The mature ovary of the flowering plant that contains seeds. Is also made to disperse the
seeds. The fruits come in many different forms differing upon the species of angiosperm. The
fruit could cling onto organisms and travel with the organism. Some are meant to be eaten then
released through the organism’s feces. Fruit could also be dispersed by wind, and water.
13. Explain why a cereal grain is a fruit rather than a seed.
Cereal grains are usually wheat and wheat is a fruit. Upon opening, you will discover the ovary
of the wheat plant and see the mature ovary, the seed.

14. Diagram the generalized life cycle of an angiosperm. Indicate which structures are part
of the gametophyte generation and which are part of the sporophyte generation.

(Campbell Biology textbook 8th edition)

15. Describe the role of the generative cell and the tube cell within the angiosperm pollen
grain.
Generative cells first divide to from two sperm cells and a tube cell. The sperm is then used for
fertilization and the tube cell produces a pollen tube, a hollow tube that develops from a pollen
grain which helps conduct the transport of the sperm to the egg.
16. Explain the process and function of double fertilization.
Double fertilization occur sin angiosperms. Two sperm cells fuse with two cells in the embryo
sac to form the zygote and endosperm. The endosperm is the tissue in the seed that provides
nourishment for the seed and protection. The endosperm is also called cotyledons and also aids
in the development of the embryo.
17. Explain the significance of archaefructus.
(1990s) Archaefructus fossils were discovered and were dated to be about 125 million years of
age. The fossils were angiosperms called Archaefructus liaoningensis and Archaefructus
sinensis. The 125 million year old archaefructus may be the first angiosperms. The fossils also
demonstrate that the archaefructus originally were herbaceous rather than woody, tree plants.
18. Explain the significance of amborella.
The most basic angiosperms have three ancestral lineages. The oldest is the Amborella. The
interesting thing about Amborella is that it has no vessels that are found in modern angiosperms.
19. Distinguish between monocots and eudicots.
Monocot is a clade of flowering plants. One distinct feature is that they have one cotyledon and
eudicots or dicots have two cotyledons. Vascular bundles in the monocot are arranges in a
scattered pattern while the eudicot s in a ring pattern. The phloems are located in roots of the
xylem in eudicotes and in monocots they are arranged in a ring. Parallel veins are formed in
monocot plants and branched veins are created in eudicots.
20. Explain how animals may have influenced the evolution of terrestrial plants and vice
versa.
Animals that travel on the ground have created a pressure in the soil, or the breading ground of
the plant that is favorable to the plant to keep spores and gametophytes off the ground and much
out of reach. Insects played a large role in the evolutionary process of plants. Insects are great
pollinators of angiosperms. Angiosperms evolved accumulating bright flowers to attract the
pollinators.
21. Name the six angiosperms that are most important in the diet of the human species.
The six angiosperms that are most important in the diet of human species are wheat, rice, maize,
potatoes, cassava, and sweet. They are essential because they contain nutrients that are vital to
the regulatory function of our metabolic processes.
22. Describe the current threat to plant diversity caused by human population growth.
As the human population gowns there is more room to be needed to live. To make room habitat
is needed to be torn apart. As a result species of plants are being extinct at an alarming rate and
as a result of the chopping of trees and pollution; habitat in the next upcoming years could be
reduced with a really harmful effect on ever ecosystem.

Chapter 31
1. List the characteristics that distinguish fungi from members of other multicellular
kingdoms.
Fungi look like plants but they are not. Instead of obtaining the 3 major organs of the plant,
roots, stems, and leaves, the fungi have hyphae. The root system of the fungus does not collect
water for photosynthesis because it has no chloroplast. Instead, it excretes enzymes that
decompose decaying organic material and uses those molecules for cellular respiration or live in
symbiosis with other organisms, preferably plants. Fungus can live in a wide verity of
environments and become several thousands of acres large. Funguses also have unique lifecycles
that only obtain to fungi.
2. Explain how fungi acquire their nutrients.
Funguses obtain nutrients from organic material around it. From the root system of the fungus,
excretions of exoenzymes occur. The enzymes break down organic material until the molecules
are small enough for the fungus to absorb. Some fungi live as decomposers where they
decompose dead and decaying organism or organism waste in the surrounding environment.
Some funguses live in symbiotic relationship with other organisms, usually plants. They produce
waste that is beneficial for the plant and the plant produces what is beneficial for the fungus to
ingest.
3. Describe the basic body plan of a fungus.
Fungi are multicellular organism and some are single cellular. Some single cellular fungi work in
a mass that could send signals to one another and work as one larger organism like slime molds.
Some multicellular fungi could produce fruiting bodies like mushrooms. They have a network of
root like filaments called hyphae and together the mass of filaments are called mycelium. This
mycelium is responsible for the reason why fungus can extend several acres.

4. Describe the processes of plasmogamy and karyogamy in fungi.

Plasmogamy- Combining of cytoplasm of hypae of fungus. It is strictly jus the combining of the
cytoplasm the nucleus of the hyphae do not merge. The hyphae must be of different mating type
and the hypha distinguishes the different types by the release of pheromones. Hyphae detect the
pheromones and grow towards them and combine.
Karyogamy- is the fusion of two different haploid cells creating one diploid cell. The haploid
cells are created by meiosis in fungi. The cell will then undergo mitosis and produce a fruiting
body that can produce spores.
5. Explain the significance of heterokaryotic stages in fungal life cycles.
The different nucleus could interact in the heterokaryotic stages of fungal life cycles. The
nucleus could interact and undergo a process like crossing over. This ability to exchange genetic
material increases variation of the fungal species.
6. Describe the evidence that suggests that Fungi and Animalia are sister kingdoms.
The evidence that fungi and animilia are sister kingdoms were collected using molecular
systematic. Using molecular clocks, scientists closely estimated that Fungi and Animalia could
have a common ancestor and they diverged off other eukaryotic kingdoms. The molecular
systematic also demonstrates that fungi and animals are more closely related than animals to
plants or fungi to plants.
7. Explain the possible significance of the flagellated spores of members of the phylum
Chytridiomycota.
It is logical that flagellated spore is evidence that they evolves from an ancestor with flagellated
spores. This information could also imply that members of the phylum Chytridiomycota are the
longest branching fungi. However, molecular systematics predicts a potential relationship with
the phylum zygomycota that may suggest that chytridiomycota is a paraphyletic group.
8. Describe (draw and label) the black bread mold, Rhizopus stolonifer.

9. Describe two alternate hypotheses to explain the reduced mitochondria of the

microsporidia.
1. Microsporidia is one of the forms of eukaryotic organism. They branched off before
mitochondria evolved.
2. Microsporidia’s reduced mitochondria came from mitochondria, and evolved to fit the
changing environment (natural selection).
10. Distinguish between ectomycorrhizae and endomycorrhizae.
Ectomycorrhizae is when fungi grow sheaths of hyphae around roots of plants usually with a
symbiotic relationship with the plant. They also exist in the little channels and spaces between
cells. Endomycorrhizae is when the hyphae grow inside of the cell and grow by breaking
through the cell wall.
11. Distinguish among the Zygomycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota. Include a
description of the sexual structure that characterizes each group and list some common
examples of each group.
- Zygomycota- Zygotes fungi can form zygosporangia (the organ of the fungi that produce
zygotes) that can withstand tremendous environments and one reason is because they are so
small. Some could actually be just one cell big. They reproduce using another organ called
sporangium, which releases hundreds to thousands of spores (which are haploid (n)). i.e.
Pilobolus.
-Ascomycota (sac fungi) form sac like structures called asci, which shoot out spores. Then it
germinates in nutrient rich environments. The asci are forms larger structures called the
ascocarp, which resembles a bud. i.e. Pezizomycotina
Basidiomycota (club fungi) form mushroom reproductive fruiting bodies. They can also produce
puffballs that can emit trillions of spores. i.e. Mushrooms and puffballs.
12. Describe some of the roles of fungi in ecosystems.
Some fungi are decomposer. The hyphae of the fungi have a symbiotic relationship with the
plant(s) they are attached to and they break down organic molecules in soil, dung, etc. Some
fungi are parasites. They feed off of plants and animals and eventually kill their host. Some are
pathogens and help repel diseases.
13 Describe the structure of lichen. Explain the roles of the fungal component of the lichen.
Lichen is a symbiotic system containing fungi and microorganisms (namely cyanobacteria and
algae). They often appear to be grey, green, or yellow patches growing on ricks. The fungi in the
symbiotic relationship provides a shelter for the algae and such to grow, and for protects, fungi
them from predators, and shields them from too much sun. The fungus also provides them with
transportation using their reproductive clusters called soredia.
14. Explain how lichens may act as pioneers on newly burned soil or volcanic rock.
Lichens are great for detecting and catching nutrients in not only the soil but in the air too. So
when volcanoes burn the land, lichens could decompose materials and provide both organic and
inorganic materials were new organisms like plants and other fungi could grow.
15. Describe the role of fungi as agricultural pests.
Many fungi are parasitic to plants and many of those fungi harm between 10 to 50 percent of
agricultural plants. The effects of this parasitic activity greatly harm humans and other animals
alike. They are usually poisonous to us and id they end up in our food supply it would be
dangerous and even fatal.
16. Define mycosis, and describe some human mycoses.
Mycosis- is a fungal infection in an animal. The most common such pathogenic fungus in
animals is ringworm (also known as athlete’s foot). Another example of mycosi is Tinea
versicolor. The infection infects the skin of young people, especially the chest, back, and upper
arms and legs and is caused that lives in the skin of some adults. 
17. Describe three commercial roles played by fungi.
Fungi are usually used in or as food. Used to make many types of cheeses by giving them unique
acids which gives the cheese their unique flavor. Common in baking, yeast is used to make bread
1- 6 pages already printed
now print 8-…

and other pastries rise. Yeast is also used to produce alcohol. Fungi genetics can be manipulated
to produce cures for diseases like penicillin and modified to produce human glycoprotein like
insulin. Mushrooms are a popular crop that we used directly to eat.
Chapter 32
1. List the five characteristics that combine to define animals.
Animals are:
Eukaryotic: it separates them from archaea and bacteria. It also unites them with all other
eukaryotes.
Multicellular: This separates animals from unicellular protists, the cells are held together
by protein collagen and nerve cells and muscle cells are what separates them from others.
Reproduction and development
Heterotrophic: They ingest food, which separates them from plant like protists.
Life Cycles: Different stages in development in its life.
2. Describe the role of Hox genes in animal development.
Hox genes control the expressions of many different genes. This controls cell
differentiation which produces many of the animal’s features.
3. Describe the evidence that suggest animals may have first evolved about one million
years ago.
Evidence includes molecular data that compared animals with modern day
choanflagellates. It revealed the first changes of animals.
4. Explain the significance of the Cambrian explosion. Describe three hypotheses for the
cause of the Cambrian explosion.
The Cambrian Explosion was a time where many animals began to diversify, creating new
species. The first hypothesis about the explosion is that the predators evolved thus creating more
natural selection leading up to evolution. The second was the Hox gene and it’s evolution. The
third was that there might have been a rise in atmospheric oxygen which meant the animals
would evolve with larger body sizes and faster metabolisms.
5. Outline the major grades of the animal kingdom based on symmetry, embryonic germ
layers, the presence or absence and type of coelom, and protostome or deuterostome
development.
Symmetry can be either lateral or bilateral. There are two different grades that regard embryonic
germ layers. Diploblastic, which include ectoderm and endoderm, or triploblastic, which include
ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. Coelom has three different grades: pseudocolomates which
have a coelem formed in the blastocoel, coelomates which is a coelom taken from the the
mesoderm tissue and acoelomates, which lack a coelom. Planes of cell division as well as
differentiation of cells are what protostome and deuterostome refer to. In protostome
development, determinate and spiral cleavage take place. In deutersome development, radical
and indeterminate cleavage takes place.
6. Distinguish between radial and bilateral symmetry. Explain how animal symmetry may
match the animal’s way of life.
Radial symmetry means that there is only a top and bottom. There is no left or right or
anything similar. A jellyfish has a radial body plan since it just drifts and it must be able to
equally feel and react from all sides. Bilateral symmetry means that there is a top, bottom, head,
tail, which is useful for animals that need to catch prey or escape from predators.
7. Distinguish among the acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, and coelomate grades. Explain the
functions of a body cavity.
Acoelomate do no have a body cavity. Pseudocoelomates have a body cavity from the
blastocoel while coelomates have true coeloms that are formed in the mesoderm tissue. A body
cavity cushions organs and allows internal organs to grow without deforming the outer body
wall.
8. Distinguish between the following pairs of terms:
diploblastic and triploblastic – Diploblastic is having only two layers of embryonic tissue layers,
the ectoderm and endoderm. The triploblastic has a third layer, the mesoderm.
spiral and radial cleavage – Spiral cleavage is when places of cells split in mesoderm from
coelom and radical cleavage is when the coelom formation occurs by outgrowth of mesoderm
from archenteron.
determinate and indeterminate cleavage - Determinate cleavage determines the specialization of
each embryonic cell while indeterminate cleavage does this later in the process.
schizocoelous and enterocoelous development – Shizocoelous development is when solid
mesoderm slits and grows into the coelomic cavity and enterocoelous development is when the
colom buds of from the enterocoelous.
9. Compare the developmental differences between protostomes and deuterostomes,
including:
pattern of cleavage
fate of the blastopore
coelom formation
In protostome development, there is spiral radical and indeterminate cleavage. The blastopore
becomes the mouth and the coelom forms from the mesoderm. In deuterostome development,
radial and indeterminate cleavage takes place. The blastopore is the new anus and the coelom
forms from budding off the wall of the archenteron.
10. Name five major features of animal phylogenies that are supported by systematic
analysis of morphological characters recent molecular studies.
1. All animals have a common ancestor
2. Vertebrates and some other phyla belong to the clade deuterostomia
3. Most animal phyla belong to clade Bilateria
4. Sponges are the deepest branching animals
5. Eumetazoa have true tissues
11. Distinguish between the ecdysozoans and the lophotrochozoans. Describe the
characteristic features of each group.
Both are protostomes. Lophotrochozans have two larval stages, the lophophore, which is
a bunch of tentacles that help with feeding, and trochore larval stages. Ecdysozoans molt as they
grow bigger and secrete external skeletons.

Chapter 33
1. Identify the parts of a sponge (including the spongocoel, porocyte, epidermis,
chaonocyte, mesohyl, amooebocyte, osculu, and spicules and describe the function of each.
Spongoceol- the central cavity of a sponge
Porocyte- tubular cells which make up the pores of a sponge.
Epidermis- the outer most layer of tissue made of tiny packet cells
choanocyte- a flagellated feeding cell found in spores. Also called color cell, it has a color-like
ring that traps food particles around the base of its flagellum.
mesohyl-a gelatinous region between two layers of cells of a sponge.
amoebocyte-
osulu-
spicules-

2. List the characteristics of the phylum Cnidaria that distinguish it from the other animal
phyla.
The phylum Cnidaria has cnidocytes and gastrovascular cavity. They come in a medusa or polyp
form. Most of them are marine. They have tentacles that are used to strangle food. They have no
mesoderm and have radial symmetry. Some are also diploblastic. They have a gastro vascular
cavity that works as a mouth and anus.
3. Described the specialized cells that are found in Cnidarians.

4. Describe the two basic body plants in Cndaria and their role in Cndarian life cycles.
They have thin bodies (between ventral and dorsal surfaces) and are triploblastic. THe mesoderm
contributes to organ systems, but they still have a gastrovascular cavity and absorb nutrients
across their body. They also have no body cavity (acoelomate).

5. List four classes of Cndaria and distinguish among the m based on life cycle and
morphological characteristics.
6. Distinguish between:
a. diploblastic and triploblastic development
b. acoelomates and coelomates
c. gastrovascular cavity and alimentary canal
d. protosome and deuterstome

7. List the characteristics of the phylum platyhelminthes that distinguish it from other
phyla.
The phylum Platyhelminthes are triploblastic and between their ventral and dorsal surfaces, they
have thin bodies. They have no body cavities. They have a gastrovascular cavity though which
absorbs nutrients and a mesoderm which supports other organ systems.

8. Distinguish among the four classes of platyhelminthes and give examples of each.

9. Distinguish the generalized life cycle of a trematode and give an example of one fluke
that parasitizes humans.
The life cycle of a trematode is usually within the body of its host. They use the body to develop
and later in their lives, infect it.
The Blood Fluke is an example. The blood fluke matures in human blood vessels and then
reproduce sexually in humans. The eggs develop into larvae which infect snails and escapes by
asexual reproduction. The eggs are usually released from excresions. They then penetrate skin
and blood vessels of humans who have come in contact with any of the infected excrement such
as contaminated waters.
10. Explain how trematodes evade detection by the immune systems of their hosts.

11. Describe the anatomy and generalized life cycle of a tapeworm

Tape worms thrive in intestines. They have hooks and suckers to attach itself the lining of the
intestines. It lives by absorbing food from its host but does not have a digestive track. It has
something called the proglottids which are its sex organs. Tape Worm eggs are often released
with excrement, which can contaminate food or water or susceptible hosts. One example are
pigs. The worm digs into muscles of pigs and when humans eat the contaminated meat, if
undercooked, the worms develop inside the human.

12. Describe unique features of rotifers that distinguish them from other pseudocoelomates.

13. Define parthenogenesis and describe asexual forms of rotifer reproduction.

When a female produces unfertilized eggs and the eggs develop into female. Sometimes they
produce a male that only lives long enough to fertilize the females. The eggs zygotes are very
resistant to harsh conditions but when the conditions are right, more parthogenisis occurs.

14. Define lophophore and list three lophophorate phyla.

15. List the distinguishing characteristics of the phylum Nemertea.

16. Explain the relationship between proboscis worms and flatworms.

17. List the characteristics that distinguish the phylum Mollusca from the other animal
phyla.
Mollusca are soft bodied however some have a hard shell made out of calcium carbonate for
protection. Most of them are marine organisms. Mollusca like octopi have reduced or no shell.
They instead have a mantle that protects their visceral mass, which contains most of their organs
and have radula to collect food.

18. Describe the basic body plan of a mollusk and explain how it has been modified in the
Bivalvia, Cephalopoda, Gastropoda, and Polyplacophora.

19. List the characteristics that distinguish the phylum Annelida from the other animal
phyla.

20. Distinguish among the classes of Annelida and give examples of each.
21. Describe the adaptations that enable some leeches to feed on blood.

22. List the characteristics of the phylum Nematoda that distinguish it from other wormlike
animals.
Nematoda have cylinder like bodies and have a tough exoskeleton that sheds. They have no
circulatory system but things like nutrients are transported by fluid in their pseudcoelom. They
have a complete digestive track. They can sexually reproduce as well.
23. Give examples of both parasitic and free-living species of nematodes.
An example of a parasitic nematode is called trichinosis. A host can acquire it by eating
undercooked meat. They develop in the intestine and can then spread throughout the body,
destroying and reproducing in the intestines, muscles and skeletal system.
A free living worm like round worms help with nutrient cycles. They also help with
decomposition. They are not studied much but they can be found decomposing organic matter in
damp soil or in the on the bottom of bodies of water.
24. List the characteristics of arthropods that distinguish them from the other animal
phyla. List three features that account for the success of this phylum.
Arthropods have exoskeletons made of protein and chitin and toughness ranges from thick and
hard to soft and flexible. Their bodies have appendages and are segmented. In order to grow they
molt. Their success is due to things like their specialized organs which is for gas exchange. They
are very similar to gills. They have an open circulatory system. Hemolymph is propelled by a
heart through arteries and its sinuses and all its other systems. It soon reenters the heart through
valves are pores. Its hard exoskeletons are not porous and water cannot enter it.
25. Describe advantages and disadvantages of an exoskeleton.
Exoskeletons are usually very strong and can be water proof. It provides a great about of
protection. However, it can prevent growth. In oder to grow, organisms need to molt and shed
the skeleton. Molting also leaves the animal vulnerable to attacks because of the amount of
energy and time it takes up.

26. Distinguish between hemocoel and coelom.

27. Define and distinguish between the major independent arthropod lines of evolution
represented by:
    a. Cheliceriformes
    b. Hexaphoda
    c. Crustacea
    d. Myriapoda

28. Describe the different views regarding the relationship between arthropods and
annelids.
Some believe that arthopods evolved from an annelid ancestor. Some believe that they have a
common ancestor. There isn’t enough evidence, however to confirm and of these belifs.
Biologists also are not convinced by the molecular evidence. However there is enough data not
to rule the beliefs out.

29. Describe the basic mechanism for the development of segmented bodies.

30. List the characteristics of echinoderms that distinguish them from other animal phyla.

31. Distinguish among the six classes of echinoderms and give examples of each.

32. Explain why the phylum Chordata is included in a chapter on invertebrates.

33. Describe the developmental similarities between echinoderms and chordates.

Chapter 34
1. Distinguish between the phyla of deuterostomes.
The phyla of deuterostomes include the chordates which have no backbone and the non-
vertebrate chordates, which have a notochord but have no backbone.
2. Describe the four derived traits that define the phylum Chordata.
1) They have a single hollow nerve chord.
2) They have a flexible notochord at some point.
3) They have a post anal tail
4) They have pharyngeal pouches that connect the pharynx and the esophagus.
3. Distinguish among the three subphyla of the phylum Chordata and give examples of
each.
The three subphyla are the vertebrates and two phyla of invertebrates, the urochordates and the
cephalochrdates. Vertebrates have a vertebral column instead of a notochord and a well
differentiated head. An example would be fish, which were the first and most diverse vertebrate
groups. Tunicates, which are members of the Urochordata, are suspension feeders. They use their
tail muscles and notochord to swim through the water and when its an adult, its tail and
notochord are reabsorbed and its nervous system degenerates. Lancelets, which are members of
the cephalochordate, are shaped like a blade. The notochord is dorsal and hollow. It also has
many gill slits.
4. Discuss the evidence for and against Garstag’s hypothesis that vertebrates had tunicate-
like ancestor.

5. Explain what lancets suggest about the evolution of the chordate brain.

6. Discuss the importance of genetic duplication in chordate evolution.

7. explain the fate of the neural crest cells in craniates development.

8. explain what haikouella and haiouchthys tell us about craniates evolution.

9. describe the way of life and unique characters of the lamprey.

10. describe the conodonts, and explain why they are considered vertebrates.

11. describe the trends in mineralized structures in early vertebrates.

12. Explain one hypothesis for the evolution of the jaws of gnathostomes.

13. List the shared, derived characters that characterize gnathostomes.

14. describe the evidence that suggests that the loss of bone in Chondrichthys is a derived
feature.

15. Describe the features of sharks that are adaptive for their active, predatory lifestyle.

16. Describe and distinguish between Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes, noting the main
traits of each group.

17. Identify and describe the main subgroups of Osteichthyes.

18. Name the three living lineages of lobe-fins.

19. Define and distinguish between gnathostomes, tetrapods, and amniotes.

20. Explain what Acanthostega suggest about the origin of tetrapods.

21. Describe the common traits of amphibians and distinguish among the three orders of
living amphibians.
-circulatory and respiratory adaptations
-digestive and excretory adaptations
-reproductive adaptations
-vocalizations

22. Describe an amniotic egg and explain its significance in the evolution of reptiles and
mammals.

23. Explain why the reptile clade includes birds.

24. Describe a number of reptile features that are adaptive for life on land.
-circulatory and respiratory adaptations
-external adaptations
-digestive and excretory adaptations
-reproductive adaptations

25. Explain why non-bird reptiles should be called “ectothermic” rather than “cold-
blooded.”

26. Define and describe parareptiles.

27. Distinguish between the lepidosaurs and the archosaurs.

28. Compare the interpretations of dinosaurs as ectotherms or endotherms.

29. Describe the specialized adaptations of snakes that make them successful predators.

30. List the modifications of birds that are adaptive for flight.
-respiratory adaptations
-skeletal adaptations

31. Summarize the evidence supporting the hypothesis that birds evolved from theropod
dinosaur ancestors.
32. Explain the significance of Archaeopteryx.

33. Describe the characteristic derived characters of mammals.

34. Describe the evolutionary origin of mammals.

35. Distinguish among monotreme, marsupial, and eutherian mammals.

36. Describe the adaptive radiation of mammals during the Cretaceous and early Teriary
periods.

37. Compare and contrast the four main evolutionary clades of eutherian mammals.
38. Describe the general characteristics of primates. Note in particular the features
associated with an arboreal existence.

39. Distinguish between the two subgroups of primates and describe their early
evolutionary relationship.

40. Distinguish between hominoid and hominid.

41. Explain what Sahelanthropus tells us about hominid evolution.

42. Describe the evolution of Homo sapiens from autrolopith ancestors. Clarify the order in
which distinctive human traits arose.