VI.

THE NUMERAL

The numeral is the part of speech that expresses an abstract number, a numerical
determination of objects or the order of objects through counting1.
There can be distinguished the following types of numerals2:
a) cardinal numerals
b) ordinal numerals
c) fractional numerals
d) collective numerals
e) multiplicative numerals
f) distributive numerals
g) adverbial numerals
h) indefinite numerals

VI.1. The cardinal numeral

The cardinal numeral expresses an abstract number or a definite and exact number of
objects.
The cardinal numerals are: zero, one, two, three … one hundred, two thousand, three
million, etc.
The numerals hundred, thousand, million, dozen (12), score (20) and gross (144) are
never used in the plural if they are preceded by a definite number or by several, a few or a
couple of.
Ex: Three hundred years
Two thousand euros
Several million pounds
A few dozen books
Nine score boxes
Two gross of pencils
These numerals can be used in the plural when they express an indefinite number:
Ex: Hundreds/thousands/millions/dozens/scores/grosses of people

The cardinal numeral can function as:

a) an adjective, determining a noun:
Ex: There were nine candidates for the elections.
b) a noun (in this case, it can have a plural form as well):
Ex: She is in her fifties.
c) one can also function as a pronoun:
Ex: One knows one’s own story.
VI.2. The ordinal numeral
The ordinal numeral indicates the order in a series or sequence. With the exception of
the first three numerals (first, second, third) and the compound numbers formed with their
help (thirty-first, twenty-second, fifty-third, etc.), the ordinal numbers are formed by adding
the suffix –th to the cardinal numerals or to their equivalents: fifth, seventeenth, thirty-fifth,
etc.
The ordinal number may have the function of:
a) an adjective:
Ex: Her son is the first student in his class.
b) a noun:
1
Alice Bădescu, p.231
2
Idem
 Ex: I booked two firsts to Bucharest.
c) a pronoun:
Ex: The first house we visited was quite large, but the second was huge.
d) an adverb
Ex: When I first came here I was a young student.

VI.3. The fractional numeral

The fractional numeral expresses fractions, that means one or several equal parts from
a whole.
There are two types of fractions:
a) the common/vulgar fraction
b) the decimal fraction

a) The common/vulgar fraction – it has two terms: the numerator and the denominator:
Ex: 5/10 – numerator/denominator
(five-tens)

b) The decimal fraction – in some cases a fraction can be also expressed through a
decimal number:
Ex: 3.25 – three point twenty-five

VI.4. The collective numeral

The collective numeral expresses in a singular form the numerical idea of plural. It
includes: couple, pair, brace, dozen, score, gross, etc.
Couple, pair, brace refer to groups of two:
Ex: a couple of friends
a pair of gloves
a brace of dogs/ducks/pheasants (brace is a term used to refer to hunting)

Dozen, score, gross refer to groups larger than two.

Ex: two dozen boxes
three score years
two gross of pens

VI.5. The multiplicative numeral

The multiplicative numeral shows the proportion in which a quantity raises. It
includes: single, double (twofold), triple (threefold), fourfold, tenfold, etc. The forms with the
suffix –fold are especially used in the literary style, the technical or the official style. In
speech, they have been replaced by adverbial numerals: once, twice, thrice/three times, four
times, ten times, etc.

VI.6. The distributive numeral

The distributive numeral shows the distribution of objects in equal groups: one at a
time, two by two, by threes, by the hundred, four and four, every five days, etc.

VI.7. The adverbial numeral

The adverbial numeral functions as an adverb and it shows:
a) the frequency or the periodicity of an action: once, twice, three times, once
more, once again, etc.
b) the place in a series: first, firstly, secondly, thirdly, in the first place, etc.
 VI.8. The indefinite numeral
The indefinite numeral shows an indefinite number of objects and it includes: a
number (of), a lot, lots, plenty, etc.

VII. THE PREPOSITION AND THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE

The preposition is the part of speech which has a relating function3: it connects a noun
or a noun structure to other structures in the sentence4, the two parts of the sentence connected
by the preposition having different syntactic functions (about, by, during, from, in, on, over,
to, under, with, etc.). The prepositional phrase consists of a preposition together with its
complement, which is typically a noun, a noun phrase or a clause (wh-clause or non-finite –
ing clause) in nominal function (with certainty, in the school yard, from what she said, by
signing the agreement, etc.).

VII.1. The structure of the prepositional phrase

A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition and its complement, both being
obligatory, and an optional modifier, which intensifies the preposition5. Unlike the case of the
noun phrase, the adjectival phrase or the adverbial phrase, the preposition in the prepositional
phrase cannot function alone as a head. The prepositional phrase can be thus represented as
follows:

Modifier Preposition Complement

right into his arms
just at that moment
completely out of control
straight along this road

The modifier generally shows intensification, but it can also take the form of direction,
attenuation, quantification, description, focusing and reinforcement6.
a) intensifying modifiers: completely, directly, badly, right, well, all, etc.
Ex: directly through the window
all about this subject
b) directional modifiers: up, down, out, over
Ex: down by the river
over on the other side
c) attenuating modifiers: partly, slightly, a bit, hardly, a little
Ex: slightly/a bit out of reach
hardly thanks to you
d) quantifying modifiers: nearly, almost, miles, way back
Ex: way back in time
almost at the same time
e) descriptive modifiers: surprisingly, hopelessly, unexpectedly
Ex: hopelessly in love with her
unexpectedly close to failure
f) focusing and reinforcing modifiers: precisely, mainly, just, chiefly, only

3
Angela Downing, p.531
4
Paidos, p.225
5
Angela Downing, p.532
6
Idem, p.538
 Ex: just for this purpose
mainly after dinner

VII.2. The syntactic functions of prepositions and prepositional phrases

The prepositions and the prepositional phrases may have the following syntactic
functions7:
a) subject
Ex: After dark is the best moment to go for a walk.
b) direct object
Ex: I don’t think next to the highway a good place to live.
c) prepositional object
Ex: Stop tampering with the digital camera!
d) subject complement
Ex: You must be out of your mind to accept!
e) object complement
Ex: The accident left him without a family.
f) adjunct
Ex: The children were playing in the garden.
g) postmodifier in a noun phrase
Ex: The children in the garden were playing.
h) complement in a noun phrase
Ex: She is a teacher of English literature.
i) premodifier in a noun phrase
Ex: Off-the-record information cannot be used during the trial.
j) complement of a verb
Ex: They were listening to his speech.
k) complement in an adjectival phrase
Ex: I’m sorry for your loss.
l) complement in an adverbial phrase
Ex: I live far from here.
m) complement in a prepositional phrase
Ex: The museum is opened every day except on Mondays.
n) disjunct (expresses information that is not essential to the sentence, but it shows
the speaker’s attitude towards the content of the sentence)
Ex: She did, in all fairness, try to tell you the truth.
o) conjunct (adds information to the sentence that is not considered part of the
propositional content, but which connects the sentence with previous parts of the
discourse)
Ex: In conclusion, they did not leave at all.

VII.3. The classification of prepositions

a) according to their form, prepositions can be:
- simple (one-word): about, across, after, as, at, by, down, during, for, from, in, near,
of, off, on, round, to, with, etc.
- complex (two-word, multi-word). According to the parts of speech involved, there can
be distinguished three categories:
- adverb + preposition: along with, apart from, away from, out of, up to, etc.

7
Quirk, p.304, Downing, pp.541-542
 - verb/adjective/conjunction + preposition: owing to, due to, contrary to, but
for, because of, etc.
- preposition + noun + preposition: by means of, in comparison with, etc.

b) according to their meaning, prepositions can be:

- of place, which have the functions of adjuncts (relating an event to a location),
postmodifiers (relating an object to a location) or predicatives (following the verb to
be). The prepositions indicating place show8:
- simple position and destination: at, to, on, in(to), etc.
- negative position: away from, off, out of, etc.
- relative position or destination: by, over, under, etc.
- passage: across, through, past, etc.
- movement with reference to a directional path: up, down, along, etc.
- orientation: beyond, over, past, etc.
- of time, which occur as adjuncts or postmodifiers. They are9:
- prepositions that indicate time when: at, on, in
- prepositions that indicate duration: for
- before, after, since, until
- between, by, up to
- of cause: because of, on account of, owing to, thanks to
- of purpose: for
- of instrument: with, by, without

VII.4. Classes of words with the same form as prepositions

Some one-word prepositions can have functions characteristic of verbs, conjunctions
and adverbs10.
a) prepositions and verbs: some participial forms can function as both prepositions and
verbs: considering, excluding, following, including, regarding, given, granted.
Ex: The museum is open every day excluding Monday. (preposition)
I’m not excluding this possibility. (verb)
b) prepositions and conjunctions: when referring to moments of time and introducing
declarative finite clauses, some items are regarded more as conjunctions than as prepositions:
after, before, since, until.
Ex: before his departure; before leaving (preposition)
before he left (conjunction)
c) prepositions and adverbs: when expressing circumstantial meaning, some words can
function as both prepositions and adverbs: aboard, above, about, across, after, behind, below,
between, down, in, inside, on, outside, under, up.
Ex: We walked in the house. (preposition)
We walked in. (conjunction)

VII.5. Constructions with prepositions

A number of verbs, nouns and adjectives require the use of certain prepositions:
a) verbs with preposition11: to abound in, to account for, to accuse of, to belong to, to bring
about, to call for, to depend on, to laugh at, to listen to, to look after, etc.

8
Quirk, pp.307-316
9
Idem, pp.317-318
10
Downing, pp.543-545
11
For a longer list see Appendix
b) nouns with prepositions12: aptitude for, astonishment at, belief in, confidence in, desire for,
hunger for, in honour of, master of, objection to, a thirst for, a witness to, etc.
c) adjectives with prepositions13: able to, absent from, curious about, disappointed with,
guilty of, mad about, patient with, suitable for, unaware of, useful for, worried about, etc.

There are also some idioms with prepositions14: above suspicion, at a loss, behind
bars, by all means, from cover to cover, in no time, off the beaten track, out of touch, etc.

VII. THE CONJUNCTION

The conjunction is the part of speech that links two words that have the same syntactic
function or two sentences that share similar ideas.
Ex: Painting and dancing are his favourite hobbies.
He called but he couldn’t find me.

VIII.1. Morphological classification of conjunctions

According to their form, conjunctions can be classified into:
a) simple conjunctions – consist in one word: after, and, as, but, if, when, while, why, etc.
Ex: The boss entered the office after the secretary had typed all the letters.

b) compound conjunctions – formed of two or more parts of speech written in one word:
however, otherwise, therefore, whenever, whereas, etc.
Ex: You are guilty, therefore you should pay for your deeds.

c) correlative conjunctions – consist in two conjunctions separated by sentences or by

parts of sentences: if … then, either … or, neither … nor, as … as, both … and, not
only … but also, so … as, no sooner … than, etc.
Ex: No sooner had we entered the house than the rain started.
Your letter was both affectionate and kind.

d) conjunctional phrases – formed of different parts of speech, combined with

conjunctions or with other parts of speech: as if, as though, as well as, for that reason,
on that account, so long as, or else, in order to, that is why, as if, for instance, etc.
Ex: He behaves as though he didn’t know us.

VIII.2. Syntactic classification of conjunctions

According to their function, conjunctions can be coordinating or subordinating
1) The coordinating conjunctions – they link two similar parts of sentence, with the
same syntactic role, or two coordinate sentences. There are several types of coordinating
conjunctions.
a) copulative or cumulative conjunctions – when a notion ads to another one:
and, besides, further, as well as, both … and, neither … nor, not only … but also, etc.
Ex: Neither Paula nor her children knew about his accident.
b) adversative conjunctions – when they express a contrast: but, but then,
whereas, while, etc.
Ex: Michael is talented, but he is lazy.

12
For a longer list see Appendix
13
For a longer list see Appendix
14
For a longer list see Appendix
 c) disjunctive conjunctions – when they express an alternative: or, else, or else,
otherwise, either … or, etc.
Ex: Listen to her advice, or you’ll be sorry!
d) conclusive/illative conjunctions – when they express a conclusion:
accordingly, consequently, hence, therefore, for that reason, on that account, that is why, etc.
Ex: I had to work late, that is why I couldn’t come to the meeting.
e) explicative conjunctions – when they help an explanation: because, namely,
for instance, let us say, such as, that is to say, etc.
Ex: She works hard because she has to raise four children.

2) The subordinating conjunctions and phrases – they link the subordinate clause to
the main clause. There are several types of subordinating conjunctions and phrases.
a) conjunctions of time – they introduce temporal clauses: after, before, (ever)
since, till, until, when, whenever, while, the first time, all the time, as soon as, by the time, etc.
Ex: The rain had already started by the time we got home.
b) conjunctions of place – they introduce adverbial clauses of place: where,
wherever, as far as, etc.
Ex: He won’t tell me where he’s going to spend his holiday.
c) conjunctions of manner – they introduce adverbial clauses of manner: as, as
if, as though, etc.
Ex: They behave as if they were rich.
d) conjunctions of cause – they introduce adverbial clauses of cause: so,
because, for, now (that), since, etc.
Ex: He didn’t take part in that race because he was not very well prepared.
e) conjunctions of purpose – they introduce adverbial clauses of purpose: in
order that, for fear, lest, so as, so that, etc.
Ex: They stopped talking lest they should be heard by the boss.
f) conjunctions of comparison – they introduce adverbial clauses of
comparison: than, as if, as … as, not so/as … as, etc.
Ex: This movie is not so/as good as you think.
g) conjunctions of concession – they introduce adverbial clauses of concession:
although, even if, in spite of, etc.
Ex: Although we are not very good friends, I feel sorry for her loss.
h) conditional conjunctions – they introduce conditional clauses: as long as, if,
if only, on condition (that), provided (that), providing, suppose, supposing, unless, etc.
Ex: Unless you stop yelling, we can’t continue our conversation.
i) conjunctions of result - they introduce adverbial clauses of result: (so …)
that, such … that, etc.
Ex: Fortunately he helped us, so that we ended our work on time.
j) relative conjunctions - they introduce relative clauses: that, which, who,
whose, as, etc.
Ex: This is the man who is going to run the firm.
k) subject clause conjunction – it introduces subject clauses: that
Ex: That you should go there is not surprising.
l) object clause conjunction - it introduces direct object clauses: that
Ex: They knew that I wanted to quit my job.
m) attributive clause conjunction- it introduces attributive clauses: that
Ex: The news that he was fired shocked me.