ELECTRIC HEATING AND WELDING

ELECTRIC HEATING

• When current is passed through a conductor, the conductor becomes hot. When a
magnetic material is brought in the vicinity of an alternating magnetic field, heat is
produced in the magnetic material.

• Similarly it was found that when an electrically insulating material was subjected to
electrical stresses, it too underwent a temperature rise (Dielectric heating).

There are various method of heating a material but electric heating is considered to be far
superior for the following reasons:

(i)Cleanliness:

• Due to complete elemination of dust and ash, the charges to maintain cleanliness are
minimum and the material to be heated does not get contaminated.

(ii)Ease of control:

• With the help of manual or automatic devices, it is possible to control and regulate the
temperature of a furnace with great ease.

(iii)Uniform heating:

• Whereas in other forms of heating a temperature gradient is set up from the outer
surface to the inner core.

• The core being relatively cooler, in case of electric heating, the heat is uniformly
distributed and hence the charge is uniformly heated.

(iv)Low attention and maintenance cost:

• Electric heating equipments normally do not require much attention and maintenance
is also negligible.

• Hence labour charges on these items are negligibly small as compared to alternative
methods of heating.

Requirement of Heating Material

i) Low Temperature Coefficients of Resistance
 • Resistance of conducting element varies with the temperature, this variation should be
small in case of an element.

• Otherwise when switched ON from room temperature to go upto say 1200˚C, the low
resistance at initial stage will draw excessively high currents at the same operating
voltage.

ii)Resistance coefficient Positive

• If temperature is negative the element will draw more current when hot.

• A higher current means more voltage, a higher temperature or a still lower resistance,
which can instability of operation.

iii)High Melting Point

• Its melting point should be sufficiently higher than its operating temperature.
Otherwise a small rise in the operating voltage will destroy the element.

iv)High Specific Resistance

• The resistivity of the material used for making element should be high.

• This will require small lengths and shall give convenient size.

v)High Oxidizing Temperature

• Its oxidizing temperature should higher than its operating temperature.

• Otherwise oxidised layers from the surface will flake off changing the resistance of
the filament and giving it a smaller life.

vi)Ductile

• To have convenient shapes and sizes, the material used should have high ductility and
flexibility.

• It should not be brittle and fragile.

vii)Should with stand Vibration

• In most industrial process quite strong vibrations are produced.

• Some furnaces have to open or rock while hot. The element material should withstand
the vibrations while hot and should not break open.

viii)Mechanical Strength

• The material used should have sufficient mechanical strength of its own.
CLASSIFICATION OF METHODS OF ELECTRIC HEATING

(i)Power Frequency Method:

• Direct resistance heating, indirect resistance heating, direct arc heating, and indirect
arc heating.

(ii) High Frequency Heating:

• Induction heating and dielectric heating.

Resistance Heating:
• This method is based upon the I2R loss. Whenever current is passed through a
resistive material heat is produced because of I2 R loss.

There are two methods of resistance heating. They are

 i) Direct Resistance Heating

ii) Indirect Resistance Heating

Direct Resistance Heating:

• In this method of heating the material or change to be heated is taken as a resistance

and current is passed through it.

• The charge may be in the form of powder pieces or liquid. The two electrodes are
immersed in the charge and connected to the supply.

• In case of D.C or single phase A.C two electrodes are required but there will be three
electrodes in case of three phase supply.

• When metal pieces are to be heated a powder of high resistivity material is sprinkled
over the surface of the charge to avoid direct short circuit.

• The current flows through the charge and heat is produced. This method has high
efficiency since heat is produced.

• This method has high efficiency since heat is produced is charge itself. Though
automatic temperature control is not possible in this method.

• But it gives uniform heat and high temperature. One of the major application of the
process is salt bath furnaces having an operating temperature between 500˚C to
1400˚C.

• An immersed electrode type medium temperature salt bath furnace is shown in

figure3.28.

• The bath makes use of supply voltage across two electrodes varying between 5 to 20
volts.

• For this purpose a special double wound transformer is required which makes use of
3Ф primary and single phase secondary. This speaks of an unbalanced load.

• The variation in the secondary voltage is done with the help of an off load tapping
switch of the primary side. This is necessary for starting and regulating the bath load.

Advantages :

• High efficiency.

• It gives uniform heat and high temperature.

 Application :

• It is mainly used in salt bath furnace and water heaters.

Indirect resistance heating

• In this method the current is passed through a highly resistance element which is
either placed above or below the over depending upon the nature of the job to be
performed.

• The heat proportional to I2R losses produced in heating element delivered to the
charge either by radiation or by convection.

• Sometimes in case of industrial heating the resistance is placed in a cylinder which is

surrounded by the charge placed in the jackes as shown in figure3.29.

• The arrangement provides as uniform temperature.

• Automatic temperature control can be provided in this case.

• Both A.C and D.C supplies can be used for this purpose at full mains voltage
depending upon the design of heating element.

Application :

• This method is used in room heater, in bimetallic strip used in starters, immersion
water heaters and in various types of resistance ovens used in domestic and
commercial cooking.

Arc Furnaces
• There are two common types of arc furnaces: (1)Three-phase furnace and (2)Single
phase furnace.

• Three phase furnaces are used in the production of alloy steels.

• Single phase furnaces are used for the manufacture of gray iron casting also.

• Three phase furnaces are used for power ratings from 250KVA, 10,000KVA and
capacities upto 25 tonne.

• Generally graphite electrodes are used. As they are subjected to volatilization, they
are to be replaced.

• The arc temperature is between 3000 and 3500˚C, so that the process is carried out
between 1500˚C and 2500˚C.

• The main components of a three phase furnace are:

 1)Variable ratio power transformer

2)Reactors

3)Automatic current regulator

4)Control panel

5)Electric motor and tilting motor

6)Circuit breaker and connecting switches.

• The chamber in which arc is struck is placed on a metal frame work. The chamber is
lined inside with a refractory linning, which is acidic or basic in nature.

• The electrodes arc inserted from the top or sides of the chamber, and are placed in
such a way as to be replaced easily or adjusted easily.

• To have a through mixing, the furnace is made amenable for tilting.

Direct arc furnace

• The arc is struck directly with the charge, when a current flows through it and
produces intense heat, which results, in high temperature.

• Although some furnaces up to 100 tonne are made, generally furnaces up to 25 tonne
are in general use.

• Stirring action is automatic and gives a uniform product. It is used for alloy steel
manufacture and gives a purer product.

Merits:

When compared with cupola method,

• It produces purer products

• It is very simple and easy to control the composistion of the final product during
refining process.

Demerits:

• It is very costlier.
 • Eventhough it is used for both melting and refining but wherever electric energy is
expensive it is economical to use cupola for melting and arc furnace for refining.

Application:

• The most common application of this type of furnace is to produce steel.

Indirect arc furnace

• Electrodes are inserted from the sides and the heat produced is transmitted by
radiation to the charge.

• As there is no inherent stirring action, the furnace should be rocked.

• This furnace is used for only single phase supplies. Also the capacity of the furnace is
limited up to 100 tonne.

• The furnace is rocked thoroughly to ensure, that the metal will cover the refactory
lining and prevent it from reaching high temperatures.

• Melting of non-ferrous metals is mostly carried out in this type of furnace.

• In both the type of furnaces, large quantities of electrodes are used.

• The energy used is about 500-800kw/tone corresponding to maximum power input,

the power factor is 0.87 and efficiency 70%.

Application:

• The main application of this type furnace is melting of non-ferrous metals.

Induction heating:
• Induction heating processes make use of currents induced by electromagnetic action
in the material to be heated.

• Induction heating is based on the principle of transformers. There is a primary

winding through which an a.c current is passed.

• The coil is magnetically coupled with the metal to be heated which acts as secondary.
 • An electric current is induced in this metal when the a.c current is passed through the
primary coil.

The following are different types of induction furnaces

1. Core type and

2. Coreless type

Core type is classified into three types. They are

a) Direct core type

b) Vertical core type and

c) Indirect core type

Direct core type:

• The direct core type induction furnace is shown ion fig.

• It consist of an iron core, crucible and primary winding connected to an a.c supply.

• The charge is kept in the cruicible, which forms a single turn short circuited
secondary circuit.

• The current in the charge is very high in the order of several thousand amperes. The
charge is magnetically coupled to the primary winding.

• The change is melted because of high current induced in it. When there is no molten
metal, no current will flow in the secondary.

• To start the furnace molten metal is poured in the oven from the previous charge.

This type of furnace has the following drawbacks.

• The magnetic coupling between the primary and secondary is very weak, therefore the
leakage reactance is very high. This causes low power factor.

• Low frequency supply is necessary because normal frequency causes turbulence of

the charge.

• If current density exceeds about 5 amps/mm2 the electromagnetic force produced by

this current density causes interruption of secondary current.

• Hence the heating of the metal is interrupted. It is called pinch effect.

 • The crucible for the charge id of odd shape and inconvenient from the metallurgical
point of view.

• The furnace cannot function if the secondary circuit is open.

• It must be closed. For starting the furnace either molten metal is poured into the
crucible or sufficient molten metal is allowed to remain in the crucible from the
previous operation.

• Such furnace is not suitable for intermittent services.

AJAX WYATT Vertical core type furnace:

• It is modified type of core type induction furnace.

• It has a vertical channel for the charge, thus the crucible used is also vertical. The
construction of ajax wyatt vertical furnace is shown in fig.

• The principle of operation is that of a transformer in which the secondary turns are
replaced by a closed loop of molten metal. The primary winding is placed on the
central limb of the core.

• Hence leakage reactance is comparatively low and power factor is high. Inside of the
furnace is lined with refactory depending upon the charge.

• The top of the furnace is covered with an insulated cover which can be removed for
charging. Necessary arrangements are usually made for titling the furnace to take out
the molten metal.

• The molten metal in the ‘V’ portion acts as a short circuited secondary. When primary
is connected to the a.c supply, high current will be accumulated at the bottom and
even a small amount of charge will keep the secondary completed.

• Hence chances of discontinuity of the circuit is less.

Advantages:

• High efficiency and low operating cost.

• Since both primary and secondary are on the same central core, its power factor is
better.

• The furnace is operated from the normal supply frequency.

• Chances of discontinuity of the secondary circuit is less, hence it is useful for

intermittent operations.

Applications:
 • This furnaces is used for melting non ferrous metals like brass, zinc, tin, bronze,
copper etc.

Indirect core type induction furnace

• Indirect core type induction furnace is shown in fig. I n this type of furnace induction
principle has been used for heating metals.

• In such furnace an inductively heated element is made to transfer its heat to the
change by radiation.

• It consists of an iron core linking with the primary winding and secondary. In this
case secondary consists of a metal container forming the walls of the furnace.

• When the primary winding is connected to the supply, current is induced in the
secondary of the metal container.

• So heat is produced due to induced current. This heat is transmitted to the charge by
radiation.

• The portion AB of the magnetic circuit is made up of a special alloy and is kept inside
the chamber of the furnace.

• The special alloy will loose its magnetic properties at a particular temperature and the
magnetic properties are regained when the alloy will cooled.

• As soon as the furnace attains the critical temperature the reluctance of the magnetic
circuit increases many times and the inductive effect correspondingly decreases
thereby cutting off the heat supply.

• The bar AB is removable type and can be replaced by other, having different critical
temperature. Thus the temperature of the furnace can be controlled very effectively.

Coreless induction furnace:

• Coreless induction furnace also operates on the principle of transformer. In this
furnace there is no core and thus the flux density will be low.

• Hence for compensating the low flux density, the current supplied to the primary
should have sufficiently high frequency.

• The flux set up by the primary winding produces eddy currents in the charge. The
heating effect of the eddy currents melts the charge.

• Stirring of the metals takes place by the action of the electromagnetic forces. Coreless
furnace may be having conducting or non conducting containers.
 • Fig shows a coreless induction furnace in which container is made up of conduting
material.

• The container acts as secondary winding and the charge can have either conducting or
non conducting properties.

• Thus the container forms a short circuited single turn secondary. Hence heavy current
induced in it and produce heat. This heat produced is transferred to the charge by
convection.

• To prevent the primary winding from high temperature, refactory linings are provided
between primary and secondary windings.

• Fig shows a coreless induction furnace in which the container is made of ceramic
material and the charge must necessarily have conducting properties.

• The flux produced by the primary winding produces eddy currents in the charge. The
heating effects of the eddy currents melt the charge.

• Stirring action in the metals takes place by the action of the electromagnetic forces.

Advantages:

• Time taken to reach the melting temperature is less.

• Accurate power control is possible.

• Any shape of crucible can be used.

• The eddy currents in the charge results in automatic stirring.

• Absence of dirt, smoke, noise, etc.

• Erection cost is less.

Dielectric heating:
• Dielectric heating is also sometimes called as high frequency capacitance heating.

• If non metallic materials ie, insulators such as wood, plastics, china clay, glass,
ceramics etc are subjected to high voltage A.C current, their temperature will increase
in temperature is due to the conversion of dielectric loss into heat.

• The dielectric loss is dependent upon the frequency and high voltage. Therefore for
obtaining high heating effect high voltage at high frequency is usually employed.
 • The metal to be heated is placed between two sheet type electrodes which forms a
capacitor as shown in fig. The equivalent circuit and vector diagram is also shown in
fig.

• When A.C supply is connected across the two electrodes, the current drawn by it is
leading the voltage exactly 90˚.

• The angle between voltage and current is slightly less than 90˚, with the result that
there is a inphase component of the current (IR).

• This current produces power loss in the dielectric of the capacitor. At normal supply
frequency the power loss may be small.

• But at high frequencies, the loss becomes large, which is sufficient to heat the
dielectric.

Advantages:

• Uniform heating is obtained.

• Running cost is low.

• Non conducting materials are heated within a short period.

• Easy heat control.

Applications:

• For food processing.

• For wood processing.

• For drying purpose in textile industry.

• For electronic sewing.

Welding:
• Welding is the process of joining two similar metals by heating. The metal parts are
heated to melting point. In some cases the pieces of metal to be joined are heated to
plastic stage and are fused together.

Electric welding:
 • In electric welding process, electric current is used to produce large heat, required for
joining two metal pieces. There are two methods by which electric welding can be
carried out. These are

1. Resistance welding and

2. Arc welding.

Types of electric welding

1. Resistance welding

a) Butt welding

b) Spot welding

c) Seam welding

d) Projection welding

e) Flash welding

2. Arc welding

a) Carbon arc welding

b) Metal arc welding

c) Atomic hydrogen arc welding

d) Inert gas metal arc welding

e) Submerged arc welding.

Resistance welding:
• In resistance welding heavy current is passed through the metal pieces to be welded.
Heat will be developed by the resistance of the work piece to the flow of current.

• The heat produced for welding is given by

H=I2Rt

Where,

H= Heat developed at the contact area.

I= Current in amperes.
 R= Resistance in ohms.

t= time of flow of current.

• The fundamental block diagram for resistance welding is shown in fig.

• The A.C supply is given to the primary winding of the transformer through a
controlled contactor.

• The welding transformer is a step down transformer. The secondary voltage is in the
order of 1 to 10 volts. But the current may range from 50 to 1000 amperes.

i) Butt welding:

• In this process heat is generated by the contact resistance between two components.

• In this type of welding the metal parts to be joined end to end as shown in fig.
Sufficient pressure is applied along the axial direction.

• A heavy current is passed from the welding transformer which creates the necessary
heat at the joint due to high resistance of the contact area.

• Due to the pressure applied, the molten metal forced to produce a bulged joint.

• This method is suitable for welding pipes, wires and rods.

ii) Spot welding:

Spot welding is usually employed for joining or fabricating sheet metal structure. This
type of joint only provides mechanical strength and is not air or water tight.

Spot welding arrangement is shown in fig. The plates to be welded are placed overlapping
each other between two electrodes, sufficient mechanical pressure is applied through the
electrodes. The welding current flows through electrodes tips producing a spot weld. The
welding current and period of current flow depend on the thickness of the plates.

Arc welding:
• An electric arc is the flow of electric current through gases.

• An electric arc is struck by short circuiting two electrodes and then with drawing them
apart by small distance.

• The current continue to flow across the small gap and give intense heat.

• The heat developed by the arc is also used for cutting of metal.
Carbon arc welding:

• In this process D.C is usually employed.

• The electrode is made of carbon or graphite and is to be kept negative with respect of
the work.

• The work piece is connected to positive wire as shown in fig. Flux and filler are also
used.

• Filler is made up of similar metal as that of metal to be welded.

• If the electrode is made positive then the carbon contents may flow into the weld and
cause brittleness.

• The heat from the arc forms a molten pool and the extra metal required to make the
weld is supplied by the filler rod.

• This type of welding is used for welding copper and its alloy.

Metal arc welding:

• In metal arc welding a metal rod of same material as being welded is used as an
electrode.

• The electrode also serves the purpose of filler. For metal arc welding A.C or D.C can
be used.

• Electric supply is connected between electrode and work piece.

• The work piece is then suddenly touched by the electrode and then separated from it a
little. This results in an arc between the job and the electrode.

• A little portion of the work and the tip of the electrode melts due to the heat generated
by the arc.

• When the electrode is removed the metal cools and solidifies giving a strong welded
joint.

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 ELECTRIC DRIVES AND CONTROL
INTRODUCTION

• An electric motor is a better prime move for driving mechanical load than hydraulic,
steam or diesel engines as it is possible to control the performance of an electric
motor is quite easy.

• For obtaining electric drives, both A.C and D.C motors are used. However A.C
system is preferred.

• The utilization of electric energy is always advantageous as it is cheaper.

• It is easy to maintain the voltage at consumer premises within the prescribed limits
and it is possible to increase or decrease the voltage without appreciable loss of
power.

• Inspite of the advantages of A.C system sometimes it becomes essential to use D.C
energy as industrial drive.

Electric drive

• An electric drive is defined as a form of machine equipment designed to convert

electrical energy into mechanical energy and provide electrical control of this process.

• It is classified into three types. They are

1. Individual drive

2. Group drive and

3. Multimotor drive

Advantages of electric drives

• It is simple in construction and has less maintenance cost.

 • Its speed control is easy and smooth.

• It is neat, clean and free from any smoke or flue gases.

• It requires less space.

• It can be installed at any desired convenient place.

• It has comparatively longer life.

• It can be started immediately without any loss of time.

• Transmission of power from one place to other can be done with the help of cables in
stead of long shaft etc.

• It can be remotely controlled.

• It has high efficiency.

Individual drive

• Individual drive consist of single motor is used to drive one individual machine.

• Most of the industries use this type of drive.

• In some cases the motor, along with its control equipment, may form an integral part
of the machine, which results in better appearance, cleanliness and safety.

Advantages:

• The machines can be installed at any desired position.

• If there is a fault in one motor other machines will not be affected since they are
working independently.

• Each operator has a complete control of his machine. He can vary its speed, if
necessary and stop while not in use. Thus no load losses can be eliminated.

• Continuity in the production of the industry is achieved.

• Efficiency of the system is high.

Disadvantages:

• The initial cost is high.

Group drive

• A group drive consist of a single large motor, which operates a number of machines.

• The motor is mechanically connected to a long shaft.

• It is also called line shaft drive.

• The line shaft is fitted with multistepped pulleys and belts.

• The driven machines are connected to these pulleys and belts for their required speed.

• The fig shows the group drive.

Advantages:

When compared with the individual drive,

• Its initial cost is less.

• Only less space is required.

• It requires little maintenance.

• In this drive all the operation can be stopped simultaneously.

Disadvantages:

• When the motor fails all the operations will be stopped.

• If most of the machines are idle the main motor will operate on load with less
efficiency.

• Noise level in this drive is quite high.

• It has low power factor.

• It is not possible to install any machine at a distance place.

• Speed control of individual machine is not possible.

Multimotor drive

• In multimotor drives separate motors are used for operating different parts of the same
mechanism.

• Eg in case of an overhead crane, different motors are used for hoisting, long travel
motion and cross travel motion.
 • Such drive is also essential in complicated metal-cutting machine tools, paper making
machines, rolling mills.

• Fig shows a multimotor drive.

Selection of motors
• An industrial process needs a particular electric drive for its successful and efficient
operation which in turn calls for appropriate selection of the driving motor.

• While selecting a motor, the following factors must be taken into consideration:

a. Electrical characteristics

• Running characteristics

• Starting characteristics

• Speed control

• Braking

b. Mechanical characteristics

• Types of enclosures

• Bearings

• Transmission of drive

• Noise level

c. Size of motor and

• Continuous rating

• Intermittent or variable load rating

• Over load capacity

• Pull out torque

d. Cost

• Capital cost

• Running cost
 • The first three are the technical factors and the last one is the economic factor.

• Many a time, there are conflicts between the technical and economic factors, but in
any commercial organization, the economic factor overpowers the technical factors as
the correct choice of a motor is one which gives the required service at the minimum
overall cost.

• Since the load on a motor is an integral part of the drive system we study various
types of loads.

• It is essential that the motor characteristics match with those of the load for stable
operation of the system.

Electrical characteristics

Running characteristics

• The running characteristics of a motor include the following speed- torque or speed-
current characteristics, losses, magnetizing current, efficiency and power factor at
various loads.

• The magnetizing current and power factor are to be considered in case of A.C motors
only.

Starting characteristics

• The starting torque developed by a motor should be sufficient to start and accelerate
the motor at its load to the rated speed in a reasonable time.

• Some motors may be have to start against full load torque.

• E.g motors driving grinding mills or oil expellers, traction work etc.

At the time of starting a motor, two torques come into play.

• The torque required to overcome the static friction and

• The torque necessary to accelerate the motor and its load to the desired speed.

Starting characteristics of D.C motors

 • The starting characteristics of D.C motor is the relation between the torque and the
armature current.

• The torque of a D.C motor is proportional to the product of field flux (Ф) and
armature current (Ia).

i.e., T α ФIa

Where

Ia= armature current

Ф= field flux

D.C shunt motor

• In DC shunt motor, the field current is constant from no load to full load.

• Therefore the field flux Ф also constant.

• Hence the starting torque is directly proportional to the armature current i.e. (T α Ia).

• Fig shows the torque current characteristics of D.C shunt motor.

D.C Series motor

• In D.C series motor, the field winding is connected in series with the armature.

• Hence the field current, armature current and load current is same (ie Ia=Ise=IL). hence
field flux and armature flux also same ie., Фse= Фa.

• Since the series field flux is proportional to the armature current upto saturation
point, the torque produced is proportional to the square of the armature current up to
saturation point.

• Hence up to OA, the torque current characteristics is in parabolic shape.

ie T α ФIa

upto saturation point, field flux Ф α Ia

Hence T α Ia2

• After saturation, the series field flux remains constant.

• Hence the torque is directly proportional to Ia (T α Ia). hence after A, the torque
current characteristics is a straight line.
 • Since the starting torque is directly proportional to square of armature current, and the
starting torque of D.C series motor is very high.

• So it can be used where large starting torque is required such as in electric trains,
cranes, lifts and hoists.

D.C compound motor

There are two types of compound motor namely,

1. Cumulative compound motor

2. Differential compound motor

• In cumulative compound motor the series field flux add with the shunt field flux.
Hence the total flux is higher than that of the shunt motor.

• So the torque developed in this motor is more than that of shunt motor for the same
armature current.

• In differential compound motor, the series field flux opposes the shunt field flux.
Hence the total flux is lesser than that of the shunt motor as shown in fig.

Starting characteristics of three phase induction motor

Squirrel cage motor

• During the starting period, the squirrel cage induction motor has low starting torque
and take high starting current.

• The condition for maximum starting torque is R2=X2. During the starting period X2 is
higher in compare to rotor resistance R2.

• Therefore if the rotor resistance R2 increases the starting torque also increases(since T
α R2).

• It is not possible to increase the rotor resistance on squirrel cage induction motor.

Double cage rotor

• The starting torque of a cage motor is increased by providing double cages.

• The outer cage is made of high resistance metal bars whereas inner cage is made of
low resistance copper bar.
 • The inductance of the inner bar is higher than that of outer. Fig shows the double cage
rotor.

• At the time of starting, the motor induced current is at the line frequency and hence
inner cage has a high reactance(X2=2 f’L).

• Therefore, the rotor current will flow through the outer cage, with the result that the
starting torque is high (since T α R2).

• During normal running the reactance of the inner cage decreases (since rotor current
frequency f’ is decreased) and hence the rotor current flows through the low
resistance inner cage.

• This gives a high efficiency of the motor.

Slip ring Induction motor

• In slip ring induction motor, extra resistance can be added in the rotor circuit during
the starting period.

• Hence a high starting torque is produced. In addition, it also limits the starting current.

Starting characteristics of synchronous motor

• It has no self starting torque. It runs at synchronous speed.

• The following methods are used to provide the starting arrangement.

i. DC motor coupled to synchronous motor.

ii. Pony motor(small I.M.) coupled to synchronous motor.

iii. Provide damper winding on rotor.

Starting characteristics of single phase induction motor

• Single phase induction motor is not self starting.

• It requires some provision for starting. An extra winding known as starting winding is
provided on the stator.

• The main winding is of high reactance and low resistance.

• The starting winding is of high resistance and low reactance. They are connected
across the supply.
 • This type of motor is called split phase motor. When the motor picks up the speed at
75% of synchronous speed, a centrifugal switch is open and disconnects the starting
winding.

• This motor has a very low starting torque.

• If a capacitor is used for spilt the phase at starting then it is called capacitor start
motor . the main winding is connected directly across the line.

• The starting winding is connected in series with the capacitor through centrifugal
switch and connected across the single phase supply.

• Such an arrangement gives a high starting torque.

• In permanent capacitor motor the capacitor remains in the circuit during starting and
running.

Running characteristics of motors

• The running characteristics of a motor include the speed-torque or the speed-current

characteristics, losses, magnetizing currents, efficiency and power factor at various
loads.

• The magnetizing current and power factor are to be considered in case of A.C motors
only.

Running characteristics of D.C motors

D.C shunt motor

a) speed current characteristics

• In any D.C motor N α (Eb / Ф).

• When the supply voltage is constant, in DC shunt motor Ф is flux is constant.

N α Eb

N α V-Ia Ra

• This indicates that speed of D.C shunt motor decreases with increase in armature
current due to loading.

• The variation of speed with armature current characteristics is drooping slightly as

shown in fig.

• The percentage of speed change will be about 5% at full load due to armature
resistance drop. But due to armature reaction, the flux is weakened.
 • Hence the speed will increase. (N α (Eb / Ф)). This increase in speed compensates the
drop in speed due to Ia Ra drop.

• Therefore the shunt motor is considered as constant speed motor.

b) Speed-Torque characteristics

• We know

T α ФIa and

N α (Eb / Ф).

• In shunt motor field flux Ф= constant

T α Ia ----------------------------- (1)

Ia= KT

N α Eb

N α (V-IaRa) -------------------------- (2)

• Put Ia value in equation (2)

N α V-(KT)Ra ---------------------------- (3)

From equation (3) we know that, when the torque increases, speed decreases as shown in fig.

Performance curve

• Fig shows the performance curves of D.C shunt motor. These curves are namely
torque, speed, current and efficiency., each plotted against output power.

D.C series motor

a) Speed- current characteristics

• Consider the speed equation

N α Eb/Ф

N α (V- IaRa)/ Ф

• When supply voltage V is kept constant, the speed of the motor will be inversely
proportional to flux N α (1 / Ф).
 • On the light loads the flux produced will be weak and therefore the speed will be
dangerously high.

• For small value of flux Ф, the speed will be very high. Hence the shape of the curve
will be hyperbolic.

• When the load current increases, the flux also increases, after saturation the flux
remains constant.

• Therefore the speed will be constant and low at heavy loads as shown in fig.

b) Speed- Torque characteristics

• In any D.C motor

N α (V-IaRa)/ Ф

• If IaRa drop is negligible

N α V/ Ф -------------------------- (1)

• We know that,

T α Ф Ia

T α Ф. Ф (since Ia α Ф)

T α Ф2

Ф2 =T

Ф2 = √T ------------------------- (2)

• Substitute the equation (2) in (1)

N α V/√T

• From the equation, speed is inversely proportional to torque. Hence the characteristics
curve is hyperbolic in shape.

• This is shown in fig.

• In D.C series motor, as torque increases with decrease of speed. Hence series motor is
suitable for operating cranes, lifts, trains etc.

Performance curve

• Fig shows the perfoemance curve of a D.C series motor.

• These curves are namely torque, speed, current and efficiency each plotted against
output power.
D.C compound motor

Speed – current characteristics

• A compound motor has both series field and shunt field.

• Compound motors are of two types.

• If the series field flux and shunt field flux add each other, it is called cumulative
compound motor.

• If the series field flux opposes the shunt field flux, it is called differential compound
motor.

• In the cumulative compound motor, the series field emf increases with increase in
armature current. Hence cumulative compound motor has more flux than that of shunt
motor.

• In any D.C motor,

T α Ф Ia

• Hence torque of cumulative compound motor is greater than the shunt motor.

• Since the speed is inversely proportional to flux N α (1 / Ф) cumulative compound

motor has lower speed than the shunt motor.

• In the case of differential compounded motor the field flux decreases when the
armature current increases, which reduces the torque. (since T α Ф Ia).

• But the speed increases with reduction flux ( since N α (1 / Ф)).

• Hence the speed is greater when compared to shunt motor.

• The speed Vs armature current and speed torque characteristics of D.C compound
motors are shown in fig. in comparison with the shunt motor.

Running characteristics of three phase induction motor

• Running characteristics of squirrel cage induction motor or speed torque

characteristics

• In cage induction motor

Torque (T) = KSE22 R2/ R22 +X22

 Where

k = constant

S = slip

E2 = e.m.f induced in the rotor

R2 = rotor resistance

X2 = rotor reactance

• Under normal running condition the rotor frequency (f’=Sf) is small.

• Hence the rotor reactance (X2= 2πf’L) is also very small.

• Hence the rotor reactance (X2) is neglected.

T α K1SE22 R2/ R22

i.e., T α KSE22/ R2

• Since the supply voltage Vis constant, E2 is also constant.

• Hence the running torque of the motor depends upon the rotor resistance.

• From the above equation the running torque is inversely proportional to the rotor
resistance R2.

• Hence at lower value of slip, increasing the running torque the rotor resistance R2
should be very low.

• Since the cage motor rotor is short circuited, the rotor resistance is very low. Hence
cage induction motor has good running torque.

• For various values of R the family of speed torque characteristics shown in fig. when
the load on the motor increases the rotor speed falls down.

• Then the slip value increases. The torque increases with increase in slip upto rated
load.

• The torque will reach a maximum value at slip S=R2/X2. After the rated load, the
increased load on the motor will increase the slip and on the decrease the torque.

• Any further more increase in load on the motor results, the motor slowing down and it
finally stops.

• The stable operating region of the motor lies for the slip values S=0 and that
corresponds to maximum torque.

• The operating region is hatched in fig.

Performance curve

• Fig shows the performance curve of three phase squirrel cage induction motor namely
slip, current, power factor, efficiency and speed each plotted against power output.

Running characteristics of slip ring induction motor

• The running characteristics of slip ring induction motor are same as squirrel cage
induction motor.

• By introducing resistance in the rotor circuit at running, the torque can be increased.

Running characteristics of double squirrel cage induction motor

• The motor is designed to provide improved starting characteristics (i.e. high starting
torque with low starting current).

• Inner cage has high inductance and low resistance whereas outer cage has high
resistance and low inductance.

• At the time of starting inner cage offers high reactance. Because the frequency of
rotor current is very high. (since at starting slip=1, hence frequency of rotor current f’
increases, since f’ = s f).

• Hence most of the current flows through outer cage where resistance is high. Thus
more starting torque is developed.

• After the motor has picked up its full speed, the frequency of rotor current becomes
very low.

• Therefore most of the current flows through the inner cage. Hence at running, copper
losses are reduced and the efficiency of motor is increased.

• The speed- torque characteristics of double cage induction motor are shown in fig.

Running characteristics of single phase induction motor

• The speed torque characteristics is similar to three phase induction motor.

• Fig shows the speed torque characteristics of single phase induction motor. It has no
self starting torque.

• Separate arrangement is provided to make it self starting.

• The repulsion start and capacitor start motors are the most common types of single
phase induction motors.

• Single phase induction motors are used in domestic appliances like fans, refrigerators,
vacuum cleaners etc.
Running characteristics of universal motor.

• Universal motor operates on either A.C or D.C supply.

• Its speed torque characteristics are same as series motor speed-torque characteristics.

• Fig shows the speed torque characteristics.

• Universal motors are used in vacuum cleaners, sewing machines, portable drills and
other small power drives.

Speed control

In D.C motor the speed can be controlled by following methods

• Armature control method

• Field control method

In A.C motors, the speed can be controlled by following methods

• By changing the supply voltage

• By changing the supply frequency

• By changing the no of poles of motor

• By injecting emf in the rotor circuit

• By cascading of motors

• By injecting resistance in the rotor circuit

Braking

• When the load is removed from an electric motor and supplied to it be disconnected it
will continue to run for sometime due to inertia.

• To avoid danger to the worker or damage to the products manufactured quick

stopping of motor is required. It is done by braking.

• The braking system should be reliable and quick in action. The braking torque must
be controllable.

• There are two types of braking.

 i) Mechanical braking

ii) Electrical braking

Mechanical characteristics of electric motor

• While selecting a motor for a particular drive, the mechanical characteristics are also
taken into account.

• The following features determine the suitability of the motor.

1. Types of enclosures

2. Bearings

3. Noise

4. Transmission of drive

Types of enclosures

• All the major parts of the motors such as windings, bearings, insulation etc are to be
protected from the surroundings contaminated air.

• In an industry the air surrounding the motors may contain metal, dust, oil, mist, water,
dust inflammable fumes etc. also accidents may occur to persons coming in contact
with the moving parts.

• Therefore it is necessary to provide proper enclosures.

• The different types of enclosures are as follows.

a) Open type

• This type can only be used where the atmosphere and surroundings are
free from all contaminations and surrounding air completely dry.

• The advantage of this type of motor is that the cost of cooling is very
low.

• But this type is rarely used since there is no protection to the motor
parts.

b) Screen protected type

 • In this type of machines openings provided for ventilation are covered
with wire mesh screen.

• This type of enclosures does not protect the motor against dirt and dust.

• But larger bodies and big insects cannot enter into the machine.

c) Drip proof type

• This motor has ventilating opening provided in such a way that drops of
liquid or solid falling on it vertically are prevented to enter inside.

• This type of motor cannot be used where inflammable dust particles are
present in the surrounding air.

• Such motors are used in damp atmosphere. E.g Pumpsets.

d) Totally enclosed type

• This type of motors has solid frames and end shields but no opening for
ventilation.

• They are cooled by surface radiation only. In this type machines no dirt or
foreign matter can enter and block the air passage.

• These machines are used for very dusty atmosphere.

• E.g saw mills, coal handling plants and stone crushing quarries.

e) Splash proof type

• In this type, the ventilation ducts are provided in such a way that drops of
liquid or solid particles reaching the machine at any angle between vertical
and 100˚ from it cannot enter the machine.

f) Flame proof type

• These enclosures do not communicate an internal fire to the external

environment.

• Hence these motors are used in coal mines, gas plants, oil refineries etc.,

• where the risk of fire is more.

g) Pipe ventilated type

 • Large sizes of totally enclosed motor employ pipe ventilation.

• Air is drawn through pipe from outside the building, where clean air is
available and forced to cool the motor.

Bearings

• Bearings are the parts of machines which house and support the main shaft.

• It provides free rotation of the moving parts with minimum friction.

• There are two types of bearings usually employed in motors.

1. Ball or Roller bearing

2. Sleeve or brush bearing

Ball or Roller bearing

• Ball or roller bearing consist of an inner and outer race and cage containing steel
roller or balls.

• The outer race is attached to the housing(end cover) and the inner race is attached to
the shaft.

• When the shaft rotates, the steel ball also rotates. Hence the friction of the shaft is
minimized.

• It has a longer life and maintenance costs are low.

• It occupy less space. But the initial cost of ball and roller bearings is high.

• It is used in three phase induction motor where smaller air gap is possible.

• It is used for chain, belt and gear drives.

Sleeve or brush bearing

• Sleeve or brush bearings are normally made of bronze.

• The rotating shaft is supported by bearing component and is rigidly fixed to the frame
of the machine.
 • It has self lubricating properties due to capillary action.

• It is lubricated by a metal ring freely rotating on the shaft carrying oil to the bearings.

• It is mainly used in direct coupled drive such as fan and universal motor.

• It gives noiseless operation and their life is long.

• Because of larger wear of bearings, this type of bearing is used in larger air gap
induction motor.

Transmission of drives

• Various methods employed for transmission of mechanical power are

described below.

1. Direct drive

2. Belt drive

3. Rope drive

4. Chain drive and

5. Gear drive

Direct drive

• In direct drive, motor is coupled directly to the driven machine with the help of solid
or flexible coupling.

• Flexible coupling protects the motor from jerks.

• It is more efficient and requires minimum space and it is the simplest method.

• It can be used where driven and driving machine speed are same.

Belt drive

• In belt drive, belt is used to transmit the power from motor to driven machine through
pulley system.

• The mechanical power wasted due to slip is about 3 to 4 percentage.

• Maximum power of 300 H.P can be transmitted through this drive.

Advantages
 • Greater flexibility in the original design of a plant is possible.

• It gives convenient speed ratio thereby high speed motors can be utilized.

• The tendency of slipping especially under heavy loads is reduced because it will
absorb a portion of the shock of suddenly applied loads.

Rope drive

• This method for transmission for power is used, when it is not possible to employ belt
drive.

• A number of ropes run in V-grooves over pulleys.

• The advantages of rope drive are negligible slip and ability of taking sudden loads.

• It is mainly used in lift and cranes.

Chain drive

• Chain drive is very costly in comparison to belt and rope drive.

• It can be used for high speed ratio (upto 6:1).

• It is more efficient and transmits large amount of power.

• It is noiseless, sliplesss and smooth in operation.

Gear drive

• Gear drive is used when high speed motor is to drive a low speed machine.

• The coupling between the two is through a suitable ratio gear box.

Noise

• Noise is the another important features to be considered while making the selection of
a motor.

• It should be kept as low as possible in the workshops, hospitals and other domestic
purposes.

• The noise may be due to bearing, vibrations, magnetic pulsations and faulty
foundations.

• To reduce noise, journal bearing may be used in place of ball bearings.

• The motor should be mounted on a heavy concrete or cast iron block.

 • The electrical connections should be made through flexible conduits.

Standard rating of motor

• The rating of motor is the amount of power which it can deliver without becoming
unduly hot. The rating of a motor is classified as follows.

1. Continuous rating.

2. Intermittent rating or short time rating.

Continuous rating

• This is the rating or the output of a motor which can be delivered continuously for
long periods without exceeding the permissible temperature.

• This rating is applicable to drives like fans, pumps, textile, mills etc. which operate
continuously for long periods.

Intermittent rating or short time rating

• This is an output that a motor can give for specified short time without exceeding the
permissible temperature rise.

• Such motor is loaded for short period of time and is then put off for sometime.

• During that period the motor cools off as in mixies.

Classes of load duty cycles

• As per IS 4722 – 1968 various load time variations are encountered the eight standard
classes of duty.

1. Continuous duty.

2. Short time duty.

3. Intermittent periodic duty.

4. Intermittent periodic duty in the starting.

5. Intermittent periodic duty with starting and braking.

6. Continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading.

7. Continuous duty with starting and braking.

8. Continuous duty with periodic speed changes.

Selection of motors for different duty cycles

Continuous duty
 • Continuous duty denotes the motor operation at a constant load torque to reach steady
state temperature. The load time and temperature time graph are shown in fig.

• Paper mill drives, compressors, conveyers, centrifugal pumps and fans are some
examples of continuous duty.

Short time duty

• It denotes the operation of motor at constant load for short period followed by rest to
cool down to the original starting temperature.

• Short time duty timings are generally 10, 30, 60 and 90 minutes.

• The load time and the temperature time graph are shown in fig.

• Crane drivers, drives for household appliances, sluice gate drives, valve drives and
machine tool drives are some examples of short-time duty.

Intermittent periodic duty

• It denotes the operation of motor a sequence of indential duty cycle each of constant
load and rest period.

• In this duty, heating of machine during starting and braking operation is negligible.

• Fig shows the load time and temperature time graph. Pressing, cutting and drilling
machine drives are some examples of intermittent periodic duty.

Intermittent periodic duty with starting

• This is intermittent periodic duty where heat losses during starting cannot be
neglected.

• Thus it consists of a period of starting, a period of operation at a constant load and rest
period.

• The operating and rest periods are too short to attain the steady state temperature in
one duty cycle.

• Its characteristics are shown in fig. in this duty heating of machine during braking is
considered to be negligible.

• Some examples are metal cutting, drilling tool drives, mine hoist drives for lift trucks.

Intermittent periodic duty with starting and braking

• This is the periodic duty where heat losses during starting and braking cannot be
ignored.
 • Thus it consists of a period of starting, a period of operation with constant load, a
braking period, and a rest period.

• Thermal equilibrium is not reached in one duty cycle.

• Braking is done electrically and is quick. Its characteristics is shown in fig

• Several machine tool drives, drives for electric suburban trains and mine hoist are
some examples of this duty.

Continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading

• The operation of motor has a sequence of indentical duty cycle, each consisting of a
period of operation and a period of operation on no load.

• Thermal equilibrium is not reached in one duty cycle. Its characteristics are shown in
fig.

• This duty is distinguished from the intermittent periodic duty by a period of running
at constant load is followed by a period of running at no load instead of rest.

• Pressing, cutting, shearing and drilling machine drives are the examples.

Continuous duty with starting and braking

• The operation of motor consists of period of starting, a period of operation at constant

load a period of electric braking and there is no rest period.

• The characteristics are shown in fig. Blooming mill is an example.

Continuous duty with periodic speed changes

• Operation of the motor has a sequence of indentical duty cycle, each cycle is having a
period of running at one load and speed and followed by another period of running at
different speed and load.

• There is no rest period. Its characteristics are shown in fig.

Drives for different industrial application

1. Paper mill- Synchronous motor

A paper mill requires a drive which must fulfill the following requirements

• To manufacture different thickness of papers it is required to vary the speed of

entire series of rolls.

• Relative speed of rolls should be constant otherwise the paper may be tearing.
 • It is required to adjust the speed at any one group of rolls relative to other in order
to draw the paper.

2. Rolling mills or steel mills – separately excited DC motor

• Separately excited DC motor is mainly used in rolling mills.

• The motor required for these mills should have high starting torque about 2 to 2.5
times the rated torque.

• It should have strong construction.

• The ward leonard speed control of D.C motors or slip ring induction motors are
used.

3. Textile mills – Double cage induction motor

• In textile mills group drive is employed.

• The motors employed must have high starting torque with constant speed.

• The motors used must be totally enclosed and moisture proof to prevent entry of
dust and moisture enter into machine.

• Hence totally enclosed, fan cooled, high torque double cage induction motors are
used.

4. Cement mills

• Various types of loads available in a cement factory and the motor used for them
are given below

a) Hammer crusher – Three phase slip ring induction motor

• The lime stones are broken into smaller sizes in the crushing mill.

• For this purpose high starting torque motor is required.

• Hence three phase slip ring induction motor is used because it has high
starting torque.

b) Ball mills – Synchronous motor

• In ball mills, the raw materials grind in powder form synchronous

motor are used for this process.

c) Rotary driers – Slip ring induction motor

• The cement slurry is dried by blowers and speed of blower is varied

depending upon the amount of air required to blow.
 • Hence slip ring induction motor with pole changing speed control is
employed.

d) Slurring pumps and agitators – Three phase Squirrel cage induction

motor

• These are used in the wet process

• Three phase Squirrel cage induction motors used for slurring pumps
and agitators.

5. Machine tools – D.C shunt motor or 3Ф Squirrel cage induction motor

• The starting torque required is less in most of the machine tools since they
start up light.

• Therefore 3 phase squirrel cage induction motor is used for machine tool
application.

• Different speed operation is obtained by using two or three speed motor with
suitable gear combination.

• D.C shunt motors are used for machine tool application like planners where
rapid reversal, and wide speed control are required.

• In the case of grinders, totally enclosed motors are used to prevent metallic
dust getting into it.

6. Lift and hoists – DC compound motor or 3Ф slip ring induction motor

• The essential requirements for a lift are high overload capacity, high smooth
accelerating torque of 2 to 2.5 times the full load torque at starting and
maximum degree of silence.

• D.C compound motor and three phase slip ring induction motor are used for
lifts and hoists.

7. Belt conveyor – Double squirrel cage induction motor

• The conveyors are required to transport bulk materials like coal, are sand on
either flat belt or bucket system.

• It requires a high starting torque so as to accelerate the load for transport.

• Hence totally enclosed surface cooled motors are used.

• Double squirrel cage induction motors are used in belt conveyors.

8. Ship – Synchronous motors

 • Three phase induction motors and synchronous motors are used for very big
ships.

• A three phase alternator gives the supply to the synchronous motor.

• The prime mover used for the alternator is steam turbine by varying the
voltage and frequency of alternator the speed of motor is controlled.

9. Air compressor - 3 Ф Induction motor

• Air compressors are used for pneumatic drill, 3Ф induction motors are used to
drive compressors.

• Repulsion motor is used for various industrial machinery air compressors.

• Single phase induction motor is used for small air compressors.

10. Punches and shears

• For punches and shears D.C cumulative compound motors and

• A.C 3 Ф slip ring induction motors provided with fly wheel are used.

11. Rotary printing

• The rotary printing machinery requires variable speed motor.

• D.C compound motors or A.C 3 Ф induction motors with rotor resistance

control are used for printing machineries.

12. Pumps

Centrifugal pump

• The load torque varies as square of the speed in a centrifugal pump.

• At starting the torque required is less.

• Hence 3 Ф squirrel cage induction motor is used for centrifugal pump.

• The liquid handled by the pump does not enter the motor.

• Hence totally enclosed motor is preferred.

Reciprocating pump

• A reciprocating pump requires two times the full load torque at starting.

• A double cage induction motor is suitable for reciprocating pump.

 • 3 Ф slip ring induction motor is also used for this type of pump.

• D.C shunt motor is used where D.C supply is available.

13. Draught fan

• The single phase split phase induction motors are used for draught fan.

• The single phase split phase induction motor has shunt characteristics and so
the operating speed is almost constant.

14. Ceiling fans

• Single phase capacitor start and run motors are used for ceiling fan.

15. Cranes – D.C series motor

• The D.C series motors are used for cranes because they have high starting
torque.

• Because they have high starting torque, which helps the motor to reach the
speed in a short time and also prevents the motor from stalling in case of
heavy loads.

• A.C 3 Ф slip ring inductions are also used for cranes.

• For starting and special adjustments proper graded rotor resistance is used
with slip ring induction motor.

16. Mines

• The various loads in a mine are winders, ventilating fans, conveyors,

compressors and pumps.

• The winder consists of two cages and a rope for transporting material from
bottom of the mine to the surface.

• Acceleration and braking operations are repeated. A 3 Ф slip ring induction

motor with ward leonard speed control is used for winder.

• Ventilating fans are used for circulating fresh air. A 3 Ф squirrel cage
induction motor is used for ventilating fan if no speed control is not required.

• Conveyors require a high starting torque, so a double squirrel cage motor is

used.
 • Compressor is used to provide compressed air for pneumatic drills used for
mining operations. It requires shunt characteristics and so 3 Ф squirrel cage
induction motor is used.

• Centrifugal pumps are used to pump out the water falling through the rock
layers. It requires high starting torque therefore a 3 Ф slip ring induction
motor is used for pumps.

17. Domestic appliances – Universal motor or Single phase induction motor

• Small universal motor is used for various domestic appliances such as for
domestic refrigerators, shavers, vacuum cleaner, mixi, cloth washing machines
etc.,

Choice of drive

• Choice of drive is governed by the following factors:

(i) Speed of driving and driven machines

(ii) Convenience

(iii) Space available

(iv) Clutching arrangement required

(v) Cost

• The choice of motor speed is the most important factor as it not only affects
the performance of motor but also overall cost.

• The dimension and, therefore, the first cost of a motor for a given output are
approximately inversely proportional to the speed, so for the some output kW
the cost of a high speed motor is less than that of a slow speed motor.

• In case of induction motor, the efficiency and power factor decreases with
decrease in speed.

• Thus for a low-speed drive high speed motor using a reduction gear is usually
found cheaper than a low-speed direct-coupled motor.

Power requirement calculation

1. Continuous duty and constant load:
 • For most of the applications, the rating can be determined from the equation
given as under:

P = TN/975η kW
---------------------------------- (1)

Where,

T = Load torque, kg-m,

N = Speed, r.p.m., and

η = Product of the efficiency of the driven equipment and that

of transmitting device.

• In case of linear motion, the rating of the motor required is given by,

P = F x v/2 x 102 η kW
------------------------------------ (2)

Where,

F = force caused by the load, Kg, and

v = velocity of motion of the load, m/s.

• Equation (2) is directly applicable in case of hoisting mechanisms. It is also

suitable for lifts or elevators, it should be modified as follows:

P = F x v/2 x 102 η kW

The velocity of normal passenger lift cabins vary from 0.5 to

1.5 m/s.

• In case of pumps, the rating can be determined from the

following relation:

P = ρQH/102 η kW

Where,

ρ = Density of liquid pumped, kg/m3,

 Q = Delivery of pumps, m3/s, and

H = Gross head (static head + friction head), m.

η varies from 0.8 to 0.9 for reciprocating pumps and from 0.4
to 0.8 for centrifugal pumps.

• The rating of a fan motor is given by,

P = Qh/102 η kW

Where,

Q = volume of air or any other gas, m3/s, and

h = Pressure in mm of water or kg/m2.

For small power fans, the efficiency η may be taken as 0.6 and for
large power ones it may reach a value up to 0.8.

• The rating of a motor used in metal shearing lathes can be

found from the relation.

P = F x v/ 102 x 60 η kW

Where,

F = shearing force, kg,

v = Velocity of shearing, m/min, and

η = Mechanical efficiency of the lathe.

2. Motor rating for variable load:

The following are the commonly used methods for determination of

motor rating for variable load drives

(i) Method of average losses

(ii) Equivalent current method

(iii) Equivalent torque method

(iv) Equivalent power method.

Method of average losses (Qav)

 • The method consists of finding average losses Qav in the motor when it
operates according to the given load diagram.

• These losses are then compared with Qnom, the losses corresponding to the
continuous duty of the machine when operated at its nominal rating.

• This method presupposes that when Qav = Qnom, the motor will operate without
temperature rise going above the maximum permissible for the particular class
of insulation.

• In this case, Qm = Qav / Aλ = Qnom/ Aλ.

• The loss diagram of the electric motor is shown. The rating of the electric
motor can be found from method of successive approximations.

• The losses of the motor are calculated for each portion of the load diagram by
referring to the efficiency curve of the motor. The average losses are given by

Qav = Q1t1 + Q2t2 + Q3t3 +………. + Qntn/ t1 + t2 + t3 +…….+ tn ------------ (1)

• The average losses as found from eqn (1) are compared with losses of selected
motor at rated frequency.

• In case the two losses are equal or differ by a small amount the motor is
selected.

• However, in case the losses differ considerably, another motor is selected and
the calculations repeated till the motor having almost the same losses or the
average losses is found.

• This method is accurate and reliable for determining the average temperature
rise of the motor during one work cycle.

• The disadvantage of the method of equal losses is that it is tedious to work

with and also many a times the efficiency curve is not readily available and the
efficiency has to be calculated by means of empirical formulae which may not
be accurate to work with.

Equivalent current method

• This method is based on the assumption that the actual variable current may be
replaced by an equivalent current Ieq which produces the same losses in the
motors as the actual current.
 Ieq = √(I12t1 + I22t2 + I32t3 + ……+ In2tn) / ( t1 + t2 + t3 + ……+ tn)

• The heating and cooling conditions in self ventilated machines depend upon
its speed. At low speed the cooling conditions are poorer than at normal
speeds.

• The equivalent current as found from eqn should be compared with the rated
current of the motor selected and the conditions Ieq < Inom should be met.

• The machine selected should also be checked for its overload capacity.

• For D.C motors………….. Imax/ Inom < 2 to 2.5

• For induction motors ……… Imax/ Inom < 1.65 to 2.75

• In case the overload capacity of the motor selected is not sufficient it becomes
necessary to select a motor of high power rating.

• It may not be easy to calculate the equivalent current especially in cases where
the current load diagram is irregular as shown in fig.

• The equivalent current in such cases is calculated from the following

expression:

Ieq = √ [(1/1∑n ) t∫∑t i2 dt]

• The value of the integral may be found with the help of integral.

• The current values obtained by this method are sufficiently accurate for
practical purposes.

Equivalent torque and equivalent power methods

• For the selection of suitable capacity of the motor it often becomes necessary
to use torque or power load diagrams.

• The equivalent torque or power is found in the same manner as the equivalent
current.

• Assuming constant flux and constant power factor, the torque is directly
proportional to current and, therefore, the equivalent torque is:

Teq = √ [T12t1 + T22t2 + T32t3 +…. + Tn2tn/ t1 + t2 + t3 +……..+ tn]

 • The equation for equivalent power follows directly from above eqn. as power
is directly proportional to the torque.

• At constant speed or where the changes in speed are small, the equivalent
power is given by:

Peq = √ [P12t1 + P22t2 + P32t3 +…. + Pn2tn/ t1 + t2 + t3 +……..+ tn]

• The “equivalent current method” is the most accurate out of all the above
methods discussed above.

• This method may be used to determine the motor capacity for all uses except
where it is necessary to take into account the changes in so ‘constant losses’
i.e. the iron and mechanical losses.

• The “equivalent torque method” cannot be used for cases where equivalent
current method cannot be applied.

• It cannot be used for selection of motor rating for cases in which the field flux
does not remain constant like D.C series motors and for squirrel cage
induction motors under starting and braking conditions.

• The disadvantage of the “equivalent power method” is that it cannot be used

for motors whose speed varies considerably under load, especially when
dealing with starting and braking conditions.

Power factor improvement

Apparent, Active (True or Real) and Reactive power and Power Factor

• Every circuit has two components

(i) Active component and

(ii) Reactive component.

• “Active component” consumes power in the circuit while “reactive

component” is responsible for the field which lags or leads the main current
from the voltage.
 • In fig active component is I active = I cos Ф, and reactive component is I reactive =
I sin Ф.

I = √ [(I active) 2 + (I reactive) 2]

(i) Apparent power (S):

• It is given by the product of r.m.s. values of applied voltage and circuit

resistance.

S = VI = (I x Z) .I = I2Z volt-amperes (VA)

(ii) Active or true or real power (P or W):

• It is the power which is actually dissipated in the circuit resistance.

P = I2R = VI cos Ф watts.

(iii) Reactive power (Q):

• A pure inductor and a pure capacitor do not consume any power, since in a
half cycle what so ever power is received from the source by these
components the same is returned to the source.

• This power which flows back and forth(i.e., in both directions in the circuit) or
reacts upon itself is called “reactive power”.

• It may be noted that the current in phase with the voltage produces active or
true or real power while the current 90º out of phase with the voltage
contributes to reactive power.

• In a R-L circuit, reactive power which is the power developed in the inductive
reactance of the circuit, is given as:

Q = I2XL = I2Zsin Ф = I. (IZ) sin Ф

= VI sin Ф volt-amperes-reactive (VAR)

• These three powers are shown in fig

• Relation between VA, W and VR

W = VA cos Ф

VAR = VA sin Ф

VA = W/ cos Ф

VA = VAR/ sin Ф

• Power factor (p.f) = W/VA = True power/ Apparent power

 • The larger bigger units of apparent, true and reactive power are kVA (or
MVA), kW(or kW) and kVAR (or MVAR) respectively.

• The power factor depends on the reactive power component. If it is made

equal to the active power component, the power factor becomes unity.

Causes of low power factor

(i) All A.C motors (except overexcited synchronous motors and certain
types of commutators motors) and transformers operate at lagging
power factor.

(ii) Due to typical characteristics of the arc, are lamps operate at low
power factor.

(iii) When there is increase in supply voltage, which usually occurs during
low load periods (such as lunch hours, night hours etc.,) the
magnetizing current of inductive reactances increases and power factor
of the electrical plant as a whole decreases.

(iv) Arc and induction furnaces etc. operate at a very low lagging power
factor.

(v) Due to improper maintenance and repairs of motors the power factor at
which motors operate fall.

Advantages of power factor improvement

• The installation of power factor improvement device, to raise the power factor
results in one or more of the following effects and advantages:

1) Reduction in investment in the system facilities per kW of the load

supplied.

2) Reduction in circuit current.

3) Reduction in copper losses in the system due to reduction in current.

4) Increase in voltage level at load.

5) Improvement in power factor of the generators.

6) Reduction in kVA loading of the generators and circuits.

7) Reduction in kVA demand charges for large consumers.

Methods of power factor improvement

 • The various methods employed for power factor correction are:

1) Use of static capacitors.

2) Use of synchronous condensers.

3) Use of phase advancers.

4) Use of phase compensated motors.

• The above methods of power factor improvement are discussed below:

Use of static capacitors:

• It is known that static capacitor/ condenser takes current which leads the
voltage by nearly 90º.

• Thus if condenser is connected across an inductive load resultant quadrature

component of the whole combination will be difference of leading component
of condenser current (Ic) and lagging component of lead current (I sin Ф1) as
shown in fig.

• In view of reduced magnitude of quadrature component of current, p.f of the

whole combination is improved from cos Ф1 to cos Ф2.

• Power factor of the system can be improved by placing static capacitors in

series with the liner as shown in fig.

• Capacitors connected in series with the line neutralize the line reactance.

• The capacitors, when connected in series with the line, are called “series
capacitor”, and when connected in parallel with the equipment, are called
“shunt capacitors”.

• Shunt capacitors are used in factories, plants and also on transmission lines.

• Series capacitors are used on long transmission lines as they provide automatic
compensation with the variations in load.

Advantages of capacitors

1) Small losses (less than 0.5 percent) or higher efficiency (say 99.6).

2) Low initial cost.

3) Easy installation.

4) Little maintenance.

5) Long life.
 6) Greater reliability in service.

7) Flexible in operation.

8) No restriction on the choice of site for capacitor and can be installed in

relatively small banks located near the load.

Besides p.f improvement, capacitors are employed to perform the following functions
also:

1) To reduce losses.

2) To reduce voltage regulation of the line.

3) To meet a demand for reactive power.

4) To utilize fully the capacities of generators, transformers and transmission

and distribution network.

Use of synchronous condenser:

• An over- excited synchronous motor running on no load is called the

synchronous condenser or synchronous phase advancer.

• It behaves like a capacitor, the capacitance reactance of which depends upon

the motor excitation.

• Power factor can be improved by using synchronous condensers like shunt

capacitors connected across the supply.

IL = current taken by the industrial load,

ФL = Angle of lag,

IM = current drawn by the synchronous motor,

ФM = Angle of lead,

I = Resultant current and

Ф = angle lag

• Synchronous condensers are usually built in large units and are employed
where a large quantity of corrective kVAR is required.

• From the fig we observe that angle of lag(Ф) is much smaller than ФL ; thus
overall factor is improved from cos ФL to cos ФM by the use of synchronous
condenser.

Advantages
 • A finer control can be obtained by varying the field excitation.

• Inherent characteristics of synchronous condensers of stabilizing variations in

the line voltage and thereby automatically aid in regulation.

• Possibility of overloading a synchronous condenser for short periods.

• Improvement in the system stability and reduction of the effect of sudden

changes in load owing to inertia of synchronous condenser.

Disadvantages

• The cost is higher than that of static capacitors of the same rating, except in
size above about 5000 kVAR.

• Higher maintenance and operating costs comparatively.

• Comparatively lower efficiency, due to losses in rotating parts and heat losses.

• Increase of short-circuit currents when the fault occurs near the synchronous
condenser.

• For starting synchronous condensers an auxiliary equipment is required.

• Possibility of synchronous condensers falling out of synchronism causing

interruption of supply.

• During operation noise is produced.

Use of phase advancers:

• The p.f of an induction motor falls mainly due to its exciting current drawn
from the A.C. supply mains, because exciting current lags behind the voltage
by 90º.

• It may be improved by equipping the set with an “A.C. exciter” or “phase

advancer” which supplies this exciting current to the rotor at slip frequency.

• Such an excitor may be mounted on the same shaft as the main motor or may
be suitably driven from it.

• Use of phase advancer is not generally economical in connection with motors

below 150 kW output but above this size, phase advancers are frequently
employed.

• Shunt and series type of phase advancers are available according to whether
the exciting winding of the advancer is connected in parallel or series with the
rotor winding of the induction motor.
Use of phase compensated motors:

• As mentioned earlier, the use of phase advancers may not be economical for
induction motors below 150 kW output.

• Power factor improvement of the system is achieved by the use of phase

compensated motors such as torda, osnos and scharge motors.

• These motors are however very costly and require more maintenance than
plain induction motors.

• As such these motors are chosen when we are sure that they will be loaded to
rated output for most of the time and that they will effect more saving in the
energy cost due to higher p.f than the additional expenses incurred on them.

-----------------------------*********************-------------------------------

ELECTRIC TRACTION
• The locomotive in which the driving or tractive force is obtained from electric motors
is called Electric traction.

• Electric traction has many advantages as compared to other non-electrical systems of

traction including steam traction.

• Electric traction is used in:

i) Electric trains

ii) Trolley buses

iii) Tram cars

iv) Diesel-electric vehicles etc.,

Traction systems

• All traction systems, broadly speaking, can be classified as follows:

1. Non-electric traction systems: These systems do not use electrical

energy at some stage or the other.

Examples: (i) Steam engine drive used in railways

(ii) Internal combustion-engine-drive used for road

transport.

2. Electric traction systems: These systems involve the use of electric

energy at some stage or the other. These are further sub divided into
the following two groups:

a) Self contained vehicles or locomotives

Examples: i) Battery-electric drive

ii)Diesel-electric drive

b) Vehicles which receive electric power from a distribution network

or suitably placed sub-stations.

Examples: i) Railway electric locomotive fed from overhead A.C

supply;

ii) Tramways and trolley buses supplied with D.C.

supply.

Requirements of an ideal traction system

 • The requirements of an ideal traction system are:

1. High adhesion coefficient, so that high tractive effort at the start is possible
to have rapid acceleration.

2. The locomotive or train unit should be self contained so that it can run on
any route.

3. Minimum wear on the track.

4. It should be possible to overload the equipment for short periods.

5. The equipment required should be minimum, of high efficiency and low

initial and maintenance cost.

6. It should be pollution free.

7. Speed control should be easy.

8. Braking should be such that minimum wear is caused on the brake shoes,
and if possible the energy should be regenerated and returned to the supply
during braking period.

9. There should be no interference to the communication lines running the

track.

Different systems of traction

• The various systems of traction commonly used are,

1. Steam engine drive.

2. Internal combustion engine drive.

3. Internal combustion electric drive.

4. Petro-electric traction.

5. Battery electric drive.

6. Electric drive.

Steam engine drive:

• Steam engine drive, though losing ground gradually due to various reasons, it
is still the amply adopted means of propulsion of railway work in
underdeveloped countries.

• In this type of drive, the reciprocating engine is invariably used for getting the
necessary motive power.
Advantages

Following are the advantages of steam engine drive:

• Simplicity in design.

• Simplified maintenance.

• Easy speed control.

• Simplicity of connections between the cylinders and the driving wheels.

• No interference with communication network.

• Low capital cost as track electrification is not required.

• The locomotive and train unit is self contained, therefore, it is not tied to a
route.

• It is cheap for low density traffic areas and in initial stages of communication
by rail.

• Operational dependability.

Disadvantages

• Low thermal efficiency.

• Due to the reason of low adhesion coefficient, power-weight ratio of steam

locomotive is low.

• It has strictly limited overload capacity.

• Steam locomotive cannot be put into service at any moment as time is required
for raising of steam.

• Owing to high centre of gravity of steam locomotive, speed is limited.

• Steam locomotive requires more repair and maintenance.

• Extensive and costly auxiliary equipment.

• Since driving wheels are very close, hence more concentrated adhesive weight
is required.

• Bigger sizes of running sheds and workshop are required.

Internal combustion engine drive:

 • This drive is widely used for road transport.

• The motive power is derived from petrol to diesel.

• It has an efficiency of about 25 percent when operating at normal speed.

• Various examples are buses, cars, trucks etc.,

Advantages

• Low initial investment.

• It is self-contained unit and, therefore, it is not tied to any route.

• Easy speed control.

• Very simple braking system.

• It is cheap drive for the outer suburbs and country districts.

Disadvantages

• Limited overload capacity.

• A gear box is essential for speed control.

• Higher running and maintenance costs.

• Operation at any but the normal speed is uneconomical.

• The life of propulsive equipment is much shorter than that of electrical

equipment of a tram car or a trolley bus.

Internal combustion electric drive:

• In an I.C engine electric drive the reduction gear and gear box are eliminated
as the diesel as the diesel engine is to drive the D.C. generator coupled to it at
a constant speed.

• This type of drive is finding considerable favour for railway work and
locomotives of this type are being widely used.

Advantages

• Low initial investment.

• No modification of existing tracks is required while converting from steam to

diesel electric traction.
 • As the locomotive and train is a self contained unit, therefore, it is not lied to
any route.

• Can be put into service at any moment.

• Loss of power in speed control is very low.

• It is available for hauling for about 90% of its working days.

• Overall efficiency is greater than that of steam locomotives.

Disadvantages

• Limited overload capacity.

• High running and maintenance cost.

• Higher dead weight of locomotives; more axles required comparatively.

• Comparatively costlier than steam or electric locomotives.

• In such drives, regenerative braking cannot be used.

• The life of the diesel engine is comparatively shorter.

• There is a necessity to provide special cooling system for the diesel engine in
addition to motor-generator set.

Petrol-electric traction:

• This system, due to electric conversion, provides a very fine and continuous
control which makes the vehicle capable of moving slowly at an imperceptible
speed and creeping up the steepest slope without throttling the engine.

• Petrol-electric traction is employed in heavy lorries and buses.

Battery electric drive:

• In this system the locomotive carries the secondary batteries which supply
power to D.C. motors employed for driving the vehicles.

• This type of drive is well suited for frequently operated service such as for
local delivery of goods in large towns with maximum daily run of 50 to 60
km, shunting and traction in industrial works and mines.

• Battery vehicles are started by series-parallel for starting and running at the
speed upto half maximum speed and in series for running at full maximum
speed.

Advantages
 • Battery driven vehicle is easy to control and very convenient to use.

• Low maintenance cost.

• Absence of fumes.

Disadvantages

• The major disadvantages of this type of drive are the small capacity of
batteries and the necessity for frequent charging.

• Limited speed range.

Electric drive:

• Here the drive is by means of electric motors which are fed from overhead
distribution system.

• The drive of this type is most widely used.

Advantages

• As it has no smoke, electric traction is most suited for the underground and
tube railways.

• The motors used in electric traction have a very high starting torque. Hence, it
is possible to achieve higher accelerations of 1.5 to 2.5 km/h/s as against 0.6 to
0.8 km/h/s in steam traction.

• An electric locomotive is ready to start at moment’s notice against about two

hours required for steam locomotive to heat up.

• The maintenance cost of an electric locomotive is 50 percent of that of steam

locomotive; its maintenance time is also much less comparatively.

• By the use of electric traction high grade coal can be saved, since electric
locomotives can be fed either from hydroelectric stations or thermal power
station which use cheap low-grade coal.

• In electric traction system it is possible to use regenerative braking.

• Owing to complete absence of smoke and fumes, this system is healthier from
the hygienic point of view.

• The vibrations in electrically operated vehicles are less as the torque exerted
by the electric motor is continuous.

• Electric equipment can withstand large temporary overloads and can draw
relatively large power from the distribution system.
Disadvantages

• High initial cost of laying out overhead electric supply system. Unless the
traffic to be handled is heavy, electric traction becomes uneconomical.

• Power failure for a few minutes can cause traffic dislocation for hours.

• The electric traction system is tied up to only electrified routes.

• Communication lines which usually run parallel to the power supply lines
suffer from electrical interference. Hence, these communication lines have
either to be removed away from the rail track or else underground cables have
to be used for the purpose which makes the system still more expensive.

• Additional equipment is required for regeneration. In case of D.C. series

motors regeneration is not a simple process.

• In case of electric traction provision of a negative booster is essential. By

avoiding the flow of return currents through earth, it curtails corrosion of
underground pipe work and interference with telegraph and telephone circuits.

• Whereas steam locomotives can use their steam for heating the compartments
in cold weather very cheaply, the electric locomotives have to do it at an extra
cost.

• In cold countries a service locomotive is required to run up and down the line
in order to prevent the formation of layer of ice on the conductor rails.

Speed time characteristics

• It is the curve drawn between speed of train in km/hour along y-axis and time
in seconds along x-axis.

• The speed time curve gives complete information of the motion of the train.

• This curve gives the speed at various times after the start and run directly.

• The distance travelled by the train during a given interval of time can be
obtained by determining the area between the curve and the time axis
corresponding to this interval.

• A typical speed time curve for main line service is shown in fig. This curve
consists of five sections.

1. Notching up period (0 to t1)

 During this period of run (0 to t1), starting resistance is gradually

cut so that the motor current is limited to a certain value and the
 voltage across the motor is gradually increased and the traction
motor accelerates from rest.

 To cut the starting resistance, the starter handle has to be moved

from one notch to another. Hence this period is called notching up
period.

 The acceleration is almost uniform during this period. Therefore

speed- time curve is a straight line (OA).

2. Acceleration period (t1 to t2)

 When all the starting resistances are cut out, the full voltage is
applied to the motor.

 Now the torque decreases and speed increases according to the

speed torque characteristics of the motor.

 Now the acceleration gradually decreases with the increase in

speed and finally reaches the required torque for the movement of
the train (at time t2).

3. Free running period (t2 to t3).

 During this period i.e. t2 to t3 the power supplied to the motor is at

full voltage and speed of this period is constant, also during this
period power drawn from the supply is constant.

4. Coasting period (t3 to t4)

 At the end of free running period supply to the motor is cut off and
the train is allowed to run under its own kinetic energy.

 Due to train resistance speed of the train gradually decreases.

 The rate of decreasing of speed during this period is known as

“coasting retardation”.

5. Braking or retardation period (t4 to t5)

 At the end of coasting period the brakes are applied to bring the
train to stop.

 During this period speed decreases rapidly and finally reduces to

zero.

Types of services

• There are three types of electric traction services.

 1. Main line service

2. Sub-urban service

3. Urban service

Speed – Time curve for main line service

• The distance between two successive stations in main line service is

considerably more (more than 10 km).

• In this service free run is longer duration. The duration of acceleration and
retardation is small.

Speed – Time curve for suburban service

• In this type of service the distance between two successive stations is

in the range of 1.5 km to 8 km. Fig represents speed-time curve for
sub-urban service.

• Acceleration and braking retardation required are high.

• Free running period is not possible and coasting period will be

comparatively longer than urban service.

Speed – Time curve for urban or city service

• In city service the distance between the two stations is very short i.e., between
0.75 to 1 km.

• The time required for this run between the adjacent and retardation should be
sufficient high.

• Fig shows the speed-time curve for urban or city service. It will be seen that
there will be no free running period.

• The coasting period is also small.

Tractive effort

• The effective efforts required to run a train on track are

(i) Tractive effort needed to provide acceleration (Fa)

(ii) Tractive effort needed to overcome the train resistance (Fr)

(iii) Tractive effort needed to overcome gradients (Fg)

Tractive effort for acceleration (Fa):

 • Let M is the dead or stationary mass of train in tones.

• Dead mass of train = M tones

= 1000 M kg

• Acceleration = α km/hr/sec

= α x 1000/3600 m/sec2

• When a train is accelerated in a linear direction, its rotating parts like the
wheels and armature of motors have to be accelerated in an angular direction.

• Therefore the accelerating mass of the train is greater than the dead mass of
the train.

• Generally the effective or accelerating mass is 10% more than the dead mass.

i.e. Me = 1.1 M

• Let the effective mass of train = Me ton

= 1000 Me kg.

• Force required for acceleration = Mass x acceleration.

i.e., Fa = Me x a

= 1000 Me x α 1000/3600

= 277.8 Me α Newtons

Tractive effort to overcome the train resistance (Fr):

• While moving, the train has to overcome the opposing force due to the surface
friction and wind resistance.

• The train resistance depends upon various factors such as shape, size,
condition of track etc.

• Tractive effort required to overcome the train resistance

Fr = M x r Newtons

Where M = Mass of train in tone

r = train resistance in Newtons/tone

Tractive effort required to overcome gradients (Fg):\

• Consider that an electric train is moving upwards on a slope as shown in fig.

 • The dead mass of the train along the slope will tend to bring it downward.

• To overcome this effect of gravity, tractive effort are required in opposite

direction.

• Tractive effort to overcome the effect of gravity = Fg

Fg = Mg sin θ tone m/sec2

= 1000 Mg sin θ kg m/ sec2

= 1000 Mg sin θ Newton

Where g is the acceleration due to gravity

= 9.81 m/sec2

Θ is the angle of slope.

Fg = 1000 M x 9.81 sin θ Newton ------------- (1)

• In railway practice the gradient is expressed in terms of rise or fall in every

100 metres of track and it is denoted by G %

From fig , Gradient G = BC /(AC/100)

= (BC/AC) x 100

i.e., G = 100 sin θ

sin θ = G/100
-------------------- (2)

Sub the value of sin θ in eqn (1)

Fg = 1000 M x 9.81 x G/100

Fg = ± 9.81 MG Newton

Positive sign is to be used for upgradient and negative sign for down gradient.

• Total tractive effort (Ft)

Ft = F a + Fr + F g

= 277.8 Me α + Mr ± 9.81 MG Newtons.

Braking
• Braking is very frequent in electric drives to stop a motor in a reasonably short
time.
• For example a plannar must quickly be stopped at the end of its stroke and
sometimes must quickly be stopped at the end of its stroke and sometimes it is
necessary to stop the motor in order to prevent accident.

• The essential of a good braking system should be

i) Reliable and quick in its action.

ii) The braking force must be capable of being controlled.

iii) Adequate means be provided for dissipating the stored energy that is
kinetic energy of the rotating parts.

iv) In case of a fault in any part of the braking system the whole system
must come to instantaneous rest or result in the application of the
brakes.

• There are two types of braking:

i) Mechanical braking

The motor in this case is stopped due to friction between the

moving part of the motor and the brake shoe that is stored energy is
dissipated as heat by a brake shoe or brake linning which rubs against a
brake shoe or brake linning which rubs against a brake drum.

ii) Electric braking

• In this method of braking, the kinetic energy of the moving

parts that is motor is converted into electrical energy which is
consumed in a resistance as heat or alternatively it is returned
to the supply source.

• Electric braking is superior to the friction braking as it is fast

and cheap since there is no cost of maintenance of the brake
shoes or linning.

• During braking operation a motor has to function as a

generator.

• The motor can be held at stand still. In other words the electric
braking cannot hold the motor at rest.

• Thus it becomes essential to provide mechanical brakes in

addition to electric braking.

• Various types of electrical braking are:

 a) Plugging

b) Rheostatic braking

c) Regenerative braking

Plugging

• This is a simple method of electric braking and consists in reversing the

connections of the armature of the motor so as to reverse its direction of
rotation which will oppose the original direction of rotation of the motor and
will bring it to zero speed when mechanical brakes can be applied.

• At the end of the braking period the supply to the motor is automatically cut
off. This method of braking can be applied to the following motors.

1) DC motors

2) Induction motors

3) Synchronous motors

Plugging applied to DC motors

• To reverse a DC motors, it is necessary to reverse the connections of the

armature while the connections of the field are kept the same.

• The direction of m.m.f remains the same even during braking periods.

Series motors:

• The arrangements of connection before and after the braking are shown in fig.

Shunt motors:

• The arrangements of connections before and after braking for shunt motor are
shown in fig.

• Total voltage of V+ Eb is available across the armature terminals which causes

a current I to flow around the circuit.

• When Eb = V then the voltage across the armature is 2V and at the time of
braking twice the normal voltage is applied to the resistance in series with the
armature at this time in order to limit the current.

• While the motor is being braked, the current is still being drawn from the
supply.
 • This method requires energy from the supply for its action and not only the
kinetic energy of the motor is being wasted, but this energy is also being
dissipated.

Speed and braking torque

• Electric braking to torque

TB α ФI ---------------------------- (1)

TB = K ФI ---------------------------- (2)

• Where K is a constant

Current = V+ Eb / R -------------------- (3)

Eb = K1N Ф --------------------- (4)

• Where V is applied voltage

Eb is back emf of the motor.

R is the resistance of the motor

N is the speed

K1 is a constant

• Substitute the value of Eb from equation (4) in (3)

Current I = (V + K1N Ф)/ R -------------------- (5)

• In view of equations (2) and (5)

TB = K Ф[(V + K1N Ф)/ R]

 = K ФV/ R + KK1N Ф2/ R

= K2 Ф + K3 Ф2N --------------------- (6)

• Where K2 = KV/ R -------------------- (7)

And K3 = KK1/R --------------------- (8)

• Apply the results obtained to the series motor, where

Ф α armature current (Ia) ------------------- (9)

• Then Electric braking in series motor,

= K4 Ia + K5 Ia2 -------------------- (10)

• In the case of shunt motor since flux is constant, so

• Electric braking torque

TB =K6 + K7N ------------------- (11)

• Wherever there is a load on the machine the load will also exert braking torque
due to it and then the total braking torque (T)

T = Electric braking torque + Load torque ---------------- (12)

Plugging applied to induction motors

• In the case of induction motor its speed can be reversed by inter changing any
of the two stator phases which reverses the direction of rotation of motor field.

• Actually at the time of braking when the induction motor is running at near
synchronous speed.

• The point Q represents the torque at the instant of plugging one can notice that
the torque increases gradually as one approaches the stand still speed.

• Different values of rotor resistance give rise to different shapes of speed

torque curve in order to give any desired braking effect.

• The rotor current I2 can be calculated during the braking period from the
following relation and is plotted as shown.
 I2 = SE2 / √ [Re2 + (SX2)2] ------------------- (13)

• Where E2 is the e.m.f. induced in rotor at standstill

R2 is the rotor resistance

X2 is the standstill reactance of the rotor and

S2 is the percentage slip

Plugging applied to synchronous motors

• Plugging can be applied to the synchronous motors, with the only difference
that the field on the rotor will be rotating in opposite direction to that of the
rotating field on the stator with the synchronous speed and the relative velocity
between the two will be twice the synchronous speed.

• This will meant that there is one synchronous motor torque but the same will
be produced by the induction in the starting winding.

• Since most of the motors are equipped with starting winding, a synchronous
motor provides satisfactory braking.

Rheostatic braking

• In this method of braking, the motor is disconnected from the supply and run
as generator driven by the remaining kinetic energy of the equipment that is
the energy stored in motor and load which are to be braked.

• The following drives can be braked by the rheostatic method:

(i) DC motor

(ii) Induction motor

(iii) Synchronous motor.

Dc motors

Shunt motor

• In this type of motor, the armature is simply disconnected from the supply and
is connected to as resistance in series with it, the field, winding remains
connect to the supply as shown in fig.
 • The braking can be adjusted suitably by varying the resistance in the armature
circuit.

• In the case of failure of the supply, there is no braking torque because of

absence of the field.

Series motor

• In this case of the connections are made as shown is fig during braking
operation.

• The motor after disconnection from the supply in made to run as a DC series
generator.

• The resistance inserted in the circuit must be less than the critical resistance
otherwise the generator will not be self exciting.

• When the series motor is disconnected from the supply the direction of the
armature current is reversed.

Braking torque and speed

• Electric braking torque is given by equation (3)

• Braking current = Eb / R ---------------------------------- (14)

• Hence braking current of equation (14) and (4)

= K1ФN/R ---------------------------------- (15)

• Substitute the value of braking current is equation (1)

• Electric braking torque = KK1Ф2N/R

= K2 Ф2N --------------------------------- (16)

Where K2 = KK1/R -------------------------------- (17)

• In the case of a series motor the flux dependent upon the armature current

• Electric braking torque for series motor

= K3Ia2N -------------------------------- (18)

• While in the case of shunt motor since flux is constant

• Electric braking torque = K4N ------------------------------- (19)

Rheostatic braking is applied to induction motor

• In this case the stator is disconnected from the supply and is connected to DC
supply which excites the windings thereby producing a DC field.

• The rotor is short-circuited across through resistance in each phase.

• When the short circuited rotor moves it outs the steady flux produced in the air
gap due to DC current flowing in the stator produced in the air gap due to DC
current flowing in the stator and an e.m.f is induced in the rotor conductors.

• The satisfactory application of this method is applicable only to the phase

wound inductor motor where external resistance can be inserted in each phase.

Rheostatic braking as applied to the synchronous motors

• Rheostatic braking in the synchronous motors is similar to the rheostatic

braking in induction motors.

• In this case the stator is shorted across resistance in star or delta and the
machine works like an alternator supplying the current to the resistance, there
by dissipating in kinetic energy in the form of losses in the resistances.

Regenerative braking

• In this type of braking the motor is not disconnected from the supply but
remains connected to it and its feeds back the braking energy or its kinetic
energy to the supply system.

• This method is better than the first and second methods of braking since no
energy is wasted and rather it is supplied back to the system.

• This method is applicable to following motors:

(i) D.C motors

(ii) Induction motors

D.C motors

Shunt motor

• In a DC machine where energy will be taken from the supply or delievered to

it depends upon the induced emf, if it in less than the line voltage the machine
will operate as motor and if it is more than the line voltage, the machine will
operate as generator.
 • The e.m.f induced in turn depends upon the speed and excitation that is when
the field current or the speed is increased the induced e.m.f exceeds the line
voltage and the energy will be field into the system.

• This will quickly decrease the speed of the motor and will bring it to rest.

Series motor

• In this case, complications arise due to fact that the reversal of the current in
the armature would cause a reversal of polarity of the series field and hence
back emf would be reversed.

Regenerative braking applied to induction motor

• In the case of induction motors, the regenerative braking is inherent, since an

induction motor act as a generator when running at speeds above synchronous
speeds and it feeds power back to the supply system.

• No extra auxiliaries are needed for this purpose. This method is however very
seldom used for braking but its application is very useful to lifts and hoists for
holding a descending load at a speed only slightly above the synchronous
speed.

Tramways
• The tramway is perhaps the cheapest type of transport available in very dense
traffic.

• It receives power through a bow collector or a grooved wheel from an

overhead conductor at about 600 V D.C., the running rail forming the return
conductor.

• It is provided with atleast two driving axles in order to secure necessary

adhesion, start it from either end and use two motors with series- parallel
control.

• Two drum-type controllers, one at each end used for controlling the tramcar.

• Though these controllers are connected in parallel, they have suitable

interlocking arrangement to prevent their being used simultaneously.

• The main frame of the car body is made from high tensile steel. Aluminium is
extensively used for bodywork.

• The under frame is of rolled steel sections. Seats are either in transverse
direction or a combination of transverse and longitudinal arrangement is used.
 • The equipment is similar to that used in railways but the output is considerably
smaller and does not exceed 60 to 75 H.P.

• For normal service rheostatic and mechanical braking are employed.

• For mechanical braking, electro-mechanical drum brakes are used. Also

magnetic tracks brakes are used for giving better retardation.

• This traction system is losing ground to trolley bus or internal combustion

engine ominus system due to the following reasons:

i) Lack of operational flexibility in areas of heavy congestion.

ii) Undesirable effect of track on other road vehicles.

iii) It is an economical method of transportation only for large cities

having dense traffic.

Trolley-Bus
Serious drawback of tramway is the lack of manoeuvrability in congested areas and
noise; this is overcome by the trolley-bus drive.

• It is an electrically- operated pneumatic-tyred vehicle which needs no track in

the roadway. It receives its power at 600 V D.C. from two overhead contact
wires. Since adhesion between a rubber-tyred wheel and ground is sufficiently
high, only a single driving axle and, hence, a single motor is used. The trolley
bus can manoeuvre through a metre or two on each side of the centre line of
the trolley wires.

• A D.C compound motor of output of 50 to 100 kW is normally used.

• Speed control is obtained by field weakening method. Foot operated master

controllers are used so that drive may have his hands free to steer the vehicle
and apply hand brake. One pedal controls the starting, speed control and
regenerative braking, if any and second pedal control rheostatic and
compressed air brakes. Regenerative braking is usually not employed in
trolley-bus drive because of difficulty of ensuring that supply system is always
in a position to absorb the energy regenerated.

• The lighting system in the car is low-voltage D.C supplied from a motor-
generator set connected in parallel with a battery. The vehicles are usually
provided with secondary batteries so that the vehicles can be manoeuvred in
case of emergency.

• Since the body of the car is insulated from earth on account of the rubber-tyred
wheels, it must be properly checked for adequate insulation resistance lest it
leaks and causes electric shocks to the passengers while boarding and
 alighting from the bus. The insulation resistance is checked at the end of the
day.

• Trolley – buses have more passenger carrying capacity, higher acceleration

and braking retardation than oil-engined buses. These are, therefore, used for
medium traffic density as obtained in inner suburbs. Oil engine buses, on the
other hand, are used for outer suburbs and country side where there is low
traffic density.

Recent trends in electric traction

Three phase AC traction drives

• The advantages of AC propulsion drive are good reliability due to static power
conversion equipment.

• The important component of the AC traction is the three phase squirrel cage
induction motor.

• A popular car pair used in modern electric traction uses the pulse width
modulation inverter principle.

• The PWM inverter produces a symmetrical three-phase output voltage, whose

amplitude and frequency can be controlled continuously.

• Hence the speed and torque of the squirrel cage induction motor used for
traction can be adjusted in monitoring and braking, as well as in both
directions, of rotation with a fully static device, that is no operational contacts
are required.

• The PWMAC drives covers subway railcars, LRVS, trolley buses, diesel
electric and electric locomotives.

Class EA locomotive

• The class EA locomotive is a multipurpose locomotive used for fast inter-city

trains.

• Fig shows the main circuit of a class EA locomotive.

• The four quadrant controllers rectify the AC voltage from the transformer to
2800V DC. The pulsating inverters invert the three phase voltage.

• The three phase voltage now fed into traction motors has a variable voltage
and frequency. The system can be used for regenerative braking.
 • Three auxiliary converter feed the three-phase fan motors for oil cooling and
traction motor cooling, for rectifiers as well as the lubricating oil pump for
cooling compressor and pneumatic compressor.

• Fig shows the block diagram of a locomotive. The locomotive has a

transformer suspended under the locomotive body, giving ample space for
switch cabinets and equipment in the locomotive.

• There is a powerful electric brake on the class EA locomotive, which is also of

infinitely variable regulation.

Locomotive electrical equipment

• A typical scheme of locomotive used consists of eight diodes and twenty

thyristors.

• The current flows from one to another without any stoppage.

• Here a natural physical phenomenon is used, the motor itself piloting the
converter that supplies it. Hence there is no need to fear unbalance in the
system.
 ELECTROLYTIC PROCESSES

Introduction

The processes based on the fact that electrical energy can produce chemical changes are
called Electrolytic processes. These processes are widely used for:

(i) Extraction of pure metals from their ores(e.g., copper, zinc, aluminium, magnesium
etc.);

(ii) Refining of metals (e.g., gold, silver, copper, nickel etc.);

(iii) Manufacturing of various chemicals (e.g., caustic soda, potassium permagnate,

chlorine etc.);

(iv) Electro-deposition of metals including electro-plating, electro-typing, electro-

forming;

(v) Building up of worn parts in metallurgical, chemical and other industries.

All the processes mentioned above, though they appear differently in apparent detail, are
based on the principle of electrolysis.

ELECTROLYSIS – THE BASIC PRINCIPLE

• When a compound formed by electrovalent bond is dissolved in water which has high
dielectric constant results in the weakening of the electrostatic force of attraction
between the ionized atoms.

• This results in the charged ions to lead an independent existence. Consider the case of
a copper sulphate (CuSO4) dissolved in water.
 • It dissociates into positively-charged copper ions (Cu++) and negatively-charged
sulphate ions (SO4--) moving freely in the solution.

• If two electrodes are placed in the electrolyte (i.e., CuSO4 solution) and one of them is
made positive and the other negative, the positively-charged ions travel towards the
cathode and the negatively-charged ions travel towards the anode.

• Each of the positively-charged copper ions (cations) reaching the cathode will take
two electrons from it and become a metallic atom of copper, and similary each of the
negative-charged sulphate ions (anions) reaching the anode will give up two electrons
to it and cease to be anion.

• Thus the copper is deposited at the cathode as metal. The sulphate ions collect at the
anode and react with water giving out oxygen:

2H2O + 2SO4 = 2H2SO4 + O2

• Oxygen is liberated as gas at the anode and H2SO4 is formed. If the cathode is made of
Cu, the sulphuric acid attacks it forming copper sulphate and liberating hydrogen:

H2SO4 + Cu = CuSO4 + H2

• Thus the copper of the anode goes into solution and copper from copper sulphate is
deposited on the cathode.

• During the process there is no accumulation of charge at any point in the circuit and
the mass of copper deposited at the cathode is exactly equal to that removed from the
anode.

• The whole process described above is called electrolysis.

FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS

• Michael Faraday (an English scientist) formulated the laws governing the electrolytic
processes, which are stated below:

• Faraday’s First Law: It is stated as follows

“The mass of a substance liberated from an electrolyte in a given time is proportional

to the quantity of electricity passing through the electrolyte.”

That is m α Q α It

m = Zit

where,

Z = A constant called the electrochemical equivalent,

I = the steady current in amperes, and

 t = Time (second) for which current I flows through the electrolyte.

If I = 1A, t = 1s and Z = m

Thus electrochemical equivalent, Z, of a substance is defined as the amount of the

substance deposited on passing a steady electric current of 1A for one second through
its solution. The S.I. unit of Z is kilogram per coulomb (Kg/C).

• Faraday’s Second Law: This law states as under

“When the same quantity of electricity is passed through several electrolytes, the
masses of the substances deposited are proportional to their respective chemical
equivalents or equivalent weights. From this law it follows that the constant of
proportional to the chemical equivalent.

• The theoretical value of current required for depositing a given quantity of metal and
the time for which this current should be passed through the electrolyte can be
calculated from the Faraday’s laws, if electro-chemical equivalent of the metal is
known.

TERMS CONNECTED WITH ELECTROLYTIC PROCESSES

• Following terms are used in electrolytic processes:

1. Current efficiency

2. Voltage

3. Energy efficiency.

Current efficiency:

Due to impurities which cause secondary reactions, the quantity of the

substance(s) liberated is slightly less than that calculated from faraday’s laws. This is
taken into account by employing a factor, called the “current efficiency”.

The current efficiency is defined as the ratio of the actual quantity of

substance liberated or deposited to the theoretical quantity, as calculated from
faraday’s laws.

Actual quantity of substance liberated or deposited

i.e., Current efficiency = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------.

Theoretical quantity of substance liberated or deposited

• The value of current efficiency lies between 90 to 98 percent.

In certain cases this efficiency is very low. For example in chromium plating it 12 to
15% (app.).
 2. Voltage. The voltage that is essentially required to pass the current through an
electrolyte depends upon the potential drops at the electrodes and in the electrolyte. It
is, therefore, desirable that these drops are made as small as possible. This can be
achieved, in many cases, by adding special conducting agents to the electrolyte to
make it ( electrolyte ) a good conductor. For example dilute sulphuric acid is added to
copper sulphate bath in copper plating.

• The normal voltage required to pass current through most electrolytes is 1 to 2 V.

3. Energy efficiency. Owing to secondary reactions, the voltage actually required for
the deposition or liberation of metal is higher than the theoretical value which
increases the actual energy required.

Energy efficiency is defined as the ratio of theoretical energy to the actual energy
required for depositing a given quantity of metal.

Theoretical energy required

i.e., Energy efficiency = __________________________________________

Actual energy required

Application of electrolysis

The major applications of electrolysis are as under:

• Electro-deposition

i. Electroplating

ii. Electro-deposition of rubber

iii. Electro-metallisation

iv. Electro-typing

• Manufacture of chemicals

• Anodizing

• Electropolishing

• Electro-cleaning or pickling

• Electro-parting or electro-stripping
 i. Electro-extraction

ii. Electro-refining

Electro-deposition

• The process of depositing a coating of one metal over another metal or non-metal
electrically is called the electro-deposition.

• It is used for protective, decorative and functional purposes and includes such
processes as electro-plating, electro-forming, electro-typing, electro-facing, electro-
metallisation etc.

Factors on which quality of electro-deposition depends

Following are the factors on which the quality of electro-deposition depends:

• Nature of electrolyte:

The electrolyte from which complex ions can be obtained provides a smooth
deposit.

• Current density:

The deposit of metal will be uniform and fine-grained if the current density is
used at a rate higher than at which the nuclei are formed. The deposit will be strong
and porous if the rate of nuclei formation is very high current density.

• Temperature:

A low temperature of the solution favours formation of small crystals of metal;

and a high temperature, large crystals.

• Conductivity:

The solution of good conductivity provides economy in power consumption

and also reduces the tendency to form trees and rough deposits.

• Electrolytic concentration:

By increasing the concentration of the electrolyte, higher current density can

be achieved, which is necessary to obtain uniform and fine-grain deposit.

• Addition agents:

The addition of acid or other substances to the electrolyte reduces its

resistance. Addition agents like glue, gums, dextrose, dextrin etc.
 Influence the nature of deposit. The crystal nuclei absorb the addition agent added in
the electrolyte; this prevents it to have large growth and thus deposition will be fine-
grained.

• Throwing power:

It is defined as the ability of the electrolyte to produce even irregular surfaces.

Due to irregular shape of the cathode the distance between the various portions of the
cathode and anode will be different. Due to unequal distance, the resistance of the
current path through the electrolyte for various portions of the cathode will be
different but the potential difference between the anode and any point on the article to
be plate will be, of course, be the same and the result will be that the current density
will be more on the portion nearer to anode and it will cause uneven deposit of the
metal.

• Polarization:

With the increase in the electroplating current density, rate of metal deposition is also
increased upto certain limit after which electrolyte surrounding the base metal
becomes so much depleted of metal ions that rate of deposition does not increase with
increase in current density. If current density more than this limit is employed, it will
result in electrolysis of water and hydrogen deposition on the cathode. This hydrogen
evolved, blankets the base metal which diminishes the rate of metal deposition. This
phenomenon is called polarization. Blanking effect can be reduced by agitating the
electrolyte.

Electroplating

Electroplating is an art of depositing a superior or a more noble metal on an inferior or

a base metal by means of electrolysis of an aqueous solution of a suitable electrolyte.

or

Electroplating is defined as the electro-deposition of metal upon metallic surfaces. It

is done to accomplish the following:

• To protect the metals against corrosion.

• To give a shiny appearance to articles.

• To give reflecting properties reflectors.

• To replace worn out material.

• The electrolyte deposits are crystalline in nature. The crystals must be very fine in
order to get firm, coherent and uniform deposits. For this purpose, suitable
electrolytes should be used in the electrolytic bath and current density used should
 have an appropriate value. The temperature should also be maintained at a proper
level.

• The articles to be coated with nobler metals should be in as high a state of purity as
possible.

Operation involved in electroplating:

Various operations involved in electroplating are:

1. Cleaning operation

2. Deposition of metal

Cleaning operation:

In case the object to be electroplated is not cleaned, polished and degreased,

the deposit formed may not be well adherent to the base metal and is likely to peel off.

Cleaning operation includes the following:

• Removal of oil, grease, or other organic material. To accomplish this, soaps,

hot alkali solutions, or organic solvents such as gasoline or carbon
tetrachloride are used.

• Removal of rust, scale, oxides, or other inorganic coatings adhering to the base
metal/ work piece… To accomplish this various acids, alkali and salt solutions
are employed.

• Mechanical preparation of the surface of the metal to remove the deposited

metal, by polishing, buffing etc., To accomplish this mechanical abrasion and
polishing are used.

Deposition of metal:

In all types of metal deposition processes, article to be electroplated is made cathode,

solution is made up of salt of the metal to be deposited and anode is often of the same metal
which is to be deposited.

Details of preparation of solutions and current densities employed for deposition of

various metals are given henceforth.

Copper plating:

Copper plating baths are of the following two types.

• In acid bath, solution is made of 150 to 200 gm of copper sulphate, 25 to 37
gm of H2SO4 per 1000 c.cc of solution. Current density employed is 200 to 400
A/m2 and temperature of 25˚ to 50˚C. anode is made of copper.

Deposit obtained is thick and rough which requires polishing.

• Cyanide bath consists of 25 gm of copper cyanide, 28 gm of sodium cyanide,

6 gm of sodium carbonate and 6 gm of sodium biphosphate per 1000 c.c.
Current density used is 4 to 150 A/m2, and temperature of 35˚ to 50˚C. anode
employed is of copper. This gives thin and smooth deposit.

• Copper plating is used

(i) For iron articles to prevent them from rusting

(ii) As undercoat for silver and nickel plating.