Lucrari Stiintifice Zootehnie NR 50 2007

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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 50 seria Zootehnie
CUPRINS ½ TABLE OF CONTENTS ¾
Z0011. A.T. BOGDAN, I.M. POP - Biodiversity of the zootechnical

ecosystems on national, regional and worldwide levels ½
Biodiversitatea ecosistemelor zootehnice la nivel naţional, zonal şi
mondial......................................................................................................... 3
Z0022. V. POP, Cecilia POP - Lasting development – a contemporary world

imperative ½ Dezvoltarea durabilă - imperativ al lumii
contemporane............................................................................................. 16
Z0033. E. ŢICĂU, T. ROBU, I. GÎLCĂ, C-TIN DUBIT - Developing

expectations a rural area of European found for agriculture
and rural development ½ Perspective de dezvoltare a spaţiului rural
prin fondul european pentru agricultură şi dezvoltare rurală
...................................................................................................................... 28
Z0044. T. ROBU, E. ŢICĂU, I. GÎLCĂ - Perspective of rural area

development by European fonds for agriculture and rural
development ½ Perspectiva dezvoltarii zonei rurale prin utilizarea
fondurilor Europene................................................................................... 42
Z0055. L.E. POPOVICI - Kosarom Companies Group investments for products

security assurance ½ Investiţiile Grupului de Firme Kosarom pentru
securitatea produselor ............................................................................... 49
Z0066. GH. HRINCĂ, M. GROZA, Elena FECIORU, I. CHIORESCU -

Immunoserological methods for detecting the blood group factors in
sheep ½ Metode imunoserologice pentru detectarea factorilor de
grupă sanguine la ovine ............................................................................. 52
Z0077. P.C. BOIŞTEANU, Iolanda MĂRGĂRINT, Cristina G. RADU-

RUSU, Roxana LAZĂR - Aspects of the endocrino-metabolic
adaptation, related to the bovine meat yield ½ Aspecte ale adaptării
endocrino-metabolice legate de realizarea producţiei de carne la
taurine ........................................................................................................ 60
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Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
Z0088. Monica BODEA, D. PAMFIL, R. SESTRAŞ, Bianca PĂTRAŞCU,

Ioana PETRICELE, Rodica POP, Iulia Francesca POP - Use
molecular markers for revealing apple F1 hybrids monogenic
resistance to scab (Venturia inaequalis) ½ Utilizarea markerilor
moleculari pentru evidenţierea rezistenţei monogenice la rapăn
(Venturia inaequalis) a unor hibrizi F1 de măr ......................................... 71
Z0099. C. LEONTE, Doina LEONTE - Aspects concerning the
correspondence between concrete marc – concrete class-new
concrete class. New cement based products for constructions
(PORIMENT®L) ½ Aspecte privind corespondenţa marcă beton-
clasă beton - clasă nouă beton. Produse noi pe bază de ciment
utilizate în construcţii (PORIMENT® L) .................................................... 78
Z010
10. IL. BURDUJAN - Mathematical models in epidemiology ½
Modelarea matematică în epidemiologie ................................................... 83
11. V. TEUŞAN, Anca TEUŞAN, R.M. RADU-RUSU - Morphological
Z011
aspects of some organs in the locomotors apparatus of the brown
breed young livestock ½ Aspecte morfologice la nivelul unor organe
ale aparatului locomotor, la tineretul taurin din rasa Brună .................... 91
12. V. TEUŞAN, R.M. RADU-RUSU, Anca TEUŞAN - Researches
Z012
concerning the thickness, the density and the shape of the muscular
fibres from the ilio-spinalis muscles of the brown livestock young
males ½ Cercetări privind grosimea, densitatea şi profilul fibrelor
musculare din muşchiul ilio-spinal, la tineretul taurin de sex mascul,
din rasa Brună............................................................................................ 99
Z013
13. R.M. RADU-RUSU, V. TEUŞAN, I. VACARU-OPRIŞ -
Comparative researches concerning some histometric features of the
miocytes in somatic musculature of the domestic chicken and
waterfowl (II). Wing and thigh muscles ½ Cercetări comparative
privind unii indicatori histometrici ai miocitelor din musculatura
somatică a galinaceelor şi palmipedelor domestice (II). Muşchii
aripii şi ai coapsei.................................................................................... 107
14. R.M. RADU-RUSU, V. TEUŞAN, Anca TEUŞAN - Comparative
Z014
researches concerning some histometric features of the miocytes in
somatic musculature of the domestic chicken and waterfowl (I).
Pectoral muscles ½ Cercetări comparative privind unii indicatori
histometrici ai miocitelor din musculatura somatică a galinaceelor şi
palmipedelor domestice (I). Muşchii pectorali ........................................ 115
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Z015
15. Ioana PETRICELE, D. PAMFIL, Daniela DONESCU, GH.
OLTEANU, Maria IANOŞI, K. KOVÁCS - The vegetation
interruption for the seed potato in accordance with the maximal flight
of the aphids and the seed fraction accumulation ½ Întreruperea
vegetaţiei la cartoful pentru sămânţă în funcţie de zborul maxim al
afidelor şi acumularea fracţiei de sămânţă.............................................. 121
Z016
16. V. CRĂCIUN, O. BĂLAN - Strategies for use biomass, a necessity for
the Romanian economy ½ Strategii pentru utilizarea biomasei,
necesitate pentru dezvoltarea economică a României ............................ 127
Z017
17. Elena COSTĂCHESCU, Alexandrina DIAC - Research concerning
the use of chemotherapy (furazolidona) in the mink’s youth
alimentation ½ Observaţii privind utilizarea chimioterapicelor
(furazolidona) în alimentaţia tineretului de nurcă................................... 134
Z018
18. P. RAICA, D. PAMFIL, C. BOTEZ, Marina Ioana GABOREANU
- The assesment of grazing influence on genetic variability in two
gentiana species ½ Evaluarea influenţei pascutului asupra
variabilităţii genetice a două specii de gentiana .................................... 138
Z019
19. Valentina CEBOTARI, IU MOŞOI, V. DERJANSCHI, Maria
MĂGDICI - Evaluation of two organic varroa treatments at the
honey bee ½ Aprecierea a două tratamente organice de combatere a
varroozei albinei melifere ........................................................................ 143
Z020
20. Rodica CĂPRIŢĂ, A. CĂPRIŢĂ - The accuracy of refractometric
measurements of plasma total protein in different animal species ½
Precizia metodei refractometrice de determinare a proteinemiei
plasmatice la diferite specii de animale................................................... 148
21. Rodica CĂPRIŢĂ, A. CĂPRIŢĂ, H. SĂRĂNDAN - Comparison
Z021
between whole-blood and serum glucose concentrations in
monogastric animals ½ Studiu comparativ asupra glicemiei sanguine
şi serice la animale monogastrice ............................................................ 152
Z022
22. L. BLENDEA - Mutations and tendecies in the agriculture from the
mountain area of Brasov county ½ Mutaţii şi tendinţe în agricultura
zonei montane a judeţului Braşov ............................................................ 156
23. L. BLENDEA, ŞT. BREZULEANU - Animal production in the

Z023
context of Brasov county agriculture ½ Producţia animală în
contextul agriculturii din judeţul Braşov ................................................. 161
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Z024
24. Mihaela IVANCIA - The phenotypical correlations between somatic
cell count and principals characters of cow milk production for
Cîmpulung Moldovenesc area ½ Corelaţii fenotipice stabilite între
conţinutul în celule somatice şi principalele caractere ale producţiei
de lapte de vacă pentru zona Cîmpulung Moldovenesc ........................... 167
Z025
25. V.A. BALTEANU, A. VLAIC, Anda Raluca RUSU, S. CREANGĂ,
R.F. POP, V. CIGHI - Milk proteins polymorphism in Romanian
cattle breeds, identified by isoelectric focusing technique (IEF) ½
Polimorfismul proteinelor din lapte la rasele de taurine din
Romania, determinat prin tehnica de focalizare izoelectrica (IEF)......... 173
26. P. COROI, Katona TIMEA - The influence of the external and
Z026
internal factors on the results of the superovulatory treatment in
cattle ½ Influenţa factorilor externi şi interni asupra rezultatelor
tratamentului poliovulator la vaci............................................................ 182
Z027
27. P. COROI, L. SASCA - The ovarian response to the superovulatory
treatment in cattle from Bălţată Românească breed ½ Răspunsul
ovarului la tratamentul poliovulator la vacile din rasa Bălţată
Românească ............................................................................................. 188
28. ISTVÁN, FORGÓ, LÁSZLÓ, TÉCSY, ISTVÁN,, ISTVÁN,
Z028
GYÖRKÖS, GUSZTÁV, VATTAMÁNY - Improvement of
production level in an old Hungarian swine variety crossing by
recent boars .............................................................................................. 192
29. Viorica COŞIER, A. VLAIC, S. DĂRĂBAN, T. OROIAN, V.
Z029
CIGHI - Marker assisted selection (MAS) for traits concerning milk
quantity and quality in Romanian Simmental cattle ½ Selecţia
asistată de markeri moleculari (MAS) pentru cantitatea şi calitatea
producţiei de lapte la rasa Bălţată Românească ..................................... 199
Z030
30. Margareta Mihăilescu, I. NISTOR, V. UJICĂ, V. MACIUC, Rodica
DĂNĂILĂ - Parameters of the program for genetical amelioration
and managemnt of cows from Brown swiss breed, in Moldova region
2005-2010 ½ Parametrii programului de ameliorare genetică şi
managementul taurinelor de rasă Brună din zona Moldovei pentru
perioada 2005 – 2010 .............................................................................. 203
Z031
31. M. GROZA, GH. HRINCĂ, Elena FECIORU, I. CHIORESCU,
GH. BRĂDĂŢAN - Genetic management in small populations ½
Managementul genetic în populaţiile mici ............................................... 211
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Z032
32. N. BUCĂTARU, F. PRICOP, GH. BÎRLĂDEAN - Study of some
genetic parameters of various hens populations ½ Studierea unor
parametri genetici la diverse populaţii de găini ...................................... 217
33. Daniela LADOSI, I. LADOSI, S.N. POP, Z. MARCHIS - Histology

Z033
investigation on the photo stimulation influence on the oviduct
tissues in hens ½ Investigatii histologice privind modul de actiune a
fotostimularii asupra structurii histologice la nivelul oviductului de
gaina......................................................................................................... 221
34. G. NACU, D. TĂNASE, Mihaela IVANCIA - Researches regarding

Z034
cock semen quality ½ Cercetări privind calitatea materialului
seminal la cocoş ....................................................................................... 227
Z035
35. Elena RUGINOSU, G. TOBĂ, Mariana SOFRONIE, Adrieana
POP, A. POP, ŞT. CREANGĂ, M. PÎNTEA, I. MOROŞANU -
The results regarding the poliovulation response at different
hormonal products to steppe grey cows ½ Rezultate privind
răspunsul poliovulator cu diferite produse hormonale la vacile sură
de stepă..................................................................................................... 231
Z036
36. L. STĂNCESCU - The influence of age of genitors on gender
distribution at Merinos of Palas lambs ½ Influenţa vârstei
reproducătorilor asupra repartiţiei pe sexe la mieii din rasa Merinos
de Palas.................................................................................................... 235
Z037
37. Anca DASCĂL, V. CIORNEI - Aspects of sheep artificial
insemination and some hers influence factors ½ Aspecte ale
însămânţării artificiale la ovine şi ale anumitor factori de influenţă
ai acesteia................................................................................................. 242
Z038
38. M. PARASCHIVESCU, Ioana NICOLAE - Analysis schedule for
fertilizing ability of semen evaluation ½ Schemă de analiză pentru
aprecierea potenţialului de fecundare a materialului seminal ................ 249
Z039
39. M. PARASCHIVESCU - Biodiversity in farm animals: sources, using,
conservation ½ Biodiversitatea zootehnică: surse, utilizare,
conservare ................................................................................................ 257
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Z040
40. D. DRONCA - Estimation of genetic variation and environmental
variation rates from phenotype variation in an Oryctolagus
cunicullus hybreed population regarding prolificacy ½ Estimarea
proporţiei varianţei genetice şi a varianţei de mediu general din
varianţa fenotipică la un efectiv de hibrizi de Oryctolagus cunicullus,
pentru prolificitate ................................................................................... 268
Z041
41. Simona GHIŢĂ, Stela ZAMFIRESCU, Elena SOGORESCU, Irina
TOPOLEANU, Andreea ANGHEL - Haematological and
biochemical parameters obtained subsequent to the passive
immunization of sheep with antiadipose serum ½ Parametrii
hematologici şi biochimici obţinuţi în urma imunizării pasive a
ovinelor cu ser antiadipos ........................................................................ 271
Z042
42. Dorina NADOLU, Andreea Hortanse ANGHEL - The influence of
the photo-periodic variations upon the rams’ sexual activity ½
Influenţa variaţiilor fotoperiodice asupra activităţii sexuale a
berbecilor ................................................................................................. 277
Z043
43. Elena SOGORESCU, Stela ZAMFIRESCU, Simona GHITA, Irina
TOPOLEANU, Dorina NADOLU, Andreea ANGHEL - The
biochemical and cytological characteristics of the production “in
vitro” of sheep embryos ½ Caracteristici biochimice şi citologice ale
producţei de embrioni de oaie „in vitro”................................................. 281
Z044
44. Irina TOPOLEANU, Stela ZAMFIRESCU, Elena ŞOGORESCU -
Recovery rate of oocytes using follicular puncture by different
techniques on goats ½ Rata recuperării oocitelor utilizând puncţia
foliculară prin diferite tehnici la capre.................................................... 286
Z045
45. D. DRONCA, N.PĂCALĂ, I. BENCSIK, T. VINTILĂ, I. PEŢ,
Marioara NICULA, Liliana COSMA - Analyisis of abbatoir
characteristics in a population of Transylvanian Naked Neck poultry
½ Analiza caracterelor de abatorizare la un efectiv de găini din rasa
Gât Golaş de Transilvania ....................................................................... 292
Z046
46. Angela STOICA, Paula POŞAN, P. TĂPĂLOAGĂ - Observations
regarding the microbial flora in boar sperm ½ Observaţii privind
încărcătura microbiană a spermei de vier ............................................... 295
- 814 -
Z047
47. Elena FECIORU - Genetic progress spreading and inbreeding
decrease by artificial insemination utilization in the Botoşani Karakul
sheep ½ Difuzarea progresului genetic şi diminuarea
consanguinizării prin utilizarea însămânţărilor artificiale la ovinele
Karakul de Botoşani................................................................................. 300
Z048
48. I. BENCSIK, N. PACALĂ, Jana STANCULEŢ, Alena BENCSIK,
Ada TELEA - The assess of the genetic structure for β-lactoglobulin
gene (LGB) at h-f cows and the gene polymorphism impact on milk
quality and production ½ Stabilirea structurii genetice la o populaţie
de vaci h-f pentru gena b-lactoglobulina (LGB) si impactul
polimorfismului genei asupra producţiei şi a calităţii laptelui ................ 306
Z049
49. Ioana NICOLAE - C-banding studies in Capra hircus L. chromosomes
½ Studiul heterocromatinei constitutive la cromozomii de capră
(Capra hircus L.)...................................................................................... 310
50.
Z050 Elena Popescu-MICLOŞANU, L. IONIŢĂ, I. CUSTURĂ,
Minodora TUDORACHE, Cristina NEGRE - Study about the
possibility of phase feeding of the young quails from a egss-meat
mixt population ½ Studiu privind posibilitatea furajării faziale a
tineretului de prepeliţă dintr-o populaţie mixtă de ouă-carne................. 315
Z051
51. C.I. WEBER, GH. MUREŞAN, B. GEROGESCU - The cow milk as
bioaccumulation medium for organochlorine pesticides and the
impact on the human health ½ Laptele de vacă ca mediu de
bioacumulare pentru pesticidele organoclorurate şi impactul asupra
sănătăţii umane ........................................................................................ 321
Z052
52. Elena COSTĂCHESCU, G. HOHA, Alexandrina DIAC -
Consideration concerning the animals sleep ½ Consideraţii privind
somnul la animale .................................................................................... 329
Z053
53. I.M. POP, D. SIMEANU - Researches on the productive effect of a
lipid absorption improver, used in broilers feeding½ Cercetări
privind efectul productiv al unui ameliorator al absorbţie lipidelor la
puii broiler de găină................................................................................. 332
Z054
54. M. DOLIŞ - The efficiency of utilization of sustenance from mulberry
tree leaf by silken larva, depending on type ½ Eficienţa utilizării
substanţelor nutritive din frunza de dud de către larvele de mătase,
în funcţie de soi ........................................................................................ 338
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Z055
55. M. DOLIŞ, ST. LAZĂR, D. SIMEANU, Roxana STĂNESCU - The
efficiency of utilization of sustenance from mulberry tree leaf by
silken larva, depending on their hybrid ½ Eficienţa utilizării
substanţelor nutritive din frunza de dud de către larvele de mătase,
în funcţie de hibridul acestora ................................................................. 343
Z056
56. Maria CORDUNEANU, Maria UNGUREANU - Influence of
protean and power level of ration about production and reproduction
at sheep mother ½ Influenţa nivelului proteic şi energetic al raţiei
asupra producţiilor şi reproducţiei la oile mame .................................... 347
Z057
57. Cristina TABUC - Incidence of Fusarium species and of their toxins in
the compound feeds for poultry ½ Incidenta speciilor de Fusarium si
a fusariotoxinelor in nutreturile combinate pentru pãsãri....................... 353
58. IL. VOICU, Dorica VOICU - Efficiency of using dietary alfalfa

Z058
preserved by different methods in fattening steer feeding ½ Eficienţa
utilizării unor raţii pe bază de lucernă conservată prin diferite
metode la tăuraşii la îngrăşat .................................................................. 359
59. Cristina RADU-RUSU, I.M. POP - Effects of probiotic and prebiotic

Z059
supplementation on egg quality and laying hens performance ½
Efectele utilizării aditivilor furajeri de tip probiotic şi prebiotic
asupra calităţii ouălor şi a performanţelor găinilor ouătoare ................ 364
Z060
60. Irina ISAC, I.M. POP, A. GRUBER - Fodders’s pollution as a risk
factor for the animals and human’ health ½ Poluarea nutreţurilor ca
factor de risc asupra sănătăţii animalelor şi omului ............................... 371
Z061
61. Cristina IONESCU - Researches regarding the use of some ecological
combined fodders in the alimentation of broiler chickens ½ Cercetări
privind utilizarea unor nutreţuri combinate ecologizate în
alimentaţia puilor broiler de găină.......................................................... 377
Z062
62. Jana STĂNCULEŢ, D. DRINCEANU, H. SĂRĂNDAN, Rodica
CĂPRIŢĂ, A. CAPRIŢĂ, I. LUCA, I. BENCSIK - Ammonia
nitrogen and protein nitrogen dynamics from ruminal fluid under
influence of some complementary nutritional factors ½ Dinamica
azotului amoniacal şi a azotului proteic din lichidul ruminal sub
influenţa unor factori nutriţionali complementari ................................... 383
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Z063
63. D. DRĂGOTOIU, Monica MARIN, Elena POGURSCHI - The
influence of fats nature added in compound feeds upon ducklings
productive and slaughtering performances ½ Influenţa naturii
grăsimilor adăugate în nutreţuri combinate asupra performanţelor
productive şi a celor la sacrificare la bobocii de raţă ............................. 389
Z064
64. Daniela JITARIU, VIOLETA SIMIONESCU - Researches regarding
food valorification during lactation for sheep which are specialized
in milk production ½ Cercetări cu privire la valorificarea hranei în
perioada de lactaţie la ovinele specializate pentru producţia de lapte.... 395
Z065
65. Aida ALBU, Felicia ŢÂRCĂ, I.M. POP - Evaluation of heavy metals
(lead and cadmium) content in feeds from Moldavian area, using
atomic absorbtion spectrofotometry method ½ Evaluarea
conţinutului de metale grele (plumb, cadmiu) in nutreţurile din zona
Moldovei, prin metoda spectrofotometrică de absorbţie atomică ........... 402
Z066
66. Raluca RADU, Teona AVARVAREI, Aida ALBU, E.
TEODORESCU-SOARE - The nutritive value of alfalfa hay from
small dairy farms ½ Valoarea nutritivă a fânului de lucernă din
micile gospodării agricole ....................................................................... 408
67. Doina ARDELEANU, Marilena-Gabi NEACŞU, C. NEACŞU,
Z067
Carmen- Ana PIVODĂ - The implications of poly-parasitsm about
dairy sheep kept on pastures ½ Implicaţiile poliparazitismului
asupra oilor de lapte întreţinute pe păşuni .............................................. 413
Z068
68. C. NEACŞU, Gabi NEACŞU, Adriana VICOVAN, Doina
ARDELEANU, Alina NICOLESCU - Testing the various level of
foddering at female young sheep for early coupling ½ Testarea
diferitelor nivele de furajare la tineretul ovin femel in vederea
montei timpurii ......................................................................................... 419
Z069
69. C. NEACŞU, Gabi NEACŞU, Adriana VICOVAN, Doina
ARDELEANU, Alina NICOLESCU - The technology of goats’
foddering during milking the kids ½ Tehnologia de furajare a
caprelor în perioada de alăptare a iezilor .............................................. 423
70. S. BOCA - The production performances from SC. CRISANI&CO
Z070
SRL. farm from CLUJ county ½ Performanţele de producţie din
ferma SC.CRISANI&CO SRL. din judeţul CLUJ ..................................... 428
Z071
71. Gabriela CRIŞAN, GH. MUREŞAN, Daniela CRIŞAN - The impact
of the somatic cell count on the milk quality ½ Impactul numărului
de celule somatice asupra calităţii laptelui.............................................. 432
- 817 -
Z072
72. Gabriela CRIŞAN, G. ONACIU, Daniela CRIŞAN - Research
regarding the morphoproductive parameters for the Romanian Friza
– Black Spotted cows from Transylvania ½ Cercetări privind
însuşirile morfoproductive la taurinele Friză – Bălţată cu Negru
românească din Transilvania................................................................... 440
Z073
73. G. ONACIU - The projecting and the organization of a farm of cow
milk to a capacity of 50 heads ½ Proiectarea şi organizarea unei
ferme de vaci cu o capacitate de 50 capete vaci lapte ............................ 445
Z074
74. G. ONACIU, E. C. JURCO - The projecting and the organization of a
farm specialized in fattening young cattle with an annual capacity of
360 tons of meat ½ Proiectarea şi organizarea unei ferme de
îngrăşare a tineretului taurin cu o capacitate anuală de 360 tone
carne ........................................................................................................ 450
Z075
75. M. BOTHA, I. BUD, HETTIG ANDREA, ŞT. RÉKA - Prevention
measurements and treatment of some chinchilla diseases ½ Măsuri
de prevenţie şi tratamentul unor stări patologice la chinchilla ............... 456
Z076
76. M. BOTHA, I. BUD, HETTIG ANDREA, Aurelia PECE -
Directions and tendencies for obtaining rabbit hybrids for meat in
Europe ½ Tendinţe şi orientări în producerea hibrizilor de iepuri de
carne în Europa........................................................................................ 460
Z077
77. ŞT. REKA, I. BUD, M. BOTHA - Contributions of size and
qualitative increase to the hunting witch is consumed by human ½
Contribuţii la creşterea numerică şi calitativă a vânatului ce intră în
alimentaţia omului ................................................................................... 466
Z078
78. Maria UNGUREANU, Maria CORDUNEANU - Research regarding
the body weight dynamics on a set of buffaloes from SCPCB Sercaia
½ Cercetari privind dinamica greutatii corporale pe un lot de
bubaline din cadrul SCPCB Sercaia ........................................................ 472
Z079
79. G. HOHA, B. PĂSĂRIN, Elena COSTĂCHESCU, Alexandrina
DIAC, Roxana STĂNESCU - Research concerning the
reproductive performances recorded at the Pic 1075 boars exploited
at SC SUINPROD ROMAN S.A ½ Cercetari privind performantele
reproductive inregistrate la vierii PIC 1075 exploatati in cadrul SC
SUINPROD ROMAN S.A. ........................................................................ 475
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80. M.G. USTUROI, I. VACARU-OPRIŞ, R.M. RADU-RUSU - Poultry

Z080
meat quality as influenced by fowl´s transportation conditions ½
Influenţa condiţiilor de transport a păsărilor asupra calităţii cărnii
obţinute..................................................................................................... 480
Z081
81. V. MACIUC, V. UJICĂ, Rodica DĂNĂILĂ - Observations on the
morpho-productive features of the Romanian Black Spotted
members of the bovidae family from the Jora farm, county Iasi ½
Observaţii privind însuşirile morfoprodructive la taurinele Bălţată
cu Negru românească din ferma Jora, judeţul Iasi.................................. 485
82. Roxana STĂNESCU, I.GILCA, G.HOHA-Present and perspectives
Z082
in Brown cattle breeding in Romania½Stadiul actual şi perspective
în cresterea taurinelor de rasă Brună în România.................................... 492
83. Roxana STĂNESCU, I. GÎLCĂ, G. HOHA, M. DOLIŞ - Researches
Z083
concerning the productive performances in some private
exploitations of Brown breed grown in Suceava county ½ Cercetări
privind performanţele productive ale taurinelor de rasă Brună
crescute în unele exploataţii private din judeţul Suceava ....................... 499
Z084
84. Aurelia PECE, Z. MARCHIŞ, M. BOTHA, Codruţa CETERAŞ -
Researches concerning the great qualitative components of buffalo,
cow and sheep milk ½ Cercetări privind indicii calitativi ai marilor
componenţi ai laptelui de bivoliţă, vacă şi oaie....................................... 504
Z085
85. Aurelia PECE, Z. MARCHIŞ, A. CÎMPEAN - Researches concerning
the main qualitative features of milk in a buffalo population from Sălaj
county ½ Cercetări privind principalele însuşiri calitative ale laptelui
la o populaţie de bivoliţe din judeţul Sălaj ................................................ 508
86. Rodica DĂNĂILĂ, V. UJICĂ, V. MACIUC - A study on the
Z086
growing of Romanian Black Spotted cows in some private
exploitations from county Botoşani ½ Studiul creşterii vacilor
Bălţată Românească, în unele exploataţii private din judeţul
Botoşani.................................................................................................... 512
Z087
87. S. CHILIMAR, T. BAJURA, N. DUMBRĂVEANU - Norms for
dairy farm from privat sector ½ Normative pentru ferme de lapte din
sectorul particular.................................................................................... 518
88. I.C. BOCIOAGĂ - Contributions on the improvement of the results in
Z088
the eggs artificial incubation ½ Contribuţii la îmbunătăţirea
rezultatelor în incubaţia artificială a ouălor ........................................... 528
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Z089
89. D. SIMEANU, M.V. BURLICĂ, M. DOLIŞ - Study on the Huţul
horse breed genealogical structure ½ Studiu asupra structurii
genealogice a rasei Huţul ........................................................................ 536
Z090
90. I. BENCSIK I., N. PACALĂ, D. DRONCA, Jana STANCULEŢ,
Alena BENCSIK, Ada TELEA - The viability asses of the light
chick breed eggs for incubation ½ Aprecierea viabilităţii embrionilor
din ouă destinate incubaţiei la rase uşoare.............................................. 545
Z091
91. ŞT. LAZĂR, O.C. VORNICU, M. DOLIŞ, B. IGNAT - The
expansion of Mellifera species ½ Expansibilitatea speciei Apis
mellifera ................................................................................................... 549
Z092
92. Doina LEONTE, C. LEONTE, Valerica MACOVEI - Efficiency of
veterinary prophylaxis on growing hen broiler in a small dimension
exploitation comparing the industrial avian shed ½ Eficienţa
acţiunilor profilactice sanitar-veterinare în creşterea broilerilor de
găină într-o exploataţie de mici dimensiuni comparativ cu o hală de
tip industrial ............................................................................................. 556
Z093
93. O.C. VORNICU, ŞT. LAZĂR, Aurelia VASILE - Multiple
monitoring of the beehive microclimate ½ Monitorizarea multiplă a
microclimatului din stupii cu albine......................................................... 561
Z094
94. C. PASCAL, F. DOROFTEI, V. STAN, I. PADEANU, T. DIMA -
The obtained perfoarmance after the colection applyed to improve
the colors at the sheep rased for their skin ½ Performanţe obţinute ca
urmare a selecţiei aplicate în vederea îmbunătăţirii culorii şi a
nuanţelor de culoare la ovinele crescute pentru pielicele ....................... 569
Z095
95. Gabriela MITREA, D. SIMEANU - Researches concerning the
assurance of the microclimate conditions for broiler chicken with
pultry equipments of different sources ½ Cercetări privind
asigurarea condiţiilor de microclimat pentru puii broiler de găină cu
echipamente avicole de diferite provenienţe ............................................ 576
96.
Z096 I. GÎLCĂ, MIHAELA Ivancia, D. BREBEANU, Roxana
STĂNESCU, E. ŢICĂU, C. DUBIŢ - The evaluation of milk’s
quality and the healt’s udder based on the somatic cell counts ½
Evaluarea calităţii laptelui şi a stării de sănătate a ugerului pe baza
numărului de celule din lapte................................................................... 584
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Z097
97. I. GÎLCĂ, D. BREBEANU, Roxana STĂNESCU, E. ŢICĂU, C.
DUBIŢ - Investigation of the effect of risk elements in bulls and
dairy cows breeding around of the industrial area of Bucharest ½
Investigaţii privind efectul elementelor de risc la taurinele la
îngrăşat şi vacile de lapte crescute in jurul zonei industriale a
municipiului Bucureşti ............................................................................. 588
98. Simona Margareta BADIU, Claudia MURESAN - Aspects of
Z098
implementing milk production and cosumption system ½ Aspecte
privind implemnetarea producţiei de lapte şi sistemul de consum........... 592
Z099
99. O. BĂLAN, V. CRĂCIUN - Automation of milking devices ½
Automatizarea instalaţiilor de muls ......................................................... 595
Z100
100. G. C. MURSA, ROXANA CIURCANU - Some economic
implications of the East enlargement of the European Union ½
Implicaţii economice ale extinderii Uniunii Europene către Est ............. 602
101. N. DUMBRĂVEANU - Rural development policies in Moldova

Z101
Republic, between europeanization and retrogression ½ Politica de
dezvoltare rurală în Republica Moldova între europenizare şi
retrogresiune ............................................................................................ 609
102. Mioara BOCANICI - Average values of economical indicators
Z102
achieved in bredding and using the milk cows in Vatra Dornei and
Câmpulung Moldovenesc basins ½ Valorile medii ale indicatorilor
economici realizati în cresterea si exploatarea vacilor de lapte în
bazinele Vatra Dornei si Câmpulung Moldovenesc................................. 615
Z103
103. A. CHIRAN, Florina POPOVICI, Elena GÎNDU - New aspects
regarding the milk production from the nearcity area of Iasi in the
context of European Union assessed quotes ½ Noi orientări privind
producţia de lapte din zona preorăşenească a municipiului Iaşi, în
contextul normelor impuse de Uniunea Europeană................................. 623
Z104
104. Elena GÎNDU, Liliana BIŢIC, A. CHIRAN - The develpment rural
in the microzone Ţibăneşti – the present and the prospects ½
Dezvoltarea rurală în microzona Ţibăneşti : prezent şi perspective ....... 631
105. Carmen-Mariana DIACONU - Practical aspects concerning the
Z105
solutions given by the local and central commissions of property land
restitution to the requests for property retrocession from Iasi county
½ Aspecte practice privind soluţionarea de către comisiile locale şi
centrale de fond funciar a cererilor de retrocedare a proprietăţii din
judeţul Iaşi................................................................................................ 639
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Z106
106. Carmen-Mariana DIACONU - Penal responsibility of the public
employee – introductive aspects ½ Raspunderea penală a
funcţionarului public aspecte introductive............................................... 642
107. ŞT. BREZULEANU, C-TIN IAŢCO - Methods of improving risk
Z107
management in the field of fiscal administration ½ Căi de
îmbunătăţire a managementului în domeniul administrării fiscale ......... 648
Z108
108. M. DĂSCĂLESCU - The analyse of human resources from
Miroslava commune, Iaşi district and the strategies to improuve them
½ Analiza resurselor umane din comuna Miroslava, judeţul Iaşi şi
strategiile de perfecţionare ale acestora.................................................. 653
109. Ramona AIRINEI - Human resources from the romanian rural space
Z109
½ Resursele umane din spaţiul rural românesc....................................... 659
Z110
110. Agatha POPESCU - Chicken meat market in the Central and Eastern
European countries ½ Piaţa cărnii de pui în ţările din Centrul şi
Estul Europei............................................................................................ 664
111. Agatha POPESCU - Considerations upon economic efficiency in
Z111
dairy farms by gross margin assessment ½ Consideratii asupra
eficientei economice in fermele de vaci prin evaluarea marjei brute ... 670
Z112
112. I. PÎRVUTOIU, Agatha POPESCU - Study concerning the
evaluation of financial results in combined fodder industry ½ Studiu
privind evaluarea rezultatelor financiare în industria nutreţurilor
combinate ................................................................................................. 673
Z113
113. I. PÎRVUTOIU, Agatha POPESCU - Study concerning risk
evaluation in combined fodder industry ½ Studiu privind evaluarea
riscului în industria nutreţurilor combinate............................................. 678
Z114
114. Maria RUGE, Ramona-Vasilica BACTER, C.-F. BACTER, Elena
GÎNDU, A. CHIRAN - Natural geographical characteristics of the
tourism and agrotourism of bihor county ½ Caracteristici natural –
geografice ale zonelor turistice şi agroturistice din judeţul Bihor .......... 681
Z115
115. D. DONOSĂ - Measuring instruments of the agricultural support ½
Instrumente de măsurare a sprijinului agricol......................................... 689
Z116
116. Ramona-Vasilica BACTER, C.-F. BACTER, Maria RUGE, Elena
GÎNDU, A. CHIRAN - Some aspects regarding the consumer and
product relationship on the market of Oradea city ½ Unele consideratii
privind relatia „consumator–produs” pe piata municipiului Oradea.......... 693
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Z117
117. ŞT. BREZULEANU, C-TIN IAŢCO - Caracteristics of internal
public financial control in public entities ½ Caracteristici ale
controlului financiar public intern la nivelul entităţii publice................. 701
Z118
118. C-TIN IAŢCO - The internal public financial control at governmental
level ½ Controlul financiar public intern la nivelul guvernului .............. 714
Z119
119. C-TIN IAŢCO, ŞT. BREZULEANU - Control management.
Performance audit studies ½ Managementul controlului. Studii de
audit al performanţei................................................................................ 719
Z120
120. I. MELINTE - Reseaches regarding the place of animal growing in
Zeletin basin, Bacau county ½ Cercetări privind locul creşterii
animalelor în bazinul Zeletin judeţul Bacău ............................................ 723
Z121
121. I.MELINTE, St.BREZULEANU-Social-demographic features of the rural
population from Zeletin basin, Bacau county½Caracteristici socio-
demografice ale populaţiei rurale din bazinul Zeletin, judeţul Bacău..... 729
Z122
122. Roxana MIRON, I.M. POP - Estimates of the evolution of milk
quota and milk price in the European Union ½ Estimări ale evoluţiei
cotei de lapte si a preţului laptelui in Uniunea Europeană ..................... 736
Z123
123. Aurica GRIGORE - The economic efficiency analises of S.C.
AVICOLA - MATCA S.A company ½ Analiza eficienţei economice
a societăţii S.C. AVICOLA - MATCA S.A ................................................ 741
124. Aurica GRIGORE - The economic efficiency aspects in meat

Z124
produced and capitalization in Tecuci region ½ aspecte ale eficienţei
economice în producerea şi valorificarea cărnii în zona Tecuci ............. 746
Z125
125. L. SASCA, P. COROI - The factors which influence the artificial
reproduction in the common carp ½ Factorii care influenţează
reproducţia artificială a crapului comun................................................. 753
Z126
126. Aurelia MIHALACHE, L. OPREA, V. CRISTEA - Aspects
regarding the rearing parameters on two lots of ornamental carp fed
with different rations into recirculating system conditions ½ Aspecte
privind parametrii creşterii la două loturi de crap ornamental
hrănite cu raţii diferite în condiţiile unui sistem recirculant ................... 757
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BACK
Z127
127. A. GRUBER, I.M. POP, B. PĂSĂRIN - The influence of ambiental
temperature about Lumbricus terrestris prolificity ½ Influenţa
temperaturii ambientale asupra prolificităţii la Lumbricus terrestris ..... 762
Z128
128. Alexandrina DIAC, G. HOHA - A study concerning the use of
experimental techniques in the research of fish nutrition and
alimentation ½ Studiu privind utilizarea tehnicilor experimentale în
cercetările de nutriţie şi alimentaţie la peşti............................................ 767
Z129
129. B. PĂSĂRIN, G. HOHA, A. GRUBER, Alexandrina DIAC,
Françoise PICARD-Aquaculture bio–a chance and challenge for
Romania in the 3rd millenium ½ Acvacultura biologică – o şansă
si o provocare pentru România mileniului 3............................................ 775
Z130
130. A. GRUBER, Roxana STĂNESCU, G. HOHA, B. PĂSĂRIN -
Speciality literature data concerning the growing of the species from
corydoras genus ½ Date din literatura de specialitate cu privire la
cresterea speciilor din genul corydoras................................................... 780
Z131
131. Gabriela VASILE, Elena CIORNEA - A comparative study of some
morphological and biochemical parameters of Carassius auratus
gibelio and Cyprinus carpio ½ Studiul comparativ al unor parametri
morfologici şi biochimici la Carassius auratus gibelio şi Cyprinus
carpio ....................................................................................................... 786
Z132
132. Valerica MACOVEI, I.M. POP, Doina LEONTE, Lenuţa FOTEA,
Maricica MICHICHIUC - Research as concerns some selection
index of Ctenopharingodon idella ½ Cercetări privind unii indici
corporali la Ctenopharyngodon idella..................................................... 794
133. Carmen NICOLAE, R. POPA, Laura URDEŞ, Nicoleta IŞTFAN -

Z133
The interdependence of some morphological traits in Frăsinet carp
breed one year and a summer aged ½ Interdependenţa unor
caractere morfologice la crapul de Frăsinet de un an şi o vară.............. 798
Z134
134. M. LAZĂR, Roxana LAZĂR, Cristina-Alice VULPE, V. VULPE,
P.C. BOIŞTEANU - The methodology of blood exams at the
cyprinides from fish farms ½ Metodologia unor examene ale
sângelui la ciprinidele din amenajările sistematice................................. 802
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BACK
BIODIVERSITY OF THE ZOOTECHNICAL

ECOSYSTEMS ON NATIONAL, REGIONAL
AND WORLDWIDE LEVELS
BIODIVERSITATEA ECOSISTEMELOR ZOOTEHNICE
LA NIVEL NAŢIONAL, ZONAL ŞI MONDIAL
A.T. BOGDAN, I.M. POP, Amalia STRĂTEANU
Creşterea gradului şi ritmului de ameliorare genetică a efectivelor de

animale din ecosisteme zootehnice este un obiectiv major în realizarea securităţii
alimentare a populaţiei umane. În acelaşi timp, dezvoltarea durabilă a
zootehniei este indisolubil legată de protecţia, conservarea şi dezvolarea
biodiversităţii speciilor de animale utile omului. Referatul abordează principiile,
obiectivele şi conexiunile conceptului de biodiversitate în cadrul ecosistemelor
zootehnice la nivel naţional (cu exemplificări de la Agenţia Naţională pentru
Reproducţie şi Ameliorare în Zootehnie – A.N.A.R.Z., prin rezultate ale
controlului performanţelor productive), la nivel zonal (cu exemplificări de la
Uniunea Europeană privind bunăstarea animalelor) şi la nivel mondial (cu
exemplificări de la F.A.O., prin Strategia globală de dezvoltare durabilă până în
anul 2015).
În concluzie, se prezintă secvenţa referitoare la zootehnie din
programul prioritar al Academiei Române privind studiul biodiversităţii în
relaţie cu dezvoltarea rurală durabilă, care reprezintă tematica noului Centru de
Studii şi Cercetări de Biodiversitate Agrosilvică „Acad. David Davidescu” al
Academiei Române.
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BACK
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BACK
LASTING DEVELOPMENT – A CONTEMPORARY WORLD

IMPERATIVE
DEZVOLTAREA DURABILA - IMPERATIV AL LUMII
CONTEMPORANE
V. POP, Cecilia POP
Human society is passing through a very deep crisis of its own identity,
the economical development in these present conditions, based on the waste of
raw materials, fuel and energy, contributing well to this crisis, having at its base
the consequences of some wrong priorities.
In order to avoid an ecological catastrophe, many scientific
personalities, public personalities, mass-media, nongovernmental organizations
and of course ordinary people have criticized the pollution phenomenon and
have taken serious measures in order to stop the deterioration of our
environment. This way appeared the concept of “sustainable development”.
The development based on durability principles, represents now the
major imperative of contemporary world, its neglect from the economical politics
and strategies, surely leading to the compromising of the minimal life conditions
which Terra has to maintain for the future generations.
Dezvoltarea economicã şi mediul

Dezvoltarea fãrã oprelişti înregistratã de la intrarea lumii în “era
industrialã” acum mai bine de 200 de ani, a pornit de la imaginea dimensiunilor
„nelimitate” ale planetei noastre şi capacitatea ei de a ne asigura „la nesfârşit”
resurse minerale neregenerabile, condiţii nelimi-tate de trai şi bunãstare pentru o
populaţie în continuã expansiune, capacitatea de a prelua la nesfârşit poluanţii
rezultaţi din activitatea menajerã, din agriculturã şi zootehnie, cât şi din procesele
industriale - acestea din urmã pe cale de a cãpãta dimensiuni de neimaginat,
atunci la data intrãrii omenirii în era industrialã.
Acum 200 de ani, populaţia globului numãra de abia un singur miliard de
locuitori, iar activitatea industrialã era la proporţii neglijabile faţã de ceea ce este
în prezent. Cãrbunii şi petrolul nu erau încã în circuitul industrial. Producţia de
metale, ciment, industria chimicã etc. nu reprezentau nici 1 % din ceea ce se
produce astãzi.
A urmat defrişarea pãdurilor - pentru extinderea suprafeţelor necesare
hrãnirii unei populaţii în creştere explozivã, în baza unei agriculturi chimizate,
intensive pãşunatul necontrolat, pescuitul intensiv, poluarea apelor, aerului şi
solurilor, toate ducând la secãtuirea sau alterarea posibilitãţilor de suport ale Terrei.
Cantitatea de poluanţi evacuaţi în atmosferã, în ape şi pe sol a crescut în
ritm alarmant, depãşind capacitatea de autoepurare a factorilor naturali. Am atins
limitele de suportabilitate ale Planetei noastre!
Astfel, s-a constatat cu dezamãgire cã posibilitãţile Planetei, considerate
infinite, sunt de fapt limitate. Echilibrul natural, de milioane şi milioane de ani al
- 16 -
planetei, este în pericol de a fi grav, dacã nu iremediabil perturbat, punând in

pericol însăşi existenţa vieţii pe Terra.
Prejudiciile pentru specia umanã, ale unei dezvoltãri greşit gestionate,
lãsatã pradã re-gulilor pieţei şi ale profitului, au început sã fie percepute din a
doua jumãtate a secolului XX.
Aşa cum spune o reuşitã butadã: „Planeta albastrã ne-a fost datã în
primire spre folosinţã - dar fãrã sã primim şi instrucţiunile de utilizare”. Drept
urmare suntem puşi, în ultima vreme chiar prea des - în situaţia de a greşi faţã de
mediul natural, poluându-l, agresându-l, provocându-i daune mult prea mari decât
ne-am fi aşteptat. Mai mult, prin cumulare - efectul poluãrii asupra factorilor de
mediu şi degradarea în unele cazuri ireversibilã a mediului - am ajuns în multe
situaţii sã compromitem definitiv calitatea mediului natural pe care-l vom lãsa
generaţiilor viitoare, în fapt tocmai urmaşilor noştri.
Convenţia-cadru adoptatã în 1992 la Rio precizeazã sarcina ţãrilor
dezvoltate de a-şi stabiliza emisiile de gaze cu efect de serã, astfel încât nivelul
acestora în 2002 sã nu depãşeascã nivelul din 1990, iar pânã în 2010, emisiile de
gaze sã scadã cu 8 %. În acelaşi timp, marile ţãri în curs de dezvoltare, în
particular China, India şi Brazilia nu sunt supuse deocamdatã constrângerilor.
Datoritã nerespectãrii de cãtre unele ţãri dezvoltate, în frunte cu Statele
Unite, a obiectivelor Conferinţei de la Rio, Grupul interguvernamental de experţi
asupra evoluţiei climatului, a elaborat în 1995 un mesaj alarmant, care s-a
finalizat cu:
P r o t o c o l u l de la K y o t o – 1997
cuprinzând douã aspecte. Pe de o parte, fixeazã pentru ţãrile OECD şi cele
ale Europei Centrale şi de Est, norme pentru reducerea emisiilor de gaze cu efect
de serã (în principal CO2) în perioada 1990-2008, iar pe de altã parte, stabileşte
mecanisme de flexibilitate care dau posibilitate statelor sã cumpere drepturi de
poluare (indulgenţe) !
Nivelele de reducere ale poluãrii variazã de la o ţarã la alta. Astfel, cele
„minus 8 procente” ale Uniunii Europene, corespund unor obiective naţionale
foarte diferite:
- 21 % pentru Germania, 0 % pentru Franţa şi + 27 % pentru
Portugalia.
Mecanismele „Protocolului de la Kyoto” permit de altfel unei ţãri sã-şi
respecte angajamentele, cumpãrând drepturi adiţionale de poluare dintr-o ţarã care
nu şi-a atins încã nivelul maxim permis, de exemplu Portugalia. Şi România va fi
interesatã sã vândã, probabil Japoniei, Olandei etc. din drepturile pozitive pe care
le are, noi situându-ne acum la 40 % sub angajamentul conform Protocolului.
Acordul de la Kyoto prevede punerea lui în aplicare dacã 55 de ţãri,
reprezentând 55% din emisiile de CO2 din ţãrile industrializate, l-au ratificat. Prin
semnarea în octombrie 2004 de cãtre Rusia a Protocolului, acest important acord
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mondial a intrat în vigoare la 16 februarie 2005, fiind atins pragul de aplicare în

ciuda opoziţiei Statelor Unite - cel mai mare poluator cu gaze cu efect de serã.
Manifestând interes şi responsabilitate, Uniunea Europeanã a procedat la
ratificarea acordului, în schimb SUA - cea care evacueazã în atmosferã un sfert
din gazele cu efect de serã ale planetei, nu a semnat încã acest important
document, deşi acesta “avantajeazã” ţãrile deja puternic industrializate şi
poluatoare, prin aceea cã normele adoptate, diferite de la o ţarã la alta, au ca punct
de plecare emisiile de noxe din prezent, şi nu un nivel egal de emisii pe cap de
locuitor, indiferent de ţarã!
În aceste condiţii cetãţenii SUA vor putea polua în continuare de 19 ori
mai mult decât cei din India, sau de 11 ori mai mult decât cei din China!
Emisiile de gaze datorate activitãţilor industriale, transporturilor şi a celor
menajere (CO2 - metan - oxizi de azot ) vor fi responsabile dupã pãrerea
oamenilor de ştiinţã, de încãlzirea planetei cu consecinţele climatice deja
cunoscute: furtuni, inundaţii, în alte zone secetã - toate acestea fiind un semn al
dereglãrilor provocate de civilizaţia noastrã ajunsã la suprapopulare,
supraindustrializare şi excesivă poluare.
Biodiversitatea
Voinţa de a pãstra biodiversitatea pe planetã, face parte dintre obiectivele
dezvoltãrii durabile, fiind un punct prioritar pe lista Conferinţei de la Rio.
Din cele 1,7 milioane de specii cunoscute, 11.000 sunt deja ameninţate cu
extincţia iar în ritmul actual, jumãtate dintre aceste specii ameninţate, ar putea
dispãrea pânã la sfârşitul secolului XXI. Aceastã realitate este strict legatã de
compor-tamentele umane în legãturã cu mediul natural şi dezvoltarea economicã.
Despãdurirea, deşertificarea, agricultura, pãşunatul şi pescuitul intensive,
defrişãrile pentru obţinerea de noi suprafeţe arabile, extinderea activitãţilor
miniere, toate acestea având ca scop producţia industrialã şi alimentarã, participã
la distrugerea habitatelor şi astfel la eliminarea treptată dar tot mai rapidă a
speciilor vegetale şi animale.
Conferinţa de la Johannesburg
Conferinţa la nivel înalt de la Johannesburg - 2002, ar fi trebuit sã
impulsioneze procesul de abordare şi soluţionare a problemelor privind dezvoltarea
durabilã, dar şi de data aceasta aşteptãrile au fost mult mai mari decât realizãrile.
Astfel, pe planul reducerii emisiilor de gaze cu efect de serã, deşi s-au
reafirmat obiectivele de la Kyoto, nu s-au fixat nici un fel de elemente precise în
privinţa alternativei trecerii la utilizarea energiilor neconvenţionale.
S-a pus în discuţie şi obiectivul reducerii la jumãtate pânã în anul 2015 a
numãrului de persoane (cca. 1 miliard) care nu dispun la standarde corespunzãtoare
de apã potabilã, iar sugestia francezã de a crea un organism mondial al mediului,
care prin autoritatea sa în domeniul problemelor specifice, ar putea sã impunã
norme unor alte instituţii, precum OMC, a fost din pãcate total îndepãrtatã.
- 18 -
Pentru pãstrarea fertilitãţii solurilor, Fondul mondial pentru mediu finanţeazã

programe pentru agriculturã; la Conferinţa de la Rio s-a lansat Convenţia în favoarea
luptei împotriva scãderii fertilitãţii solului, convenţie semnatã pânã la Conferinţa de
la Johannesburg de cãtre 114 ţãri. Cu toate intenţiile declarative lãudabile - pe planul
realizãrilor practice, acumulãrile sunt încã nesatisfãcãtoare.
Probleme globale
În literatura mondialã au apãrut în ultimele douã-trei decenii, numeroase
lucrãri referitoare la “problemele globale” cu care se confruntã civilizaţia umanã
acum la începutul secolului XXI. „Problemele” sunt cele care, la nivelul planetei
influenţeazã esenţial toate domeniile vieţii sociale, nerezolvarea lor fãcând imposibilã
abordarea celorlalte probleme care cer şi ele o soluţionare la nivel global-planetar.
Acest tip de probleme, necesitând o soluţionare planetarã au apãrut cu
stringenţã în a doua jumãtate a secolului XX, în strânsã legãturã cu dezvoltarea
economică generală. S-a ajuns la creşterea spectaculoasã a producţiei industriale şi
agricole, pe baza progreselor fãrã precedent din ştiinţã şi tehnologie, care au dus la
adâncirea diviziunii mondiale a muncii, extinderea relaţiilor şi a schimburilor
economice internaţionale, accentuând interdependenţa tuturor la scarã planetarã.
Ca o consecinţã a extinderii procesului de industrializare, a crescut în
egalã mãsurã necesarul de materii prime, energie şi hranã, s-a extins procesul de
urbanizare, atingându-se nivelul maxim de suportabilitate al planetei, datoritã
caracterului limitat al resurselor minerale şi datoritã fenomenului poluãrii, care
însoţeşte inerent dezvoltarea în condiţiile actuale a societãţii umane.
CREŞTEREA DEZVOLTAREA
POPULAŢIEI ECONOMICA NEdurabilă
Risipă de Incălzirea Extinderea Deşeuri solide

resurse globală deşerturilor tot mai toxice
Poluarea aerului Ploi acide Poluarea solului Poluarea apei
Epuizarea Defrişarea Exterminarea Riscurile
ozonului pădurilor speciilor nucleare
Creşterea / accentuarea decalajelor dintre bogaţi şi săraci
Guverne Societăţi comerciale Consumatori
Figura 1 - Principalele „probleme globale” actuale
- 19 -
Dimensiunile consumurilor la care s-a ajuns în zilele noastre, au

determinat ritmuri îngrijorãtoare de epuizare a unor resurse neregenerabile. Au
apãrut tot mai evidente, feno-mene de deteriorare a echilibrului ecologic, de
poluare gravã a aerului, apelor şi solurilor, cu diminuarea fondului genetic vegetal
şi animal al planetei, procese negative, unele ireversibile, cu urmãri imprevizibile
într-o perspectivã mai mult sau mai puţin îndepãrtatã.
Pe de altă parte, subdezvoltarea, discrepanţele crescânde dintre lumea
dezvoltatã şi lumea sãracã, discrepanţe care nu se diminueazã ci se accentueazã ca
urmare a progresului tehnologic contemporan - în condiţiile actualelor relaţii
economice şi politice internaţionale - amplificã tensiunile şi sursele de conflict pe
plan mondial, ceea ce a făcut ca aceste probleme au devenit preocupãri constante
pe ordinea de zi a Organizaţiei Naţiunilor Unite şi a altor forumuri internaţionale.
Conceptul de dezvoltare durabilă

Fãrã îndoialã cã reputatul om de ştiinţã Lester R.Brown de la WorldWatch
Institute (Institutul pentru Veghea Mondialã - Washington, SUA - creat în 1976)
reprezintã una dintre cele mai prestigioase personalităţi, care împreună cu
colectivul său de colaboratori şi-a consacrat întreaga activitate urmãririi cu
perseverenţã a “problemelor globale” cu care se confruntã civilizaţia umanã în
prezent.
Este meritul lui Lester Brown de a fi lansat primul - în raportul
WorldWatch Institute din 1984 - termenul de “dezvoltare durabilã” care a intrat
apoi în literatura de specialitate ca un termen de referinţã şi a devenit obiectul
tuturor studiilor şi documentelor politice care abordeazã problemele dezvoltãrii
economico-sociale contemporane.
De altfel, la Conferinţa mondialã la nivel înalt de la Rio de Janiero din
1992, consacratã raportului dintre dezvoltarea economico-socialã şi echilibrul
factorilor de mediu, s-a decis constituirea unei Comisii ONU pentru Dezvoltarea
Durabilã, exprimând preocu-parea crescândã a comunitãţii mondiale asupra
faptului cã modelul actual al sistemului economic mondial nu poate fi susţinut din
punctul de vedere al utilizării „cu măsură” a resurselor planetei şi al echilibrului
factorilor de mediu.
În raportul din 1984, se definea “durabilitatea” (the sustainability) ca
fiind dezvoltarea posibilã în armonie cu natura - ca un concept ecologic cu
consecinţe economice, subliniind cã o societate “durabilã” este cea care îşi
modeleazã / adapteazã sistemul economic şi social, astfel încât sã asigure resursele
naturale şi sistemele de suport ale vieţii nu numai pentru noi cei de acum, ci şi
pentru generaţiile viitoare.
Aceastã temã a dominat toate studiile şi rapoartele institutului, rapoartele
anuale asu-pra stãrii planetei, subintitulându-se “rapoarte asupra progreselor
spre o societate durabilã”.
În seria următoare de studii, lansatã în 1992 de către acelaşi Institut
american pentru monitorizarea dezvoltării mondiale, sub titulatura “Semne vitale,
tendinţe care modeleazã viitorul nostru” - se face un pas înainte în ceea ce
- 20 -
priveşte conceptul de “dezvoltare durabilã” vorbindu-se despre un “viitor

durabil”.
Preocupãrile ONU pentru aceastã problematicã, au continuat cu alte douã
studii remarcabile elaborate de comisiile prezidate de Willy Brandt şi Gro
Harlem Brundtland. Studiul întreprins de Willy Brandt - fost cancelar al
R.F.Germane, intitulat “Nord / Sud - un program pentru supravieţuire” constatã:
“Criza pe care o traverseazã astãzi relaţiile internaţionale şi economia
mondialã, prezintã mari pericole şi pare sã se agraveze (mărturie sunt atacurile
teroriste de la 11 septembrie 2001 - nota noastră).
Nu s-a înţeles suficient cã prãpastia care separã ţãrile bogate de cele
sãrace, reprezintã un element esenţial al acestei crize şi nici faptul cã, în cazuri
extreme, prãpastia este aşa de mare, încât popoarele par a trãi în lumi diferite.
Aceasta este una dintre marile contraicţii ale lumii contemporane tocmai în
momentul în care societatea noastrã începe sã perceapã în ce mãsurã
componentele sale sunt strâns legate între ele, Nordul şi Sudul depinzând unul de
altul, în cadrul unei singure economii mondiale”.
Gro Harlem Brundtland, primul ministru (femeie) al Norvegiei, a
prezentat raportul intitulat “Viitorul nostru al tuturor”.
Raportul subliniazã problema creatã de „expolzia demograficã” repartiţia
geograficã neechilibratã a populaţiei în raport cu resursele disponibile ale planetei
şi necesitatea eforturilor de eliminare a sãrãciei, ridicarea gradului de culturã şi
dezvoltarea capacitãţii colectivitãţilor umane de îmbunãtãţire a utilizãrii eficiente
a resurselor disponibile.
În privinţa speciilor şi a ecosistemelor, se subliniazã necesitatea
menţinerii diversitãţii genetice şi a introducerii în acest scop, în centrul
programelor politice, a problemei protecţiei speciilor şi ecosistemelor ameninţate,
propunându-se un program de potecţie a pãdurilor tropicale şi dezvoltarea unei
ample cooperãri internaţionale.
Dezvoltarea industriei, trebuie făcută prin promovarea noilor tehnologii
mai eficiente şi mai puţin poluante, subliniind necesitatea intensificãrii controlului
asupra agenţilor chimici toxici utilizaţi în industrie şi agriculturã, ca şi asupra
evacuãrilor de deşeuri periculoase pentru mediul ambiant.
În privinţa aşezãrilor umane, se subliniazã necesitatea asigurãrii unei
dezvoltãri echilibrate între mediul urban şi cel rural, controlul dezvoltãrii şi
evitarea supraaglomerãrilor urbane, cât şi sprijinirea eforturilor de eliminare a
subdezvoltãrii.
“Noi împrumutãm de la generaţiile care vor veni - se spune în raport - un
capital ecologic, ştiind précis cã nu-l vom putea nicicând restitui. Ele vor avea tot
dreptul sã ne reproşeze cã am fost atât de risipitori, dar nu vor putea niciodatã sã
recupereze ceea ce le datorãm. Risipim, pentru cã noi nu avem de dat socotealã
nimãnui: generaţiile viitoare nu pot acţiona acum împotriva deciziilor noastre”.
- 21 -
În ceea ce priveşte crizele economice mondiale din ultimele decenii, şi

aici se considerã cã sursa acestora se aflã în consumurile enorme de combustibili,
energie şi materii prime, cu tendinţa de epuizare a acestora, datoritã tipului de
economie care s-a dezvoltat pe o cale de nesusţinut - din punctul de vedere al
resurselor planetei. În acest sens, se poate defini:
dezvoltarea durabilã = dezvoltarea care poate fi susţinutã (menţinutã) în
timp
cu resursele limitate de care dispunem.
Componentele esenţiale ale unei strategii pentru o dezvoltare durabilã,

includ:
.
- stabilizarea populaţiei şi asigurarea unui trai decent tuturor

- menţinerea fertilitãţii naturale a solurilor
- protejarea sistemelor biologice ale planetei, menţinerea biodiversităţii
- reducerea dependenţei de petrol şi în general de combustibilii fosili, a
economiei mondiale
- dezvoltarea alternativã a energiilor regenerabile
şi - reciclarea materialelor, cu diminuarea consumului de resurse minerale
şi a poluării.
Dezvoltarea durabilă în contextul dezvoltării economice.

Priorităţi greşite
Cel de-al patrulea raport al Clubului de la Roma, coordonat de către

Gabor Denis (Premiul Nobel 1971) a fost intitulat semnificativ “Sã ieşim din
epoca risipei” subliniind şi acesta cã modelul de dezvoltare economică al
societăţii noastre este greşit, având tendinţa de a risipi resursele naturale,
devastând mediul înconjurãtor.
Astfel, primele 10 ţãri industrializate ale lumii, cu cca. 10 % din populaţia
globului dar cu economii orientate exagerat spre consum, utilizeazã cca. 60 % din
resursele Terrei, producând şi 75 % din deşeurile solide ale lumii.
Ecologiştii şi nu numai ei, nu pot fi de acord cu acest tip de dezvoltare,
extrapolarea unui asemenea model de societate - care în goana nebună a unora
după tot mai mulţi bani, crează tuturor dorinţe de consum cu orice preţ şi de aici o
flagrantã risipã de resurse - este evident imposibil din punct de vedere material,
planeta nedispunând pentru toţi locuitorii sãi de resurse la o asemenea anvergură,
aceasta implicând şi un grad ridicat de poluare, de deteriorare a condiţiilor de
viaţă.
- 22 -
Economiştii şi inginerii Ecologiştii

- observă că economia globală a - observă că această creştere repre-
crescut de 7 ori din 1950, iar venitul zintă „produsul de ardere” a unor
global a crescut de la 6 la 43 miliarde cantităţi enorme de combustibil fosil,
USD disponibil la preţuri foarte mici
- observă cotele apelor în scădere în
- observă cele mai scăzute preţuri la
ţările-cheie producătoare de hrană,
cereale din ultimele 2 decenii, iar
cca. 800 mil. locuitori fiind hrăniţi
sursele de hrană nu constituie o
acum cu grâu produs prin consumul
problemă a viitorului apropiat
„forţat” al apelor subterane
- observă o piaţă care nu spune
- consideră piaţa globalizată, ca un
adevărul. Ex: în preţul benzinei nu
ghid (aprobator) al deciziilor de
sunt costurile asistenţei medicale
dezvoltare neîncetată a economiei
pentru tratarea bolilor respiratorii
conform viziunii actuale în domeniu
generate de poluarea aerului etc.
Un exemplu edificator, este cel dat de preşedintele Franţei, Jack Chirac, la

Summit-ul de la Barcelona din martie 2002, în care arăta cã este complet
inechitabil ca primele 3 familii cele mai bogate de pe glob sã deţinã fiecare, averi
de peste 50 de miliarde de dolari (rezerva valutarã a României în acel moment era
de numai 3,6 miliarde dolari), iar primele 150 de familii ale lumii, sã aibã venitul
egal cu cel al jumãtãţii mai sãrace a populaţiei globului !!!
Tot mai mult societatea industrialã, prin prioritatea greşită a consumului
cu orice preţ a exploatat fãrã discernãmânt resursele minerale nereînnoibile. Ea a
distrus suprafeţe imense de terenuri cândva fertile. În numeroase locuri, noi am
pus în pericol şi chiar am distrus viaţa prin poluarea aerului, apelor şi a solurilor.
Aceastã situaţie nu poate dura, o societate echilibratã trebuie sã aibă alte
priorităţi să ofere un nivel de viaţã satisfãcãtor tuturor membrilor săi pe plan
material, în condiţiile diminuării consumurilor de resurse, păstrând calitatea
mediului şi a con-diţiilor menţinerii vieţii pentru generaţiile viitoare.
Bunãstarea şi dezvoltarea acestei societãţi vor putea fi garantate doar în
condiţiile în care economia va fi structurată pe valorificarea mai eficientă a
resurselor naturale şi în armonie cu natura. Tendinţa trebuie sã se orienteze cãtre o
economie bazatã pe surse de energie regenerabile, pe utilizarea de materii prime
larg disponibile şi de preferat regenerabile, pe reciclarea permanentã a
materialelor mai greu de gãsit, gestiunea mai bunã a resurselor alimentare,
tehnologii orientate spre reducerea consumurilor de materii prime şi energie, în
urma cãrora sã rezulte cantitãţi minime de deşeuri care „să nu afecteze” calitatea
mediului.
Oportunităţi şi limite ale dezvoltării durabile

Aşa cum am arătat, conceptul de dezvoltare durabilă a apărut şi s-a impus
ca o necesitate în condiţiile degradării sistematice a condiţiilor naturale la nivel
- 23 -
global, ca rezultat al exploziei demografice şi al dezvoltării economice din

ultimele două secole.
Iminenta epuizare a unor resurse minerale importante, precum petrolul,
minereurile de cupru sau cele ale metalelor preţioase, defrişarea unor imense
suprafeţe de pădure, dispariţia a zeci şi sute de specii animale şi vegetale în
fiecare an, ploile acide, subţierea dramatică a stratului protector de ozon şi
schimbările climatice - sunt numai câteva dintre elementele care au făcut ca o
serie de personalităţi ştiinţifice să tragă tot mai dese semnale de alarmă în legătură
cu starea precară a mediului natural şi necesi-tatea unor schimbări promte şi
radicale în ceea ce priveşte atitudinea noastră faţă de mediu şi faţă de problema
dezvoltării pornind de la tehnologiile şi strategiile prezente.
Noul concept de „economie ecologică” porneşte de la o serie de principii
ale dezvoltării durabile dintre care putem aminti:
- ritmul de pierdere a fertilităţii solurilor şi de defrişare a pădurilor, să nu
depăşească capacitatea de regenerare şi refacere a acestora
- de asemenea, pescuitul să nu depăşească capacitatea de regenerare a
speciilor de peşti din mediul natural
- reducerea habitatelor să nu ajungă sub limita necesară păstrării speciilor
animale şi vegetale, păstrând biodiversitatea pe planetă
- emisiile de CO2 să nu depăşească capacitatea naturală de fixare a
carbonului
- necesitatea eliminării risipei de materii prime, combustibili şi energie
prin utilizarea de „tehnologii curate” performante, care să valorifice complex şi
„integral” resursele naturale neregenerabile, inclusiv producerea energiei
nepoluante utilizând forţa vântului, căldura Soarelui etc.
Devine stringentă dezvoltarea noilor forme de energie curată: energia
eoliană, energia solară, utilizarea hidrogenului, îmbunătăţirea siguranţei în
producerea energiei nucleare prin fisiune şi mult-aşteptata energie „nelimitată” a
fuziunii etc.
- 24 -
FACTORI DE AGRESIUNE
Explozia Dezvoltarea Consum exage- Deşeuri şi Ed. materialist

demografică consumatoristă rat de resurse POLUARE individualistă
DEGRADAREA CONDIŢIILOR DE MEDIU
P L A N E T A (încă)
ALBASTRĂ
STOPAREA DEGRADĂRII CONDITIILOR DE MEDIU
D E Z V O L T A R E D U R A B I L A
Controlul Consum Resurse Tehno- Reciclare Educaţie

natalităţii fără regene- logii refolosire ecologică
risipă rabile ecologice
Organisme internaţionale Organisme

de mediu neguvernamentale
SPRIJINIREA PLANETEI ÎN RECĂPĂTAREA ECHILIBRULUI

ECOLOGIC
Figura 10 - Dezvoltarea durabilă a societăţii în sprijinul recăpătării
echilibrului ecologic al planetei
Conceptul de „tehnologii curate” se referă atât la aspecte ale activităţii

economice, cât şi în egală măsură la cele privind protecţia mediului. Vocaţia
acestei categorii de tehnologii, constă în asigurarea:
- reducerii consumurilor de materii prime, combustibili şi energie
- 25 -
- diminuarea cantităţii şi a toxicităţii deşeurilor, cu efecte în reducerea

poluării
- îmbunătăţirea condiţiilor de muncă, prin creşterea agreabilităţii: aer
curat, culori relaxante, eliminarea repetitivităţii, a efortului fizic şi intelectual
epuizant, oferind în general condiţii mai puţin stresante, toate acestea cu efecte
favorabile asupra productivităţii personalului etc.
Dar mai presus de toate, dezvoltarea durabilă trebuie înţeleasă sub toate
dimensiunile sale: umană, economică, tehnologică şi ecologică. Tocmai pornind
de la aceste premize, cât şi de la faptul că provocările pe care le lansează noul
concept (necesar) de dezvoltare a societăţii umane, nu sunt simple concepte
teoretice, ele trebuind a fi puse în aplicare, în practică - este de înţeles că
procesul, chiar sub presiunea celor mai evidente şi grave efecte, unele catastrofice
(exp. subţierea stratului protector de ozon, schimbările climatice etc.) care
ameninţă existenţa noastră, va fi de lungă durată, fiind în acelaşi timp imposibil
de trecut peste nevoile celor săraci, care trebuie şi ei să ajungă la condiţii decente
de trai.
Limite în procesul dezvoltării durabile

Cu toată dorinţa noastră de a schimba starea de fapt actuală, trebuie să
înţelegem că pe acest drum al dezvoltării durabile există şi limite, implacabil
impuse în principal de:
- nivelul tehnologic la care ne aflăm (când încă nu tot ceea ce ar fi de
dorit se poate realiza) poluarea însoţind practic, activitatea economică
- de calculul strict al eficienţei economice, al tehnologiilor existente şi a
celor durabile (deocamdată mai scumpe decât cele clasice) precum şi
- de faptul că mai sunt încă semeni ai noştri care nu au condiţiile minime
decente de trai, şi care trebuie ajutaţi să se dezvolte pentru a atinge acel minim
decent, ceea ce va însemna consumuri suplimentare de resurse, posibile noi
dezechilibre naturale, poluare etc.
Nu există tehnologii total „curate” ci doar mai puţin poluante, ceea ce,
oricât de mare ar fi dorinţa noastră, va determina în continuare poluarea sub toate
formele şi deci afectarea în continuare a factorilor de mediu. Nu este posibilă
renunţarea totală la îngrăşămintele chimice şi la pesticide, având în vedere
necesarul în creştere de alimente pentru o polulaţie a planetei, pe an ce trece tot
mai mare.
Nu este posibil să renunţăm la transporturile rapide şi sigure pe uscat, pe
ape şi aeriene, care necesită combustibili, generând poluare. Transportul de
călători, în condiţiile libertăţii de călătorie, transportul de mărfuri în condiţiile
globalizării economice etc. nu mai poate fi redus la transportul cu pânze sau la cel
cu tracţiune animală, care caracterizau secolele XVII-XVIII.
- 26 -
BACK
Interesele economice diferite ale statelor, vor face să avem în continuare

norme mai permisive de poluare, spre exemplu în cazul Israelului în ceea ce
priveşte industria chimică, India în domeniul poluării apelor curgătoare, Statele
Unite în cazul emisiilor de CO2 încălcând prevederile Protocolului de la Kyoto
ş.a.m.d.
Limitările în procesul dezvoltării durabile provin şi de la sprijinul
internaţional neonorat, din partea ţărilor dezvoltate către statele în curs de
dezvoltare, în domenii precum asigurarea aprovizionării populaţiei cu apă
potabilă, dezvoltarea producţiei agricole, asigurarea minimului de energie
electrică etc. iar poate cel mai grav aspect, este cel legat de transferul sistematic
de industrii şi tehnologii slab productive şi poluante către aceste ţări sărace din
partea statelor dezvoltate, în condiţiile practicării unor preţuri excesive, imorale.
Peste toate acestea, deşeurile radioactive pe care noi le-am depozitat pe
fundul oceanelor şi în spaţii forate în scoarţa terestră, vor reprezenta probleme de
soluţionat de către generaţiile viitoare, însemnând din partea lor preocupare, bani
şi muncă prestate în contul nostru, al celor care poluăm acum.
Bibliografie
1- BROWN R.L., Probleme globale ale omenirii, E.T., Bucureşti - 1996, pag.31
2- Viorel POP ş.a., Relaţii politice şi economice, Ed.Risoprint, Cluj N.- 2005, pag.363
3- FLAVIN C. ş.a., Starea lumii, E.T., Bucureşti - 2002, pag.183
4- PRODI R., O viziune asupra Europei, Ed.Polirom - 2001, pag.114
5- Viorel POP ş.a., Mediu, Resurse, Dezvoltare durabilă, Ed.Univ.Nord - 2006, p.205
6- Viorel POP ş.a., Waste Management, E.A., Bucureşti - 2003, pag.192
7- Alexandru T. BOGDAN (coordonator), Tratat de biotehnologii, Ed. Tehnică, 2004
8- Alexandru T. BOGDAN, Ecologie şi protecţia mediului, Ed. Bioterra, 2000
- 27 -
BACK
DEVELOPING EXPECTATIONS A RURAL AREA OF

EUROPEAN FOUND FOR AGRICULTURE AND RURAL
DEVELOPMENT
E. ŢICĂU, T. ROBU, I. GÎLCA, C-tin DUBIT
Since the accession of Romania to the EU, the funds intended for the
rural space and agriculture development will be numerous and substantial. Even
within 2000 and 2006, Romania was the beneficiary of various pre accession
funds. Out of them, the SAPARD Programme was the most important of those
intended for agriculture and rural development, the EU contribution amounting
over 1,1 billion Euros.
The FEADR together with European Found for Fiche ring represents
the found that continues the SAPARD Programme, but with much larger funds.
The paper aims to present the priority axes of FEADR and inform about
the investment areas accessible to public and private beneficiaries from
agriculture and rural areas, using the public co-financing of this fund.
MATERIAL AND METHODE

The paper used for information a large bibliography and follow post
accession European founds after 2007 who address to rural development and
agriculture of Romania.
Also used that analyses and studies material UE Regulation regarding to
post accession and National Plan for Rural Development. The main source of
information was Commission Regulation (EC) no. 1698/2006, Regulation (EC)
no. 1974/2006, (EC) No. 248/2007 and measures concerning the Multi-annual
Financing Agreements and the Annual Financing Agreements.
RESULTS AND DISSCUSION
MEASURE 111. TRAINING, INFORMATION AND DIFFUSION OF

KNOWLEDGE
The objective of the measure is:

- to facilitate the access to training, information and diffusion of knowledge
activities for all adult people engaged in the agricultural, forestry and food
sectors.
- to acquire information and skills which will enhance the sustainable
management of forests, the social conversions such as improving the life
conditions and reducing unemployment rate in rural areas.
Beneficiaries
The final beneficiaries are adult people engaged in the agricultural, forestry
(including forest holders) sectors and food industry.
- 28 -
112. SETTING UP OF YOUNG FARMERS
Objectives of the measure

The support granted for the setting up of young farmers will facilitate the
structural adjustment and development of competitive farms which perform
sustainable agriculture by means of a better management and new workforce.
Beneficiaries
a) under 40, who are setting up for the first time on an agricultural holding
as head of the holding,
b) possessing or making a commitment to acquire relevant vocational skills,
c) who submit a development plan for the farming activities.
MEASURE 113. EARLY RETIREMENT OF FARMERS AND FARM

WORKERS

The support granted by this measure contributes to a significant structural
change of agriculture by transferring the agricultural holdings and setting up of
young farmers as well as to an improvement of the management with the aim to
increase the size, thus becoming commercial holdings oriented towards
innovation and diversification.
Scope and actions

Early retirement aims to ensure incomes for farmers and/or farm workers,
to increase the size of the holdings and to engage young workforce in the
agricultural activity.
Beneficiaries: Farmers, Farm workers
MEASURE 1.1.4. USE OF ADVISORY AND CONSULTANCY SERVICES

The general objective of the measure aims at improving the knowledge of
farmers and forest holders as well as the access to financing from the Community
funds.
- 29 -
MEASURE 1.2.1. MODERNISATION OF AGRICULTURAL HOLDINGS

Community support granted by this measure has the following objectives:
• Modernizing and restructuring the agricultural holdings aiming at
increasing their competitiveness through a better use of the
production factors;
• Introduction of new technologies and innovations, aiming to improve
the quality and the organic production;
• Production diversification with the use of renewable energy;
• Observance of the Community standards regarding cross-compliance.
The specific objectives of the measure refer to:
• Modernization of agricultural holdings;
• Support for restructuring semi-subsistence agricultural holdings.
Scope and actions
The scope of the support covered by this measure is to:
o Improve the overall performance of the agricultural holdings;
o Meet the Community standards applicable to the type of investments
stipulated in the Chapter “Types of investments”
o Improve the quality of obtained products and diversification of
assortments;
o Promote the generation and use of renewable energy;
o Promote the processing of traditional agricultural products at farm level
and their direct marketing.
Beneficiaries
Agricultural producers – authorised natural persons, authorised family
associations and legal entities, settled up according to the legislation in force.
Tangible investments :
o Construction, modernization and purchase of buildings and other estate

property used for the agricultural production at farm level, including the
those used for the environment protection;
o New buildings and/or modernization of agricultural road infrastructure
(internal roads or access roads), including utilities needed for the project;
o New buildings and/or modernization of diary cow farms which fit with
the milk quota European system;
o New buildings and/or modernization of greenhouses, including heating
systems and irrigation installations, utilities complying with environment
conditions;
o Purchase of new tractors, harvesting machines, machinery, installations,
equipments and accessories, specialized equipments and software;
o Purchase of new specialized transport vehicles needed for the project;
- 30 -
o Purchase of high-genetic value animals only for the restoration of farms

affected by natural disasters;
o Purchase of land for administration and production purposes, for a value
which cannot exceed 10% of the eligible value of the project;
o Setting up vineyards on lands where planting is allowed (only on the
reserve land and the land where replanting is allowed);
o Setting up vineyard and fruit tree nurseries;
o Investments for the production and use of renewable energy;
o Investments for the processing the traditional agricultural products at
farm level, including equipment for direct selling of products as well as
storing and cooling rooms;
o In kind contribution for the setting up of fruit tree, shrub and vine
plantations, for a value of 20% of the eligible value of the project;
o General costs of the project consisting in: fees of architects, engineers
and consultants, feasibility studies, certification taxes, acquisition of
patent rights and licences;
o Investments related to the conversion and development of the organic
farming and agri-environment;
o Investments aiming at complying with the newly introduced Community
standards, as well as with the existing standards for investments
undertaken by young farmers receiving support under conditions
indicated in the business plan, according to the regulation.
Support intensities
Non-refundable public support consists in:
- 80 % Community contribution
- 20 % national contribution.
The public support covered by this measure shall amount between 50% -
100% of the eligible value of the project and may be differ, as follows:
a) 50 % of the eligible value of the investment for agricultural producers;
b) 55 % of the eligible value of the investment for young farmers;
c) 60 % of the eligible value of the investment for agricultural producers from
mountain areas and natural handicap areas other than mountain areas;
d) 65 % of investment costs approved for young farmers from mountain
areas and natural handicap areas other than mountain areas;
e) 75 % of the eligible value of the investment for the implementation of the
Council Directive 91/676/EEC for a period of 4 years after accession, in
compliance with the Regulation (EC) no. 1463/2006;
f) 75 % of the eligible value of the investment for the implementation of the
Council Directives 79/409/EEC and 92/43/EEC regarding Natura 2000;
g) 100 % for the restoration of the productive potential affected by natural
calamities.
- 31 -
Financing
o The maximum ceiling for non-refundable public support is 1 000 000
euro/project.
o The maximum ceiling for non-refundable public support for a project that
includes also investments for the generation of renewable energy is of 1
500 000 euro/project.
MEASURE 122 IMPROVING THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE

FOREST

• rational management of the forests and ensuring the continuity and
biodiversity of forests ecosystems;
• supporting the appliance of afforestation programs of low productive and
deteriorated forests by optimising the composition and promoting
indigenous valuable species as well;
• supporting the replacement of resinous stands outside their habitat by
native valuable species ;
• putting into practice the measures regarding conversion of wooded
grasslands and the tending of young forests as provided for in the
management plans.
Beneficiaries
a) forest owners/holders or their associations, communes, towns,
municipalities or their associations which own forests
b) State-owned forests are excluded from financing.
MEASUR 1.2.3. ADDING VALUE TO AGRICULTURAL AND

FORESTRY PRODUCTS

The objectives target the following aspects :
1. Improvement of the overall performances of the processing and
marketing units for agricultural products;
2. Development of new products and technologies related to agriculture and
forestry products;
3. Improvement of use and observance of food safety standards by
approaching Community requirements and meeting Community standards
in processing and marketing units alongside the whole production cycle.
- 32 -
Type and size of beneficiary enterprises

For Micro, medium and large-sized enterprises
agricultural Other enterprises which are not micro, medium and large-sized
products enterprises, defined in compliance, with less than 750 employees
and with a turnover of less than 200 million EUR
For forest Micro-enterprises -, with less than 10 employees and with a

products turnover of less than 2 million EUR,
For agricultural products

o the construction, modernization and purchase of buildings and other
activities connected to the internal road infrastructure and utilities needed
for the project;
o new buildings and/or modernization activities for product storage,
including wholesale low-temperature storehouses;
o the purchase of new machinery, installations, equipment and devices and
installation costs;
o the construction and modernization of laboratories;
o the purchase of new specialised transport means which are necessary for
the project;
o the purchase of land for administrative and production premises, of a
value which does not exceed 10% of the eligible value of the project.
For forestry products:
- New buildings and modernization of all types of premises, needed for the
project, including utilities and fittings which do not exceed 10% of the eligible
value of the project, including leasing or purchase of land;
- New investments for buildings, installations, machinery and equipment and/or
modernization and improvement of the technology, with the purpose to obtain
new products and therefore meet environment standards, and to generate
renewable energy;
- New investments to purchase specialised transport means for the processing
units, storehouses and marketing units, as identified in the feasibility study;
- New investments to purchase computer software, including its installation.
MEASURE 1.2.5. IMPROVING AND DEVELOPING THE

INFRASTRUCTURE RELATED TO THE DEVELOPMENT AND
ADAPTATION OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY
The measure shall contribute to the improvement of the management of
agricultural and forest land by increasing accessibility through a better
management of the water resources and by insuring the facilities within
agricultural holdings, with the purpose of adjusting the agriculture and forestry
according to the measures for increasing competitiveness.
- 33 -
Beneficiaries :
a) private natural persons and legal entities and their associations,
agricultural and forest land owners/holders, established in accordance
with the legislation in force;
b) Local councils and their associations;
c) Administrators of the state forest fund.
Types of eligible investments:

a. Road infrastructure
agricultural - building and/or modernization of access roads, farm roads,
including marking, signalling and warning systems;
forest - building and/or modernization of access roads, forest roads,
including marking, signalling and warning systems.
b. Management of water resources:
water supply networks, including the water source – building and/or
modernization, including works for protecting pumping stations;
sewerage network - building and/or modernization;
irrigation systems – building and/or modernization including works for
protecting the pumping and metering stations;
c. Electricity supply - building and/or modernization
d. Torrential correction within forest area
e. Agricultural and forestry land consolidation:
technical and juridical actions regarding agricultural land consolidation
works related to the land improvement generating a better use of the
land.
MEASUIRE 1.4.1. SUPPORT FOR SEMI-SUBSISTENCE

AGRICULTURAL HOLDINGS

Support for semi-subsistence agricultural holdings undergoing
restructuring process in order to overcome the transition problems in the
rural area, having in view the competition pressure of the single-market
to the agricultural sector and rural economy;
Facilitate and encourage the restructuring of economically unviable
farms.
- 34 -
Scope and actions

The scope of the support granted by this measure is to facilitate the shift
from semi-subsistence agriculture to family commercial agriculture, through:
9 Restructuring semi-subsistence farms for a better use of production
factors;
9 Diversifying the agricultural production and introducing efficient
technologies.
Amount of support
The support granted by this measure is 1500 EUR/year/semi-subsistence farm.
MEASURE 1.4.2. SETTING UP PRODUCER GROUPS

The measure objective is a quantitative and qualitative balanced
development of the primary production alongside the processing and marketing
sectors for agricultural and forest product.
Type of aid
Within the framework of this measure, 100% non-refundable public aid is
granted as stipulated in the Annex 1 to Council regulation (EC) no. 1698/2005.
The amount granted by this measure will be determined annually on the basis of
the annual marketed production of the recognized group.
MEASURE 2.1.1 SUPPORT FOR LESS FAVOURITE AREAS

Objectives
- ensuring the continuation of agricultural land use and thereby
contributing to the viability of rural communities;
- promoting the sustainable farming systems.
Beneficiaries
The beneficiaries are natural or legal persons or groups thereof,
irrespective of the legal status of their members, providing agricultural activities
on the plots of land located in ATUs that are considered less favoured areas.
MEASURE 2.1.3. NATURA 2000 PAYMENTS
Specific objectives of the measure:

9 To support sustainable farming activities and provide compensation for the
losses incurred by the farmers due to the management requirements imposed by
the implementation of the two directives.
- 35 -
9 Support for traditional agricultural activities in order to maintain the

attractiveness and specific traits of the rural landscape.
9 Conservation of biological diversity – community interest wild species of flora
and fauna and priority habitats – by the maintenance of traditional farming
activities.
Beneficiaries
Farmers – natural or legal persons or groups of natural or legal persons,
irrespective of their legal status, practicing agriculture in the areas of Natura 2000
sites designated in Romania.
MEASURE 2.1.4. AGRI-ENVIRONMENT PAYMENTS

Specific objectives:
a) to develop organic farming as an environmentally-friendly method of
agricultural production;
b) to maintain the biodiversity and landscape value of grasslands, including
the significant areas of High Nature Value (HNV) grassland which are
under increasing threat from changing land use, agricultural
intensification and/or abandonment;
c) to improve water and soil management by farmers, including in those
areas affected by severe erosion and at risk of nutrient losses.
List of existing sub-measures:
Sub-measure 1 - Organic farming;
Sub-measure 2 Extensive management of grasslands;
Sub-measure 3 - Soil and water protection.
Beneficiaries
Natural or legal persons, or groups of natural or legal persons,
irrespective of the legal status of the group and/or its members, provided they
develop farming activities on the national territory.
MEASURE. 2.2.1. FIRST AFFORESTATION OF AGRICULTURAL

LAND
Increasing the afforested non-agricultural land in order to:
a) improve the quality of the environment
b) provide wood for bio energy purposes;
c) increase the protective use of forests;
Types of investments
The applicants will receive support for the afforestation of agricultural
land. The support consists of compensation payments made to the beneficiaries
for:
- 36 -
a) Establishment costs (including costs for plant material, actual planting

and direct costs for planting and the like)
b) Costs for after planting according to the technical norms in force (annual
premium per ha for up to 5 years, starting with the establishment year)
c) Compensation for loss of income due to afforestation (annual premium
per ha for up to 15 years, starting with the establishment year)
MEASURE 2.2.3. FIRST AFFORESTATION OF NON-AGRICULTURAL

LAND
Increasing the afforested non-agricultural land in order to:
a) improve the quality of the environment
b) increase the recreational use of forests;
c) provide wood for bio energy purposes;
MEASURE 2.2.4. NATURA 2000 PAYMENTS

This measure helps the forest owners affected by the specific restrictions
for Natura 2000 sites in the areas in which they perform their activity.
Beneficiaries
The private forest owners or their associations.
Types of investments
At present there are no management plans, and the restrictions imposed
by these plans in order to ensure the preservation of the biodiversity in the
NATURA 2000 sites cannot be quantified in order to balance out the costs for
income losses; it is estimated that the measure will be implemented starting with
2010.
MEASURE 3.1.1 (311 +312) SUPPORT FOR DIVERSIFICATION INTO

NON-AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES; SUPPORT FOR BUSINESS
CREATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Developing the multifunctional characteristic of the rural area by
sustaining the non-agricultural economic activities within the agricultural
household and, more generally, the economic activities in the rural area, with the
aim of :
a) Increasing the additional income of the subsistence and semi-
subsistence farms, coming from non agricultural activities
b) Creating employment in rural areas
- 37 -
c) Valorising the local potential

d) Limiting depopulation in rural space
e) Creating services for the rural population
f) Valorising the potential of producing renewable energy
g) Developing the rural tourism
h) Promoting the entrepreneurship.
Beneficiaries
members of rural households (i.e. natural authorized persons and their
associations or legal entities and their associations, which are registered
in the Agricultural Register and perform agricultural activities when they
apply for support);
micro-enterprises as defined by the legislation in force (enterprises
which employ fewer than 10 persons and whose total does note exceed 2
million EUR);
General requirements:
The investments must be located in rural area
The beneficiary must support the co-financing
The beneficiary must demonstrate the economic and financial viability of
his project and present the necessary clearances
The beneficiary must provide written evidence justifying his ownership
rights or his rights to lease his land for a period of at least 10 years
The micro-enterprise must be registered and/or must perform the
activities in the rural area
The beneficiaries must demonstrate professional relevant skills
The employees of a micro-enterprise must demonstrate professional skills
or experience in the relevant field or show evidence of their future
attending training courses in the relevant field
At least 50% of the employees of a micro-enterprise must have a
permanent address in the rural area
The agri-tourist units must observe the General and Regional Town
Planning, the architectural specificities of the area and the classification
criteria provided by the legislation in force
The interior design of the tourist units must preserve and highlight the
traditional style
Aid intensities
The public support (community and national) granted within this
measure will be up to 70% of the total of eligible expenditures.
The community co-financing rate: 80%
The national rate co-financing : 20%
- 38 -
MEASURE 3.1.3 ENCOURAGEMENT OF TOURISM ACTIVITIES

The objective of this measure is to increase the attractiveness of rural area
by creating, improving and diversifying the tourist infrastructure, the facilities and
the attractions.
Actions envisaged: The support under this measure shall cover:
a) investments for the infrastructure related to the marketing of the rural
tourist services;
b) investments for the recreational infrastructure;
c) investments for highlighting the natural sightseeing of tourist interest in
rural area;
d) writing out of studies and analyses regarding the needs and tourist
potential within clearly demarcated rural areas, with the purpose of
valorising and developing these areas
Description of the type of operations covered
Within this measure, several investments can be realised, for instance for:
a) the infrastructure related to the marketing of tourist services in rural
area, such as :
Construction, modernization and outfitting the information, promotion
and presentation centres and creation of visiting spaces.
Development of electronic systems for booking the tourist reception units
in rural area;
Signs posting.
Beneficiaries
1. The local councils and their associations (as defined in the legislation in
force)
2. Non governmental organisations (NGOs)
Types of support
The support will be granted as a non-refundable public aid which
cannot exceed 500.000 Euro/project for a period of maximum 5 years. The lower
limit of the non-refundable public aid will be 5000 Euro/project.
MEASURE 3.2.2 (321 + 322 +323) VILLAGE RENEWAL AND

DEVELOPMENT, CONSERVATION AND UPGRADING OF THE
RURAL HERITAGE
The objective of the measure
The objective of the measure is to increase the attractiveness of the rural
areas by means of an integrated renovation and development of the villages for
the sustainable development.
- 39 -
Beneficiaries
The Local Councils and their associations (according to the legislation in
force);
NGOs for the components;
Natural persons, legal entities, cultural institutions and churches for the
component.
Description of the type of intervention
Creation and modernization of the rural infrastructure
Design of the spaces of public interest within the village
Studies and investments for protecting the cultural patrimony of local
interest;
Investments for improving the basic services for the rural population
Types of support
The support will be granted as a non-refundable public aid which
cannot exceed 1.000.000 Euro for components a) and d) and 500.000 Euro for
components b) and c).
In case of integrated projects, the upper limit of the non-refundable aid will not
exceed 2,5 millions Euro.
Aid intensities
The public support (community and national) granted within this measure will be:
a) up to 100% of the total eligible expenditures for the local councils
and their associations;
b) up to 85 % of the total eligible expenditures for the NGOs, cultural
and religious institutions
c) up to 70% of the total eligible expenditures for natural persons and
legal entities.
MEASURE 3.4.1. ANIMATION AND SKILL ACQUISITION FOR THE

DRAFTING OF THE LOCAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY
The objective of the measure aims at increasing the local capacity with
the purpose of implementing local development strategies and public-private
partnerships (other than local action groups).
The measures which will be implemented by the public-private
partnerships are all the measures of Axis 3, namely:
Diversification into non agricultural activities and support for business
creation and development with the purpose to promote the entrepreneurship
and develop economic products )
Encouragement of tourism activities
Village renewal and development
A maximum percentage of 15% of the public expenditures of the local
development strategies will be allocated for the running costs of the partnerships.
- 40 -
BACK
MEASURE 4.1. IMPLEMENTATION OF LOCAL DEVELOPMENT

STRATEGIES
411 – Improving the competitiveness of the agricultural and forestry sector
413 – The quality of life in rural areas and diversification of the rural
economy
Objectives
By improving the local govern ship and promoting the local potential is
expected to.
Improve the competitiveness of the agriculture and forestry sector
and also the quality of life and diversifying the rural economy
Encourage the innovative actions (new solutions for old problems,
introducing and development of new products, new market
systems, modernization of traditional activities by applying new
technologies, etc.)
Conclusions
1. By the measures of FEADR Romania is the beneficiary of important funds for
agriculture and rural development.
2. FEADR measures are in accordance with the four axes settled by the EC
Regulation 1968/96
3. FEADR and EFP come-next-after the investments made by Romania through
SAPARD Programme.
4. As compared to SAPARD funds these funds are more diverse, but the
accession conditions are other different
5. The number of FEADR measures is greater than the number of SAPARD
measures and their total value is substantially higher.
References
1. Reg. (EC) nr. 1698/2005
2. Ordin nr. 243 din 14 aprilie 2006
3. Legea nr. 1/2004
4. Ordonanţa de urgenţă a Guvernului nr. 13/2006
5. Hotărârea Guvernului nr. 155/2005
6. Reglementarea (EC) Nr 1782/2003
7. Reglementarea (EC) Nr 1257/1999
8. Regulamentul (ce) nr. 1290/2005 al consiliului din 21 iunie 2005
9. HG 13/2006, privind infiintarea APDRP
10. Reglementarea Consiliului (EC) Nr 1782/2003
- 41 -
BACK
PERSPECTIVE OF RURAL AREA DEVELOPMENT BY

EUROPEAN FONDS FOR AGRICULTURE AND RURAL
DEVELOPMENT
T. ROBU, E. ŢICAU, I. GILCĂ
Since the accession of Romania to the EU, the founds intended for the
rural space and agriculture development will be numerous and substantial. Even
writhin 2000 and 2006, Romania was the beneficiosy of various pre accession
funds. Out of them, the SAPARD Programme was the most important.
MATHERIAL AND METHODS

The authors of this research papers used information from field and from
the ex BRIPS (Regional Office for Implementation of SAPARD Program) 1 Nord
Est Iasi, actually CRPDRP Iasi (Regional Center of Payment for Rural
Development and Fisheries. The data was analysed and processed in the aim of
study the role of SAPARD Program in the Region of Development 1 Nord Est in
generally and, in particulary the impact of Iasi County development, focused by
animal breeding field.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Throw SAPARD Program the agriculture and rural area of Romania beneficieted
of 11 measures in the folowing domains:
food industry;
infrastructure development;
agriculture and ecological agriculture;
another activities specified for rural area;
phyto and veterinary hygiene and food safety;
forestry;
human resuorces.
On these domains at the level of Development’s Region 1 North East in
the period of implementation of SAPARD Program (2000-2006) delivered and
declared as concordance 1264 projects (table 1 and figures).
- 42 -
Table 1
The situation of concordace’s projects in the Region 1 North East
CRPDRP 1 IASI
MEASURES
No of Projects Value in EURO
M 1.1 132 179,278,477
M 1.2 3 5.999.944
M 2.1 293 242.445.701
M 3.1 514 123.209.836
M 3.4 296 41.780.388
M 3.5 26 18.227.186
TOTAL 1.264 610.941.533
PROIECTE CONFORME
CONCORDANCE’S PROJECTS - REGIUNEA
– REGIONE11
No of
Nr. Projects -–1.264
Proiecte 1.264
600
514
500
400 M 1.1
293 296 M 1.2
M 2.1
300
M 3.1
M 3.4
200 132
M 3.5
100 26
3
0
M 1.1 M 1.2 M 2.1 M 3.1 M 3.4 M 3.5
CONCORDANCE’S
PROIECTE CONFORME PROJECTS – REGIONE
- REGIUNEA 11
Value ofproiecte
Valoare Projects –- 610.941.533
610.941.533 EURO
EURO
242.445.701
250.000.000
200.000.000 179.278.477
M 1.1
150.000.000 123.209.836 M 1.2
M 2.1
M 3.1
100.000.000
M 3.4
41.780.388 M 3.5
50.000.000
18.227.186
5.999.944
0
M 1.1 M 1.2 M 2.1 M 3.1 M 3.4 M 3.5
From the data of table and figures we obseved that in the Region 1 North
East was declared as concordance 1264 projects. The most accessed was the
measure 3.1. „Investments in the agricultural exploitations” with 514
- 43 -
concordace’s projects. As value, the most part of founds was investment in rural
infrastructure, respectively 242.445.701 Euro. In this measure was realised over
1400 km of commune’s roads, over 800 km of water network and over 450 km of
sewerage network. Thus, much money was investment in the measure 1.1.
„Achievement of the processing and marketing of agricultral adn fisheries
products”. In this field was invested 179,278,477 Euro, on a number of 132
projects with an average value of 1 350 000 Euro pre project
The situation of yhe concordance’s projects from the Region 1 North

East, per every county are presented in the table 2 and figures.
Table 2
The situation of the concordance’s projects on the counties
(Region 1 North East)
MEASURE TOTAL
CRPDRP 1 IASI %
M 1.1 M 3.1 M 3.4 M 3.5 M 1.2 M 2.1 COUNTY
BACAU No projects 14,16% 23 52 50 2 1 51 179
BACAU Value EURO 16,11% 33.873.804 13.640.958 5.267.024 1.807.652 1.999.953 41.815.655 98.405.046
BOTOSAN
No projects 14,48% 15 107 15 1 0 45 183
I
BOTOSAN
Value EURO 14,75% 23.302.210 25.168.231 1.485.659 737.795 0 39.433.232 90.127.127
I
NEAMT No projects 15,03% 11 70 56 8 0 45 190
NEAMT Value EURO 12,34% 12.092.942 16.494.295 8.934.490 4.957.522 0 32.893.547 75.372.797
IASI No projects 18,67% 20 123 43 0 1 49 236
IASI Value EURO 19,05% 35.312.420 28.887.839 4.716.957 0 1.999.991 45.440.462 116.357.669
SUCEAVA No projects 24,92% 37 82 114 15 1 66 315
SUCEAVA Value EURO 24,40% 46.091.803 16.478.193 19.500.254 10.724.217 2.000.000 54.302.359 149.096.825
VASLUI No projects 12,74% 26 80 18 0 0 37 161
VASLUI Value EURO 13,35% 28.605.299 22.540.320 1.876.006 0 0 28.560.445 81.582.070
100,00
No projects 132 514 296 26 3 293 1.264
TOTAL %
REGION 100,00
Value EURO 179.278.477 123.209.836 41.780.388 18.227.186 5.999.944 242.445.701 610.941.533
%
CONCORDANCE’S PROJECTS – ON THE

PROIECTE CONFORME - PE JUDETE
COUNTIES
Nr. Proiecte
No of Projects-–1.264
1.264
179
161
183
315 190
236
BACAU BOTOSANI NEAMT

IASI SUCEAVA VASLUI
- 44 -
CONCORDANCE’S
PROIECTE CONFORME PROJECTS
- PE –JUDETE
ON THE
COUNTIES
Valoare
Value - 610.941.533
of Projects EURO
– 610.941.533 EURO
98,405,046
81,582,070
90.127.127
149.096.825 75,372,797
116,357,669
BACAU BOTOSANI NEAMT

IASI SUCEAVA VASLUI
With the data from the table and figures presented above we observed that
the best situation is in the Suceava county (315 projects and 149096825 Euro)
folow of Iasi conty (236 projects and 116357669 Euro) and the worst situation is
in the Vaslui as a number of projects (161 projects) and Neamt county as a total
value (75372797 Euro). However, the Region 1 North East with 264 projects and
610941533 Euro are situated in the first three places in competition with all 8
Regional Development from Romania.
The situation of implementation of SAPARD Program in Iasi county are
presented in the table 3 and table 4, and the figures respectively.
Table 3
The implementation of SAPARD Program in Iasi county by the domain of
investments
IASI COUNTY
MEASURE
No of Projects Value in EURO
M 1.1 20 35,312,420
M 1.2 1 1,999,991
M 2.1 49 45,440,462
M 3.1 123 28,887,839
M 3.4 43 4,716,957
M 3.5 0 0
TOTAL 236 116,357,669
- 45 -
CONCORDANCE’S PROJECTS
PROIECTE CONFORME – IASI COUNTY
- JUDETUL IASI
No Proiecte
Nr. of Projects-–236
236
250 236
200
M 1.1
M 1.2
150 M 2.1
123
M 3.1
M 3.4
100
M 3.5
49 TOTAL
43
50
20
1 0
0
M 1.1 M 1.2 M 2.1 M 3.1 M 3.4 M 3.5 TOTAL
CONCORDANCE’S
PROIECTE CONFORMEPROJECTS – IASI COUNTY
- JUDETUL IASI
Value
Valoare of Projects
proiecte – 116.357.669
- 116.357.669 EURO
120,000,000 116,357,669
100,000,000
M 1.1
80,000,000 M 1.2
M 2.1
60,000,000 45,440,462 M 3.1
M 3.4
35,312,420
40,000,000 28,887,839 M 3.5
TOTAL
20,000,000
1,999,991 4,716,957
0
0
M 1.1 M 1.2 M 2.1 M 3.1 M 3.4 M 3.5 TOTAL
Table 4
Implementation of SAPARD Program in Iasi county in the Measure 3.1.
IASI COUNTY
MEASURE
Nr. Proiecte Valoare EURO
M 3.1 123 28,887,839
From which:
Field crops 65 10,947,861
Viticulture 2 432,941
Fruit tree growing 7 221,321
Hot houses 3 958,673
Dayri cattle 36 9,334,925
Sheeps and goats 1 85,764.38
Swine 7 4,797,219
Poultry 2 1,033,009
- 46 -
7 2
1
field crops
culturi de camp
viticulture
viticultura
fruit tree growing
pomicultura
36 hot
sere houses
65
dayr cattle
animale pentru lapte
sheep
crestereandoi/capre
goats
swine
porcine
3 poultry
pasari:
7
2
4% culturi
field de camp
crops
17% viticulture
viticultura
39% fruit tree growing

pomicultura
0%
hot
serehouses
dayr cattle
animale pentru lapte
sheep and oi/capre
crestere goats
34% 2% swine
porcine
poultry
pasari:
1%
3%
In Iasi county was accessed 236 projects with a total value of 116357669
Euro from which the most number was in Meausre 3.1. (123 projects), but the
most value was registered in Measure 2.1. and 1.1. (45440462 Euro and
35312420 Euro respectively). Into the Measure 3.1. in Iasi county (total 123
projects) the most number was accessed in the domain of field crops (65 projects
with 10947861 Euro) and dayri cattle farms (36 projects with 9334925 Euro).
CONCLUSIONS
In the Region 1 North East was declared as concordnace a number of
1264 projects with a total value of 610.941.533 Euro
The most accessed was the Measure 3.1. with 514 projects but the the
biggest value was registered at the Measure 2.1., iar valorea cea mai mare
s-a inregistrat la masura 2.1
The mostnumber of projects was in Suceava county and the least number
in Vaslui county.
- 47 -
BACK
In Iasi county the most accesssed measure war 3.1. but the mos value was
registered at the 2.1. and 1.1 measures
The most accessed domain of the Measure 3.1. in Iasi county was the
achievement of dayri cattle exploitations
REFERENCES
1. Planul National pentru Agricultura si Dezvoltare Rurala 2000-2006
2. Acordul Multianual de Finanţare februarie 2001
3. OUG 142/2000
4. Ordinul MAPDR 143/2005 privind definirea spatiului rural
5. Hotarârea Guvernului nr. 668/2005 pentru aprobarea fiselor tehnice ale masurilor 1.1, 1.2, 2.1,
3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 4.1 si 4.2.
6. Datele statistice ale CRPDRP 1 Iasi
7. Reglementarea 1268/1999 privind sprijinul pentru masurile de pre-aderare
- 48 -
BACK
KOSAROM COMPANIES GROUP INVESTMENTS

FOR PRODUCTS SECURITY ASSURANCE
INVESTIŢIILE GRUPULUI DE FIRME KOSAROM
PENTRU SECURITATEA PRODUSELOR
L.E. POPOVICI
Investiţiile grupului de firme Kosarom derulate pentru siguranţa

produselor s-au efectuat în cadrul legislativ european şi după regulile impuse de
organisme internaţionale certificate.
Kosarom a contrazis politica românească de a ascunde sub preş ce nu
trebuie arătat şi a apelat la verificări din partea unui organism străin, respectiv
TUW-THURINGEN acreditat de TUW.CERT Germania, care se află departe de
orice suspiciune privind corectitudinea. Astfel, S.C. Industrializarea Cărnii
Kosarom S.A., societate din cadrul grupului de firme Kosarom, a primit
certificarea ISO 22000. Acest standard stabileşte cerinţele pentru un sistem de
management al siguranţei alimentului, în care o organizaţie din lanţul alimentar
trebuie să demonstreze capacitatea sa de a controla pericolele, cu scopul de a
asigura că alimentul este sigur în momentul consumului uman.
Kosarom este prima firmă din România şi printre primele zece din Europa
care au certificat Sistemul de Management al Siguranţei Alimentare ISO 22000.
Principiul SAFE FEED – SAFE FOOD

Pentru a înţelege principiul SAFE FEED – SAFE FOOD este necesară o
scurtă prezentare a motivaţiei modernizării tehnologice şi a implementării unui
management adecvat în toate cele patru societăţi din cadrul grupului :
KOSAROM , AVI-TOP, SUINPROD şi Agricola Tîrgu Frumos.
Produsele alimentare ajung la consumatori prin intermediul lanţurilor
logistice care pot implica diferite tipuri de factori şi pot trece mai multe frontiere.
O verigă slabă poate afecta securitatea produselor alimentare ce pot deveni
periculoase pentru sănătate, generând riscuri pentru consumatori şi costuri
considerabile pentru furnizori. Întrucât riscurile cu privire la securitatea
alimentelor pot apărea în orice punct din lanţ, un control adecvat al ansamblului
este esenţial.
Pentru a controla riscurile contaminării, cele patru societăţi lucrează în
sistem integrat. Cerealele produse de către Agricola Tîrgu Frumos sunt materie
primă pentru cele două fabrici de nutreţuri combinate de la SUINPROD şi AVI-
TOP. Nutreţurile reprezintă hrana puilor de la AVI-TOP şi a porcilor de la
Suinprod Roman.
Astfel, procesatorul S.C. Industrializarea Cărnii Kosarom S.A. Paşcani
are asigurată materia primă din surse proprii, conform principiului SAFE FEED –
- 49 -
SAFE FOOD (De la furcă la furculiţă). Putem detalia trasabilitatea oricărui

produs.
Drumul a fost lung şi anevoios şi a început de la privatizarea firmelor, dar
confirmarea efectivă a capacităţii modernizării şi tenacităţii echipei manageriale, a
responsabilităţii şi maturităţii profesionale a devenit evidentă însă după anul 2002,
o dată cu auditările în vederea primelor certificări. Prima verigă a lanţului
alimentar am considerat-o a fi producerea controlată a cerealelor, care reprezintă
materia primă pentru fabricarea furajelor. În acest scop, la S.C. Agricola Tîrgu
Frumos S.A. am investit pentru achiziţionarea de maşini agricole şi crearea
condiţiilor de depozitare, conservare şi transport a cerealelor. Procesarea
cerealelor şi obţinerea nutreţurilor combinate, corespunzător necesităţilor fiecărei
specii şi categorii, o asigurăm în unităţile proprii. Cele două fabrici de nutreţuri
combinate (FNC) de la SUINPROD Roman şi AVI-TOP Iaşi asigură hrana
controlată a animalelor din fermele proprii. Pentru producerea furajelor
corespunzătoare, la Roman, investiţiile sunt de ordinul milioanelor de dolari. În
2003, s-au cifrat la 7 milioane dolari, la care s-au adăugat alte două milioane
dolari în următorii doi ani pentru ridicarea fabricilor de şrot soia şi full – fath soia.
În cursul anului 2006 am pus în funcţiune 5 silozuri, în sistem de control absolut
al calităţii. Peste 1 milion de euro s-au cheltuit pentru modernizarea FNC Iaşi.
Noutatea absolută o reprezintă importarea tehnologiilor de ultimă
generaţie din SUA şi U.E., bazate pe procedee de lucru principial noi. Astfel,
proteina din soia se obţine prin metode mecanice şi nu prin procedee chimice de
extracţie cu solvenţi, incompatibile cu normele de siguranţă a produsului
alimentar.
Baza de materii prime pentru abatorizare şi industrializare o realizăm în
fermele proprii, în care atât spaţiile de cazare şi dotările specifice cât şi
tehnologiile utilizate au fost subordonate nevoii de a răspunde cerinţelor impuse
de realizarea obiectivelor primordiale privind securitatea alimentară. Astfel, la
S.C. SUINPROD ROMAN, care prin performanţele realizate este lider în
România în domeniul creşterii porcului, ne-am propus producerea celui mai bun
porc destinat sacrificării. Utilizăm cele mai bune tehnologii, genetică performantă
şi un program de nutriţie excepţional. Capacitatea de cazare a complexului de
porci este de 40.000 capete, cu o producţie anuală de peste 5.800 tone carne viu.
Genetica utilizată este de la firma P.I.C., lider mondial în acest domeniu. SC
SUINPROD SA ROMAN a început colaborarea şi cu firma Hypor în anul 2005.
La această oră, societatea din Roman livrează tineret porcin pentru îngrăşat, porci
pentru sacrificare şi scrofiţe de prăsilă. După finalizarea proiectului de construcţie
a unei ferme de selecţie, în cursul acestui an, Suinprod Roman va reprezenta
genetica Hypor în România, devenind capabilă de a livra în ţară şi nu numai,
material genetic de mare valoare, cu un status de sănătate foarte înalt, datorită
sistemului închis de creştere promovat. Costurile pentru poziţia de lider s-au
ridicat în ultimii ani la aproximativ 90 miliarde lei, la care se adaugă alte 10
miliarde în 2006.
- 50 -
BACK
La S.C. AVI-TOP S.A. în 2006, pentru siguranţa produsului am investit

în lucrări de modernizare şi extindere peste 10 milioane euro, sumă care se va
materializa într-un nou abator cu o capacitate de sacrificare de 4000 de capete/oră
şi două ferme ecologice pentru creşterea puilor de carne, cu peste 225.000 de
capete pe serie.
Carnea de porc şi o parte din carnea de pasăre sunt procesate la Kosarom
Paşcani, societate certificată ISO 22000. Celelalte firme din cadrul grupului sunt
în curs de certificare. Prin investiţii susţinute am realizat modernizarea
tehnologică, performarea angajaţilor şi crearea unei proprii reţele de distribuţie a
produselor şi preparatelor din carne Kosarom, în scopul asigurării siguranţei
alimentare.
Kosarom are în derulare investiţii de peste 12 milioane de euro pentru
modernizarea abatorului de porci, realizarea capacităţii de preambalare produse,
extinderea capacităţii de livrare, amenajarea unui depozit de salamuri fierte şi
uscate, extinderea reţelei de franciză.
Prin realizarea acestora au fost create condiţiile în baza cărora Kosarom a
obţinut certificarea ISO 22000, care reprezintă nu doar un titlu de nobleţe ci, mai
cu seamă, un argument cu valoare incontestabilă pentru creşterea încrederii
consumatorului în produsele Kosarom.
Prin finalizarea unui volum de aproximativ 28-30 milioane euro,
Kosarom va rămâne între principalii jucători de pe piaţă din domeniul său de
activitate.
- 51 -
BACK
IMMUNOSEROLOGICAL METHODS FOR DETECTING

THE BLOOD GROUP FACTORS IN SHEEP
Gh. HRINCĂ, M. GROZA, Elena FECIORU, I. CHIORESCU
The methodological principle which lies at the basis of the blood group
determination is the immunoserological reaction between antigens and
antibodies. In sheep two methods can be applied to identify the blood group
factors: haemolysis and haemagglutination; in both methods the antigens are
represented by erythrocytes and the antibodies by isoimmune or heteroimmune
reagents; in the haemolysis reaction the rabbit complement is necessary too. The
haemolysis is the most frequent method to detect the erythrocyte factors, being
used in the blood group systems A, B, C, M, R-O and X-Z. The
haemagglutination technique is specific only to the system D.
The immunogenetic typification of sheep is achieved detecting some

immunobiochemical entities named blood group factors (5). The identification of
the blood group factors is made by different immunoserogical reactions between
antigens and antibodies. In sheep the haemolysis reaction is the most used
method. Seldom agglutination phenomena (for example, haemagglutination) are
possible. By combination between antigen and antibody a new structure is created
whose properties are different both of the ones of the antigen and of the ones of
the free antibody. The modalities in which these phenomena take place depend on
the nature of the antigen and antibody, presence or absence of different auxiliary
factors, as well as of the conditions in which the reaction is proceeded (1, 3, 5).
The paper describes two methods to identify the blood group factors in sheep for
parentage testing of their reproduction material, this aspect having an important
contribution to the selection and improvement of the farm animal populations.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The elements of the immunoserological system are represented by antigen
and antibody. Both in the haemolytic method and in the haemagglutination
method the antigens are represented by sheep erythrocytes drawn by jugular vein
puncture in a solution of sodium citrate; also, the antibodies are represented by
isoimmune and heteroimmune antisera (reagents). In the haemolysis reaction the
rabbit complement is necessary.
The immunoserogical reactions take place in the Takátsy microtitration
case for haemolysis and on a glass plate (slide) for haemagglutination.
The preparation of standard erythrocyte suspensions is made in
haemolysis test-tubes.
- 52 -
DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMUNOSEROLOGICAL METHODS

In sheep two methods are used to study the blood group serology:
haemolysis and haemagglutination.
Haemolysis reaction
The haemolysis is the most frequent serological method to determine
blood groups in sheep being met in the systems A, B, C, M, D, R-O and X-Z. The
immunological principle which lies at the basis of this reaction type is union of
antigens on the erythrocyte surface with specific antibodies from blood serum; in
this reaction the complement presence is compulsory (fig. 1). The complement is
linked with the antigen-antibody complex, producing the lysis of the erythrocyte
membrane.
a) Antibody Antigen Complement

(Immunogenetic complex)
b) Positive reaction (presence of specific antibody) Haemolysis
c) Negative reaction (absence of specific antibody) Erythrocyte sediment and supernatant
Fig. 1. – Haemolysis reaction in sheep
The haemolysis reaction is possible only if the three component elements

of this functional unit – haemolytic system – are present in optimal and enough
quantities. If one of the system components is absent the erythrocyte haemolysis
does not take place. The expulsion of haemoglobin from erythrocyte (haemolysis)
is a complex process with participation of the three components (fig. 1a):
1. The antigens – represented by erythrocytes washed with physiological
serum, being obtained a solution of 2% standard concentration.
The preparing of the standard erythrocyte suspensions is made in this
way: the erythrocytes of whole blood, mixed with anticoagulant, are submitted to
some successive washing operations with physiological serum. Then the blood
samples are centrifuged at 3000 rot/min. The supernatant is removed with the help
of a pipette with a rubber tube adapted to a vacuum tube (pump). This operation is
repeated 3-4 times till the supernatant becomes perfectly clear. By this proceeding
- 53 -
the whole quantity of plasma and anticoagulant from blood is removed, being
obtained an erythrocyte store (sediment). With the help of a graduated pipette, 10
ml of physiological serum is poured in a centrifuge test-tube in which is
suspended 0.25 ml blood from the store of washed erythrocytes. This test-tub is
closed with a rubber cork and is agitated till the solution becomes homogeneous.
This represents the standard suspension. The other erythrocytes of the working set
will be compared with this standard solution. In all test-tubes so much
physiological serum will be added till all solutions will have the same colour
intensity with the one of the standard suspension. All these standardized
suspensions (obtained by this colorimetric proceeding) will be immediately used
in the haemolytic test. If the suspensions are kept in the fridge they can be used
the next day too.
2. The antibodies – represented by specific antisera (reagents) for every
erythrocyte type. They can be isoimmune (isoantibodies) obtained by
isoimmunisation technique and heteroimmune (heteroantibodies) obtained by
heteroimmune technique. Their obtaining methodology was described in a
previous paper (2).
3. The complement – is an integrant part of the haemolytic system,
globulin and lipoprotein fractions going in its composition which form the two
structural groups: haptofor and toxofor. The haptofor group achieves the
connection between antibodies and antigens (situated on the erythrocyte surface)
and the toxofor accomplishes the so-called haemolysis processes. In the
haemolytic test for the blood group study the integral rabbit serum is exclusively
used because it does not create pseudoreactions in this process. The rabbit blood
is drawn (approximate 30-40 ml blood) either by section of auricular vein or by
heart puncture. After coagulation the serum is centrifuged at 3000 rot/min. Then
the supernatant is absorbed on sheep erythrocytes lest it should contain antibodies
against sheep erythrocytes. The complement purified in this way is poured in
glass phials and is stored in the freezer at -30oC. It will be used in haemolytic test
at the opportune moment.
The antigen-antibody reactions take place in the buckets of plexiglass
plates of the Takátsy microtitration case. The depth of a bucket is 1.5 cm and its
diameter is 8 mm.
The working set is constituted of plexiglass plates including buckets with
horizontal rows and vertical columns (fig. 2).
In each horizontal row two drops of the same reagent which must be
tested are dropped for each bucket. So, the row number is equal with the one of
reagent serums used for immunogenetic testing. (For example, for the 13 antisera
of our working set 13 rows of buckets were used).
In each vertical column a drop of the erythrocyte suspension of the same
individual is dropped for each bucket. So, the column number is equal with the
number of individuals (erythrocyte suspensions) which must be typified.
The plexiglass plates are strongly agitated to achieve the quantitative
mixture of antibodies with erythrocytes. After 10 minutes a complement drop is
dropped in each bucket.
- 54 -
Another plexiglass plate is destined to the two serological tests. Two

horizontal rows will be used and the number of buckets from each row is equal
with number of erythrocyte suspensions:
1) the physiological serum test: in the first row, three drops of
physiological serum and a drop of each erythrocyte suspension are dropped in
each bucket;
2) the complement test: in the second row, two drops of physiological
serum, a drop of erythrocyte suspension and a drop of complement are dropped in
each bucket.
These two tests must indicate a negative reaction, so that the haemolysis
must not appear; otherwise, the physiological serum or complement could not be
used in the haemolytic test.
Erythrocyte
suspensions 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10…..k…..n-1.....n
Antiserum AaOOOOOOOOOOOOO
Antiserum Ab O O O O O O O O O O O O O
Antiserum Bb O O O O O O O O O O O O O
Antiserum Bc O O O O O O O O O O O O O
Antiserum Bd O O O O O O O O O O O O O
Antiserum Be O O O O O O O O O O O O O
Antiserum Bf O O O O O O O O O O O O O
Antiserum Bh O O O O O O O O O O O O O
Antiserum Ca O O O O O O O O O O O O O
Antiserum Cb O O O O O O O O O O O O O
Antiserum Ma O O O O O O O O O O O O O
Antiserum R O O O O O O O O O O O O O
Antiserum O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
Fig. 2. – Bucket scheme on the plexiglass plates of the Takátsy microtitration case
- 55 -
After the three reactant elements are introduced in buckets the plexiglass
plates are again agitated and are incubated at 25-26oC in thermostat. The results of
the haemolytic reactions are read at ½ hour, 2½ hours and 5 hours. After each
reading the plexiglass plates are agitated in order that the reaction medium from
buckets be homogenized. The haemolysis process indicates the presence of a
certain blood group factor (fig 1b) and if the haemolysis reaction is negative it
means that no erythrocyte antigen was identified (fig. 1c).
Detection (identification) of the blood group factors (fig. 3). After
incubation the different haemolysis degrees are estimated beginning with its
absence till total haemolysis. The estimation is made by a scale between 0 and 4,
the following haemolysis degrees being distinguished:
0 – Absent haemolysis. The immunoserological reaction is negative. All
red cells are deposited in a button shape in the bottom of bucket. The supernatant
is completely clear (fig. 3a);
+ – Incipient haemolysis. The erythrocyte sediment is almost like in the
negative reaction. Though the liquid above has a lightly reddish shade caused by a
low haemoglobin quantity derived from haemolysis of very few red cells (fig. 3b);
1 – Light haemolysis. A lot of erythrocytes are deposited, but almost 25%
of red cells are lysed. The supernatant liquid is lightly coloured in red (fig. 3c);
2 – More emphasized haemolysis. About half of erythrocytes are lysed
and the other half is deposited. The supernatant liquid is more intensely coloured
in red (fig. 3d);
3 – Very advanced haemolysis. Very few erythrocytes are deposited on
the bottom of bucket. Approximately 75% of red cells are haemolysed. The
supernatant liquid has a strong red colour (fig. 3e);
4 – Complete haemolysis. No erythrocyte is deposited. The erythrocyte
lysis is 100%. The supernatant has a very intense red colour, colour that remains
stable by its agitation too (fig. 3f).
a b c d e f
Absent Incipient 25% haemolysis 50% haemolysis 75%haemolysis 100% haemolysis
haemolysis haemolysis
Fig. 3. – Haemolysis degrees of antigen-antibody reaction
The results of immunoserolgical reactions, suggested by the haemolysis

degree, are registered in “Haemolytic test files” (tab. 1). The haemolysis degree
resulted in immunoserological reaction is pointed out at the crossing between the
boxes which indicate the reagent antiserum and the erythrocyte suspension. The
- 56 -
reactions with 0, + and 1 haemolysis degrees are considered negative reactions,

notifying the absence of the blood group factors. The reactions with 2, 3 and 4
haemolysis degrees are considered positive reactions, certifying the existence of
erythrocyte factors in manifest status.
Starting from the “Haemolytic test file”, a “Protocol file of the haemolytic
test” is drawn up (tab. 2); in this document, only in the box in which the
haemolysis degree indicates the presence of erythrocyte antigens (the 2, 3 and 4
degrees) there is registered the respective erythrocyte factor.
Table 1
Haemolytic test file
Reagents Erythrocyte suspensions (antigens)
(antibodies,
antisera) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 k n-1 n
Anti-Aa 0 1 4 1 + 1 0 3 + 1 4 3 +
Anti-Ab 3 1 1 1 4 2 0 1 + 1 3 1 4
Anti-Bb + 2 0 4 0 1 3 1 4 1 1 + 3
Anti-Bc + 4 4 1 1 3 1 0 3 + + + +
Anti-Bd 1 + 3 + 4 1 4 + 4 + 1 4 +
Anti-Be 2 0 + 3 1 4 3 + 0 3 + 4 +
Anti-Bf 4 1 + 4 3 + + + 1 4 2 3 0
Anti-Bh 0 3 1 + + 4 + 4 + 0 4 3 3
Anti-Ca 0 1 + 1 4 1 1 0 1 4 + 0 4
Anti-Cb 3 + 0 1 0 + 3 0 1 3 4 + 0
Anti-Ma 4 3 4 + 1 4 4 1 3 + 0 1 1
Anti-R + 0 3 0 0 4 3 + 3 + 1 + 4
Anti-O 1 0 1 3 4 1 + 3 + 4 1 + +
Table 2
Protocol file of the haemolytic test
Blood Erythrocyte suspensions (antigens)
group
factors 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 k n-1 n
Aa Aa Aa Aa Aa
Ab Ab Ab Ab Ab Ab
Bb Bb Bb Bb Bb Bb
Bc Bc Bc Bc Bc
Bd Bd Bd Bd Bd Bd
Be Be Be Be Be Be Be
Bf Bf Bf Bf Bf Bf Bf
Bh Bh Bh Bh Bh Bh Bh
Ca Ca Ca Ca
Cb Cb Cb Cb Cb
Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma
R R 0 0 R R R R
O O O O O
The nomenclature used to designate the blood phenotypes was the one
adopted at the International Symposium of Blood Groups from Jouy-en-Josas (4).
In the immunogenetic typifying case with the isoimmune reagents with capital
- 57 -
letter there is specified the affiliation of the erythrocyte factor to the blood group
system and with small letter is defined the antigenic specificity of respective
blood factor (for example, the notation Bc signifies the erythrocyte factor c which
belongs to the blood group system B). When the heteroimmune antibodies are
used in immunoserogical reaction with sheep erythrocytes, the nomenclature from
cattle is used to designate the blood group factor specificity (with capital letter:
for example, the notation R indicates the blood factor R of the R-O system).
As such, starting from the “Protocol files of the haemolytic test”, there
were established the blood formulae (blood groups) of the individuals which were
immunogenetically analysed. For example, the individual, which corresponds to
the erythrocyte suspension 3, will have the following blood group factors: Aa, Bc,
Bd, Ma, R (tab. 2).
Haemagglutination reaction
The haemolysis represents the most used type of immunoserogical
reaction for immunogenetic typification of individuals in most species of farm
animals. In a few cases the imunoserological reaction takes place according to the
haemagglutination principle. In sheep the haemagglutnation is present only in the
system D. The presence of complement can cause haemolysis, but the results are
not conclusive. The principle of the haemagglutination method consists in the
aggregation of erythrocytes by the antibodies that present complementary
structures to specific antigenic properties on the red cell surface. The
identification of blood factors in the system D in sheep is made on glass slides on
which are put some drops of more specific antisera. A drop of integral blood from
the analysed subject is added over each reagent drop (fig. 4). The agglutination
reaction will appear at the antiserum that contains specific antibodies to antigenic
determinants on the erythrocyte membrane of subject. The agglutination reaction
points out the presence of the respective blood factors (fig. 4a). The negative
agglutination reaction indicates absence of erythrocyte factors (fig. 4b). The
operation is repeated with the other blood samples of individuals submitted to
immunoserological test.
a) Antibody Antigen Positive reaction Agglutinated blood cells

(presence of specific antibody)
b) Antibody Antigen Negative reaction Blood cells in suspension

(absence of specific antibody)
Fig. 4. – Haemagglutination reaction in sheep
- 58 -
BACK
*
The identification of blood group factors in sheep by these methods
represents an essential contribution to solve some theoretical and practical
breeding problems of this species as: valuation of genetic resources within the
species, breeds and varieties, estimation of immunogenetic polymorphism and of
homozigotness and heterozygotness degree in sheep populations, increase of
animal productivity by association or correlation of erythrocyte factors with the
production, reproduction and health parameters, accuracy increase of
reproduction, selection and improvement processes by parentage determination of
the reproduction material.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The methodological principle which lies at the basis of the blood group
determination is the immunoserological reaction between antigens and antibodies.
2. In sheep two methods can be applied to identify the blood group
factors: haemolysis and haemagglutination; in both methods the antigens are
represented by erythrocytes and the antibodies by isoimmune or heteroimmune
reagents; in the haemolysis reaction the rabbit complement is necessary too.
3. The haemolysis is the most frequent method to detect the erythrocyte
factors, being used in the blood group systems A, B, C, M, R-O and X-Z.
4. The haemagglutination technique is specific only to the system D.
REFERENCES
1. Granciu I., Duică S., Cureu I., 1973 - Grupele sanguine la animalele domestice. Edit. Ceres,
Bucureşti.
2. Hrincă Gh., Groza M., Fecioru Elena, Ursu S., 2006 – Immunization techniques for obtaining the
blood group antibodies in sheep to test the reproduction material origin. The 35-th
Internat. Sess. of sci. Communic. of Fac. of anim. Sci., Univ. of Agr. Sci. and Vet. Med.
Bucharest: 43-49.
3. Lauf P. K., 1975 - Antigen-antibody reaction and cation transport in biomembranes:
immunophysiological aspects. Biochim. biophys. Acta, vol. 415 : 173 - 229.
4. Nguyen T. C., 1973 - Report on the Sheep Blood Groups Workshop (Jouy-en-Josas, 1973).
International Comparaison Test and General Rules for Sheep Blood Groups
Nomenclature. Anim. Blood Groups and biochem. Genet., vol. 4: 241-243.
5. Spooner R. L., 1980 - Blood Groups in Animals. In: Sci. Found. of Vet. Med. Edit. Phillipson,
Hall and Pritchard, Haineman, London: 421-427.
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BACK
ASPECTS OF THE ENDOCRINO-METABOLIC

ADAPTATION, RELATED TO THE BOVINE MEAT YIELD
P.C. BOIŞTEANU, Iolanda MĂRGĂRINT,

Cristina RADU-RUSU, Roxana LAZĂR
The paper presents a synthesis of the peculiarities concerning the

endocrine-metabolic adaptations of the bovine organism to the qualitative and
quantitative meat yield (muscular mass accumulation and fattening degree). The
essential metabolic aspects, the muscular and adipose tissue characteristics were
analyzed, as related to bovine nutrition and digestion specific.
The quantitative and qualitative aspect of beef production (muscular mass

and fattening degree increasing) results as an interaction between genetic,
metabolic and physiological factors during the animals growing period. The
morphology, the physico-chemical and biochemical composition of the bovine
meat are limitative factors of the meat quality due to their action toward the
sensorial and dietetic meat features. The energetic metabolism particularities are
those characteristics of the muscular and adipose tissues, which give the
biochemical composition of the meat (protein deposition and especially the
intramuscular lipid content). The energetic metabolism of the muscle and adipose
tissues of the bovine is characterized through the usage of some specific
substrates (volatile fatty acids and ketone bodies, as good as glucose), the
contribution of the long-chain carbon fatty acids being restrained.
The energetic substrates used by the muscular tissue are provided by the
rumenal fermentative processes (volatile fatty acids, mainly acetate), or by the
hepatic metabolism (ketone bodies through ketogenesis and glucose through
gluconeogenesis). The muscular and adipose tissues are metabolic active tissues,
so the specific muscular proteins, the glycogen and different lipid species
biosyntheses are mainly influenced by the specific energy requirements (ATP
synthesis and utilization), by the adaptation dynamics of various biochemical
pathways, being under a straight neuro-endocrino-metabolic coordination and
influenced by the nutritional status of the animals.
Energetic metabolism of the skeletal muscle in cattle
Musculature of the animals designed for beef production counts 35-60%
of the muscular mass.
The energetic substrates of the skeletal muscular tissue contribute to the
free energy form synthesis (ATP), used for musculature development during
growing period, for contractile activity (posture-locomotion) as good as for
thermogenesis. They could be also stored as glycogen and triglycerides; the
muscle content in these substances mainly leads to the establishment of the beef
sensorial features.
Main energetic substrates of the ruminants present exogenous origin
(volatile fatty acids, ketone bodies) or even endogenous origin (glycogen issued
- 60 -
from the energetic supplies of the myocites and triglycerides issued from the
lipids mobilization within the intramuscular adipocites). These metabolic
pathways are initiated according to the nutrients uptake by the muscles and to the
existing enzymatic equipment (Fig. 1). Increment of the energetic intake
facilitates the intramuscular protein, glycogen and lipids biosynthesis; an
excessive energetic intake leads to the adipose tissue development within the
carcass, due to the induction of the insulin-resistance status within the muscles.
Nutrients turnover and distribution between anabolic (glycogenesis, lipogenesis)
and catabolic (glycolysis, lipolysis, tricarboxylic acids cycle or TCA cycle)
pathways within the muscle are not fully clarified.
According to their metabolic and contractile features, the muscular fibers

are usually classified in 3 metabolic types (glycolytic, oxidative and oxidativ –
glycolytic) and 2 contractile categories (fast and slow).
Muscular fibers having preponderant glycolytic metabolism better use
glucose as energetic substrate, have high insulin sensibility (assure the caption,
the inner cell glucose utilization, leading to muscular glycogen content
increasing), have low level of the fatty acids turnover and a poor content of
intramuscular lipids.
The blood flow carries the glucose needed for the muscular tissue, so this
supply depends on the blood debit. The evaluation of the glucose uptake by the
muscle is measured in vivo by the assessment of the arterial-venous glycaemia
difference, on the animal posterior limb. The resting muscle metabolizes glucose
through several biochemical pathways, such as: complete oxidation within
- 61 -
mitochondria, recycling as lactate, conversion in muscular glycogen or even lipids

(within the intramuscular adipocites) (Hocquette, 2000).
Glucose is used by the intramuscular adipocites as precursor for de novo
lipogenesis, comparing with other adipose placements, which mainly uses acetate
and lactate as precursors.
Oxidative muscular metabolism is an essential feature of the ruminants,
the volatile fatty acids (acetate, propionate, butyrate) being the main final
products of the microbial feed degradation in rumen. However, only acetate states
as a true substrate used within the oxidative muscular metabolism, while
propionate is the main precursor of the hepatic gluconeogenesis (85-90%) and the
butyrate is used during hepatic metabolism in 80% proportion (Hocquette, 2000).
Cattle have limited oxidative capacity onto the long carbon chain fatty
acids, especially within the muscular tissue, as compared to non-ruminant
mammals. Despite this situation, some studies concerning the tissual lipid
metabolism in calves (Bauchart, 1999) revealed the metabolisation process of
long carbon chain fatty acids. These are transported by blood flow, from the liver
to the muscular tissue, as lipoproteins (VDLD) or as unesterified fatty acids
(UEFA) issued from lipids mobilization in the adipose tissue (Fig. 2).
The uptake of the unesterified fatty acids by the muscular tissue is straight
proportional to their arterial concentration. Triglycerides which reach the muscles
as lipoproteins (VLDL) are hydrolyzed to fatty acids and glycerol, using the
lipoproteinlipase (LPL), an enzyme with restrictive purpose in the muscle cells
supplying with energetic substances having lipoproteic origin. Inside the muscle
cells, the fatty acids are transported by some specific binding proteins (Fatty Acid
Binding Protein) to the oxidation organelles (mitochondriae and peroxizomes) or
to esterification site (cytosol).
Peroxizomes are involved in partial oxidation of the fatty acids with long
carbon chain till it reaches the acetyl CoA stage and the mitochondriae are
involved into fatty acid oxidation during the TCA cycle, finally delivering energy
(ATP). The mitochondriae content is higher in oxidative muscles, as compared to
the glycolytic ones (Hocquette, 2000). A specific enzyme (carnitine-
palmitoiltransferase I or CPT-I) is required to facilitate the fatty acids penetration
into the mitochondria. This enzyme’s activity is considered as a limitative stage of
the fatty acids mitochondrial oxidation within the calves’ muscular tissue
(Hocquette, 2000).
Another energetic substrate used in energetic metabolism of the bovine
muscular tissue consist in the ketone bodies (KB) (acetoacetate and ß-
hidroxibutirate), issued from the ketogenesis produced within the rumen
epithelium or in the hepatocytes (Pethick, 1984, quoted by Cuvelier, 2005). The
ketone bodies are converted to acetyl CoA, which is then oxidized through the
TCA cycle, delivering energy (ATP).
- 62 -
During the animals growing period, during the adaptation process to the
intense and long lasting muscular efforts or even during the adaptation to low
temperatures a competition between lipids and glucose oxidation occurs (Randle
cycle). Thus, from the fatty acids degradation issues the nicotinamidic NAD+
coenzyme, ATP and acetyl CoA, which inhibit the main glucose oxidative
enzyme - piruvatedehidrogenase. Par consequence, the in vivo acetate infusion
saves glucose as energy source. Conversely, the glucose catabolism stimulation
decreases the fatty acids oxidation by CPT I inhibition. During intense or long
lasting muscular effort, a metabolic adaptation occurs, characterized by the
increasing of the energetic requirements within muscle, through glucose (supplied
from hepatic synthesis) and lipids oxidation. When glucose usage prevails in
muscle, this is converted to lactate. At the cows reared within free stalling
systems, a decrease of the glycolytic activity was observed in the muscles most
frequently utilized in movements. Thus, an increasing of the muscular oxidative
potential and the decreasing of the deposed lipids quantity occurs. The carcass
adipose mass is reduced in the bovines reared in free stalling systems, as
compared to the sedentary ones, considering the same feeding level for both
categories. The grazing bovine muscles are more sensible to insulin action and
accumulate fewer lipids within the intramuscular adipocites. This example shows
differences in beef quality, as related to different husbandry systems used.
Feeding level induces important consequences on the muscular energetic
metabolism of the young growing animals and even of the adult specimens. The
acetate and the glucose are the main energetic substrates used by the muscles of
the bovine receiving feed (Hocquette, 2000). Generally, the increasing of the
- 63 -
metabolisable energy quantity is accompanied by proteins and lipids

accumulation within animal carcass. During feeding restriction or even inanition,
the availability of these substances decreases, while the concentration of
circulating unesterified fatty acids and ketone bodies increases, as a consequence
of lipid provision mobilization or due to a high hepatic ketogenesis rate
(Faulconnier, 1999). In ruminants, as good as in non-ruminants, the unesterified
fatty acids could be used straight in the muscle or indirectly, after their hepatic
transformation in ketone bodies. The poor feeding of the bovine reared within
extensive systems, during winter period, associates with the decreasing of the
adipose deposits and of the intramuscular lipids content. Regaining a normal
feeding level during spring induces a compensatory increasing of protein and lipid
storage within tissues. (Micol, 1997, quoted by Hocquette, 2000).
The energetic metabolism of the muscular tissue is also influenced by the
endocrine system, which regulates the nutrients flow toward muscles, through
the straight effect of vessels dilatation, increasing thus the blood stream intensity.
Insulin stimulates the glucose metabolism within the muscular tissue,
intensifying the glucose uptake in cells and then its oxidation through the TCA
cycle or its conversion to lactate and the deposition as glycogen. Insulin is also
involved in acetate uptake and usage in muscular tissue, as well in the storage of
long carbon chain fatty acids, as triglycerides (Hocquette, 2000). During animal
growing period, a high muscle sensibility to the insulin could be observed,
directly influencing the cell metabolism. Par consequence, the growing period
supposes a better usage of the energetic substrates within the muscular tissue,
leading to the increasing of the muscular mass and of the intramuscular lipid
content.
Growth hormone (GTH) increases the weight gain of animals, decreases
the lipid deposits from the adipose tissue and also from intramuscular adipocites.
These metabolic changes have consequences upon same characteristics involved
in meat quality. Metabolic effects determined by GTH are in general weaker at
ruminants, comparing to monogastric animals (Hopchick, 1991).
Iodic tiroidian hormones stimulate the mitochondrial activity in the
muscular fibers, so orient the muscular metabolism to oxidative type, but also
stimulates the myosin synthesis.
Beta-2-agonistes increase the synthesis and deposit of the proteins
through the decrease of protein degradation and lipid deposits (Sillence, 1996,
quoted by Hocquette, 2000).
Energetic metabolism in the adipose tissue at cattle
Adipose tissue is specialized in order to synthesize and store the
triglycerides, main metabolic adaptation at ruminants, where the liver has no
activity or a small lipogenesis de novo (Chilliard, 1994). The metabolic activity of
the adipose tissues presents a lipogenesis dynamics (the synthesis of the
triglyceride reserves) and a lipolisis dynamics (mobilization of lipids from
provisions) varying in function of the feeding particularities of animals, age
physiological state. So, at growing animals the development of skeletal muscles is
mandatory, while the lipogenesis in the adipose tissue decreases. In adult animals,
- 64 -
muscular mass development decreases while the lipogenesis increases within the
adipose tissue (Bergen, 1974).
At ruminants, de novo lipogenesis in the adipose tissue takes place mostly
in cytosol, starting from the acetate and less from the glucose1. The adipose tissue
is a dynamic energy deposit and its metabolic state is a result of the balance
between de novo synthesis of fatty acids, esterification of fatty acids, hydrolysis
of triglycerides (lipolysis) and reesterification of fatty acids resulted from
lipolysis (Fig. 3).
At ruminants, fatty acids necessary for triglyceride synthesis are obtained

either from lipolysis under the action of hormone sensible lipases, either from the
acetate or glucose as good as from lipoproteins (VLDL) which arrive on
bloodstream way to the adipose tissue and are submitted to the action of
lipoprotein-lipase (LPL); active biochemical way of TG synthesis in the adipose
tissue is the glycerol-phosphate way (Faulconnier, 1999).
The development of the molecular biology techniques allowed the
description of lipogenical enzymes: Acetyl – CoA carboxilasis (ACC) and the
synthetase of fatty acids (fatty acids – sinthetasis). Acetyl – CoA carboxilasis
represent a point of metabolic control that induces either the fatty acids synthesis
in the presence of precursors, either the fatty acids oxidation within the peripheral
adipose tissues, in conditions of poor alimentation (Vernon, 1999, Faulconnier,
1
In ruminants, the liver is designed to synthesize glucose through gluconeogenesis, starting from
propionate (Vernon, 1999)
- 65 -
1999). This metabolic adaptation is very important for the distribution of

energetic substances in the adipose tissue, muscular tissue and liver; the abnormal
function of the mechanism disturbs the energetic equilibrium of animals,
producing their excessive fattening.
Next to the preferential use of the acetate as lipogenetic precursor in white
adipose tissue, ruminants use with predilection glucose and lactate in de novo
lipogenesis in the muscular adipocytes.
Insulin is the main hormone that stimulates lipogenesis in the ruminant
adipose tissue. However, the adipose tissue during lactation becomes resistant at
insulin and lipogenesis intensifies in mammary gland. This is an example of fine
homeoretic adaptation that assures the maintenance of some priority function.
Lipolysis (lipomobilisation) in the adipocites tissue consists upon
hydrolysis of the triglycerides in fatty acids and glycerol, under the action of
hormone sensible lipases, being realized under the straight neuro-endocrine-
metabolic control, in relation with the necessity of the organism. The lipokinetic
effect appears at the stimulation of posterior hypothalamus, were superior
vegetative sympathetic centers are located.
At ruminants, the growth hormone (GTH) directly acts and has
lipolythical and antilipogenetical effects in the adipose tissue that possesses GTH
receptors.
Catecolamines (adrenalin and noradrenalin) from the suprarenal
glands and/or sympathetic nervous system and beta-agonists intensify the
lipolysis2 through the activation of hormone sensible lipases at sheep and cow,
during lactation (Chilliard, 1987).
Excessive mobilization of lipids is prevented through a physiological
mechanism of inhibition of the hormone sensible lipases by adenosine
(antilipolythical effect) (Chilliard, 1993).
Antilipolythical effects were observed when insulin and E prostaglandins
were given to animals.
Adipose and muscular tissues as endocrine organs
Adipose tissue is able to store energy as triglycerides during the phases of
caloric excess and to use lipids when the energetic income is low (Tomas, 2004).
The dynamics between lipolysis and lipogenesis has an adaptive role in case of
physiological subnutrition (pregnancy, lactation etc.), starvation, termogenesis
and muscular effort.
Adipose tissue has a complex metabolism, with particularities depending
on nutrients type and quantity, age and sex; this metabolism is thoroughly
controlled by the CNS and VNS and by the endocrine system.
Recently, it was proved the role of the white adipose tissue in the self-
regulation of the triglyceride, through two main hormones: leptine and
adiponectine. These substances, resembling to citokines, play an important role
just as insulin, GTH, glucocorticoid hormones, estrogens and androgens, which
control animal body weight. The growth of the muscular masses is under the
2
Adypocites membrane contains beta-adrenergic receptors, with lipolythical effects
- 66 -
influence of genetic, nutritional, hormonal and physiological factors witch must

be known and used in order to improve the quality of meat production.
Leptine is a proteic hormone constituted of 167 aminoacids, synthesized
and deployed especially in the adipose tissue, playing an important role in feed
intake regulation, in adiposity control and adipose tissue distribution, in the
growth and chemical composition of the muscular tissue, in the reproductive
system and in the immune mechanisms (Fig. 4).
Leptine was discovered by Friedman in 1994, quoted by Chilliard, (1999),
and the gene codifying leptine is localization within the 4th chromosome in cattle
(Pomp, 1997 quoted by Chilliard, 1999). Leptine is a lipostatic hormone that
informs the CNS on the energetic reserves, and that completes the lipostatic
theory of hunger (Kennedy, 1953). According to this theory, adipose tissue
generates a signal to the CNS, in order to limit feed intake, so the fattening and
the body chemical composition can be modified only up to a certain limit.
Leptin is receptive at the quantity of triglycerides stored in the adipocites

(adipocites dimension) and modulates animal energetic balance, having an
inhibitory action towards triglycerides synthesis, following an unclear mechanism
(Houseknecht, 2003) (Fig. 5).
- 67 -
Leptin is deployed in blood and exerts his action on Ventral Medial

nucleus of the hypothalamus (known as the "satiety-center"), where are the
centers of alimentary behavior and a numbers of receptors for leptin (Ob-R). In
hypothalamus, leptin works by inhibiting the activity of neurons that contain
neuropeptide Y (NPY). The NPY neurons are a key element in the regulation of
feed intake, through appetite stimulation (Cassy, 2001). The mechanism of leptin
has an influence on the secretion of catecholamine, by stimulation of sympathetic
nervous system (Chilliard, 1999) (Fig. 6).
Besides the indirect action of leptin through NCS, it also has an autocrine
effect on adiposities by inhibiting the synthesis of fatty acids and of TG by
reducing the activities of acetyl CoA carboxylase (Vernoon, 1999).
The level of leptin straight proportionally related with the adiposity level,
causing TG hydrolyses and fatty acids oxidation in peripheral tissues (β-
pancreatic cells, T lymphocytes).
Adiponectin is another hormone secreted from adipose tissue, whose role

is to intensify the tissue metabolism and fatty acids oxidation, without modifying
the appetite. The action mechanism of adiponectin is exercised upon insulin, so
the increased level of adiponectin needs a lower concentration of insulin in order
to capture glucose and to use it within tissues. Adiponectin is more efficient in
- 68 -
monogastric animals, due to the predominant use of glucose as energetic support

in comparison with ruminants.
The adipose tissue secrete other active proteins that action on endocrine
way, eg. adipsine, interleukine 6, resistine…, whose changes disturb the lipids
metabolism (obesity appears).
Recent studies showed that skeletal muscle could work as an endocrine
organ, synthesizing and delivering citokinine IL-6 into the bloodstream, hormone
having lipolythical role (Tomas, 2004).
CONCLUSIONS
1) The quantity and quality aspects of meat production at cattle are a
reflection of energetic metabolism particularities of muscular and adipose tissues.
2) The protein deposits in carcass and intramuscular lipids increment are
regulated through endocrine-metabolic mechanisms and permanently adapted to
the animal feeding and breeding conditions.
3) The muscular mass development and adiposity are improved by an
appropriate feed intake and by the normal functioning of the anabolic systems,
belonging to classical hormones (insulin, growth hormone, glucocorticoids) and
also to tissual hormones (growth factors, leptine, adiponectine, adipsine,
citokinine).
4) The deep knowledge of muscular and adipose tissues metabolism at cattle
presents a theoretical and practical special interest, in order to coordinate and
improve the meat production.
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Bauchart D., Durand D., Gruffat-Mouti D., Piot C., Graulet B., Chilliard Y., Hocquette J. F.,
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animales, INRA, 14, 161-169
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BACK
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1999 – Régulation du métabolisme lipidique des tissus adipeux et musculaire chez le ruminant.
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Houseknecht K.L., Baile C.A., Matteri R.L., Spurlock M. E., 1998 – The biology of leptin: a
review, Journal of Animal Science, vol. 76, 1405-1420
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Payton M. E., 2005 – Influence of nutrient intake and body fat on concentration of insulin-like
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BACK
USE MOLECULAR MARKERS FOR REVEALING APPLE F1

HYBRIDS MONOGENIC RESISTANCE TO SCAB
(VENTURIA INAEQUALIS)
Monica BODEA, D. PAMFIL, R. SESTRAŞ, Bianca PĂTRAŞCU,
Ioana PETRICELE, Rodica POP, Iulia Francesca POP
Early selection of scab resistant apple hybrids can be enhanced by the

use of specific molecular markers tightly linked to the Vf resistance gene.
The aim of our study was to analyse four apple cultivars (Liberty,
Florina, Starkrimson, Golden Spur) used as genitors and their hybrid seedlings
for revealing monogenic resistance to scab.
In the experimental field, seedlings selection was done after presence
or absence of the scab infection symptoms in leaves and phenotipically selection
was completed by marker assisted selection.
In this study we used two specific molecular markers AL-07 (SCAR) and
AM-19 (SCAR) who detects the presence of the Vf gene introgressed from Malus
floribunda 821 in two of parental cultivars. Starkrimson and Golden Spur were
susceptible scab parents with genotype vfvf (recessive homozygous), while
Liberty and Florina were identified as heterozygous scab resistant parents with
genotype VfVf.
We analysed 40 apple seedlings, grouped in four combinations after their
genitors (in each combinations were selected ten hybrids, among them five resistant
and five susceptible to scab attack. Hybrids belonging to Starkrimson x Golden Spur
were only recessive homozygous genotype (vfvf) and in combination Liberty x
Florina were identified susceptible and resistant progenies only with heterozygous
genotype (Vfvf) and no one with dominant homozygous genotype (VfVf).
INTRODUCTION
Apple scab, caused by the fungus Venturia inaequalis, is one of the major
diseases in Transylvania apple orchards, which together with the fungus
Podosphaera leucotricha can hamper apple production (SESTRAŞ, 1997).
CROSBY et al. (1992) describe a qualitative (monogenic) resistance and
a quantitative (poligenic) one. Monogenic resistance is typical for some Malus
species and the segregation of the susceptible/resistant genotypes is guided by
Mendel’s laws.
Most of the genetic markers identified so far are linked to the Vf gene that
was transferred from Malus floribunda clone 821 using conventional methods.
Prima was the first resistant commercial cultivar carrying Vf gene (DAYTON et
al. 1970).
Availability of large number of genetic markers for Vf gene allowed the
optimization of MAS and the detailed evaluation of the advantages comparing to
classical selection methods based on phenotypic observations. MAS is a more
- 71 -
precise method, less time consuming and can also make it possible to distinguish
heterozygous and homozygous genotypes since two flanking codominant markers
are available for Vf gene.
Another MAS advantage is the possibility of performing an efficient
negative selection against the donor chromosomal regions in the vicinity of the
introgressed gene and this type of selection cannot be performed by using a
standard phenotypic selection. It has already been demonstrated that most of the
advanced apple Vf selections chosen only on phenotypic basis are still carrying a
large portion of the Malus floribunda genome in the Vf chromosome even after 5-
6 generations.
Availability of molecular markers linked to different resistance genes
against the same pathogen and their map position can also be used to estimate the
possible relationship among various apparently unrelated resistance sources.
Researchers demonstrated already that markers linked to a specific gene (i.e. Vf or
Vm) are not present in selection carrying other resistance genes.
Most of the genetic markers for scab resistance are based on PCR
(Polymerase Chain Reaction). In 1995 GARDINER et al. obtained genetic
markers for scab resistance in Malus floribunda using RAPD analysis. This
marker is located at 28 cM distance from the Vf gene. Two other genetic markers
for Vf gene were discovered in 1996 by GIANFRANCESCHI et al. and
HEMMAT et al. in 1998. In 1999 TARTARINI et al. identified specific PCR
markers for dominant homozygous, heterozygous and recessive homozygous.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Biological material used for molecular analysis was represented by F1
hybrids (seedlings) originated from four genitors (apple cultivars) with a different
response at Venturia inaequalis attack: susceptible (Starkrimson and Golden
Spur) and resistant (Liberty and Florina).
Seedlings were obtained at Fruit Research and Development Station Cluj
Napoca, Romania and we analysed four combinations noted with the following
codes: 9811- Liberty x Florina; 9812 Starkrimson x Golden Spur; 9814-
Starkrimson x Liberty and 9817 Golden Spur x Florina. From each combination,
with more than 100 seedlings, were selected ten hybrids: five resistant at scab
attack on leaves and five susceptible.
We analysed 44 samples: four represented by genitors and the others 40
apple seedlings, grouped in four combination (Table 1).
- 72 -
Table 1
Biological material represented by four apple cultivars and their F1 hybrids

obtained by a diallel cross
No./ Cultivar/ Number of Number of

comb. Hybrid Combinations susceptible hybrids at resistant hybrids at
scab attack on leaves scab attack on leaves
1 Liberty - -
2 Florina - -
3 Starkrimson - -
4 Golden Spur - -
9811 Liberty x Florina 5 5
9812 Starkrimson x Golden Spur 5 5
9814 Starkrimson x Liberty 5 5
9817 Golden Spur x Florina 5 5
Leaves from each hybrid plant were collected in zipp plastic bags, transported
immediately to laboratory and stored at – 80 ºC.
Genomic DNA was extracted using a modified version (RODICA POP et
al., 2003) of the protocol published by LODHI et al. (1994).
PCR reactions were carried out in 25 µl volumes containing Master Mix
with the following reagents: 5 x Green Go Taq Flexi Reaction Buffer (Promega),
1,5 mM Mg Cl2, 200 µM of each dNTP, 0,2 µM of each primer and 0,6U of Go
Taq Polymerase (Promega). The amplification was performed in a Mastercycler
Gradient (Eppendorf) programmable thermal cycle.
Cycling parameters for the AL 07 and AM 19 primers were set as
described by TARTARINI et al. (1999) as follows: 1 cycle of denaturation at
94ºC for 2 min and 30 s, annealing at 60 ºC for 1 min, extension at 72 ºC for 2
min and 35 cycles of 30 s denaturation at 94 ºC, 1 min annealing at 60 ºC and 2
min extension at 72 ºC finalised by a final extension step 10 min at 72 ºC.
The sequences of used primers were :
AL 07 Forward 5’TGGAAGAGAGATCCAGAAAGTG-3’and
AL 07 Reverse 5’ CATCCCTCCACAAATGCC-3’;
AM 19 Forward 5’ CGTAGAACGGAATTTGACAGTG-3’ and
AM 19 Reverse 5’ GACAAAGGGCTTAAGTGCTCC-3’.
PCR products were run in 2 % agarose gel, 1 hour at 90 V in TAE
(SAMBROOK et al., 1989) buffer and visualised by ethidium bromide (0,5 µg/
ml) staining. We used as a size marker 100 bp step Ladder. Gels images were
aquired using an ALPHA IMAGE 2200 system under UV light.
- 73 -

DNA concentration was measured through the spectrofotometric method
with the Eppendorf Biophotometer. The average of DNA concentration for
genitors and hybrids were comprised between 410, 2 ng/µl and 826,8 ng/µl,
respectivelly. The values of DNA samples purity for genitors and seedlings were
comprised between 1.82 to 1.95.
Codominant specific primer AL07 produced a clear length polymorphism
in different genotypes with two products of 823 and 570 bp and dominant AM19
primer produced one product of 526 bp.
In each agarose gel were separated PCR products proceeding from both
genitors and all the seedlings of the same combination.
For example, the results of the molecular analysis with the primers AL07
and AM19 for the combination 9811 Liberty x Florina are presented in Figure 1
and Figure 2.
Fig. 1 Electrophoresis profile of the genotypes identified at Vf locus

in Liberty x Florina cultivars and their F1 hybrids with AL07 codominant primer
In column 1 and 2 are represented the electrophoresis profile of Liberty

and Florina heterozygous scab resistant parents with genotypes Vf vf. Columns 3,
4, 5 are represented by the seedlings of this combination with homozygous
genotype (vf vf). Columns 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 represented seedlings of the same
combination with heterozygous genotype (Vf vf). L is the 100 bp Ladder
molecular weight marker and C is negative control.
Figure 2 describes the 526 bp fragment of AM 19 (Vf allele) in coupling
with the resistant allele of the Vf gene for scab resistance. In column 1 and 2 are
represented the electrophoresis profile of Liberty and Florina heterozygous scab
resistant parents with genotypes Vf vf. Columns 3, 4, 5 represented seedlings of
this combination (9811 Liberty x Florina), with recessive homozygous genotype
(vf vf). Columns 6, 7, 8 9, 10, 11 are represented by the seedlings of the same
combination with heterozygous genotype (Vf vf). L represented the 100 bp Ladder
molecular weight marker and C is negative control.
- 74 -
Fig. 2 Electrophoresis profile of the genotypes identified at Vf locus

in Liberty x Florina cultivars and their F1 hybrids with AM 19 dominant primer
The results of the molecular analysis of apple cultivars and hybrids using
AL07 and AM19 primers are presented in Table 2.
Table 2
The different detected genotypes of the four apple cultivars used as genitors and
forty seedlings for Vf gene, obtained with the primers AL 07 and AM 19
No Cultivar/ Primers Detected

Phenotype
sample Hybrid Combinations AL07 AM19 genotype*
1 Liberty Resistant ++ + Vf vf
2 Florina Resistant ++ + Vf vf
3 Starkrimson Susceptible + - vf vf
4 Golden Spur Susceptible + - vf vf
5 Liberty x Florina Susceptible + - vf vf
8 Liberty x Florina Susceptible ++ + Vf vf
9 Liberty x Florina Susceptible ++ + Vf vf
10 Liberty x Florina Resistant ++ + Vf vf
15 Starkrimson x Golden Spur Susceptible + - vf vf
20 Starkrimson x Golden Spur Resistant + - vf vf
- 75 -
25 Starkrimson x Liberty Susceptible + - vf vf

26 Starkrimson x Liberty Susceptible ++ + Vf vf
28 Starkrimson x Liberty Susceptible + - vf vf
30 Starkrimson x Liberty Resistant ++ + Vf vf
31 Starkrimson x Liberty Resistant + - vf vf
33 Starkrimson x Liberty Resistant + - vf vf
35 Golden Spur x Florina Susceptible + - vf vf
40 Golden Spur x Florina Resistant ++ + Vf vf
Legend * + − genotype vf vf
+ + + genotype Vf vf
CONCLUSIONS
1. The results obtained with co-dominant primer AL 07 and dominant
primer AM 19 confirmed the presence/absence of Vf gene at apple cultivars and
hybrids analysed.
2. The codominant specific molecular marker AL 07 was very useful to
distinguish homozygous from heterozygous plants for Vf gene.
3. The results obtained at the genetic level using specific primers for Vf
gene confirmed the resistance or the sensibility of the hybrids phenotypically
selected by presence/ absence of infection symptoms.
4. Hybrids belonging to Starkrimson x Golden Spur were only recessive
homozygous genotype (vf vf) and in combination Liberty x Florina were identified
susceptible and resistant progenies only with heterozygous genotype (Vf vf) and
no one with dominant homozygous genotype (Vf Vf).
5. Marker assisted selection of juvenile plants can facilitate the breeding
programes for apple scab resistance.
6. Monogenic resistance is typical for some Malus species and the
segregation of the susceptible/resistant genotypes is guided by Mendel’s laws.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank Prof. dr. Sestras Radu for his accord to use for molecular analysis
the biological material obtained at Fruit Researh Station and phD student Bianca
Patrascu for technical advices in molecular analysis.
- 76 -
BACK
This research was funded by the Romanian Ministry Research and

supported by a Research of Excellence grant (CEEX/ModulII/1537).
REFERENCES
1. Crosby, J.A., J. Janik, P.C. Pecknold, S.S. Korban, P.A. O’Connor, S.M. Ries, J. Goffreda,
A. Voordeckers, 1992, Breeding Apples for Scab Resistance: 1945-1990, Fruit Varietes
Journal, 46 (3) 145-166.
2. Dayton, D.F., E.B. Williams, 1968, Independent genes in Malus for resistance to Venturia
inaequalis. Proceedings of the American Society of Horticultural Science 92: 89-94.
3. Fisher M., Christa Fisher, W. Dierend, 2005, Evaluation of the stability of scab resistance in
apple: a co-operation between gene bank curator, breeder and fruit grower, Plant genetic
resources newsletter.
4. Garnier, S.E., H.C.M., Bassett, D.A.M., Noiton, V.G., Bus, M.E., Hofstee, A.G. White.,
R.D. Ball, R.L.S., Forster, E.H.A., Rikkerink, 1996, A detailed linkage map around an apple
scab resistance gene demonstrates that two diseases resistance classes both carry the Vf gene,
Theor. Appl. Genet.93, 485-493.
5. Lodhi, M.A., Weeden, N.F., Reisch, B.I. (1994). Characterization of RAPD markers in Vitis,
Vitis 36: 133-140.
6. Pop Rodica, M. Ardelean, D. Pamfil, Ioana Marina Gaboreanu (2003). The Efficiency of
Different DNA Isolation and Purification in Ten Cultivars of Vitis vinifera., Bul. Nr. 59
USAMV, seria ZB, 259-261.
7. Sambrook, J., Fritsch, E.F., Maniatis, T. (1989) Molecular cloning: A laboratory manual,
2nd edn. Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory Press, New York.
8. Sestras R., 2003, Response of several apple varietes to apple scab( Venturia inaequalis)
attack in central Transylvania conditions, Journal Central European Agriculture.
9. Sestras R., 1997, Ameliorarea mărului, Ed. Quo Vadis, Cluj Napoca
10. Tartarini S., 1996: RAPD markers linked to the Vf gene for scab resistance in apple. Theor.
Appl. Genet.92, 803-810.
11. Tartarini S., 2003, Marker-assisted selection in pome fruit breeding.
12. Tartarini S., L. Gianfranceschi, S. Sansavini, G. Gessler,1999, Development of reliable PCR
markers for the selection of the Vf gene conferring scab resistance, Plant Breeding, 118, 183-
186.
- 77 -
BACK
ASPECTS CONCERNING THE CORRESPONDENCE

BETWEEN CONCRETE MARC – CONCRETE CLASS-
NEW CONCRETE CLASS. NEW CEMENT BASED
PRODUCTS FOR CONSTRUCTIONS (PORIMENT®L)
C. LEONTE, Doina LEONTE
Concrete- homogeny mixture obtained with binder, unit (sand, rock,

etc.) and water. To comply with the project, it can be used additives.
The designer as has the oblige to mention in the project the cement type
to be used in the concrete composition to comply with the standard SR EN 197-
1:2002 witch represents the European standard.
The unit must have an adequate granulation curve, do not contain
foreign bodies and substances.
The water for concrete must be potable.
Additives are chemical substances which improves and modifies the
concrete. The proportion of additives in concrete must be below 5%.
PORIMENT®L it is an economic system which combines production,

transport and concrete usage in to one solitaire technologic process.
Concrete marc – represents the concrete resistance to compression in
daN/cm2 determinate on concrete cubes stored for 28 days. The concrete marc
indicates the number which follows the B symbol. Table 1
Table 1
Concrete marc SR EN -206-1:2002; concrete clas c140/1986
Concrete Concrete Compresion Caracteristic Caracteristic
marc clas EN 206- minimal minimal
C140/86 1:2002 resistance Ø resistance on
150/300(N/mm2) cubes 150 mm
(N/mm2)
- Bc 2,5 - - -
B50 Bc 3,5 - - -
B75 Bc 5 - - -
B100 Bc 7,5 - - -
B150 Bc 10 C8/10 8 10
B200 Bc 15 C12/15 12 15
B250 Bc 20 C16/20 16 20
B300 Bc 22,5 - - -
B350 Bc 25 C20/25 20 25
B400 Bc 30 C25/30 25 30
B450 Bc 35 - - -
- 78 -
- - C30/37 30 37
B500 Bc 40 - - -
- - C35/45 35 45
B600 Bc 50 C40/50 40 50
- - C45/55 45 55
- - C50/60 50 60
- - C55/67 55 67
- - C60/75 60 75
- - C70/85 70 85
- - C80/95 80 95
- - C90/105 90 105
- - C100/115 100 115
Source: CARPAT BETON Heidelberg Cement Group
PORIMENT®L it is cement based product, obtained through foaming

additives.
UTILIZATION DOMAINS
PORIMENT®L belongs to light class materials, which have very good
thermal properties. Due to low specifically weight it’s recommended as a
insulated layer above unequal surfaces, cables, pipes etc. it may be used above
traditional covering. It is a very good thermal and acoustic insulating material,
and it may be circulated. On outside it’s ideal as an insulating material.
• Felling and equalize on pipes, cables, tube etc. (fig.1);
Fig.1 Felling and equalize on pipes, cables, tube etc.
• Equalize of irregular or inclined floors

• Rehabilitation of old houses floors
- 79 -
• Equalize of terrace and plane roof. Thermo-insulating(fig. 2)
Fig. 2 Terraces thermo-izolation or plane roofs
• Floor levelling executed in easy structures , wood beams attics , metallic

beams (fig. 3)
Fig.3 floors levelling executed in easy structures
• Thermic izolation under houses planeking or of industrial areas fig.4
Fig. 4 Thermic izolation under houses planeking or of industrial areas
• Levelling ledge under nivelment level under the form to be fill (fig.5)
Fig. 5 Levelling ledge under to be fill
- 80 -
• Thermic izolation of cellars,wine cellars, halls
The advantage of utilisation and placing in work

• High lucrativing and handling – the product being delivered in fresh
conditions to the yard
• pumpible – may be placed in work in the most difficult locations, with
the possibility to be founded at a 20 floors level or for a 200 m length
• autolevelling – filling all the shapest in which it is fonded and its covering
complete all the underlevel denivelations (covering the cables, pipes,
beams)
• not necessitate vibration / compactation - with direct anvantages over the
simplicity of procces placed in work, and also over the reduction of the
times and execution costs
• fittable specific weight – depending by the specific requirements of the
project, the client may choose the weight of the product which will be
placed in work, in a scale from 400 to 1000 kg/mc
• ajustable resistance – in concordance with the level suport requests, by
the density adjustments can fitt the product resistance
• without segregations
PORIMENT® L has the next physical properties:

• small specific weight;
• volumic stability;
• frost resistance;
• thermic izolation;
• phonic izolation;
• reduced wather absorbtion;
• anticorrosive;
• uninflammable product;
• durable and unperishable;
• minimal fisurable tendences;
• circurable.
- 81 -
BACK
Table 2
The products characteristics PORIMENT® L
Nr. Specification Concordant values

crt.
1. Compresion resistance 0,5-1,0 N/mm2
2. Inflection resistance 0,4-0,5 N/mm2
3. Consistence Fittalbe (for ramps)
4. Fire behavior Uninflammable
5. Circulable After 1-2 days
6. Bear tasks After 4-5 days
7. Drying behavior Equilibrium humidity reached
after one week at 5 cm thickness
8. Limit temperatures of application 5ºC – 35º C
9. Brute density in dry condition Fittable (400-1000kg/m3)
10. Thermic conductivity for density of cca. 0,11 W/m· K
400kg/m3
11. Thermic conductivity for density of cca. 0,14 W/m· K
500kg/m3
12 Thermic conductivity for density of cca. 0,17 W/m· K
600kg/m3
CONCLUSION
The product PORIMENT® L being delivered in fresh conditions to the
yard has a heigh lucrativing and handling .
Can be placed in work in the most difficult locations, founded at a 20
floors level or for a 200 m length.
On acount of autolevelling fills all the shapes where can be founded and
covers completly all underlevels denivelations.
Depending by the specific requerements of the project, the client can
choose the weight of the product which will be placed in work, in a scale from
400 to 1000kg/m3.
In the time of placing in work there are no segregations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Peştişanu, C., 1979 – Buildings, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică,Bucureşti.
2. Şerban Al., şi colab., 1981 – Livestock buildings, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică,Bucureşti.
3. WWW. Carpatbeton. Ro
4. CAMEX., - 2007
- 82 -
BACK
MATHEMATICAL MODELS IN EPIDEMIOLOGY

Il. BURDUJAN
A survey on certain mathematical models in epidemiology is yielded. A

particular interest is proved in the study of the dynamics of infectious disease
dues to the West Nile virus. We shall consider the mathematical model for West
Nile virus due to Wonham&deCamino-Beck&Lewis, which can be viewed as an
quadratic dynamical system and apply some specific algebraic techniques to
analyze this model.
A BRIEF HISTORY
At least since the beginning of recorded history there have been epidemics. One
of the plagues that Moses brought down upon Egypt described in the Book of
Exodus was murrain, an infectious cattle disease. There are many other biblical
descriptions of epidemic outbreaks. An epidemic which was analyzed for a long
time is the Plague of Athens (430-428 BC); it was described in great detail by
Thucidides, including the symptoms and disease progression. The most famous
epidemic historically is the Black Death (thought to be the bubonic plague). It
spreads from Asia through Europe in several waves beginning in 1346; in Europe,
which had a population of around 85 million at the time, about a third of the
population died. Moreover, it recurred regularly in Europe for more than 300
years, notably as the Great Plague in London of 1665-1666. The first major
epidemic recorded in the U.S.A. was the Yellow Fever epidemic in Philadelphia
in 1793 in which about 5000 people died out of a population of around 50.000,
although estimates suggest that about 20.000 fled the city. Recurring invasion of
cholera killed millions in India in the 19th century. The influenza epidemic of
1918-1919 killed 20 million people overall and more than a million in the United
States. More recently, the SARS epidemic of 2002-2003 caused worldwide
concern and even more recently several strains of avian flu have forced the killing
of millions of birds and worries about its spread to human.
The West Nile virus was first identified in Uganda in 1937 and it is well
established in its native Africa where it lives primarily in birds and is transmitted
among them by mosquitoes. From time to time, West Nile virus outbreak occurs
in Europe, Asia and Africa; for example, we recall that it occurs in Israel in 1950,
in South Africa in 1974, and more recently in Romania, Morocco, Tunisia, Italy,
France, and Russia. In the summer of 1999, West Nile virus made its first known
North American appearance (in New York City); by the end of 2003, the virus
had been identified in 7 Canadian provinces and 46 U.S. states. Although it is
considered that, only occasionally, a mosquito does transmit the infection to a
mammal, in 2003 were registered over 11.000 human cases in Canada and U.S..
- 83 -
THE SIR TYPE MODELS

The first epidemic examined from the modeling point of view was the Great
Plague in London. It killed about one-sixth of the population of London. The
village Eyam, near Sheffield, suffered an outbreak of bubonic plague in 1665-
1666; the Eyam plague was survived by only 83 of an initial population of 350
persons. In fact, there were two epidemics in Eyam and the first was survived by
261 persons. As detailed records, concerning the second phase of the epidemic,
were preserved and as the community was persuaded to quarantine itself to try to
prevent the spread of disease to other communities, the recorded data have been
used as a case study for modeling.
Mathematical models serve a variety of purposes, which range from
illustrating an idea to parameterising a complex real-world situation, to make
general predictions, to guide management practices, and to provide a basis for the
development of statistical tools and testable hypothesis.
For example, mathematical models can be used to understand what
factors govern infectious disease outbreak West Nile virus (including HIV/AIDS,
and even bubonic plague). As it is usual, the purpose of the model is to take facts
about the disease as inputs and to make predictions about the numbers of infected
and uninfected individuals (people) over time as outputs. Moreover, the models
could be used to predict the fraction of the population that would survive a major
disease outbreak. Being able to make predictions about disease dynamics, it is
really helpful for public heath. Obviously, if we know there will be an outbreak
we can prepare for it. Alternatively, if we have a reliable model, we can study
how to prevent an outbreak and save lives by changing the factors, we can control
using public health means. These factors include education, immunization, qua-
rantine regulations, and health treatment strategies. Factors that can go into the
models include the length of time one is till, the length of time one can infect
others (often different than total length of time one is ill), the level of
contagiousness of the disease (i.e., the likelihood of infecting another individual if
one comes into close contact), the number of uninfected (susceptible) individuals,
and so forth.
The modeling of emerging disease is the current challenge for mathe-
matical epidemiologists.
The SIR model, proposed by Kernmack and McKendrick is a determi-
nistic compartmental model which is based on ordinary differential equations. It
incorporates some general aspects of epidemiological modeling of disease
transmission and time development of epidemics. Firstly, we consider the case of
infectious diseases which are not necessarily fatal and which confer immunity
upon recovery (e.g., measles). In fact, such a model works for many types of
epidemics; what makes the difference between two epidemics is just the flow of
members of the population between the compartments.
- 84 -
Actually, in an SIR model the host population is divided into three

groups:
1°. S = Susceptible, i.e., the individual susceptible to the disease, that is, not yet
infected,
2°. I = Infectious (or, infective), i.e., the infected individual, assumed infective
and able to spread the disease by contact with susceptible,
3°. R = Removed, i.e., the individual who have been infected and then removed
from the possibility of being reinfected, or unable to spreads infection.
Removal is carried out through isolation from the rest of the population, im-
munization against infection, recovery from the disease with immunity against
reinfection, or through death caused by disease. Despite the fact that the charac-
terizations of removed members are quite different from an epidemiological
perspective, they are equivalent from a modeling point of view that takes into
account only the state of an individual with respect to the disease.
This compartmental approach is represented by means of the following directed
graph
S → I → R.
The Kernmack-McKendrick model is formulated in terms of the rates of flow of
numbers of the population between compartments. The specific assumptions
about the flow rates are the follows:
(i) an average infective member makes contact sufficient to transmit
infection with βN others per unit time, where N represents total
population size,
(ii) a fraction γ of infectives leave the infective class per unit time,
(iii) there is no entry or departure from the population, except possibly
through death from the disease.
This means:
(a) the gain in the infective class is a rate proportional to the number of
infectives and susceptibles (that is, βIS, where β>0 is a constant),
(b) the rate of removal of infectives, that is γI where γ >0 is a constant,
(c) the incubation period is short enough to be negligible, i.e., a susceptible
who contacts an infective becomes an infective right away.
Under these assumptions, the compartmental model becomes
S →
βIS
I 
γI
→ R
By translating these assumptions into mathematical statements of the transition
rates between the classes, the result is the following differential system
- 85 -
 dS
 dt = -βSI

 dI
(1)  = (βS - γ)I
 dt
 dR
 = γI.
 dt
By adding these equations we find N=S+I+R=constant. Consequently, the last
equation in (1) is superfluous and we consider the subsystem consisting of the
first two equations. The quantity βN/γ is a threshold quantity, called the basic
reproduction number and it is denoted by R0. R0 determine, by comparing it with
1, whether there is an epidemic (R0 > 1) or not (R0 < 1). It is the number of
secondary infections caused by a single infective introduced into a wholly
susceptible population of size N over the course of the infection of this single
infective. In this situation, an infective makes βN contacts in unit time, all of
which are with susceptibles and thus produce new infections, and the mean
infective period is 1/γ; this explains the expression βN/γ for the basic reproduc-
tion number. This formula can be sustained taking into account that near the
moment t = 0 when the one single infective was introduced in the population
under consideration, the second equation in (1) has the form
dI
= (βN - γ)I .
dt
The first two equations in (1) give
γ γ
I = -S + ln S + N - ln S(0) .
β β
F. Brauer [1] used the Eyam plague data and found
β = 0.0178, γ = 2.73, S(0) = 254, I(0) = 7, N= 261
and it has been accordingly established that the actual data are remarkably close
to the prediction from the simple model before proposed in (1). Unfortunately,
this model cannot explain the recurrent epidemics; no parameter values or initial
conditions lead to recurrent epidemics in this model. A solution consists in
expanding the SIR model to include B births per unit time and a natural mortality
rate µ (per capita). Then, the equations connecting S and I, become
 dS
 dt = B - βSI - µS

 dI = βSI - γI - µI.
 dt
This time, we are getting recurrent epidemics, but the oscillations in the numbers
of cases over time damp out, eventually reaching equilibrium.
These two examples give the idea on the ways to be followed in modeling of
other real-world situations. First step is certainly to define the biological and geographic
- 86 -
scope of the research. In what follows, we consider a more complex mathematical model
for West Nile virus due to Wonham & de Camino-Beck & Lewis.
THE MATHEMATICAL MODEL

First remark was that the virus persisted in transmission cycles between mosquitoes
(vectors) and birds (reservoir hosts). Although it occasionally spread to other
vertebrates (including humans), it seemed that not return to mosquitoes. That is why
the model is limited to only the vector and the reservoir host. Since the disease
outbreak showed a marked seasonality, appearing in summer and disappearing in
winter, the model is confined to a single season from spring through winter fall.
Further, we shall suppose that the number NB of birds is constant, i.e., we suppose that
the number of births is almostly equal with that of deceases. We define the three
groups (S, I or R) for both of the mosquitoes and birds, although there exist some
differences. There exist recovery and mortality rates for birds, but not for mosquitoes
since they didn’t seem to be affected by the disease. On the other hand, it must take
care of the fact that mosquitoes under consideration could spend quite a long time, up
to 14 days, as aquatic larvae that don’t bite birds and therefore don’t transmit the
disease. It can also take quite a long time, perhaps 10-12 days, for an infected
mosquito to develop a viral load high enough to transmit the disease back to a bird.
Consequently, two new groups are added to the population: one for larval L and one
for exposed E mosquitoes. The directed graph describing the epidemic situation under
consideration is given in Fig. 1.
Birds Mosquitoes
µL
RB LM
R µA
βM
g
µV SM
βM
ac µA
IB
k
EM
ab
µA βM
SB IM
Figure 1: SIR model for West Nile virus cross-infection

between birds and mosquitoes
- 87 -
In Fig. 1, the letters with subscript B denotes entities connected with birds and
those with subscript M denotes entities connected with mosquitoes. More exactly
we denoted:
SB = susceptibles, IB = infectives, RB = removed (for birds)
SM = susceptibles, IB = infectives, EM = exposed, LM = larval (for mosquitoes)
g = recovery rate, µV = death rate from virus, a = biting rate (i.e., the number of
bites per day per mosquito), b, c= transmission probabilities, m = maturation rate,
k = viral incubation rate, βM = birth rate, µM = adult death rate.
By translating these connections in mathematical statements, the following sys-
tem is obtained:
"Bird" equations

  dS B = -αbI S
  dt M B
  dI
  B = αbI M S B - µV I B - gI B
  dt
  dR
  B = (g + µV )I B
  dt

"Mosquito" equations
(2) 
  dLM
  dt = βM (S M + EM + I M ) - mLM - µL LM

  dS M
  dt = -αcS M I B + mLM - µ A S M

  dEM = αcS I - kE - µ E
  dt M B M A M

  dI M = kE - µ I ,
  dt M A M
a
where α = . By adding the bird equations we find a prime integral for the
NB
system, namely NB=SB+IB+RB=constant. The critical points of this system are
obtained by solving the system
 I M SB = 0
 αbI S - µ I - gI = 0
 M B V B B
(g + µV )I B = 0

 βM (S M + EM + I M ) - mLM - µL LM = 0
 -αcS I + mL - µ S = 0
 M B M A M
 αcS M I B - kEM - µ A EM = 0

 kEM - µ A I M = 0.
- 88 -
The critical points of this system are O(0,0,0,0,0,0,0) and, respectively, A(λ, 0, µ,
µAη, mη,0,0) if (m+µL)µA -mβM=0, for any λ, µ, η ∈Ρ.
In order to analyze the stability of O we consider the Jacobian matrix in
this point, namely
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 -g - µ 0 0 0 0 0 
 V
0 g + µV 0 0 0 0 0 
 
J O = 0 0 0 -m - µL βM βM βM 
0 0 0 m -µ A 0 0 
 
0 0 0 0 0 -k - µ A 0 
0 0 0 0 0 k -µ A 

The characteristic polynomial for JO is
PO (s) = -s 2 (s + g + µV )(s + k + µ A )(s + µ A )[s 2 +(m+ µL + µ A )s + µ A (m+ µL ) - mβM ]
If (m+µL)µA -mβM<0, then O is an unstable critical point; when (m+µL)µA -
mβM>0, then O is a stable critical point (see [1], p. 130).
In order to analyze the critical point A, we move the origin of the coordinate
system in A, i.e., we perform the transformation:
S%B = S B - λ, I%B = I B , R% B = RB - µ, L%M = LM - µ A η, S%M = S M - mη, E% M = EM , I%M = I M .
Then, the system (2) becomes
"Bird" equations
 %
  dS B = -αb(I% S% + λI% )
  dt M B M
 %
  dI B % % % % %
  dt = αb(I M S B + λI M ) - µV I B - gI B
 
  dR% B %
  dt = (g + µV )I B
 

"Mosquito" equations
(3) 
 dL%M
 = βM (S%M + E% M + I%M ) - mL%M - µL L% M
 dt
 dS%M
 = -αc(S%M + mη )I%B + mL%M - µ A S%M
  dt
  dE% M
 = αcS M I%B - kE% M - µ A E% M
 dt
  dI%M
 = kE% M - µ A I%M
  dt
Then, the Jacobian matrix JA is
- 89 -
BACK
0 0 0 0 0 0 -αbλ 
0 -g - µ 0 0 0 0 αbλ 
 V
0 g + µV 0 0 0 0 0 
 .
J A = 0 0 0 -m - µL βM βM βM 
0 -αcmη 0 m -µ A 0 0 
 
0 0 0 0 0 -k - µ A 0 
0 0 0 0 0 k -µ A 

JA has the following characteristic polynomial:
PA (s) = -s 2 (s + µ A )2 (s + g + µV )(s + m+ µL )(s + k + µ A ) .
Consequently, A is a stable critical point.
CONCLUSIONS
In our study we remark two important entities:
1°. the reproduction number, (determined in [7])
ab ac SM k
R0 = ⋅ ⋅ 0 ⋅ ,
µ A µV + g N B0 k + µ A
2°. ∆=(m+µL)µA - mβM.
Indeed, if Ρ0 > 1, there is an epidemic with the number of infectives first
increasing to a maximum Imax , while if Ρ0 < 1 the infection dies out without
speading, i.e., Ρ0 help us to predict a disease outbreack after the estimation of
parameters. On the other hand, ∆ gives information about the stability of the
critical points. More exactly, we have obtained:
1°. if ∆<0, then O is an unstable critical point,
2°. if ∆>0, then O is a stable critical point,
3°. if ∆=0, then A is a stable critical point.
Obviously, it is nonrealistic to accept that O could be a stable critical point.
REFERENCES
1. Barbu V. (1985), Differential Equations (Romanian), Ed. Junimea, Iaşi.
2. Brauer F., Castillo-Chavez C. (2001), Mathematical Models in Population Biology and
Epidemiology, Texts in Applied Mathematics, 40, Springer-Verlag, New-York.
3. Burdujan I. (2005), On a Criss-cross Model for the Dynamics of Infectious Diseases, Ann. of
USAMV Iaşi, Hort., tom 48, v.2, seria Hortic. Proc. Ann. Symposium “Mathematics applied in
Biology &Biophysics”, U:A.S.V.M.-Iaşi, p.85-94.
4. Burdujan I. (2003), Dynamical systems as epidemic models, Ann. USAMV Iaşi, T. XLVI,
Hortic., Proc. Ann. Symposium “Mathematics applied in Biology &Biophysics”, U:S.A.M.V.-Iaşi,
p.63-86.
5. Kernmack W. O., McKendrick A. G., 1927, A contribution to the mathematical theory of
epidemics, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series A, 115, 700-721.
6. Keshet L. (2004), Mathematical Models in Population Biology, SIAM Classics in Applied
Mathematics, 46, SIAM.
7. Wonham M.T., de Camino-Beck, Lewis M., (2004), An epidemiological model for West Nile
virus: Invasion analysis and control applications, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London,
Series B, 271, 501-507.
- 90 -
BACK
MORPHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF SOME ORGANS IN THE

LOCOMOTOR APPARATUS OF THE BROWN BREED
YOUNG LIVESTOCK
V. TEUŞAN, Anca TEUŞAN, R.M. RADU-RUSU
Four groups of eight animals each, belonging to Bos taurus species,

Brown breed, male gender, six months old, were used in our researches. The
feeding was different for each group, using variable ratios of alfalfa hay, corn
silage and concentrates. The energy concentration of the fees varied between
0.751-0.849 UFC/kg DM, and the energy:protein ratio was situated between
99.23 g PDIE/UFC-117.17g PDIE/UFC. Three individuals were slaughtered
from each lot, at the end of the experiments, proceeding then to some quantitative
assessments on the carcasses (weights of the carcass, bones and muscle masses,
meat:bones ratio, slaughtering efficiency), as good as to necropsy and
individualization (weighting and measuring) of some muscles and bones in the
locomotor apparatus.
The results shown several differences between studied groups,
concerning live weights of the animals, weights of the carcasses, of various
bones and muscles. Those differences were found to be not statistically
significant, except for a single difference, observed in ilio-spinalis muscle
(Longissimus dorsi).
Bos taurus species, through its numerous more or less specialized breeds
for beef production, assures in our country at least a half of this aliment and raw
material. Increasing of beef production is estimated in Romania or across Europe
and worldwide. Par consequence, the specialists’ orientation toward research and
knowledge of the quantitative and qualitative beef production in Bos taurus
species is considered to be actual and with a high significant importance.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The biological material used in our researches consisted in 32 specimens
of male gender, belonging to Brown breed, within the Bos taurus species. At the
beginning of the experiments, the specimens were 6 months old, being divided in
four groups of eight animals each (Table 1). Identical husbandry conditions
(temperature, humidity, watering and gaseous levels in shelters) were assured
within the semiintensive breeding system. The rations used in groups feeding
were different, as it follows: the control group received feed with 38% alfalfa hay
in its dry matter (DM) content, while the concentrates (mixture of corn, barley
and sunflower meal) counted 28% of the DM (table 1). This feed ration had an
energetic concentration of 0.751 UFC/kg DM and an energy:protein ratio of
113.24-115.59 g PDI/UFC (Table 1). The animals in the 1st experimental group
received a feed ration with 65% corn silage and 35% concentrates, being
energetically excessive (0.849 UFC/kg SU) and deficient in proteins (99.23-
- 91 -
112.66 g PDI/UFC ). The 2nd experimental group received a ration with 49%
alfalfa hay, 21% corn silage and 30% concentrates, being well balanced for
energy (0.752 UFC/kg SU) and protein (113.05-117.17g PDI/UFC) (Table 1).
The animals in the 3rd experimental group received feed prepared of 43%
alfalfa hay; 17% corn silage and 40% concentrates, having an energetic
concentration of 0.823 UFC/kg SU and 103.33-112.60 g PDI/UFC (Table 1).
Table 1
Experimental design
Studied Animals Feed
groups breed, Feed structure Protein content Energy-protein
and gender E.C.
(% of DM) (g/kg DM) ratio (g/UFC)
specimens & initial UFC**/
Alfalfa Soaked Con- kg DM
within age PDIN PDIE PDIN PDIE
hay corn centrate*
Brown,
Control
male, 38.0 36.0 26.0 86.81 85.04 115.59 113.24 0.751
(8 spec.)
6 months
Brown,
Exp. 1
male, - 65.0 35.0 95.65 84.25 112.66 99.23 0.849
(8 spec.)
6 months
Brown,
Exp. 2
male 49.0 21.0 30.0 85.01 88.11 113.05 117.17 0.752
(8 spec.)
6 months
Brown,
Exp. 3
male, 43.0 17.0 40.0 85.04 92.67 103.33 112.60 0.823
(8 spec.)
6 months
*The concentrates consisted in a mixture of: corn, barley and sunflower meal
**UFC=Fodder Meat Unit, in INRA and IBNA systems.
The experiment passed during 12 months, the animals in four groups

having 380-410 kg live weights at the slaughtering moment.
Three specimens were slaughtered from each group and several
production parameters were measured: live weight, carcass weight (fresh and
cold); skeleton bones weight; carcass’ muscular mass weight; psoas muscles
(major and minor) and ilio-spinal (Longissimus dorsi) (LD) muscle weights;
humeral and femoral bones length and weight, meat:bones ratio; slaughtering
efficiency and meat lean surface (LD) at the 8th and 9th ribs level.
Weight assessments were done through weighting after the measured
elements (bones, muscles) were sampled from their anatomic situ. The lengths
were assessed through direct measuring with ruler and sliding calipers. The meat
lean surface (LD) was measured using planimetry on color photo prints and on
tracing paper. The transversal cross section pictures were taken 1/1 from the
median area of the studied muscle (LD), being then copied on tracing paper and
measured using the Reiss-3005 planimeter.
Other auxiliary materials were used: devices, apparatus and instruments
commonly used in laboratory and other materials such scalpels, tweezers,
- 92 -
scissors, cotton wool, lint, jars and Berzelius glasses, knives, scales, sliding
calipers and marked rulers.
All the experimental data were statistically processed and debated,
computing for each character: average, standard mean error, standard deviation,
variability coefficient. Fisher and Tukey (analysis of variance) tests were used to
establish the statistical significance of the mean differences.

The live weight was different for each studied group, at the final of the
experiment. Thus, the closest to the control group (LM) was situated the EG2
experimental group, with an average live weight of 390 ± 24.83 kg (v=11.02%)
(Table 2), the performance being 5.49% lower than that obtained by the LM
group (Tables 2 and 3).
Experimental groups 1 and 3 (EG1; EG3) gave poorer results as compared
to LM group (7.43-8.64%), concerning the body weight at slaughtering (Tables 2
and 3). A similar situation was observed for the carcass weight (measured ad low
temperature) (Table 3). The slaughtering efficiency varied between 51.44% (EG3)
and 54.57% (EG2) (Table 3). The muscular masses weight varied between 150.41-
161.58 kg limits in all groups, representing 39.15-41.89 % of live weight and
75.44-76.77% of carcass weight (Table 2 and 3). Negative differences (-6.78 %
…-6.91 %) and also positive difference (1.11%) were found in the four studied
groups (Table 3). Concerning the overall bones weight of the skeleton, this
character values varied between 40.80 kg (EG3) and 43.07 kg (la EG2),
representing 9.5%-11.2% of the live weight and 19.18-21.77% of the carcasses
weight (Table 3).
All three experimental groups pass over the control group performances
for these characters (0.68-1.47%; 0.30-2.59%) (Table 3). The meat:bone ratio
was found between 3.51/1, at EG1 group and 3,94/1, at control and 2nd
experimental groups (Table 3).
The humeral bones had average lengths of 29.67 ± 0.33cm, at EG1
group and of 30.67 ± 0.33cm, at EG3 group (Table 2). Humeral bones weight
(both sides’ bones) had values of 3.13 ± 0.13 kg at EG3 group and of 3.33 ±
0.07 kg, at LM group (Table 2), and represented 0.81-0.87% of the living
weight; 1.50-1.65% of the carcass weight and 7.59-8.11% of the skeleton
weight (Table 3). There are minor differences, concerning the humeral bones
length and weight, between the four studied groups (Table 3). The weight and
the length of the femoral bones (both sides’ bones) had values of 5.13 ± 0.18 kg,
at EG3 and EG2 groups and of 5.33 ± 0.18 kg at EG1 group, for their weight and
of 40.33 ± 0.67 - 41 ± 0.58 cm, for their length (Table 2). Femoral bones weight
represented 1.26-1.41% of the live weight; 2.41-2.69% of the carcass weight
and 12.37-12.66% of the total skeleton bones weight (Table 3). There are only
minor differences between groups (Table 3).
- 93 -
Table 2 - Main statistical indexes concerning the morphological characteristics of the carcasses
and of some organs of the locomotor apparatus from the Brown young male stock breed
Control group 1st experimental group (EG1)
Main statistical indexes Main statistical indexes
Notice
Variation limits Variation limits
x ± sx s v% x ± sx s v%
min. max. min. max.
Body weight (kg) 3 412.67±8.88 15.37 3.72 395 423 377±13.75 23.81 6.32 350 395
Cool carcass weight (kg) 3 214.17±6.5 11.25 5.25 201.5 223 197.83±10.46 18.11 9.16 181 217
Total meat weight (kg) 3 161.58±5.85 10.13 6.27 150.1 169.29 150.63±9.93 17.20 11.42 135.47 169.33
Total bone weight (kg) 3 41.07±1.60 2.77 6.75 38.0 43.4 43.07±1.23 2.14 4.96 37.0 44.0
Meat/Bone ratio (x/1) 3 3.94±0.07 0.12 3.06 3.81 4.05 3.51±0.30 0.52 14.83 3.18 4.11
Length (cm) 3 30.27±0.37 0.643 2.12 29.8 31.0 29.67±0.33 0.577 1.95 29 30
Humerus
Weight* (kg) 3 3.33±0.07 0.115 3.47 3.2 3.4 3.27±0.18 0.305 9.34 3.0 3.6
Length (cm) 3 40.83±0.44 0.764 1.87 40 41.5 41±0.58 1.00 2.44 40 42
Femur
Weight* (kg) 3 5.2±0 0 0 5.2 5.2 5.33±0.18 0.305 5.73 5.0 5.6
Psoas muscles weight** (M+m) 3 2.53±0.18 0.305 12.07 2.2 2.8 2.20±0.23 0.400 18.18 1.8 2.6
Longissimus Dorsi** weight 3 4.0±0.30 0.529 13.23 3.6 4.6 3.47±0.18 0.305 8.80 3.2 3.8
MLS Meat lean surface (LD) *** 15 65.52±1.64 6.350 9.69 58.6 73.9 69.45±1.85 7.153 10.3 59.4 76.0
2nd experimental group (EG2) 3rd experimental group (EG3)
Notice Variation limits Variation limits
x ± sx s v% x ± sx s v%
min. max. min. max.
Body weight (kg) 3 390±24.83 43.01 11.02 341 420 382±5.69 9.85 2.58 371 390
Cool carcass weight (kg) 3 212.83±13.1 22.68 10.66 187 229.5 196.5±3.88 6.73 3.42 189 202
Total meat weight (kg) 3 163.38±10.1 17.49 10.7 143.19 173.6 150.4±1.68 2.91 1.93 147.06 152.35
Total bone weight (kg) 3 41.47±2.24 3.88 9.36 37 44.0 40.80±1.47 2.55 6.26 38 43
Meat/Bone ratio (x/1) 3 3.94±0.04 0.065 1.65 3.87 4.0 3.69±0.10 0.170 4.62 3.53 3.87
Length (cm) 3 30.33±0.67 1.155 3.81 29 31 30.67±0.33 0.577 1.88 30 31
Humerus
Weight* (kg) 3 3.20±0.2 0.346 10.83 2.8 3.4 3.13±0.13 0.231 7.38 3.0 3.4
Length (cm) 3 40.33±0.67 1.155 2.86 39 41 40.67±0.33 0.577 1.42 40 41
Femur
Weight* (kg) 3 5.13±0.18 0.305 5.96 4.8 5.4 5.13±0.18 0.305 5.96 4.8 5.4
Psoas muscles weight** (M+m) 3 2.07±0.07 0.115 5.58 2.0 2.2 2.0±0.30 0.529 26.46 1.6 2.6
Longissimus Dorsi** weight 3 4.67±0.13 0.231 4.95 4.4 4.8 3.73±0.29 0.503 13.49 3.2 4.2
MLS Meat lean surface (LD) *** 15 64.9±1.38 5.340 8.23 58.2 71.9 63.93±1.07 4.134 6.47 58.6 69.3
*Both sides bones; **The large and small psoas muscle, but one side only; ***MLS LD=Surface of the Longissimus Dorsi cross section, measured between the 8th and the 9th
ribs; min.=minimum; max.=maximum.
- 94 -
Table 3 – Comparisons between the four studied groups,

concerning some morphological studied characters of the carcasses and of the locomotor apparatus
Control group EG*1 EG2 EG3
Notice MU
a.v. r.v. a.v. r.v. ±pp a.v. r.v. ±pp a.v. r.v. ±pp
Body weight (GV) kg 412.67 100 377.0 91.36 -8.64 390.0 94.51 -5.49 382.0 92.57 -7.43
Cool carcass weight (GC) kg 214.17 100 197.83 92.37 -7.63 212.83 99.37 -0.63 196.5 91.75 -8.25
% from GV - 51.90 - 52.47 +0.57 - 54.57 +2.67 - 51.44 -0.46
Total meat weight kg 161.58 100 150.63 93.22 -6.78 163.38 101.11 +1.11 150.41 93.09 -.91
(GMM) % from GV - 39.15 - 39.95 +0.80 - 41.89 +2.47 - 39.37 +0.22
% from GC - 75.44 - 76.14 +0.70 - 76.77 +1.33 - 76.54 +1.10
kg 41.07 100 43.07 104.87 +4.87 41.47 100.97 +0.97 40.80 99.34 -0.66
Total bone weight (GTO) % from GV - 9.95 - 11.42 +1.47 - 10.63 +0.68 - 10.68 +0.73
% from GC - 19.18 - 21.77 +2.59 - 19.48 +0.30 - 20.76 +1.58
Meat/Bone ratio x/1 3.94 100 3.51 89.09 -10.91 3.94 100.0 - 3.69 93.65 -6.35
kg 3.33 100 3.27 98.20 -1.80 3.20 96.10 -3.90 3.13 93.99 -6.01
The weight of humeral % from GV - 0.81 - 0.87 +0.06 - 0.82 +0.01 - 0.82 +0.01
bones (GOH) % from GC - 1.55 - 1.65 +0.10 - 1.50 -0.05 - 1.59 +0.04
% fromGTO - 8.11 - 7.59 -0.52 - 7.72 -0.39 - 7.67 -0.44
kg 5.20 100 5.33 102.5 +2.5 5.13 98.65 -1.35 5.13 98.65 -1.35
The weight of femoral % from GV - 1.26 - 1.41 +0.15 - 1.32 +0.06 - 1.34 +0.08
bones (GOF) % from GC - 2.43 - 2.69 +0.26 - 2.41 -0.02 - 2.61 +0.18
% fromGTO - 12.66 - 12.38 -0.28 - 12.37 -0.27 - 12.57 -0.09
kg 2.53 100 2.20 86.96 -13.04 2.07 81.82 -18.18 2.00 79.05 -
20.95
Psoas muscles weight
(Great and small) % from GV - 0.61 - 0.58 -0.03 - 0.53 -0.08 - 0.52 -0.09
% from GC - 1.18 - 1.11 -0.07 - 0.97 -0.21 - 1.02 -0.16
%fromGMM - 1.57 - 1.46 -0.11 - 1.27 -0.30 - 1.33 -0.24
kg 4.00 100 3.47 86.75 -13.25 4.67 116.75 +16.75 3.73 93.25 -6.75
Longissimus Dorsi
weight % from GV - 0.97 - 0.92 -0.05 - 1.20 +0.23 - 0.98 +0.01
(LD) % from GC - 1.87 - 1.75 -0.12 - 2.19 +0.32 - 1.90 +0.03
%fromGMM - 2.48 - 2.30 -0.18 - 2.86 +0.38 - 2.48 0
Meat lean surface (LD) cm2 65.52 100 69.45 106.0 +6.0 64.90 99.05 -0.95 63.93 97.57 -2.43
Note: a.v. = absolute values; r.v.= relative values; pp = percentage point; *experimental group
- 95 -
Concerning the psoas muscles (major and minor) weight (a single

muscle per side), it was found as 2.0 ± 0.3 kg, at EG3 group and of 2.53 ± 0.18,
at LM group (Table 2) and represented 0.52-0.61% of the live weight; 0.97-
1.18% of the carcass weight and 1.27-1.57% of the overall muscular mass
weight (Table 3). The animals belonged to experimental groups yielded psoas
muscles weights 13.04% (EG1)-20.95% (EG3) lower than that obtained by
control group, (LM) (Table 3).
The ilio-spinal muscle (LD) weight was found between 3.47 ± 0.18 kg,
at EG1 group and 4.67 ± 0.13 kg, at EG2 group (Table 2), representing 0.92-
1.20% of live weight; 1.75-2.19% of carcass weight and 2.30-2.86% of the
muscular mass weight (Table 3). There are some notable differences between
studied groups: LD muscle weight is 13.25% (EG1) and 6.25% (EG3) lower than
that obtained by the control group, while the EG2 gave muscle weight 16.75%
higher, as compared to reference group (Table 3). When the lean meat surface
(LD at the 8th-9th ribs level) was measured, it was found that the values varied
from 63.93 ± 1.07cm2 (EG3) to 69.45 ± 1.85 cm2 (EG1) (Table 2). Concerning
this character, the EG1 group values passed 6% over those obtained by the LM
group, while the values observed in EG2 and EG3 treatments were 0.95%,
respectively 2.43% lower as compared to control groups (Table 3).
The differences between the four studied groups, for all ten characters,
were tested in order to evaluate their statistic significance. Most of them were
found as statistically not significant, except one comparison, between EG1 and
EG2 groups, for the Longissimus dorsi muscle weight (Table 4).
Table 4 - Statistical significance of the differences between the 4 groups concerning
some carcass morphological characters and some organs of the locomotor apparatus
Means of Mean’s Tukey test Stat.
Notice Groups n1/n2 F̂ at 1;4 GL
the groups differences w=0,01 signif.
CG 3/3 412.67 CG-EG1 35.67 4.751 69.955 n.s.*
EG1 3/3 377.0 CG-EG2 22.67 0.717 106.298 n.s.
Body weight EG2 3/3 390.0 CG-EG3 30.67 8.464 42.485 n.s.
(kg)(GV) EG3 3/3 382.0 CG-EG2 13.00 0.221 114.411 n.s.
CG-EG3 5.00 0.113 59.963 n.s.
CG-EG3 8.00 0.107 102.688 n.s.
CG 3/3 214.17 CG-EG1 16.34 1.760 49.619 n.s.
EG1 3/3 197.83 CG-EG2 1.34 0.008 58.923 n.s.
Cool carcass EG2 3/3 212.83 CG-EG3 17.67 5.449 30.504 n.s.
weight (kg) (GC) EG3 3/3 196.50 CG-EG2 15.00 0.801 67.550 n.s.
CG-EG3 1.33 0.014 44.962 n.s.
CG-EG3 16.33 1.430 55.059 n.s.
CG 3/3 161.58 CG-EG1 10.95 0.902 46.465 n.s.
EG1 3/3 150.63 CG-EG2 1.8 0.024 47.036 n.s.
Total meat
EG2 3/3 163.38 CG-EG3 11.17 3.373 24.535 n.s.
weight (kg)
EG3 3/3 150.41 CG-EG2 12.75 0.810 57.087 n.s.
(GMM)
CG-EG3 0.22 0.001 40.602 n.s.
CG-EG3 12.97 1.609 41.254 n.s.
CG 3/3 41.07 CG-EG1 2.0 0.976 8.151 n.s.
EG1 3/3 43.07 CG-EG2 0.4 0.021 11.099 n.s.
Total bone
EG2 3/3 41.47 CG-EG3 0.27 0.015 8.773 n.s.
weight (kg)
EG3 3/3 40.80 CG-EG2 1.60 0.390 10.307 n.s.
(GTO)
CG-EG3 2.27 1.388 7.751 n.s.
CG-EG3 0.67 0.061 10.808 n.s.
- 96 -
CG 3/3 3.33 CG-EG1 0.06 0.112 0.761 n.s.

The weight of EG1 3/3 3.27 CG-EG2 0.13 0.389 0.850 n.s.
humeral bones EG2 3/3 3.20 CG-EG3 0.20 1.791 0.602 n.s.
(kg) EG3 3/3 3.13 CG-EG2 0.07 0.066 1.075 n.s.
(GOH) CG-EG3 0.14 0.354 0.892 n.s.
CG-EG3 0.07 0.081 0.969 n.s.
CG 3/3 3.94/1 CG-EG1 0.43 1.912 1.243 n.s.
EG1 3/3 3.51/1 CG-EG2 0 0 0.316 n.s.
Meat/Bone ratio EG2 3/3 3.94/1 CG-EG3 0.25 4.108 0.484 n.s.
(R C/0)(x/1) EG3 3/3 3.69/1 CG-EG2 0.43 1.984 1.221 n.s.
CG-EG3 0.18 0.335 1.274 n.s.
CG-EG3 0.25 5.337 0.425 n.s.
CG 3/3 5.20 CG-EG1 0.13 0.450 0.806 n.s.
EG1 3/3 5.33 CG-EG2 0.07 0.140 0.736 n.s.
The weight of
EG2 3/3 5.13 CG-EG3 0.07 0.140 0.736 n.s.
femural bones
EG3 3/3 5.13 CG-EG2 0.20 0.649 1.001 n.s.
(GOF) (kg)
CG-EG3 0.20 0.649 1.001 n.s.
CG-EG3 0 0 1.005 n.s.
CG 3/3 2.53 CG-EG1 0.33 1.316 1.171 n.s.
Psoas muscle EG1 3/3 2.20 CG-EG2 0.46 6.122 0.760 n.s.
weight (Great EG2 3/3 2.07 CG-EG3 0.53 2.287 1.421 n.s.
and small)(kg) EG3 3/3 2.00 CG-EG2 0.13 0.308 0.968 n.s.
CG-EG3 0.20 0.237 1.544 n.s.
CG-EG3 0.07 0.045 1.260 n.s.
CG 3/3 4.00 CG-EG1 0.53 2.282 1.422 n.s.
Longissimus EG1 3/3 3.47 CG-EG2 0.67 4.000 1.344 n.s.
Dorsi weight EG2 3/3 4.67 CG-EG3 0.27 0.401 1.699 n.s.
(LD)(kg) EG3 3/3 3.73 CG-EG2 1.20 29.421 0.892 **
CG-EG3 0.26 0.611 1.371 n.s.
CG-EG3 0.94 8.508 1.289 n.s.
Notice Groups Notice Groups Mean’s differences F̂ at 1;28 GL w=0,01 St. signf.
CG 15/15 65.52 CG-EG1 3.93 2.537 6.834 n.s.
EG1 15/15 69.45 CG-EG2 0.62 0.084 5.928 n.s.
Meat lean
EG2 15/15 64.90 CG-EG3 1.59 0.663 5.414 n.s.
surface (LD)
EG3 15/15 63.93 CG-EG2 4.55 3.902 6.378 n.s.
(cm2)
CG-EG3 5.52 6.712 5.903 n.s.
CG-EG3 0.97 0.311 4.825 n.s.
n.s. – statistically insignificant; ** - distinguished significant
CONCLUSIONS
1) Modification of the feed structure given into youth Brown male stock feeding,
through the increasing of the concentrate fodders ratio, from 26% to 40%,
negatively influenced the live weight at slaughtering (-5.49…-8.64%) and
also the carcass weight (-0.63…8.25%) (Table 3).
2) Muscular mass weight counts, for the youth Brown male stock, 39.15-41.89%
of the live weight and 75.44-76.77% of the carcass weight (Table 3).
3) The overall bones weight counts 9.95-11.42% of the live weight and 19.18-
21.77% of the carcass weight.
4) Humeral and femoral bones count together 2.07-2.28% of the live weight;
3.91-4.34% of the carcass weight and 19.96-20.77% of the skeleton weight.
5) The psoas muscles (major and minor) counts together approximately 2.88-
3.62% of the living body weight; 5.44-6.74% of the carcass weight and 7.14-
8.86% of the total muscular mass weight (table 3).
- 97 -
BACK
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1) PICARD, B.; MICOL, D.; DOZIAS, D.; GEAY, Y.-1995-„Effects of compensatory growth on
muscle characteristics in 2 year-old beef steers”, Annales de Zootechnie, 44 (suppl.), 287.
2) PÂNTEA, I.-1998-„Efectul încrucişării raselor autohtone, cu tauri de rasa Blanc-Belgian Blue şi
aptitudinile pentru producţia de carne ale metişilor rezultaţi”, Teza de doctorat, U.S.A.M.V., Iaşi
3) POPOVICI, E. L.-2002-„Contribuţii la studiul creşterii şi îngrăşării în sistem semiintensiv, cu
diferite tipuri de raţii, a tineretului taurin de rasă Brună”, Teză de doctorat, U.S.A.M.V., Iaşi.
4) TEUŞAN, V.; UJICĂ, V; MACIUC, V.; PÂNTEA, M.-2003-„Influenţa metisării taurinelor de
rasă Brună şi Bălţată Românească, cu rasa Blanc Belgian Blue, asupra dezvoltării unor organe
interne din corpul animal” Lucr. Ştiinţ. Seria Zootehnie, vol. 46, pag 332-339, ISSN 1454-7368.
- 98 -
BACK
RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE THICKNESS, THE

DENSITY AND THE SHAPE OF THE MUSCULAR FIBRES
FROM THE ILIO-SPINALISIS MUSCLES OF THE BROWN
LIVESTOCK YOUNG MALES
V. TEUŞAN, R.M. RADU-RUSU, Anca TEUŞAN
The biological material used in our studies (histological samples) issued

from 4 youth cattle groups – male gender, belonging to Brown breed, 18 months
old with live weights of 377-413kg. Samples from the Ilio-spinalis (Longissimus
dorsi) (L.D.) muscle, 8th-9th ribs level, were taken when the 12 animals (3×4)
were slaughtered. The samples were processed though paraffin sectioning
technique, issuing 30 histological smears, which were studied using the MC3
binocular photonic microscope. The small and the large diameters of the
muscular fibres were measured on cross sections, within the microscopic field.
The average diameter, the miocyte shape and density were obtained through
counting and computations. Thus, within the L.D. muscle, the muscular fibres
had a cylindrical shape (DM/Dm ratio=1.37-1.47/1), the large diameter between
48.98-52.86µ, the small diameter between 34.35-37.50µ and the average
diameter of 41.60-44.81µ. The density of the miocytes varied between 426.9-
180.88 m.f./mm2 of muscular tissue.
Quality of the meat issued from various animal species and categories is a
problem equally concerning producers, processors and especially consumers. The
agro-alimentary products quality and especially of the meat as food is a complex
notion which could be defined and controlled through a lot of parameters, such as:
physical, chemical, sensorial and histological parameters. The latter ones –
thickness and density of muscular fibres, their shape and surface on cross-section
should be better known because they define and influence a series of physical and
technological meat features, as good as the products resulted from its processing.
Because the ilio-spinalis or Longissimus dorsi (L.D.) muscle, as it is
named in anatomical and zootechnical nomenclatures, is both well known as a
general indicator of carcasses quality status and has an significant participation
within the animal skeletal musculature, it was taken into research, in order to
assess some histological features of its inner muscular fibres.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Several histological samples (2×3×4=24 pieces) were used as biological
material for the researches. They were sampled from ilio-spinalis (Longissimus
dorsi) (LD) muscles, from three specimens in each group of young male stock,
belonging to Brown bovine breed. Four groups of animals were allocated in our
studies, each of them containing eight specimens, maintained and reared 12
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months (from 6 months old to 18 moths old) in semi-intensive husbandry

condition. Three specimens were slaughtered from each group at the end of the
experiment, the 24 histological samples being taken and then processed.
Different values were found at slaughtering moment, for the body weights
of the animals within the four studied groups, due to the different nutritional
parameters of the used feed rations.
The paraffin sectioning technique was used to process the histological
samples issued from the ilio-spinalis muscles, finally obtaining 30 smears. They
were studied using a MC3 photonic binocular microscope, previously well tuned
and calibrated. Two ocular-objective associations were used: OC10×OB20,
having a micrometric value of 4.441µ/division and OC10×OB40, with a value of
2,372µ/micrometric division.
The large diameter (DM) and the small diameter of the muscular fibres
from the L.D. muscle were measured within microscopic field, using and ocular
micrometer. There were assessed 480 measurements (240 for D.M. and 240 for
D.m.). The measured values were then multiplied by 4.441 or 2.372, according to
the used OC×OB association.
DM + Dm
The average diameter was calculated using the relation Dx =
2
whereas: Dx = average diameter (µ) and DM and Dm = large and small diameters
of the muscular fibres. In order to assess the muscle fibres density, a micrometric
grid was introduced into the microscope oculars and was used to count the fibres
found within a certain surface of the grid. Then, using computations, the density
of the rhabdocites/1mm2 of muscular tissue was established. A total amount of
60×4=240 assessments were done for the muscular fibres density. The ratio
between large and small diameter of the fibres were also calculated (DM/dm), the
values serving then to the establishment of their profile and shape on cross-
section. Digital captures of the microscopic fields from the best histological
smears were also taken.
Al the data obtained through measurements or computations were
statistically processed and debated, resulting: average, standard mean error,
standard deviation, variance and variability coefficient. In order to test the statistic
significance of the differences between average values of the four studied groups,
the analysis of variance was also used, through the computations of the F̂ (Fisher)
and W (Tukey) tests.

Differences were found between the four young livestock groups,
concerning the muscular fibres thickness within the L.D. muscle, expressed by the
large, small and average diameters. Thus, at the animals belonging to control
group, the fibres had a large diameter of 52.86 ± 0.95µ, all the 60 measured
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values being found within the 40.50µ – 76.50µ limits. Their variability was of
13.95% (Table 1). The values of the small diameter varied between 27µ and 54µ,
having a mean of 36.76±0.84µ (v=17.72%) (Table 1). The average diameter was
found between the limits of 35.10-63.0µ, and the computed mean had a value of
44.81±0.77µ (v=13.30%) (Table 1).
The animals in the 1st experimental group (EG1) shown values of:
48.98±0.59µ = large diameter; 34.35±0.76 = small diameter; 41.60±0.48µ =
average diameter of the fibres within the Longissimus dorsi muscle. The 60 values
had their variability within the 8.93% - 17.17% interval (Table 1).
Other values were found when the animals from the 2nd experimental
group (EG2) were studied. Thus, the fibers within the LD muscle had an average
thickness of 44.23±0.48µ, while the large diameter was of 51.19±0.67µ, and the
small one was found of 37.26±0.61µ (Table 1).
The muscular fibers from the animals belonging to the EG3 group had a
mean value for the large diameter of 50.32±0.53µ; a small diameter of
37.50±0.74µ and an average one of 43.92±0.50µ (Table 1).
The cross-section shape of the muscular fibres within the Longissimus
dorsi muscle was observed as slightly ellipsoidal, while their morphological
aspect was cylindrical (the DM/Dm ratio varied between 1.37-1.47/1 limits). Most
of the fibres observed within the microscopic field had a polygonal aspect, mainly
due to some pressure exerted by various external mechanical factors (Fig. 1).
Comparing the muscular fibres thickness of the Longissimus dorsi (L.D.)
from the studied animals and considering the control group (CG) as reference, it
could be stated: the large diameter decreased with 3.16-7.34% in all experimental
groups; the small diameter decreased with 6.56% in EG1 and increased 1.36-
2.01% in EG2, respectively EG3 groups (Table 2). The average diameter
decreased with 1.29-7.16% at the animals within the experimental groups, as
compared to those belonging to control group (Table 2).
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Table 1
Statistical parameters of some histological parameters of the muscular fibres from the ilio-spinalis muscle
(Longissimus dorsi), at young male livestock belonging to Brown breed
Statistics computed from the experimental data Variation limits
Slaught.
Mean Std. Variability
Groups live Parameters MU n Statistical
std. error deviation coefficient Min. Max.
weight mean ( x )
(s x ) (s) (v%)
Large diameter (DM) µ 60 52.86 ± 0.95 7.373 13.95 40.50 76.50
Small diameter (Dm) µ 60 36.76 ± 0.84 6.515 17.72 27.00 54.00
CG 412,67 kg Average diameter (D x ) µ 60 44.81 ± 0.77 5.960 13.30 35.10 63.00
DM/Dm ratio µ 60 1.47 ± 0.03 0.245 16.70 1.00/1 2.10/1
Muscular fibres density (m.f./mm2) 60 429.43 ± 5.13 39.721 9.25 329 512
EG1 377,0 kg Average diameter (D x ) µ 60 41.60 ± 0.48 3.715 8.93 36.00 52.20
DM/Dm ratio µ 60 1.47 ± 0.04 0.276 18.79 1.00/1 2.14/1
DM/Dm ratio µ 60 1.39 ± 0.03 0.229 16.48 1.10/1 2.00/1
DM/Dm ratio µ 60 1.37 ± 0.03 0.230 16.79 1.00/1 2.00/1
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a b
c d
e
Fig. 1 - Aspects concerning the morphology of the muscular fibres and fascicles from the
Longissimus dorsi muscles of the Brown breed young livestock
(magnification = 10X6:a-d; 10x10:e)
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The decrease of the muscular fibres thickness within the Longissimus

dorsi muscles of the animals from the three experimental groups, compared to the
reference group, could be related to the different and lower body weight of the
animals, character mainly influenced by the consumed feed quality.
Table 2
Comparisons between the four examined groups concerning the thickness and the
density of the muscular fibers into the ilio-spinalis muscle (Longissimus dorsi).
Statistical indexes
The thickness of muscular fibres
Groups MU Large Small Average DM/Dm Density
diameter diameter diameter ratio (m.f./mm2)
(DM) (Dm) (D x ) (x/1)
Control group µ 52.86 36.76 44.81 1.47/1 429.43
(CG) % 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Experimental µ 48.98 34.35 41.60 1.47/1 480.88
group 1 % from 92.66 93.44 92.84 100.0 111.98
(EG1) CG -7.34 -6.56 -7.16 +11.98
Experimental µ 51.19 37.26 44.23 1.39/1 443.52
group 2 % from 96.84 101.36 98.71 94.56 103.28
(EG2) CG -3.16 +1.36 -1.29 -5.44 +3.28
Experimental µ 50.32 37.50 43.92 1.37/1 426.90
group 3 % from 95.19 102.01 98.01 93.20 99.41
(EG3) CG -4.81 +2.01 -1.99 -6.80 -0.59
Muscular fibres density within the Longissimus dorsi had low values
(427-481 m.f./mm2), as compared to other muscles, eg. large and small psoas
muscles (700-800 m.f./mm2). Otherwise, there is a conversely proportional ratio
between the density and thickens of the muscular fibres, also found in our present
studies. Thus, for the animals in the control group, the studied muscle (LD)
presented a muscular fibres density of 429.43±5.13 m.f./mm2 (v=9.25%). The
same muscle, assessed at the animals in the EG1 group, had values of 480.88±3.35
m.f./mm2 (v=5.40%) (Table 1), meaning 12% more fibres, but also 7.16% thinner
than those measured at the animals in the control group (Table 2). The 2nd
experimental group (EG2) gave other results: 443.90±4.04 m.f./mm2 (v=7.06%),
meaning 3.28% more fibres than in the CG group, but thicker than those (-1,29%)
(Table 2). An average value of 426.90±3.26 m.f./mm2 was found for the 3rd
experimental group (EG3), being 1.99% thinner and 0.59% less than the fibres
measured in the control group (TabEG2).
Differences found between the 4 groups of young livestock, concerning
the thickness and the density of the fibres within the Longissimus dorsi, were
tested for statistical significance (Table 3). Therefore, most of the differences
were found as not significant, while a few were found as distinguished or very
significant (Table 3).
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Table 3
Statistical significance of the differences between the four examined young male
stock breed concerning the thickness and density of the muscular fibres from the
ilio-spinalis muscle (Longissimus dorsi).
The means
Tukey
of the Means F̂ , at 1;118 Stat.
Notice Groups n1/n2 test
compared differences GL signif.
w=0,01
groups
CG 60/60 52.86 CG-EG1=3.88 12.034 2.928 ***
EG1 60/60 48.98 CG-EG2=1.67 2.053 3.042 n.s.
M.f. large
EG2 60/60 51.19 CG-EG3=2.54 5.395 2.859 n.s.
diameter
EG3 60/60 50.32 LE-EG2=2.21 6.215 2.326 n.s.
(DM)(µ)
LE-EG3=1.34 2.856 2.080 n.s.
LE-EG3=0.87 1.039 2.238 n.s.
CG 60/60 36.76 CG-EG1=2.41 4.530 2.970 n.s.
EG1 60/60 34.35 CG-EG2=0.50 0.227 2.720 n.s.
M.f. small
EG2 60/60 37.26 CG-EG3=0.74 0.429 2.936 n.s.
diameter
EG3 60/60 37.50 LE-EG2=2.91 8.895 2.554 **
(Dm)(µ)
LE-EG3=3.15 8.775 2.783 **
LE-EG3=0.24 0.062 2.515 n.s.
CG 60/60 44.81 CG-EG1=3.21 12.534 2.373 ***
EG1 60/60 41.60 CG-EG2=0.58 0.415 2.379 n.s.
M.f. average
EG2 60/60 44.23 CG-EG3=0.89 0.875 2.404 n.s.
diameter
EG3 60/60 43.92 LE-EG2=2.63 14.840 1.783 ***
(D x )(µ)
LE-EG3=2.32 11.162 1.816 **
LE-EG3=0.31 0.165 1.823 n.s.
CG 60/60 1.47/1 CG-EG1=0 0.147 0.125 n.s.
EG1 60/60 1.47/1 CG-EG2=0.08 2.662 0.113 n.s.
DM and Dm EG2 60/60 1.39/1 CG-EG3=0.10 4.777 0.114 n.s.
ratio(x/1) EG3 60/60 1.37/1 LE-EG2=0.08 2.513 0.121 n.s.
LE-EG3=0.10 4.456 0.122 n.s.
LE-EG3=0.02 0.342 0.195 n.s.
CG 60/60 429.43 CG-EG1=51.45 70.539 16.036 ***
EG1 60/60 480.88 CG-EG2=14.09 4.649 17.098 n.s.
M.f. density EG2 60/60 443.52 CG-EG3=2.53 0.174 15.907 n.s.
(m.f./mm2) EG3 60/60 426.90 LE-EG2=37.36 50.597 13.751 ***
LE-EG3=53.98 133.306 12.239 ***
LE-EG3=16.62 10.228 13.601 **
µ = microns Fά at 1;118 GL for p≤0,05=3,9226; p≤0,01=6,858; p≤0,001=11,400
* statistically significant; ** statistically distinguished significant; *** statistically very significant.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Conversely proportion ratio relationship was found between the thickness
and the density values of the muscular fibres within the Longissimus dorsi
muscles from the Brown breed young livestock.
2. The muscular fibres thickness from the LD muscle, expressed through their
average diameter, varied between 41.60µ and 44.81µ, being related to live
weight of the studied animals.
3. Values of the muscular fibres density within the ilio-spinalis muscle ere
between 427-481 m.f./mm2 of muscular tissue.
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BACK
4. Approximately 67% of the differences found between the four groups,

concerning the muscular cell thickness and density from the LD muscle, were
established as statistically not significant.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.POPOVICI, E. L.-2002-„Contribuţii la studiul creşterii şi îngrăşării în sistem semiintensiv, cu
diferite tipuri de raţii, a tineretului taurin de rasă Brună”, Teză de doctorat, U.S.A.M.V., Iaşi.
2.TEUŞAN, V.; RADU-RUSU, R. M.; G. LEHACI – 2005 –„Cercetări privind grosimea şi
densitatea fibrelor musculare din unii muşchi ai spetei şi ai episomei, la taurinele din rasa Pinzgau
de Dorna”, Lucr. Ştiinţ. Seria Zootehnie, vol. 48, pg. 261-267, ISSN 1454-7368.
3. TEUŞAN, V.; RADU-RUSU, R. M. – 2006 –„Researches on the histological structure of some
episoma and thigh muscles issued from the Pinzgau de Dorna breed young stock”, Lucr. Ştiinţ. Seria
Zootehnie, vol. 49, pg. 55-63, ISSN 1454-7368
- 106 -
BACK
COMPARATIVE RESEARCHES CONCERNING SOME

HISTOMETRIC FEATURES OF THE MIOCYTES IN
SOMATIC MUSCULATURE OF THE DOMESTIC CHICKEN
AND WATERFOWL (II). WING AND THIGH MUSCLES
R. M. RADU-RUSU, V. TEUŞAN, I. VACARU-OPRIŞ
The paper presents the results issued from some histometric researches,
applied on adult individuals belonging to the Gallus domesticus L. and Anser
anser L. species. Within the microscopic field, the large (DM) and the small
diameters (dm) of the myocites in the Biceps brachialis (BB) and Biceps femoris
(BF) muscles of both species were measured. The average diameter and the ratio
between the small and the large diameters, the cross-section area of the myocites
were calculated. The data were proportionally and statistically analyzed, the
differences being found as very significant for the large and average diameters
and distinguished significant for DM/dm ratio and for cross section area of the
myocites within the Biceps brachialis muscles. The differences found for the
other studied muscular category (BF), were not significant (DM/dm ratio) or
very significant (for others histometric indexes).
Par consequence, it could be stated that the fibers from the Biceps
femoris muscles of the Anser anser L. species were thinner than those measured
in the Gallus domesticus L. species., while for the wing muscles (BB), the
situation was reversed.
The paper brings some new data concerning the histological features of
the miocytes within the muscles included in two anatomical and commercial
regions of the poultry carcasses. The data reveals relationships between the
physiological purposes of each muscular group, as depending on the species
predominant type of locomotion as good as on the metabolic muscle typology.
The results also improve the amount of information concerning the histological
quality of the meat, as a sum of factors influencing the customers’ choice between
multiple sorts of meat or of its products.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Two skeletal muscles, Biceps brachialis and Biceps femoris, were used as
election anatomical area to provide the biological material. The samples had been
taken from common breed adult females, belonging to the Anser anser L. and
Gallus domesticus L. species (domestic goose and domestic chicken). The average
live weight before slaughtering was about 2700 g in the Anser anser L. species
and about 2500 g in the Gallus domesticus L. species.
Some specific instruments and apparatus have been used: anatomical
necropsy kit, laboratory glassware, histological techniques instruments, reagents,
MC3 type binocular photonic microscope, micrometry and microphotography kits,
digital photo camera.
Various experimental methods have been used in our researches: necropsy,
for tissue sampling; paraffin sectioning technique, for histological samples
preparation; histometry technique, in order to measure the large and the small
- 107 -
diameters of the muscular fibers within the microscopic field. The measurement of
the myocites’ diameters has been done on a well calibrated microscope, for the OB20
X OC10 association. The micrometric values were multiplied with 4.441 (calibration
coefficient corresponding to the OB20 X OC10 association). A number of 360
measurements have been assessed within the microscopic field.
A specific formula was used to calculate the average diameter of the
muscular fibers: Dx = ( DM + dm) / 2 , whereas: D x = average diameter (µ); DM =
large diameter (µ); dm = small diameter (µ). The cross-section area of the myocites
was also calculated according to the mathematical relation: S(µ 2 ) = DM × dm / 4 × π ,
whereas: S = the cross-section area of the fibers (µ2); π= 3,1416.
The statistics were calculated using PC: mean ( x ), variance (S2), standard
deviation (s), mean standard error (± s x ) and variability coefficient (CV%). The
ANOVA – single factor algorithm was used in order to assess the significance of the
differences found within and between species.

In the Anser anser L. (goose) species, within the Biceps brachii (BB) (fig.
1) muscle, the muscular fibers had shown a cylindrical toward poligonal shape, with
a large diameter (DM) of 37.95±0.64 µ; a small diameter (dm) of 27.44±0.39 µ and
an average diameter of 31.10±0.45 µ (table 1). The variability of the character was
about 13.08% (table 1). The ratio between the large and the small diameter
(DM/Dm) of the myocites had an average value of 1.56±0.03/1, which confirmed
the shape presented below.
Into the Biceps femoris (BF) muscle of the same species (fig. 2) the
muscular fibers had a DM of 32.23±0.51 µ, while the small diameter of these cells
had a average value of 23.69±0.50µ and their average diameter was about 27.96 ±
0.42 µ (v=13.96%) (table 1).
Fig. 1 – Muscular fibers in the Fig. 2 – Muscular fibers in the

Biceps brachii muscle, Biceps femoris muscle,
Anser anser L. species Anser anser L. species
(OC10 X OB 20) (OC10 X OB 6)
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The cylindrical aspect and the ellipsoidal shape of the myocites on their
cross section remain the same in this muscle. These characteristics have been
proved by the value of the DM/Dm ratio (1.4±0.03/1) (table 1).
Table 1
Main statistical indexes concerning the histometric features of the muscular fibers in
the wing and thigh muscles, issued from Anser anser L. species
Statistical indexes Limits
Mus
Features n
cles
X± sX s S2 CV % Min. Max.
Large diameter (DM) (µ) 30 37.95 0.64 5.74 32.97 15.21 26.65 53.29
Brachi
biceps
Small diameter (Dm) (µ) 30 24.44 0.39 3.5 12.28 14.34 17.76 35.53
al
Average diameter (D X ) (µ) 30 31.1 0.45 4.07 16.55 13.08 23.32 44.41
DM/Dm ratio 30 1.56 0.03 0.26 0.07 16.57 1.17 2.5
Femora
biceps
Small diameter (Dm) (µ) 30 23.69 0.50 4.45 19.82 18.80 14.21 33.31
l
DM/Dm ratio 30 1.40 0.03 0.27 0.07 19.50 1.00 2.13
In the Gallus domesticus L. species, within the Biceps brachialis (BB)

muscle (fig. 3), the muscular fibers had a large diameter of 30.37±0.71 µ, and a
variability of this character of 20.93% (table 2). The myocites’ small diameter in the
same muscle had an average value of 22.58±0.50 µ, and the calculated average
diameter was about 26.47±0.45µ. The variability of the values was situated between
the 18.71 – 20.26% limits (table 2). The ratio between the large and the small
diameter of these muscular fibers had an average value of 1.36±0.03/1, the
variability being of 17.53% (table 2).
Within the Biceps femoris (BF) muscle (fig. 4), the myocites had a more
pronounced cylindrical aspect, with a large diameter of 40.53±0.91 µ, a small
diameter of 31.42±0.81 µ and an average diameter of 35.97±0.81 µ. The variability of
the data was found within the 20.00% - 23.01% interval (table 2).
Table 2
Main statistical indexes concerning the histometric features of the muscular fibers
within the wing and thigh muscles, issued from Gallus domesticus L. species
Mus
Analyzed characters n
cles
X± sX s S2
CV % Min. Max.
Brahial
biceps
Small diameters (Dm) (µ) 30 22.58 0.50 4.51 20.33 19.97 16.87 35.52
DM/Dm ratio 30 1.36 0.03 0.24 0.06 17.53 1.09 2.00
Femoral
biceps
Small diameters (Dm) (µ) 30 31.42 0.81 7.23 52.28 23.01 22.20 53.28
DM/Dm ratio 30 1.31 0.02 0.19 0.04 14.68 1.02 1.71
The DM/Dm ratio of the myocites within the BF muscle had an average value
of 1.31±0.02/1, showing the cylindrical aspect of the muscular cells and their ellipsoidal
cross-section shape.
- 109 -
Fig. 3 – Muscular fibers in the Fig. 4 – Muscular fibers in the

Biceps brachii muscle, Biceps femoris muscle,
Gallus domesticus L. species Gallus domesticus L. species
(OC10 X OB 10) (OC10 X OB 10)
The values concerning the muscular fibers’ thickness in both skeletal

muscles we’ve studied in the domestic fowl species were compared. Some
comparisons between both muscles, within the same species were effectuated, as
well as the values of the homologues muscles from both species were also
compared. First of all, the wings’ and thighs’ from the Anser anser L. species
were compared, considering the Brachial biceps muscle as etalon.
According to the data existing in table 3, it could be observed that the
myocites within the Brachial biceps muscle had higher thickness than those into
the Femoral biceps muscle.
Table 3
Comparisons between the studied muscles of Anser anser L. species, concerning the
histological features of the miocytes within the wing and thigh
(percentage and statistic differences)
Muscular fiber’s thickness (µ)
Species
Studied muscles Large Small Average DM/Dm

diameter(DM) diameter(Dm) diameter(D X ) ratio
Brachial Abs. val. 37.75 a 24.44 a 31.10 a 1.56 a
Anser anser
biceps Rel. val. (%) 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Abs. val. 32.23 d 23.69 a 27.96 c 1.40 b
Femoral
85.37 96.93 89.90 89.74
biceps Rel. val. (%)
(-14.63%) (-3.07%) (-10.1%) (-10.26%)
a, b, c, d
– within the same column - insignificant statistical differences between means with identical
exponents, significant (ab; F̂ > F crit. for α = 0.05 at 1,58 LD), distinguish significant (ac; F̂ > F crit.
for α = 0.01 at 1,58 LD) high significant (ad; F̂ > F crit. for α = 0.001 at 1,58 LD) differences
between means with different exponents.
- 110 -
Thus, we found that the average diameter of the myocites in the BF

muscle of the Anser anser L. species, represented just 89.90% from the diameter
of the miocytes measured in the BB muscle. The differences were found as very
significant (DM), distinguished significant (D X ) or just significant (DM/Dm ratio).
Conversely, the situation from the Gallus domesticus species, shown that
the fibers in the Femoral biceps are thicker than those measured within the wing’s
muscle (+35.89% for the average diameter). Very significant differences were
found for all three values of the miocytes diameter (table 4).
Table 4
Comparisons between the studied muscles of Gallus domesticus L. species, concerning
the histological features of the miocytes within the wing and thigh
Spec
Studied muscles
ies
Large Small Average DM/Dm

Brachial Abs. val. 30.37 a 22.58 a 26.47 a 1.36 a
biceps
domesticus
Rel. val. (%) 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Gallus
Abs. val. 40.53 d 31.42 d 35.97 d 1.31 a

Femoral
biceps Rel. val. (%)
133.45 139.15 135.89 96.32
(+33.45%) (+39.15%) (+35.89%) (-3.68%)
a, b, c, d
When the thickness of the myocites from the homologous muscles of both
studied species were compared, we established that Biceps brachii muscle of the
Anser anser species had thicker fibers than those measured into the domestic
chicken muscles. Thus, the formers average diameter was 7.49% higher than the
latter one. The shape per cross-section was more polygonal in domestic duck
muscle and closer to ellipsoidal in domestic chicken muscles (Table 5).
Table 5
Comparisons between the homologues muscles of both studied species, concerning
the dimensions of the myocites in the wing musculature
Studied
Waterfowl species Large Small Average DM/Dm
muscles
Gallus Abs. val. 30.37 a 22.58 a 26.47 a 1.36 a
domesticus
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Brachial
Rel. val.(%)
biceps
Anser
Abs. val. 37.75 d 24.44 a 31.10 d 1.56 c
anser Rel. val.(%)
124.30 108.24 117.49 114.70
(+24.30%) (+8.24%) (+7.49%) (+4.70%)
a, b, c, d
- 111 -
Differences between thickness values of Brachial biceps in both fowl

were found as very (DM and D X ) and distinguished significant (DM/dm ratio)
(table 5).
Comparison done between the fowl species, concerning the histological
features of Biceps femoris muscles, shown that Anser anser presented lower
values for the diameters. Thus, the large one was 20.48% lower, the small one
was 24.60% lower, while the average value was 22.27% lower than the value
observed in Gallus domesticus muscle. Despite this, it was shown that the
miocytes within the Femoral biceps of the domestic duck were closer to
polygonal shape (table 6).
Table 6
Comparisons between the homologues muscles of both studied species, concerning
the dimensions of the miocytes in the thigh musculature
Studied
Waterfowl species Large Small Average DM/Dm
muscles
Gallus Abs. val. 40.53 a 31.42 a 35.97 a 1.31 a
domesticus Rel. val.(%) 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Femoral
biceps
Abs. val. 32.23 d 23.69 d 27.96 d 1.40 c

Anser anser 79.52 75.40 77.73 106.781
Rel. val.(%)
(-20.48%) (-24.6%) (-22.27%) (+6.78%)
a, b, c, d
Concerning the existing differences, table 6 reveals very significant ones

for the diameter values and distinguished significant difference for ratio between
diameters.
Another histological feature was calculated, considering it better
expresses the thickess/thinnes of the miocytes, straightly influencing the meat
texture. Thus, the cross-section area of the fibers, was found of 732.66±22.49 µ2
into the domestic duck Brachial biceps (BB) duck and of 552.75±24.98 µ2 into the
same muscle from the domestic chicken. Variability was higher in the Gallus
domesticus species (40.43%). The thigh’s biceps cross sections area of the
myocites shown an average value of 1034.49±50.21 µ2 for the domestic chicken,
respectively of 605.38±18.11 µ2 for the Anser anser species, while the variability
was also higher in G. domesticus samples (43.41%) (table 7).
- 112 -
Table 7
Main statistical indexes concerning the cross-section area of the myocites in some of
the wing and thigh muscles, from both fowl species
Statistical indexes (µ2) Limits (µ2)
Species Muscles n
Brachial
30 732.66 22.49 201.17 40471.20 27.46 418.20 1487.07
Anser biceps
anser Femoral
30 605.38 18.11 161.94 26224.25 26.75 252.79 987.60
biceps
Brachial
30 552.75 24.98 223.46 49933.12 40.43 264.73 1362.51
Gallus biceps
domesticus Femoral
30 1034.49 50.21 449.07 201664.08 43.41 503.20 2271.40
biceps
Analyzing the percentage differences between the cross-section areas of

the muscular fibers in the studied muscles within the same species, it could be
observed that for the domestic duck species, the myocites in the BF muscle had a
17.37% smaller area than those in the BB muscle (difference found as
distinguished significant). The differences between the muscles of the domestic
chicken were more pronounced, so the cross-section area of the fibers in the BB
muscle was 87.15% higher of that found for the BF muscle fibers (very significant
statistically difference) (table 8).
Table 8
Comparison between the studied muscles in each studied species, concerning the
cross-section area of the muscular fibers
Muscular fibers’ cross-section area
Studied muscle SPECIES Difference
(G. domesticus. vs.
Gallus domesticus Anser anser
A. anser) ±%
Biceps Abs. val. (µ2) 552.75 a; a 732.66 c; a -24.56%
brachii Rel. val. (%) 100.00 100.00 -
Biceps Abs. val. (µ2) 1034.49 a; d 605.38 c; c +70.88%
femoris Rel. val. (%) 187.15 (+87.15%) 82.63 (-17.37%) -
a, b, c, d
– within the same row and column - insignificant statistical differences between means with
identical exponents, significant (ab; F̂ > F crit. for α = 0.05 at 1,58 LD), distinguish significant (ac;
F̂ > F crit. for α = 0.01 at 1,58 LD) high significant (ad; F̂ > F crit. for α = 0.001 at 1,58 LD)
differences between means with different exponents.
Following the interspecies comparison, in both studied muscles, the

muscular fibers from the Gallus domesticus L. species had inferior values of the
cross-section areas in the Biceps brachii muscle (-24,56%) than those found in other
species. Conversely, for the Femoral biceps, the values were 70.88 higher in domestic
chicken, as compared to the value of the domestic Anser anser L. species (table 8).
Both differences were found as statistically distinguished significant.
- 113 -
BACK
CONCLUSIONS
1. Gallus domesticus individuals presented thicker muscular fibers within the
Biceps femoris muscles, while the other species representatives shown a higher
miocytes thickness into the Biceps brachii muscle.
2. The researches showed a correlation between muscle fibers development and
muscle activity of the anatomic election area.
3. The domestic chicken presented a hypertrophy of the thigh muscle cells, due to
their locomotion type, realized almost exclusively through the inferior limbs
movements. Conversely, the alternate locomotion of the duck (flight and
stepping), gave a slightly better development of the wings muscles.
4. Interspecific comparisons gave distinguished significant differences (muscular
fibers cross-section) or even very significant differentiation (especially for
miocytes large diameters).
5. Muscular contractile cells shape, as observed in cross-section caption, seemed
to be ellipsoidal in chicken samples and closer to polygonal, in domestic duck
muscles.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. LYON C.E., ROBACH M.C., PAPA C.M., WILSON R.L. – 1992 – Effect of wing restraint
on the objective texture of commercially processed broiler breast meat. Poultry Science
71:1020-1025.
2. RADU-RUSU R.M., RADU-RUSU Cristina – 2006 – Metode noi de apreciere a calităţii cărnii
de pasare, Simpozion ştiinţific studenţesc, Ed. a II-a, Facultatea de Zootehnie, U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi.
3. RADU-RUSU R.M., TEUŞAN V., VOICU P. – 2006 – Researches concerning the thickness
and the cross-section area of the myocites in the domestic waterfowl’s pectoral muscles, Lucr.
Ştiinţ. U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi, Seria Zootehnie, vol. 49, pg. 156-164, ISSN 1454-7368.
4. RISTIC M. – 2004 – Meat quality of organically produced broilers, Rev. World Poultry, Vol.
20, No. 8, 2004.
5. WATTANACHANT S., BENJAKUL S., LEDWARD D.A. – 2005 – Microstructure and
Thermal Characteristics of Thai indigenous and broiler chicken muscles, Poult. Sci., 84:328-
336.
- 114 -
BACK
COMPARATIVE RESEARCHES CONCERNING SOME

HISTOMETRIC FEATURES OF THE MIOCYTES IN
SOMATIC MUSCULATURE OF THE DOMESTIC CHICKEN
AND WATERFOWL (I). PECTORAL MUSCLES
R. M. RADU-RUSU, V. TEUŞAN, Anca TEUŞAN
The paper presents the results issued from some histometric researches,
applied on adult individuals belonging to the Gallus domesticus L. and Anser
anser L. species. Within the microscopic field, the large (DM) and the small (dm)
diameters of the myocites in the superficial pectoral muscles of both studied
species were measured. The average diameter and the report between the small
and the large diameters, the cross-section area of the myocites were calculated.
The data were proportionally and statistically compared, resulting some
differences found as not significant (dm, DM/dm), distinguished significant
(average diameter and cross-section area), or even very significant (DM).
The main conclusion of the researches affirms that the muscular fibers
in the pectoral muscles of the Anser anser L. species are thicker and with a
higher cross-section surface than those measured in the Gallus domesticus L.
pectoral muscles.
It is well known that the histological features of the meat influence its
technological, sensorial and nutritional properties. Moreover, the modern
customer began to choose high quality sorts of meat and meat products. Some of
the criteria used in consumers’ decision are the texture and the morphological
elements thinness of these animal origin aliments. Par consequence, it imposes to
know better the meat microstructure and to lead the husbandry and processing
activity toward the customers’ preferences. The present study began a series of
researches concerning the poultry meat quality and deals with some muscular
histometric features: myocites’ thickness, shape and cross section area.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The biological material consisted in the histological samples issued from
the Pectoralis superficialis muscles, provided by the common breed adult
females, from the Gallus domesticus L. and Anser anser L. species (domestic
chicken and domestic goose). The average live weight before slaughtering was
about 2700 g in the Anser anser L. species and about 2500 g in the Gallus
domesticus L. species.
In order to proceed to our investigations, some specific instruments and
apparatus have been used: anatomical necropsy kit, laboratory glassware,
histological techniques instruments, reagents, MC3 type binocular photonic
microscope, micrometry and microphotography kits, digital photo camera.
- 115 -
Several experimental methods have been used in our researches: necropsy, in

order to draw the muscular tissues; paraffin sectioning technique, in order to process
the histological samples; histometry technique, in order to measure the large and the
small diameters of the muscular fibers within the microscopic field. The measurement
of the myocites’ diameters has been done on a MC3 type photonic microscope, well
calibrated for the OB20 X OC10 association. The micrometric values were multiplied
with 4,441 (calibration coefficient corresponding to the OB20 X OC10 association).
A number of 120 measurements have been effectuated within the microscopic field.
In order to calculate the average diameter of the muscular fibers, a specific
formula was used: Dx = ( DM + Dm) / 2 , whereas: D x = average diameter (µ); DM =
large diameter (µ); Dm = small diameter (µ). The cross-section area of the myocytes
was also calculated according to the formula: S(µ 2 ) = DM × Dm / 4 × π , whereas: S
represents the cross-section area of the fibers (µ2); π= 3,1416; DM and Dm meet the
same signification as in the previous formula.
The primary data were statistically processed, some indexes being calculated:
statistical mean ( x ), variance (S2), standard deviation (s), mean standard error (± s x )
and variability coefficient (CV%). These parameters were computed using PC. In order
to test the statistical significance of the differences between averages, the ANOVA –
single factor algorithm was used, as a plugin integrated within the Ms EXCEL main
application.

In the Gallus domesticus L. (chicken) species, within the Pectoralis
superficialis (PS) (fig. 1) muscle, the muscular fibers presented a cylindrical shape,
with a large diameter (DM) of 32.53±0.61 µ; a small diameter (Dm) of 25.41±0.52
µ and a mean value for the average diameter of 28.47±0.49 µ. The variability of all
the 30 measurements was comprised between 15.24% and 18.15%. An average
value of 1.30/1 ± 0.02 was found for the DM/Dm ratio, indicating an ellipsoidal
shape on the myocites cross-section (table 1).
Table 1
The main statistical indexes concerning the dimensions of the muscular fibers in the
Pectoralis superficialis muscles, issued from Gallus domesticus L. species
Character n
X± s X s S 2
CV % Min. Max.
Large diameter
30 32.53 0.61 5.42 29.33 16.64 19.98 44.40
(DM) (µ)
Small diameter
30 25.41 0.52 4.61 21.27 18.15 17.76 35.52
(Dm) (µ)
Average diameter
30 28.97 0.49 4.41 19.27 15.24 18.87 36.63
(D X ) (µ)
DM/Dm report 30 1.30 0.02 0.22 0.05 16.86 1.00 1.80
- 116 -
Fig. 1 – Muscular fibers in the

Pectoralis superficialis muscle,
Gallus domesticus L. species
(OC10 X OB 10; OC10 X OB 6)
In the Anser anser L. species, within the Pectoralis superficialis (PS)

muscle (fig. 2), the muscular fibers had a large diameter of 37.90±0.67 µ, and a
variability of this character of 15.83% (table 2). The myocites’ small diameter in the
same muscle had an average value of 27.42±0.60 µ, and the calculated average
diameter was about 32.66±0.53 µ. The variability of the thirty measured and
calculated values within the microscopic field was situated between the 14.64 –
19.55% limits (table 2). The report between the large and the small diameter of
these muscular fibers had an average value of 1.42±0.03/1, the variability being also
higher (v=19.67%) (table 2).
The values concerning the muscular fibers’ thickness (DM, Dm, D X ) in the
Pectoralis superficialis muscles we’ve studied in both fowl species, were compared.
The statistical significance between differences was tested.
Table 2
The main statistical indexes concerning the dimensions of the muscular fibers in the
Pectoralis superficialis muscles, issued from Anser anser L. species
Character n
Large diameter
30 37.90 0.67 6.00 36.01 15.83 26.65 48.85
(DM) (µ)
Small diameter
30 27.42 0.60 5.36 28.74 19.55 17.76 35.53
(Dm) (µ)
Average diameter
30 32.66 0.53 4.78 22.84 14.64 24.43 41.08
(D X ) (µ)
DM/Dm ratio 30 1.42 0.03 0.28 0.08 19.67 1.00 2.00
- 117 -
Fig. 2 – Muscular fibers in the Pectoralis

superficialis muscle, Anser anser L. species
(OC10 X OB 10)
According to the data presented in table 3, it could be observed that the

myocites within the superficial pectoral muscles of the Anser anser L. species had
superior thickness values than those found for the fibers within the homologue
muscles of the Gallus domesticus L. species.
Thus, the chickens’ superficial pectorals had muscular fibers 7.91% …
16.51% thinner (12.73% less for the average diameter) than those measured
within the samples drawn from the domestic duck individuals. Moreover, the
myocites shape was closer to ellipsoidal in Gallus muscles and, conversely, closer
to polygonal in Anser anser L. muscles. These differences were found as very
significant ( F̂ > F crit. for α = 0.001 at 1.58 LD) for the large diameter values and
also distinguish significant ( F̂ > F crit. for α = 0.01 at 1.58 LD) for the average
diameter. No significant differences were found between other characters.
Table 3
Comparisons between both studied species, concerning the dimensions of the
myocites in the Pectoralis superficialis muscles
(percentage and statistical differences)
Fowl species Large Small Average DM/Dm
diameter diameter diameter Report
(DM) (µ) (Dm) (µ) (D ) (µ) X
Gallus Abs. val. 32.53 a
25.41 a
28.97 a 1.30 a
domesticus L. Rel. val.(%) 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Anser Abs. val. 37.90 d 27.42 a 32.66 c 1.42 a
anser L. Rel. val.(%) 116.51 107.91 112.73 109.23
a, b, c, d
- 118 -
The other feature, respectively the cross-section area of the fibers in the
pectoral muscles, was also analyzed, considering it better expresses the muscular
tissue texture and it could be used as starting data when the density of the
myocites within the muscular fascicles has to be assessed. Thus, an average value
of 659.11±22.23 µ2 was found within the superficial pectoral (PS) muscle of the
Gallus domesticus L. species. The values varied within the 278.69 µ2 - 1006.40 µ2
interval, showing a with a variability coefficient of 30.14 % (table 4). Into the
Pectoralis superficialis muscles of the other studied species (domestic duck), the
average value of the myocites cross-section area was found of 826.71±27.52 µ2,
and the variation limits were of 453.04 µ2 and of 1277.90 µ2, reaching a
variability of 29.79 % (table 4).
Table 4
Main statistical indexes concerning the cross-section area of the myocites in the
Pectoralis superficialis muscles, issued from both fowl species
(also presentation of the percentage and statistical differences between means)
Statistical indexes (µ2) Limits (µ2)
Fowl species n 2
X± s X s S CV % Min. Max.
Gallus Abs. val. 30 659.72 a 22.23 198.87 39549.15 30.14 278.69 1006.40
domesticus L. ±% - 100.00 - - - - - -
Abs. val. 30 826.21 c 27.52 246.12 60574.90 29.79 453.04 1277.99
Anser anser L.
±% - 125.24 - - - - - -
a, b, c, d
for α = 0.01 at 1.58 LD) high significant (ad; F̂ > F crit. for α = 0.001 at 1.58 LD) differences
Following the interspecies comparison, the muscular fibers from the

Gallus domesticus L. species had lower values of the cross-section areas (-25.24%)
than the pectoral myocites studied in Anser anser L. species (table 4).
The average values of the muscular fibers cross-section area in the superficial
pectorals of both species were not so close. Par consequence, differences between
them were found as statistically distinguish significant ( F̂ > F crit. for α = 0.01 at
1.58 LD).
CONCLUSIONS
1. The average diameter of the myocytes was found of 28.47±0.49 µ into the
Gallus domesticus L.. species’ Pectoralis superficialis muscle.
2. Within the superficial pectoral muscle of the waterfowl species (Anser
anser L.), different value was found, concerning the average diameter of
the muscular fibers: 32.66±0.53µ, being thus 16.51% thicker than that
calculated for the domestic chicken fibers.
- 119 -
BACK
3. The cross section area of the myocites from the Pectoralis superficialis
muscles was found of 659.72±44.93µ2 in the Gallus domesticus L. species,
respectively of 826.21±29.79µ2 in the Anser anser L. species (+25.24%
higher).
4. Most of the differences between myocites histometric features of both
species were found as not statistically significant, except their large and
average diameter of the fibers (very significant and distinguished
significant) as good as their cross section area (distinguished significant
differences).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BERRI Cecille – 2000 – Variability of sensory and processing qualities of poultry meat,
World’s Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 56, September, pg. 209-224.
RADU-RUSU R.M., TEUŞAN V., VOICU P. – 2006 – Researches concerning the
thickness and the cross-section area of the myocytes in the domestic waterfowl’s pectoral muscles,
Lucr. Ştiinţ. U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi, Seria Zootehnie, vol. 49.
RISTIC M. – 2004 – Meat quality of organically produced broilers, Rev. World Poultry,
Vol. 20, No. 8, 2004.
TEUŞAN, V. – 2000 – Cercetări privind suprafaţa pe secţiune transversală a fibrelor
musculare, precum şi proporţia de ţesut muscular şi conjunctiv din câţiva muşchi somatici la specia
Gallus domesticus, Lucr. Ştiinţ. U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi, Seria Zootehnie, vol. 43-44.
- 120 -
BACK
THE VEGETATION INTERRUPTION FOR THE SEED

POTATO IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE MAXIMAL
FLIGHT OF THE APHIDS AND THE SEED FRACTION
ACCUMULATION
Ioana PETRICELE, D. PAMFIL, Daniela DONESCU,
Gh. OLTEANU, Maria IANOŞI, K. KOVÁCS
Considering that producing a planting material with high phytosanitary

valence takes a lot of effort, after two years of researches that took place in the
experimental field from Brasov, tubers with a minimum of virotic infections and
corresponding yield have been obtained. This was based upon estimating the
optimal period for the vegetation interruption, considering the maximal flight of
the aphids and obtaining the highest percent of seed tubers, correlated with the
sum of thermic degrees during the vegetation period, as two principal criteria
which had to be met.
Until now, the moment of vegetation interruption of the seed potato
cultures was established taking into account the maximal flight of the aphids; in
our case, for the semi-early potato varieties (e.g. Ostara), the second evaluation
criteria for the vegetation interruption, based upon obtaining the highest percent
of seed tubers, was used. For the medium late Desireé potato variety and the late
Eba variety, the criteria used to estimate the optimal moment for the vegetation
interruption was the maximal flight of the aphids, which took place before
obtaining a satisfactory quantity of seed tubers (30-55 mm).
INTRODUCTION
Regarding the technology to produce potato for seed, a highly important

role for a increased production capacity, have the integrity and the size of the
tubers, and also their phytosanitary features and biological quality, which are
given by virotic infections.
Due to the fact that, on average in each potato seed culture area, the
pressure of the vectors is generally high, to be able to produce a high qualitative
planting material in concordance with the phytosanitary legislations and also
according to the STAS, it is necessary, that in a complex system of
agrofitotechique, organization and phytosanitary integrated measurements to take
into account the vegetation interruption stage.
It is known the fact that tuber infection with viruses is higher if the period
since the infection caused by aphids or by contact until the vegetation intreruption
is longer.
Because of this, the vegetation inreruptin is considered one of the most
efficient measurement, in preventing the viruses transmition from the foliar
system to the tubers, but also in limiting the tubers growing in order to obtain an
increased percentage of tubers for seeds, from the fraction of 30-55 mm diameter
(IANOSI şi colab., 2002).
- 121 -
MATERIAL AND RESEARCH METHOD

To achieve this goal, there were made determinations regarding the
aphids fly monitorising in the experimental field from Brasov, by collecting them
in yellow vessels, and as potato cultivar, there were taken into study the following
cultivars :Ostara (middle early cultivar), Desireé (middle late cultivar) and Eba
(late cultivar), cultivars with a high phenotypical and genetic variability.
The experience was organized in randomisated blocks, with three variants
in four repetitions each, each variant was planted on a surface of 5m2, at two
different planting densities: high density (DM): 63.500 plants/ha, with tubers of
30-45 mm fraction; low density (Dm): 53.000 plants/ha, with tubers of 45-55 mm
fraction. The biologic category of tubers for seeds was represented by base
category, practically free of viruses.
To determine the seed tubers percentage with a diameter between 30-55
mm (diameter mentioned by STAS), it was necessary to find out the weight limits
of tubers. In order to do that, WINIGER, LUDWIG, (1974) and BROUWER
(1976) documentation were consulted; so that at 100 tubers in each cultivar
studied there were made biometric measurements concerning the shape, lengh,
thikness and tubers weight. These determinations began after about 2-3 weeks
from the plants began to grow and continued on the entire vegetation period, from
10 in 10 days, resulting 8-10 harvest stages, depending on the vegetation period of
the cultivars taken into study.
The dates obtained show us that the limits of the seed tubers weight
variations of 30-55 mm fraction, for Ostara cultivar, are between 17,5 and 102,2
grams, for Desireé cultivar between 38,9 grams and 120,2 grams, and for Eba
cultivar between 27,3 and 139,4 grams. The program which was used to calculate
the dates is: SigmaPlot by SPSS.

Our research, which took place on a period of three years in the
experimental field in Braşov, is based on the estimation of the optimal vegetation
interruption period depending on the achievement of the two main criteria and
that is the maximal aphids fly period and a increased percentage of seeds tubers,
depending on the degrees of thermal sum accumulated from the moment of tuber
plantation up to the last harvest stage.
Concerning the fact that the main criteria to establish, presently the
moment for vegetation inreruption of seeds potato culture, is the maximal aphids
fly period, in our case, for the middle late cultivar (Ostara), characterised by a
relativly short vegetation period, 75-85 days, is available the second criteria to
apreciate the vegetation inreruption, based on the maximum seed tubers percent
achievement.
This recommendation is justified due to the dates obtained, at the level of
the culture with the planting densities (63500 plants/ha and 53000 plants/ha) (fig.
1). It is shown that, to achieve the maximum seed cuantum, on 30-55 mm, it is
- 122 -
obtained before the mmaximal aphids fly period, which takes place at a cumulated
value of the temperatures degrees of 1200ºC. For a superior quantitative and
qualitative production of seed tubers, the optimal perios for vegetation inreruption
can be estimated when the sum of temperature degrees cumulated reaches a value
between 950-1250°C, depending on the climatic conditions of the certain years.
Calendaristically speaking, these values are according to the date 10-20 July,
respectively after 50-65 days from the plant appearance. The aspect noticed
determines us to consider that vegetation intreruption is justified to be achieved
after the criteria of maximal seed production achieved, which can be done before
the maximal aphids fly period, in this way the virotic infections of the planting
material being , significally, decreased,.
Tip soi - Ostara (an I) Tip soi - Ostara (an I)

100 1450 100 1450
90 90
1400 1400
80 80
70 1350 70 1350
Procent samanta (%)
Procent samanta (%)

Numar total afide
Numar total afide

60 60
1300 1300
50 50
1250 1250
40 40
30 1200 30 1200
20
20
1150
1150
10
10
0 1100
0 1100
700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
Sum a °C
DM Afide cum ulate Sum a °C Dm Afide cumulate
Tip soi - Ostara (an II) Tip soi - Ostara (an II)
100 1450 100 1450
90 90
1400 1400
80 80
70 1350 70 1350
Procent samanta (%)
Procent samanta (%)
Numar total afide

Numar total afide
60 60
1300 1300
50 50
1250 1250
40 40
30 1200 30 1200
20 20
1150 1150
10 10
0 1100 0 1100
700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
Sum a °C Sum a °C
Dm Afide cumulate Dm Afide cumulate
Fig. 1. Relaţia dintre zborul maxim al afidelor şi procentul maxim de tuberculi

pentru sămânţă, realizat de soiul Ostara
For Desireé, middle late cultivar, due to its longer vegetation period,
achieving a superior qualitative production of seed tubers, was possible only after
- 123 -
reaching a level of temperature degrees of over 1300°C, in all the three years
studied (fig. 2). Due to this fact, the criteria used to estimate the optimal moment
to interrupt the vegetation is the moment of the maximal aphids fly, which takes
place before obtaining a satisfying seed tuber quantity (30-55 mm). To obtain a
qualitative production, from the phytosanitary point of view, the optimal moment
for vegetation interruption based on the maximal aphids fly period, can be
estimated as being the last decade of July, when the sum of the thermal degrees
reaches 1150-1200°C.
Tip soi - Desireé (an I) Tip soi - Desireé (an I)
100 1450 100 1450
90 90
1400 1400
80 80
1350 70 1350
70
Procent samanta (%)

Procent samanta (%)
Numar total afide

Numar total afide
60 60
1300 1300
50 50
1250 1250
40 40
30 30 1200
1200
20 20
1150 1150
10 10
0 1100 0 1100
800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
Sum a °C Sum a °C
DM Af ide cumulate Dm Afide cumulate
Tip soi - Desireé (an II) Tip soi - Desireé (an II)
100 1450
100 1450
90
90 1400
1400
80
80
70 1350
70 1350
Procent samanta (%)
Procent samanta (%)
Numar total afide

Numar total afide
60
60 1300
1300
50 50
1250
1250 40
40
30 30 1200
1200
20 20
1150 1150
10 10
0 1100 0 1100
800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
Sum a °C Sum a °C
DM Afide cumulate Dm Afide cumulate

pentru sămânţă, realizat de soiul Desireé
The criteria used to estimate the vegetation interruption for late cultivar
Eba, is in this case the maximal aphids fly period, due to its vegetation period of
over 120 days, the accumulation of an appropriate quantitative of tuber
production, achieved on temperatures over 1700°C, in the first but also in the
second year of study for both of the planting densities.
- 124 -
So, the optimal period for vegetation interruption depending on the

maximal aphids fly period, is estimated to be the last decade of July in the case of
the first year, and the end of the second decade of July in the case of the second
year of study (fig. 3). Practically, in this case it can be recommended as optimal
period to destroy the stalks, when the sum of accumulated thermal degrees
reaches the value of 1100 - 1300°C.
Tip soi - Eba (an I) Tip soi - Eba (an I)

100 1450 100 1450
90 90
1400 1400
80 80
70 1350 1350
70
Procent samanta (%)
Procent samanta (%)

Numar total afide
Numar total afide

60 60
1300 1300
50 50
1250 1250
40 40
30 1200 30 1200
20 20
1150 1150
10 10
0 1100 0 1100
800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100
Sum a °C Sum a °C
DM Afide cumulate Dm Afide cumulate
Tip soi - Eba (an II) Tip soi - Eba (an II)
100 1450 100 1450
90 90
1400 1400
80 80
1350 70 1350
70
Procent samanta (%)
Procent samanta (%)
Numar total afide

Numar total afide
60 60
1300 1300
50 50
1250 1250
40 40
30 30 1200
1200
20 20
1150
1150 10
10
0 1100
0 1100
800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100
800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
Sum a °C
Sum a °C
DM Afide cumulate Dm Af ide cumulate

pentru sămânţă, realizat de soiul Eba
CONCLUSIONS
- The aspect noticed in the case of Ostara cultivar determine us to consider
that vegetation intreruption is justified to be achieved after the criteria of maximal
seed production obtained, achieved before the maximal aphids fly period,
decreasing in this way, significally,the virotic infections of the planting material.
- 125 -
BACK
- In the case of the two cultivars, middle late Desireé and late Eba, the
optimal vegetation interruption is established after the criteria of the maximal
aphids fly period, due to the high susceptibility of plants to infection and
obtaining superior qualitative production, but not quantitative, because the
vegetation periods are more extended.
- The possibility to obtain satisfactory production under this aspect is low,
because the tubers aren’t mature from physiological point of view. That is why
the planting period has an important role; it has to be made as early as possible for
seed culture, measure which contributes to a satisfactory seed production
accumulation up to the optimal moment for vegetation interruption.
- Not at last, it has to be taken into account, at the repartition on area of
the cultivars and links within the seed potato production system, the infection
potential of the culture area, production potential and virus’s resistance of the
particular cultivars.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. ARDELEAN, M., SESTRAŞ, R., MIRELA CORDEA, 2002, Tehnică experimentală şi
horticolă. Ed. Academic Pres, Cluj-Napoca.
2. BEDÖ, E., 1990, Cercetări privind îmbunătăţirea producerii cartofului pentru sămânţă în
judeţul Harghita. Teza de doctorat, ASAS, Bucureşti.
3. BEEMSTER, A.B.R., 1984, Some notes on viruses of potatoes and seed potato production.
IAC, Wageningen.
4. BENEA, I., 2004, Apelul cultivatorilor de cartof, adresat factorilor de decizie. Rev. Agricultura
României;
5. BERINDEI, M., 2004, Priorităţi la cultura cartofului în România. Rev. Cartoful în România, 14
(4);
6. BIANU, T., 1995. Cercetări privind influenţa caracterelor morfologice asupra producţiei la
cartof. Teză de doctorat, USAMV Cluj-Napoca
7. BOZEŞAN, I., BERINDEI M., 2005, Conştientizarea cultivatorilor de cartof pentru reînnoirea
cartofilor pentru sămânţă. Rev. Cereale şi plante tehnice. 2: 10-11;
8. CHIRU, S.C., OLTEANU G., 2004, Priorităţi de cercetare-dezvoltare la cultura cartofului în
perspectiva dezvoltării durabile a agriculturii. Rev. Agricultura României, 44;
9. DONESCU, DANIELA, 2001, Biologia şi ecologia comunităţilor de afide dăunătoare din
culturile de cartof pentru sămânţă în contextul protecţiei integrate. Teza de doctorat. USAMV
Cluj – Napoca.
10. IANOŞI, I.S., IANOŞI MARIA ELENA, PLĂMĂDEALĂ B., POPESCU A., 2002, Cultura
cartofului pentru consum. Ed. Phoenix, Braşov:112-123.
11. MORAR, G., VÂTCĂ S., IOANA OLTEAN (PETRICELE), OLTEAN M. I., 2003, A new
microzone for seed potato productions in Romania – Huedin area – in Cluj country, Journal of
Central European Agriculture, 4
12. OLTEANU, G., OLTEAN I. M., OLTEAN IOANA, 2002, Priorităţi ale cercetării ştiinţifice în
domeniul culturilor de câmp. Ed. Ceres, ASAS Bucureşti: 99-109
13. OLTEANU, G., PLĂMĂDEALĂ B., OLTEAN I. M, MARIA IANOŞI, IOANA OLTEAN,
2003, Particularităţile de creştere şi acumularea producţiei de cartof în condiţiile anului 2000.
III. Calitatea tuberculilor, Analele ICDCSZ, 30
14. ZAAG, D.E.,VAN DER, 1992, Cartoful şi cultivarea lui în Olanda, NIVAA Holland, FAO
Production Yearbook, vol. 51
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BACK
STRATEGIES FOR USE BIOMASS, A NECESSITY FOR THE

ROMANIAN ECONOMY
V. CRĂCIUN, O. BĂLAN
Amongst the available alternatives of regenerative energy sources, biomass

will play an important role. Beside the objective of protection of resources and
environment, biomass could contribute to preserving and strengthening agriculture
and improve the standard of life for villages inhabitants. Livestock residues, as a
part of biomass, can constitute aas a source of energy, fertilizers and other by-
products. In the paper are presented necessary processing steps for the
conversion of biomass in by- products useful for economical development of
Romania.
INTRODUCTION
Amongst the available alternatives of regenerative energy sources, biomass
will play an important role in the future for the following reasons: firstly, a large
potential of biomass is available today, but has been used only little until now;
secondly, biomass represents stored solar energy in a form that meets our
demands and is accessible at any time; and thirdly, the existing technology for the
conversion of fossil fuels into energy can serve as a basis when developing the
technique required for producing energy from biomass.
Beside the objective "protection of resources and the environment" there is
a further motivation for the energetic use of biomass: its contribution to
preserving and strengthening the domestic agriculture, and the entailed care of the
land developed and cultivated by man - essential factors for the flourishing tourist
industry in Romania. This is why the Romanian Government aims at increasing
the share of biomass in primary energy coverage, in concordance with European
Union strategy.
Whenever new technologies are developed and introduced in the market
there is a broad range of concepts and variants in the beginning. It is therefore of
decisive importance to come up with strategies which help to determine the
promising concepts, which allow to make optimum use of the available
development potential and capital. For a new technology to be successful it is
absolutely necessary that the entire system and all the different stages of the
process are clearly defined, developed and tested in practice, that is: from the
growing of biomass, via its pretreatment and conversion into energy, to the
energy distribution and use of residual material.
Since the occurrence of biomass is area-related, i.e. differs depending on
region and season, and because of its low energy density and thus reduced
transportability, biomass is particularly suited for the de-centralized provision of
useful energy, i.e. for the generation of heat and power in the small power range.
Possible areas of use are systems for district heating, as well as combined heat
and power systems. Today the biogenic energy carriers used most are definitely
- 127 -
the solid fuels. Fig. 1 [1] shows an overview of biogenic energy sources and
various conversion technologies.
To be able to evaluate conversion systems - with regard to the technical

deficiencies they might still show and the efficiency they can achieve - it is
required that the total system needed for the provision of useful energy is
developed. Systems for the conversion of biogenic fuels into heat and power have
three areas which are particularly important in view of an evaluation of individual
concepts:
- the treatment and possible transformation of the energy carrier with regard
to its application in a suitable power engine and;
- the power engine itself, i.e. the conversion of the carrier's energy content
to useful heat and electricity.
Fig. 2 [1], shows an overview of the main concepts, indicating where there
is still a need for further research and development .
The classification demonstrates that the need for further investigation and
development refers to combustion and gasification procedures and their associate
feeding systems, to procedures for gas cleaning and especially to power engines
used in the small and medium range, which is particularly interesting with regard
to energetic use of biomass.
- 128 -
Fig.2. Concepts for the energetic use of biomass [1]
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Each of the possible plant concepts has certain advantages, but also
limitations, which influence the successful and efficient plant operation
considerably. Thus, for example, a small heating system can be equipped with a
mono-fuel and its firing designed for this fuel only. In this way, investment costs
can be kept low, but, in return, the annual operating hours of the system will be
low in many cases. On the other hand, the firing of a combined heat and power
- 129 -
system in the medium and upper power range must be suited for a wide variety of
fuels to be able to process the different bio-fuels obtained in each season.
This simple example shows that certain specifications on the fuel side (e.g.
use of different biogenic fuels) lead to certain demands placed on the technology
used (firing, feeding system); via the investment costs (relatively high) they also
influence the plant operation (operating hours per year).
We do think that for Romania the following objectives for projects to be
subsidized are pursued:
- support of technically field- tested systems to accelerate their market
introduction. This mainly includes systems with district- heating grids with an
improved technology ;
- support of systems employing technically/economically interesting
concepts, so-called pilot concepts, e.g. fluidized bed combustion for the high
power range and power generation or gasification plants.
- support of the development of new concepts and components, as well as
the testing of these laboratory technologies in practice. An example for this is the
concept of gasification.
RESULTS AND DISCUTIONS

Technologies can be successful only if they are economical. However, in
the beginning, both the development stage and the market introduction stage will
require a “push” from outside, i.e. from the state, meaning support of research,
investment subsidies and guaranteed proceeds for the product power and heat.
As a criterion for an economical operation the payable price for the fuel
biomass can be calculated taking into consideration the corresponding basic
conditions which currently apply, the predefined system costs and the operating
hours at full load per year.
In European Union, mainly in Germany, are in research, construction and
development, projects for conversion the biomass into energy.
The most important directions are:
a. thermal power systems
- A heating plant must have low specific investment costs, since its
operating period is normally below 3000 hours on full capacity basis.
- The thermal power system should not be designed in order to meet heat
requirements expected in the future; it is essential to achieve a high number of full
load operating hours from the beginning;
- Because of the high costs for district hearing grids (often up to 50 % of
the total costs), efficiency can be achieved only if there is a high demand for heat
in the proximity of the plant.
b. Combined heat and power systems
Here, the higher revenues of the product ,,electricity” considerably increase
the economic efficiency compared to heating systems.
- Since the product “electricity” is needed throughout the year, the
operating period can be expanded by leaving a heat- oriented mode of operation.
- 130 -
Instead, systems in the medium to high power range should be operated flexibly
with a variable power-to-heat ratio, whereas systems in the small power range
should have a high power- to- heat ratio.
In fig.3 is presented a technological sketch for a combined heat and power
system which use straw.
In fig.4 is presented a technological sketch for a gasification plant for
biomass which produce heat and power.
Both solutions demands a wide variety of fuels to be able to process
different bio- fuels obtained in each season.
Fig.3. Simplified principle diagram for a plant which use straw for a combined heat and
power system.
In fig.4 is presented technological sketch for a small biogas plant. Such

un its are useful for countries with a small budget solutions, which enable to skim
off the available energy from waste, especially from husbandry. It is the case for
Romania, which will develop a lot of projects for small enterprises for husbandry
in rural areas, where are strongly needed measures for environment protection and
alternative sources of energy.
On a single ton of biowaste with an average content of 22% organic dry
matter includes an energy potential of about 660 kWhthermal . Changed into
electrical energy it results 200 kWelectrical . To produce this amount of electrical
energy by so called “German power station mix”, 62 kg CO2 would be produced.
So such plants are fully contributing to reduce emissions of CO2 and preserve the
environment.
- 131 -
Fig.4. Technological sketch of a gasification plant from biomass
Fig.5. Biowaste digestion plant Erkheim (District of Unterallgaeu- Germany)
- 132 -
BACK
CONCLUSIONS
The political interest in promoting renewable energy sources is very strong

and increasing the use of biomass may be one of the major ways in which to reach
this objective. Many possibilities are available to make biomass contribute to the
energy services requested by the modern society.
The different combustion technologies will play a major role in the
development towards improvements of the economy and environmental impact.
REFERENCES
1. E.Otmaier, D. Hein. 1999. Strategies for Energetic Use of Biomass in Bavaria- Ilustrated
by Projects in Operation, Under Construction and Development. In the proceedings of
C.A.R.M.E.N.; Biomass for Energy and Industry.
2. Ottocarl Muck.1999. Small biogas Plants. In the proceedings of C.A.R.M.E.N. ;Biomass
for Energy and Industry.
3. Vasile Crăciun, Esmeralda Chiorăscu, Ovidiu Balan. 2004. Reciclarea deşeurilor şi
reziduurilor din agricultură şi industria alimentară. Editura CERMI, IASI, ROMANIA; ISBN 973-
667-100- 3.
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BACK
RESEARCH CONCERNING THE USE OF

CHEMOTHERAPY (FURAZOLIDON) IN THE MINK’S
YOUTH ALIMENTATION
Elena COSTĂCHESCU, Alexandrina DIAC
The research was concerned with the use of furazolidon in the standard
dark coloured mink’s youth alimentation for the stimulation of the growing
process, the reduction of mortality and morbidity, because of the clinical and
sub-clinical infections.
Observations were made on a number of 40 individuals to which it was
adminstrated in their ration 1% furazolidon. The results showed that the meal
was well tolerated by animals. The body weight at the experimental plots has
grown, but it was insignificant.
Obviously, the health state of the studied animals has improved, the
wastage percent being with 10,5% smaller than the wastage canned on the whole
study group.
The alimentation of minks is more expensive that at other fur species such
as the herbivorous ones. The fodder used in their meal has higher costs, their
quality must be superior, and the alimentation must be done in a rational way.
In the feeding of these animals it is recommended, for the higher
efficency of the fodder as well as for a preventive way, the use of synthesis
chemical substances.
The use of these substances influences the development process of the
youth, mainly because of the inhibation of the micro-organisms that invade the
host animal.
The youth, in their first weeks of life, are more vulnerable to the action of
these micro-organisms.
The use of chemotherapy at this stage determines a positive answer from
the animals.
MATHERIAL AND METHOD

The investigations were made at the farm for growing fur animals from
S.C AGROIND BACAU.
The minks studied were brought in 2005 from Finnland.
The biological material used was 40 weaned standard colour mink youth.
For the observations there were used two plots: witness and experimental. The
last has been given in the meal recipe 1% furazolidon.
The period of the experiment was 4 months (june-octomber).
The individuals for the experiment were equable in age and body weight.
The feeding of the weaned youth had the following recipe (tab.1):
- 134 -
Table nr. 1
Diet formulation use of mink’s feed
Dietary ingrdients % from total diet
Bovin (softly) 19%
Slaughtering by-products with osseiuse 16%
Bird chiefs and feet 35%
Bovin blood 12,5%
Foraje combine 7%
Vegetables 7%
Animal fat 1,2%
Premix 0,8%
Furozalidon 1%
The food was administrated into two sizings under the form of paste.
The fodder consumption was determined by daily weighting of the
administrated food as well as of the rests.
Throughtout the experiment it was also studied the health state of the
animals.
RESULTS
The evolution of the mink’s youth body weight from weaning until the
end of the control period (the 30 of Octomber) is prezented in table nr. 2.
Table nr. 2
The evolution of body weight at the mink’s youth
Specification Experimental plot Witness plot Average
Male Female Male Female weight/farm
X ± Sx X ± Sx X ± Sx X ± Sx X ± Sx
Weight at 334,4 ± 8,1 265,6±7,1 316,6±7,8 238,1±5 290,8±7,3
weaning
Weight at 30 862,6±36,9 609,3±16,3 832,1±42,2 629,9±15,3 -
days from
weaning
Weight at 60 1236,1±32,7 814,1±22,1 1192,2±41 846,1±17,3 -
days from
weaning
Weight at 90 1466,2±31,5 869,3±15,1 1405,5±45,5 953,5±16,4 -
days from
weaning
Weight at 120 1616,1±39,1 959,3±65,5 1502,2±43,4 1043,3±16,7 1307,3±16,9
days from
weaning
- 135 -
Analysing the data from the table one may say that the experimental plot
registres higher body weight than the witness plot.
Comparing the average body weight of the studied material with the
acquired average weight of the youth on the unit we may say that this is superior
on all control periods.
Differences in weight were observed also between sexes, a predictable
aspect, because at minks, the sexual dimorphism is obvious in the weight.
The differences obtained from the males of the experimental plot aren’t
statistically sure, the value of t^=1,69 i.s. (insignificant). The same thing has been
observed at females, the value of t^=1,1 i.s.
The evolution of the fodder consumption for the males is represented in
the following graphic:
350
300
250
200
control
150
experim ental
100
50
0
w eanig 30 days 60 days 90 days 120 days
Grafic.nr. 1. The evolution of fodder consumption at the standard young male mink
Concerning the fodder consumption, this has vaccilated berween

249g/head/day with small differences between the two plots. In two months from
weaning it was registered the lowest consumption, fact explained by the presence
of high temperatures in August, which determined the low food consumption.
The consumption of fodder registered at females is presented in the 2nd
graphic:
270
260
250
240
230 control
220 experimental
210
200
190
weaning 30 days 60 days 90 days 120 days
Grafic.nr. 2. The evolution of fodder consumption at the standard

female young mink
- 136 -
BACK
The fodder consumption at females hasn’t registered differences on plots.

This has vacillated between 220 g/day/head and 262 g/day/head at 4 months from
weaning.
It was observed that the females haven’t changed their food consumption
volume under the influence of high temperatures.
The average daily ration for the analyzed period was of 4,49-6,70
g/head/day at females and 5,92-9,98 g/day/head at males, the results being
comparable with the ones from literature.
The experimental plot registered two wastages (10%) and an accident,
while the witness plot registered 5 wastages (25%). The conclusion is that the
health state of the minks from the experimental plot has improved with the
administration of furazolidon.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The body weight of the studied material has registered differences on the
plots , but also between sexes, but these were insignificant.
The fodder consumption was different between the two plots and between
sexes, both cases have registered a relative ascensional description.
Furazolidonul was well tolerated by the youth mink, favorable
influencing their health state.
Furazolidonul can be administrated as a fodder additive in the food of the
weaned youth mink, having a favorable effect on the health state, and being
unharmuful for the quality of the furs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Burlacu G., 1985 – Metabolismul energetic la animalele de blană , Editura Ceres,
Bucureşti.
2. Dinescu S. şi col., 2002 – Creşterea animalelor de fermă, Editura Agris, Bucureşti.
3. Halga P., Pop I.M., Viorica Popa, 2000 – Nutriţie animală, Editura Dosoftei, Cluj-
Napoca;
4. Halga P., Teona Avarvarei, Pop I.M., Viorica Popa, 2005 – Nutriţieşi alimentaţie
animală, Editura Alfa Iaşi;
5. Păstârnac N. şi col., 1989 – Nutriţia animalelor de blană, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti.
6. Pop I. M., 2002-Aditivi furajeri. Editura Pim, Iaşi;
7. Stoica I., Liliana Stoica, 2001, - Bazele nutriţiei şi alimentaţiei animalelor, Editura Coral
Sanivet, Bucureşti;
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BACK
THE ASSESMENT OF GRAZING INFLUENCE ON GENETIC

VARIABILITY IN TWO GENTIANA SPECIES
P. RAICA, D. PAMFIL, C. BOTEZ, Marina Ioana GABOREANU
The amount of genetic variation in the rare herbs Gentiana nivalis L

and G. cruciata was determined to explore its relation to population size. We
surveyed two populations of G. nivalis found in Oriental Carpathians, and two
populations of G. cruciata by RAPD markers. Four decamer primers of arbitrary
sequence were used in order to asses genetic variability within and between the
studied populations. Our studies revealed different levels of genetic variability
within populations corelated with the grazing policies. The mean genetic
distances within the populations found in overgrazed grassland decreased
significantly in comparison with those growing in ungrazed grassland.
Therefore, this method can by successfully used to asses genetic variability
within and between Gentiana populations.
INTRODUCTION
The RAPD (Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA), a very cost
effective and fast method, is suitable for the investigation of the genetic
variability. We have used this method to investigate the genetic variability within
and between two populations of alpine gentian G. nivalis, a rare montane annual
growing plant in alpine grasslands, and within and between two populations of G.
cruciata a rare perennial herb, growing in sub alpine and hilly regions. The small
size populations have a negative effect over the genetic variability and
reproductive capacity of the Gentiana species (MARC K 2000).
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Biological material was represented by leaves, collected from 20
individuals randomly selected from two populations, (ten individuals for each
population) of G. nivalis, situated at about 110Km apart in Oriental Carpathians.
Samples 106 to 115 were collected from Corongiş Peak – Rodnei Mountains
population and samples 162 to 171 from Ceahlău Mountain plateau population.
Both populations are situated at around 1800 m altitude, and 10 individuals
randomly selected from two populations, (five individuals for each population) of
G. cruciata, collected from grasslands of the Sălicea village (Cluj County) –
samples 1-5 – and Scăriţa-Belioara reservation (Alba County) – samples 6-10. As
an out group (O), a mixture of the DNA isolated from ten individuals of Gentiana
asclepiadea, randomly selected from different populations, was used.
The DNA was isolated, using a Lodhi et al. 1994, protocol modified by
Pop Rodica 2003. Prior to DNA isolation, the leaves were grinded in liquid
nitrogen. DNA concentration and purity (absorbance ratios at A260/A280 and
A260/A230) were estimated in a BioPhotometer Eppendorf.
- 138 -
The PCR amplification was performed in 25µl reaction volumes

containing 5x reaction buffer (GoTaq Green Master Mix, Promega), 0.2 mM
dNTPs, 2.5 mM MgCl2, 0.5 µM primer, 2% PVP (Polyvinylpirolodone, Sigma),
1.0 unit of Taq DNA polymerase (GoTaq DNA Polymerase, Promega) and ~ 50
ng genomic DNA. Four decamer primers of arbitrary sequence (OP series, of the
Operon Technologies Inc, CA, USA) were tested for PCR amplification (Table
1). PCR amplification was carried out in a Eppendorf Gradient termocycler
programmed as follows: initial denaturation at 95°C for 1 min., followed by 45
cycles of 1 min. at 93°C, 1 min. at 34 °C, and 1.5 min at 72°C and final extension
at 72°C for 10 min.
Table 1: Primers sequences

Primer Sequence
OPA 01 5’- CAG GCC CTT C -3’
OPA 03 5’- AGT CAG CCA C -3’
OPB 10 5’- CTG CTG GGA C -3’
OPAB 11 5’- CTG CGC AAT G -3’
Amplification products were subjected to electrophoresis in a 1.4% (w/v)

agarose gel TAE buffer (Sambrook et al., 1989) at 60v for 2h. A 100bp ladder
(Promega) was used in all cases as the size marker. Gels were stained with
0.5µg/ml-1 ethidium bromide, visualized under UV light and photographed using
a AlphaInnotech imager.
Polymorphic bands were scored as present (1) or absent (0) for each of
the primer –sample combination. Based on these data, genetic distances were
calculated by Jaccard coefficient and UPGMA trees were generated using
FreeTree 0.9.1.50 software.
RESULTS AND DISCUSIONS

PCR amplifications of G. nivalis DNA revealed 26 polymorphic bands
from a total number of 32 bands (81,25%). The bands were distributed as follows:
primer OPA 01 - 10 bands (10 polymorphic) (Fig 1), OPA 03 - 8 bands (6
polymorphic), OPB 10 - 7 bands (7 polymorphic) and OPAB 11 - 7 bands (3
polymorphic).
The cladogram generated based on distance matrix revealed two main
clusters clearly separated. The distribution of the samples in each cluster
corresponded with the distribution of the samples in the populations (Fig. 2).
Furthermore, a high distance coefficient was found between the two populations
of G. nivalis. This can be the result of the geographical isolation of the two
populations.
- 139 -
A
106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 O C
B
L 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 O C
Figure 1: The amplification products obtained with primer OPA 01. (L = ladder, O = out
group, C = negative control)
108
110
111
114
106
107
109
112
113
115
166
167
168
162
165
170
169
164
171
163
O
0.1
Figure 2: The graphic representation of the genetic

distances and relations (cladogram) within G. nivalis
accessions
- 140 -
The mean distance in population 1 was 0.209 with a standard deviation of

6.260¯10-2, for the population 2 the mean distance was 0.275 with a standard
deviation of 9.941¯10-2. We assume that the higher mean distance in population 2
compared with population 1, was due to the genetic variability in population 2
which was significantly (ÄÄÄ) higher than in population 1 (t=3,76; df=88). A
possible explanation for these results can be found in the sizes and density of the
populations: population 1 is constituted by a number of approximately 30
individuals and the population 2 is constituted by several hundreds of individuals.
The difference in population sizes can be explained by differences in the grazing
policy of the populations areas. Ceahlău Mountain plateau is situated in a protected
area where the grazing is forbidden. In contrast with this situation, Corongiş peak
and surrounding areas are intensively grazed, and so, although the favorable
environmental conditions are extended over the whole area, the G. nivalis plants
can only be found in few small areas protected from grazing by natural barriers.
Our study is in contradiction with a study conducted by Miller G. et al. -
1999. The authors of that study observed that the gentians on ungrazed plots grew
taller and survived better than did plants in adjacent grazed plots. The density of
plants on ungrazed plots was unaffected for the first years but thereafter declined.
Perennial vegetation responded to protection from sheep grazing by growing taller
and denser and progressively reduced the amount of bare soil in the ungrazed
plots. They concluded that the loss of potential gaps for seedling establishment
was probably the main cause of the decline in alpine gentian density on the
ungrazed plots and so the presence of sheep helps to maintain alpine gentian
colonies in grassland.
A similar situation with that previously presented was found in studied G.
cruciata populations. The genetic variability found in Sălicea village grasslands
population, an intensely grazed area, was significantly lower than the one found in
Scăriţa-Belioara reservation (p<0.014).
1
55
4
78
46 5
72 3
10
100 97
8
44
6
62
100 63
9
0.1
O
Figure 2: The graphic representation of the genetic distances and

relations (cladogram) within G. cruciata accessions
- 141 -
BACK
CONCLUSIONS
According to our results the RAPD technique can be successfully used for
the survey of the genetic variability within and between populations of G. nivalis
and G. cruciata. We found that the genetic variability within the Corongiş Peak
(G. nivalis) and also within the Sălicea (G. cruciata) populations is very low and
therefore populations can be considered endangered. The grazing of the alpine
and subalpine grasslands has a negative effect on the genetic variability and
stability of the G. nivalis and G. cruciata populations. Due to the results obtained,
the method can be also extended to study the genetic variability in other
population of G. nivalis and G. cruciata or even other Gentiana species.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Lodhi , M., A., Guang-Ning Y., N. F.Weeden, B.I. Reisch, 1994, A simple and efficient
method for DNA extraction from grapevine cultivars, Vitis species and Ampelopsis, Plant
Molecular Biology Reporter 12 (1): 6-13
2. MARC K, D MATTHIES and H.H.SPILLMANN, 2000, Reduced fecundity and offspring
performance in small populations of the declining grassland plants Primula veris and Gentiana
lutea. Journal of Ecology, 88, 17-30
3. Millera G. R., C. Geddesb and D. K. Mardon, 1999, Response of the alpine gentian Gentiana
nivalis L. to protection from grazing by sheep, Biological Conservation, 87(3), 311-318.
4. Pop Rodica., M. Ardelean, D. Pamfil, Ioana Marina Gaboreanu, 2003, The Efficiency of
Different DNA Isolation and Purification in Ten Cultivars of Vitis vinifera., Bul. Nr. 59
USAMV, seria ZB, 259-26
5. Sambrook, J., Fritsch, E.F., Maniatis, T. (1989) Molecular cloning: a laboratory manual. 2nd
ed. New York: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
6. Williams J., Kubelik A., Livak K., Rafalski J., Tingey S., 1990, Dna Polymorphisms Amplified
by Arbitrary Primers are Useful as Genetic Markers, Nucleic Acids Research, 18 (22) 6531-
6535.
- 142 -
EVALUATION OF TWO ORGANIC TREATMENTS

TO COMBAT VARROA IN MELLIFEROUS BEES
Valentina CEBOTARI, Iu. MOŞOI,
V. DERJANSCHI, Maria MĂGDICI
The experiment has been held at an ecological (certificated) apiary SRL

“Acafag” from RM with the purpose to prove the efficacy of two natural
treatments against Varroa, disease produced by acarians. Two products
Apiguard and Beevital were used; both of them contain organic acids and are
volatile products with a high acaricid effect. The treatment begun in August until
September: twenty bee colonies were treated with Apiguard and another twenty
with Beevital, being kept in vertical hives (multiple storey, two corps) and
horizontal (for every product 10 hives), in all 40 colonies. The products were
used in accordance with the producer instructions. Before use and after finishing
it, the infestation level of the bee colonies was calculated by taking samples of the
mature bees. The efficacy of products was determined by the reduced infestation
level. After Beevital and Apiguard administration was observed a high decrease
of Varroa at the bee colonies. Therefore Beevital has an efficacy of 86,5% in
multiple storey hive and 91,3% in horizontal hives and Apiguard – 76,8% in
multiple storey hive and 87,7% in horizontal hives.
INTRODUCTION
The melliferous bee (apis mellifera) is affected by numerous diseases, and
nowadays the one generated by mites especially is important. Among these
diseases there is the one caused by the Varroa Jacobsony destructor (an
ectoparasite), extremely dangerous because of its characteristics and of the
damages that it brings into bee colonies. A multitude of methods to combat it
have been put to practice: chemical, zootehnical, biological and not least the ones
included in the concept of integrated combat. The chemical methods have so far
proved to be the most powerful instrument but they have the disadvantages of
leaving residues in bee products, as well as allowing mites to become resistant to
them.. For these reasons, the use of organic products constitutes a viable option
due to their normal presence in the hive, they are not dangerous for human health,
and, also, they do not leave significant residues, being capable to integrate
harmoniously with the other combat means. Essential oils are organic compounds
whose importance has increased in the fight against parasites. In our country,
many beekeepers have adopted the use of organic products, but even more of
them still use chemical products based on amitraz and fluvinate. The present
material intends to prove the effectiveness of organic products against varroa in
bees under field conditions.
- 143 -

The experiment was achieved in an (certified) ecological apiary, SRL
“ACAFAG” of the Republic of Moldova, with the purpose of proving the
efficiency of two natural treatments against varroa in bees, caused by mites. The
products used were Apiguard (a British product based on Tymol) and BeeVital
(an Austrian product, having in its composition: 2 acids - citric and oxalic,
propolis extract, sugar beet, water), both volatile products based on essential oils
highly effective in varroa combat. The treatment was performed in August –
September. Thus, 20 bee colonies were treated with Apiguard and BeeVital - 20,
kept in vertical hives (ME, 2 pieces) and horizontal ones (10 each), all in all 40
colonies. The selection of these data was achieved based on food reserves
(achieved based on similar characteristics, similar in terms of food reserves (the
average being of 3.6kg), based on their strength in the nest (the average being of
2.7 kg bee) and so on. Both products were used according to manufacturer’s
indication. The average temperature was 23°C during the period of the
experiment. In order to determine the degree of infestation initial and final
samples of mature bees were collected (before and after use of treatment). The
diagnostic of the presence of the Varroa on mature bees was established by
introducing 100 bees into a glass container and their narcotization with
chloroform and counting the mites on the glass wall. In order to evaluate the
infestation degree, the number of mites was divided to the number of bees and
multiplied by 100, thus it is considered: weak infestation– 10%; average– 20%
and strong infestation - over 20%.
The following index was studied: the infestation degree (G.I.) and the
reduction in the infestation degree (R.G.I), for parasites, by use of the following
formula:
Reduction in infestation degree (R.G.I.), % = (initial infestation degree –
final infestation degree) / initial infestation degree x 100.
Reduction in infestation degree (R.G.I.) represented the efficiency of the
product. The results obtained were compared between the administered products
and the systems of colony maintenance.
- 144 -
RESULTS
Table 1
Evaluation of infestation degree and its reduction as result of treatment in multi-

layered hives
No. BEEVITAL APIGUARD
d/o No. Strength Infestation Reduction B No. Strength Infestation Reduction
f/a of degree, % in f/a of degree, % in
colony, infestation colony, infestation
kg/bee initial final degree, % kg/bee initial final degree, %
1 16 2,5 18 2 88,8 B 2 2,5 17 5 70,6
2 14 2,7 17 2 88,2 27 2,8 16 3 81,3
3 13 2,6 15 3 80,0 10 2,6 13 4 69,2
4 12 2,5 21 2 90,5 9 2,6 15 6 60,0
5 31 2,7 17 1 85,2 5 2,9 19 4 78,9
6 f/nr 2,8 18 2 88,8 16 2,8 17 3 82,4
7 26 2,6 18 3 83,3 19 2,8 20 4 80,0
8 33 2,6 19 2 89,5 24 2,5 16 6 62,5
9 30 2,9 22 3 86,4 23 2,5 18 3 83,3
10 32 2,8 13 2 84,6 22 2,8 15 4 73,3
On 2,67 17,8 2,2 86,52 2,68 16,7 4,2 74,85
average
Table 2
Evaluation of infestation degree and its reduction as result of treatment in horizontal
hives
BEEVITAL APIGUARD
Infestation Infestation
No. Strength degree, % Reduction Strength degree, % Reduction
d/o No. of in No. of in
R
f/a colony, infestation f/a colony, infestation
kg/bee initial final degree, % kg/bee initial final degree, %
1 38 2,8 15 1 93,3 54 2,5 18 2 88,8

2 41 2,5 16 2 87,5 11 2,8 19 3 84,2
3 7 2,5 15 2 86,6 15 2,6 15 2 86,6
4 52 2,7 20 1 95,0 39 2,6 19 2 89,5
5 20 2,6 20 1 95,5 58 2,9 18 1 94,4
R
6 6 2,5 17 1 94,1 45 2,8 17 2 88,2
7 8 2,7 19 2 89,5 43 2,8 21 2 90,5
8 1 2,8 18 1 94,4 53 2,5 19 3 84,2
9 4 2,6 20 2 90,0 57 2,5 19 3 84,2
10 3 2,6 15 2 86,7 29 2,8 15 2 86,6
On
2,63 17,5 1,5 91,26 2,94 18,0 2,2 87,72
average
Following the evaluation of the results of the degree of initial infestation

with varroa in bee colonies kept in vertical and horizontal hives (tab.1,2)
significant differences were not noticed, they had an average infestation under
- 145 -
20%. At the end of the experiment, the infestation degree reduced as result of the
administration of Beevital of up to 2.2% in vertical hives and 1.5% on average in
horizontal, and in the treatment with Apiguard, respectively – 2.2% in horizontal
hives and 4.2% in multi-layered hives. The results thus obtained after
administration of Beevital and Apiguard demonstrate on Varroa a high reduction
per colony in both products. The reduction in the infestation degree represents the
efficiency of the product.
Results in table 1 represents the reduction in the infestation degree with
varroa for BeeVital of 86.52% and lower for Apiguard – 74.85% in multi-layered
hives.
Comparison of results obtained in the colonies kept in horizontal hives
treated with BeeVital and Apiguard did not indicate significant differences
between them with respect to the reduction in the infestation degree (Beevital –
91.26% and Apiguard – 87.72%).
18
16
14
12
10
0
ME hive Horizontal hive ME hive Horizontal hive
Infestation degree, % 17.8 17.5 16.7 18

Infestation degree 2.2 1.5 4.2 2.2
BEEVITAL / APIGUARD
Graphic I. Evaluation of infestation with varroa before and after the

treatment with Beevital and Apiguard
- 146 -
Graphic I illustrates the degree of infestation with varroa of the colonies

kept in varius types of hives at the beginning of the experiment and at the end of
the experiment, following the administration of BeeVital and Apiguard products.
100
90
Gradul de reducere a
80
70
infestării, %
60 APIGUARD
50 BEEVITAL
40
30
20
10
0
MR Hive Horizontal
hive
Graphic II. Efficiency of BeeVital and Apiguard products is represented by

the reduction of infestation
In graphic II we may notice the effects of the products used in the

treatment of varroa disease in each system of hive tested.
Thus the Beevital was evaluated to have an efficiency of 86.5% in multi-layered
hives and 91.3% in the horizontal ones, and the Apiguard was evaluated to have
an efficiency of 76.8% in multi-layered hives and 87.7% in horizontal hives.
CONCLUSIONS
- The organic product BeeVital proved to be very efficient against Varroa
disease with values of 91.3% in horizontal hives and 86.5% in the multi-layered
ones.
- The organic product Apiguard proved to be less efficient (76.8%
efficiency) in the multi-layered hive system, but efficient in the horizontal hives
(87.7%).
- BeeVital is easier to administer than the Apiguard, proving to be a more
recommendable option for the treatment of varroa disease in our country.
- 147 -
BACK
THE ACCURACY OF REFRACTOMETRIC

MEASUREMENTS OF PLASMA TOTAL PROTEIN IN
DIFFERENT ANIMAL SPECIES
Rodica CĂPRIŢĂ, A. CĂPRIŢĂ
The goal of the study was to determine the accuracy of refractometric

measurements of plasma protein by comparing protein concentration results
obtained by refractometry and by the biuret method. Total protein concentration
results from different animal species obtained by the two methods were compared
by linear regression analysis. The results of this study are further confirmation of
the correlation between refractometry and the biuret method for determination of
total protein content in animal plasma. We obtained the highest correlation in
cow’s plasma (r = 0.9902) and the lowest in chicken’s plasma (r = 0.8727). The
refractometric method can be accomplished with good results in horses, pigs and
cows, but it is not recommended in chickens.
INTRODUCTION
The most used assay methods for total protein analysis are the
refractometric and the colorimetric ones.
Refractometry has the advantage to be performed in a very short time and
does not need any reagents, while the biuret method is more laborious and
expensive. The physical characteristic measured by a refractometer is the degree
to which light bends as it passes through the interface between two substances of
different densities. The angle of refraction is converted to clinically useful units
by conversion tables.
The purpose of this study was to determine the accuracy of refractometric
protein measurements of plasma by comparing protein concentration results
obtained by refractometry and by colorimetry.

Blood samples were obtained from horses (n = 10), chickens (n = 21),
pigs (n = 40), cows (n = 30). Plasma was obtained by centrifugation at 6000 rpm
for 10 minutes. Supernatants were stored at -20°C. Samples were thawed and
analyzed on the same day. Protein was determined by the biuret method and by
refractometry. The index of refraction was determined with an Abbé
refractometer. The biuret method is based on the formation of a colored complex
between proteins and cupric ions in an alkaline medium (Ghergariu, 2000,
Căpriţă, 2001). The optic density at λ = 546 nm was measured using a
spectrophotometer Spekol 100.
- 148 -
Total protein concentration results obtained by the two methods were

compared by linear regression analysis. No icteric or lipemic samples were
included in the study. However, there were a few slightly hemolyzed samples.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Linear regression analysis of plasma protein concentrations of different
animal species, obtained by the biuret technique and by refractometry, is
presented in Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4. All plasma protein values are in accordance
with the reference ones.
The correlation coefficient is the highest in cows (r = 0.9902) and the
lowest in chickens (r = 0.8727). The differences are greater in chickens in
comparison with the other animal species, due to the smaller plasma protein
content.
Figure 1. Linear regression analysis of horse’s plasma protein concentrations

obtained by the biuret method and by refractometry.
- 149 -
Figure 2. Linear regression analysis of cow’s plasma protein concentrations

Figure 3. Linear regression analysis of pig’s plasma protein concentrations

Glucose is a compound that also modifies the index of refraction. The

protein: glucose ratio is only 15 in chickens, while in horses it’s about 50, in pigs
it’s about 100, and in cows up to 150. We didn’t observe any enhance of the
refraction index in chickens due to this small ratio.
- 150 -
BACK
Figure 4. Linear regression analysis of chicken’s plasma protein concentrations

CONCLUSIONS
The results of this study are further confirmation of the correlation between
refractometry and the biuret method for determination of total protein content in
animal plasma.
We obtained the highest correlation in cow’s plasma (r = 0.9902) and the
lowest in chicken’s plasma (r = 0.8727).
The refractometric method can be accomplished with good results in
horses, pigs and cows, but it is not recommended in chickens.
REFERENCES
1. Caprita, R. (2001): Principii si tehnici in biochimie, Ed. Mirton, Timisoara
2. Caprita, R. Caprita, A., Ursulescu, M., Ursulescu, G., 2003, Comparison of serum total
protein measurement by refractometry and colorimetry, Ann. West Univ. Tim., ser.
Chem., 12 (3), 1097-1102
3. Ghergariu S, Pop A., Kadar L., Spinu M. - Manual de laborator clinic veterinar, All
Educational, Bucuresti, 2000, p. 202.
- 151 -
BACK
COMPARISON BETWEEN WHOLE-BLOOD

AND SERUM GLUCOSE CONCENTRATIONS IN
MONOGASTRIC ANIMALS
Rodica CĂPRIŢĂ, A. CĂPRIŢĂ, H. SĂRĂNDAN
Glucose determination in blood or serum is based on a colorimetric

method using commercially available assay kits. Human blood glucose is equally
distributed between the erythrocytes and plasma. Therefore, most methods
indicate that both whole blood and serum may be used for analysis. Since fowl
erythrocytes contain very little or no glucose when compared with the plasma,
there appear differences between the glycemia measured in blood and in serum.
The aim of our study was to investigate these differences in two monogastric
animals, chicken and pig.
INTRODUCTION
Glucose, a simple monosaccharide, one of the most important
carbohydrates used as a source of energy in animals, exists in a pool in the
extracellular space. Glucose enters into the pool through several pathways, from
diet, through hepatic and kidney sources, and it's used by peripheral tissues.
It is well known that glucose is not found in equal concentration in the
water phase of the red cells and plasma from some species of animals. In the
clinical medicine it is convenient to cite values for the glucose concentration in
the whole blood instead of serum glucose. In studies confined to man this practice
is generally satisfactory. This convention has less justification, because it is the
plasma glucose concentration which has a more direct influence on the tissue-
fluid glucose concentration and sugar-regulating mechanisms. The difference
between whole-blood and plasma glucose concentration is frequently
considerable, for when the red cell is seemingly devoid of glucose, the plasma
glucose concentration is, on the average, about 1.5 times the blood glucose
concentration. Whole blood glucose is around 5-10% lower than serum glucose.
This is because glucose passes freely in and out of the red blood cells, which have
a lower content of water than plasma does.
Human blood glucose is equally distributed between the erythrocytes and
plasma. Therefore, most methods indicate that both whole blood and serum may
be used for analysis. Since fowl erythrocytes contain very little or no glucose
when compared with the plasma (Sturkie et al 1976), there appear differences
between the glycemia measured in blood and in serum (Căpriţă et al, 2000).
The aim of our study was to investigate these differences in two
monogastric animals, chickens and pigs.
- 152 -

The blood samples were collected from 6 weeks old broiler chickens and
from fattening pigs. From each animal were collected two blood samples, one
with anticoagulant (heparin) and one without anticoagulant, for obtaining the
serum. The blood for serum collection was allowed to clot within few
hours at room temperature. The serum was separated the following day,
overnight the tubes were held in the refrigerator.
The glucose concentration was determined with the colorimetric method
with o-toluidine.

The blood and serum glucose concentrations in pigs are close, with higher
values in serum (Figure 1). The avarege value in blood is 74,03±17,43 mg/dL and
in serum is 80,65±17,21 mg/dL. The correlation coefficient between the two
ranges of values is r = 0.9921 (Figure 2).
120 120
mg/dL
mg/dL
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39
Blood Serum
Figure 1. The blood and serum glucose in pigs
- 153 -
mgGlucose/dL serum
120
100
80
60
40
y = 0.9798x - 2.4522
2
20 R = 0.9843
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
mg Glucose/dL blood
Figure 2. The correlation between the blood and serum glucose in pigs
The average glucose concentration in chicken blood is 162.61±22.13

mg/dL and in chicken serum is 243.55±39.04 mg/dL. As presented in Figure 3
there are big differences almost in all samples. We didn’t observe any correlation
(Figure 4) between the two ranges of values (r = 0.045).
250 350
mg/dL
mgdL
300
200
250
150
200
150
100
100
50
50
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Blood Serum
Figure 3. The blood and serum glucose in chickens
- 154 -
BACK

mg Glucose/dL serum
350
300
250
200
150
100 y = 0.0827x + 231.63

2
50 R = 0.0021
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
mg Glucose/dL blood
Figure 4. The correlation between the blood and serum glucose in chickens
Avian blood glucose concentration averages about twice that in

mammalian blood (Welty, 1975). Avian insulin is very similar to that of most
mammalian insulin, but the level of insulin found in the avian pancreas is about
one-tenth of normal mammalian levels. Fowl erythrocytes contain very little or no
glucose when compared with the plasma. Therefore, fluctuations in the relative
portions of cells and blood plasma can cause apparent changes in the circulating
glucose even when the plasma level is unaltered.
CONCLUSIONS
The serum and blood glucose values in pig are close and high correlated.
Serum glycemia in chickens is higher and not correlated with the blood
glycemia. Therefore glycemia in chickens must be determined only in the whole
blood.
REFERENCES
1. Caprita R., Sarandan, H., Caprita A., Ursulescu M., A comparison of blood glucose and serum
glucose in broiler chickens, Conferinţa Ştiinţ. Internaţionala “Cresterea pasarilor si a
animalelor mici de casa in mileniul 3”, 2002, Nitra, Slovacia, p. 77-81
2. Sturkie PD, Hazelwood RL: Secretion of Gastric and Pancreatic Juice, pH of Tract, Digestion
in Alimentary Canal, Liver and Bile, and Absorbtion; Carbohydrate Metabolism; Kidneys,
Extrarenal, Salt Excretion, and Urine; Pancreas, in Sturkie PD (ed):Avian Physiology, 3rd ed,
New York, NY, Springer-Verlag New York, Inc, 1976, pp196-285, 383-388
3. Welty JC: The Life of Birds, 2nd ed, Philadelphia, PA, WB Saunders Co, 1975, pp 89-93, 114-
115, 134-142
- 155 -
BACK
MUTATIONS AND TENDENCES IN THE AGRICULTURE

FROM THE MOUNTAIN AREA OF BRAŞOV COUNTY
L. BLENDEA
In the conditions in which the mountain area covers almost half of the
zone surface, a distinct section, is destinated to analyze the problems of mountain
rural from the social-economic point of wiew of villages and agricultural yields
of environment and sustainable development-leading to the necessity of having a
programme with specific measures for this defavourable area from agricultural
point of view.
The transformations produced after 1989 in legislation, economic and

social outline acted as an attraction-rejection mechanism of the population from
the rural mountain environment. While young population prefered migration to
other areas more developed from economic and social pont of view, older
population which became unemployed or retired presented tendencies of returning
to the origin places. The attraction process of the unemplyed population from
towns to rural environment was favoured by the agrar reform started in 1991
which drives to the reconstruction of the owner rights upon the lands. The
measures for supporting the agriculture in the mountains area could contribute at
keeping the young population into the rural space and even could determine the
return back of some who already left the area. Without supporting these
defavourable areas exist the risk of losing more population from this space and
abandonment of the agricultural lands.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The informative material which was at the base of the present study was
based on questionaires and statistic dates provided by DADR Braşov. To put in
light the main transformations produced in the Braşov county mountain area
agriculture we used the methos of diagnosis analyze and a series of self
observations after discussions whith the leaders of the county.

The mountain areas are characterized by a strong limitation of the
possibilities of land using and by a remarcable increase of the exploitation costs
of the agricultural lands due to: existence, because high altitudes, of some very
hard climatic conditions, which make a shorter period of the cultivation season;
presence, at a low altitude, on the great part of the area, of hard slopes which will
not allowed the usage of the existent units or can be worked witth very expensive
agricultural aggregates; presence of a mixture of these two factors in thase places
- 156 -
where the damages produces by each factor is less serious, but by their
combination appers a very serious damage.
Gven in mountain area large areas of meadows and hay fields are
favourable for anial growing, and the colder climate and specific rainfall regime
made that here the effect of droughty period from a year to be less significant.
Without making a strict limit between the favourables areas for different
agricultural activities we observe a certain distribution of them function of relief,
clime and soil. In the east and south of Braşov ccounty mountain area the main
crop is potato and in the part with small heights are favourable conditions for fruit
trees.
Private sector have a great ratio – 97,9 % from the total agricultural
production of the area, being superior to the national average (95,8 %).
Animal growing is quite well developed in all comunes, in the mountain
area being the main agricultural activity. Sheep growing, a traditional activity of
the population from Bran area, is in a small decrease in the last ten years due to
the diffficulties in production capitalization.
Taking in account that 36,4 % of the region is covered with forests,
important is beech, spruce fir and firtree wood from the mountains forests. In this
way the mountain area have a great forest potential and the area is one of the main
areas from our country in supplying with wood.
The natural conditions permit, from the point of view of agricultural land
usage, the development of meadow and hay fields which occupied 77,93 % from
agricultural surface. Due to the relief conditions and even more due to the pedo-
climatic conditions, arable lands had a limited spreading, beaing on only 20,12 %
from agricultural surface. Only in the intra-mountain depressions and at low
mountains hems it is possible cereals cropping, technical plants (especially poto)
and the development of fruit tree growing.
Moountain area have, in its greated part, a low easy to acces from tractors
and agricultural machines in making agricultural works, only in intra-mountain
depressions and at mountain hem is recorded a medium easy to access, with great
energy of relief, fragmentation and values of the mechanized slopes between 80
and 150. The way and the conditions of fields usage from these areas request great
power tractors, with different functions, special equiped to work on slopes up to
170; ploughs for making ploghings works on great slopes, on a direction as closer
to level curves to avoid erosion along slope.
In according with Braşov county monography edited in 2000, as
regarding the global agricultural production, Braşov county occupied 26-th place
amoung the others counties from which 32-nd place at vegetal production and 14-
th place at animal production. From crops, potato is placed 3-rd on counties being
the most representative yield from Braşov county.
National Programme for Agriculture and Rural Development (PNADR)
elaborated by Ministry of Agriculture, Foodstuff and Forests, assess to counties
after their potential (high, medium, low) for vegetal crops and animal species.
- 157 -
In the case of Braşov county, in according with this classification at the

higher potential are situated potato crop and animal growing, at a medium potentil
is situated sugar beet crop, cattler, pigs and birds growing.
The limiting of the Braşov county mountain area was based on complex
and long studies. The main criterias were: altitudine over 700 m; the structure of
the funciar fund and the way of its usage (the ration of arable surfaces; meadows
ratio; forest ratio); population density (usually under the cpuntry average); the
ratio over 70 % incomes from animal growing; the ratio of agricultural population
(80 % or more); a higher degree of isolated localities, for away from the main
roads and big urban localities. The soils in the mountain area are poor in nutritive
elements, some are acids and the climate is a wet one, with great rainfalls and
almost uniform spreaded on year months, yearly average temperatures under
country average, also sunny degree is smaller than the yearly country average.
In such natural and social conditions must be realized productions from
plants crops. Also in the present time plants are cultivated in mountain area. The
efficiency placed the mountain area in the category of defavourable areas, with a
great ratio of poor population. For the future will raise the problem that the
agricultural fields to have a high degree of productivity, to be able to assure
substantial incomes of the population from the area and a standard of civilization
closer with the one from the countries with almost some conditions. By analyzing
the mountain area of Braşov county from the agriculture point of view, must be
take in account the specifice climatic conditions of Braşov county which are
restrictive on many agricultural crops.
The main characteristic of Braşov county relief is the great ratio of
mountains, almost 40 %, the difference of 60 % being occupied by depressions
and hills. Hypsometric amplitude is maximum – 2114 meters – in the south –west
part of the county (2544 m in Moldoveanu peak and 400 m at Olt depression, at
the leaving of county, small down, Ucea de Jos).
Mountains units are placed, great of therm, at the south limit of the
county, on a general west line up, held between the limit with Sibiu county (at
west) and the limit with Buzău and Covasna counties (at east). Olt valley, Bran-
Rucar passage, Predeal, Bratocea and Tabla Butii passages introduce great
transversal denivelations in the mountain line up, decreasing its partly and
individualising certain massives with distinqueshed particularities from west to
east as follows: Făgăraş Mountains, Piatra-Craiului Mountains, Leasta Bucegi
Mountains, Bârsei Mountains, Maicului Mountains, Ciucaşului Mountains,
Întorsura Buzăului Mountains.
From this mountain chain a mountain branch is detached up to north
being setteled by Codlei and Perşani Mountains.
The mountain area is characterized by a small diversity of agricultural
crops, because of the defavourable climatic conditions.
The arable surface is reduce and is cultivated with potato and vegetables
for own consumption, cultivated plants to complete the volume foddersfrom
- 158 -
natural hay fields and fodder cereals (rye and oat). We must observe the high ratio
of uncultivated fields, much superior of county average (table 1).
Table 1
Cereals structure and their ratio from total total arable (2006)
Specifica- Arableha, Cereals Maize Sugar beet Potato Vegetables Fodder plants Other crops
tion f.w. ha % ha % ha % ha % ha % ha % ha %
Depression
79546 28374 35,7 5560 7,0 2001 2,5 15858 19,9 1167 1,5 31325 26,8 5261 6,6
area
Hilly area 36425 8993 24,7 4337 11,9 558 1,5 1166 3,2 293 0,8 16093 94,2 4975 13,7
Mountain
2114 230 10,9 15 0,7 - - 809 38,3 66 3,1 629 29,4 365 17,3
area
Total
118085 37957 31,8 9922 2,4 2559 2,2 17883 15,1 1526 1,3 38047 32,2 10601 9,0
county
More inferior of county average are the average yields realised in

mountain area as a direct result of the poor climatic conditions from plants’ crop.
In these area the obtained yield are non-profitable from economic point of view,
being cultivated exclusive for own consumption also due to the fact that the
transport in other areas of the products is quite expensive (table 2).
Table 2
Average yields realized in vegetal sector on natural areas
Specifica- Sugar
Wheat Barley Oat Maize Potato
tion beet
Depressio
3120 3080 1815 2580 20025 24875
n area
Hilly area 2910 2750 1805 2790 16820 19400
Mountain
2120 - 1580 - 13516 -
area
Average
2990 2870 1730 2680 18451 23200
county
In pre-mountain, but especialy in mountain area, due to the climatic

conditions, crops yield is small and unsure. Strach production per one hectare of
potato is bigger than the one from a hectare with cereals.
For this reason, especially for these areas, potato is a valuable foder for
animals, but also for growing and fatting the to the nutritive values of potato. On
other hand small potato tubers which are not used for human consumption are an
important nutritive source for feeding animals.
The small dimensions of the arable field fulfilled a very important and
complex economic-social function, which is to assure an important range of
vegetal products specific to the high areas of country-potato, vegetables,
Kohlrabi, pod beans.
- 159 -
BACK
Qualitative study of the soil is a very important thing because to know the
natural fertility on usage categories and crops offers us the possibility to show the
minimum yield and to estblish from region to region the resources that each field
already have, under the productivity aspect.
As alternative to the common tourism started to develop agro-tourism, by
using the potential represented by populations’ households from rural area (eg.
Bran area, Mărginimea Sibiului etnographic area, Apuseni Mountains area).
These forms of rural tourism offers to the foreigner tourists the possibily to know
at first hand the traditions of Romanian people, its hospitality and the reale
cuisine from each area.
CONCLUSIONS
Having in view the fact that the bigger ratio of the rural economic
activities is formed by agricultural exploitations, a hance for sustainable
development is represented by stimulating and supporting of the investments in
agricultural exploitations which will lead to: rational capitalization of rural
resources; increase the life of agricultural exploitations; increase of farmars
incomes and improvement of life and work conditions; diversification of
agricultural production and rural services; increase of the products’ quality so that
ones to became competitive both on local markets and also on regional and
international ones; decreasing the producttion costs; improvement of hygiene
conditions and also of the conditions for animal growing; improvement of life
quaality; preservation of environment.
Unfavourable factors of development of the rural space from research
area are: continous depopulation; a small degree of diversification of economic
activities; unperformed agriculture; small incomes of population; poor quality of
roads – the great majority of communal roads are not modern and over 61 % of
rural population do not have a direct access to the main roads and to the railway
network; water supply is not sufficient and is not adequate; the numbers of
doctors is small – the number of people per one doctor is three times higher than
in cities; education network have a reduce spreading; school buildings do not
offers adequate conditions and have a poor with specialized equipments; forest
degradation, main due to an uncontrolling cutting of the trees.
REFERENCES
1. Alecu I., Cozac V., 2002 – Managementul agricol în România. Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti.
2. Bold I. şi colab., 1995 – Exploataţia agricolă. Ed. Mirton, Timişoara.
3. Brezuleanu S., 2004 – Management agricol – teorie şi practică. Ed. Performantica, Iaşi.
4. Ciurea I., Brezuleanu S., Ungureanu G., 2005 – Management. Ed. “Ion Ionescu de la Brad”,
Iaşi.
5. ***, 2000 – Economic Manual ASE. Ediţia a VI-a. Ed. Economică, Bucureşti.
6. Date statistice DADR Braşov.
- 160 -
BACK
ANIMAL PRODUCTION IN THE CONTEXT OF BRAŞOV

COUNTY AGRICULTURE
L. BLENDEA, St. BREZULEANU
The aims of the study is to analyze the animal production under the aspect
of the structure of main animal species on natural areas, average number of
animals grown in private households on natural areas, number of animals grown
in association exploitations and their ratio in the total number of animals, from
Braşov county.
Braşov County is situated in the geographical centre of Romania crossed by

parallel of 46 ° north latitudine and meridian of 25 ° east longitudine, the
geographic coordinates are: Ioneşti village 46 ° 11’ N latitudine; Fundata
commune, Fundăţica village 45 ° 27’ N latitudine; Vama Buzăului commune,
Buzăiel village 26 ° 05’ E longitudine, Ucea de Jos commune 24 ° 42’ E
longitudine. Braşov County neighbored with Prahova , Buzău, Covasna, Harghita,
Mureş, Sibiu, Argeş and Dâmboviţa counties. The area of Braşov county is 5363
km2 representing 2.2% from the square area of the country, having a great variety
of relief forms, starting with Bârsei depression and Făgăraş plain to the mountain
massifs of Carpathians. For the total of square area 55.4% is arable land and
34.6% is covered with forests.
The total population of the county is 558,336 inhabitants, divided in 9
towns (from which 4 cities) and 43 communes with 150 villages.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The informative material which was at the base of the present study was
based on questionnaires and statistic dates provided by DADR Braşov. For our
study we will use the diagnosis analyze to present the evolution of the main
animal species on natural areas, average number of animals grown in private
households on natural areas, number of animals grown in association
exploitations and their ratio in the total number of animals from Braşov county.

The development of husbandry production in Braşov County is influenced
in a great way by the area character of its placement. In general, in mountain
areas, hilly and depression areas, in each of them could be reached good results,
but generally, it is observed as a tendency a severe differentiation from point of
view of animal species structure, production levels and used methods.
The number of the main animal species existed at the end of 2006 in
Braşov County was: 634,442 cattle’s, 275,517 sheep and 82,496 pigs.
- 161 -
The three natural areas (depression, hilly and mountain) are very different
each to other, both function of natural conditions, specific productions and also by
social and economic development. In general, these areas have some common
particularities which gave them a certain characterization and a tendency of
development.
From table 1 result that the depression areas have the main ratio regarding
the number of animals in comparison with the hilly and mountain area.
If in absolute values the depression areas have the main ratio, by dividing
the number of animals to the agricultural surface and to the number of households
from each area, the situation is totally changed (table 2).
Table 1
The number of main animal species on natural areas and their ratio per county
(2006)
Area Cattle’s Sheep Pigs
Heads % Heads % Heads %
Depression 52 62101
39710 62 143576 75
area
Hilly area 12328 20 80116 29 15034 19
Mountain area 11404 18 51825 19 5361 6
Total county 63442 100 275517 100 82496 100
Table 2
Average number of animals grown in private households on natural areas
Area Cattle’s Sheep Pigs
Depression area 1,3 6,7 1,6

Hilly area 1,6 9,0 1,7
Mountain area 2,7 16,3 2,1
Total county 1,4 7,8 1,7
In the hilly area, but most in the mountain area, the number of animals
gown in households, is superior to the county average. Thus due to the existence
in the hilly area of large square area occupied with meadows and good quality hay
fields, on one hand and on another hand, due to the existence in the mountain area
of a long term tradition in animals growth this job being the basic one in mountain
area.
The number of animals per square unit varies in the depression between 60
UVM/100 ha in Făgăraş depression and 80 UVM/100 ha in Braşov depression, is
around 75-80 UVM/100 ha in the hilly area and 90-100 UVM/100 ha in the
mountain area. On species the depression area have a leading ratio at pigs, due to
the cereals cultivated and also due to the potato which is used, traditionally, in
feeding this specie.
Cattle’s are well represented in the hilly and mountain area and sheep, by
tradition, are characteristic to mountain area.
- 162 -
In the 2004-2006 period the evolution of the numbers of animals known

important modifications.
A very high decrease of the animal numbers in the association forms
determines a small decrease of the animal numbers at country level. So if at
country level in 2004-2006 period the number of animals decreases with 5577
UVM, at the level of association forms the number of animals decrease with 8427
UMV. Results from here that the number of animals in the private households
increased in the same period with 2850 UMV.
The severe decrease of the numbers of animals in association forms is
mainly due to the ‘crash’ of limited companies (farmers IAS), because their
surfaces decrease a lot so it was necessary to correlate the surface with the
number of animals. A part of the animals from the limited companies could be
found in the private household which bought the animals.
As regarding the UMV loading per square unit, if at country level in 2004-
2006 period had a small decrease from 0.49 UMV/ha in 2004 to o.48 UMV/ha in
2006, it is interesting that in the same period in association exploitations this
loading had an important increase from 0.84 UMV/ha in 2004 to 0.97 UMV/ha in
2006 in the conditions in which the number of animals decreased. This aspect is
explained due to the fact that in this period the agricultural surfaces from
association units (and especially from limited companies) decease in a more alert
rhythm than number of animals (table 3).
Table 3
The number of animals from the association units and their ratio in total
country (UMV)
Specification 2004 2005 2006
Total f. w. Total f. w. Total f. w.
UMV assoc. UMV assoc. UMV assoc.
units units units
Braşov 18485 16312 18320 12280 18314 11105
Bod 2147 28 2138 32 2144 32
Codlea 11095 9191 11081 7150 11090 6144
Cristian 975 292 970 302 982 306
Feldioara 2466 2383 2380
Ghimbav 1438 662 1710 642 1422 650
Hălchiu 3119 230 3180 242 3172 244
Harman 1623 1610 1602
Prejmer 3750 425 3681 405 3590 392
Sânpetru 1101 1082 1088
Vulcan 2163 229 2172 248 2180 252
Budila 880 862 858
Râşnov 3656 1570 3520 1520 3492 1488
Săcele 1862 1815 1780
Târlungeni 2724 2729 2683
Teliu 1425 1415 1408
Zărneşti 2469 2330 2285
- 163 -
Specification 2004 2005 2006

Total f. w. Total f. w. Total f. w.
UMV assoc. UMV assoc. UMV assoc.
units units units
Apata 920 870 895
Dumbrăviţa 2116 2118 2110
Măeruş 1538 124 1522 128 1515 126
Ormeniş 829 835 846
Făgăraş 1183 163 1162 150 1140 141
Beclean 1362 1375 1384
Hăseni 1468 1443 1395
Lisa 1847 1831 1785
Mândra 2341 2281 2253
Recea 2457 2468 2525
Şercaia 5321 4202 5208 4100 5043 3952
Şinca 1953 1928 1904
Ucea 5415 5243 5168
Voila 2640 1096 2684 1168 2743 1307
Vistea 354 348 350
Total depression area 96135 34592 94905 28179 92211 26188
Cincu 1446 1408 1352
Pârău 2283 56 2164 52 2118 52
Soars 2324 2416 2424
Rupea 2324 110 2281 94 2260 85
Buneşti 2063 13 2054 16 2030 16
Cata 3927 237 3818 245 3805 241
Comana 2167 18 2058 21 2054 20
Homorod 2607 355 2700 350 2714 352
Hoghiz 3076 2984 2885
Jibert 3551 3628 3608
Racoş 903 879 870
Ticus 1392 1408 1456
Ungra 2652 2584 2622
Total zona colinară 30714 789 30382 778 29198 766
Bran 6009 9054 6080
Fundata 1645 1583 1504
Moeciu 4367 4206 4218
Vama Buzăului 3566 3550 3558
Predeal 108 104 104
Poiana Mărului 4000 4114 4124
Total mountain area 19695 19611 19558
TOTAL COUNTY 146544 35381 144898 28957 140967 26954
On geographical areas, in association units, depression area has a ratio of

over 97% in UMV.
On species, in 2006 at cattle’s from a country total of 64520 heads in the
association units were 8080 heads representing 12.5% from total:
- 164 -
At sheep from a country total of 213400 heads in the association units

were 6900 heads representing 3.2% from total;
At pigs from a country total of 90400 heads in the association units were
41200 representing 46% from total;
At birds, the great majority of the animals are found in the association
units and the number is 1405000 heads from the country total (1818000
heads) representing 77% from total.
Family association do not grow animals, their profile being exclusive
focused on plant crops.
The future in association units is to keep the number of animals. On
species at cattle’s and pigs the tendency is stationary, at sheep is decreasing and at
birds is increasing.
Even if the number of animals has a stationary tendency the increase
performance in husbandry is realized by animal breeding and by improvement of
the feeding ration, thus especially by increasing oh the surfaces with fodder
plants.
At the same time association units are and will be at country level the
main supplier of animal with a high genetic value for private households.
CONCLUSIONS
The agricultural societies with mixed profile own also surfaces with
natural hay fields and meadows. It is recommended where it is possible (in
according with the equipments, economic-financial situation but also in according
with natural restrictions: relief, slope, etc.) that the natural hay fields to be
transformed in arable and to be cultivated with volume fodders, much productive
and with a superior nutritive value face to natural hay fields.
Practice shows that agricultural societies with mixed profile (vegetal and
husbandry) are more stabile in time and presents a series of advantages:
- Capitalization for own consumption of a part of vegetal
production;
- Superior capitalization of some secondary products from vegetal
production which do not have a selling market or are capitalized
at a lower cost (straws, maize, plants, sugar beet heads, potato
tuber under STAS, etc.);
- The incomes are obtained all over the year and depend in a
smaller way of the environment factors.
The territory of the country have facilities for processing the agricultural
products, the problems are related with the increase of the usage degree of them,
their rehabilitation and modernization, improvement of fodder ration, usage of the
animals with great productivity for realizing products with good quality.
In this sector we propose:
- 165 -
BACK
- Development of husbandry in the localities which have important

areas with meadows and hay fields;
- Increasing the degree of occupy and capitalization of the
husbandry value potential in farms for pigs growing and fattening
and in farms for birds growing.
- Supporting of population households from hilly and mountain
area where cattle and sheep growing is done and where the
natural conditions are benefic.
The affects of these measures will appear, especially in the private sector
of animal growing, by increasing the number of animals on a husbandry
exploitation and by improving the conditions in which animal are grow and
exploited.
Technical measures have in view the increase of production and
productivity by:
- Improving the technical state of production facilities from
husbandry, of the husbandry equipments;
- Development of IT and technical consultancy networks.
REFERENCES
1. Alecu, I, Cozac, V, Managementul agricol în România, Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti, 2002.
2. Bold, I şi colab., Exploataţia agricolă, Ed. Mirton, Timişoara, 1995.
3. Brezuleanu S. Management agricol – teorie şi practică. Editura Performantica, Iaşi, 2004
4. Ciurea I. Brezuleanu S., Ungureanu G. Management . Editura Ion Ionescu de la Brad Iaşi,
2005
5. *** Economie, Manual ASE, Ediţia a VI-a, Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 2000.
6. *** Date statistice DADR Braşov.
- 166 -
BACK
THE PHENOTYPICAL CORRELATIONS BETWEEN

SOMATIC CELL COUNT AND PRINCIPALS CHARACTERS
OF COW MILK PRODUCTION FOR CÎMPULUNG
MOLDOVENESC AREA
Mihaela IVANCIA
Researches were making on cow milk samples from Cîmpulung

Moldovenesc area.
Studied characters were mill production, fat percent, protein percent,
and somatic cell count.
There were analyzed the milk samples with SOMACOUNT to “Dorna
Lactate” and dates have been discussed with MATLAB program.
The phenotypical correlation values have been varied between +0,234 ÷
+0,757 for fat percent and protein percent; -0,293 ÷ +0,295 for fat percent and
somatic cell count, -0,441 ÷ +0,052 for protein percent and somatic cell count; -
0,346 ÷ +0,228 for milk production and fat percent; -0,290 ÷ +0,057 for milk
production and protein percent and -0,282 ÷ +0,484 for milk production and
somatic cell count.
INTRODUCTION
There is well known that „the milk cells belong the hygienic quality
indexes category of milk for human consumption” (Kurzhalas, 1983, quote by
Rotaru, 1998). That is why the importance and signification of milk somatic cells
is an agreed univocal desideratum for the consumer integrity.
There is used frequently the somatic cell count like early indicator for
mastitis presence and it use less like quality indicator. That is why the research
aim was to colligate between elements of milk quantity and quality: somatic cell
count, fat content, protein content and milk production.

The analyzed samples were from cow milk from Cîmpulung
Moldovenesc area. The milk has been gathered to Botus, Breaza, Cîmpulung
Moldovenesc, Fundu Moldovei, Izvoarele Sucevei, Moldova Sulita, Moldovita,
Pojorita and Vatra Moldovei centers and samples have been draw from purchase
milk.
52,25 thousand hl milk have been gathered from 12780 dairy cows belong
area. There were 7071 cows Bruna breed, 293 cows Baltata romaneasca breed,
151 cows Baltata cu negru romaneasca breed and 5785 cows Pinzgau de
Transilvania.
- 167 -
20511 samples have been gathered from that milk and the fat content,
protein content, somatic cell count have been determined with Somacount
apparatus in Dorna Lactate laboratory.
The obtained results have been statistical discussed and have been found
the phenotypical correlation values between milk production, fat content, protein
content, somatic cell count (the studied characters). MATLAB program was use
for discussed results.

The milk samples analysis and results processing show us the fat content
and protein content are positive correlated (tab. 1). These characters are medium
positive correlated with values between +0,2 ÷ +0,4 to Vatra Moldovei, Fundu
Moldovei and Moldovita centers and they are high positive correlated to Breaza,
Cîmpulung Moldovenesc, Izvoarele Sucevei, Moldova Sulita and Pojorita centers
(with values between +0,4 ÷ +1) (fig. 1a).
Table 1
Correlations between studied characters, in Cîmpulung Moldovenesc
area
Correlation values between:

Centrul
F–P F – SCC P – SCC MP– SCC MP – F MP – P
Botuş 0,733 -0,148 -0,232 -0,181 -0,041 -0,182
Breaza 0,657 -0,051 -0,024 0,241 0,228 -0,149
Cîmpulung
0,629 -0,293 -0,439 0,194 -0,196 -0,070
Moldovenesc
Fundu Moldovei 0,407 -0,024 -0,441 0,309 -0,182 -0,145
Izvoarele Sucevei 0,757 0,028 -0,056 0,176 -0,249 -0,010
Moldova Suliţa 0,526 0,089 -0,178 -0,282 -0,143 -0,290
Moldoviţa 0,399 0,295 -0,021 0,217 -0,166 0,057
Pojorîta 0,445 -0,011 -0,180 0,172 -0,346 -0,134
Vatra Moldovei 0,234 0,028 0,052 0,484 -0,125 -0,027
Total zonă 0,862 -0,250 -0,310 +0,304 -0,387 -0,204
F= Fat content;
P = Protein content;
SCC = Somatic cell count;
MP = Milk production;
- 168 -
0.800 0.733 0.757 0.400 0.100

0.052
0.700 0.657 0.295
0.629
0.300
0.600 0.526 0.000
0.500 0.445 0.200

0.407 0.399
0.400 0.089 -0.100 -0.024
0.100
0.300 0.234 0.028 0.028
-0.021
0.200 0.000 -0.200
-0.178 -0.180
0.100 -0.056
-0.232
-0.100
0.000 -0.300
-0.051
-0.148 -0.011
-0.200
-0.400
-0.300 -0.024
-0.293 Centrul Centrul
-0.439 -0.441
Centrul -0.400 -0.500
a) Fat– Protein b) Fat – Somatic cell coun c) Protein – Somatic Cell Count
0.300 0.100 0.600
0.057
0.228
0.484
0.050 0.500
0.200
0.000 0.400
0.100 0.309
0.282
-0.050 0.300
0.241
0.217
0.194
0.000 -0.100 0.200 0.176 0.172
-0.070
-0.100 -0.150 -0.134 0.100
-0.149 -0.027
-0.041 -0.010
-0.145
-0.200 0.000
-0.182
-0.200 -0.166
-0.196
-0.143 -0.125 -0.250 -0.100
-0.182
-0.300 -0.249
-0.300 -0.200 -0.181
-0.290
Centrul Centrul Centrul
-0.346
-0.400 -0.350 -0.300
d) Milk production – Fat e) Milk production – Protein f) Milk production – Somatic cell count
Fig. 1 Correlations between studied characters, in Cîmpulung Moldovenesc area
- 169 -
The milk fat content and milk somatic cell count were low and medium
correlated both positive and negative. These characters are low positive correlated
to Izvoarele Sucevei, Moldova Sulita, and Vatra Moldovei centers with values
between 0 and +0,2. They are low negative correlated to Botus, Breaza, Fundu
Moldovei and Pojorita centers (between –0,2÷0) and they are medium positive
correlated to the Moldovita center (+0,295) and medium negative correlated
(–0,293) to the Cîmpulung Moldovenesc center. (tab. 1 and fig. 1b)
The milk protein content and somatic cell count are two characters low
positive correlated to only Vatra Moldovei center. They are low negative
correlated to 5 centers (Breaza: –0,024, Izvoarele Sucevei: –0,056, Moldova
Sulita: –0,178, Moldovita: –0,021 and Pojorita:–0,180), they are medium negative
correlated to Botus center (–0,232) and high negative correlated to Cîmpulung
Moldovenesc center (–0,439) and to Fundu Moldovei center (–0,441) (tab. 1 and
fig. 1c)
In this area, milk production and milk fat content are medium positive
correlated to the Breaza centre (+0,228). They are medium negative correlated to
the Izvoarele Sucevei centre (–0,249) and to the Pojorita center (–0,346) and these
characters are low negative correlated to all of the other centers (Fundu Moldovei:
–0,182, Cîmpulung Moldovenesc: –0,196,: Botus –0,041, Moldova Sulita:
–0,143, Moldovita: –0,166, Vatra Moldovei: –0,125). (tab. 1 and fig. 1d)
A single positive value was found between milk production and milk
protein content correlation and that was to the Moldovita center (+0,057). These
two characters are low negative correlated to 7 centers (Botus: –0,182, Breaza:
–0,149, Cîmpulung Moldovenesc: –0,070, Fundu Moldovei: –0,145, Izvoarele
Sucevei: –0,010, Pojorita: –0,134, Vatra Moldovei:–0,027) and they are medium
negative correlated to the Moldova Sulita center (–0,290). (tab. 1 and fig. 1e)
The milk production and the milk somatic cell count are medium to high
positive correlated only to the Vatra Moldovei center (+0,484), medium positive
correlated to 3 centers (Breaza: +0,241, Fundu Moldovei: +0,309, Moldovita:
+0,217) and low positive correlated to others 3 centers (Cîmpulung Moldovenesc:
+0,194, Izvoarele Sucevei: +0,176, Pojorita: +0,172). They are low negative
correlated to the Botus center (–0,181) and medium negative correlated to
Moldova Sulita (–0,282). (tab. 1 and fig. 1f)
The dates from entire area was used to calculate correlation and we found
0,862 value between milk fat content and milk protein content. The results shows
us this value is higher than the specialty literature values (+0,3÷+0,6) (Robertson,
1856 and Kronsing,1959, quoted by Georgescu, 1988, quoted by Ivancia, 2004).
The correlation value found between milk production and milk fat content
is –0,387 and is higher than the values from specialty literature what are between
–0,08 and –0,25 (Johansson, 1950, quoted by Georgescu, 1988, quoted by
Ivancia, 2004).
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These results regarding on milk production and milk protein content

correlation are mostly between values from specialty literature (–0,18÷–0,24)
(Johansson, 1950, quoted by Georgescu, 1988, quoted by Ivancia, 2004, Velea,
1999).
In accordance with information from studied bibliography, the milk
somatic cell count and milk production are low to medium positive correlated
(+0,12÷+0,17). The milk somatic cell count and the milk fat content are very low
negative correlated (–0,04÷–0,14) as well as milk somatic cell count and milk
protein content (–0,02÷–0,14) (Milles, 1993, Reents, 1995, quoted by Ivancia
2004 and Samoré, 2003).
Those 20511 analyzed samples have been use to calculate the correlation
between milk production and milk somatic cell count. The correlation value is
+0,304 for entire area (higher than specialty literature values).
Between milk somatic cell count and milk fat content is a high negative
correlation (–0,250), higher than literature values for entire area, but correlation
values for 4 centers are low positive.
Milk somatic cell count and milk protein content are medium negative
correlated (–0,310) for entire area, higher than specialty literature. Just for three
centers, the correlation values are between literature limits.
CONCLUSIONS
In Cîmpulung Moldovenesc area, the phenotypical correlation values are:
− +0,234÷+0,757 to center and +0,862 to entire area between milk fat content and
milk protein content;
− –0,293÷+0,295 to center and –0,250 to entire area between milk fat content and
milk somatic cell count;
− –0,441÷+0,052 to center and –0,310 to entire area between milk protein content
and milk somatic cell count;
− –0,346÷+0,228 to center and –0,387 to entire area between milk production and
milk fat content;
− –0,290÷+0,057 to center and –0,204 to entire area between milk production and
milk protein content;
− –0,282÷+0,484 to center and +0,304 to entire area between milk production and
milk somatic cell count.
Though the limits values are higher than specialty literature, the most
results are between known correlations for studied characters.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Georgescu, Gh., Velea, C., Stanciu, G., Ujică, V., Georgescu, D., Rămneanţu, N. (1990) – Tehnologia
creşterii bovinelor, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti
- 171 -
BACK
Georgescu, Gh., Burlacu, Gh., Georgescu, D., Paraschivescu, M., Fişteag, I., Jurubescu, V.,
Petre, A. (1988–1989) – Tratat de creştere a bovinelor, vol. I, vol. II, vol. IV, Ed. Ceres,
Bucureşti
Ivancia, M. (2004) – Celulele somatice – indicator de calitate a laptelui, Ed. Alfa, Iaşi
Reents, R., Dekkers, J., Shaeffer, L.R. (1995) – Genetic evaluation for somatic cell score with a
Test Day Model for multiple lactations, Journal of Dairy Science, vol.78, nr.12, 2858–2870,
Guelph
Rotaru, O., Ognean, L. (1998) – Morfologia şi fiziologia populaţiei celulare din lapte, Ed. Casa
Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj
Samoré, A.B. (2003) – Correlazioni genetiche tra cellule somatiche e gli altri caratteri, Bianco
Nero, 7: 14–17
Samoré, A.B. (2003) – Correlazioni genetiche tra cellule somatiche e produzione, Bianco Nero, 2:
15–18
Velea, C. (1999) – Producţia, reproducţia şi ameliorarea taurinelor, vol.I, Ed. Tehnică Agricolă,
Bucureşti
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BACK
MILK PROTEINS POLYMORPHISM IN ROMANIAN

CATTLE BREEDS, IDENTIFIED BY ISOELECTRIC
FOCUSING TECHNIQUE (IEF)
V.A. BALTEANU, A. VLAIC, Anda Raluca RUSU,

S. CREANGA, R.F. POP, V. CIGHI
There are six major proteins in cattle milk: αs1-casein, β-casein, αs2-
casein, k-casein, α-lactoalbumin and β-lactoglobulin. Each of these have many
genetic variants (spread in different cattle breeds), with a positive or negative
influence on milk protein content, manufacturing properties and efficiency of
cheese making. In the present study we describe the isoelctric focusing technique
(IEF), as a rapid and low cost method for all milk proteins allele identification
directly from milk samples. The study was carried out on 236 Romanian
Simmental and 27 Romanian Black and White cattle breeds. The genes and
genotypes frequencies in the six loci were calculated.
INTRODUCTION
In cattle milk there are six major proteins, four of them belonging to
casein fraction: αs1 casein, β-casein, αs2 casein, k-casein, the other two α-
lactoalbumin and β-lactoglobulin belonging to whey fraction. These genes are
specifically expressed in epithelial cells of mammary gland during lactation.The
mendelian segregation analysis in Bos genus of the four caseins genes (αs1 casein,
β-casein, αs2 casein, K- casein), revealed that they are located in linkage and
transmited in the same way (Larsen et al. 1966; Grosclaude, 1964,1965, 1978)
beeing located on cattle cromosome six (Threadgill and Womack, 1989). In Bos
genus α-lactoalbumin locus is located on the cromosome 5 (Soulier and Mercier,
1989; Vilotte et al. 1987, 1991) and β-lactoglobulin locus is located on the
cromosome 11 (Hayes and Petit, 1993). β-lactogobulin was the first milk protein
in which a polymorphism was identified (A and B allele), on paper
electrophoresis by Aschaffenburg and Drewry (1955). Since then many genetic
variants have been identified in different cattle breeds (Farrell, 2004).
Table 1
Table summarising the genetic variants of milk protein genes in Bos genus
discovered so far, in different cattle breeds
αs1-casein Genetic variants: A, B , C , D, Eyak, Ebali, F, G, H
β-casein Genetic variants: A, A1, A2, A3, B, C, D, E, A’, A3m, B2, A4, H,
F,A5, G
αs2-casein Genetic variants: A, B, C, D
k-casein Genetic variants: A, B, C, B2 , E, F, G, Az, H, I, J
α-lactoalbumin Genetic variants: A, B, C
β-lactoglobulin Genetic variants: A, B, C, D, Dr, Dyak, E, F, G, W, H, I , J
- 173 -
Each of these genetic variants may have a positive or negative influence

on milk protein content, manufacturing properties and efficiency of cheese
making (Scharr, 1984; Ng-Kwai Hang, 1984, 1986; Grosclaude, 1988; Aleandri,
1990). Among these major genes, k-casein, β-casein and β-lactoglobulin, B
alelele was found to have a positive influence in milk quality and its
manufacturing properties. In French cattle breed Tarentaise, β-casein C allele
(which has a 17% frequency), was associated with a spicy taste and hard
consistence of Beaufort cheese produced from milk of this breed (Delacroix and
Marie C, 1994). Considering this the knowledge of genes and genotypes
frequencies at the six loci in different breeds is very important, in order to take
decisions concerning the use or the exclusion of an animal from reproduction, if
increasing of protein content and milk manufacturing properties is desired.
Since the first discovery of β-lactoglobulin A and B allele (Aschaffenburg
and Drewry, 1955), many methods were used to study the milk proteins
polymorphisms in differend cattle breeds, such as: paper electrophoresis (PE),
Starch Gel Electrophoresis (SGE), Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (native,
acide and alcaline PAGE), RP-HPLC and MS, PCR-RFLP, PCR-SSCP, PCR-
ARMS. Neither of these methods is capable to identify all allele in the six loci.
In 1985 Seibert et al. developed a method of isoelectric focalisation (IEF),
which allows the identification of all allele (in the 6 loci), in a single run and at
low costs, directly from small amounts of milk samples. The method was well
improved by Mahe and Grosclaude (1987). This electrophoresis method allows
the separation of proteins according to their electric charge. A protein mixture is
loaded in an ultrathin polyacrilamide gel (0,5mm), with carrier ampholytes
(pH=2,5-7). In a high voltage electric field (up to 2300V), the proteins from a
mixture will migrate towards their isoelectric point, where their charge is zero.
Any changes in aminoacids composition of proteins, will change their electric
charge. This way the 6 major milk proteins and their allele can be easily identified
after staining with Commassie blue. The high resolution of IEF makes it very
useful in milk proteins polymorphisms studies, in any breed or specie. Therefore
this was the technique chosen by use to carry out the present study.
MATERIAL AND METHODS

a) Indentification of cattle individuals for this study
Two cattle breeds were taken in study in this experiment: Romanian
Siemmental (BR) and Romanian Black and White (BNR). There were chosen
236 individuals of Romanian Siemmental breed, belonging to four representative
farms from Transylvania and 27 to Romanian Black and White breed (Tabel 2).
The genotyping experiments were carried out between 2004 - 2005.
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Tabelul 2
Table summarising informations concerning the genotyped cattle populations
Farms taken in this study Number of genotyped Breed
cattles/farm
Corojan, 14 Romanian Simmental (BR)
Floresti, Cluj County
SC Crisan SNC, 32 BR
Gherla, Cluj County
SCDB Jucu, 113 BR
Cluj County
SC ADA SRL, 77 BR
Viisoara, Cluj County
SC ADA SRL, 27 Romanian Black and White

Viisoara, Cluj County (BNR)
Total number of 236 BR

genotyped 27 BNR
individuals/breed
b) Milk samples collection, gel electrophoresis and results interpretation

Milk sample collection was done individually directly from udder, in 15
ml Falcon tubes. No preservatives were added. Samples were stored during
transportation at 40C and then frozen at -200C.
Isoelectric focusing (IEF) of milk samples was performed according to
Seibert et al. (1985), modified by Mahe and Grosclaude (1987). IEF was carried
out in 4 % ultrathin (0,5mm) polyacrliamide gels containing 8M urea and a
mixture three ampholytes (Pharmacia): pH=2.5-5, pH=4.2-4.9, pH=5.0-7.0. Ten
microliters of each skim milk sample (obtained by centrifugation 15 minutes at
5000 rcf.), were diluted 1/5 with a solution containing 8M urea and three
micoliters of β-mercapoethanol. The samples were vortexed and incubated at 40C
for 24 hours. After the incubation period they were applied close to the anodic
end of the gel, on small filter papers (5x6mm). Electrofocusing was carried out
with a Multiphor II Electrophoresis System (Pharmacia LKB, Sweden), in 0,5
mm thick gels and 124x258 mm in size. After prefocusing at 140C and constant
power (9W) for 10 minutes, focusing was carried out at 20W for 1h and 40
minutes. During the run, the voltage rose from 350V to 2500v.
After the run, the proteins were fixed in gel by immersing it in 10% triclor
acetic acid for 30 minutes, then stained for 10 minutes in a solution containing
0,2% (v/v) Commassie blue G-250, 50% methanol and 10% acetic acid in water.
Destaining was carried out in an aqueous solution of 30% methanol, 8% acetic
acid and 10% glycerol, until the background was clear (Figure 1).
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RESULTS AND DICUTIONS

Figure 1. Electrophoretic profile obtained by running milk samples in the above
conditions. Some allele of the 6 loci, evidenced in this study, are marked on gel picture.
Following gels interpretation were indentified the genotypes at the six

loci, in all analysed individuals. The genes and genotypes frequencies in both
breeds were calculated.
1. Results obtained after analysing 236 cattle belonging to Romanian Simmental

breed.
Tabelul 3
The genetic structure at αS1-casein locus in Romanian Simmental breed, in analysed
populations
Genotypes Number of Genotypes Allele frequency
individuals frequency
BB 211 0,894 pB=0,9405
BC 22 0,093
CC 3 0,0127 qC=0,063
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Tabelul 4
The genetic structure at ß-casein locus in Romanian Simmental breed, in analysed
populations
Genotypes Number of Genotypes frequency Allele frequency
individuals
A1A1 30 0,127 pA1= 0,3355
A1A2 83 0,351
A2A2 81 0,343 qA2= 0,569
A1A3 1 0,004
A1B 4 0,016 rA3= 0,002
A1C 11 0,046
A2B 15 0,063 mB = 0,0435
A2C 9 0,038
BC 2 0,008 nC = 0,046
Tabelul 5
The genetic structure at αS2-casein locus in Romanian Simmental breed, in analysed
populations
individuals
AA 236 1 p A= 1
Tabelul 6
The genetic structure at k-casein locus in Romanian Simmental breed, in analysed
populations
individuals
AA 109 0,461 pA=0,6785
AB 101 0,427
BB 23 0,097 qB=0,3105
AC 2 0,008
CC 1 0,004 rC=0,008
Tabelul 7
The genetic structure at α-lactoalbumin locus in Romanian Simmental breed, in
analysed populations
individuals
BB 236 1 pB= 1
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Tabelul 8
The genetic structure at β-lactoglobulinei locus in Romanian Simmental breed, in
individuals
AA 64 0,271 pA=0,5145
AB 114 0,483
BB 56 0,237 qB=0,4805
AC 1 0,004
BC 1 0,004 rC=0,004
2. Results obtained after analysing 27 cattle belonging to Romanian Black and

White breed.
Tabelul 9
The genetic structure at αS1-casein locus in Romanian Black and White breed, in
individuals
BB 27 1 pB=1
BC 0 0
CC 0 0 qC=0
Tabelul 10
The genetic structure at β-casein locus in Romanian Black and White breed, in
individuals
A1A1 4 0,148 pA1= 0,444
A1A2 15 0,555
A2A2 6 0,222 qA2= 0,518
A1B 1 0,037
A2B 1 0,037 rB= 0,037
Tabelul 11
The genetic structure at αS2-casein locus in Romanian Black and White breed, in
individuals
AA 27 1 p A= 1
- 178 -
Tabelul 12
The genetic structure at k-casein locus in Romanian Black and White breed, in
individuals
AA 20 0,740 pA=0,870
AB 7 0,259
BB 0 0 qB=0,129
Tabelul 13
The genetic structure at α-lactoalbumin locus in Romanian Black and White breed,
in analysed populations
individuals
BB 27 1 pB= 1
Tabelul 14
The genetic structure at β-lactoglobulin locus in Romanian Black and White breed,
in analysed populations
individuals
AA 7 0,259 pA=0,555
AB 16 0,592
BB 4 0,148 qB=0,444
At the k-casein locus, in Romanian Simmental breed, we observed a

relatively low frequency of B allele in comparison with A allele (see Table 6). We
observed even a lower frequency in Romanian Black and White breed (see Table
12). Taking in consideration a better expresion of B allele (Medrano et al, 1991),
it can be assumed that its low frequency has a negative influence on milk protein
content and milk manufacturing properties. K-casein C allele was observed with a
very low frequency in Romanian Simmental breed (see Table 6). At the β-
lactoglobulin locus (in both breeds) B allele has a low frequency, beeing also
identified C allele. At the ß-casein locus the B allele has also a low frequency (in
both breeds) beeing predominates A1 and A2 allele (see Table 4 and Table 10). In
Romanian Simmental population from Corojan Farm (Cluj county), we observed
an unespected high frequency (17%) of ß-casein C allele, in comparison with the
other three populations (0,046%). The same frequency was observed in French
cattle breed Tarentaise (Delacroix and Marie C, 1994), associated with a spicy
taste and hard consistence of Beaufort cheese, produced from milk of this breed
(Delacroix and Marie C, 1994). We identified in the population from SCDP Jucu,
in one cattle, a very rare allele: ß-casein A3 (Figure 1). Concerning the αS1-casein
locus we found a predominace of B allele in comparison with C allele, in both
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breeds. In αS2-casein and α-lactoalbumin loci, we observed monomorphic pattern

in both breeds (see Tables 5, 11 and Tables 7, 13 respectively).
CONCLUSIONS
The present study was carried out on four cattle populations belonging to
Romanian Simmental breed (236 individals) and one Romanian Black and White
(27 individuals), representative for Transylvania. An IEF method was succesfully
tested, which allows a correct identification, directly from small amounts of milk
samples, of all genotypes in the six loci codifying the six major milk proteins
(αs1-casein, β-casein, αs2-casein, k-casein, α-lactoalbumin and β-lactoglobulin)
and in a single run and at low costs. The identification of all allele based on PCR
based technique is imposible and the costs involved are very high and the
protocols are available just for the most commun allele.
The results obtained are representing the first informations of the genes
and genotypes frequency in all six loci in both breeds studied. This will allow to
test the associations between the haplotypes and quantity and quality of milk,
knowing that all have a certain influence in lactation performances. All genotyped
cattles are taken in control by the UARZ Cluj and the possibles association will
be tested in a following study. Observing the lower frequency of B allele, we can
presume that we should observe a lower protein content in both breeds. This
method can be succesfully used for genotyping other cattle breeds and species
such as buffalo and goats, experiments already started in our lab.
BIBLIGRAPHY
1.Aschaffenburg R., Drewry J. (1957). Genetics of the β-lactoglobulins of cow's milk. "Nature",
180, 376-378.
2.Aleandri, R., L. G. Buttazzoni, J. C. Schneider, A.Caroli, and R. Davoli.(1990). The effects of
milk protein polymorphisms on milk components and cheese-producing ability. J. Dairy Sci.
73:241.
3.Bâlteanu V. A., A.Vlaic (2005). Rezultate privind asocierea genotipurilor stabilite la locii K-
cazeinei şi β-lactoglobulinei şi însuşirile economice ale taurinelor. USAMV Cluj-Napoca. Referat
III doctorat.
4.Balteanu V.A., A. Vlaic, Anda Raluca Rusu (2005 ). The use of genetic markers in improving the
quantity and quality of the milk in Romanian Simmental dairy cattle breed. DocJ Symposium,
INRA, France, 8.
5.Bâlteanu V. A., A.Vlaic, Anda Raluca Rusu , Coşier Viorica (2004). Genetic polymorphisms at
the K-casein locus in Romanian Simmental cattle. Buletin USAMV- CN, 60/2004, 357-362.
6.Bâlteanu V. A., A.Vlaic, Anda Raluca Rusu, Viorica Coşier, C. Botez. (2004). Preliminary
estimations of genetic polymorphisms at the β-lactoglobulin locus in Romanian Siemmental cattle.
Buletin USAMV- CN, 60/2004, 391.
7.Bâlteanu V. A., A.Vlaic (2004). Stadiul actual al cercetărilor privind utilizarea markerilor genetici
în ameliorarea taurinelor. USAMV Cluj-Napoca. Referat bibliografic doctorat
8.Delacroix-Buchet A., Marie C. (1994).Comparaison des variants A et C de la caséine k des laits de
vaches Tarentaises en modèle fromagerde type beaufort. 1- Aptitudes fromagères et rendements en
frais. Lait, 74, 343-360.
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Hicks, C. M. Hollar, K. F. Ng-Kwai-Hang, and H. E. Swaisgood (2004). Nomenclature of the
Proteins of Cows’ Milk—Sixth Revision. J Dairy Sci 87: 1641-1674.
10.Grosclaude F. (1988). Le polymorphisme génétique des principales lactoprotéines bovines.
Relation avec la qualité, la composition et les aptitudes fromagères du lait.INRAProd. Anim.,1,5-17.
11.Hayes H.C., Petit E.J. (1993). Mapping of the β-lactoglobulin gene and immunoglobulin M
heavy chain-like sequence to the homologous cattle, sheep and goat chromosomes. "Mammalian
Genome", 4, 207-210. Journal of Protein Chemistry", 15, 743-750.
12.Ng-Kwai-Hang, K. F., J. F. Hayes, J. E. Moxley, and H. G.Monardes (1984). Association of
genetic variants of casein and milk serum proteins with milk, fat, and protein production by dairy
cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 67:835–840.
13.Schaar J., B. Hansson, and H.-E. Pettersson (1985). Effects of genetic variants of K-casein and β-
lactoglobulin on cheesemaking. J. Dairy Res. 52:429.
14.Seibert B., Erhardt G., Senft B. (1987). Detection of a new k-casein variant in cow's milk.
"Animal Genetics", 18, 269-272.
15.Soulier S., Mercier J.C., Vilotte J.L., Anderson J., Clark A.J., Provot C. (1989). The bovine and
ovine genomes contain multiple sequences homologous to the a-lactalbumin-encoding gene.
"Gene", 83, 331-338.
16.Threadgill D.W., Womack J.E. (1990). Genomic analysis of the major bovine milk protein genes.
"Nucleic Acids Research", 18, 6935-6942.
17.Van Eenennaam, A. L., and J. F. Medrano (1991). Differences in allelic protein expression in the
milk of heterozygous K-casein cows. J. Dairy Sci. 74:1496.
18. Vlaic, A., D.C. Ciobanu, T. Oroian, Elena Handoca (2002). Variantele genetice ale k-cazeinei
determinate prin tehnica PCR – RFLP şi asocierea acestora cu însuşirile producţiei de lapte la rasa
Brună. „Cercetări de genetică vegetală şi animală”, ASAS Bucureşti şi ICCPT Fundulea, vol. VII.
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THE INFLUENCE OF THE EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL

FACTORS ON THE RESULTS OF THE SUPEROVULATORY
TREATMENT IN CATTLE
P. COROI, TIMEA KATONA
Superovulation represents the most important stage of an embryo-

transfer programme and consists in the production of a much larger number of
ovulations for sexual cycle and, after the artificial insemination, of a much larger
number of transferable embryos. The present paper is proposing to point out the
main applications of the superovulatory treatment in cattle and the influencing
factors of the ovarian response to this treatment.
The objective of superovulatory treatments in cattle is to obtain a large

number of fertile transferable embryos with a high probability of gestation
installation. The superovulation applications, as in fact, of the whole embryo-
transfer programme are of economical nature and also of scientific nature. The
economical applications refers to the improvement of the concepts’ number from
the cattle with high production value, facilitating the animals importation and
exportation, the speed-up of amelioration progress, the introduction of new genes
in reproductive restrained populations, concepts number increasing in obsolescent
species.
Concerning the experimental nature of the superovulatory treatment, there
a few applications such as the induction of multiple gestations in cattle, female
test by descendents, in vitro embryo production and embryonary sex
determination, spermatozoa selection by chromosomes, cloning etc.
The ovarian response to the superovulatory treatment is extremely
unforeseable, depending by a large number of factors which can be divided in two
big categories: internal and external factors. The great variability degree of the
superovulatory response creates problems which are affecting the efficiency, and
nevertheless the profitability of the embryo-transfer programmes.
Internal factors are represented by: species, breed, individual, age, the
genital tract’s morpho-functional integrity and health, follicular population at the
moment of treatment performing, the stage of the ovarian follicles at the start of
the treatment etc.
Species, breed, individual, age
There were reported some differences in responsiveness to
gonadotrophins among various breeds of cattle. Anyway, it should be noticed that
in these studies other factors that potentially could affect the superovulatory
response were not well controlled. The worldwide information does not
demonstrate that breed itself is an important source of variation in embryo
production. However, animals with a genetic tendency toward high ovulation
rates have a greater superovulatory response (Kelly P. et al., 1997; Selk G., 1986).
- 182 -
The breeds which are less ameliorated and specialized for one trait
present a more consistent, constant and predictable reaction. High specialized
breeds respond frequently random and inefficiently no matter which protocol or
hormone are used.
Inside the same breed, age and housing conditions the individual react
different to the same hormonal treatment.
Age is not considered to be a determinant factor in the superovulatory
response of cattle. Overall, there are signaled only small differences in the mean
responses of cows aged two and fourteen years. Mapletoft et al., (2003) also
observed that there was no age effect on the total number of embryos recovered,
but a cut-off point, beyond nine years of age was suggested after which there was
a decline in the response in terms of the percentage of transferable embryos
recovered. The decline in superovulatory response may be due to a reduction in
the numbers of follicles capable to respond to gonadotrophin treatment in older
cattle (unpublished results).
Genital tract health and morpho-functionality
General state of health represents an important influence factor, because
we cannot expect a normal, predicable ovarian response from an animal of which
homeostasis is ruffled by affection. The morpho-functionality of the genital tract
is also an important factor of modulation of the ovarian response to the exogenous
hormones addition.
Follicular population at the moment of treatment
The response to the superovulatory treatment is characterized by a large
variability. Many researchers have reported that the presence of the dominant
folicle affect negatively the response to the treatment. There was also observed
that the existence of a large number of follicles potentially recrutable is associated
with a better superovulator response. Kafi et al. have shown that the number of
small follicles of 3-6 cm in size on both ovaries was semnificatively correlated
with the corpus lutea number after the treatment, with the number of oocytes and
the transferable embryos retrieved. Selk et al. have reported that the number of
corpus lutea are correlated with the number of primary, secondary and tertiary
follicles on the ovary.
Stage of follicles at the moment of treatment
Represents the most important source of variability of the superovulatory
treatment with gonadotropins in cattle. The present protocols allow the
superstimulation of the donor animals at intervals of 25-30 days without knowing
the sexual cycle stage and without affecting the embryo production.
Factorii externi are represented by: housing, alimentation, photoperiod,
male presence, clime and meteorological conditions, the hormonal product, its
administration protocol, type of its administration etc.
Season
Studies of the effect of season on the superovulatory response of cattle
have yielded conflicting results. While some researchers (Kafi, M., Mc Gowan,
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1997) have reported an influence of season on superovulatory response, others

(Kelly P., Duffy P., 1997) did not find a consistent effect of season on ovarian
response. To interpret the results of these experiments, it should be borne in mind
that the weather pattern of each season may not be similar year to year and region
to region. Moreover, as it has already been mentioned, many variables are
involved in the superovulatory response and the ability to control all of these
factors is not high. Therefore an accurate evaluation of the effect of seasons is
difficult.
The season can induce paradoxal reactions to the superovulatory treatment,
most through the thermic factor. Because of the high temperatures over the
summer that induce an attenuation of the reproductive function, it is
recommended that the hormonal treatments should not be performed at the time.
The response to the superovulatory treatment can be influenced also by the
atmospheric pressure, in fact there are enough proves that the females are very
much affected by the pressure.
Environment
In a study (Putney et al., 1988) of the effects of elevated ambient
temperature on embryonic development, it was shown that thermal stress in
superovulated heifers between days 1 to 7 after insemination resulted in the
recovery of a higher number of abnormal and retarded embryos as compared to
the number of abnormal embryos recovered from heifers maintained in a thermo
neutral environment. Results reported from a recent study (Kafi, M., Mc Gowan,
M.R., 1997) indicated that heat stress may also alter follicular development and
dominance in cyclic lactating Holstein cows.
The direct adverse effects of heat stress on steroidogenesis and follicular
development implies that the process of oocyte maturation could also be affected.
This may partly explain the recovery of higher numbers of low quality embryos
from superovulated cattle exposed to conditions of high environmental
temperature and humidity. A study of the superovulatory response of Holstein
cattle demonstrated that effective cooling of cows during the hot summer months
resulted in only a slightly lower proportion of cows with multiple corpora lutea at
the time of embryo collection compared with the proportion found in the winter
months. Transportation stress during the period of gonadotrophin treatment may
also adversely affect the superovulatory response of cattle.
Nutrition
Specific research on the impact of nutrition on the superovulatory response
of cattle is limited. Much of the available information regarding the role of
nutrition on reproductive function is the result of research on the impact of
nutrition on the fertility of normal cyclic females. However, it seems reasonable
to assume that the relationship between the effects of nutrition on fertility of
single ovulating cattle is applicable to superovulated cattle. Inadequate nutrition
impairs reproductive function in most mammals. The adverse effects of
underfeeding on the reproductive performance of cattle may be due to hormonal
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disturbance at the level of the ovary, anterior pituitary gland and/or hypothalamus
(Şara, A., 2001). Collectively, it can be concluded that under nutrition can disturb
pulsatile LH secretion and this may disturb follicular development to the pre-
ovulatory stage. Murphy et al. (1991) demonstrated that low dietary energy intake
reduces the maximum diameter of the dominant follicle and shortens its
persistence on the ovary.
Şara (2001) gave some indications concerning the optimally ration for
preparation of the heifers for superovulation. For this purpose the succulent
forages with high acidity must be eliminated. There have to be introduced hay of
good quality (4-5 kg for a day), roots (between 5 and 10 kg a day), concentrate
forage (roaring corn, 1-1,5 kg a day), protein-vitamino-mineral supplement (0,5-
0,7 kg a day), minerals.
Subclinical infections
Very little information is available regarding the possible adverse effects of
sub clinical infectious disease on the superovulatory response of cattle. Diseases
of concern include bovine pest virus infection and infectious bovine
rhinotracheitis virus infection. Pest virus infection is common in cattle
populations around the world. Over 90% of pest virus infections are unapparent.
The impact of pest virus infection on the early reproductive performance of cattle
was reviewed by McGowan and Kirkland (1995). The inadvertent introduction of
an animal persistently infected with pest virus, around the time of AI, could result
in a significant reduction in herd productivity (McGowan et al., 1993; Kirkland et
al., 1990). Recently, in a series of experimental studies (Kafi et al., 1994), it was
observed that the superovulatory response of Friesian heifers infected with bovine
pest virus around the time of AI was significantly poorer than the response of
non-infected heifers. The number of palpable corpora lutea and ova/embryo
recovered was significantly lower in the pest virus infected heifers.
Ultrasonographic monitoring around the time of AI demonstrated a significantly
lower rate of ovulation in the pest virus infected heifers (Kafi et al., 1996). As we
shown at the beginning of this paper we cannot expect a good hormonal response
from an animal which have health problems.
Lactation
During early lactation, disparity between dietary energy intake and the
energy requirements for milk production results in a negative energy balance.
This condition is metabolically similar to under nutrition and seems to cause a
disturbance in pulsatile secretion of LH. This may result from a suppression of the
increase in LH pulse frequency which is necessary for growth of ovarian follicles
to the preovulatory stage. Ovarian follicles initiate growth and differentiation 40-
60 d before they reach mature size and ovulate. Therefore, it has been speculated
that the quality of follicles destined to ovulate may depend on the nutritional or
environmental conditions under which those follicles have developed many weeks
before ovulation.
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Repeated superovulation
The traditional view amongst some embryo transfer practitioners is that
there is a reduction in superovulatory response if successive treatments are
attempted. However, there is increasing evidence indicating a non significant
reduction in ovarian responsiveness following repeated superovulation with FSH-
P preparations. Kanitz, W. et al. (2003) reported that the repeatability of
superovulation results was low and concluded that accurate selection of
satisfactory responding donors was not possible even after repeated flushings.
Research to estimate repeatabilities and heritabilities of superovulatory response
are scarce.
Variation caused by impurity of gonadotrophin preparations
There is considerable variability in the follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
and LH activity of available gonadotrophin preparations (Kanitz, W. et al., 2003).
They suggested that embryo quality may be detrimentally affected by using
gonadotrophin products with high LH contamination. Selk G. (2002) using an in-
vitro biological response assay, showed that the FSH:LH ratio in one FSH-P
product varied over a 20-fold range among different batches. Interestingly, they
found no differences in superovulatory response and embryo production among
five different batches of FSH-P products when they were used in the field. It was
proposed that individual animals and their environment had more influence on
superovulatory response than variation in the FSH:LH ratio.
A series of studies showed that LH contamination of gonadotrophin
products had a deleterious effect on the superovulatory response of cattle
(primarily a reduction in fertilization rate). They also observed that removal of
LH from FSH products enhanced the number of transferable quality embryos
recovered. Resumption of meiosis in the oocyte at an inappropriate time,
premature luteinization of follicles and down-regulation of LH receptors on theta
and/or granulosa cells are thought to be responsible for the poor quality of
recovered embryos from animals treated with gonadotrophin preparations
contaminated with LH. When immature rats underwent superovulation with a
FSH-P preparation containing a low level of LH, a superior superovulatory
response in terms of normal oocytes or embryos was achieved.
There are also other factors like the abnormalities of follicular
development and oocyte maturation, male presence etc. which are less important
but not to forget.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Colleau, J.J. et al. (1998) – Les biotechnologies de la reproduction chez les bovines et leurs
applications reelles ou potentielles en selection INRA Prod. Anim., 11 (1), 41-56;
2. Dalton J.C., Saacke R.G. (2000) – The effect of time of artificial insemination on fertilization
status and embryo quality in superovulated cows, J. Anim. Sci. 78, 2081–2085;
3. Grimes, J. F. (2000) – Utilization of Embryo Transfer in Beef Cattle, Agriculture and Natural
Resources, Highland County Extension Agent;
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BACK
4. Kafi, M., Mc Gowan, M.R. (1997) – Factors associated with variation in the superovulatory
response of cattle Science elsevier animal reproduction science 48: 137- 157;
5. Kanitz, W. et al. (2003) – Superovulation in cattle: practical aspects of gonadotropin treatment
and insemination, Reprod. Nutr. Dev. 42. 587–599 587 INRA, EDP Sciences;
6. Kelly P., Duffy P. (1997) – Superovulation in cattle, Anim. Reprod. Sci. 46 (1997) 1–14;
7. Ladoşi, I. (1999) – Embriotehnologie animală, Editura Victor Melenti, Cluj-Napoca;
8. Mapletoft, R. et al. (2003) – Recent advances in the superovulation in cattle, Reprod. Nutr. Dev.
42, 601–611;
9. Selk G. (2002) – Embryo Transfer In Cattle, Cooperative Extension Service, Division of
Agriculture, Oklahoma State University, OSU Extension Animal Reproduction Specialist;
10. Şara, A. (2001) – Alimentaţia animalelor de reproducţie, Editura Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca;
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THE OVARIAN RESPONSE TO THE SUPEROVULATORY

TREATMENT IN CATTLE FROM BĂLŢATĂ
ROMÂNEASCĂ BREED
P. COROI, L. SASCA
The embryo-transfer represents a topical reproduction biotechnic which

follow the obtaining of more concepts from the animals with high value from the
genetic and economical point of view. In cattle is considered that the number of
gestations on every individual can rise up to 10 times through embryo-transfer.
The most important stage of embryo-transfer is represented by the
superovulatory treatment which determines the main morpho-functional
alterations on the ovary. The present paper has followed the different factors
which affect the ovary response to the superovulatory treatment. The study was
performed on 5 cattle group from Bălţată Românească breed. Consecutively to
the treatment there was obtained an average number of 21,6 corpus lutea.
Variability in the superovulatory response of cattle is still one of the

major limiting factors in extensive usage of embryo transfer technology. The
development of techniques such as transrectal ultrasonography, have enabled a re-
evaluation of ovarian dynamics during superovulation of cattle and a better
understanding of the ovarian phisiology. This paper wants to describe the ovary
response of the cows from Bălţată Românească breed, raised in the conditions of
S.C.D.P. Jucu farm, Cluj County, to the superovulatory treatment performed on
the base of PMSG (pregnant mare serum gonadotrophin).

Animals
As an experimental group there were used five cows from the Bălţată
Românească breed derived from the S.C.D.P. Jucu farm, Cluj County. The
animals have an age average of 5 years, 500 ± 20 kg in weight and 2,2 calvings.
All cows had healthy body and reproductive trait conditions. They were kept in tie
stalls on short bedding and the estrus examination was performed once a day
through transrectal analyze.
Hormones
There were used: Folligon (pregnant mare serum gonadotrophin –
PMSG), Chorulon (human chorionic gonadotrophin – HCG) and Prosolvin
(prostaglandin F2α – PGF2α) from Intervet International BV (Boxmeer –
Holland). There were also used injections with xilin 2% to avoid to much
contractions and for a easy use of the ultrasonographic device and catheter at the
embryo retrieving.
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Superovulatory treatment
The superovulatory treatment was performed on known estrus cycle and
consisted of the injection of Folligon (5 UI / kg body weight) (it is well known
that PMSG has a long period of metabolism of about 5 to 7 days; that’s why the
injection of Folligon was performed once), followed after 48 hours by the
injection of Prosolvin. At the time of the first artificial insemination was
performed an injection of 2500 UI Chorulon (5 UI / kg body weight). The
treatment is presented in the following table:
The scheme of the superovulatory treatment

Table 1
The moment of the treatment Treatment
Day 0, 8 o’clock Estrus
Day 10, 8 o’clock 5UI Folligon (Intervet – Canada)/ kg body
weight (intramuscular injected)
Day 12, 8 o’clock 30 mg PGF2α (intramuscular injected)
st
Day 12, 20 o’clock 1 artificial insemination (A.I.) + 2500 UI
Chorulon (and the 2nd A.I. after 12 hours)
(intramuscular injected)
Day 19, 8 o’clock Ovary analysis and embryo retrieving

Following the hormonal treatment performed, there was found a perfect
uniformity concerning the estrus display at the all animals taken in this study.
Thus, at 48 hours after the injection with prostaglandin F2α, we’ve noticed the
estrus display and we have performed the first artificial insemination. The second
artificial insemination was made 12 hours later, and after that, at day 7 after the
estrus there were retrieved the embryos using a Foley catheter with 2 ways.
Unfortunately, because of some procedure problems, the number of embryos
retrieved was too low; therefore we could not interpret the correct percent of
transferable embryos from the total.
Following the superovulatory treatment the animals have presented a
relative constant response with an average of the corpus lutea number of 21.6.
After the statistical analysis, based on “t” test (Student), there were observed very
significantly differences by comparing to the normal number of ovulations in
cattle and insignificant differences by comparing to the average number of corpus
lutea observed on the ovaries from the all five animals studied.
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Figure 1. Variation of the corpus lutea number related to the average
There are many factors which influence the response of the ovaries to the
superovulatory treatment. They can be divided in two categories: internal and
external factors. From the internal factors, the age of animals has shown that
animals with almost the same age, physiologic status and health condition react
very much the same to the superovulatory treatment.
The environment factors were, for the whole period of preparation and
treatment, the same for all the animals with temperatures varying from 14 to 22°C
inside the shelter with an average of 17.5°C. The relative humidity was in average
of 65%. The alimentation was performed with a ration of 15% fiber forage, 84%
succulent forage and 1% concentrates.
Concerning the hormonal treatment, the hormone type and hormonal
combination used can have a major impact on the ovary. We’ve used Folligon
(PMSG) because of its slow metabolism which allows a single injection to induce
the superovulatory response. The cost is also lower than that of other hormonal
products used for superovulation. Of course, there are some advantages like that
presented above but the major problem of the PMSG is the low quality of the
embryos retrieved and the low percent of transferable embryos from the total.
The animals showed a good response of the ovaries from all animals to
the PMSG treatment. The embryos retrieved were of good quality but like we said
above there were too few.
One of the external factors was the presence of a bull near the animals
studied. It can have a positive influence on the ovarian response to the hormonal
treatment because there are some works related which shows the influence of the
pheromones between the two sexes, but the evaluation of this factor remains still
in shadow.
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
The stage of the ovarian follicles at the begining of the treatment
represent the most important source of variability of the response of the ovary to
the superovulatory treatment in cattle. We recommend the injection of PMSG
(Folligon) in the 10th day of the estrus cycle for an optimal response.
The animals with almost the same age, physiologic status and health
condition react very much the same to the superovulatory treatment. The results
obtained shown a relative constant response.
There are many advantages of using PMSG for superovulatory treatments
but concerning the whole embryo-transfer programme we have to understand that
it has a negative effect on the quality of the retrieved embryos; thus may affect the
percent of transferable embryos.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Kanitz, W. et al. (2003) – Superovulation in cattle: practical aspects of gonadotropin treatment
and insemination, Reprod. Nutr. Dev. 42. 587–599 587 INRA, EDP Sciences;
2. Mapletoft, R. et al. (2003) – Recent advances in the superovulation in cattle, Reprod. Nutr. Dev.
42, 601–611;
3. Selk G. (2002) – Embryo Transfer In Cattle, Cooperative Extension Service, Division of
Agriculture, Oklahoma State University, OSU Extension Animal Reproduction Specialist;
4. Ushinohama K., et al. (1998) – Ultrasonographic Observation of Individual Follicular
Development in Japanese Black cows Superovulated with FSH, Journal of Reproduction and
Development, vol. 44, No. 3.
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BACK
IMPROVEMENT OF PRODUCTION LEVEL IN AN OLD

HUNGARIAN SWINE VARIETY CROSSING BY PIETRAIN
BOAR
ISTVÁN, FORGÓ, LÁSZLÓ, TÉCSY, ISTVÁN, BESSENYEI, MIHÁLY,

SZABÓ, ISTVÁN, GYÖRKÖS, GUSZTÁV, VATTAMÁNY
The old Hungarian Mangalica breed does not meet the today’s
requirements totally therefore our pig stock improvement was intended by
crossings. Using Pietrain boars the meat performance and quality increased in
the filial generation. The lard proportion decreased with 12.59 % and the
proportion of valuable meat parts increased with 8.36 % due to the crossing.
According to our experiences vitality of piglets and piglets number are also
increased. The meat of the crossed individuals is suitable for manufacturing high
quality cured meat product against the higher meat performance and lower fat
production.
INTRODUCTION
Mangalica is an ancient Hungarian lard-type pig having low fecundity and meat
performance. However, its favourable characteristics such as fat quality,
marbelized meat and excellent flavour and taste account for its utilization in wider
range. Our purpose was to improve the mentioned characteristics by crossing and
to present a suggestion for practical utilization of crossings based on our results
comparing them with that of purebred stock. Mangalica meat is suitable for
making cured meat products and other hungaricums. As a result of the crossings
increasing in meat amount and small decreasing in fat production (including
intramuscular fat) not influencing the meat processing were expected.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Experiments were carried out in pig-farm of College of Nyíregyháza and in
Fattening Examining Station, Keszthely on mangalica, Hungarian Large White
and Pietrain varieties. We aimed to improve the daily weight gain, carcass quality
and feed conversion rate, and to decrease the lard ratio in order to facilitate the
sales of Mangalica porkers.
Our investigations bear on the following parameters: market day, net weight gain,
feed consumption, lard ratio, proportion of valuable meat parts. Piglets were
raised in pig-farm of the Training Farm of the College of Nyíregyháza for 80
days. The further fattening (from 80 day to 105 kg weight), slaughtering and
carcass classification were executed in the Fattening Examining Station,
Keszthely.
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Swine’s were fed from self feeder ad libitum by granulated complete feed
containing 12,33 MJ/kg ME and 18,61% crude protein. Pig houses were
climatized. Tipped self waterer was applied and the animals were kept in
individual boxes on self-slatted floor. Feed consumption and body weight were
measured in every ten days (Deák, 2003).

Introduction of the examined pig varieties
Mangalica (picture 1): Development of Hungarian Mangalica breed started in

1833 when Sumadia hogs were imported from Serbia. Mangalica was developed
through substitutional crossing of the domestic ’Bakonyi’ and ’Szalonati’ breeds
with Sumadia hogs, breeding selection and reasonable feeding. This new breed
overpass the ’Balkan’ breeds in conformation and endogenous characteristics.
The dense and long fur is curly in winter, more tender, shorter and straight in
summer, and its colour is vary from grey to yellowish red depending on the soil
conditions. The skin of Mangalica is covered by thin grey layer which could be
totally removed after dehairing. The rim of nose, eyelids, hoofs and openings of
the body have black colour. The head is medium long and slightly curved in
profile. The ears are medium large and leaning forward. The back is medium long
and slightly curved.
The croup is firm and inclined towards hindquarters. Abdomen is firm having 5
tits on it both side. The trunk is medium long, the skeleton is strong. Toughness,
plainness and high fat production belongs to Its favourable characteristics.
It also has undisireable characteristics need to be improved to maintain this breed
for example low fertility of 5-8 piglets, slowly development and smaller body.
One day old Mangalica piglets weigh 0.8-1 kg per each, litter weight at partus is
6-10 kg.
Fast fattening results 130-150 kg individual slaughtering weight by the end of the
10th-12th month. It means 500-550 average daily weight gain and 55-60% lard
proportion. (Horn, 2000; www.mangalica.com).
Pietrain (picture 2): It is a hog of Belgian origin which was developed in 1919-
1920. However, it was registered as an individual breed in 1953.
Its colour is grey or white with pigmented spots on it. Colour of the fur is white.
The head is short, small, the forehead is wide. Ears are short, erected, leaning
forward. The back, foreleg and hindquarters are extremely muscled.
Due to breeding work of Danish and German experts its stress and environment
tolerance improved, remarkable. Reproductive performance is medium or weak,
fattening performance is medium. Slaughtering value in respect of meat
proportion is extraordinary but its quality is bad showing PSE properties.
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In crossings and in hybridization the petrain always paternal partner, often

paternal grandfather, in some hybrids maternal grandmother or terminal boar
(Kovács, 1984; Magyar Állattenyésztési Adatbázis).
Crossing results
Since Hungarian Landrace x Mangalica and Hungarian Large White x Mangalica
crossings did not yield a result, other crossing partner was applied. The initiated
Pietrain x Mangalica individuals were born in February 2000 (see in picture 3).
Source: self-made picture Source: www.ulg.ac.be/fmv/rehal/pietrain.jpg

Picture 1. Blond mangalica gilt Picture 2. Pietrain boar
Source: self-made picture

Picture 3. Pietrain x Blond Mangalica piglets
Pietrain x Blond Mangalica porkers (see in picture 4) outwardly reflect the

Mangalica influence while effect of Pietrain on slaughtering parameters was
meaningful.
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Picture 4. Pietrain x Blond Mangalica porker
Results of the post mortem carcass classification are shown in Table 1. To

compare the crossing results average data of the breeds are considered as a
reference.
Table 1
The data of the investigated varieties and crossings
Age Net weight Feed Lard Valuable Lean SEUROP
(days) gain conversion proportion meat meat
(g/day) ratio (g/kg) (%) parts (%)
(%)
Mangalica* 291 274 4020 52.2 30.1 - -
Pietrain** 183 457 2790 22.8 54 58.8 E
Pietrain x 171 498 3197 40.2 35.8 45.1 R
Blond 180 464 3212 39 38.4 46.9 R
Mangalica
178 461 3146 43.5 37.1 46.4 R
199 431 3121 35.7 41 49.9 R
196 417 3013 38.3 41.9 45.8 R
189 436 3101 42.6 35.6 44.9 O
187 459 3579 42.1 35.7 44.2 O
194 434 3304 36.6 41.1 48.8 R
178 475 3136 43.5 36.9 46.5 R
199 430 3088 34.6 41.1 49.7 R
average 187.1 450.5 3189.7 39.61 38.46 46,82 R
* results of small group examination, 1986
** results of central performance testing, OMMI, 2000
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According to Table 1 important fattening and meat performance figures improved

remarkable. As a result of the crossing the net weight gain increased with 64.4 %
and the feed conversion ratio decreased from 4 kg to 3.2 kg. Lard proportion
important for marketing and meat processing view was decreased with 12.59 %,
and proportion of valuable meat parts was increased with 8.36 % in the crossed
stock. Seeing that Mangalica is a fat-type pig it could not classable into the
SEUROP meat qualification system. The individuals of the filial generation are
qualifyable and they divide into the R category (46.82% lean meat proportion).
The results show that the meat performance figures of the crossing stock are
greatly improved, and the produced meat is suitable for meat processing (ham,
sausages) due to its higher intramuscular fat contant than in case of Hungarian
Large White and Pietrain. Fat content of the meat increased lard proportion and
back fat thickness decreased. Carcass is shown in Picture 5. Dressing proportion
was increased by using Pietrain in crossings and meat quality remained suitable
for preparing traditional Hungarian meat products to meat the domestic market
demands. Slaughtering piglets from the crossed stock show notably better meat
forms comparing with pure-bred Mangalica. Investigations were made in Hungary
with crossing duroc x mangalica by making ham (Horn, 2000).
It could be concluded that utility of Mangalica improved through the
aforementioned crossing. The fertility and nursing ability increased with 1-1.5
piglets/sow oppose purebred stock. Piglets’ vitality became better and they need
less medicine. Gene conservation of Mangalica is parallel with the requirement in
Hungary. However, in gene reserves stocks the purebred sows should not be
mated by Mangalica if more purebred individuals are not needed. In this case
mates could ham be executed by Pietrain boars resulting more marketable
slaughtering pig. By this way, maintenance costs of nucleus stock would decrease
due to the larger scale porker selling. We took suitable crossing mangalica with
other species, because of examining the combination ability. As crossings with
Hunagrian Large White, Hungarian Landrace and Hungahib 39 boars did not
show such a combining ability like Pietrain x Mangalica other characteristics of
those were not examined.
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Picture 5. Pietrain x Blond Mangalica carcass
CONCLUSIONS
We took the next findings under the survey:
− as a result of Pietrain x Blond Mangalica crossing net weight gain increased
with 64.4 % in compare to the standard mangalica
− feed conversion ratio was decreased with 20.6 %
− lard ratio important for trade and meat processing was lower with 12.59 %,
and proportion of valuable meat parts was higher with 8.36 % in the
crossing stock
− the meat suitable for manufacture meat products of excellent quality as
hungaricum – ham, sausages – due to the higher intramuscular fat content
− practical suitability of the Pietrain x Blond Mangalica increased through the
improved fertility and nursering ability, piglets vitality.
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BACK
REFERENCES
DEÁK, T., 2003. Különböző fajtájú hízósertések növekedési ritmus jellemzőinek elemzése. Doktori
(Ph.D.) értekezés tézisei. Keszthely. pp. 21.
HORN, P., (Ed.) 2000. Állattenyésztés 3. Sertés, nyúl, prémes állatok, hal. Mezőgazda Kiadó,
Budapest. pp. 54-88. (Book in Hungarian)
KOVÁCS, F., (Ed.) 1984. Sertéstenyésztők kézikönyve. Mezőgazdasági Kiadó, Budapest. pp. 623.
(Book in Hungarian)
MAGYAR ÁLLATTENYÉSZTÉSI ADATBÁZIS
http://www.agr.unideb.hu/animaldb/sertes/index.htm
OMMI, 2000. A sertéstenyésztés 1999. évi eredményei. OMMI, Budapest. pp. 135.
www.mangalica.com
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BACK
MARKER ASSISTED SELECTION (MAS) FOR TRAITS

CONCERNING MILK QUANTITY AND QUALITY IN
ROMANIAN SIMMENTAL CATTLE
Viorica COŞIER, A. VLAIC, S. DĂRĂBAN, T. OROIAN, V. CIGHI
Pit-1 has been identified as a pituitary-specific transcription factor that

regulated the expression of growth hormone (GH) and prolactin (PRL) genes in
the anterior pituitary gland (Tuggle and Trenkle, 1996). Using molecular
markers, number and position of valuable alleles for some quantitative loci can
be identified. Pit 1 gene have been shown to be involved in milk yield/quality
(protein, fat content) in cattle. The polymorphism at Pit-1 locus was studied
according to Moody & al., 1995, using PCR/RFLP for amplification of a 1355 pb
fragment, corresponding to an intron of 1.1 kb flanked by exons 5 and 6.
INTRODUCTION
The pituitary transcription factor (Pit-1) is the cellular specific
transcription factor for activating expression of the prolactin, thyrotropin, and GH
genes in the anterior pituitary gland (Tuggle & Trenkle, 1996). Bovine Pit-1 is a
291 amino acid protein with DNA-binding POU domain. This gene is another
candidate for milk production marker because of its role in regulating expression
of bGH and the prolactin genes. The bovine Pit1 gene was located in centromeric
region of chromosome 1 in bovine, between TGLA57 and RM95 loci. This
location creates a chain transmission of the following group of genes: TGLA49-
RM95-PIT1-TGLA57 (Moody et al., 1995). The primers used for localization of
gene on bovine chromosome 1 were made up according to structure of human
Pit1 gene, located on chromosome 4. The region between exones 5 and 6 of Pit1
gene was used for design of primers flanking an intron of about 1.1 kb.
Milk protein polymorphism have been studied intensively because of their
effect on the yield and processing properties of milk and its products. k-casein
constitutes about 25% of the casein fraction of milk. The B variant of k-casein is
associated with an increase in milk protein and fat contents as well as cheese
production (Van Eenennaam and Medrano, 1991).
The polymorphism at Pit1 locus was studied in several cattle breeds, where
gene frequency was calculate, and associations of milk yield and composition and
with some conformation traits were performed (Renaville et al., 1997). The allele A
was associated to a superior milk production and a higher protein quantity in milk.
The effects of substitution within Pit1 and k-casein, alone or in combination, were
studied by Arysta Life Science Society, in Belgium, in collaboration to Semex –
Alliance from Canada (2000) on several breeds:
- bulls of breeds/number of individuals: Holstein (Italy)/89, Simmental
(Italy)/148, Holstein (Canada)/1100; Blanc – Bleu – Belge/(Belgium)350
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- cows: Holstein (USA)/255, Holstein (France)/202, Holstein (Italy)/230.

It has been demonstrated that allele B of k-casein is associated to a higher
protein, casein and k-casein content, which advantages cheese, and allele A of
Pit1 gene with a higher protein content and a higher milk production.
The frequencies of allele A and B and frequency of the three genotypes at
Pit1 locus were:
- Holstein bulls (Italy) - A=17.9; B=82.1 (AA=2.2; AB=31.5 and
BB=66.3)
- Simmental bulls (Italy): A=11.7 and B=88.3 (AA=2.3; AB=18.8 and
BB= 78.9)
- Holstein bulls (Canada): A=31.4 and B=68.4 (AA=9.8; AB=43.5 and
BB=46.7)
- Blanc-Bleu-Belge bulls: A= 42.2 and B=57.8 (AA=20; AB=44.5 and
BB=35.5)
- Holstein cows (USA): A= 16.3 and B=83.7 (AA=2.4; AB=27.8 and
BB=69.8)
- Holstein cows (France): A=17.8 and B=82.2 (AA=2; AB=31.7 and
BB=66.3)
- Holstein cows (Italy): A=17.8 and B=82.2 (AA=3.5; AB= 28.7 and BB
= 67.8)

The polymorphism at Pit-1 locus was studied according to Moody & al.,
1995, using PCR/RFLP for amplification of a 1355 pb fragment, corresponding to
an intron of 1.1 kb flanked by exons 5 and 6. The 18 base (forward and reverse)
primers were used, and PCR products were submitted to restriction reaction using
HinfI enzyme. The sites for restriction enzyme are shown in Figure 2.
Genomic DNA of 76 registered Romanian Spotted cattle from two local
farms from Transylvania (SCDP Jucu & Basto srl) was extracted from blood
using Wizard®DNA Purification kit (Promega).
The PCR was optimized for 25 µl final volume using 50 ng genomic
DNA, 200µM each dNTP, 25 mM MgCl2; 10 pmol of each primer (forward and
reverse), 5x Green Go Taq Reaction buffer, 0.5 U of GoTaq DNA Polymerase
(Promega). Primer sequences (Microsynth) were: 5’ primer 5’-CAA TGA GAA
AGT TGG TGC-3’; and 3’ primer – 5’-TCT GCA TTC GAG ATG CTC-3’.
Thermal cycling began with an initial cycle of 95oC for 2 minutes, 55oC for 1 min
and 72oC for 2 minutes followed by 29 cycles of 1 minute at 94,55 and 72oC, and
concluded with a final extension for 12 minutes. The amplification reaction
resulted in a single product of 1.35 kb (Fig.1). Polymerase chain reaction products
were digested with HinfI (37oC for 2 hours) and electrophoresed on 3% agarose
gels in TBE buffer, stained with etidium bromide. The molecular weight marker
used was 100 pb DNA ladder (Promega).
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The digestion products of Pit-1 gene correspond to the following

genotypes: AA (660, 425 and 270 pb), AB (660, 425, 385 and 270 pb) and BB
(660, 385 and 270 pb) (Fig.1)
Figure 1 HinfI polymorphism between exon 5 and 6 of Pit-1 gene in Romanian spotted
cattle. The genotypes of the different animals are shown at the top of each lane (BB, AB
and BB). Sizes are indicated in pb on the right site. The small 40 pb fragment of allele B
is not visible in the gel.
Description of polymorphism
Digestion of PCR products with HinfI revealed two alleles corresponding

to the following genotypes: AA (660, 425 and 270 pb), AB (660, 425, 385 and
270 pb) and BB (660, 385 and 270 pb). Allele frequencies: The frequency of
allele A was 0,22 and 0,78 for allele B respectively. These alleles generated three
patterns, and frequencies were: 0,118 for AA,; 0,197 for AB and 0,685 for BB
genotype.The A allele was found to be superior for milk and protein yields,
inferior for fat percentage, and superior for body depth, angularity and rear leg set
(Renaville et al., 1997; Zwierzckowski et. al, 2002; Zhao, Q. et al, 2004;).
CONCLUSION
The existence of associations between detected polymorphism and traits
concerning quantity and quality of milk production could have as consequence the
development of a new molecular marker for genuine breeds, which I intend to
develop in further studies.
The techniques based on obtaining molecular markers have limits and
constraints connected to relevant polymorphism, rapidity, reproductibility, and
also huge costs for some of them. PCR-RFLP is a more rapid and simple
technique compared to others. Because RFLP markers are codominat transmitted,
not environmental sensitive, and PCR-RFLP is a technique with high
reproductibility, are advantages which recommend this technique to be used for
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BACK
genotypisation. The costs need to implement this technique are lower compared to
those need for majority of molecular biology techniques which emphasize a single
nucleotide polymorphism in majority of cases.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Moody, D.E., Pomp, D., Barendse, W., 1995, Restriction fragment length
polymorphism in amplification products of the bovine Pit-1 gene and assigment of Pit-1 to bovine
chromosome 1, Animal Genetics, 26, 45-47.
2. Renaville, R., Gengler, N., Vrech, E., Prandi, A., Massart, S., Corradini, C., Bertozzi
C., Mortiaux, F., Burny, A., Portetelle, D.(1997): Pit-1gene polymorphism, milk yield, and
conformation traits for Italian Holstein Friesian bulls. Journal of Dairy Science, 80, 3431-3438.
3. Tuglle, C.K., Trenkle, A. (1996). Control of growth hormone synthesis. Domestic
Animal Endocrinology,13,11-33.
4 Zhao,Q., Davis, M.E., Hines. H.C. (2004): Asociation of Polymorphism in the Pit-1
Gene with Growth and Carcass Traits in Angus Beef Cattle. J. Anim. Science,82, 2229-22336.
5. Zwierzckowski, L., Krzyzewski, J., Nina, Strzalkowska, Eulalia Siadkowska, Zofia
Rywiewicz, 2002, Effect of Polymorphism of growth hormone (GH), Pit-1, and Leptine (LEP) genes
cow’s age, lactation stage and somatic cell count on milk yield and composition of Polish Black and
White cows., Anim Sci Pap and Report, vol 20, no. 4, 217-227
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BACK
PARAMETERS OF THE PROGRAM FOR GENETICAL

AMELIORATION AND MANAGEMNT OF CAWS FROM
BROWN SWISS BREED, IN MOLDOVA REGION
2005-2010
Margareta MIHĂILESCU, I. NISTOR,V. UJICĂ
V. MACIUC, Rodica DĂNĂILĂ
Knowing the genetical structure of the brown Swiss caw population in

Moldova region, as well as the phenotipical and genetical parameters of the main
selection characteristics, the amelioration value of the breeders and of the main
factors which determine the amelioration of a caw population, the authors
developed a draft for a program regarding the zonal amelioration of the breed by
combining the management of the amelioration factors with the plan of selection
via macthing management, and the technological factors of the cattle husbandry.
For the cattle population from Moldova region, research has been
carried out by our group of specialists and the data needed for elaborating a
draft of a program for long term amelioration of the cattles from the small as
well as big farmers, individually or associated with this purpose.
The utilized mothod was based on the identification of the sources for
genetical progress, and the measurement of the genetical progress indiced by
these methods.
¾ Genetical progress determined by the bulls udes for reproduction. 82 bulls
(15 local and 67 imported) were used; their geneticalcontribution,per generation,
was estimated to be 427,77 kg of milk for the local ones, and 562,22 kg for the
imported ones. The genetical gain would be 494,94 kg of milk.
¾ Genetical progress determined by the selection of the first-birth-caws.
Starting from a natality percentage of 85 %, a reform percentage of 15 % for
the young femmels and 20-25 % for the adult caws, and considering the
selection intesity and the difference in selection.agenetical progress of 98,00
kg of milk was reached.
¾ Genetical progress determined by selective reform.Progresul genetic
indus în populaţie prin reforma selectivă. The analyzedparameters were: the
percentage of selective reform (12%), the repeatability coeficient (0,546) and
the average milk production for the selected caws, thus reaching a genetical
progress of 124,48 kg of milk.
Thhe sum of the three sources gives a totalprogress of 717,42 kgmilk.
The authors estimate that this performance could be reached by
2010, if the rpogram for the zonal management had been implemented and
followedfor the brown Swiss caws.
1. The parameters for the technical program of brown Swiss breed

amelioration in Moldova region during 2005-2010 period, refer to:
9 Determining the morpho-productive, reproduction and genetical
parameters of active population in the elite groups, for first-birth-caws and
for the retired caws;
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9 Amelioration value of the bulls used for reproduction;

9 Needed reproductors and selected effectives of reproductors;
9 Determining the sources for genetical progress and the size of the progress
induced into the population;
9 Determining the genetical potential of the potential in the year progreamed
for the reaching of the desired type.
Reaching the increment in the number of animals and of the
productivity will be possible through the management of the genetical
amelioration towards the following objectives:
9 The amelioration of the genetical potential, both for the milk production, as
well as for meat production, until reaching the preset mixed type (see table 1);
9 The progressive replacement of the existing caw population (14-20%
reform of the young caws) regarding the genetical background, towards the
production of milk and meat, simultanous with the improvement of the
vitality,longevity, strenght and resistance, as well as the reproduction
factors (85% natality);
9 Improvement of the breast caracteristics for mechanical milking, stressing the
volume, functional simetry, milking speed and uniformity of the mammelons;
9 Improvement of the physical caracteristics and the precocity towards milk and
meat production (the first-birth age to be 29-30 months, combined with a milk
production of at least 70% of the maximal production; as well, towards the
meat production (semi-intensive fattening for obtaining a medium-unit, with
the harvest at 15-16 months and a minimum weight of 400 kg;
9 Optimizing the feeding for the net growth of 1 kg in weight (5,8 – 6,2
U.N.C./kg increment), as well as for 1 kg of milk (1 – 1,1 U.N.L./kg milk).
Table 1
Main technical parameters of the program for the amelioration of the brown
Swiss breed at national and Moldova area level
Technical parameters at
level:
National
Specification UM
Zonal
1. Objectives of the selection

Milk % 70,00 70,00
Rate of the caracters in global value Meat % 25,00 25,00
Fittness % 5,00 5,00
Milk kg 4800 4500
% 3,95 4,20
Fat
Average production per lactation kg 190 189
% 3,35 3,40
Proteins
kg 160 153
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Boby weight kg 550-600 580

Withers cm 134-136 135
Height
Rump cm - -
cap 180 000 71 724
Adult and young caws artificially inseminated( IA1 min.)
% 39,00 36,00
cap 6000 5803
Caws under the Official Control of Production (COP)
% 13,00 13,00
Young bulls from nominated selected breedings,
40
introduced in the testing program according with own no 12
(1 din 6 MT)
performances (TPP)
Total no 30 8
Bulls introduced in the testing program
Local no 25 8
according with their offsprings (TD)
Import no 5 -
no 24 000 6400
Capacity ofmilk testing (at 800 IA1 / bull)
% 40,00 60,00
no 30 8
min. 15
Bulls for meat production, introduced in
young / adult no 450 120
the testing program according with their
bull
offsprings (TDC)
eliminated no 5 2
bulls % 16,00 25,00
Bulls for milk production, outlook and fitness, analyzed no 25 6
according to their offsprings for milk (TDL) % 75 75
Bulls succesful at the tests-accepted at artificial no 6(1 out of 5) 2
insemination (IA) % 20,00 25,00
Number of needed caws, mothers of bulls (MT) no 260 72
Caws, candidates to be mothers of bulls (CMT) no Min. 520 144
Bulls, fathers of bulls used for designated breedings
no 8-10 8-10
(local and from import M.S.C.)
Total m.s.c. needed (2 doses / IA1 / pregnancy) out of
doses 360 000 150 752
which:
doses 120 000 50 200
From young bulls under testing, total
% 33.30 33.30
doze 48 000 20 050
In active population (800 x IA1 x 2 doses x no young bulls)
% 13.30 13.30
In the rest of the population (1200 x IA1 x 2 doses x no doses 72 000 30 150
young bulls) % 20.00 20.00
doses 222 000 93 014
From bulls used for insemination
% 61.70 61.70
doses 18 000 7538
Import m.s.c.
% 5.00 5.00
Bulls tested in insemination no 18 8
Annual rate of replacement
% 33.30 33.30
(3 years average utilization period)
Average M.S.C. per year and per utilized bull doses 12 300 12 300
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2. Planned parameters of the amelioration program regarding the

number of needed breeders and the selected animals
For the period 2005-2010, in Moldova region, the following
parameters ought tobe reached for the needed breeders and selected animals
from the brown Swiss caw population:
¾ Number of total core population = 66 677 animals;
¾ Number ofcore population at IA (36%) total = 24 004 animals;
¾ Number of core population at natural breeding (64%) = 42 673 animals;
¾ Number of core population at IA with ameliorating tested bulls
(74%) = 17 763 animals;
¾ Number of core population at IA with m.s.c. from bulls waiting (26%) =
6241 animals;
¾ Number of needed bulls ameliorating tested (10.000 caws/bull)=2 animals;
¾ Number of annual needed young bulls from designated breedings (1/2) =
24 animals;
¾ Number of needed bulls, candidates for descendancy test (1/2) = 12
animals;
¾ Number of annual needed bulls for naturalbreeding (70 caws/bull) =
610 animals;
¾ Number of annual needed caws, mothers of bulls (1/6 MT) total = 72
animals;
¾ Number of annual needed caws for the elite group (mothers x 2) total=144
animals.
3. Setting upof the sources for genetical progress, and the size of the
progress induced through these sources.
The first and the most important source of genetical progress in
cattles amelioration is the stressing the selection via aneliorating bulls.
3.1. The genetical progress induced through the bulls used for
breeding
For the genetical progress induced through the bulls used for
breeding in Moldova region, 82 bulls were used, as follows: 15 local ones and
67 imported ones, from the breeds Brown Swiss, Schwyz şand Brown Austrian.
The analysis of the value of ascendancy of the bulls (local and imported) shows
that:
For the local bulls, the average production of the mothers (M) was
5490,67 kg milk, 3,94% fat and 216,33 kg fat, and that of the grandmothers
after father, (MT) 7229,95 kg milk, 4,1% fat and 296,86 kg fat. The genetical
value of the grandmothers after father was superior to that of the mothers,by
1739,28 kg milk and 80,53 kg fat.
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The imported bulls had an ascendancy with a superior genetical value

compared to that of the local ones. Thus, the mothers (M) of the imported bulls
had an average production of 7042,52 kg milk, 4,05% fat and 282,22 kg fat,
and the grandmathers after father (MT) 7721 kg milk, 3,97% fat and 306,52 kg
fat. The amelioration value (VA) for the imported bulls was 107,79% for TDC
and 112,59% for TDL.
Considering the amelioration value of the breeding bulls inside the
analyzed area, we estimate a genetical increment per generation, cosisting of
427,77 kg milk for local bulls and 562,22 kg milk for imported bulls, or of
494,94 kg milk as a totalgeneticalgain.
Our calculation shows that in the next generation, it is possible to
obtain an average production of 4731 kg milk, as it follows:
9 Value of the mothers (M) used for breeding = 3500 kg milk
9 Value of grandmothers after father (MT) = 11198 kg milk
9 h2 for the milk production in the analyzed population = 0,32
3.2. The genetical progress induced in the cattle population
through the selection of the first-birth-caws
In this case, the steps of the work were:
¾ determining the dynamics of the core population for the period 2005-2010;
¾ determining the dynalics of the natality and reform rpercentage for young
and adult caws;
• 85% natality every year;
• 15% reform from total number of young caws;
• 20-23% annual reform for adult caws;
determining the statistical parameters for the first-birth-caws, for the decision
caracters;
¾ determing the selection intensity and the selection differention in the
standard deviation (s) and in absolute values for the decision caracters;
¾ determining the average selection difference for the first-birth-caws for the
entire period at s = 251 kg milk;
¾ determining the genetical progress induces into the population through the
selction of the firsts-birth-caws:
• ∆g firsts-birth-caws = 0,5 x h2 x s
• ∆g firsts-birth-caws = 0,5 x 0,323 x 608,63 = 98 kg milk (98,29 kg milk)
For accelerating the selection process inside the population, the
choosing of the first-birth-caws will be made after the first 120 days of
lactation. In this respect, the thredshold for the firsts-birth-caws selection was
set up, considering the normal percentual evolution of the milk production for
the brown Swiss breed.
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Table 2
Percentual evolution of the milk production during the lactation at the
brown Swiss breed
VII
VII
III
IV
VI
IX
Months of lactation
II
X
I
I
% from production per
12,6
13,4
12,4
11,5
10,8
10,1
9,3
8,4
6,7
4,2
normal lactation
According to these data, during the first 120 days of lactation,

50,08% of the production is obtained, this is: 3156,42 x 50,08% = 1580,73 kg.
This means that the firsts-birth-caws from brown Swiss breed
fromMoldova region must reach during the first 120 days of lacttaion,an
average production of 1580,73 kg milk or an average daily production of about
13,17 kg (1580,73 : 120 = 13,17 kg milk).
For ensuring the number of programed animals, the selection
thredshold for the firsts-birth-caws, after 120 days of lactastion, willbe
diminished by 10 %; this means that there willbe kept all the firsts-birth-caws
which give 12 kg milk per day or 1440 kg milk in total during the first 120
days of lactation.
3.3. The geneticalprogress induced into the studied population,
though the selective method
For the estimation of the geneticalprogress via the current method in
the brown Swiss population in Moldova region, the following parameters were
considered:
9 percent of selective reform = 12%
9 repeatability coeficient (CR) = 0,546
9 average production of selected caws (Ps) = 3570 kg milk (3342,34 + 0,274
x 830,89 = 3570 kg milk)
Considering these parameters, the geneticalprogress induced into the
population thruogh the selective method will be:
9 ∆g = CR ( Ps – Xp) = 0,546 (3570 – 3342) = 124,48 kg milk.
Finally, considering all the previously mentioned methods, the total
genetical progress induced into the population was calculated by summing
upthe three values of the sources:
¾ ∆g total = ∆g bulls + ∆g firsts-birth-caws + ∆g selective reform;
¾ ∆g total = 494.94 +98 + 124.48 kg = 717.42 kg milk.
In comclusion,for the brown Swiss population of caws in Moldova
region (eight counties),it is possibleto obtain a genetical progress of 717,42 kg
milk per genration, or 130,44 kg milk as annual genetical progress.
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A great number of researchers studied the behaviour and the
productive performances of the brown Swiss breed along the extra-Carpatical
area (Moldova, Muntenia, Oltenia) for more than 50 years. Their conclusions
point out on the great capacity of adaptation, organic resistance, superior
capacity to efficiently process the food into milk and meat, as well as on the
combinative capacity with the Schwyz stem (especially brown Swiss, brown
Austrian and German), with Jersey breed and with breeds from the Friza stem;
also with modern meat breeds Belgin Blue, Charolaise, Piemontese and so on.
Considering the conditions for caws husbandry in Moldova region,
the amelioration level reached so far, as well as the trend in amelioration, the
amelioration system in this area must be based on the following principals:
9 the inducement of the genetical progress into the population by stressing
the selection pressure with ameliorating bulls, the firsts-birth-caws
selection, and by selective reform;
9 the usage of the amelioration system so-called “pure breed”, by practicing
the homozygotical cross-breeding within the same breed (moderate
consangvinization),thus seeking for the strengthening the valuabe
characters, but also the contribution of the breeds from the Schwyz stem,
especially brown Swiss, brună Austrian, brună German and Italian.
By applying the Management program based on real data of the
brown Swiss caws in Moldova,it is possible to reach a total genetical progress
of 717,42 kg milk per generation (by 2010) or 130,44 kg milk annual genetical
progress.
If one considers the average interval between two generation as of 5,5
years, it results that there are needed 0,64 generations, or 3,56 years for the
genetical amelioration of the existing population up to the level of 4500 kg
milk.
This performance can be reached by 2010 if the proposed parameters
will be operated accordingly for the brown Swiss caw population.
For the future development within this sector, the path to be followed
is that of increasing the animal production in relation to the genetical
amelioration and with the general technical progress in the animal husbandry.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bologa, Zinaida, „Contribuţii la studiul longevităţii productive a taurinelor de rasă Brună
din zona de est a ţării”, Teză de doctorat, U.S.A.M., 2004, Iaşi.
2. Constantinescu, G., K., „Tatrat de zootehnie generală”, vol.II, Editura Librăria Academiei,
1938, Bucureşti.
3. Creangă, Şteofil, „Elemente fundamentale ale eredităţii animale”, Editura „Ion Ionescu de
la Brad”, 1999, Iaşi.
4. Dinescu, S., „Ameliorarea genetică a efectivelor de animale”, Revista de Zootehnie şi de
Medicină Veterinară, nr.1/1978, Bucureşti.
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5. Drăgănescu, C., „Ameliorarea animalelor”, Editura Ceres, 1979, Bucureşti.

6. Georgescu, Gh. şi col., „Programe de ameliorare pentru fermele de elită de vaci de lapte”,
1984 –1990, Bucureşti.
7. Pipernea, N., Ujică, V. şi col., „Studiul parametrilor genetici la unele populaţii de taurine
din Moldova”, Lucrări ştiinţifice, vol. 33-34, 1991, USAMV, Iaşi.
8. Pipernea, N., Ujică, V. şi col., „Cercetări fenotipice şi genetice pentru principalele însuşiri
morfoproductive ale populaţiilor de taurine Brună din fermele de elită din Moldova”,
Lucrări ştiinţifice, 1976, I.A. Iaşi.
9. Silistru, V., „Contribuţii privind influienţa rasei Brown Swyss asupra însuşirilor
morfoproductive şi de reproducţie a taurinelor Brună din zona de est a ţării (Moldova)”,
Teză de doctorat, U.S.A.M.V., 1997, Iaşi.
10. Ujică, V., Panfilie, D., Stan, V., „Contribuţii privind studiul caracteristicilor ugerului
pentru mulsul mecanic la vacile din rasa Brună de Maramureş din ferma Dumbrava,
judeţul Neamţ ”, Lucrări ştiinţifice, Seria zootehnie şi medicină – veterinară, nr. 2 / 1972,
I.A. Iaşi.
11. Ujică V., „Rezultate privind creşterea taurinelor Brună de Maramureş în zona Podişului
Central al Moldovei ”, Simpozionul „Creşterea animalelor în zonele de deal şi de munte”,
1974, Universitatea Braşov.
12. Ujică, V. şi col., „Aspecte actuale ale ameliorării taurinelor din zona de est a ţării”,
Simpozin ştiinţific naţional, U.S.A.M.V., 7-8 DECEMBRIE 1995, Iaşi.
13. Ujică, V., Chelmu, S., Nistor, I., Mioara, Marc, Şonea, C., „Evoluţia şi ameliorarea
genetică a taurinelor de rasă Brună din România”, Simpozion „Relansarea zootehniei
româneşti, o certitudine a mileniului III”, U.S.A.M.V., 10-12 decembrie 1998, Iaşi.
14. Velea, C., „Programul Naţional de ameliorare a taurinelor”, Simpozion U.S.A.M.V., 1998,
Cluj Napoca.
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GENETIC MANAGEMENT IN SMALL POPULATIONS
M. GROZA, Gh. HRINCĂ, Elena FECIORU,

I. CHIORESCU, Gh. BRĂDĂŢAN
The paper undertakes the problem of preserving in situ small populations

as answer to the extinction process that more and more species and populations
are undergoing, thus leading to loss of genetic resources, most of them
irretrievable. The solution for preservation proposed in the paper, the method of
mean kinship coefficient, is a new solution. The method offers the great advantage
of selecting the most valuable individuals within the population (from the point of
view of genetic resources preservation): the least related individuals in the
population. Moreover, the paper takes on a method that represents in graphs the
lineage of a population, a method through which one may assess the variance of
family size and the relationships among these families.
There are three major methods used in conservation of farm animal

genetic resources. The first involves conservation of living ova, embryo, semen or
somatic cell stored cryogenically in liquid nitrogen. The second encompasses
preservation of genetic information in form of DNA, stored in frozen samples of
blood or other animal tissue or as DNA segments. The third involves conservation
of living population, i.e. in situ conservation.
There is no single method of preservation which is optimal for all
situations. However, in situ conservation has a number of advantages, and may be
the only option available in some instances. In situ conservation is very flexible in
its application and allows for the development and utilization of breeds (Weiner,
1989). However, because of limited facilities and budget constraints, in situ
conservation may be restricted to a small population. The genetic properties in a
small population change rapidly as generations advance causing two problems
namely, loss of genetic peculiarities and a reduction in genetic variability.
Therefore, it is imperative to use a sustainable conservation program like in situ
that maintain genetic peculiarities and genetic variability of a population.
Genetic peculiarities of a breed usually do not change if the population is
kept as a pure breed. This problem becomes a matter of concern when
crossbreeding is used in order to restore genetic variability. Therefore, the most
important problem in considering in situ conservation is how to keep genetic
variability within the population while maintaining genetic peculiarities without
reducing allelic or genotype frequencies.
Gene diversity or average heterozygosity. The first step in preserving the
genetic diversity is to assess and establish the level of genetic variability. The
genetic diversity or the mean heterozygosis is the best sign of genetic variability
of a population. In randomly-mating populations if the frequency of gene i on
locus xi, the heterozygosity of the locus is calculated using the sum of square
allelic frequencies.
Equation 1
- 211 -
1
h= n
(Nei 1987)
∑x
i =1
i
The mean heterozygosity of a population is defined as the average of all

loci heterozygosity. As we don’t know the genotype of each individual, the
method is just a concept of the ideal value of genetic diversity which has to be
estimated.
Without knowing the genotype of every individual, one of the
possibilities to preserve the genetic diversity would be to preserve the derivate
alleles from the founders’ genes. According to this concept, it is possible to
calculate 2 markers useful in population preservation.
The genetic retention index. The ideal animal will receive equal
contribution from the founders. From this point of view, the value of an animal
will be established by calculating the number of founders in the pedigree,
according to the genetic retention index CGI.
Equation 2
1
CGI = N 2
∑ Pi
i =1
where Pi is the proportion of founder genes i in the pedigree. The CGI may be
used in the selection. Still, it has a serious limitation: it does not take into account
the animals that are not founders but are part of the pedigree.
Genetic contribution variance coefficient. Pi in the previous formula is
the contribution of animal i in the previous generation. A similar idea may be also
applied at population level. The idea is genetic structure retention within the
population. In an ideal genetic structure, each founder will maintain its same
contribution in the population. To emphasize the difference between present
genetic contribution and ideal genetic contribution the CGCV index was
suggested.
Equation 3
h
k
CGCV = 2 x Nm x ∑P
i =1
2
mi + 2 x Nf x ∑P
j =1
2
fj
where Nm and Nf are the number of male or female founders, Pmi and Pfj are
genetic contributions of male founder i or female founder j. CGCV is used to
preserve the structure of the population.
This genetic strategy based on balancing the founders’ alleles has big
disadvantages. The animals that are not representative for the founders’ structure
have many genes from the latter, while the representative animals may have a
- 212 -
much smaller number of founders’ genes. Moreover, it is almost impossible to

balance the genetic contribution of founders. A much better genetic strategy is
based on the concept of mean kinship coefficient. One of the many definitions of
the mean kinship coefficient between two individuals is the following: the mean
kinship coefficient is equal to the inbreeding coefficient of the virtual descendant.
In this definition of the mean kinship coefficient of an individual are included the
kinship coefficients between an individual and the rest of live individuals
irrespective of age and sex (mean means the kinship coefficient between an
individual and itself).
Equation 4
N Fij
mki = ∑N
j =1
(Ballou and Lacy, 1995),
where, N is the number of individuals in a population. The individuals with low

mean kinship coefficient are the most valuable ones in the population (from the
point of view of population retention). The mean kinship coefficient of an
individual is expected to be the inbreeding coefficient of its progeny, if the
individual mated within the population. If we widen this concept, the mean
kinship coefficient of the population is the average of kinship coefficient of all the
possible progeny, if mating is done randomly.
Equation 5
N
mk = ∑ mk
i =1
i
With this equation we may determine the genetic diversity of a population

and we may evaluate the different mating schemes.
Equation 6
GD = 1- mk
A strategy that minimizes the average kinship of a population (the

average of mean kinship coefficient) will maximize the genetic diversity with
favourable consequences over population retention. A basic parameter in
population biology is the number of individuals in a population. But only the
mating individuals are relevant. Whereas not all the individuals are part of the
mating process, the population effective size differs from the number of
individuals. One of the formulas to calculate the population effective size is:
Equation 7
1
Ne =
∆ mk
- 213 -
where Ne is the population effective size and ∆ mk is the average increase on a

generation of the average mean kinship coefficient.
Mating schemes. A feature of modern mating schemes is leaving out the
family in favour of the individual (this is a normal thing since we know the mean
kinship coefficient of the individual in the population).
Graphic representation of population structure. Ubbink (1999) uses
Cluster analysis for the kinship coefficients to obtain the structure of the
population. Using Cluster analysis, the population is separated into family groups
that are more or less related to one another.
Cluster analysis begins by calculating the kinship coefficient of all the
individuals of a population. Then the individuals of a population are grouped
together (and treated as a new individual) until all the individuals are included in
the population structure. The families make up clusters based on kinship
coefficient. The population structure gives information about a mating possibility
that would lead to a decrease of the average mean kinship coefficients and
therefore to an increase in genetic diversity (fig. 1).
Fig. 1 Example of Cluster Analysis method for population structure
- 214 -
Group mating. In the in situ conservation program, since the number of

animals kept in one place is usually limited, the population is sometimes
maintained with divided subpopulations. In this case, it is difficult to carry out
random mating over all subpopulations and it is effective to change males among
the subpopulations instead of overall random mating. Maintenance of animals in
different locations has the additional merit of reducing the risk of accidental loss
of the population
Uniformity of the family size. One of the most efficient techniques to
keep genetic variability is to make the family size as equal as possible. It may
be easy to imagine that the extinction probability of a certain allele is less in the
case that every reproductive animal produces two progenies for the next
generation than in the other case that one reproductive animal produce ten
progenies and the others produce none. It is usual in a population of domestic
animals that males are extremely less than females, but the difference in the
number of males and females is not desirable for the small population of the
genetic resources, since it means the extreme difference in the number of
progenies. When the number of population is fixed, we can minimize the
reduction of genetic diversity by equalizing the number of progeny from each
individual.
Use of information from genetic markers. The degree of inbreeding is
estimated from pedigree information based on the probability that the alleles of
parents are transmitted to the next generation with the probability of 1/2, since we
cannot know which of the pair have been transmitted. Recent developments in
genome analysis provide linkage maps of a lot of genetic markers like
microsatellite for many livestock species. When the genotypes of parents and
their progenies are distinct, we can know which allele of the parents has been
transmitted to the progenies. By using this information combined with the
pedigree information, we can estimate the degree of inbreeding in progenies more
exactly.
The correlation between the average heterozygosity of genetic markers
and the realized genetic diversity is expected to be constant over generations. If
we can use a lot of genetic markers to calculate the average heterozygosity this
aspect is useful as the index of the genetic diversity. And this information would
assist to select suitable mating pairs to retain the genetic diversity in the
population.
In order to maintain genetic diversity using in situ conservation program,
it is better to maintain a large number of animals. However, maintaining a large
number of animals is costly, in view of this, maintaining a relatively smaller
number under a well managed in situ conservation program would be more
economically efficient. The most effective way of conserving genetic resources is
through economical utilization of the animals in the production system. However,
improved breeds from Western countries tend to outperform native breeds in
developing countries in terms of productivity; this makes difficultly promotion of
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BACK
utilization of pure native breeds. This problem may be overcome by

crossbreeding native breeds with improved breeds.
CONCLUSIONS
1. In situ conservation is the easiest way from methodological viewpoint
and can be applied to any species of livestock. On the other hand, ex situ
preservation is a technique that allows keeping genetic diversity of the population
permanently. However, ex situ preservation of germplasm can be adapted and
used to supplement in situ conservation program of animal genetic resources.
2. Cryopreservation of males in the base population could help recovering
of the genetic diversity of animal genetic resources. Therefore, in conclusion, it is
suggested that the efficient combination of in situ and ex situ conservation
programs should be considered.
REFERENCES
1. Falconer D. S., Mackay T. F. C., 1996 - Introduction to Quantitative Genetics. 4th Ed., Longman,
Essex, U. K.
2. Hill W. G., 1982 - Estimation of genetic change. I. General theory and design of control
populations. Anim. Breed. Abst., 40: 1-15.
3. Nei M., 1987 - Molecular Evolutionary Genetics, Columbia Univ. Press, New York, U.S.A.
4. Nomura T., Yonezawa K., 1996 - A comparison of four systems of group mating for avoiding
inbreeding. Genet. Sel. Evol., 28: 141-159.
5. Robertson A., 1964 - The effect of non-random mating within inbred lines on the rate of
inbreeding. Genet. Res., 5: 164-167.
6. Wang J., 1995 - Exact inbreeding coefficient and effective size of finite populations under partial
sib mating. Genetics, 140: 357-363.
7. Weiner G., 1989 - Animal Genetic Resources ¡V A global programme for sustainable
development. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper, 80.
8. Wright S., 1921 - Systems of mating. Genetics, 6: 111-178.
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BACK
STUDY OF SOME GENETIC PARAMETERS OF VARIOUS

HENS POPULATIONS
N. BUCATARU, Fl. PRICOP, Gh. BARLADEAN
Within the crosses “ROSO-SL-2000”, “ROSO-SL-93” and “ALBO-70”

there have been determined the coefficient values of heritability and correlation.
The values of h2 were approximate equal for all the crosses including such
characteristics as the number of eggs (0,03…0,06) and the age of the first laid
egg (0,17..0,19); some distinctions of h2 have been observed in egg weight, at 34
weeks age accordingly – 0,25 at “ROSO-SL-2000”; 0,20 – “ROSSO-SL-93” and
0,14 – “ALBO-70”; the same thing could be mentioned on how varied was h2 of
the body weight: 0,18 and 0,17 at the first crosses and 0,56 at “ALBO-70”. The
phenotypical and environmental genotypical, correlations differ frequently in
concordance with the respective coefficients values in different populations, as
well according to direction – a fact that imposes their calculation in each
concrete population.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
In these studies there have been taken three populations of laying chickens. The lots of
chickens contributed to: inside ROSO-SL-2000 – n=3019 descendents obtained from 470
mothers and 70 fathers; inside ROSO-SL-93 – n=2869, n=471, n=70; and inside ALBO-
70 – 2536, n=468, n=70. So, the number of descendents in the crosses’ limits has varied
from 2536 to 3019, being obtained from 70 fathers (in each cross) and 468 – 471 mothers.
Some genetic base parameters, used in the amelioration systems in animal husbandry, are
heritability and correlations coefficients.
The heritability coefficient is used in selection planning. It is characteristic for the given
population in strict conditions, because for other groups which have a different genetic
structure, or genotypes from different environmental conditions, h2 can take other values.
For the studied hybrids, there have been calculated the values for the heritability coefficient for
the most important characters, and the results are being shown in the next Table.
Table no.1
Heritability coefficient values for some characters for different crosses of chickens
Crosses
Character „ROSO-SL-2000” „ROSO-SL-93” „ALBO-70”
Number of eggs by exploit
0.03 0.06 0,04
period
Egg's weight at the age of
0,25 0,20 0,14
34
Body weight 0,18 0,17 0,56
The age at the first egg 0,17 0,17 0,19
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So, h2 for the number of eggs is very small (0, 03…0, 06) in all studied populations,
which proves a weak heritability of this character.
Egg’s weight had an intermediary heritability (0,2), with some variations – the biggest for
ROSO-SL-2000 cross (0,25) and the smallest for ALBO-70 (0,14).
Referring to the third studied character – body weight, if h2’ s values inside ROSO-SL
2000 and ROSO-SL-93 are almost equal (0,17 – 0,18), which shows the same origin for
these lots. At ALBO-70 cross, this coefficient is the biggest of all calculated (0,56) and is
being part of the most heritably characters category.
The knowledge of the correlation links – their direction, also their manifestation grade,
makes selection planning and results prevision possible. The existence of some strong and
positive correlations between some characters, guarantee us the growing (or shortening)
for both characters, and the discovery of some negative correlations proves that the
growing of one character is being linked with the shortening of the other, and in the other
way too.
In dependency of the nature of the used dates, there have been determined the next types
of correlations: genotypic, phenotypic and environmental.
In Table no.2 we show the calculated values for the coefficients of genotypic correlations:
Table no.2
Genotypic correlation coefficients for different crosses of chickens

Couples of characters Crosses
„ROSO-SL-2000” „ROSO-SL-93” „ALBO-70”
Number of eggs x body weight at the age of 34 weeks

+0,018±0,043 -0,388±0,040 -0,495±0,038
Number of eggs x body weight -0,107±0,043 -0,437±0,039 +0,018±0,043
Number of eggs x the age of the first egg +0,942±0,014 +0,487±0,038 +0,420±0,039
Body weight x body weigh +0,382±0,040 +0,049±0,043 +0,646±0,033
Egg's weight x the age of the first egg -0,232±0,042 -0,282±0,041 -0,249±0,042
Body weight x the age of the first egg -0,233±0,042 -0,263±0,042 -0,141±0,043
From the ones mentioned above, is being shown that in different populations, the
genotypic links between same characters are very different by the values of the settled
coefficients, and also are very different by direction too.
For example, between the number of eggs and egg’s weight the limits for the correlation
coefficient rG are situated between +0,018 +/- 0,043, for the chickens inside ROSO-SL-
2000 cross and -0,0495+/-0,039 for ROSO-SL-93 cross and 0,018+/-0,043 for ALBO-70.
Intermediary correlative genotypic links and very strong ones, have been settled between
the number of eggs and first egg’s age (rG=+0,942+/-0,014). Between the weight of the
egg and body’s weight there are positive correlations, but very different by size – from
+0,049+/0,043 for the chickens from ROSO-SL-93 cross, to +0,064+/-0,033 for those in
ALBO-70 CROSS.
In this type of characters like the egg’s weight and the age of the first egg, body weight
and the first egg’s age, the correlations have been strong and negative.
The phenotypic correlations between the characters are such correlations, when the
correlation coefficient (rF) is calculated by the ratio between the phenotypic co variants
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and variations, and so it represents the link between the phenotypes of the individuals by x
an y characters.
In table no.3 we show the values of the phenotypic correlation coefficients, between some
studied characters for the three crosses taken into study.
Table no.3
Phenotypic correlation coefficients, between some studied characters for the three
crosses taken into study.
Crosses
Couples of characters „ROSO-SL- „ROSO-SL- „ALBO-70”
2000” 93”
Number of eggs x body weight at
+0,045±0,043 +0,068±0,042 +0,204±0,042
the age of 34 weeks
Number of eggs x body weight +0,161±0,042 +0,054±0,043 +0,013±0,043
Number of eggs x the age of the
+0,351±0,040 +0,265±0,041 +0,242±0,042
first egg
Egg's weight x the age of the
-0,053±0,043 -0,071±0,043 -0,092±0,043
first egg
Body weight x the age of the first
+0,016±0,043 -0,011±0,043 -0,023±0,043
egg
So, in all populations between the number of eggs at the age of 34 weeks x egg’s weight
and the number of eggs and body weight, there are weak positive correlations, beside
ALBO-70 cross, where between the first analyzed characters, rF’ s value = +0,204+/-0,042
is being situated inside medium correlations. In the same category of correlations, we find
the values for the correlation coefficients for all groups (+0,234+/-0,042 – +0,351 +/-
0,040) between the number of eggs X the age of the first egg, egg’s weight and body
weight. From the analyzed values, more or less bigger (+0,35+/-0,040) is the correlation
coefficient between the number of laid eggs and the age of the first egg for ROSO-SL-
2000 cross, and the rest are almost equal.
Negative correlative links are being observed between the weight of the egg and the age
of the first egg. In almost every group these links were negative and non-essential
(-0,011+/-0,043 – 0,029+/- 0,043) with the exception of rF for body weight and the age of
the first egg for ROSO-SL-2000 cross.
For calculating environmental correlations, there have been used the values for the
observing components for the variants and co variants by variant and co variant analysis.
In table no.4 we show the values for the environmental correlation coefficients for the
couple of characters in the studied crosses.
Analyzing of these dates also shows non uniformity for both the size of the correlation
links, and also their directions.
Between the number of eggs and the egg’s weight there are medium positive correlations
and between crosses the values for the correlation coefficients are very varied, being held
between rM=+0,062+/-0,043 for ROSO-SL-2000 and rM=+0,262+/-0,042 for ALBO-70.
Referring to the number of eggs and the body weight, we find negative correlations (rM= -
0,0003+/-0,043) for ALBO-70 cross, and also positive ones (rM= +0,075+/-0,043) for
ROSO-SL-93 cross, and rM= +0,240+/-0,042 for ROSO-SL-2000 cross.
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BACK
Table no.4
Environmental correlation coefficients for the couple of characters in the studied

crosses.
Crosses
Couples of characters
„ROSO-SL-2000” „ROSO-SL-93” „ALBO-70”
Number of eggs x body
+0,062±0,043 +0,100±0,043 +0,262±0,042
weight at the age of 34 weeks
Number of eggs x body
+0,204±0,042 +0,075±0,043 +0,003±0,043
weight
Number of eggs x the age of
+0,307±0,041 +0,231±0,042 +0,236±0,042
the first egg
Egg's weight x the age of
-0,014±0,043 -0,044±0,043 -0,056±0,043
the first egg
Body weight x the age of the
+0,039±0,043 -0,002±0,043 -0,001±0,043
first egg
Tight positive correlations we find in the case of the number of eggs and the age of the
first egg, egg’s weight and body weight.
Between the egg’s weight and the age of the first egg, the environmental correlations are
very weak and negative (rM= -0,014+/-0,043 – rM= -0,56+/-0,043). Also there have been
settled some weak correlations (somewhere around 0) between body weight x the age of
the first egg, fact that proves that practically such links are really absent.
From the facts shown, we can see that for each concrete population, it is necessary to be
known the genetic structure and the environmental conditions, where it’s growing is being
planned, because in different maintenance and nutrition conditions, the manifestation of
the genetic potential will be different.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The values for the heritability coefficient were almost equal for all crosses at such
characters as the number of eggs (003…006) and the age of the first egg
(0,17…0,19); some differences of h2 we can see in the egg’s weight at the age of 34
weeks – 0,25 for ROSO-SL-2000’ 0,20 – for ROSO-SL-93 and 0,14 – for ALBO-70;
very varying was h2 for body weight: 0,18 and 0,17 for the first two crosses and 0,56
for ALBO-70.
2. The genotypic, phenotypic and environmental correlations are frequently different
both for the values of the respective coefficients in different populations, and also by
directions – fact that impose for calculation of these correlation for each concrete
population.
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BACK
HISTOLOGY INVESTIGATION ON THE PHOTO

STIMULATION INFLUENCE ON THE OVIDUCT
TISSUES IN HENS
Daniela LADOSI, I. LADOSI, S.N. POP, Z. MARCHIS
Age of sexual maturity in Gallus domesticus speciae was constantly

decreased both in female and males. It is well known that within this process
several factors are involved: genetics (Jerome, 1956), body weight (Lister, 1966;
Brody, 1980; Saler, 1984), age (Brody, 1988; Leeson and Summer, 1983; Zelenka,
1984), environment and feed (Eitanm 1991; Robinson, 1956) and chemical
composition of the body (Summer and Lesson 1983; Zelenka, 1984). Trial was set
up on 40 Rhode Island young hens, divided in two lots. Lot 1 was kept on the floor
at a density of 7 heads / sqm, lighting program of 8 h/day and fed with rearing diet.
Lot 2 was kept in cages under a 14 h/day light but fed with layer diet.
Every two weeks birds were slaughtered and oviduct samples of 1-3 cm
were taken. Samples were then processed and stained with the PAS- hematoxilin-
picro-indigocarmin method.
Development of various oviductal segments mucosa reveals a positive
evolution as a result of photostimulation. This pattern can be explained by the
fact that extra light has a dramatic effect on the hormonal balance, mainly on
melatonine. Inducing melatonine functional activity probably triggers the start-
up of the sexual hormones, which are the main influencers of the hystology
modifications revealed at the oviductal mucosa level.

Trial was set up on 40 Rhode Island young hens, divided in two lots. Lot 1 was
kept on the floor at a density of 7 heads / sqm, lighting program of 8 h/day and
fed with rearing diet. Lot 2 was kept in cages under a 14 h/day light but fed with
layer diet.
Every two weeks birds were slaughtered and oviduct samples of 1-3 cm were
taken. Samples were then processed and stained with the PAS- hematoxilin-picro-
indigocarmin method.

a) Histology analysis on infundibulum In Figure 1. reprezenting a section of
infundibulum it can be observed the presence of spyral like folds of the mucosa,
however simple as structure as approacing the abdominal end of it. Same folds ale
longer, with extra secondary and terciary villae as getting closer to magnum end
of this segment.Complexity and size of the folds and villae gets higher as the
young hens grow older, and obviously as the hormonal status changes. At the age
of 16 weeks villae are still simple without secondary and tertiary ramifications
while the infundibulum glands are difficult to observe. We suppose that this is
due to slow activity in infundibulum which gets more complex as the time of
- 221 -
ovulation is approaching. The second observation is that reduced thiknes of the

villae, typical for this oviductal segment irrespectiv if in activity or not.
At 18 weeks of age, probably due to increased hormonal activity induced
partially by photostimulation, the glandular tissue become more obvious. Mean
time, a multiplication of the cylider like epithelial cells and their growth from
micrometers to 25 – 30 micrometers is quite obvious. These cells according to the
work of Makita şi Kiwaki (1998) belongs to two different cathegories: ciliated
and secretory. Close to the abdominal end cells infundibulum mucosa is mainly
formed put of ciliated cells. As we get closed to the caudal end of the
infundibulum secretory cells are multiplying, forming glandular like systems.
Despite of our attempt to investigate the proportion between these two cell types
it seems that the variation is induced by the modification of the hormonal balance
during the laying cycle.
However, what was obvious was that only towards the magnum end of the
infundibulum genuine glandular tissue develops. As general comment is that the
size of these glands is smaller in infundibulum when compared with magnum.
At the age of 20 and 22 weeks respectively the development of the villae
and glandular tissue is even more obvious, reflecting reproductive maturation and
ovulation iminence. Mucosa covering ephitelial cells size is growing as well
showing an augmentation of secretory activity and chage of hormonal balance.
b) Hystology analysis of the magnum Analysing the oviduct at the magnum
level at the age of 16 weeks, the start-up of activity at the mucosa villae is
revealed. This confirms still the fact that the magnum is not fully active yet.
Although the villae are present and grow in volume and length it is obvious that
the functional capacity is far from being the same as in an adult bird.
At the age of 18 weeks the villae grows further. Mucosa covering ephitelial
cells change colour into a darker pink, confirming the deep hormonal induced
transformation, just before laying start-up.( Fig.2).
At the age of 20 (fig.3.) and 22 weeks (Fig.4) respectively, magnum villae
further modifies and the glandular tissue becomes functional, with clear excretion
activity. This is the clear proof that the female reached the right level of sexual
maturity and that the glandular tissue in the magnum is fully functional.
c) Hystology analysis of the isthm The specific staining procedures on the
samples revealed an intense colour of the secretory granules within the isthmic
tissue. This phenomenon seems to be corelated to the keratine like substance,
typical to the inner layers of the egg shell. This intense coloration is even more
obvious as it gets closer to the uterine end of the oviduct, fact suggesting that
these granules are involved in the formation of the egg shell.
At 16 weeks of age (Fig. 5) the isthmic villae just start to develop,
mucosa covering cells being elongated. Glandular tissue – the secretory cells – are
difficult to find.
At 18 weeks of age (Fig.6.), differences are quite obvious as
demonstrated by masive multiplication of the ephitelial cells and increase of the
size and volume of the villae. The hight of the epithelial cell is not that evident
- 222 -
but the glandular tissue becomes evident. However, the excretion chanells are
difficult to be revealed.
At 20 (Fig.7) and 22 weeks of age (Fig.8) the general appearance of the
isthmic mucosa changes fundamentally. Thus the villae grow longer and become
tortuouse but without relevant secondary or tertiary ramifications. In the same
time the granular volume is increased producing the raw substance for inner egg
shell membranes.
d) Hystology analysis of the uterus Analysis of the uterine tissue in 16 week
old hens reveals that the mucosa folds are not evident but it looks more
complexe than in the other oviductal segments. (Fig 9).
These mucaosa folds are much longer and more developed, while the
glandular tissue just beggins to be visible in 18 week old hens (Fig.10).
Furthermore the intense colour of the ephitelial cells reveals the start-up of the
secretion.
Fig.1 Fig.2
Fig.3 Fig.4
Fig.5 Fig.6
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Fig.7 Fig.8
Fig.1. Section of infundibulum;

Fig.2;3;4. Hystology analysis of the magnum, at 18; 20; 22 weeks;
Fig.5;6;7;8. Hystology analysis of the isthm, at 16;18; 20; 22 weeks;
At 20 weeks (Fig. 11) the length of the villae is even higher while the
excretion chanells seems open now. At 22 weeks of age ( Fig. 12) villae
complexity is further developed and the colour of the glandular tissue even more
intense, aspect linked to higher fluir secretion.
Fig.9 Fig.10
Fig.11 Fig.12
Fig.9;10;11;12. Hystology analysis of the uterus, at 16;18; 20; 22 weeks;
d) Hystology analysis of the vagina Similar hystology paterns are

revealed at different ages within the vagina mucosa. At 16 weeks ( Fig. 13) there
are no clear signs of activity within the existing cells. The only visible sign is the
ellongation of the mucosa folds while the secretory cells are pale.
- 224 -
At 18 weeks of age (Fig 14) mucosa folds ellongation is more evident and
more intense coloured.
Fig.13 Fig.14
Fig.15 Fig.16
Fig.13;14;15;16. Hystology analysis of the vagina, at 16;18; 20; 22 weeks;
Finally at 20 (Fig 15) and 22 weeks of age (Fig. 16) vaginal mucosa
structures are fully functional. Villae complexity growes while their appex
become convex due to intensity of the secretory activity within the epithelial cells.
CONCLUSIONS
Development of various oviductal segments mucosa reveals a positive evolution

as a result of photostimulation. This pattern can be explained by the fact that extra
light has a dramatic effect on the hormonal balance, mainly on melatonine.
Inducing melatonine functional activity probably triggers the start-up of the
sexual hormones, which are the main influencers of the hystology modifications
revealed at the oviductal mucosa level.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bakst, M.R. and Howarth, B. Jr. (1979-Biol.Reprod.,17:351-369);
2. Balasescu M., Baltan Gh., Dascalu, Al., Vancea I. (1980)-Avicultura. Ed. Did. Si Padeag.
Bucuresti;
3. Bar, A., E. Vax S., Striem (1998)-Effects of age at onset of production, light regime and
dietary calcium on performance, eggshell traits, duodenal calbindin and cholecalciferol
metabolism) British Poultry science , volume 39, nr.2, pages 282-290.
4. Bellairs, R., Harkeness, M. and Harkeness, r. (1963)- J. Ultrastruct.Res., 8:339-359;
- 225 -
BACK
5. Brillard J.P.(1990)-Stokage des spermatoides dans lóviducte des oiseaux: approche

morphologique ,histologique et fonctionnelle, reprod. Nutr.dev., 30:161-174;Furr, B.J.,
Bonney, R.C. and Cunnigham, F.J., (1973)-J. Endocrinologi. 57,159;
6. Gous, m, G.D.Bradford, S.A. Jonston , T.R.Moris (200)- Effect of age release from light or
food restriction on age at sexual maturity and egg production of laying pulletes, British Poultry
science , volume 41, nr. 3, pg 263-271.
7. Lewis, P. d., I.C. Dunn, G.C. Perry, T.R.Morris, P.J.Sharp (2001)-Effect of exogenous
oestradiol and lighting regime on age at first egg in domestic pullets;
8. Lorentz, F., and Ogasawara, F., (1968)-J.Reprod.Fertilit., 16:445-455;
9. Ladosi Daniela (2002)-Cercetari privind posibilitatile de optimizare a reproductiei la gaini.
Teza de doctorat.
10. Miclea ,V., Ladosi I., (1997)-Biologia reproductiei la animalele de ferma. Ed. Bahaí , Cluj-
Napoca
11. Prescott, N.B., C.M. Wathes (2002)Preference and motivation of laying hens to eat under
different iluminances and the effect of iluminance on eating behaviour; British Poultry
Sciences, volume 43, Nr.2, pages 190-195
12. Wishart G.H. and M.G. Steele, (1990)- The influence of sperm surface characteristics on sperm
function in the female reproductive tract. Pp.101-112, in : Control of fertility in Domestics
Birds. Procedings 2nd International Poultry Conference on Reproduction.
- 226 -
BACK
RESEARCHES REGARDING COCK SEMEN QUALITY
G. NACU, D. TĂNASE, Mihaela IVANCIA
The studied biological material was fathers-cocks breeder with 26-58

weeks age used for ROSS 308 hybrid obtained.
The studied spermatic indexes were the volume, the concentration and
the mobility. The them dynamic have been analyses depending on age and
alimentation which are the influence principals’ factors.
The results of artificial insemination using to mammifers and poultry

depend on spermatic production beside other factors [1, 4, 5, 6]. The qualytative
and quantitative parameters of ejaculate condition the inseminate birds number
and the incubation indexes [2, 5].
The spermatic indexes level is influenced by many factors, the most
importance are age, alimentation, breed and microclimate. The first and the
second factors are the our observations object [2, 3, 4].

The biological material was ROSS 308 cocks, adults’ parents from
intensive system exploitation, kept on the ground.
For the study of spermatic parameters dynamic in comparison with age, the
observations have been done between 26 weeks and 58 weeks of age on witnees
lot (LW) with 7 cocks.
The alimentation effect on reproduction function has been watch on experimental
lot (LE) with 7 ROSS 308 cocks, for 8 weeks, starting to 45 weeks of age. For this, we
have been introducing the Forty plus supplement in 2 kg/ton fodder dose, for 3 weeks
before determinations’ start. The energetic and protein values have not been modified,
integrated themselves between the recommendations from the hybrid guide (14% PB and
2859 Kcal EM/kg).
The semen preservation has been made about abdominal massage, at
intervals of 4 weeks. The cocks have been isolated for 3 days before preservation.
The studied spermogram indexes were the volume, the mobility after
preservation, the mobility after dilution, the mobility after 4 or 6 hours from
preservation, the concentration and the proportion of improper ejaculates.
The volume was directly appreciated in the preservation vial (minitube).
The dilution was 1/1 ratio with a synthetic diluents.
The mobility was appreciated based on the spermatozoa advance movies
in microscopically land, into a semen drop placed between blade and lamella.
The concentration was determined with the hemocitometer.
The ejaculates with blood or excrements have been considered the improper
ejaculates.
- 227 -
The obtained ejaculates

Two ejaculates have been preservation from the 7 cocks from LW, to 26 weeks
of age. One of two ejaculates was improper. The cocks have been accustomed to harvest,
so it was obtained between 4 ejaculates (to 30 weeks of age) and 7 ejaculates (to 46 weeks
of age) (tab. 1). In 44,4% from attempts, it has been obtained 6 ejaculates, means 85,7%
successful.
The operator changing have been determined just 42,8% successful.
Table 1
The spermatic indexes to the cocks from LW
Obtained
Mobility (%)
Nr. Age ejaculates Volume Concentration
crt. (weeks) After After (ml) (mld./ml)
Total Improper To the After
4 6
(nr.) (nr.) preservation dilution
hours hours
1 26 2 1 76,5 84,6 74,8 57,1 0,20 2,1
2 30 4 2 77,0 85,2 72,6 62,2 0,20 3,2
3 34 6 - 79,8 81,6 76,0 63,7 0,32 3,5
4 38 6 1 81,3 83,1 75,9 58,1 0,22 3,3
5 42 5 1 77,4 81,7 76,2 49,9 0,26 4,8
6 46 7 - 80,1 82,8 69,7 58,7 0,23 5,2
7 50 6 - 78,4 80,9 74,6 61,6 0,28 5,6
8 54 3 - 80,0 86,2 77,1 67,2 0,27 5,1
9 58 6 1 81,0 84,3 78,3 50,2 0,22 4,7
Total 45 6 79,1 83,4 75,0 58,7 0,24 4,1
For entire analyzed period, the 45 ejaculates have been obtained from 63
attempts, means 71,4% efficiency. Comparing with medium level, the worst
results have been obtained to the start of exploitation period, when the genital
apparatus does not function at optimum parameters and because the stress of team
changing.
From all obtained ejaculates, 13.3% have been with excrements what was
determined their compromising because of the necrosperm (tab. 1).
The start of the observations for the cocks from experimental lot has been
done to 45 weeks of age, when the genital apparatus is all functional. Thanks to
this fact and because the preservation was been made by the same team all period,
the success ratio was 90,0%. The proper ejaculates proportion was just 10,5%
(tab. 2).
- 228 -
Table 2
The spermatic indexes to the cocks from LE
Obtained Concen
Mobility (%)
Nr Age ejaculates Volum tration
crt (weeks) Impro After (ml) (mld./
Total To the After After 4
per 6 ml)
(nr.) preservation dilution hours
(nr ) hours
1 45 6 1 80,1 82,4 76,4 61,7 0,28 6,8
2 49 6 - 82,0 83,7 73,5 59,4 0,25 7,4
3 53 7 1 79,6 82,9 71,2 56,3 0,35 7,1
Total 19 2 80,6 83,0 73,7 59,1 0,27 7,1
The ejaculate volume

The cocks from LW had 0,24 ml the ejaculates medium volume, with
variations between 0,20 ml and 0,32 ml (tab. 1), what are under the values from
specialty literature [2, 3, 4]. The lowest level have been registered to young cocks,
under 30 weeks of age, when it was about 16,6% less than medium value. The
ejaculate volume did not register important variations depending on the cocks’
age (tab. 1)
The ejaculate medium volume of cocks from experimental lot was 0.27
ml, insignificant more than ejaculate volume of cocks from LW, what prove the
effect absence of minerals and vitamins supplement about this indicator.
The spermatozoa mobility

The spermatozoa medium mobility after preservation was 79,1% to cocks
from LW, with extreme values 77,0% and 81,3%, uncorrelated with cocks’ age
(tab. 1).
For 46-54 weeks interval, the medium mobility was 79,5% to the cocks
from LW and 80,6% to the cocks from LE.
After dilution, the mobility has been increased with 4,3% to cocks from
LW and with 2,5% to cocks from LE.
4 hours after dilution, the mobility of spermatozoa kept to 20 º C
temperatures has been decreased with about 4-6% comparing with the mobility
from preservation moment. 6 hours after preservation, the mobility was at more
60%, for samples from both lots (tab. 1 and tab. 2).
The spermatozoa concentration to semen

There was observed a minimum spermatozoa concentration to cocks
semen from LW to 26 weeks of age (2,1 mld/ml) and a ascending curve until the
50 weeks of age, when the concentration was for 2,6 more. The obtained results in
our investigations conditions are to inferior limit comparing with specialty
literature values for meat breeds [2, 3, 4, 5].
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BACK
The fodder with minerals and vitamins supplement has been determined
spermatogenesis intensifying and concentration increase with 33,9% for same
cocks’ age (tab. 2).
CONCLUSIONS
1. We have been using the cocks with preservation and with team preservation
because if they were not used there is an important negative effect. For know how
many cocks are necessary for artificial insemination we must know the failed
preservation proportion and the improper ejaculates proportion and take them into
account.
2. The ejaculate volume was under medium values quoted in specialty literature,
uncorrelated with the cocks’ age or feed.
3. The spermatozoa medium mobility after preservation was 79,8, with
insignificant differences depending on cocks’ age or feed.
4. The semen dilution have been determined the mobility increase with 2.5% to
cocks from LE and with 4,3% to cocks from LW. In next 6 hours, the mobility
decreased with about 20%, without differences depending on cocks’ age or feed.
5. The spermatozoa concentration to semen was correlated with cocks’ age. The
value was minimum to the start of reproduction activity (2,1 mld/ml) and it was
between 5,1 mld/ml and 5,6 mld/ml for 46-54 weeks of age. The food with
minerals and vitamins supplement have been determined the concentration
increase from 5,3 mld/ml to 7,1 mld/ml.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Senger P.L., 2000 – Patways to pregnancy and parturition second edition. Washington State
University Research & Technology Park
2. Sauveur B., Reviers M., 1988 - Reproduction des volailles et production d'oeufs. INRA. Station
de Recherches Avicoles, Paris
3. Tănase D., Manole I., Nacu Gh., 2000 – Biotehnici şi biotehnologii de reproducţie. Ed. Ion
Ionescu de la Brad, Iaşi
4. Tănase D., Nacu Gh., 2005 – Biologia reproducerii animalelor. Edit. PIM Iaşi
5. Vacaru - Opriş I. şi colab., 2002 - Tratat de Avicultură. Editura “Ceres” Bucureşti.
6. Vaissaire J.P., 1977 – Sexualite et reproduction des mamiferes domestiques et de laboratoire. Ed.
Maloine, Paris
- 230 -
BACK
THE RESULTS REGARDING THE POLIOVULATION

RESPONSE AT DIFFERENT HORMONAL PRODUCTS TO
STEPPE GREY COWS
Elena RUGINOSU, G. TOBĂ, Mariana SOFRONIE,

Adrieana POP, A. POP, Şt. CREANGĂ,
M. PÎNTEA, I. MOROŞANU
Steppe grey is considered a vulnerable race in the danger to be lossed

and which because of the fact that she doesn’ resist in the productive competition
with the graded up races, it continuous record the numerical decreases, puting
into danger it`s existence. For this reason, in present she makes the objective of
the genetic reserve conservation, the action having place into the national
programmes for the preservation and management of animals genetic reserves,
taking into account by special features regarding the diseases resistant,
adaptability and the capitalization of the brutish fodders.The embryos freezing
method would can to have a distinct contribution to achievement of genes reserve
from this rustic race,but with a special adaptableness and immunity potential.
For this goal it is imperative to effected the poliovulation treatments of
donors cows for to obtain a further number of able embrios to be freeze.
The study was effected to Dancu Iassy S.C.D.B. into dairy farm on
nucleous of 15 cows Steppe grey breed, who were used as embryo donors in 2006
period. They were treated with different hormonales products, type FSH
(Pluset-Serono-Italia, FSH-Rigaux, FSH-Ovogest, Folltropin V- USA, FSH-
Sioux) and PMSG (Folligon-Intervet) in different doses and intervals
postestrous( 9-13 days), induced with PGF 2α. The recovery of embryos was
made at 7 days after artificial insemination, using unsurgical method.
The results of donors superovulation treatments were materialized in
average of 9,1 luteal bodies / cow, with the variatios between 6 luteal bodies /
cow, after treatment FSH- Rigaux and 11 luteal bodies / cow, after Folltropin-V
treatment.
The Steppe Grey breed is an rustic breed which has breeded in the
Romanian teritory in the 2nd half of the 19th century, on an enlarged geographic
area. This breed has contributed to the local breeds improvement. The Steppe
Grey has a great adaptability on the weather conditions, a good use of brutish
fodder, disease-proof and a good quality of productions (1, 2, 4).
Now, there is the risk of disappearance for Steppe Grey, puting into
danger the existence of the genetic backround for this breed which has
exceptional qualities that could be used in the improvement programs of the
present breeds (4).
Taking into consideration the improvement of the productive qualities for
cattle breeds to disease-proof and adaptability detriment, the preservation of the
genetic fund for Steppe Grey has become a national priority.
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In this context, the Steppe Grey was included in the objectives of some
national programs of biopreservation for the breeds with disappearance risk. The
methods used in this biopreservation process are: living animals, m.s.c. deposit,
deep-frozen embryos.
The cryopreservation of the embryos gathered from animals is a modern
biotechnique which involves the poliovulatory treatments to increase the number
of the follicles and implicit of the able embryos from donors for to be freezed or
for to be transfered. Whether the improved breeds there are a lot of informations
concerning this biotechnique of the embryo transfer, (3,5,6) for the primitive
breeds there are only a few informations.
The purpose of this work is to effectuate a study of the Steppe Grey
response to some poliovulatory treatments with different hormonal products for
to obtain further number of able embryos for to be preservation or to be transfer
to receiver cows.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The study was effectuated during 2006 at SCDCB Dancu dairy farm, on a
Steppe Grey nucleus. By clinical and gynecological control, 15 healthy cows were
selected, without genital infections or ovarian perturbances (ovarian cysts),
diagnosed with a cyclical luteal body in 55-80 days after birth, with a good
maintenance.
The cows selected to be embryo donors were injected with a dose of
PG F2α to induce the oestrus. The day of the oestrus was considered „Day 0”,
being a reference day for the poliovulatory treatment beginning.
At 9-13 days after the induced oestrus with PG F2α it was applyed the
poliovulatory treatment with different hormonal products like FSH (Pluset-
SERONO-Italia-500 UI FSH+500UI LH, FSH-Ovogest-50mg, Folltropin
Vetrapharm, USA–50mg, FSH-Rigaux 50mg, FSH – Sioux Biochemical – 50mg)
and PMSG (Folligon Intervet-2000 UI) to stimulate the growth of further
follicles. The products like FSH were administrated for 5 days, in 2 rounds/day
and in decreased doses. In the 4th day of treatment with FSH it was administrated
one dose and a half of PG F2α. The treatment with PMSG-Folligon was applyed in
one round, at 10 days after the induced oestrus, and PGF2α was given at 48 hours
after the follicle stimulating treatment.
Concomitantly with the donors preparation were selected the receivers
(15 heifers of Steppe Grey), by gynecological control, and those with a cyclical
luteal body were treated with a dose of PG F2α (at 12 hours after the second
administration of PG F2α to donors) to accomplish the synchronization of oestrus.
The manifestation of oestrus was in the same period at donors and receivers.
The donors of embryos were inseminated in 48-56 hours after the
luteolytic treatment (two or three artificial insemination/cow, at intervals of 8-10
hours), and the receivers were observed for oestrus, but they weren`t inseminated.
- 232 -
The gather was made in the 7th day after the artificial insemination, by a
non surgical method, using a Folley catheter and a PBS (Phosphate Buffered
Saline) washing medium.
Some observations, concerning the females response to the poliovulatory
treatments, materialized into the number of luteal bodies, were made. Some
quantitative and qualitative appreciations of the embryos gathered from the
donors, were also made for to preservation through freezing or for to be transfer
to receivers.

The results of the poliovulatory treatment applyed to the donors are
highlighted by the number of luteal bodies, formed on the ovaries.
Consecutive to the treatments applyed to cows, some variations of the
ovulatory response were observed. These variations were in report to the
hormonal products that were used. It was registered an ovulatory response of 9,1
luteal bodies/cow, on the average, with variations between 6 luteal bodies/cow
after the treatment with FSH-Rigaux and 11 luteal bodies/cow, after the treatment
with FSH-Folltropin-USA. In some cases were also observed ovarian cystes with
an average of 1,2/cow, with variations between 0% after the treatment with FSH-
Sioux and 3/cow after the treatment with FSH-Ovogest, (1st table).
Analysing the results obtained, we can estimate that the Steppe Grey cows
had a good ovulatory response, in report to the hormonal products that were used.
The best ovarian responses (10-11 luteal bodies/cow) were observed after
the treatment with Pluset, Folltropin and FSH-Sioux.
The ovulatory response after the use of other hormonal products, like
FSH-Rigaux, Folligon or Ovogest were on a medium level (6-8 luteal
bodies/ovary) (1st figure).
The variability of the poliovulatory was observed in other studies. It was
noticed that many factors are involved. Of this factors, the most important are: the
donors health, some metabolic deficiencies (energo-proteic deficiencies,
deficiencies in minerals and vitamins), hormonal perturbation, parasitical
diseases, the quality of the hormonal products used in the poliovulatory treatment.
The embryos gathered from the donors were recovered on an average of
6,7 embryos/cow. The recovery was of 65%, with variations in report with the
hormonal products: 57,2% in cows, treated with Folligon and 90% in cows treated
with FSH-Sioux ( 2nd table)
The observations concerning the development phases of the gathered
embryos have highlighted that 22,5% were in the latish morula phase, 52,5%
early blastocystes and in 25% of cases they were degenerated. This thing
highlights the implication of the embryonic death rate, due to some hormonal
deficiencies or to an inadequacy uterine medium.
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BACK
The recovered embryos were selected and the high quality ones
(1-2 degrees) were frozen (21,3%) or inseminated to receivers.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The poliovulatory response at Steppe Grey was in an average of 9,1 luteal
bodies/cow, with variations between 6 luteal bodies/cow after the treatment
with FSH-Folltropin-USA, highlighting a very good ovulatory response,
2.The recovery of the embryos was 65%, with an average of 6,7 embryos/cow,
3.From all the recovered embryos, 22,5% were in the lately morula phase, 52,5%
early blastocystes and in 25% of cases they were degenerated, highlighting
the implication of the embryonic death rate.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Draganescu C. – 1994- Some idea on conservation and preservation breeding plans. Practice in
romanian studies;
2. Draganescu C.- 1995 – Animal genetic resources conservation in Romanian- FEZ, Praga ;
3. Dumitru I., Bogdan A., Nafornita M., Turliuc O., 1982- Reproductie animala, Edit. did. si
pedag., Bucuresti ;
4. Pop Adrieana, Pop A., Pintea M. – 2003- La conservation de la Grise de steppe, race en cours
de disparition. Lucr.st. Zootehnie si Biotehnologii, vol. xxxvi, Timisoara ;
5. Sofronie Mariana, Drugociu D., Elena Ruginosu – 1990- Cercetări privind superovulaţia la
taurinele de fermă - Rev. Cercetări Agronomice în Moldova, vol 2 (90)/ Iaşi ;
6. Drugociu D., Mariana Sofronie , Elena Ruginosu, Olimpia Iacob – Studii privind
superovulaţia la vacile donatoare de embrioni în S.C.P.C.B. Dancu Iaşi, Rev. Cercetări
Agronomice în Moldova, vol 1-2/1993, Iasi., p. 161-165.
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BACK
THE INFLUENCE OF AGE OF GENITORS ON GENDER

DISTRIBUTION AT MERINOS OF PALAS LAMBS
L. STĂNCESCU
Research carried out have shown that in certain circumstances the ratio
between genders is obviously modified and when it comes to causes the
hypothesis of different ages of parental pairs was promoted. By mating young
female sheep (1.5 years) with old males (7.5 years) a larger number of males is
obtained (132 % males compared with females). By mating old females (5.5
years and 7.5 years) with young males (1.5 years) a larger number of females is
obtained (130 %, respectively 132 % females if compared with males). The
larger the difference between females and males, the greater is the probability of
a future male product. By mating individuals of the same age, males and females
in equal proportions resulted.
The age as an internal environment factor has an influence on phaenotype

of characters, fluctuation of age structure being translated (resulting in) by a
fluctuation of production. In this situation, the age may have an influence, at
sheep, on wool production, quantitative and qualitative production of milk and
potential of upbringing and growing (growth). The age of reproductors influences
the quality of fur (skin) at descendents belonging to Karakul species (Malos et al.,
2005).
The age may have an influence on frequency of occurrence of heat,
frequency of repeating the heat, as well as other certain indicators of reproduction
at sheep (Pascal et al., 1995).
In what concerns the natural ratio between genders at sheep, existing data
show that, as a rule, males and females are born in approximately equal
proportions. Chapman and Lush (quoted by Curen I., 1999) after studying 91,640
deliveries at sheep in a 10 years period showed that 49.5% males and 50.5%
females resulted (were born).
Other research have shown that in certain circumstances the ratio between
genders is obviously modified and, among other causes, the hypothesis of the
influence of different age of parental pairs was promoted (Stefanescu C., et al.,
1965, Pascal C. et al., 1995).
MATERIALS AND METHOD

Researches have been carried out within the experimental device in
RDCSEC Perieni, Vaslui County. The biological material was represented by
sheep belonging to Merinos of Palas of different categories of age.
The distribution by genders of lambs obtained in the period between 1975
– 2005 was established in order to have a comparison basis. The ratio between
- 235 -
genders was monitored in order to highlight (illustrate) the influence of age and
the difference of age of parents on gender of descendents between 1996 – 2005.
For this purpose, the records of mating and births from the mentioned
period were analysed. Data was available from U.A.R.Z. Vaslui.
In those records mother sheep are ordered depending on their
identification number.
Before 2005 the first figure of the identification number was the last
number of the year of the year in which the animal was born. In these
circumstances, mother sheep are aranged in the register of mating and births
depending on age. Generally, the ages of mother sheep ar as follows: sheep of 1.5
years, 2.5 years, 3.5 years, 4.5 years, 5.5 years, 6.5 years, 7.5 years and more. The
ratio between gender of resulted descendents from mating of sheep in the
mentioned categories with rams in the same cathegory, was calculated.
A special note can be made, that in the mentioned period, the nourishment
conditions and sheep maintenance did not have significant annual variations, as
being rationally provided (supplied) depending on normal physiological and
growing period needs, by reserves almost permanent of forage of the best quality.

Distribution of lambs by gender in the period 1975 – 2005
In the period 1975 – 2005, 32,252 lambs were obtainedand among them
16,046 males and 16,206 females, which means 49.75% males and 50.25%
females.
Table no. 1
Distribution of lambs by gender in the period 1975 – 2005
Females
Year Males (heads) Females (heads) Total heads Males (%)
(%)
0 1 2 3 4 5
1975 471 411 882 53.4 46.6
1976 580 612 1192 48.7 51.3
1977 608 688 1296 46.9 53.1
1978 832 714 1546 53.8 46.2
1979 792 814 1606 49.3 50.7
1980 400 410 810 49.4 50.6
1981 337 397 734 45.9 54.1
1982 461 481 942 48.9 51.1
1983 635 628 1263 50.3 49.7
1984 610 598 1208 50.5 49.5
1985 604 664 1268 47.6 52.4
1986 586 604 1190 49.2 50.8
1987 580 565 1145 50.7 49.3
- 236 -
0 1 2 3 4 5
1988 552 530 1082 51.0 49.0
1989 640 650 1290 49.6 50.4
1990 608 628 1236 49.2 50.8
1991 664 604 1268 52.4 47.6
1992 590 545 1135 52.0 48.0
1993 682 642 1324 51.5 48.5
1994 638 682 1320 48.3 51.7
1995 1081 1000 2081 51.9 48.1
1996 616 652 1268 48.6 51.4
1997 449 504 953 47.1 52.9
1998 326 353 679 48.0 52.0
1999 307 350 657 46.7 53.3
2000 251 270 521 48.2 51.8
2001 214 234 448 47.8 52.2
2002 220 263 483 45.5 54.5
2003 249 251 500 49.8 50.2
2004 242 241 483 50.1 49.9
2005 221 221 442 50.0 50.0
Total 16046 16206 32252 49.8 50.2
1200
1000 Males (heads)

Females (heads)
800
Heads
600
400
200
0
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Years
Figure 1 Distribution by gender of lambs born between 1975 – 2005 (heads)
- 237 -
Analyzing the data in table 1 and figures 1 and 2 one can notice that
eventhough per total the ratio between genders is approximately equal, during the
years this ratio can be modified.
One can notice that the years 1975 (53.4% males and 46.6% females),
1978 (53.8% males and 46.2% females), butalso the years 1981 (46% males with
54% females), 1999 (46.7% males with 53.3% females) and 2002 (45.5% males
and 54.5% females).
60
58
56 Males (% )
Females (% )
54
52
(%)
50
48
46
44
42
40
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Years
Figure 2 Distribution by gender of lambs born between 1975 – 2005 (%)
The influence of age of reproductors on distribution by gender of lambs
During 1996 – 2005 5770 gave birth and 6434 lambs resulted, among
which 3095 were males and 3339 were females, which means 48.1% males and
51.9% females. During the entire period the ratio between genders is
apporximately equal, meaning a slight difference favourable to females.
- 238 -
Table 2
The influence of age of reproductors on distribution by gender of resulted youngsters
(% males versus females)
Ram age
Sheep age
1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5
1.5 109 95 99 105 106 119 132
2.5 88 88 89 91 85 92 90
3.5 95 91 97 75 91 92 95
4.5 86 86 86 92 114 81 84
5.5 77 91 94 84 95 92 79
6.5 83 84 93 109 89 84 96
7.5 76 86 76 94 90 100 89
Table 3
The influence of age of reproductors on distribution by gender of resulted youngsters
(în % femele faţă de masculi)
1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5

1.5 91 106 101 95 95 84 76
2.5 114 114 112 110 117 109 111
3.5 105 110 103 133 110 109 105
4.5 116 116 117 109 88 123 119
5.5 130 110 107 119 105 108 127
6.5 120 119 108 92 113 119 104
7.5 132 117 131 106 111 100 113
Analysing the distribution of genders on descendents resulted from

mating reproductors of different ages (tables 1 and 2 and figure 3) one can notice
deviations which show that between age of parents (genitors) and gender of
descendents there is a certain relationship.
We assume that this relationship is rather relative and in order to draw an
accurate conclusion it has to be analysed a much larger number of births.
- 239 -
180
3,5
5,5
160
140 5,5
4,5
5,5
120 4,5
3,5 3,5 6,5 4,5
3,5 4,5 6,5
100
5,5 6,5 2,5
2,5
7,5
5,5
80 2,5 3,5
1,5
7,5 4,5
7,5 1,5
60 1,5 2,5 2,5 1,5 3,5
6,5
1,5 1,5 4,5
6,5 5,5 1,5
40 7,5 2,5
7,5 6,5
7,5
2,5 5,5
20 3,5 4,5 6,5 7,5
0
1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5
Figure 3 The Influence of age of reproductors on distribution by gender of

resulted younglings (heads)
If looking at age categories, it was established the percentage of males versus

females. One can notice that by mating young females (1.5 years) with older rams
(older males, 6.5 years and 7.5 years) a larger number of males is obtained (119%,
respectively 132% males versus females). By mating younger rams (1.5 years and
3.5 years) with older female sheep (5.5 years and 7.5 years) a larger number of
females is obtained. A larger number of males is obtained also by mating female
sheep of 4.5 years old with rams of 5.5 years old. A larger number of females is
obtained also by mating females of 3.5 years old with males of 4.5 years old, of
females of 5.5 years old with males of 7.5 years old and of females of 4.5 years
old with males of 6.5 years old. The largest number of males is obtained by
mating females of 1.5 years old with rams of 7.5 years old, therefore, the greater
the difference of age between female and male, the larger the probability of
occurrence of male younglings. Tha largest number of females is obtained by
mating old ewes (5.5 years and 7.5 years) with young rams (1.5 years), therefore,
the larger the difference of age between ram and ewe, the greater the probability
for the product to be a female. Generally speaking, by mating individuals of the
same age, the result was of males and females in equal proportions.
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
In thencase of Merinos of Palas variety (species, ecotype) the age of
genitors may influence, within certain limits, the gender of descendents.
By matching of pairs depending of age a larger number of males or
females can be obtained depending on purpose.
Generally speaking, in breeding farms the goal is to obtain a larger
number of females, because the breeding of a larger number of males is
inefficient. The main source of income in order to cover the costs is first the lamb
production and second, production of milk, wool and meat; the rams have the
only chance of choosing between the last two options.
REFERENCES
1. Cureu I. - Compendiu de genetică animală, Ed. Fundaţiei “România de mâine”, Bucureşti,
1999;
2. Maloş G., Maloş G.I., Ianiţchi D. – Influenţa vârstei reproducătorilor Karakul negru asupra
greutăţii la naştere şi calităţii pielicelelor mieilor, Lucrări ştiinţifice, U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi, 2005;
3. Pascal C. – Creşterea ovinelor şi caprinelor, Ed. Pim Iaşi, 2007;
4. Pascal C., Gîlcă I., Creangă Şt, Burlacu S. – Cercetări privind influenţa vârstei asupra unor
indicatori de reproducţie la ovinele din rasa Merinos de Palas, Lucrări ştiinţifice, U.S.A.M.V.
Iaşi, 1995;
5. Sandu Gh. – Inginerie în exploatarea ovinelor, Ed. Alutus – D, Bucureşti, 1993.
- 241 -
BACK
ASPECTS OF SHEEP ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION

AND SOME HERS INFLUENCE FACTORS
Anca DASCĂL, V. CIORNEI
Artificial insemination in sheep is scarcely widespread comparing with

other domestic species. This has been due not only to fertility results being
irregular and low but also because of the difficulty in the application of
enhancements such as the use of frozen-thawed sperm. Although there is a lot of
information on the use of different options to improve these artificial
insemination results (such as transcervical application, the use of thawed sperm)
commercial programmes can be classified on two general categories: those
using fresh and refrigerated semen by intracervical deposition and more
restricted, those using thawed sperm by intrauterine deposition.In artificial
insemination practice is used a big number of extenders with a variable
composition in accordance with the semen characteristics of this species and
with the semen preservation method.
Thanks to substantial increase in efficiency used of semen, through

application of artificial insemination of sheep it is possible to use the best of the
reproductive rams who are testing by progeny and who have remarkable
characteristics morpho-productive.
The essential objective in the genetic improvement is to produce the
changing youth. In this way it is possible to achieve the crossing over so as to
benefit by immediate results and by heterosis and to profit from the additional
value of the commercial product.
So, artificial insemination permits the multiplication of genotypes,
without need to multiply the number of reproductive male in the flock.
By widespread use, artificial insemination permits efficiency
improvement of progeny testing, by a better taking into account breeding’s effect.
Each of originator is used in a big number of flocks. It is very important the used
of frozen semen in the first years of life for the selection scheme because it can
obtains a big number of offsprings from the males, in their reproductive life.
Artificial insemination in sheep do not find a good place in complex
activity demand by sheep breeding and improvement.
The lesser interest for the artificial insemination is because sheep have
some breeding and exploitation characteristic features: the ram is only male who
provide directly a product which is mutable in merchandise (the wool). The last
years abnegation at sheep artificial insemination explain slow genetic
improvement rate and the decrease of reproduction parameters, behind the use of
rams just for the mounting. Artificial insemination is the method which can
eliminate these deficiences.
Also, it is necessary to associate the artificial insemination biotechnique
with semen cryopreservation to create new semen banks.
- 242 -
Semen cryopreservation and artificial insemination offer many advantages

to the livestock industry, particularly in conjunction with genetic evaluation and
selection programs (Maxwell and Watson, 1996). However, the biggest obstacle
to exploiting cryopreserved semen of many species is that cooling, freezing, and
thawing generally damage sperm membrane structures, leading to fewer viable
and motile cells postthaw (Hammerstedt et al, 1990). Consequently, fertility
following artificial insemination is poorer than with fresh semen in most species
(Salamon and Maxwell, 2000; Watson, 2000).
Semen quality and its relationship to fertility are of major concern in
animal production. Quality tests are routinely used to determine acceptability of
processed semen for breeding purposes. Thus accurate measurement is of major
importance. Conventionally, the principal laboratory tests for standard semen
analysis at most artificial insemination centers use light microscopy to estimate
sperm survival and the percentage of motile (and progressively motile)
spermatozoa (Rowe et al, 1993).
Artificial insemination spread to central Europe and also was widely
applied commercially in France and Brazil (Foot, 1999). The techniques for
semen collection and artificial insemination of sheep have been described in detail
(Evans and Maxwell, 1987).
Artificial insemination plays an important role in sheep breeding but is
limited by the relatively poor fertility achieved with stored semen. The success of
this procedure in sheep is limited by the short length of time that ram sperm can
be stored as a liquid. Intrauterine insemination has improved fertility rates.
Intrauterine insemination techniques used with low sperm concentrations have
been used with cow (Seidel et al, 1997), horse (Buchanan et al, 1999), sheep (Ham
et al, 2000), and pig (Krueger et al, 1999; Krueger and Rath, 2000; Martinez et al,
2002; Roca et al, 2003) with acceptable fertility results. In any case, a prerequisite
for a successful artificial insemination system in sheep is a diluent that maintains
sperm motility and viability during cooling. Sperm diluents also are crucial in
avoiding loss of viability from the dilution and washing of sperm cells, commonly
done to remove seminal plasma or to achieve a high sperm concentration.
Much of the early research on extenders for sperm, freezing of semen and
artificial insemination techniques was done by Emmens and Blackshaw, followed
by Salamon and Maxwell in Australia, and Dauzier, Colas and Cortell in France
(Corteel, 1981; Salamon and Maxwell, 1995; Maxwell et al., 1999).
The success of long-term storage of spermatozoa depends on the dilution
of semen with a medium containing cryoprotectants to protect the cells from the
stresses associated with freezing and thawing (M. S.Nmez and E. Demurcu,
2004).The establish of diluting recipe composition must begin with semen
biochemical composition and specially with the seminal plasma biochemical
composition.
Fresh extended ram semen has a short fertile lifespan whereas acceptable
fertility with cryopreserved semen is achieved only by laparoscopy. Laparoscopy
has evolved as one of the least invasive techniques depositing frozen-thawed
semen in the uterus of sheep.
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The techniques and media for freezing semen such as with egg yolk-
trisglycerol were modified (Salamon and Maxwell,1995;Maxwell and Watson,
1996; Amoah and Gelaye, 1997) from procedures developed for bull sperm .
One of the most important cryoprotectant agent for the ram semen is
glycerol. Although glycerol is considered essential for freezing spermatozoa, it is
often included in extenders for short-term storage at above-freezing temperatures.
The cryoprotective benefits of glycerol on spermatozoa were discovered
by Polge et al. (1949) and are attributed mostly to its water-binding properties
(reviewed by Salomon and Maxwell, 1995). Since then, the use of glycerol to
preserve spermatozoa during freezing is widespread (Hammerstedt et al., 1990;
Bailey et al., 2000).
Many studies have demonstrated that glycerol remains the most effective
cryoprotective compound for freezing mammalian semen and no enhancement
was showed by the addition of other compounds (Molinia et al., 1994).
Therefore, for cryopreservation, glycerol is the most commonly used
cryoprotectant for ram semen (Salomon and Maxwell, 2000).
In a recent study (2002), A.Morrier, F.Castonguay and J.L.Bailey
effectuated two series experiments about the glycerol influence of fresh and
cryopreservated ram semen. To test the hypothesis that glycerol reduces the
function of fresh sperm, ram semen was divided into two aliquots and diluted
with commercial extenders that were identical, except that one contained glycerol.
In the first experiment it was study the glycerol influence on fresh semen. In the
second experiment, glycerol was added to fresh ram semen immediately after
collection or after cooling to 5°C.
The semen was then frozen to assess whether the timing of cryoprotectant
addition during cryopreservation affects sperm quality. For both experiments,
semen was diluted in a solution that mimicked the genital tract of the ewes (SOF-
m) and motility, physiological status assessed by chlortetracycline (CTC)
fluorescence) and viability, were used as indicators of sperm quality.
In the first experiment, the initial concentrations of the ejaculates and
motility were 3.67 x 109 ±0.58 spermatozoa/ ml and 84 ± 3.3%, respectively, with
less then 25% abnormal spermatozoa for each ejaculate. For Experiment 1, the
presence or absence of 7% glycerol in the extender did not affect motility. The
duration of storage in the treatment extender and the time of incubation in SOF-m
affected total motility (P < 0.0001).
Progressive motility decreased with incubation time in SOF-m (P <
0.0001) and was influenced by the duration of storage in the extender (± glycerol)
only after 6 h of incubation in SOF-m (P < 0.0001). Sperm viability was reduced
with duration in the extender and incubation in SOF- m (P < 0.0002 and P <
0.0001).
However, the presence of glycerol did not significantly affect sperm
viability. Chlortetracycline fluorescence patterns were influenced by the duration
of conservation at 5°C in the extender and by the time of incubation in SOF-m but
not by the addition of glycerol to the extender.
- 244 -
The percentages of spermatozoa showing non-capacitated decreased with

time in the extender at 5°C and incubation in SOF-m (P = 0.0001), while the
percentages of sperm with acrosome-reaction increased (P = 0.0001). Overall,
the percentage of sperm capacitated was lower after 8 h of conservation in the
extender (± glycerol; P = 0.05), followed by an additional decrease after 24 h (P =
0.05).
During incubation in SOF-m, the percentage of capacited sperm increased
after 6 h (t6; P = 0.05) followed by a decrease at 24 h (t24; P = 0.05), regardless
of the duration of storage at 5°C. In the second experiment , the method of
cryoprotectant addition did not significantly affect thawed sperm quality.
However, as in the first experiment , the total and progressive motilities were
reduced during incubation in SOF-m at 39°C (P = 0.0001) .
The viability of thawed ram spermatozoa was also decreased during
incubation in SOF-m (P = 0.0001). For the CTC fluorescence, the percentages of
sperm non-capacitated and capacitated decreased with time in SOF-m, as the
proportion of sperm with acrosome-reaction increased the (P = 0.05).
Chlortetracycline is a fluorescent antibiotic that binds membrane calcium
(Saling and Storey, 1979). The distribution of membrane calcium (bound to
proteins and/or lipids) is thought to change during capacitation and may be
associated with an influx of calcium leading to the acrosome reaction (Gillan et
al., 1997). Abdelhakeam et al. (1991) found that the addition of glycerol (3%)
decreased lambing rates from 83 to 41%.
The damaging effect of glycerol on sperm is considered to be mostly
related to its osmotic impact. Upon glycerol addition, the cells rapidly shrink,
which is associated with the release of intracellular water. A slower return to the
original volume follows, as the glycerol penetrates into the sperm (Hammerstedt
et al., 1990).
However, in vitro tests done on semen are not always related to the
fertility of semen in vivo (Tardif et al., 1999). It is possible that the impact of
glycerol is within the female genital tract. Many proteins of the female
reproductive tract interact with sperm (Abe et al., 1995) and the reproductive tract
secretions of the ewes can capacitate ram sperm in vitro (Chavarria and Reys,
1996).
It is also possible that glycerol reduces the fertility of fresh ram semen
due to the effects on the ewe. Previous reports have suggested that glycerol
irritates the female genital tissues (Tajima et al., 1989; Abdelhakeam et al., 1991;
Hammerstedt and Graham, 1992), which could reduce fertility.
Bailey et al. (2000) hypothesised that cryopreservation actually induces
capacitation (cryo-capacitation).
In vitro studies (Molinia et al.,1994; Sanchez-Partida et al.,1997)
suggested that the addition of some antioxidants to diluted semen could improve
the motility and survival of spermatozoa, and it might allow the use of lower
glycerol concentrations. Ascorbic acid may play a role in protecting sperm from
reactive oxygen species (Buetter, 1992) and in maintaining the genetic integrity of
sperm cells by preventing oxidative damage to sperm DNA (Fraga et al.,1991).
- 245 -
The objective of a study made by Sonmez and Demirci in 2003 was to

investigate the effects of ascorbic acid on the freezability and spermatological
characteristics of ram semen diluted with extenders containing different
proportions of glycerol. In this study, the addition of more than 2 mg/ml of
ascorbic acid in diluted semen groups reduced the motility of spermatozoa during
the liquid storage of diluted semen at +4°C.
It might be related to the decrease in pH caused by ascorbic acid since the
ascorbic acid was strongly acidic (10% solution: pH 2), and a low pH may induce
reversible or irreversible reductions in motility (Acott and Carr, 1984).
One of the major causes of reduced motility and acrosomal integrity after
equilibration is the negative effect of glycerol. The addition of glycerol to diluted
ram semen could cause changes in the permeability of sperm cell membranes
(Maxwell and Watson, 1996).
Pontbriand et al. (1989) reported that the addition of glycerol to diluted
semen had detrimental effects on acrosomal integrity and motility. An increase in
the glycerol level in diluted ram semen significantly reduced motility and raised
the damaged acrosome rate
after equilibration. When the glycerol level added to the diluted ram
semen was considered, the highest percentage of motile spermatozoa was
determined in the presence of 5% glycerol immediately after thawing.
The addition of different proportions of ascorbic acid to the diluent
groups containing the same glycerol levels did not affect the motility of
spermatozoa, acrosomal integrity, total abnormal spermatozoa rate or dead
spermatozoa rate of frozen-thawed ram semen. However, some researchers
(Molinia et al.,1994; Sanchez-Partida et al.,1997) suggested that the inclusion of
antioxidants with a cryoprotective effect in the diluent might also allow the use of
low glycerol concentration (3% or 1%).
Proline- and glycine betaine- containing Tris-based diluents and
zwitterionic diluents have been reported to improve the postthaw motility
characteristics of ram spermatozoa, as assessed by objective and subjective
methods (Sanchez-Partida et al., 1992, 1998; Molinia et al., 1994).
The reduced motility of cryopreserved sperm has been attributed to the
toxicity of the cryoprotective agents used in the freezing diluent (Fiser et
al.,1981), to membrane changes during the freezing-thawing process (Fiser et
al.,1989) and to the presence of free radicals, which may induce lipid peroxidation
(Aitken et al.,1989). The experiments examined the freezability and
spermatological characteristics of ram semen diluted with Tris-based diluents
containing different concentrations of ascorbic acid and glycerol.
Sanchez-Partida et al. (1997) reported that the inclusion of ascorbic acid
at concentrations of 50 mM or 100 mM in diluted ram semen reduced the
percentage of motile spermatozoa compared to the control diluent.
In a study made in 1999, Seremak et al. determinated Selenium effects
behind its addition at cryopreservated ram semen.
The authors mentioned above proved that the additive of selenium of up
to 1 g/ml had a positive impact on the motility of fresh and frozen semen. In case
- 246 -
of doses exceeding 2 g/ml the authors noted a drop in spermatozoon motility, and
at doses of over 5 g/ml the negative influence of this microelement proved
statistically significant. The additive of selenium in the quantity of 0.65 g/ml
proved most optimal.
The test sampling of selenium concentration carried out additionally in
applied diluents demonstrated that the concentration varied from 55 to 62 ng/ml,
and in the semen plasma assigned for tests it amounted to: from 40 to 115.5
ng/ml. The research of Saaranen et al. (1989) shows that the concentration of the
discussed microelement in the semen plasma is approx. 100 ng/ml.
Regardless of extenders or of extender ingredients used and regardless of
the method of semen preservation, it is necessary to maintain the sperm viability
and fecundation capacity, to obtain the best results in the artificial insemination.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Abdelhakeam, A. A., Graham, E. F. and Vazquez, I. A. (1991). Studies on the presence
and absence of glycerol in unfrozen and frozen ram semen: fertility trials and the effects of dilution
methods on freezing ram semen in the absence of glycerol. Cryobiology 28: 36-42.
2. Amoah, E. A., Gelaye, S. (1997). Biotechnological advances in goat reproduction. J.
Anim. Sci. 75:578–585.
3. Bailey, J. L., Bilodeau J.-F. and Cormier, N. (2000). Semen cryopreservation in
domestic animals; a damaging and capaciting phenomenon. J. Androl. 21: 1-7.
4. Corteel, J. M. (1981). Collection, processing and artificial insemination of goat semen.
In: C. Gall (ed.) Goat Production. pp 171–191. Academic Press, London.
5. Evans, G. and Maxwell, W. M. C. (1987). Frozen storage of semen In: Salomon’s 424
Artificial Insemination of Sheep and Goats. Butterworths (ed), Sydney: 122-141p.
6. Fiser, P.S., Fairfull, R.W.(1989).The effect of glycerol-related osmotic changes on post-
thaw motility and acrosomal integrity of ram spermatozoa. Cryobiology., 26: 64-69.
7. Foote, R. H. (1999). Artificial insemination from its origins up to today.In: V. Russo, S.
Dall ’Olio, and L. Fontanesi (ed.) Proc. of the Spallanzani Int. Symp., Reggio Emilia, Italy. pp 23–
67.
8. Gillan, L., Evans, G. and Maxwell, W. M. C. (1997). Capacitation status and fertility of
frozen–thawed ram spermatozoa. Reprod. Fertil. Dev. 9: 481-487.
9. Hammerstedt RH, Graham JK, Nolan JP.( 1990), Cryopreservation of mammalian
sperm: what we ask them to survive. J Androl.;11:73–88.
10. Maxwell, W. M. C. and Watson, P. F. (1996). Recent progress in the preservation of
ram semen. Anim. Reprod. Sci. 42: 55-65.
11. Maxwell, W. M. C., G. Evans, S. T. Mortimer, L. Tillan, E. S. Gellatly and C.
A.McPhie. (1999). Normal fertility after cervical insemination with frozen-thawed spermatozoa
supplemented with seminal plasma. Reprod. Fertil. Devel. 11:123–126.
12. Molinia, F. C., Evans, G. and Maxwell, W. M. C. (1994). Incorporation of penetrating
cryoprotectants in diluents for pellet-freezing ram spermatozoa. Theriogenology 42: 849- 858.
13. Morrier, A., Castonguay, F., Bailey, J. L. (2002). Glycerol addition and conservation
of fresh and cryopreserved ram spermatozoa, Quebec, Canada.
14. Mustafa, S.Nmez and Demurcu, E. (2004) The Effect of Ascorbic Acid on the
Freezability of Ram Semen Diluted with Extenders Containing Different Proportions of Glycerol
Turk J Vet Anim Sci 28 893-899.
15. Rowe PJ, Comhaire FH, Hargreave TB, Mellows HJ., (1993 ) WHO Manual for the
Standard Investigation and the Diagnosis of the Infertile Couple. Cambridge, United Kingdom:
Cambridge University Press.
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BACK
16. Salomon, S. and Maxwell, W. M. C. (1995). Frozen storage of ram semen.

Processing, freezing, thawing and fertility after cervical insemination. Anim. Reprod. Sci. 37: 185-
249.
17. Salomon, S. and Maxwell, W. M. C. (2000). Storage of ram semen. Anim Reprod. Sci.
62:
77-111.
18. Sanchez-Partida, L.G., Setchell, B.P., Maxwell, W.M.C.(1997). Epididymal
compounds and antioxidants in diluents for the frozen storage of ram spermatozoa. Reprod. Fertil.
Dev., 9: 689-696.
19. Seremak, B., Udala, J., Lasota, B. (1999). Influence of Selenium additive on ram
semen freezing quality, Electronic Journal of Polish Agricultural Universities, Animal Husbandry,
Volume 2,
Issue 1.
20. Soliman I. Peris and al. (2004). Cryopreservation of Ram Semen Facilitates Sperm
DNA Damage: Relationship Between Sperm Andrological Parameters and the Sperm Chromatin
Structure Assay J. of Androl., Vol. 25, No. 2
21. Watson, P.F.(2000). The causes of reduced fertility with cryopreserved semen. Anim.
Reprod. Sci., 60-61: 481-492.
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BACK
ANALYSIS SCHEDULE FOR FERTILIZING ABILITY OF

SEMEN EVALUATION
SCHEMĂ DE ANALIZĂ PENTRU APRECIEREA
POTENŢIALULUI DE FECUNDARE A MATERIALULUI
SEMINAL
M. PARASCHIVESCU, Ioana NICOLAE
In order to have a good evaluation of semen used for artificial

insemination a working schedule is proposed. The schedule follows three stages:
the gametic stage, the zygote stage and the embryonic stage. For sperms the
gametic stage considers as physiological acts the insemination, the capacitation,
the migration, the zona reaction and the vitelin block. In the zygote stage
formation of the two pronuclei and the telophaze of the second meiotic division
are considered. As embryos the ovular, the blastocyte and the chessonic phase
must be respected. Parturition and abortion are certain signs of fertilization of
ova.. So is palpation of the fetus trough the abdominal wall or trough the rectum
as well. As an earlier diagnosis the echographic control could be promoted. The
paper proposes to be used a complete set of methods to distingue between live
and dead spermatozoa and to show blunt spermatozoa and perlated
spermatozoa.
Practicarea însămânţărilor artificiale este rezonabilă atunci când

fertilitatea efectivului matcă în care se aplică nu prezintă diferenţe semnificative
faţă de practicarea montei naturale. Fertilitatea care se măsoară prin numărul de
descendenţi obţinut de la un reproducător (femel sau mascul) pe unitatea de timp
este dependentă întotdeauna de potenţialul de fecundare al partenerului de
reproducţie.
Fecundarea este un proces biologic complex care se finalizează prin
unirea garnituri cromozomale haploide a unui ovocit cu garnitura cromozomală
haploidă a unui spermatozoid în faza de zigot prealabilă ontogeniei unui individ
iniţiată de embrionul blastomeric primar de 2 celule.
Schema de analiză pentru stabilirea indicatorilor după care se poate stabili
modalitatea de apreciere a viabilităţii (capacităţii de a se angaja în procesul de
fecundare) a spermatozoizilor din produsul seminal recoltat sau a celor din
materialul seminal după decongelare şi capacitatea lor fecundantă (participarea la
formarea unui embrion apt pentru creştere şi dezvoltare) va urmări cele trei stadii
ale fecundării: a) stadiul de gameţi = 2 celule, b) stadiul de zigot = 1 celulă cu 2
pronuclei şi c) stadiul de embrion primar = 1 embrion cu 2 celule totipotente.
În stadiul de gameţi al procesului fecundării, cu referire la spermii au loc
următoarele acte fiziologice:
- însămânţarea, depunerea spermiilor în tractul genital femel realizată în
mod natural prin actul sexual care are loc între mascul şi o femelă în
- 249 -
călduri (estrus), act prin care produsul seminal ejaculat de mascul ajunge
în fundul de sac al vaginului unde se află deschiderea (ostium) a gâtului
uterin (cervix);
- capacitarea, dobândirea de către spermatozoizi a abilităţii de a participa
la fecundare ( se impune precizarea că spermatozoizii epidimari sunt
imobili şi că ei dobândesc mobilitate numai după ce intră în contact cu
lichidul spermatic secretat de glandele sexuale anexe – vezicula seminală,
prostata şi glandele bulbo-uretrale- fără însă a putea participa la
fecundare înainte de a avea un contact de câteva ore cu secreţiile
mucoasei tractului genital femel, contact prin care se realizează
capacitarea lor);
- migrarea, deplasarea spermiilor din vagin până în treimea superioară a
istmului oviductului (salpinx) unde întâlneşte ovocitul (timp în care se
produce capacitarea) deplasare pusă până cândva pe seama mobilităţii
spermatozoizilor, dar care s-a dovedit că este promovată mai ales de
peristaltismul tractului genital indus de ocitocină (hormon secretat de
hipofiza posterioară în urma excitaţiei cauzate de actul sexual);
- denudarea ovocitului, care constă în dispersarea celulelor granuloase care
îmbracă zona pellucida încă de la expulzarea acestuia din folicul, (se
impune precizarea că dispersarea celulelor granuloase se produce ca
urmare a acţiunii hialuronidazei,enzimă ce se eliberează de
spermatozoizii care mor şi care lichefiază gelul format de săruri ale
acidului hialuronic prin care realizează aderarea celulelor între ele – de
aici nevoia de un minimum necesar de spermatozoizi la contactul cu
ovocitul înconjurat de celulele din cumulus ooforus);
- reacţia zonei, implicarea zonei pellucida în procesul de fecundare,
implicare care are ca primă acţiune ataşarea (binding) unuia sau a câţiva
spermatozoizi perpendicular pe tangenta la ovocit la nivelul punctului de
contact un urma atragerii specifice dintre o glicoproteină din compoziţia
zonei pellucida şi proacrosina conţinută de mica veziculă din acrozomul
spermatozoizilor, urmată de reacţia acrozomală care constă în pierderea
de către acrozom a pliului de membrană cunoscut cu denumirea de gallea
capitis, dezvelirea perforatoriului (un mic spin din structura acrozomului)
şi activarea veziculei acrozomale care îşi măreşte volumul şi secretă
acrosină,,enzimă care depolimerizează unele moleculele din zona
pellucida şi dă spermatozoidului cu acrozom activat posibilitatea de a
perfora zona pellucida şi de a ajunge în spaţiul perivitelin de unde
provoacă exocitoza în acest spaţiu a granulelor prezente sub membrana
vitelină. Aceste granule intrate în contact cu moleculele zonei pellucida
provoacă modificare arhitecturii spaţiale a moleculelor de binding ale
acesteia şi suprimarea posibilităţii de aderarea a altor spermatozoizi la
zona pellucida (prin aceasta se blochează posibilitatea ca mai mulţi
spermatozoizi să pătrundă în spaţiul perivitelin = polispermie);
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- blocul vitelin, o ultimă componentă a acestui stadiu al fecundării, este

componenta în care un spermatozoid ajuns în spaţiul perivitelin aderă,
specific, cu zona lui ecuatorială la membrana vitelină, se realizează o
mică liză de membrane şi conţinutul capului spermatozoidului este
deversat în citoplasma ovocitului (aşa se explică de ce în citoplasma
ovociţilor nu s-au găsit nici o dată cozi de spermatozoizi), cea ce
împiedică poliploidia.
Cu parcurgerea blocului vitelin se încheie stadiul în care gameţii acţionează ca
entităţi distincte şi se trece în stadiul de zygot. Reacţia zonei şi blocul vitelin sunt
două importante mecanisme moleculare de izolare reproductivă a speciilor
genetice.
Zygotul este un stadiu cu durată de existenţă scurtă, câteva ore. În prima

fază a sa se formează cei doi pronuclei ai zygotului . Pronucleul mascul se
constituie din nucleul fostului spermatozoid care se completează proteine histone
sintetizate din substanţa citoplasmei ovocitului şi se înconjoară de o membrană
proprie. Pronucleul femel se formează consecutiv celei de a doua diviziuni din
meioză când se elimină cel de al doilea globul polar. Această diviziune are loc la
ovocitul speciei taurine cu foarte puţin timp înainte de iniţierea fecundării (la
ovocitul de iapă şi la cel de căţea a doua diviziune a ovocitului este indusă de
pătrunderea spermiilor în spaţiul perivitelin). Pronucleul mascul capătă
dimensiuni mai mari decât cel femel. Ambii pronuclei au o structură veziculară cu
filamentul suport al cromatinei relaşat, ceea ce dă posibilitatea ca DNA să se
replice, să se realizeze fenomenele de crosing-over şi de transducţie de DNA.
Transgeneza nu se poate realiza decât în această fază din existenţa zygotului.
În faza următoare cei doi pronuclei intră sincron în diviziune. Membrana
pronucleilor dispare. După profază şi metafază fiecare nucleu are o placă
ecuatorială cu două rânduri de cromozomi. Între timp între cei doi centrioli ai
ovocitului se formează un fus cromatic. În anafază câte o garnitură din
cromozomii fiecare pronucleu se dirijează pe fusul cromatic al ovocitului către
unul din polii fusului cromatic. Telofaza acestei diviziuni se încheie cu formarea a
două celule diploide (blastomere) care constituie embrionul primar. Amfimixia
cromozomilor celor doi pronuclei se produce în timpul telofazei pronucleilor şi
poate avea loc numai dacă numărul, forma şi dimensiunile autozomilor din cei doi
pronuclei este asemănătoare. Tot acum se constituie perechile de gene alele la
nivelul locilor din autozomi după regula că o genă poate avea ca alelă numai o
copie a ei sau o mutaţie a ei. Amfimixia cromozomilor şi complementaritatea
alelică sunt alte două importante mecanisme moleculare de izolare reproductivă a
speciilor genetice. Heterozomii nu formează alele.
Embrionul primar, de două celule, are sex genetic. Cel rezultat din
spermatozoid purtător de cromozom Y va avea perechea de heterozomi XY şi va
avea sexul genetic mascul, cel rezultat din spermatozoid purtător de cromozom X
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va avea perechea de heterozomi XX şi va avea sexul genetic femel. Cele două

blastomere ale embrionului primar sunt înconjurate de zona pellucida, fapt care dă
unitatea de dezvoltare a noului organism.
Până la a deveni organism apt de existenţă autonomă, în mediu extern
organismului matern, embrionul parcurge mai multe faze de dezvoltare.
Dezvoltarea are loc prin diferenţiere celulară şi structurarea celulelor în ţesuturi, a
ţesuturilor în organe, a organelor în aparate şi a aparatelor în sisteme însoţite de
diversificarea funcţiilor vitale. Fiecare din stadiile de dezvoltare parcurge un
proces propriu de creştere care constă în sporirea masei embrionului prin mărirea
numărului celulelor de acelaşi fel şi mărirea dimensiunilor celulelor componente
ale ţesuturilor. Sunt acceptate ca faze ale dezvoltării embrionare: faza de embrion
ovular, faza de embrion blastocistic şi faza de embrion chesonic.
Embrionul ovular (ou fecundat) este numit astfel pentru că este format în
interiorul zonei pellucida, care ar fi coaja oului. În această fază creşterea se
realizează prin diviziune mitotică, în progresie geometrică, a blastomerilor.
Energia şi proteinele necesare acestui proces (nutriţia celulelor) se face în
principal pe seama nutrienţilor din vitelus-ul ovulului şi din substanţe din
exteriorul zonei pellucida care traversează membrana prin osmoză. Embrionii
genetic masculi au celule cu heterozomi XY pe toată durata fazei şi în fazele
următoare. Embrionii genetic femeli, până când numărul de blastomere al
acestora este de 4 sau de 8, sau mai mare de 8 are heterozomi XX. După acest
număr unul din cromozomii X se inactivează şi se condensează rămânând în
nucleu ca o mică formaţiune ce se colorează intens şi care are forma unui bastonaş
(drum stick sau cromatină sexuală). Evidenţierea cromatinei sexuale într-un
blastomer extras prin biopsie dintr-un cu mai mult de 8 celule permite a
diagnostica embrionul de la care provine celula ca având sex genetic mascul.
Când numărul blastomerilor este suficient de mare embrionul ia aspectul unei
mure, fază cunoscută sub numele de morulă. Apoi urmează faza de morulă târzie.
Între celulele morulei se produce lichid care se acumulează central formând un
antrum (blastocel). Presiunea interioară creşte, zona pellucida se întinde, grosimea
ei scade şi în final cedează. Se produce ecloziunea embrionului. Faza de embrion
ovular se încheie cu acest eveniment. Dacă pe parcursul acestei faze survine
moartea embrionul efectul amfimixiei se pierde şi este ca şi cum fecundarea nu ar
fi avut loc. Moartea embrionilor în această fază este cunoscută ca „mortalitate
ovulară”.
Embrionul blastocistic este cel ce succede ecloziunii. Blastocistul timpuriu
se prezintă ca o băşică plină cu lichid, mărginită de un strat de celule ce formează
trofoblastul (ţesutul prin care are loc hrănirea). Pe trofoblast există o mică zonă în
care se aglomerează mai multe celule, pe mai multe straturi. Acesta este discul
proliger sau germinativ. Aceasta este prima diferenţiere celulară evidentă. Celulele
trofoblastului au rol în hrănirea embrionului şi vor forma corionul viitorului
embrion chesonic iar celulele discului germinativ au rol în organogeneză şi vor
forma corpul embrionului şi învelitorile fetale (amniosul şi alantoida).
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Organogeneza începe cu înmulţirea celulelor din discul proliger şi

aşezarea lor în trei straturi ectoderm, spre exterior, endoderm, spre interior şi
mezoderm, între acestea. Aceasta este a doua diferenţiere celulară majoră.
Celulele endodermului primitiv se înmulţesc, căptuşesc trofoblastul şi limitează
un sac vitelin care rămâne în legătură cu endodermul care între timp, întregit cu
celule din ectodermul primitiv al discului embrionar, la nivelul discului
germinativ, se îngroaşă, se alungeşte şi apoi se curbează formând un tub ce
comunică direct cu sacul vitelin asigurând hrănirea embrionului. În această fază
embrionul este denumit gastrulă. Din celulele care căptuşesc tubul gastrulei se va
forma intestinul, ficatul şi pulmonii. Din aceleaşi celule se formează alantoida,
care este o învelitoare fetală mare ce înconjoară embrionul şi împreună cu
corionul participă la formarea placentei. Alantoida comunică în embrion cu vezica
urinară. Mezodermul proliferează formând un extracelom care înconjoară
celelalte structuri diferenţiate izolând embrionul de trofoblast, ceea ce duce la
formarea amniosului, o a doua învelitoare fetală. Amniosul are comunicare cu
tubul gastrulei şi viitorul intestin aşa că va colecta dejecţiile fătului (meconiu) iar
alantoida are comunicare cu vezica urinară şi va colecta urina. Din mezoderm se
mai formează pielea glandele genitale şi, împreună cu ectodermul, sistemul
nervos.
Dacă embrionul moare în această fază blastocistul este eliminat. Se
produce aşa numita mortalitate embrionară. Din cauza dimensiunilor mici ale
embrionului şi a consistenţei sale foarte puţin solide eliminarea blastocitului trece,
de regulă, neobservată.
Embrionul chesonic este cel în care domină fenomenele de dezvoltare
deoarece acum are loc organogeneza. Faza de făt este cea în care domină
procesele de creştere a masei organelor nou formate. Moartea embrionului sau a
fătului este urmată de eliminarea lui din uter. Evenimentul fiind observabil avem
a face cu un avort. Spre deosebire de mortalitatea ovulară sa cea embrionară,
avortul confirmă faptul că fecundarea a avut loc.
Având ca fundament schema de analiză de mai sus estimarea viabilităţii şi

a capacităţii fecundante a produsului seminal destinat însămânţărilor artificiale
sau a materialului seminal prelucrat poate folosi indicatorii ce se prezintă în
continuare.
Viabilitatea, definită ca abilitatea spermatozoizilor de a supravieţui până
la exprimarea capacităţii fecundante a acestora, are ca indicator mobilitatea (mai
exact, nota pentru mobilitate). Mobilitatea se apreciază prin note cu valoare
zecimală de la 0.1 până la 1.0 în funcţie de procentul de spermatozoizi cu mişcări
de înaintare. Dacă spermatozoizii mobili lipsesc cu desăvârşire atunci nu se mai
acordă nici o notă şi se consemnează situaţia de necrospermie (N) ceea ce
înseamnă spermatozoizi morţi.
Există însă şi cazuri de spermatozoizi care sunt imobili fără a fi morţi
(akinezie) cazuri semnalate la bivol şi la materialul seminal conservat prin
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carboxidare. Pentru a distinge între aceste două stări ale spermatozoizilor se pot
prepara frotiuri care se colorează cu coloranţi speciali. Cel mai frecvent se
foloseşte metoda Blom în care colorantul este eozin-nigrosina sau nigrozina şi
roşu de Congo. În cazul bivolului ejaculatele cu spermatozoizi imobili sunt destul
de frecvente de aceea este important a se face distincţie între cazurile de
necrospermie şi cazurile de akinezie. Întrucât literatura de specialitate nu
precizează dacă ejaculatele cu akinezie spermatică au sau nu au capacitate
fecundantă este necesar ca pe măsura identificării unor turmaci (tauri de bivol) cu
asemenea ejaculate să se efectueze cercetări pentru a răspunde la următoarele
întrebări: a) spermatozoizii imobili sunt morţi sau vii ? b) care este cauza
akineziei ? Plasma seminală nu a provocat activarea motilităţii spermiilor sau
spermatozoizii nu pot dobândi mobilitate ? Prin ce mijloace se pot activa
spermatozoizii ? (se va încerca efectul plasmei spermatice a unor ejaculate
normale şi oxigenarea mediului plasmatic al spermatozoizilor prin adaosul de
citrat de sodiu sau prin contact cu aerul atmosferic pe lamă microscopică sub
protecţie ce peliculă de polietilen) c) activarea spermatozoizilor akinetici la
ejaculare este urmată sau nu de o capacitate fecundantă satisfăcătoare a acestora ?.
Încă mai sunt aspecte de clarificat cu privire la practicarea IA la unele specii de
animale domestice.
Capacitatea fecundantă are ca indicator proporţia în care tentativele de

fecundare a unor ovule se încheie prin formarea de embrioni. Tentativă de
fecundare este însămânţarea unei femele în călduri. Formarea unui embrion este
confirmată de: fătarea la termen , avort (dacă vârsta avortonului corespunde
intervalului de la însămânţare), instalarea gestaţiei (confirmată prin examen clinic
de palpare a peretelui abdominal, sau prin examen transrectal (ETR) sau prin
ecografie), instalarea corpului galben de gestaţie (confirmată de ne întoarcerea in
călduri după 60 – 90 zile de la însămânţare sau de o progestreronemie mai mare
4 ng/ml la 21 - 27 zile de la însămânţare). Pentru lucrările de cercetare este
plauzibilă şi fecundarea in vitro.
Din punct de vedere practic fătarea este un indicator cert al fecundării dar el
este foarte tardiv (el poate fi indicat numai pentru cazurile în care nu există altă
soluţie). Avortul este un indicator la fel de cert dar este păgubos. Diagnosticul
transrectal este cert şi relativ timpuriu, dar are ceva costuri. Examenul ecografic este
la fel de cert, ceva mai timpuriu dar oarecum mal costisitor decât ETR (cere însă şi
un investigator bine format şi cu multă experienţă). Ne întoarcerile ( non return
rate) oferă un indicator destul de cert (se poate însă confunda cu formarea unui corp
galben persistent sau a unui chist de corp galben) şi în plus nu cere nici o cheltuială
în afara evidenţei curente de fermă. Fecundarea în vitro este o operaţie tehnică
însoţită deseori de insucces şi în plus are costuri foarte mari. Din aceste
considerente vom folosi în prezentul proiect: ne întoarcerile, ETR la începutul celei
de a patra luni de gestaţie şi examenul ecografic la un interval de cca. 42 zile de la
însămânţare, dar care se va preciza în decursul execuţiei proiectului.
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Indicatorii de viabilitate şi cei de capacitate fecundantă se estimează atât

pentru produsul seminal, imediat după recoltare, cât şi pentru materialul seminal
după decongelare. Pentru aprecierea capacităţii fecundante a spermatozoizilor din
produsul seminal ca indicator special va fi prezenţa şi frecvenţa formelor
anormale primare şi secundare de spermatozoizi. Formele anormale sunt cele cu
care spermiile ajung în ejaculat, formele secundare sunt cele care apar consecutiv
prelucrării ejaculatului sau preparării testului.
Ca forme anormale primare sunt considerate defectele de dimensiuni şi

conformaţie ale capului spermatozoizilor, defecte ale piesei intermediare şi
defectele de dimensiuni sau structură ale flagelului. Tot în această categorie intră
şi spermatozoizii imaturi. Sunt consideraţi imaturi spermatozoizii care poartă o
picătură de protoplasmă alăturată piese intermediare sau cozii spermatozoidului.
Deformaţii ale capului sunt: capul mic (microcefalia) considerată ca formă de
imaturitate, capul piriform sau cel globulos precum şi capul mare (macrocefalia).
Aceste forme anormale sunt consecinţă ale unor erori de spermiogeneză. Când
frecvenţa lor într-un ejaculat este mai mare de 10 % acesta se respinge de la
utilizare. Dacă frecvenţa ejaculatelor în această situaţie este mare atunci se
elimină de la reproducţie masculul cu asemenea defect. La masculii tineri este
bine ca testul să se repete după 1- 2 luni pentru a se afla dacă defectul de
spermiogeneză nu a dispărut.
O atenţie aparte este necesar să se acorde pentru trei feluri de
spermatozoizi anormali care sunt inapţi să fecundeze (infertili): spermatozoizi
decapitaţi, descrişi de J. Hancock , care au defecte de prindere a cozii şi care apar
frecvent ca fiind lipsiţi de flagel, spermatozoizi cu acrozom bont, descrişi de
Hancock, de Maden şi de Bane, care au vezicula acrozimaloarte mare şi sunt
lipsiţi de galea capitis şi spermatozoizii perlaţi, descrişi de Bane, care prezintă un
şirag de mici vezicule pe zona ecuatorială a capului spermatozoidului. Toate
aceste forma au indicat infertilitate. Metodele de colorare recomandate pentru
punerea în evidenţă a acestor anomalii ale cromozomilor sunt: metoda Hancock
cu colorant Giemsa pentru spermatozoizii decapitaţi, metodele Hacket şi Pherson
(tuş indian) sau Hanckok (Giemsa) sau Posalak şi Tőrők (cristal violet) sau Karras
– Wels varianta II (roşu de Congo şi fuxină) sau Wels (roşu de Congo şi fuxină
bazică) pentru acrozom bont şi metoda Karras şi Kordel (galben metacromatic,
spălare în zeamă de coajă de stejar şi apoi colorare de contrast cu albastru de
Victoria) pentru segmentul ecuatorial şi evidenţierea spermatozoizilor perlaţi.
Cu actualele cunoştinţe înţelegem ca incapacitatea fecundantă a
spermatozoizilor bonţi se leagă de chistizarea acrozomului şi secreţia de acrosină
înainte ca aceştia să se fi ataşat, prin acţiunea proacrosinei la zona pellucida.
Reacţia zonei face ca spermatozoizii bonţi, care secretă acrosină, să fie
respinşi şi ca ei să nu mai poată fecunda. Spermatozoizii decapitaţi, cu capul
desprins de flagel, nu se mai pot roti normal în jurul axei lor longitudinale pentru
a avea mişcări de înaintare şi deci nu mai pot „sfredeli” zona pellucida pentru a
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BACK
pătrunde în spaţiul perivitelin pentru a ajunge la membrana vitelină.

Spermatozoizii perlaţi, probabil, prin şiragul de vezicule din zona ecuatorială, au
ajuns să secrete enzima care determină blocul vitelin şi care împiedică apariţia
poliploidiei la mamifere. Ei nu pot intra în reacţie cu membrana vitelină şi ca
atare nu pot fecunda. Este drept că literatura de specialitate semnalează existenţa
acestor cazuri de incapacitate fecundantă pentru produsul seminal de la unii tauri
şi unii vieri. Acestea sunt speciile genetice la care însămânţarea artificială este
practicată pe scară largă ceea ce a condus la condus la descoperirea unor masculi
infertili şi la investigaţii pentru cunoaşterea cauzelor care au generat infertilitatea
lor. Nu este exclus ca asemenea cazuri să existe şi la bivol. Din acest motiv
proiectul îşi propune să pună la punct un set complet de tehnici de colorare a
spermiilor care să permită examinarea atentă a celulelor în ansamblul lor şi în
detaliu a acrozomului şi a zonei ecuatoriale. Examenul morfologic al spermiilor
va fi unul din testele la care se vor supune masculii de bivol înainte de acceptarea
lor de a fi admişi candidaţi în lucrări de selecţie sau la însămânţări artificiale.
Această schemă de analiză a fost elaborată pentru a servi lucrărilor de
însămânţări artificiale la specii genetice la care această biotehnică este mai puţin
studiată dar are şanse de a fi aplicată pe scară mai largă.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. M. Cîrlan, Şt. Creangă (2001) « Evoluia Determinismului Genetic al sexelor » - Editura Sedeom
Libris - Iaşi
2. I. Dumitrescu (coordonator) (1978) « Însămânţările artificiale la animale »
Editura Ceres – Bucureşti
3 F. E. Eldrige (1985) « Cytogenetics of Livestock » - Avipublishing Company, inc.Westport,
Conecticut
4. E. S. E. Hafez (editor) (1962) “ Reproduction in Farm Animals” – Lea and Febiger - Philadelfia
5. D. L. Hartl, D. Fleifelder, L. A. Snyder (1988) “Basic Genetics” Jones and Bartlett Publishers –
Boston – Portola Valley
6. R. C. Manea (2005) “ Cercetări privind intergarea unor procedee biotehnice în organizarea
reproducţiei vacilor de lapte în zona de munte a judeţului Dâmboviţa” Teză de doctorat USAMV -
Bucureşti
7. Şt. Mantea (2000) “ Biotehnici şi Biotehnologii de Reproducţie la porcine » - Editura Biotera –
Bucureşti
8. V. Oţel, M. Paraschivescu, C. Mihăilescu (1967) « Fertilitatrea şi Infertilitatea la Animalele de
Fermă – Editura Agro – Silvică - Bucureşti
8. M. Paraschivescu (1969) “Reproducţia la Ovine” – Editura Agro – Silvică - Bucureşti
9. M. H. Pineda, M. P. Dooley (1980) McDonald’s VETRINARY ENDOCRINILOGY AND
REPRODUCTION – Iowa State Press
10. C. Thibault, Marie-Claire Levasseur (1991) “La Reproduction chez les mamiferes et l’hommme
– INRA – Ellipses
11. C. I. Velea, I. Bud, A. Tăpălagă (1983) “ Creşterea Bivolilor” – Editura Ceres – Bucureşti.
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BACK
BIODIVERSITY IN FARM ANIMALS: SOURCES, USING,

CONSERVATION
BIODIVERSITATEA ZOOTEHNICĂ: SURSE, UTILIZARE,
CONSERVARE
M. PARASCHIVESCU
Sources of farm animal biodiversity, how to use it in animal production

and how to save it for the future are discussed. Biodiversity of farm animals is of
a peculiar type being artificially created by humans through artificial selection
and artificial insulation of breeds and strains. Ancient breeds, which currently
are called local breeds, have been formed more or less from instinct.
Understanding of artificial selection became much later in the 19th century when
the first mouton breeds of sheep and beef breeds of cattle have been created.
Artificial insulation of reproduction in farm animal populations started with the
“stud book” of the English Thorough Blood Horse. There are now “stud books”
for horses and donkeys, “herd books” for cattle and pigs, “flock books” for
sheep and birds. Since within domestic genetic species of animals the natural
mechanisms, molecular and behavioral, of reproductive insulation don’t act,
there is a permanent danger loosing the reproductive insulation of breeds or
strains by “cross” reproduction. Genetic variability and biodiversity are
different things. In order to conserve biodiversity inside farm animal genetic
species closed reproduction of breeds and strains has to be respected.
Biodiversity of farm animal populations may be saved ‘in situ” conserving active
breeds and “ex situ” preserving anabiotic genetic material from in critical state
populations. Legal regulations, adequate institutions and a clever management
are the only ones guaranties for keeping on biodiversity in animal production.
INTRODUCERE
În concepţia triadică despre materie (vezi Solomon Marcus: „Moduri de
Gândire” – colecţia Ştiinţa pentru toţi nr.281 – Editura Ştiinţifică şi
Enciclopedică – Bucureşti 1987), realitatea obiectivă din afara simţurilor noastre
are 3 forme de existenţă: informaţia, energia şi substanţa.
În esenţă:
Informaţia defineşte, calitativ şi cantitativ existenţele. Are ca unitate
constitutivă „contrariul” şi ca unitate de măsură ”bit”- ul. Este perisabilă şi se
reconstituie prin reproducere. S-au format, evolutiv, câteva tipuri de informaţie:
informaţia fundamentală (timpul şi spaţiul), care există fără suport de energie
sau substanţă („la Început a fost Cuvântul…” - vezi Vechiul Testament –
Geneza), piere şi se reproduce neîntrerupt (timpul este o succesiune continuă de
momente); informaţia structurală, cu suport de energie sau de substanţă, care
are o existenţă discontinuă deoarece piere şi se reproduce aleatoriu, odată cu
substratul ei; informaţia genetică, al cărei suport este viul şi care are o existenţă
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continuă deoarece îşi comandă propriu reproducerea substratului, informaţia

cognitivă, derivată din informaţia genetică pentru a favoriza reproducerea
acesteia prin cunoaşterea şi recunoaşterea mediului ambiental, care are substrat de
substanţă vie organizată celular (neuronii) şi se reproduce prin imprinting
(mecanism de memorizare a actelor reflexe); informaţia raţională, dezvoltare a
informaţiei cognitive, care devine aptă de autocunoaştere (descoperiri) creaţie
(artă, invenţie), prezentă numai la speţa umană.
Energia, suport de informaţie structurală, are unitate constitutivă quanta
şi unitate de măsură Joul, rezultă din mişcare şi se reproduce aleatoriu prin
transformarea, însoţită de entropie (pierdere de mişcare) a unui tip de energie în
alt tip de energie. Tipurile de energie derivă din caracteristicile mişcării care poate
fi dezordonată, lineară, radială planică sau sferică, de câmp şi orbitală. Entropia
este direct proporţională cu gradul de dezordine.
Substanţa este suport de informaţie şi energie, are ca unitate constitutivă
molecula, ca însuşire esenţială massa şi ca unitate de măsură „gram”- ul.
Substanţa se prezintă sub o mulţime de tipuri şi feluri. Principalele tipuri de
substanţă sunt: substanţele minerale, cu molecule formate dintr-un singur fel de
atomi (elementele chimice – vezi Tabelul lui Mendeleev) sau din mai multe feluri
de atomi (compuşii chimici), care depozitează energia intra atomic, substanţe
organice, în molecula cărora există lanţuri deschise sau ciclice de atomi de carbon
legaţi între ei prin valenţe duble sau triple (ele pot fi de mai multe feluri:
hidrocarburi, hidrocarbonate, lipide, proteine, acizi nucleici, enzime – după felul
şi aşezarea atomilor din molecula lor) şi care depozitează energie intramolecular;
substanţa vie, aptă de metabolism, de schimb de substanţe cu mediul ambiant, sub
comanda informaţiei genetice. Substanţa se reproduce prin transformarea unor
feluri de substanţe în alte feluri de substanţe, însoţită de consum de energie sau
degajare de energie , dar cu conservarea massei (Legea lui Lavoisier).
Metabolismul viului care consumă, depozitează, energie este anabolism, iar cel ce
eliberează energie este katabolism.
Caracterizarea informaţională a biodiversităţii din zootehnie

Biodiversitatea este starea viului definită de calitatea şi cantitatea
informaţiei genetice prezente într-un spaţiu dat. Calitatea informaţiei genetice
este consecinţă a felurilor de informaţie genetică (în natură specii genetice)
prezente. Fiecare specie genetică are suport o specie biologică. Speciile biologice
sunt existenţe reale ale viului spre deosebire de încrângături, clase sau ordine care
sunt categorii definite arbitrar de informaţia raţională a omului. Speciile biologice
sunt alcătuite din indivizi care, în limitele speciei comune de informaţie genetică
poartă informaţie genetică diferită în relaţie cu categoria căreia îi aparţin, cu
familia şi cu individul. Categoriile se definesc în relaţie cu dezvoltarea
(ontogeneza) indivizilor. Categoriile mari existente obiectiv sunt animale
impubere, inapte pentru reproducţie şi animale pubere, apte pentru reproducţie, de
sex femel şi de sex mascul. Familia este o relaţie genealogică din care rezultă o
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informaţie genetică de individ mai asemănătoare la rudele mai apropiate.

Diferenţele de informaţie genetică ale indivizilor în ansamblul lor formează
variabilitatea genetică a speciei. Definirea caracterelor cantitative ale indivizilor
speciei este dată de variabilitatea genetică
Ca indice de biodiversitate, Shanon, şeful „Programului pentru
Biodiversitate” al ONU – 1973 - , propune:
I = ∑ pi. log 2 pi
În această relaţie mărimea indicelui de biodiversitate (I) este dată în
primul rând de numărul termenilor din ∑ , care este egal cu numărul speciilor de
informaţie genetică dintr-un spaţiu dat. Această mărime este amplificată de
numărul de indivizi al fiecărei specii biologice (pi) corectat prin înmulţire cu
logaritmul în baza 2 al numărului de indivizi al fiecărei specii. Se estimează că
amplificarea maximă a ∑pi se consemnează când distribuirea indivizilor între
speciile biologice este uniformă. De aici concluzia că biodiversitatea este definită
în cea mai mare măsură de numărul speciilor de informaţie genetică şi în mai
mică măsură de variabilitatea genetică a indivizilor din speciile biologice
(populaţiile) suport. Calitatea speciilor de informaţie genetică este menţinută de
izolarea reproductivă a speciilor biologice, asigurată de mecanisme naturale de
izolare reproductivă, moleculare şi comportamentale
În zootehnie, unde acţionează informaţia raţională a omului, locul
speciilor (populaţii biologice naturale) îl iau rasele şi liniile (populaţii biologice
artificiale) formate de om în limitele speciei de informaţie genetică a populaţiei
din care s-au format. În unele cazuri, taurinele de exemplu, speciile biologice de
origine a populaţiilor domestice au şi dispărut, dar specia de informaţie genetică
şi mecanismele ei naturale de izolare reproductivă s-au păstrat. Zootehnia a creat
mecanisme de izolare reproductivă a populaţiilor biologice artificiale care
funcţionează pe bază de informaţie raţională , nu pe bază de specie de informaţie
genetică. Biodiversitatea biologică din zootehnie este creaţie a informaţiei
raţionale.
Sursele biodiversităţii din zootehnie

Biodiversitatea naturii, apariţia noilor specii de informaţie genetică, a fost
argumentată de Darwin în celebra lui lucrare „Originea
Speciilor”(1869).Actualizând şi sintetizând opiniile lui Darwin se poate afirma că
sursele biodiversităţii naturi sunt: variabilitatea informaţiei genetice a indivizilor
în interiorul populaţiilor, adaptarea grupelor sub-populaţionale de indivizi la
modificările din mediul lor de viaţă şi speciaţia, dobândirea de către asemenea
grupuri a unui mecanism natural de izolare reproductivă.
Variabilitatea informaţiei genetice este cauzată de mutaţii (modificări
întâmplătoare a ordinei codonilor în succesiunile genelor eucariotelor), separarea
inegală a repetiţiilor din structura genelor eucariotelor în procesele meiotice ale
gametogenezei, crossing-overul, combinarea aleatorie a alelelor la formarea
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perechilor de gene ale cromozomilor somatici, autozomi,(prin intermediere,

dominanţă incompletă, dominanţă absolută, codominanţă etc.), polialelismul,
epistazia, imprintingul.
Adaptarea la mediul de viaţă, este procesul complex care începe la nivel
de individ prin modificări fiziologice de acomodare la mediul de viaţă modificat
şi care asociate unor efecte de variabilitate genetică, favorizează, prin selecţie
naturală, reproducţia indivizilor cel mai bine acomodaţi, până la stadiul în care
grupul atinge o rată pozitivă a reproducţiei nete şi când s-a ajuns la aclimatizare.
Selecţia naturală din generaţiile următoare fixează modificările morfo–fiziologice
perfectând adaptarea. Adaptarea se realizează în limitele speciei de informaţiei
genetice a populaţiei supuse adaptării.
Speciaţia este o adaptare care include modificarea procesului de
reproducţie până la gradul de instalare a unui mecanism de izolare reproductivă,
termen la care grupul de fiinţe aclimatizat şi adaptat devine specie biologică,
dobândeşte caracter de populaţie şi devine suport al unei noi specii de informaţie
genetică. La mamifere mecanismele naturale moleculare ale izolării reproductive,
controlate de informaţia genetică, cunoscute până în prezent, sunt: reacţia zonei
(pellucida – vezi Paul Wassarman), blocul vitelin, caryotipul (numărul, forma şi
dimensiunile cromozomilor – vezi Cribiu), complementaritatea alelică, MHC
(Complexul Major de Histocompatibilitate), MRP (Maternal Recognition of
Pregnancy = recunoaşterea maternă a sarcinii). Mecanismele naturale
comportamentale de izolare reproductivă, comandate de informaţia cognitivă a
indivizilor, sunt: actele reflexe de chemare la împerechere olfactive (prin
feromoni) sau sonore (sunete specifice ca de exemplu boncăluitul cerbilor), acte
reflexe, din partea masculului, de abordare a partenerului, reflexul de imobilitate
al femelelor. Actele reflexe ale activităţii sexuale sunt exprimate în principal de
femele asociat stării de estrus (călduri) care sunt sezoniere şi ciclice. La păsări
actele reflexe sexuale sunt exprimate în principal de masculi ( cântatul ca act
reflex de chemare şi dansurile nupţiale ca acte reflexe de abordare. Femelele
exprimă numai reflexul de imobilitate.
Sursele biodiversităţii animalelor care fac obiectul zootehniei sunt
analoage dar modificate artificial prin intervenţia informaţiei raţionale a omului.
În acest sens este de notat în primul rând că populaţiile biologice cu care se
lucrează în zootehnie sunt: rasa şi linia. Rasa şi linia sunt populaţii biologice
artificiale create prin mecanisme artificiale de izolare reproductivă. Ele se
formează foarte rapid, prin comparaţie cu formarea populaţiilor biologice
naturale, speciile.
Variabilitatea populaţiilor artificiale păstrează toate sursele naturale, dar
este amplificată artificial prin încrucişări disjunctive (vezi Legile lui Mendel),
antrenament (în sens larg exerciţii pentru manifestarea unei funcţii) şi
nominalizare a împerecherilor (potrivirea perechilor).
Selecţia artificială înlocuieşte selecţia naturală. În selecţia artificială
criteriile de selecţie sunt caractere ale indivizilor din populaţie care: au valoare
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economică, sunt măsurabile şi au heritabilitate (h2) acceptabilă. Criteriile de

selecţie se referă la performanţă (măsura exprimării unei funcţii: creştere = spor
de massă corporală, reproducţie = indici de fertilitate, excreţie = cantitate lapte
pentru diferite intervale de timp ş. a.) În selecţia artificială se reproduc, lasă
descendenţi, indivizii care satisfac superior criteriul sau criteriile de selecţie.
Adaptarea, în zootehnie, are loc în cazul transferului unei populaţii dintr-
o zonă geografică în altă zonă geografică sau de la un sistem de creştere la altul
(de ex. de la creştere la altul (de ex. de la crea în libertate la creşterea în
încarcerare). În asemenea situaţii adaptarea progresează până la stadiul de
aclimatizare, când se consideră că transferul de populaţie a avut succes.
Insuccesul transferului în caz de încarcerare este cauzat de tehnopatii. În fapt nici
nu se doreşte ca în asemenea cazuri modificările de acomodare să fie mai mari
decât cele ce permit o reproducţie satisfăcătoare.
Izolarea reproductivă artificială înlocuieşte speciaţia. Mecanismele
artificiale al izolării reproductive sunt: insulizarea, încarcerarea şi cartea de rasă
(registrele genealogice). Insulizarea, cuvânt nu tocmai ortodox din punctul de
vedere al lecticii limbii române, vrea să exprime faptul că unui grup de indivizi
dintr-o populaţie i s-a atribuit un spaţiu în care este crescut în libertate fără a putea
intra în contact cu indivizi din alte populaţii care poartă aceiaşi specie de
informaţie genetică. Încarcerarea este procedeul care realizează acelaşi tip de
separare a grupului dar în spaţii închise. Cartea de rasă este însă instrumentul
artificial infailibil de izolare reproductivă a unei rase de animale. Cartea de rasă
înscrie în primul rând proprietarii de animale recunoscute că aparţin rasei şi care
participă cu aceste animale la obţinerea generaţiilor viitoare ale populaţiei. În al
doilea rând Cartea de Rasă înscrie animalele recunoscute că aparţin rasei şi care
sunt cele care au ambii părinţi înscrişi în aceiaşi Carte de Rasă. În al treilea rând
Cartea de Rasă înscrie animalele care lasă descendenţi ce se înscriu în cartea de
rasă. Animalele din cartea de rasă trebuie să se reproducă în sine prin ambii
părinţi. Celelalte animale care participă la reproducţia populaţiei numai prin
femele fac parte din populaţie dar nu şi din populaţia activă care generează
reproducători masculi. Acestea sunt animalele comerciale ale rasei. Din rândul
acestora, la Rasa Holstein – Friesien din USA, identifică animale cu tată
cunoscut, înscris în Cartea de Rasă şi care au mamă de asemenea cunoscută ba
chiar cu producţie la lapte măsurată, dar care nu sunt înscrise în cartea de rasă.
Aceste animale, după cum se vede numai femele, se numesc de altfel animale
identificate. Această categorie de vaci a apărut ca urmare a testării taurilor din
această rasă după descendenţi, pentru cunoaşterea performanţelor fiicelor taurilor
în testare si a contemporanelor lor, deoarece proprietarii de vaci nu voiau ca
vacile lor cu pedigriu, înscrise în Cartea de Rasă să fie împerecheate cu tauri
tineri cu valoare de ameliorare incertă, netestaţi după descendenţi. La calul Pur
Sânge Englez toate animalele populaţiei sunt înscrise în Stud Book. Animale de
rasă nu pot decât cele înscrise într-o Carte de Rasă, care au ambii părinţi înscrişi
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în aceiaşi Carte de Rasă şi care lasă descendenţi ce se înscriu în aceiaşi Carte de

Rasă.
Utilizarea biodiversităţii în zootehnie
Zootehnia, creşterea ştiinţifică a animalelor este o activitate comercială
care trebuie să furnizeze proprietarului animalelor materii prime alimentare sau
pentru industria uşoară, energie sau divertisment. În acest scop biodiversitatea
este folosită la trei niveluri : nivelul speciilor de informaţie genetică, nivelul
populaţiilor biologice artificiale (rase şi linii), nivelul variabilităţii genetice a
indivizilor.
Primul nivel este folosit pentru diversificarea calitativă specifică a
produselor vandabile cu scopul de a veni în întâmpinarea gustului şi a tradiţiilor
consumatorilor sau pentru punerea în valoare a resurselor furajere ale mediului
sau zonei. Există consumatori care preferă carnea de porc, alţii pe cea de vită sau
de oaie, sau de pasăre. La fel stau lucrurile cu brânzeturile sau cu celelalte
produse animaliere. În unele zone abundă terenurile inerbate şi se vor prefera
speciile ierbivore, înalte zone există un disponibil mai mare de cereale şi se va
prefera creşterea păsărilor sau a porcilor, după cum în alte locuri se poate practica
piscicultura sau apicultura ş. a m. d. Îmbogăţirea biodiversităţii la acest nivel se
face prin preluarea în cultură a unor specii din fauna sălbatecă. Aşa au stat
lucrurile cu prepeliţa japoneză şi aşa stau lucrurile acum cu struţul sau cu melcii.
La al doilea nivel zootehnia se preocupă de realizarea biodiversificării
prin specializarea raselor sau a liniilor pentru obţinerea cu preponderenţă a unui
anumit produs. De la vacile din rasele carne se doreşte numai viţelul (vacile nu se
mulg), de la scroafele din rasele materne se doreşte înţărcarea a cât mai mulţi
purcei. Există rase de oi care se cresc pentru pielicica mielului crud şi alte rase de
oi care se cresc pentru blana oilor adulte. S-au obţinut linii de păsări care
excelează prin producţia mare de ouă şi alte linii care excelează prin viteza foarte
mare de creştere a puilor. Această biodiversitate a fost reuşită de crescători prin
selecţie direcţională pentru unul sau mai multe criterii de selecţie şi prin izolarea
reproductivă prin cărţi de rasă. În treacăt fie spus zootehniştii din România nu
vorbesc despre cărţi de rasă ci despre registre genealogice deschise, în care se
înscriu animale străine, ceea ce anulează realizarea izolării reproductive şi deci
apartenenţa de rasă sau de linie a descendenţei acestora. Pentru a avea
biodiversitate în zootehnie trebuie ca pentru fiecare populaţie, indiferent de ce
specie de informaţie genetică poartă, să edifice instituţia cărţii de rasă şi asociaţia
de crescători interesată de funcţionare ei. Este vorba aici de o acţiune a
crescătorilor, de un serviciu pe care trebuie să şi-l facă ei însăşi, numai că ei nu o
pot face dacă nu sunt îndrumaţi în de aproape de specialişti bine formaţi în acest
scop. Fiecare populaţie biologică trebuie să aibă Carte de Rasă şi o asociaţie
nelucrativă, constituită în interes nepatrimonial, care să-şi finanţeze propriu
conducerea cărţii de rasă, folosind şi subvenţiile alocate de la buget pentru
acţiunile de reproducţie şi ameliorare a raselor.
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La al treilea nivel, cel al variabilităţii informaţiei genetice a indivizilor

zootehnia modernă acţionează prin cross (încrucişare, metisare) sau prin
hibridare.
În sensul corect al biodiversităţii cross înseamnă reproducţia la care
participă doi parteneri care aparţin la două populaţii distincte. Descendenţii
rezultaţi sunt metişii. Metişii cuplează prin intermediere (dominanţă incompletă)
sau prin alăturare (codominanţă) însuşirile ambilor părinţi (conform primei legi a
lui Mendel). Din acest motiv metişii au valoare comercială mare. De regulă
crescătorii sunt interesaţi să cupleze caractere care sunt, genetic vorbind, corelate
negativ. Când metişii se împerechează între ei caracterele segregă (conform celei
de a doua legi a lui Mendel). Din acest motiv descendenţii lor îşi pierd valoarea
comercială iar metişii nu au valoare de ameliorare. Cross-ul nu creează
biodiversitate pentru că nu creează populaţii. Dimpotrivă, încrucişarea conduce la
reducerea biodiversităţii. Din păcate în România metisarea este scăpată de sub
control şi mă îndoiesc că în zootehnia României mai putem vorbi de
biodiversitate.
Hibridarea este un procedeu de reproducţie mai sofisticat. În acest caz se
selecţionează direcţional linii până când nu se mai obţine progres genetic (legea
„factorului de creştere” a proceselor biologice cantitative) apoi din două linii
distincte selecţionate după aceleaşi criterii şi în aceiaşi direcţie se formează
perechi de genitori care produc hibrizii. Liniile sunt populaţii şi au registru
genealogic închis. Efectivul liniilor, numărul de indivizi contemporani, este mai
mic decât cel al raselor iar intensitatea de selecţie cu care se lucrează în cadrul
liniilor este pe cât posibil mai mare in funcţie de fertilitatea liniei. Hibrizii nu sunt
populaţii, ei pot fi consideraţi, matematic vorbind, mulţimi. Hibrizii realizează
performanţe productive superioare celor ale liniilor din care provin datorită
fenomenului heterozis. Plus ul de performanţă al hibrizilor nu se transmite însă la
descendenţi. Din aceste considerente valoarea comercială a hibrizilor este foarte
mare în timp ce valoarea lor de ameliorare este nulă.
Potenţe remarcabile pentru utilizarea informaţiei genetice a indivizilor au
deschis biotehnologiile de reproducţie. Însămânţarea artificială, susţinută de
congelarea materialului seminal, a permis eradicarea bolilor transmisibile prin
actul sexual şi a amplificat mult, foarte mult, fertilitatea masculilor, aşa încât s-a
putut mări precizia şi intensitatea selecţiei, putându-se practica presiunea
ameliorării prin mascul. Embrio-transferul, susţinut de congelarea embrionilor şi
de ovulaţia multiplă (MOET), a ridicat fertilitatea femelelor donatoare, permite
transferul direct (fără a se recurge la încrucişări succesive de transformare) a unor
rase dintr-o zonă geografică în alta şi clonarea mamiferelor folosind celule
embrionare totipotente. Fecundarea „in vitro”( IVF) permite accesul la zigot, în
faza în care cromozomii pronucleilor sunt despiralaţi, pentru transferarea unor
segmente de ADN şi producerea de organisme transgenice genetic modificate,
(GMO) sau clonarea mamiferelor din celule somatice adulte repotentate.
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Sintetizând se poate spune că într-o zootehnie ştiinţifică, biodiversitatea

se controlează prin „cărţi de rasă” şi „registre genealogice închise” şi se pune în
valoare prin „programe de ameliorare” şi „programe de reproducţie”.
Încrucişarea necontrolată alterează populaţiile şi dăunează biodiversităţii.
Conservarea biodiversităţii în zootehnie
În zootehnie, biodiversitatea este o situaţie favorabilă activităţii
comerciale a producătorilor de bunuri animaliere adecvate cerinţelor schimbătoare
ale pieţei. Păstrarea biodiversităţii nu se face însă de la sine. Dacă în natură există
un echilibru ecologic şi mecanismele naturale ale izolării reproductive protejează
perenitatea speciilor biologice fiind suficient să se elimine intervenţiile
păgubitoare ale omului de genul vânatului excesiv sau braconajului, în creşterea
animalelor păstrarea biodiversităţii este mult mai dificilă. În acest caz dificultatea
provine din faptul că păstrarea biodiversităţii este în totalitate în grija omului,
deoarece lipsesc mecanismele naturale ale izolării reproductive când este vorba de
populaţii care poartă aceiaşi specie de informaţie genetică. Pe acest fond
acţionează cauze energice de sărăcire a biodiversităţii cum sunt interesul
proprietarilor de a deţine animale numai din populaţiile care aduc profiturile cele
mai mari sau neînţelegerea faptului că metişii şi hibrizii nu au valoare de
ameliorare, deşi au performanţe de producţie mari. Practicarea încrucişărilor
dezordonate aduce cele mai mari prejudicii biodiversităţii din zootehnie.
Protejarea biodiversităţii din zootehnie se realizează prin conservare „in
situ” (rase cu „Carte de Rasă” şi linii cu „registru genealogic închis”) sau prin
conservare „ex situ”(depozitare de material de reproducţie adus în stare de
anabioză), mai numită şi prezervare.
Conservarea „in situ” se practică sub trei forme: cu programe de
ameliorare pentru populaţiile cu efective mari, economic active; cu programe de
menţinere, care au ca scop limitarea consangvinizării şi cheltuieli minime, pentru
populaţii cu efective mici; în bazin de gene (genes’ pool), caz în care efectivul în
conservare este insulizat cu posibilitatea ca indivizii să se împerecheze liber,
pentru a se reduce şi mai mult costurile conservării. Conservarea unei populaţii cu
program de ameliorare subînţelege faptul că se lucrează cu animale înregistrate în
cartea de rasă a populaţiei (eventual şi cu animale identificate), că reproducţia este
închisă şi că se realizează progres genetic. Animalele comerciale ale unei rase,
care se ameliorează pasiv (fără a furniza descendenţi masculi) nu concură la
biodiversitate. Programul de menţinere al unei populaţii pune pe prim plan gradul
de înrudire al indivizilor, motiv pentru care se pune accent pe stabilirea numărului
de familii (o familie este formată din descendenţa unui mascul, tată sau bunic) al
populaţiei. Conservarea unei populaţii ca bazin de gene o formă de prezervare
deoarece nu pune în nici un fel problema progresului genetic. Rostul bazinului de
gene este ca, la momentul oportun, să se extragă de aici indivizi care prezintă
interes pentru a forma din ei o linie sau chiar o rasă.
Conservarea „ex situ” poate folosi embrioni, material de reproducţie cu
informaţie genetică de individ formată de la doi părinţi (diploid) sau gameţi
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(preponderent spermii), material de reproducţie cu informaţie genetică provenită

de la un singur părinte (haploiod) sau segmente de ADN, multiplicat prin tehnica
PCR (Polimeraze Chain Reaction). Pentru ori care din aceste feluri de material de
reproducţie depozitarea se face în azot lichid la temperaturi de – 193 C0.
Punerea în lucru a acţiunii de conservare a biodiversităţii din zootehnie
obligă la abordarea acesteia din cel puţin 3 direcţii: cunoştinţe zootehnice şi
biotehnice, instituţii şi management, jurisdicţie şi finanţare.
Cunoştinţele zootehnice s-ar părea că sunt destul de avansate dacă ţinem
seama de succesele ameliorării raselor eficienţa selecţionării liniilor de păsări pentru
producerea de hibrizi În fapt însă există destul de multe deficienţe de cunoaştere în
ceea ce priveşte rolul populaţiilor biologice şi al mecanismelor de izolare
reproductivă în biodiversitate. Atenţia mentorilor conservării biodiversităţii s-a
îndreptat mai ales către populaţiile vulnerabile care sunt în special rasele locale slab
productive, ceea ce este corect, dar pentru efectivele de animale economic active s-a
lăsat totul pe seama proprietarilor. Ori, chiar în ţări considerate că dispun de
cunoştinţe zootehnice apreciabile se practică exagerat reproducţia deschisă, care
este dăunătoare biodiversităţii. Închiderea reproducţiei se poate face sau prin
„internaţionalizarea” (globalizarea) cărţii de rasă aşa cum pare că stau lucrurile la
rasa de cai „Pur Sânge Englez” sau prin disjuncţia de rase distincte, prin program
distinct de ameliorare şi izolare reproductivă, pornind de la o suşă iniţială comună.
Model clar pentru a două variantă de lucru este compararea a două rase de vaci de
lapte provenite din suşă olandeză, rasa Holstein – Frisien din SUA, rasă selecţionată
pe baza unui singur criteriu cantitatea de lapte muls în 365 zile ( un an) consecutivă
unei diete cu o concentraţie de energie dusă până la limita evitării keratozei
ruminale şi la care tipul corporal trebuie să asigure capacitate mare de ingesta,
suport solid din partea membrelor, o suspensie puternică a organelor interne şi a
ugerului şi sfârcuri mici convenabile pentru mulsul mecanic, cu rasa de vaci Friză,
din Noua Zeelandă, care trebuind să se hrănească numai pe păşune, deci cu o dietă
cu concentraţie de energie mai mică, se selecţionează pentru cantitatea totală de
substanţă uscată din lapte tot în decurs de un an, se reproduce sezonier şi de la care
se pretinde un viţel în fiecare an. Tipul corporal este mărunt dar suportul asigurat de
membre şi suspensia organelor şi a ugerului trebuie să fie cât mai ferme. Izolarea
reproductivă a acestor două rase de vaci este perfectă. Este drept că şi climatul în
care aceste rase se cresc este diferit: în SUA climatul este continental, în Noua
Zeelandă climatul este oceanic. Izolarea reproductivă a populaţiilor de animale din
zootehnie consecutivă graniţelor vechilor state naţionale este de luat în discuţie mai
ales pentru Europa unde asemenea bariere trebuie înlăturate. În România se pare că
problema izolării reproductive a populaţiilor de animale cu care lucrează zootehnia
nu este câtuşi de puţin înţeleasă.
Ceva mai bine stau lucrurile în ceea ce priveşte biotehnicele prin care se
realizează conservarea biodiversităţii „ex situ”. Orice organizaţie interesată are
unde să-şi formeze specialiştii, dacă vrea, şi de unde să-şi procure echipamentul
necesar, dacă are cu ce.
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În ceea ce priveşte instituţiile care sunt necesare conservării

biodiversităţii în zootehnie lucrurile stau mult mai rău. Există la FAO un
compartiment care monitorizează conservarea biodiversităţii. Obiectivul acestui
compartiment este realizarea unei bănci de date referitoare la biodiversitatea
animalelor domestice. S-au creat chiar două instituţii exterioare FAO care
acţionează în acest sens. În fiecare stat membru al ONU există câte o persoană de
contact. Ceea ce lipseşte însă este infrastructura, instituţiile care să lucreze cu
populaţiile, măcar cu cele vulnerabile sau în pericol. Nici managementul unor
astfel de instituţii nu este clar. În evidenţă FAO există un centru de conservare a
populaţiilor rare de animale domestice. Obiectul de activitate şi managementul ale
acesteia ar trebui cunoscut. Înclin să cred că un singur asemenea „Centru” nu
poate rezolva problema pentru o ţară cu mărimea şi biodiversitate Italiei.
La noi există o direcţie cu această denumire în cadrul ANARZ. Această
oportunitate ar trebui folosită pentru ca prin aparatul acesteia să se creeze
infrastructura necesară conservării „in situ” şi „ex situ” a populaţilor vulnerabile.
Se pare că asemenea „Centre de conservare a biodiversităţii pentru animale de
fermă” ar trebui să fie mai multe şi cu zonă de activitate teritorială. Ele ar trebui
să aibă în preocupare populaţiile din toate speciile genetice ale zonei. Pentru
evitarea încălcării izolării reproductive din aceiaşi specie genetică, găzduirea
populaţiilor s-ar putea realiza în locaţii diferite prin contracte de prestări servicii
plătite unor parteneri interesaţi. Aceste centre ar trebui să execute prezervarea „ex
situ” a populaţiilor cu care se lucrează in situ”. Celelalte direcţii din ANARZ
interesate in lucrul cu populaţiile ar trebui să se ocupe de constituirea de asociaţii
nelucrative, fără interes patrimonial al asociaţilor, care să aibă ca obiectiv
ameliorarea raselor sau, după caz, producerea de hibrizi.
Din punct de vedere juridic şi financiar se pare că există un cadru
satisfăcător. Poate că singura precizare necesară este aceea ca subvenţiile atribuite
pentru conservarea populaţiilor vulnerabile să se atribuie pe cap de animal la nivel
de compensaţie de oportunitate, aceasta însemnând în sumă egală cu diferenţa
dintre veniturile pe care le aduce un animal din cea mai productivă populaţie a
speciei genetice care se creşte în zonă şi un animal din populaţia în conservare.
Clarificări sunt necesare şi în privinţa subvenţiilor ce se acordă pentru „animale
de rasă” pornind de la definiţia că: „animal de rasă este un animal înscris într-o
carte de rasă, care are ambii părinţi înscrişi în aceiaşi carte de rasă şi lasă
descendenţi ce se înscriu în cartea sa de rasă”. Animalele asemănătoare celor
înscrise într-o carte de rasă nu pot fi considerate că aparţin rasei dacă nu dispun de
certificat de origine şi productivitate.
CONCLUZII
În legătură cu conservarea biodiversităţii în zootehnie a populaţiilor
artificiale, care s-au format ca acţiune mai mult sau mai puţin conştientă a
oamenilor, sunt încă foarte multe de făcut. Câteva asemenea acţiuni ar putea fi:
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BACK
• Clarificarea aspectelor ştiinţifice, teoretice şi practice ale

mecanismelor naturale şi artificiale ale izolării reproductive a
speciilor de informaţie genetică;
• Strategia folosirii eficiente, competitive, a resurselor genetice economic
active în economia agricolă şi dezvoltarea rurală; Operaţionalizarea
jurisdicţiei privind conservarea biodiversităţii speciilor genetice de
animale de fermă, de cultură, de companie şi de agrement şi a activităţii
de ameliorare a efectivelor de animale din aceste specii;
• Reconsiderarea, activarea şi dezvoltare structurii instituţionale,
publice şi private, care are ca obiect de activitate protecţia
populaţiilor vulnerabile;
• Elaborarea de tehnici şi tehnologii de prezervare, in situ şi ex situ, a
populaţiilor animale în stare critică ;
• Formarea de manageri pentru conservarea biodiversităţii animale
artificiale.
Toate aceste acţiuni şi încă multe altele pot fi obiective ale activităţii
Centrului de Studii şi Cercetări pentru Biodiversitate Agrosilvică – Academician
profesor doctor David Davidescu -.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. A. T. Bogdan (coordinator) (1984) “Fertilitatea, Natalitatea şi Prolificitatea în Zootehnie” volum I
- Editura Dacia – Cluj Napoca
2. A. T. Bogdan (coordinator) (1984) “Fertilitatea, Natalitatea şi Prolificitatea în Zootehnie” volum
II - Editura Dacia – Cluj Napoca
3. M. Cîrlan, Şt. Creangă (2001) « Evoluia Determinismului Genetic al sexelor » - Editura Sedeom
Libris - Iaşi
4. C. Drăgănescu (1979) “Amelioraea Animalelor” Editura Ceres Bucureşti
5. F. E. Eldrige (1985) « Cytogenetics of Livestock » - Avipublishing Company, inc.Westport,
Conecticut
6. B. Hafez / E. S. E. Hafez (2000) “Reproduction in Farm Animals” Lippincott Wiliams and Wilkins
7. E. S. E. Hafez (editor) (1962) “ Reproduction in Farm Animals” – Lea and Febiger - Philadelfia
8. D. L. Hartl, D. Fleifelder, L. A. Snyder (1988) “Basic Genetics” Jones and Bartlett Publishers –
Boston – Portola Valley
9. Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics Research (1990) “Report for 1988 – 1989” Printed
by Crampton and Sons Ltd. Sawston Cambridge CB2 4BQ
10. C. Maximilian, Doina Maria Ioan (1981) “Dicţionar Enciclopedic de Genetică” Editura
Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică – Bucureşti
11. E. Negruţiu, A. Petre (1975) “Ameliorarea animalelor domestice” Editura Didactică şi
Pedagocică – Bucureşti
12. V. Oţel, M. Paraschivescu, C. Mihăilescu (1967) « Fertilitatrea şi Infertilitatea la Animalele de
Fermă – Editura Agro – Silvică - Bucureşti
13. M. Paraschivescu (1969) “Reproducţia la Ovine” – Editura Agro – Silvică - Bucureşti
14. M. H. Pineda, M. P. Dooley (1980) McDonald’s VETERINARY ENDOCRINILOGY AND
REPRODUCTION – Iowa State Press
15. C. Thibault, Marie-Claire Levasseur (1991) “La Reproduction chez les mamiferes et l’hommme
– INRA – Ellipses
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BACK
ESTIMATION OF GENETIC VARIATION AND

ENVIRONMENTAL VARIATION RATES FROM
PHENOTYPE VARIATION IN AN ORYCTOLAGUS
CUNICULLUS HYBREED POPULATION REGARDING
PROLIFICACY
D. DRONCA
Observing the evolution of imports, exports and rabbit meat

consumption during the last years, we could direct to the unsatisfied market
offered by the consumers of this food in several countries. This paper intend to
analyze the phenotypic variance components for the litter size in 7 simple
interlinear hybrid females of Large Chinchilla breed, during 5 births. Results
show that in the analyzed population 27.7% of the phenotypic variation is free of
special environment influences.
INTRODUCTION
According to FAO estimations, the global production of rabbit meat is over
1,000,000 tons/year, and the main producing and consuming countries are situated
in the European Union, where the annual average consumption is 3.7
kg/inhabitant, with a maximum of 5.8 kg/inhabitant in Italy. In Romania the
consumption of rabbit meat is extremely low. Analyzing the price per ton of
rabbit meat at producer showed that this is very stimulating one inside EU, thus in
Germany the price varied between 3.87 and 4.47 DM (Euro) per kilogram of
rabbit meat. Rabbit rearing has multiple advantages, such as: nutritive quality of
the meat is rich in proteins and minerals and poor in fats with traces of cholesterol
as well as high productivity (a female could produce 60-70 kg meat/year). To this
is to add the unsatisfied market offered by the consumers of this food in several
countries.
Because the prolificacy is a trait with a great weight in the efficiency of the
rabbit meat production, this paper aims to estimate the special environment
variance for litter size in Large Chinchilla rabbits.

Experiments were carried out on 7 simple interlinear hybrid non-related
females of Large Chinchilla breed, during 5 births.
Large Chinchilla breed was obtained in France, and was presented for the
first, time in 1913 in Paris. The breed standard was acknowledged in 1921, with
the following breed genotype achachBBCCDDGG.
On the basis of values at parturition obtained from the 7 females, a variance
analysis was carried out using two variation sources for obtaining the two
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observational components. The observational component S2I estimates the genetic

components and that of the general environment variance (S2G+S2MG), while the
observational component S2i estimates the special environment component. The
individual data from the analyzed population is shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Individual values recorded and used in computation
Individual values (n) (
2
∑ x) 2
♀ n Σx Σx SPi
I II III IV V n
1 7 9 10 11 11 5 48 472 460,8 11,20
2 8 8 10 10 11 5 47 449 441,80 7,20
3 7 9 10 10 12 5 48 474 460,80 13,20
4 8 10 10 12 - 4 40 408 400,00 8,00
5 6 6 8 8 - 4 28 200 196,00 4,00
6 6 7 9 8 - 4 30 230 225,00 5,00
7 8 7 9 9 - 4 33 275 272,25 2,75
TOTAL 31 274 2508 2456,65 51,35
 (∑ x1 )2 (∑ x 2 )2 (∑ x6 )
2
(∑ x7 )  (∑ xT )
2 2
SPI =  + + ... + + − =
 n1 n2 n6 n7 

N
= 2456.65 − 2421.80 = 34.84
SPi=SPi1+ SPi2+ SPi3+ SPi4+ SPi5+ SPi6+ SPi7 = 51.35
The square mean is computed as follows:
SPI 34,8
MPI = = = 5.84 i = females number;
i −1 6
N = Total number of measurements;
SPi 51,35
MPi = = = 2.14
N − 1 31 − 7
Variances are computed as follows:
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BACK
1. – Variance between individuals (S2I)
MPI − MPi 5.80 − 2.14

S I2 = = = 0.82
N 4.42
i
2. – Variance within individuals (S2i)
S2i = MPi = 2.14
3. – Phenotypic variance (S2T)
S2T = S2I + S2i = 0.82+2.14=2.96
Now we have all the elements to calculate the repeatability coefficient:
S 62 + S M2 6 S 62 + S M2 6 S I2 0.82
Re = = = = = 0.277
ST2
( S 6 + S M 6 ) + S Msp S I + S i
2 2 2 2 2
2.96
Literature offers different values for repeatability of litter size. After
SZENDRO et al., 1988 the repeatability in two White New Zealand lines of
rabbits (G and H) ranges between 0.10 and 0.19 at fourth parturition and between
0.13 and 0.21 at fifth parturition. For line K of Californian breed the repeatability
was 0.28-0.29 at fourth and fifth parturition.
In our study on Large Chinchilla, the variance between individuals was
0.82, the variance within individuals was 2.14 and the total variance was 2.96.
Using these values we calculated the trait’s repeatability, which was 0.277.
CONCLUSIONS
In the population of simple interlinear hybrid females of Large Chinchilla
breed, 27.7% of the phenotypic variance for litter size is free of special
environment influences. In other words 27.7% of total variance is due to the
genetic variance and general environment variance.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. BURA M. – Creşterea iepurilor de casă în România, Revista “Ferma” Timişoara nr.1 (33), pg.59,
2005.
2. BURA M., BENCSIK I. – Ameliorarea genetică a iepurilor de casă. Ed.Mirton, Timişoara, 2000.
3. DRONCA D. – Ameliorarea animalelor, Ed.Mirton, Timişoara, 2003.
4. VLAIC A., OROIAN T. – Elemente de genetică pentru zootehnişti, Ed.Academic Press, Cluj-
Napoca, 2002.
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BACK
HAEMATOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS

OBTAINED SUBSEQUENT TO THE PASSIVE
IMMUNIZATION OF SHEEP WITH ANTIADIPOSE SERUM
Simona GHITA, Stela ZAMFIRESCU, Elena SOGORESCU,
Irina TOPOLEANU, Andreea ANGHEL
In order to reduce the adipose tissue in sheep, the immunologic methods

were more and more accepted. In this experiment we researched the biochemical
and haematological modifications appeared in lambs after the passive
immunization for 60 days (the first experimental group, which was then
supervised for the effect of the immunization on long term (120 days) and after
33 days (group 3 experimental) against fatness, comparable with the witness
sides 2 and 4. The antiserum obtained after the active immunization of a he-goat,
in the days 21, 27 and 34 from the beginning of the immunization, reacted very
strongly with the antigen, until the dilution 1/64. The breeds of lambs to which
the passive immunization was applied, were the breed Merinos of Palas, the type
of meat and the Turcana breed. The haematological parameters at the sheep
youth from the immunized groups on long term, have medium values more
reduced than the witness (20,89% haemoglobin, 14,24% hematocrit, 10% red
cells, 8,66% number of leukocytes), after 60 days from inoculation. Comparing
the haematological parameters in the 4 groups (of 120 and 33 days post
immunization), the effect of the immunization was present at the group 3
experimental with 33 days post immunization by an increased percentage of
lymphocytes (78,90%). In the first 2 months post immunization the lambs
presented a slight hyperglycaemia, hyperprotein content and hyperlipidemia,
comparatively to the data obtained 4 month from the immunization on the same
groups (supervised for the immunization on long term -120 days). In exchange,
the triglycerides had an opposed reaction (smaller values in the beginning - 60
days post immunization and increased at the end - 120 days post immunization -
group 1, respectively 33 days - group 3 supervised for the immunization on short
term), all compared with witness groups 2 and 4. It can be therefore said that the
anti-fatness immunity serum influences the metabolism of lipids, especially of
those for deposit, like triglycerides.
INTRODUCTION
In the previous years, in order to maintain and raise the resistance to

diseases, the meat producers and consumers focused more and more their
attention on the development of certain non invasive methods which should lead
at the content of weak meat from the carcasses of domestic animals. For this
purpose, the immunologic methods were more and more accepted. The most
important aspects concerning the hindering of the deposit of adipocytes in the
bodies of farm animals (pigs, bulls, chickens, sheep) is the elaboration of an
immunological method, by which the own body to produce anti-fatness antibodies
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(3). In lambs the raise of the number of adipocytes takes place in the first 100
days of life, which accumulate in the hypodermic and intramuscular areas. The
important stages for realizing an immunological method for the prevention of the
accumulations of fats in lambs are: the production of the antigen from the
adipocytary membranes (2); the obtainment of the anti-fatness antiserum; the test
"in vivo" of the antifatness serum by passive immunization on the lambs
submitted to fatten. In this study we stopped on the biochemical and
haematological determinations from the serum of the lambs passively immunized,
in order to trace the possible side effects of the anti-fatness serum in this breed.
From the fatness ingathered from the sheep a cellular homogenous was
obtained which centrifuged for the purpose of isolating the plasmatic membranes.
The compound of plasmatic membranes with a total volume of 18 ml solution of
antigen in Freund complete adjuvant, was administered to a he-goat (with the age
of 6 years) hypodermic in the areas: auricular, axial, inguinal and inter-planting,
in several points (0,2 ml each), in order to actively immunize him (to obtain anti-
fatness antibodies). Blood samples were ingathered from the he-goat, which were
processed for the obtainment of the immune serum; In order to obtain the serum,
the blood was let to express for an hour, at 37 0C, in a drying-oven, the first part
was separated from the serum, then the blood centrifuged at 3.000 rpm. The entire
quantity of serum from each ingather was distributed in sterile bottles, which were
labelled and stored at -18°C (5). The test of the antiserum "in vitro" was made by
the method of precipitation in liquid environment. From each serum 10 separate
binary dilutions were made with physiological serum from dilution 1/1 to the
dilution 1/512. The result of the contact between the diluted serum and antigen
supposed the reaction of the ring at the interface antiserum - antigen or
flocculation (6) reaction followed by depositing. It was marked with "+++" the
very strong reaction, that is very well outlined ring, with "++" powerful reaction,
when an incomplete ring appeared; with "+" the average reaction and with "+/-"
the weak reaction. The antiserum obtained in days 21, 27 and 34 from the
beginning of the immunization reacted very powerfully with the antigen, until the
dilution 1/64. At the end of the experiment four groups of sheep youth were made
up, from the breed Merinos of Palas, meat type and Turcana: - the groups 1 and 2
(experimental and witness) are the groups from the Reproduction Laboratory of
ICDCOC Palas, Constanta, the experimental group 1 being immunized five
months ago (doses of 1,5 ml, 2,65 ml and 3,25 ml serum / kg alive weight, with
ages between 80 and 160 days) to which the effect of the immunization on long
term (120 days) was pursued. The groups contain 8 male individuals each; - the
groups 3 and 4 of 10 male individuals each (experimental and witness) are new
groups, formed inside the bio - basis to which the effect of the passive anti-fatness
immunization was pursued, on short term (33 days). The immunization was made
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in 3 consecutive days, being inoculated a dose of 1,5 ml immunologic serum / kg

alive weight (4). In order to process the haematological analyses, the blood was
ingathered on EDTA anticoagulant from all the animals in the last day of
experience and the following determinations were made: the hematocrit with a
hematocrit centrifuge; the counting of the red cells and leukocytes under
microscope, using the cameras Thoma and Burker Turck and the reactive agents
Hayem and Turck; the leukocytic formula, read on the smear with panoptic
coloration May-Grunwald Giemsa. For the biochemical analyses, the serum
obtained from the blood ingathered without anticoagulant was used for the
following analyses: total proteins - Biuret method; glycaemia - method without
protein depriving; total lipids - the colour reaction of sulfophospho-vanillin;
triglycerides - the reaction of saponification; transaminases: glutamicpyruvic
(GTP) and glutamicoxalic (GTO); alkaline phosphatase. All the determinations
were made with sets of reactive agents produced by Camicon SRL, Bucharest.
The extinctions of the tests were read at spectrophotometer SP-830 plus
Metertech, at the wave length specific for each analysis and conforming to the
protocol recommended by the producer.
The effect of the anti-fatness serum on the haematological and biochemical

parameters: the values of the haematological parameters at the four groups in the
experiment are written in table 1. Comparatively with the normal values and
limits for sheep, it is noticed that there are no deviations in the way of the increase
or reduction of the value of the haematological parameters in the passive
immunized groups, and that there are no differences between the experimental
and witness group.
Table 1
Haematological parameters
Specification Group 1E Group 2M Group 3E Group4M
X±Sx CV X-±Sx CV X-±Sx CV X-±Sx CV
% % % %
Hematocrit 31.71 6.73 31.59 8.21 28.25 9.79 27.69 10.62
No. erythrocytes 936.1 20.17 973.5 20.10 1061 28.56 1039.8 26.54
VEM 33.88 32.44 26.5 26.63
No. leukocytes 6083.33 29.5 7600 33.48 7515 37.97 5175 25
Lymphocytes 64.87 13.43 65.71 12.7 78.90 7.55 70.48 7.39
Monocytes 2.01 58.62 3.12 39.99 1.27 8.81 1.58 42.76
Neutrophils 30.48 31.68 26.02 25.24 20.32 25.91 26.32 20.25
Eosinophils 1.59 38.81 3.03 57.88 0.70 9.39 1.06 14.9
Basophils 1.04 14.45 2.10 56.38 0.78 8.585 0.56 5.48
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Still, in the leukocytic formula of group 3 experimental, which was

inoculated with anti-fatness serum just a month before, there is an increase
number of lymphocytes 78,90% toward the normal limits 45-70% for sheep, fact
that is explained by the activity of the immunity system as a response to the
passive immunization. In the cases of group 1 which the long term immunization
was pursued (at an experimental group doses of 1,5 ml, 2,65 ml and 3,25 ml
serum I kg alive weight were inoculated), after 60 days from treatment, blood was
taken from the lambs of the breed Merinos of Palas, meat type, and from
Turcana; the haematological and biochemical parameters did not differ from the
actual ones. In this case simple correlations were made between the immunization
dose and the values of the biochemical and haematological parameters; it comes
out that there are very weak and negative correlations between the treatment dose
and the hematocrit (r=-0,031), haemoglobin (r=-0,11) number of red cells (r=-
0,11), but there is a strong and positive correlation (r=+0,54) between the
treatment dose and the number of leukocytes. Although in respect of the witness
group the number of leukocytes at the experimental group is 8,66% smaller, still
the lambs from this group reacted obviously at the antiadipocytary serum, by the
increase or decrease of the number of leukocytes once the antiserum dose was
increased. In the establishment of the biochemical profile, we pursued the
following blood parameters: glycaemia, total lipids, triglycerides, total proteins
and alkaline phosphatase. The values of the biochemical parameters of the serum
of the lambs from the experimental group and the witness group are given in table
2. The glycaemia and the protein content in the anti-fatness immunized groups
have values bigger with approximately 7% and respectively 15% toward the
witness groups. The values of the glycaemia resulted after the analysis of the
experimental serum show that the immunization serum did not affect the
endocrine pancreas and the insulin secretion. The total lipids have easily
decreased values in the serum of the experimental groups (with 3-7%) toward the
witness, and the triglycerides have an average value with 35% less in the group 1
toward the witness, while in the experimental group 3, from which blood was
taken a month after the immunization, the level of triglycerides is 17% higher that
at witness. It can be therefore said that the anti-fatness immunization serum
influences the metabolism of the lipids, especially of those of deposit, like
triglycerides (1). These biochemical parameters, compared with those obtained 60
days after the immunization, confirmed somehow the results previously obtained,
but there was a slight difference of a few percentages, so that: the biochemical
parameters of the serum have higher values at the first experimental group toward
the first witness group as follows: glucose with 15,25%, total lipids with 40,5%
proteins with 3,87% and alkaline phosphatase with 13,5%. The content of
triglycerides of the serum of the lambs of the experimental group (of 60 days post
immunization) had a value three times smaller toward the witness group. The
components of lipid nature from blood include free fat acids and esterified,
triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol. The biochemical exploitation of the total
- 274 -
lipids from the serum offer indications about the evolution of the various
constitutive processes of the lipid metabolism: depositing processes, processes of
mobilization from tissues (especially the adipose one), degradation processes
(lipolysis) or biosynthesis (lipogenesis) (7). It is known that the main furnishers of
blood triglycerides are the adipose tissue and the liver, or in the first month after
the immunization at group 3 the mobilization of the triglycerides in the deposit
areas is in full process, and this is where the higher average value of this
parameter at this experimental group toward the witness group comes from. The
enzymes of cellular origin, the transaminases have lower values in all the groups,
not being differences between the witness and experimental groups, fact that
denotes that through the anti-fatness immunization the activity of the liver was
not affected. We should notice that, the way it results from table 2, the values of
certain biochemical parameters differ in groups 1 and 2 toward the groups 3 and
4, this being due to the fact that the animals chosen for the experiment are of
different breeds and ages.
Tabelul 2
Biochemical parameters
Group 1E Group 2M Group 3E Group 4M
Specifi _ CV CV _ CV _ CV
cation X ±Sx % X ±Sx % X ±Sx % X ±Sx %
Glucose 105,78 17,9 98,6 14,51 84,83 22,58 78,67 13,69
±0,77 ±0,58 ±6,38 ±3,59
Total 8,08 7,89 6,91 19,71 11,44 8,37 9,89 16,71
protein ±0,6 ±0,55 ±0,32 ±0,55
Total 677,18 13,47 700,2 9,25 884,3 5,59 954,6 6,91
lipids ±37,2 ±26,4 ±16,4 ±2,2
Triglyce- 25,33 42,61 38,9 30,16 39,61 27,45 33 21,35
rides ±4,4 ±4,79 ±1,8 ±1,17
Trans- 14,31 612,9 14,58 6,15 18,09 26,04 18,11 17,5
aminasis ±0,76 ±0,36 ±1,57 ±1,05
TGP
Trans- 7,86 54,65 6,9 23,24 29,11 26,32 14,97 53,35
aminasis ±1,75 ±0,65 ±7,4 ±2,66
TGO
Alkaline 17,83 46,1 16,56 14,23 80,68 35,22 102,29 37,82
phosphatase ±0,44 ±0,96 ±9,5 ±12,8
Note: CV- cells volume
CONCLUSIONS
The determinations were made in order to notice the possible side effects of
the antifatness serum on the haematological and biochemical parameters in the
immunized lambs. The immunization was more efficient at the young animals
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BACK
than at the adult ones. This process is dependant according to species and breed.
The haematological parameters at the sheep youth from the immunized groups on
long term, have lower average values toward the witness (20,89% haemoglobin,
14,24% hematocrit, 10% red cells, 8,66% number of leukocytes) after 60 days
from inoculation. The treatment dose affects the number of leukocytes, between
the two factors existing a strong and positive correlation, r = 0,54. Comparing the
haematological parameters in the 4 groups, (of 120 and 33 days post
immunization), these ones have normal values for sheep in all groups, the effect
of the immunization being present in the experimental group 3 with 33 days post
immunization by a high percentage of lymphocytes (78,90%). The biochemical
analyses on the serum of the immunized lambs prove a more clear reaction from
the body, in the first 2 months post immunization comparatively with 4 months
from the immunization. After 60 days from the immunization the lambs presented
a slight hyperglycaemia, hyper protein content and hyperlipidemia, toward the
normal values of these parameters for sheep. In exchange, the triglycerides had an
adverse reaction (smaller values at the beginning and increased at the end - 120
days post immunization). It can therefore be said that the anti-fatness immunity
serum influences the metabolism of the lipids, especially of those of deposit, like
triglycerides.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Berthlot V. (2001)- Softness and fat acid concentrations of subcutaneous adipose tissue and
methylmalonic acid concentrations in the plasma of intensively reared lambs. Dep. of Animal
Nutrition on Physiologi. France.
2. Carson A.F. (2001)- Active immunisation of lambs with monoclonal antibody against
clenbuterol, Liverstock Production Science.
3. Liu A.H. (1994)-Reduction of carcass fatness in overfat lambs fed low energy diets
supplemented with protein. Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production, 54 : 193
- 196.
4. Moloney A.P. (2002)- Body composition and adipose tissue accretion in lambs passively
immunized against adipose tissue. Livestok Production Science 74 , 165-174.
5.Murray et all. (2000)- Medical microbiology 3 rd., pp.91-9.
6. Roitt et all. (2000) -Immunology 5 th . Ed. Pp. 7 , 113-114, 144-145.
7.Velasco S. and Comeque V. (1997)- Lipids caracterisation of sucklinks lambs of talaverna breed,
Viena 173.
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BACK
THE INFLUENCE OF THE PHOTO-PERIODIC

VARIATIONS UPON THE RAMS’ SEXUAL ACTIVITY
Dorina NADOLU, Andreea Hortanse ANGHEL
The sheep from temperate areas have seasonal poly-cyclic sexual

activity, which begins in the end of summer, together with the decrease of the
day-light (since July) and continues more intensively when the days’ duration
decrease. At rams, it is noticed the same phenomenon of revert evolution of the
day’s duration and the sexual activity, males having an increased libido and a
maximum sperm production, of good quality in autumn, until the beginning and
even the middle of winter.
The experiment of watching the action of photo-period upon the sperm
production was developed during February – April 2004, on 7 rams from the
meat line which were subject to some light regimes (alternatively, 30 long days -
16 hours of light and 45 short day– 8 hours of light). The rams were watched
under the aspect of sexual behaviour and sperm production (volume of
ejaculations, the frequency of gatherings).
As a result of the experiment, it was registered a significant increase of the
testicles’ weight in the end of the period of short days (182 - 190g). Regarding
the sexual behaviour of the rams and their availability for gathering the sperm
with the artificial vagina, good results were obtained, 42.86% from males having
erection, correct jump and ejaculation.
INTRODUCTION
The sheep from temperate areas have seasonal poly-cyclic sexual activity,
which begins in the end of summer, together with the decrease of the day-light
(since July) and continues more intensively when the days’ duration decrease
(Chemineau P., Daveau A., 1992, Hansen, P.J., 1985). At rams, it is noticed the
same phenomenon of revert evolution of the day’s duration and the sexual
activity, males having an increased libido and a maximum sperm production, of
good quality in autumn, until the beginning and even the middle of winter
(Williams, L.M., Helliwell ,R.J.A. 1993).

The experiment of watching the action of the photo-periodic cycle upon
the spermatic production at rams was developed during the period of February –
April.
A number of 7 rams from the meat line was subject to some rapid photo-
periodic changes. Males were maintained in a shelters where the windows were
removed, assuring a light regime of 16 hours of light and 8 hours dark for a
month, followed by a period of 45 days with 8 hours of light and 16 hours dark.
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The volume of testicles was determined by their immersion in water until the
inguinal level. From the moment of reducing the period of days of light the
training for collecting sperm with the artificial vagina began.
Appreciation of sexual behaviour was made by granting marks from 1 to
5, using the following criterion:
- mark 1: absence of interest for the female;
- mark 2: weak interest, timid tries for jumping, no erection;
- mark 3: erection, hesitative jump, no ejaculation;
- mark 4: erection, energetic jump, short ejaculation;
- mark 5: controlled behaviour, smelling the vulvae, erection, correct
jump, ejaculation.

The seven animals which were subject to the photo-periodic regime were
watched under the aspect of behaviour, of spermatic production, both regarding
the volume of ejaculations, and the frequency of gatherings.
In table 1 it is presented the frequency of ejaculations of good quality,
adaptable to cryopreservation, and also the variation of the volume of ejaculations
during March 1st - April 15th, consecutive to application of the treatment of short
days.
In the table it can be noticed an increase of the frequency of ejaculations
following the rams’ photo-periodic regime, respectively alternating the periods of
long days with short days. So, at the 7 rams from the meat line that were subject
to the photo-periodic treatments, in the first decade of the experiment it was
registered a volume of the ejaculations between 0.8 and 1.0 ml, in the last period
reaching values of 1.1. – 1.6 ml. Each ram in the first decade was collected 8
times, the number of ejaculations increasing during the 4 decades, so that 17
ejaculations / ram being obtained in the last decade.
Table 1
The frequency and volume of the ejaculations gathered during March 1st – April 10th
from the rams which were subject to the photo-periodic treatments
March 1st –10th March 11th –20th March 21st –30th April 1st –10th
No Vol1 Ejacul2 Vol1 Ejacul2 Vol1 Ejacul2 Vol1 Ejacul2
of (ml) (no) (ml) (no.) (ml) (no.) (ml) (no.)
animals
7 0.8-1.0 56 0.9-1.1 84 1.0-1.3 105 1.1 -1.6 119
rams
Vol1 - minimum– maximum volume; Ejacul2 - number of ejaculation /period
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The weight of testicles, appreciated through the volume of liquid which is

dislocated by their immersion in water at the temperature of 240C, varies in the
four decades of the treatment of short days (table 2).
Table 2
The average of testicles’ weight at the rams which were

subject to the photo-periodic treatments
Number March 1st – March 11th – March 21st – April 1st –10th
of 10th (testicles’ 20th (testicles’ 30th (testicles’ (testicles’
animals weight - g) weight - g) weight - g) weight - g)
7 rams 161 ± 23 163 ± 18 182 ± 28 190 ±26
According to the table it can be noticed a small increase of the testicles’

mass, in the second decade (from 161g ±23 to 163g ±18). A significant increase
of the testicles’ weight is registered in the third decade, and the maximum one in
the forth decade (190g ±36).
During the experiment, since February 1st until April 15th, it was watched
the sexual behaviour of the rams, which were subject to the training for gathering
with the artificial vagina and qualifications were granted to them (table 3).
Table 3
The sexual behaviour of the males during the experimental period

(1.02- 15.04.2004)
Specification n Behaviour (n)

1 2 3 4 5
n % n % n % n % n %
Period with intense
light 7 2 28.57 3 42.86 2 28.57 - - - -
1.02- 1.03.2004
Period with reduced
light 7 1 14.28 2 28.58 2 28.58 1 14.28 1 14.28
1.03- 30.03.2004
Period with reduced
light 7 1 14.28 - - 1 14.28 2 28.58 3 42.86
1.04- 15.04.2004
During the period with intense light the rams were subject to the training
by putting them in contact with sheep with inducted estrum, none of them
obtaining marks of 4 or 5, respective qualification which to attest the training . A
percent of 28.57 males have presented a weak behaviour, without ejaculation
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BACK
(mark 3) and the rest had indifference or small interest for females. In the first
period in which males were subject to a regime of reduced light, 42.86% of them
did not have a sexual behaviour or very weakly expressed (marks 1 and 2), 28.5%
had erection and hesitating jump but without ejaculation, the rest being able to be
collected.
In the second period with reduced light good results were obtained,
42.85% from males obtaining mark 5 and 28.5% mark 4. Though in the whole
period a male (14.28%) did not manage to be trained and collected.
CONCLUSIONS
The experiments were developed during February – April, on a number of
seven rams, which were subject to an inducted photo-periodic treatment, of
alternating the long days (30 days) with short days (45 days). Following the
experiments, it can be concluded:
1. The testicles’ weight, appreciated through the volume of liquid which is
dislocated by their immersion in water, increases to the end of the period of
short days. In the second decade (March 10th – 20th) it can be noticed a small
increase of the testicles’ mass (from 161g±23 to 163g±18). A significant
increase of the testicles’ weight is registered in the 3rd decade (March 20th -
30th - 182g±28), and the maximum one in the 4th decade (190g ±26).
2. During the period with intense light the rams were subject to training in the
presence of a female with inducted estrum for a few hours; only 28.57% from
males had weak behaviour.
3. During the first period, when males were subject to a regime with reduced
light, 42.86% between them did not have sexual behaviour or very weakly
expressed, 28.5% had erection and hesitative jump but without ejaculation,
the rest being able to be collected.
4. In the second period with reduced light good results were obtained, 42.86%
from males taking mark 5 and 28.5% mark 4. Though in this whole period a
ram (14.28%) did not manage to be trained and collected.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Chemineau P., Daveau A., Maurice F., Delgadillo J.A.-- Seasonality of oestrous and ovulation is
not deeply modified by submitting Alpine goats to a tropical photoperiod. Small Ruminant Research
(8), 299-312, 1992.
2. Hansen, P.J. – Photoperiodic regulation of reproduction in mammals breeding during long days
versus mammals breeding during short days. Animals Reproduction Science, 9, 301-315. , 1985
3. Williams, L.M., Helliwell ,R.J.A. - Melatonin and seasonality in the sheep. Animal Reproduction
Science , 33, 152/159, 1993.
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BACK
THE BIOCHEMICAL AND CYTOLOGICAL

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PRODUCTION “IN VITRO”
OF SHEEP EMBRYOS
Elena SOGORESCU, Stela ZAMFIRESCU, Simona GHITA,

Irina TOPOLEANU, Dorina NADOLU, Andreea ANGHEL
“In vitro” production methods involve four steps: recovery of primary

oocytes from large antral follicles, maturation “in vitro” of these oocytes,
fertilization of the matured oocytes with capacited semen and culture of the
embryos resulting. The present study showed the influence of different mediums
at oocytes maturation, fertilization and different mediums for spermatozoids
capacitation and different culture medium for obtained a better sheep embryos
percent then comparative with the percentage of embryos development “in vivo’.
Merinos of Palas sheep oocytes were collected surgically and after
animals slaughter.
The medium used for maturation was bicarbonate-buffered TCM 199
supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), 5 µl /ml FSH, 5 µl /ml LH, 5
µl /ml estradiol, 0,3 mM sodium piruvate, 100 µl cysteamine and 2 mM
glutamine. The percent of cumulus -oocyte complexes collected was 24,27% for
big follicles, 35,48% for little follicles and 11 atrezic oocytes are collected into
little follicles. The different culture medium (SOF medium with LF, SOF medium
with BSA and EGF) influenced oocytes cleavage because the transformation
percentage in state of 3-4 cells for SOF medium with LF was 27,29% and 26,
67% for SOF medium with BSA and EGF.
INTRODUCTION
The first sheep produced by IVF and IVC of IVM oocytes was in 1991
(Czlonkowska and col., 1991). Today, production “in vitro” of sheep embryos is a
platform for new reproductive technologies such: embryo-sexing (O’Brien and
col., 2004), transgenesis (Wang and col., 2003) and cloning (Baldassare and col.,
2002 ). “In vitro” production methods involve four steps: recovery of primary
oocytes from large antral follicles, maturation “in vitro” of these oocytes,
fertilization of the matured oocytes with capacited semen and culture of the
embryos resulting (Cogniè, 2003).
The present study showed the influence of different mediums at oocytes
maturation, fertilization and different mediums for spermatozoids capacitation
and different culture medium for obtained a better sheep embryos percent then
comparative with the percentage of embryos development “in vivo’.
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Except where otherwise indicated, all chemicals were obtained from
Sigma Chemicals Company (St. Louis, MO, USA).
Animals
Merinos of Palas sheep (n = 20) were used in these experiments, which
were conducted between October 2004- Javier 2005.
Synchronization of estrus, superovulation
Synchronization of estrus of donors was induced by intramuscular
injection of 100 µg of cloprostenol (Estrumate, Coopers, Meaux, France) on Day
14 treatment with vaginal sponge containing 45 mg fluorogestone acetate
(Intervet, Angers, France).
Donor sheeps of the primary experimental lots were superovulated by 6
injections of follicle-stimulating hormone (porcine FSH), with decreasing doses
of FSH were 6,25; 6,25; 4,17; 4,17; 2,8 and 2,8 AU every morning and every
evening for 3 days, starting 48 h prior to sponge removal.
Donor sheeps of the second experimental lots were induced of ovulated
with PMSG , 48 h before sponge removal. The doses of PMSG was 400 IU for
Day 7 and 1000 IU for 14 Day treatment.
In vitro embryo production
Sheep oocytes were collected surgically and after slaughter. Oocytes are
obtained by aspiration of follicles using a 18-gauge needle fitted with a 2 ml
syringe. Follicular oocytes covered by at least 2 layers of granulosa cells were
selected for IVM.
The medium used for maturation was bicarbonate-buffered TCM 199
(TCM 199, Gibco- BRL, NY, USA) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum
(FBS), 5 µl /ml FSH, 5 µl /ml LH, 5 µl /ml estradiol, 0,3 mM sodium piruvate,
100 µl cysteamine and 2 mM glutamine. In vitro maturation conditions were 5%
CO2 in humidified air at 370C for 24 h.
Fresh semen from Merinos of Palas breed ram with a fertility more than
75% was used in this experiment. Collected ejaculate was incubated 2 h, into
capacitation medium (SOF medium free BSA with 4 µl streptomycin and 10%
oestral serum), at temperature 370C, washed in Percoll gradient and centrifuged
twice at 900 g for 10 minutes and added directly the viable spermatozoids to the
fertilization medium (SOF medium) with maturated oocytes.
Fertilization was conducted in 50 µl drops with 1x106 sperm/ml and
maximum 15 oocytes /drop at 390C with 5% CO2 in humidified air for 18 h. The
presumptive zygotes were allocated to 20 µl culture drops (4 to 5 embryos/drops)
consisting of SOF medium. The incubation conditions were 5% O2 , 5% CO2, 9%
N2. Culture was continued until 6-7 days after fertilization, then embryos were
developed at least to expanded blastocysts were transferred to synchronized
recipients or were vitrified.
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The present study showed the influence of different mediums at oocytes
In these experiment the medium number of oocytes collected was 9,4 for
follicular diameter of sheep ovaries- 4-7 mm and 3,4 for follicular diameter - 2-3
mm. Were observed a difference of cumulus -oocyte complexes quality.
The percent of cumulus -oocyte complexes was 24,27% for large follicles,
35,48% for small follicles and 11 atrezic oocytes are collected into little follicles.
After supplemented maturation medium- 199 (TCM 199, Gibco- BRL, NY, USA)
with follicular liquid or epidermal growth factor (EGF), the action of these
medium was presented in table 1.
Table 1
Percent of maturation „in vitro” of cumulus –oocytes complexes with different
quality
% maturation with % maturation with
Category Number LF EGF
Number % Number %
PC 63 30 40,00 (12) 33 30,30 (10)
TC 31 15 66,66 (10) 16 50,00 (8)

DO 42 21 23,80 (5) 21 9,52 (2)
Note: LF- follicular liquid ; EGF-epidermal growth factor; CP-partially cumulus;
CT- total cumulus; D- cumulus without oocytes.
The action of maturation medium (TCM 199) supplemented with

follicular liquid at oocytes development is better then medium-199 with EGF
(40% vs 30,3%).
After 18 h at the contact spermatozoids- oocytes, the zygotes was washed
and cultured in different culture mediums. After 6-7 days of cultured was
observed with a stereomicroscope Nikon a 26 cleavage oocytes for SOF medium
(synthetic oviduct fluid) supplemented with 10% LF and a 21 cleavage oocytes
for SOF medium supplemented with 10% BSA (bovine albumin serum) and 5 µl
/ml medium EGF. The percentage zygotes cleavage was 59,09% for SOF medium
with LF, with 12% more then SOF medium with BSA and EGF. The results
obtained was presented into figure 1.
The different culture medium (SOF medium with LF, SOF medium with
BSA and EGF) influenced oocytes cleavage because the transformation
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percentage in state of 3-4 cells for SOF medium with LF was 27,29% and 26,
67% for SOF medium with BSA and EGF (figure 2).
The embryo-transformation percent a 2-4 cells into 8-16 cells was
33,33% and 47,87% for state of 3-4 cells.
Figure 1-2: The percentage of oocytes viability and the percentage of

oocytes cleavage obtained into different culture medium
60
50
40
cleavage
30
%
20
10
0 OC
M1 M2 DO
60
50
40
cleavage
30
%
20 OC
10
2
0 cells
M1 M2 3-4
cells
Note: : OC - cleavage oocytes; DO- degenerate oocytes; M1- SOF medium with LF;
M2- SOF medium with BSA and EGF
The similar results was obtained by Cognie (2001), the zygotes

percentage obtained after fertilization sheep oocytes was 90% and the coefficient
of transformation into blastocysts was 52% for state a 4 cells and 36,35% for a 2
cells. In this experiment, our results confirm the results obtained of INRA,
France, but the transformation percent into state of morula was least 47,87% and
for blastocyst was 36,36%. The total transformation coefficient into blastocyst
obtained after oocytes maturation, fertilization and culture was 4,49%.
CONCLUSION
In the present study showed the influence of different mediums at oocytes
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BACK
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ali J. Shelton J.N; 1993- Successful vitrification of day-6 sheep embryos; J Reprod. Fertil, 99:
65-70;
Baldassare H., Wang B., Kafidi N., Keefer C, Lazaris A, Karatzas; 2002; Advances in the
production and propagation of transgenic sheep using laparoscopic ovum pick-up and in vitro
embryo production technologies. Theriogenology 57, 275-284;
Cognie Y., Poulin N., Baril G., Guignot F., Beckers J.F., Mermillod P.; 2001; Embryo survival
after transfer of in vitro and in vivo produced sheep embryos. 17th Meeting Assoc. Eur. Trans. Emb.
(AETE), 110, abstract;
Cognie Y., Poulin N., Baril G., Mermillod P.; 2003 ; Current status of embryo technologies in
sheep and goats. Theriogenology 59, 171-188;
Czlonkowska M., Eysymont U., Guszkiewicz A., Kossakowski M., Dziak J.; 1991; Birth of lamb
after in vitro maturation, fertilization and co-culture with oviductal cells. Mol. Rep. Dev 30:34-38;
O’Brien J.K., Maxwell W.M.C.; 2004; In vivo development capacity of in vitro produced
embryo derived from sex-sorted and re-cryopreserved frozen-thawed ram sperm. Proc. IETS,
abstract 332, Reprod. Fert. Dev. 14, 286;
Wang B., Baldassare H., Cote F., Pierson J., Rao K.M.; 2003; The in vitro and in vivo
development of sheep embryos produced by intracytoplasmatic sperm injection using tail cut
spermatozoa. Zygote 11, 219-227.
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BACK
RECOVERY RATE OF OOCYTES USING FOLLICULAR

PUNCTURE BY DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES ON GOATS
Irina TOPOLEANU, Stela ZAMFIRESCU, Elena ŞOGORESCU
The aim of the present study was to assess the current procedures used in
goats for the oocytes recoveries based on laparoscopic-aided ovum pick-up
(LOPU)and follicular puncture of ovaries from slaughtered goats . Oocytes collected
by these methods were successfully used to produce embryos „in
vitro”.Laparoscopic ovum pickup (LOPU) is a modern technique that may be used in
programs of goat in vitro embryo production.Sexually matured goat donors were
treated during the breeding season with FSH( follicular stimulator hormon) and
subjected to laparoscopic-guided follicular puncture under general anaesthesia. The
collected cumulus-oocyte complexes were collected and washed in medium TCM199
and were studied and calculated. The number and size of follicles, oocyte quantity
and quality and recovery rate were evaluated .A total of 96 follicles were aspirated
by laparoscopic method( 10,6 follicles/goat), yielding a total of 58 oocytes ( 6,4
oocytes/goat) and a recovery rate 60,4% in goats. The oocyte recoverz rate in goats
differed significantly according to the follicular size .By follicular puncture of ovaries
from slaughtered goats ,106 follicles was aspired, yielding 54 oocytes ( 3
oocytes/ovarie ).The percent of good quality oocytes was 38,88%. Follicular sizes
from which oocytes were obtained was a determining factor in the recovery rate of
good quality oocytes by the both tecniques.
INTRODUCTION
The biotechnologies ampleness of „in vitro” produced zygotes, the
development until the blastocyst stages and embryo transfer, involved all the
preliminary stages.A major importance to the oocytes recoveries is gived, which
acts on recovery rate of good quality oocytes( Cognie, 2001).The most used
techniques for the oocytes recoveries are: laparoscopic-aided ovum pick-up
(LOPU) and follicular puncture of ovaries from slaughtered goats.In view to obtain
a good quality oocytes it must regulated the sexual cycle by hormonal
treatement(Qussaid and al., 1999).The oocytes collected from the follicles bigger
than 5 mm have a good developmental capacity forward and after fertilization.(
Mermillod and al.,1990).A good source for oocytes recover are the ovaries derived
of slaughtered goats , on which is used follicular punctures ( Colleau , 1998).
Follicular reaction affect the recovery rate. A hormonal treatement whith
FSH increase the oocytes recovery rate (Crozet and al.1987).The follicular
puncture had good results at 36-48 h after FSH injection(Wang and al.,2003). The
oocytes aspiration technique is a determining factor in the recovery rate (Holm
and al., 1996).
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In view to get the oocytes with developmental competence , it have to

regulate the follicular stage of sexually cycle .The researches were done on
9 Saanen goats , at and almost the same age andweight and on 18 ovaries
from slaughtered goats.
The goats were keeped in the same conditions livelihood.Before the
superovulatory treatments , the goats were antiparazitary treated and the
proteine intake was higher(170 g /day). Estrus cycles of 9 donor goats were
synchronized using intravaginal sponges impregnated with 45 mg of flurogestone
acetate for 11 days and treatment sponge removal with 16 mg FSH i.m. at each
12 h (for 3 days) in 4 decreased dosis (6, 5, 3 and 2 mg) to stimulate follicular
development. The medium used for the oocytes recoveries is prepared and
branched in 3 types :
- collecting and puncturing medium (TCM 199+Hepes+heparine
2µl/ml+gentamycin)in which we are looking for the cumulus-oocyte complexes
- ”stand-by” medium whith the same composition but whithout heparine, in which
the cumulus- oocyte complexes wait until are washed
- washing medium (TCM 199+Gentamycin) used 3-4 times/oocyte for wash out
impurities.It were prepared also the medium for in vitro matured and fertilisation
of oocytes.
The goats are prepared for laparoscopic-guided follicular puncture under
general anaesthesia(xilazine i.v.) according to Cognie (2001).After cleaning and
desinfection of ventral area , we executed the tree incision (1,5 cm)for all-tree
trocars.On these trocars are installated : first of all a litlle scapel for get-off the
peritoneum adjacent tissues ,then we are introduced the endoscope ;in the second
trocar on installated a anse for internal organs manipulation; in the last trocar we
installed the aspiration pipette whith a neddle who is adapted at vacuum pump.
It was examined the follicular reaction of ovaries.It wasn't any luteal corp
(which mean pregnancy). We allowed for the number and size of follicles and
we started the procedure.A total of 186 follicles were aspirated. It was collected
31 oocytes from 60 small follicles (2-3 mm diameter) and 85 oocytes from 126
large follicles (4-7 mm).
The second successfully used method was follicular puncture on
slaughtered goats ovaries.Goats ovaries were collected from an abattoir and
transported to the laboratory in physiological saline at approximately 35° C,
within 3-4 hours from slaughter and maintened at 37ºC(„bain-marie”).It is made
function the vacuum pump.Whith an atraumatic neddle (18G), the large follicles
is punctured first, then small follicles.In view of cumulus-oocyte adhesion
maintenance we used 18G neddle( Ø 1 mm) and the presion of vacuum pump 25
mm Hg (20 ml water/min.).The aspiration power had to be slow for not disturbe
the cumulus-oocyte complexes quality.After collection , the oocytes are washed
- 287 -
and clasified in categories.The oocytes good quality was expresed by total and
compact cumulus of the granulosis cells.
Another method was midventrally laparatomie which involved one large
incision on white line. The oocytes recoveries were adjacents to embryos
recoveries and.This method is not strictly for oocytes.It was used just during the
embryos recoveries.

The recovered oocytes from follicles, overall recovery rate from ovaries,
and the recovery rate of good quality oocytes collected by laparoscopic-aided
ovum pick-up (LOPU) were calculated (tabel 1)
The cumulus-oocyte complexes collected were morphologically
assessed: cumulus-oocyte complexes with a compact, nonatretic cumulus and an
homogeneous cytoplasm were selected for forward maturation and fertilisation.
Tabel 1:
The oocytes collection by laparoscopic-aided ovum pick-up
Small follicles 2-3 mmØ Large follicles 4-7 mmØ

Goat No. No. Oocytes quality No. No. Oocytes quality
Foll. oocytes PC TC D A Foll. oocytes PC TC D A
1 6 2 2 4 3 1 1 1
2 4 1 1 3 2 1 1
3 6 3 1 1 1 5 4 1 2 1
4 6 4 2 2 5 3 1 2
5 7 5 3 2 3 2 1 1
6 7 4 2 5 4 1 2 1
7 8 4 2 2 6 4 1 3
8 7 3 1 4 5 4 1 1 2
9 6 3 1 1 1 4 3 2 1
Total 57 29 9 10 39 29 6 15 7 1
10
Reco-
very 50,8 31,3 74,3 51,72
rate %
Note: CP- partial cumulus ; CT- total cumulus; D- oocytes whithout cumulus; A-
atretic oocytes
We found that the oocytes recovery rate from small follicles was 50,8%
and from large follicles 74,3%. The overall recoverie rate from 96 follicles was
60,4%(58 oocytes).The recovery rate of good quality oocytes ( oocytes whith
total cumulus) from small follicles was 31,03% and from large follicles was
51,72%.( Fig.1).A total of 96 follicles were aspirated (10,6 follicles/goat),
yielding a total of 58 oocytes ( 6,4 oocytes/goat) and a total recovery rate 60,4%.
- 288 -
Fig. 1
The oocytes recovery rate according to follicular diameter
by laparoscopic follicular puncture
80
70
60
50 Small follicles
40
30 Large follicles
20
10
0
te
at
s
te
go
ra
cy
s/
ry
oo
te
ve
y
co
oc
it
re
al
O
qu
s
te
d
y
oo
oc
G
O
We observed the same oocytes number ( 29 oocytes) obtained from small

and large follicles, but the recovery rate of good quality oocytes was higher from
large follicles.This can be interpreted by differences existing beetwen
morfological caracteristiques of oocytes.In the large follicles , the oocytes have
more follicular fluid which help forward maturation .
For the second method ovum pick-up, we used 18 ovaries from
slaughtered goats. The recovered oocytes from follicles, overall recovery rate
from ovaries, and the recovery rate of good quality oocytes collected by were
calculated (tabel 2).
Table 2
The oocytes collection by follicular puncture of slaughtered goat ovaries
Small follicles 2-3mm Large follicles 4-7mm
Ovaries No. No. Oocytes No. No. Oocytes
follicles oocytes TC follicles oocytes TC
1 5 1 1 2 1 1
2 3 1 - - - -
3 3 2 - 2 1 -
4 5 3 1 1 1 1
5 6 4 1 - - -
6 6 4 2 1 1 -
7 4 2 1 2 2 1
8 3 1 - 2 1 1
9 2 1 - 5 4 -
10 4 3 1 2 1 -
- 289 -
11 3 2 1 4 3 1
12 2 - - 3 1 1
13 7 3 1 1 - -
14 4 2 2 - - -
15 3 1 1 - - -
16 6 3 1 2 1 1
17 5 1 - 1 1 1
18 4 1 - 3 1 -
Total 75 35 13 31 19 8
Recovery 46,66 37,14 61,29 42,10
rate(%)
Note: TC- total cumulus oocyte;
The results indicated that, altough the numbers of small follicles and
theirs oocytes are higher (75f/35o), the oocytes recovery rate was more
apreciable at large follicles (31f/19o).The oocytes recovery rate from small
follicles was 46,66% and from large follicles 61,29%(Fig.2).
Fig.2
The oocytes recovery rate according to follicular diameter
by follicular puncture of slaughtered goats ovaries
80
70
60
50 Small follicles
40
30 Large follicles
20
10
0
te
ie
s
te
ar
ra
cy
ov
ry
oo
s/
ve
te
co
y
it
oc
re
al
qu
O
s
te
d
y
oo
oc
G
O
Because the ovaries came from various goats,we had to calculated the
oocytes recovery rate for all of them and it was 50,94 % ( 54 oocytes from 106
follicles) and 3 oocytes/ovarie( 54 oocytes from 18 ovaries).The mean of good
quality oocytes was 38,88% (21 good quality oocytes from 54 recovered
oocytes).We observed that oocytes recovery rate was increased in large follicles.
- 290 -
BACK
CONCLUSIONS
1. It is necessary a hormonal treatement in goats to increase follicular reaction
on ovaries .
2. The laparoscopic-aided ovum pick-up is the usefull method for oocytes
collection on goats. Also, follicular puncture on slauthered ovaries allowed to
recover the oocytes.
3. In both method it is important the vacuum pump power (25 mmHg). It have
to be slower for not disturbe the cumullus-oocytes complexes.Also, the
preparation of adequate medium is very important
4. The recoveries rates were different beetwen the two methods (60,4% by
laparoscopic method and 50,94% by follicular puncture in slaughtered
ovaries).
5. The recovery rate of good quality oocytes are also compared and it was no
significant difference (41,43% in laparoscopic method and 38,88% by
follicular puncture).
6. Although, there are no significant differences ,the laparoscopic method
allowed to evaluate the „in vivo” ovarian reaction of the goat .This method
can be used 4-5 or even 6 repeated times.
7. Follicular sizes from which oocytes were obtained was a determining factor
in the recovery rate of good quality.The recovery rate was higher from the
large follicles, because of the morphological differences: more cumulus-
oocyte complexes with a compact, nonatretic cumulus and an homogeneous
cytoplasm compared whith those from small follicles.
BIBLIOGRAPHIE
1. Cognie Y., Poulin N., Baril G., Beckers J.F., Mermillod P., 2001- Embryo survival after of “in
vitro” and “in vivo” produced goat embryos. 17th scientific Meeting of European Embryo
Transfer Association, Lyon, 110.
2. Colleau J.J., Heyman Y., Renard J.P., 1998- Les biotechnologies de la reproduction chez les
bovins et leurs applications reelles ou potentielles en selection. INRA Prod.Anim., 11, p: 41-
56.
3. Crozet N., Huneau D., DeSmedt V., Sevellec C., 1987- ”In vitro” fertilization with normal
development in the sheep. Gamete, 16, p: 159-170.
4. Holm P., Walker W.H., Seamark R.F., 1996- Embryo viability duration of gestation and birth
weight in sheep after transfer of “in vitro” matured and “in vitro” fertilized zygotes cultured “in
vitro” or “in vivo”. J. Reprod. Fert., 107, p: 175-181.
5. Houdebine L.M., 1998- La trangenese animale et ses application. INRA Prod. Anim., 11, p:
81-94.
6. Mermillod P şi col., 1999- Aspects of folicular and oocyte maturation that affect the
developmental potential of embryos. J. Reprod. Fert., Suppl., 54, p: 449-460.
7. Oussaid B. şi col., 1999- Reduction of the developmental competence of sheep oocyte by
inhibition of LH pulses during the follicular phase with a GnRH antagonist. J. Reprod. Fert.,
117, p: 71-77.
8. Wang B., Baldassare H., Tao T., Gauthier M., 2003-Transgenic ewes produced by DNA
pronuclear microinjection of “in vitro” derived zygotes. Mol. Reprod. Dev.,63, pag. 437-443.
- 291 -
BACK
ANALYISIS OF ABBATOIR CHARACTERISTICS IN A

POPULATION OF TRANSYLVANIAN NAKED NECK
POULTRY
D. DRONCA, N. PĂCALĂ, I. BENCSIK, T. VINTILĂ, I. PEŢ,
Marioara NICULA, Liliana COSMA
In Romania, the Transylvanian Naked Neck hen breed is considered as

a endangered population. This paper intend to point out the good quality of the
carcass of this breed even after the laying period, based on the measurements
and observations carried out after slaughtering. Observations sustain the
recommendations to extend the raising of this breed in household farms, as well
as using the breed for obtain in Romania the household farm chicken under the
name of “Label Rouge”.
INTRODUCTION
Animal genetic resources are a component of the agricultural and even
natural ecosystems, of the production systems, being correlated with consumers’
demands, food security, and economical and historical possibilities and
restrictions. In Romania, the domestic animals’ diversity was great because of a
high diversity of the ecological niches and importation of a great number of
breeds. Erosion of the local genetic resources started in the 19th Century in horses
and continued with cattle, pigs and poultry until 1970s. The Transylvanian Naked
Neck hen breed became known in 1875, when a Transylvanian peasant presented
a homogenous group of naked-necked hens in an exhibition in Vienna. This is a
dual-purpose breed, from the Eastern Europe group, and nowadays is considered
in Romania a endangered population.
This paper intends to contribute to the promotion, raising and conservation
of the local genetic resources, pointing out the good quality of the carcass, the
juiciness and good taste of the meat even after the end of laying period.

Researches were carried out on 26 females that were 83 weeks of age and
performed in a semi-intensive rearing system, with a production of 155 egg/head.
The raw material processing was carried out in respect to the slaughtering
regulations, the cutting was done by hand and weighing was performed using an
electronic device. The measurements emphasized the killing out percentage,
average weight of carcasses, average weight of other edible parts (head, neck,
claws, liver, and gizzard), non-edible recoverable products (blood, feathers,
viscera), and the carcass structure after slaughtering (superior leg, inferior leg,
back, wings, breast with bone, breast without bone). Also, the body conformation
- 292 -
(the muscling degree of the breast, carcass symmetry against the stern), fattening
degree (depth of the subcutaneous fat layer at the spine, breast, abdomen, legs and
at the bottom of the wings), the commercial aspect (deplumation success, skin
integrity, presence or absence of color spots) were studied. The data was
statistically computed.

Results and measurements carried out are presented in Table 1.
Table 1
Qualitative characteristics and resulted assortments after slaughtering
Weight (g)
No. Assortments %
x±s
1.. Live body weight 2150±4.775 100
2. Weight after bleeding 2070±3.955 96.27
3. Weight after scalding and deplumation 1955±4.494 90.93
4. Edible meat 1742±3.775 81.00
5. Non-edible recoverable products 386.50±5.225 18.00
- blood 80.00±4.20 3.70
- feathers 115.00±2.60 5.30
- viscera 186.50±3.73 8.77
- gall bladder 5.00±2.95 0.23
6. Non-recoverable products 21.50 1
7. Carcass 1362.25±5.250 63.33
- anatomic leg 470±2.75 34.50
- superior leg 260±2.60 55.30
- inferior leg 210±3.10 44.70
- back 244±4.95 17.95
- lung 13±0.45 0.95
- wings 181±3.45 13.3
- breast with bone 433.85±5.22 31.8
- breast without bone 275.50±3.20 63.5
- bone + skin 158.35±3.50 36.5
- cutting losses 20.4 1.5%
8. Other edible parts 379.75±6.25 17.67
-head 64.50±4.23 3.0
- neck 80.00±5.62 3.72
- claws 104.00±4.16 4.85
- liver 51.60±5.12 2.40
- gizzard 66.65±3.17 3.10
- heart 13.0±1.15 0.60
Analyzing Table 1 sow that at 83 weeks of age, the analyzed population had
2150 g live weight at slaughtering, produced in average 1742 g edible meat, that
is a good killing-out percentage of 81%, while the non-edible products were 18%.
- 293 -
BACK
Also, a good carcass weight of 1362.25 g was obtained, representing 63.33% of

initial weight, while other edible parts were 17.67%. After cutting of the carcass,
the anatomic leg was 34.50%, the breast with bone 31.8% (white meat 63.5%),
and the wings were 13.3%. Other edible parts were liver with 2.40%, gizzard with
3.10%, and heart with 0.60%. Thoroughly analysis of the carcasses pointed out
the successful deplumation and the good integrity of the skin. The carcass was
symmetric against the stern and the subcutaneous fat layer was moderately thick
at the spine, breast, abdomen, legs, and bottom of the wings.
CONCLUSIONS
All these observations point out the good quality of the carcass, even after
laying period in Transylvanian Naked Neck breed. It was to notice especially the
high killing-out percentage, the fineness of the skeleton, the pleasant look,
juiciness, and taste of the meat. If we add to these qualities the rusticity and
resistance of the breed, the lively and active temperament for finding feed, the
sustained laying during the summer months we are entitled to recommend the
extension of rearing this breed in family farms as well as in extensive farms. Also,
we consider that the Transylvanian Naked Neck breed could make up the genetic
material required for setting up in Romania the peasant chicken type known under
the name of “Label Rouge”.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. DRONCA D. – Ameliorarea animalelor, Ed.Mirton, Timişoara, 2003.
2. DRIHA A. – Curs de tehnologia creşterii păsărilor, Ed.Mirton, 2000.
3. GROSU H. – Programe de ameliorare, Ed. Agrotehnice, Bucureşti, 2003
4. VAN I. – Creşterea şi industrializarea puilor de carne, Ed.Ceres, Bucureşti, 2003
5. VĂCARU – OPRIŞ I. – Tratat de avicultură, vol.I. Ed.Ceres, Bucureşti, 2001.
6. Managementul durabil al resurselor genetice la animalele domestice din România. – Raport de
ţară. Contribuţie la analiza resurselor genetice animale mondiale de către FAO, 2003.
- 294 -
BACK
OBSERVATIONS REGARDING THE MICROBIAL FLORA

IN BOAR SPERM
Angela STOICA, Paula POŞAN, P. TĂPĂLOAGĂ
The purpose of this study was to determine and analyze the presence of
bacterial flora in boar sperm, depending on season and breed. The material used
was represented by 33 analyze reports of 89 boar ejaculates. The boar breeds
were: Great White, Landrace, Pietrain, Duroc, LSP – 2000, LS – 345 Periş and
hybrids Great White x Duroc, Landrace x Duroc.
The results suggest the need to intensify the hygienic measures for
prevention of further more microflora sperm contamination.
INTRODUCTION
Many authors show that the brut boar semen, diluted or frozen is
contaminated with varied microorganisms. The most frequent are: Micrococcus,
E. coli, Pseudomonas, Proteus, Streptococcus and fungi. It is known that the
metabolites from E. coli have harmful action over the spermatozoa determining
their agglutination.
To sterilize the sperm against microorganisms there are used different
antibiotics which, putted in diluent, destroy some of the germs maintaining the
spermatozoids fecundate capacity.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The studied material was represented by the 33 analyze reports of 89 boar
ejaculates. The boar breeds were: Great White, Landrace, Pietrain, Duroc, LSP –
2000, LS – 345 Periş and hybrids Great White x Duroc, Landrace x Duroc.
For bacteriologic analyses of boars’ sperm there were completed the
following steps:
- inoculation on different types of culture medium: semisolid (Hitkens medium)
and solid (agar);
- set up the germs number / cm2;
- analyze of individual and monthly results – depending on season and breed;
- determine the differences between the seasons and breeds.

The values of microbian loading in boar sperm, depending on season are
presented in table 1 and figure 1.
- 295 -
Microbian loading in boar sperm, depending on season

Table 1
Season n x ± sx ±s v%
Winter 39 (0,16 ± 0,03) x10 4 ± 0,20 x10 4
131,25
Spring 64 (0,31 ± 0,15) x10 4 ± 1,26 x10 4 406,45
Summer 14 (0,10 ± 0,02) x10 4 ± 0,09 x10 4 90
Autumn 27 (0,04 ± 0,006) x10 4 ± 0,03 x10 4 75
0,35
0,3
0,25 Winter
0,2 Spring
0,15 Summer
0,1 Autumn
0,05
0
Figure 1. Microbian loading in boar sperm, depending on season
It can be observed big differences between seasons. The season with the
highest total number of germs is spring, but this difference over the other seasons
can be as a result of a higher number of sperm collections. The winter season,
comparing to summer and autumn, presented higher values of total germs number
because of the insufficient hygienic measures at the collection place and during
the manipulation of semen.
The differences between seasons are presented in table 2 and figure 2.
It can be observed that the hygienic activity of the boars, of the collection
place and the correct manipulation of the semen, reduced significantly the values,
even if the temperature difference of the environment was higher.
The differences of microbian loading in boar sperm, depending on season

Table 2
Seasons x1 x2 d
Spring 0,16 0,31 -0,15
Winter Summer 0,16 0,10 0,06
Autumn 0,16 0,04 0,12
Summer 0,31 0,10 0,21
Spring
Autumn 0,31 0,04 0,27
Summer Autumn 0,10 0,04 0,06
- 296 -
0,3
0,25
0,2
0,15
0,1 Winter-Spring
0,05 Winter-Summer
0 Winter-Autumn
-0,05 Spring-Summer
-0,1
Spring-Autumn
-0,15
Summer-Autumn
-0,2
Figure 2. The differences of microbian loading in boar sperm, depending on season
Also, it can be deduced a continuity of the total germs number between

seasons with comparable values of environment temperature, even if there were
assured hygienic and sanitary measures.
Regarding the microbian loading in boar sperm, depending on breed this is
presented in table 3 and figure 3.
Microbian loading in boar sperm, depending on breed

Table 3
Breed n x ± sx ±s v%
Great white 33 (0,30 ± 0,07) x10 4 ± 0,30 x10 4
130
Landrace 27 (0,29 ± 0,09) x10 4 ± 0,48 x10 4 171,42
Pietrain 70 (0,40 ± 0,14) x10 4 ± 1,22 x10 4 305
LSP – 2000 45 (0,28 ± 0,05) x10 4 ± 0,36 x10 4 128,57
LS – 345 Periş 8 (0,53 ± 0,17) x10 4 ± 0,50 x10 4 94,33
Duroc 6 (0,21 ± 0,15) x10 4 ± 0,39 x10 4 195
Great white x Duroc 2 (1,00 ± 0,70) x10 4 ± 1,00 x10 4 100
Landrace x Duroc 1 (1,00 ± 1,00) x10 4 ± 1,00 x10 4 100
1,2
Great white
1
Landrace
0,8
0,6 Pietrain
0,4 LSP – 2000
0,2 LS – 345 Periş

0 Duroc
Figure 3. Microbian loading in boar sperm, depending on breed
- 297 -
First observation is on the presence of hybrid boars Great White x Duroc

and Landrace x Duroc, which participate at study as insignificant number.
During the year it can be observed a relatively homogeneity of the sperm
microbiologic quality, existing obvious differences between LS – 345 Periş and
Duroc.
The differences between breeds are presented in table 4 and figure 4.
The differences of microbian loading in boar sperm, depending on breed

Table 4
Specificare x1 x2 d
Landrace 10,12 7,79 2,33
Pietrain 10,12 28,11 -17,99
Great white LSP – 2000 10,12 12,76 -2,64
LS – 345 Periş 10,12 4,26 5,86
Duroc 10,12 1,25 8,87
Pietrain 7,79 28,11 -20,32
LSP – 2000 7,79 12,76 -4,97
Landrace
LS – 345 Periş 7,79 4,26 3,53
Duroc 7,79 1,25 6,54
LSP – 2000 28,11 12,76 15,35
Pietrain LS – 345 Periş 28,11 4,26 23,85
Duroc 28,11 1,25 26,85
LS – 345 Periş 12,76 4,26 8,50
LSP – 2000
Duroc 12,76 1,25 11,51
LS – 345 Periş Duroc 4,26 1,25 3,01
Great white-Landrace
Great white-Pietrain
Great white-LSP – 2000
Great white-LS – 345 Periş
Great white-Duroc
Landrace-Pietrain
Landrace-LSP – 2000
Landrace-LS – 345 Periş
Landrace-Duroc
Pietrain-LSP – 2000
Pietrain-LS – 345 Periş
Pietrain-Duroc
LSP 2000-LS – 345 Periş
LSP 2000-Duroc
LS 345 Peris-Duroc
Figure 4. The differences of microbian loading in boar sperm, depending on breed
- 298 -
BACK
The values of total germs number in boar semen are very close, indifferent
of breed. The only notable difference appear when the Pietrain breed is analyzed.
CONCLUSIONS
It can be observed big differences between seasons. The season with the
highest total number of germs is spring, but this difference over the other seasons
can be as a result of a higher number of sperm collections. The winter season,
comparing to summer and autumn, presented higher values of total germs number
because of the insufficient hygienic measures at the collection place and during
the manipulation of semen.
During the year it can be observed a relatively homogeneity of the sperm
microbiologic quality, existing obvious differences between LS – 345 Periş and
Duroc.
The results suggest the need to intensify the hygienic measures for
prevention of further more microflora sperm contamination.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Cuc Aurelia, Ursache Simona (2006) – Studii privind microcultura bacteriana a
materialului seminal de vier. Cercetări – Romsuintest Periş.
2. Eftimie Maria, Potecea Elena, Drăghici D. (2006) – Studii privind influenţa încărcăturii
bacteriene a materialului seminal de vier asupra duratei de conservare. Cercetări –
Romsuintest Periş.
3. Preda Cornelia, Sarchizian D., Cojocaru Fl. (2006) – Cercetări privind evaluarea
microbiologică a materialului seminal de vier în funcţie de timpul de conservare şi aditivii
antibiotici ai diluantului. Cercetări – Romsuintest Periş.
4. tamba Berehoiu Radiana, Constantin N. (2000) – Particularităţi metabolice ale
spermatozoizilor la animalele de fermă. Ed. Monitor-Prod Serv., Bucureşti
5. XXX – Buletine de analiză a încărcăturii microbiene a spermei de vier în 2006.
- 299 -
BACK
GENETIC PROGRESS SPREADING AND INBREEDING

DECREASE BY ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
UTILIZATION IN THE BOTOŞANI KARAKUL SHEEP
Elena FECIORU
The average values of the spermatic indices of seminal material

collected from the Botoşani Karakul breed (ejaculate volume, spermatozoon
mobility, spermatozoon concentration, spermatozoon mortality, spermatic
anomalies, immature spermatozoon percentage) are framed in normal limits of
the qualitative reproduction parameters of this breed. The results obtained by
artificial insemination of females point out that the ram seminal material can be
preserved by refrigeration and freezing. The spermatic indices of the frozen
seminal material are lower than the ones of the refrigerated seminal material.
The biochemical profile of the spermatic cell undergoes changes in the freezing
process, some biochemical differences being revealed between gross sperm and
frozen sperm: in the frozen sperm the organic substances and mineral elements
(excepting sodium) have higher concentrations and enzymes have lower
concentrations than in the gross sperm. Although the values of the reproduction
indices are higher in the natural mating case, the application of artificial
insemination is a gain concerning the genetic progress spreading, improvement
of animal populations, inbreeding decrease and genetic strengthening of the
traits of this breed.
The artificial insemination represented the first step of the reproduction

biotechnologies like the main method of genetic improvement and numerical
increase of animal populations both in the elite farms and in the zootechnical
exploitations of individual and associative type (2).
The fertility degree of an animal population is decisive in the animal
breeding practice concerning maintenance and increase of the population. The
most efficient possibilities of the two partners of the reproduction act (male and
female) represent crucial points to achieve the mentioned economic desiderata at
the highest level (1).
Both parents influence equally the hereditary characters in offspring. But,
as a result of a severe selection, the rams possess the highest selection differential
in comparison with the ewes, exceeding them in the respect of the breed
characteristics and production qualities. Also, their influence on the next
generation is more significant than the one of the mothers (1, 5).
The Botoşani Karakul breed is specialized for the production of lamb
pelts having a very large spectrum of colours and of their shades. Therefore, this
paper had in view some important objectives as: identification and
individualization of the Karakul sheep of brown, grey, pink and white colours,
degree analysis of their improvement and the possibilities to improve the qualities
of lamb pelts using artificial inseminations with seminal material collected from
- 300 -
the tested rams, genetic strengthening of colour shades and of curl types as well as
the decrease of inbreeding phenomenon.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The experimental works were achieved on the Botoşani Karakul sheep
both from the elite farm of the Research and Development for Sheep Popăuţi and
from the individual and production farms. Ewes and rams of different colour
varieties were used.
An analysis of the morpho-production traits was made: qualitative
features of lamb pelts at birth, body weight dynamics, body constitution and
conformation, reproduction aptitudes (abilities), milk production, framing in the
specific parameters of the Botoşani Karakul breed.
The mating nominalization: the mating couples were established
depending on the zootechnical evidences from each farm level and on the basis of
a mating plan having in view the origin of couple partners, colour and colour
shades, main morphological lamb pelt features, as well as the inheritance of
production traits in offspring on the part of each parent. Both homogeneous
matings and heterogeneous matings were made.
The ewes were artificially inseminated with refrigerated seminal material.
The sperm was collected from 10 healthy and vigorous Karakul rams of specific
colours of this breed. The sperm, collected by artificial vagina, was
macroscopically and microscopically examined. Two daily ejaculates were
collected (between them being a pause of 10 minutes). The operation was
consequently repeated after 2-3 days. Only the ejaculates with a volume over 0.5
ml, a mobility over 85% and a concentration over 2 x 109 spermatozoa/ml sperm
were accepted for processing. The values of spermatic characteristics were noted
by the usual spermogram of the rams.
The dilution of gross seminal material was made with a dilution solution
consisting of anhydrous sodium citrate and glycocoll (4). Two types of dilutions
were achieved: the I-st dilution at 37oC and the II-nd dilution at the room
temperature. The dilution proportion was 1:1 for the I-st dilution and 1:2 for the II-
nd
dilution. The pH of seminal material was corrected at 6.7-6.9.
The females in heat were artificially inseminated with refrigerated
seminal material in natural reproduction season with a single dose of 0.4-0.5 ml
by the cervical tactile method.
The females artificially inseminated were examined in the second heat
cycle (at 17 days) when the natural mating was achieved. The non-return
percentage in oestrus (NR%) was calculated after the first oestrus cycle.
The reproduction indicators (fecundity and prolificacy) were calculated
after the female lambing and the qualitative estimation of offspring and their
framing in zootechnical classes were made.
- 301 -
To preserve the seminal material by freezing the middle spangles were

used, the seminal material equilibration being achieved at +4oC for 3-4 hours.
Prefreezing is achieved 8 minutes in fumes of liquid nitrogen at -110oC at 4 cm
above nitrogen. The so-called freezing was achieved at -196oC in container by
total immersion of the spangles in liquid nitrogen; here the spangles were stored.
The defreezing of seminal material which must be verified was effected
after 24 hours from freezing in water for 3 seconds at +40oC.
The microscopic exam of sperm was made in all working phases. The
mobility of spermatozoa was estimated. The frozen sperm doses with a lower
mobility than 35% were eliminated. The artificial insemination of females with
frozen seminal material was achieved in mating season, the ewes being in natural
oestrus status.

By macroscopic and microscopic examination, the seminal material
collected from the Botoşani Karakul rams, with a view of its refrigeration,
corresponded to the qualitative normal parameters of ram sperm of this breed.
Thus, the ejaculates had a volume between 0.5-2.5 ml, the spermatozoon
mobility revealed agile advancement movements of 80-90 %, the concentration of
seminal material had a density of 2.5-4.3 mld. spermatozoa/ml; the dead
spermatozoa varied between 9% and 20%, the spermatic anomalies was between
5% and 15% and the limits of the immature spermatozoa were 1 - 4% (tab. 1).
Table 1
Average values of the spermatic indices
Specification x ±sx v%
Ejaculate volume (ml) 1.08 ± 0.02 9.25
Spermatozoon mobility (%) 87.82 ± 0.29 1.67
Spermatozoon concentration (mld/ml) 3.3 ± 0.04 6.69
Spermatozoon mortality (%) 11.27 ± 0.16 7.45
Spermatic anomalies (%) 9.55 ± 0.14 7.32
Immature spermatozoa (%) 1.67 ± 0.37 46.66
These values indicate a seminal material of good quality which preserve

the mobility and viability of spermatozoa also after preparing (dilution) and
refrigeration of the sperm.
The 80 ejaculates collected from the Karakul males, which were
macroscopic and microscopic examined, diluted and frozen, were used for
artificial insemination of 300 females in the first oestrus cycle in natural mating
season of this breed, according to the mating nominalization plan. The
insemination was achieved with a single dose by the cervical tactile method.
- 302 -
The comparable values of NR% between artificial insemination with

refrigerated sperm and natural mating point out that the application of artificial
inseminations is a gain for the genetic progress spreading in the field of sheep
improvement.
At the same time, the sperm of the Karakul rams can be preserved by
freezing. The value of spermatozoon mobility after freezing is over 40%.
Although the spermatozoon mobility of the frozen dose can increase till 70%,
after defreezing the fecundation capacity of spermatic cell is low, the NR
percentage being 47.3% in comparison with the one met in artificial insemination
(82.33%). Also, the differences are more important concerning the fecundity and
prolificacy indices (tab. 2).
Table 2
Results obtained by artificial insemination in natural oestrus season
Sperma- Non-
Females Lambed
Seminal tozoon returned N.R. F Lambs P
A.I. females
material mobility females (%) (%) (n) (%)
(n) (n)
(%) (n)
+4oC 80 - 85 300 247 82.33 220 73.33 231 105.0
-196oC 45 - 70 95 45 47.30 37 37.80 39 105.4
Our experimental data are similar with the ones reported by the speciality
literature concerning the fecundity in the artificial insemination case (1, 2, 3).
In the respect of the sperm mobility the average values are higher in
Karakul in comparison with the ones met in the others sheep breeds (tab. 3). By
freezing process the viability, mobility and fecundation capacity of spermatic cell
decrease.
Table 3
Spermatozoon mobility of gross and frozen sperm in different sheep breeds
Breed Ejaculate number Gross sperm Frozen sperm

Botoşani Karakul 30 88.20 57.82
Palas Merinos 60 82.00 45.30
Australian Merinos 53 81.60 38.30
Île de France 50 85.00 45.00
Romney Marsh 14 90.00 38.00
Booroola 84 76.60 33.70
Corrriedale 76 79.90 43.60
Polwarth 23 85.80 38.80
Awassi 75 82.70 45.00
- 303 -
Some authors consider that by freezing the cytoplasm membrane is

harmed and the internal biochemical medium of spermatozoon is modified (1, 2,
3). These affirmations were confirmed by our experimental data (tab. 4).
Table 4
Biochemical composition of gross and frozen sperm of the Botoşani Karakul rams
Sperm
Biochemical parameters
gross frozen
Proteins (g%) 3.31 4.42
Cholesterol (mg%) 464.7 482.5
Transaminasis (UI) 23.0 15.5
Alkaline phosphatase (UI) 54.6 20.4
Sodium (mEq/l) 40.0 32.0
Potassium (mEq/l) 2.1 7.1
Calcium (mEq/l) 7.0 12.2
In the Karakul rams the chemical composition of frozen sperm is different

in comparison with the one of the gross sperm. The organic substances (protein
and cholesterol) are more concentrated in the frozen sperm and the enzymes
(transaminasis and alkaline phosphatase) have higher value in the gross sperm. As
regards the electrolytes the sodium level is higher in the gross sperm and the
concentrations of potassium and calcium are higher in the frozen sperm.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The average values of the spermatic indices of seminal material
collected from the Botoşani Karakul breed (ejaculate volume, spermatozoon
mobility, spermatozoon concentration, spermatozoon mortality, spermatic
anomalies, immature spermatozoon percentage) are framed in normal limits of the
qualitative reproduction parameters of this breed.
2. The results obtained by artificial insemination of females point out that
the ram seminal material can be preserved by refrigeration and freezing.
3. The spermatic indices of the frozen seminal material are lower than the
ones of the refrigerated seminal material.
4. The biochemical profile of the spermatic cell undergoes changes in the
freezing process, some biochemical differences being revealed between gross
sperm and frozen sperm: in the frozen sperm the organic substances and mineral
elements (excepting sodium) have higher concentrations and the enzymes have
lower concentrations than in the gross sperm.
5. Although the values of the reproduction indices are higher in the
natural mating case, the application of artificial insemination is a gain concerning
the genetic progress spreading, improvement of animal populations, inbreeding
decrease and genetic strengthening of the traits of this breed.
- 304 -
BACK
REFERENCES
1. Bogdan A. T., 1981 – Reproducţia animalelor de fermă. Ed. Scrisul Românesc, Craiova.
2. Dumitrescu I., 1978 – Însămânţările artificiale la animale. Ed. Ceres , Bucureşti.
3. Fecioru Elena, Cojocaru D., 1992 – Studiul componenţilor biochimici a materialului seminal de
berbec corelat cu valoarea indicilor de reproducţie la ovinele pentru pielicele. Simpoz.
Naţ. „Realizări şi perspective în Zootehnie”, USAMV Iaşi.
4. Fecioru Elena, Cojocaru D., 1994 – Variaţia principalilor indici de reproducţie la ovinele
Karakul de Botoşani în funcţie de gradul de diluţie a materialului seminal şi al
compoziţiei diluanţilor. Lucr. Şt. ale ICPCOC Palas-Constanţa, vol. VII.
5. Taftă V., 1997 – Producţia, ameliorarea şi reproducţia ovinelor. Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti.
- 305 -
BACK
THE ASSESS OF THE GENETIC STRUCTURE FOR Β-

LACTOGLOBULIN GENE (LGB) AT H-F COWS AND THE
GENE POLYMORPHISM IMPACT ON MILK QUALITY
AND PRODUCTION
I. BENCSIK, N PACALA, Jana STANCULET,

Alena BENCSIK, Ada TELEA
The A and B variants of the β-lactoglobulin gene (LBG) are most

frequently involved in bovine milk production. The variant are different because
of shifting of two amino acids from the poliproteic chain and two nucleotides
from the LGB gene. The AA genotype is associated with a higher milk production
and a more rapidly coagulation, and the genotype BB is associated with a higher
percent of casein and milk fat. The milk from the cows with LGB-AA genotype
has a higher percent of lactoglobulin and a lower percent of casein and fat,
compared to the cows with LGB-BB genotype. More chese is obtained from cows
with LGB-BB genotype comparative to the milk from the cows with LGB-AA. The
suitability for industrial usage is better for milk produced by cows with LGB-AA,
because it is more stable at higher temperatures. The genotype LGB-BB is
associated with a higher mastitis resistance because it has lower somatic cell
content (SCC), and it can be used as a good indicator of the udder health. For
the study 24 cows were genotypized for gene LGB variant A and B. The cows
were from HF breed with mean milk production of 8444 milk kg/305 days, 3.90%
fat, 3.3% protei.Cows were free housed on a grid floor. The analyzed population
is not in genetical balance because after selection the frequency of the A allele
(0.63) is higher than the frequency of the B allele (0.37). The mean milk
production on standard lactation is bigger at cows with LBG-AA; it is significant
higher at 1% threshold comparative to the LBG-AB and LGB-BB genotypes. The
fat percent is significant lower at 5% threshold for the LGB-AA genotype
compared to the LGB-AB and LGB-BB. The LGB-BB genotype has the highest
percent of fat. Between the analyzed genotypes the protein percent has no
significant difference.

Aschaffenburg and Drewry (1955) were first that have discovered the
genetic polymorphism at the β-lactoglobulin gene (LGB). Different genetic
variants of the gene were found in all types of milk protein. Later studies clearly
demonstrated the influence of the genetic type of milk protein on the primary
protein compounds and on the total milk production. Until now, at least 12
variants are known for β-lactogloblin: A, B, C, D, Dr, E, F, G, H, I, J and W (3).
The β-lactoglobulin gene is codifying a protein chain made from 162 amino-
acids. The genetic variants A and B of β-lactoglobulin are associated with milk
quality and quantity. The AA genotype is associated with a greater milk
- 306 -
production and faster milk coagulation, and the BB genotype is associated with a
higher percent of milk fat and casein (3, 4). The genetic structure of the animal
populations from H-F breed is different from one population to another, from one
farm to another, from one group to another (2).
The A and B variants of the β-lactoglobulin gene are most frequent in
bovine milk. The variants are different because of the replacement of two
aminoacids from the protein chain and two nucleotides from the LGB gene: Asp
64 (GAT) → Gly (GGT) and Val 118 (GTC) → Ala (GCC). The T→C
substitution has created a restriction situs for HaeIII that allows the RFLP analysis
of the LGB gene polymorphism.
The milk form the cows with LGB-AA genotype are richer in
lactoglobulin and lower in fat and casein content compared to the LGB-BB
genotype. The milk from cows with LGB-BB has a better conversion rate in
cheese compared to the LGB-AA genotype. The suitability for industrial
processing is better at the milk produced by cows with LGB-AA genotype,
because it has a better thermal stability. The LBG-AB genotype is manifesting
these characteristics intermediary. The genotype of the cows with LGB-BB is
associated with a higher resistance at mastitis; the milk from these cows has a
lower somatic cells number (SCC), a good indicator of the udder health.
For the experiments 24 milking cows, from Giroc farm, were genotypized
for gene LGB variant A and B. The cows were from HF breed with mean milk
production 8444 milk kg/305 days, with a 3.90% fat, 3.3% protein, free housed on
a grid floor.
The DNA was isolated from hair and blood. In the study were taken into
account only the A and B genotypic variants of the LGB gene. The IV exon and
the V intron fragments were amplified with PCR. The amplification was made in
30 cycles: 94°C - 45 seconds, 55°C - 1 minute, 73°C - 1 minute. The DNA
amplified fragment was 247 bp-long and was digested with a restriction nuclease
Hae III. The restriction fragments were separated by electrophoresis in 4%
agarose gel.
The milk quality analyze was performed during the official milk production
recording by the UARZ – Timisoara. The standard lactation 305 days with milk,
fat and protein quantities were taken into account.

The fervency of the genotypes and the alleles for β-lactoglobulin (LGB) are
presented in table 1:
- 307 -
Table 1
The polymorphism of the locus fore B-lactoglobulin (LGB) at Romanian red
spotted breed
Genotypes Alleles
Locus Genotype No. animals /%
frequency frequency
AA 10/42% 0.42 A-0.63
LGB AB 10/42% 0.42
BB 4/16% 0.16 B-0.37
From this table can be seen that the cows population taken into account is
not in genetic balance for the LGB gene, the frequency of the LGB-AA genotypes
is 42%, the frequency for the genotype LGB-AB is also 42% and the frequency
for the genotype LGB-BB is 16%. This is the cause that the frequency of the
LGB-A gene (0.63) is higher than the frequency of the LGB-B gene (0.37).
The mean milk production, the fat percent and the percent of protein for the
different genotypes of the LGB AA, AB, and BB are presented into table 2.
Table 2
The mean milk production, the mean fat percent and the mean protein percent for
different genotypes of the B-lactoglobulin (LGB)
Genotypes of the B-lactoglobulin gene

Specification
AA AB BB
% of animals 42% 42% 16%
The mean milk
production 31.0±3.1 25.59±3.6 26.55±3.18
day/305days kg
Fat % 3.81±0.10 3.95±0.17 4.01±0.17
Protein % 3.34±0.12 3.28±0.14 3.23±0.15
From the data presented in table 2, we observe that the mean milk
production/day per 305 days is higher at genotype LGB-AA, having a value of
31.0±3.1 kg. The difference at mean daily milk production for the LGB-AA
genotype is significant compared to the production of the LGB-AB and LGB-BB
genotypes at 1% threshold.
The fat percent has the lower mean value at LGB-AA genotype (3.8±0.1)
and the higher value (4.01±0.17) at LGB-BB genotype. The differences are
significant at 5% threshold for both AA - BB and for AA - AB varieties.
The protein percent has the higher value at LGB-AA. Between the AA, AB
and BB variants we have no differences with respect to the mean protein percent
per lactation.
- 308 -
BACK
CONCLUSIONS
1. The population analyzed is not in genetic balance because of the fact that by
selection the frequency of the A allele (0.63) is higher than the frequency of the
B allele (0.37).
2. The mean milk production, on a standard lactation is the highest at cows with
LGB-AA being significantly higher, at 1% threshold, than LGB-AB and LGB-
BB.
3. The fat percent is significantly lower, at 5% threshold, for the LGB-AA
genotype comparative to the LGB-AB and BB genotypes. The highest fat
percent is registered for the LGB-BB genotype.
4. The protein percent is nonsignificantly different between the genotypes
analyzed for the LGB gene.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Henegariu O., Heerema N.A., Dlouhy S.R:, Vance G.H., Voght P.H:, (1997), Multiplex PCR:
Critical Parameters and step-by-step protocol, BioTechniques, Research Reports.
2. Kubarsepp, I., Henno, M., Viinalass H., Sabre, D., (2005)- Effect of k-casein and B-lacoglobulin
genotiypes on the milk rennet coagulation properties, Agronomy Research 3(1), 55-64.
3.Formaggioni, P., Summer A., Malacame M., Mariani P., Milk protein polymorphism: Detection
and diffusion of the genetic variants in Bos Genus. Centro Ricerche Produtioni Animali of Reggio
Emilia.
4. Faria F.J.C., Guimaraes S.E.F., Mourau G.B., Lima R.M.G., Pinheiro L.E.L., (2000), Analise de
polimorfismos do gene de β-lactoglobulin em vaca da raca Nelore e efeitos sobre o peso a
desmama de suas progenies, Arq.Bras. Med. Zootec. Vol.52 n.3, ISSN 0102-0935.
5. Ceriotti By G., Marletta D., Caroli A., Erhard G., (2004), J. Anim. Breed. Genet. 121, 404-415,
ISSN 0931-2668.
- 309 -
BACK
C-BANDING STUDIES IN
Capra hircus L. CHROMOSOMES
Ioana NICOLAE
Since modern chromosome banding methods first came into general

use, they have become essential tools in fields as diverse as clinical cytogenetics
and evolutionary studies, and as a vital adjunct to the endeavours of molecular
biologists in mapping genes of chromosomes, for example. The use of banding
techniques has revealed an extraordinary variability in the chromosomes of all
organisms that have been investigated adequately. The major reason of this
variability may concern the changes of heterochromatin amount. Such
differences occur between homologues within an individual, between individuals
of the same population and between different populations of the same species.
The detailed analysis of the specific chromosomal bands in goats chromosomes,
as in other species, have had a great contribution to elucidate some aspects
concerning their karyotipical evolution. Because the karyotypical changes was
determined by chromosomal abnormalities which involve the centromeric area,
the study of constitutive heterochromatin became opportune. Because the
methods and the results often vary considerably from one laboratory to another,
the purpose of this study was to establish, by using differentialy stain techniques,
the optimal method to reveal the constitutive heterochromatin in Capra hircus L.
chromomsomes. An analysis of the pattern of heterochromatic blocks was
performed and the polymorphism of shape and size are disscused.
INTRODUCTION
The chromosome banding is equally important as a practical tool for
identifying chromosomes and parts of chromosomes. The biophysical
characterization of the constitutive heterochromatin has emphasized a structure of
highly repeated DNA sequences. Heterochromatin has been regarded as inert and
evidence from its composition and variability supports this view. The frequent ,
but far from invariable, occurrence in heterochromatin of highly repeated simple
sequence DNA, which cannot possibly code for any meaningful protein, seems a
clear confirmation of its essential inertness. Although there is still much to be
learnt about this different level of organization, it is now possible to put together a
reasonably coherent picture of it. C-banding has proved to be an invaluable label
for defining it and to emphasize its diversity. At different mammalian species it
was demonstrated that the distribution of constitutive heterochromatin varies very
much and produces karyotypical variations.
Starting from these considerations, the purpose of this study was to
establish, by using differentialy stain techniques, the optimal method to reveal the
constitutive heterochromatin in Capra hircus L. chromomsomes.
- 310 -

The chromosomal preparations were obtained by peripheral blood
lymphocytes microculture technique for about 72 hours at 39.7˚C by using
Minimal Essential Medium (Sigma) supplemented with 15 per cent fetal bovine
serum (Sigma) and Concanavalin A as mitogen. To obtain heterochromatic
blocks were used the Sumner C-banding method, slightly modified by S.Long
(1990), Popescu (1974), G.P.di Meo(1995). Following the treatment of the 3
variants, the banding patterns were studied with a Nikon-Optiphot-2 microscope
and the best images were taken with a CCD camera, processed and stored as
PCX-files on the computer.

The first step to identify and to describe the heterochromatic regions in
the goat chromosomes was to establish the optimal method in order to point out
the heterochromatic blocks. For this reason the mitotic metaphases with different
ages, between 1 and 16 days, were treated by using the three slightly modified
protocols of the original C-banding method (Sumner 1972), as following:
1. C-banding technique modified by S.Long (1990):
Denaturation at room temperature : 1 hour in HCl 0.1 N ;
Short wash of slides with distilled water at room temperature;
Denaturation by immersing slides in 5% solution of Ba(OH)2 at 60oC for 3
minutes;
3 series of slides washing with distilled water at room temperature;
Immerse slides in 2XSSC at 60oC for 15 minutes;
Giemsa staining, solution 5%: 15 minutes.
2. C-banding technique modified by P.Popescu (1974):
Denaturation by immersing slides in 5% solution of Ba(OH)2 at 50oC for 15
minute;
Renaturation in 2XSSC at 60oC : 1 hour and 45 de minutes;
Short wash of slides with distilled water at room temperature ;
Giemsa staining, solution 5%: 20 minutes.
3. C-banding technique modified by G.P.di Meo (1995):
Denaturation in HCl 0.2 N at room temperature : 30 minutes ;
Denaturation by immersing slides in 5% solution of Ba(OH)2 at 50oC : 20 - 30
minutes;
Slides washing with distilled water at room temperature;
Renaturation in 2XSSC at 60oC for 30 minutes;
- 311 -
Dehydrate slides in 30%,70%, 95% alcohol serie and air-dry;

Acridine orange staining, solution 1%: 20 minutes.
The results obtained in the present study demonstrate that the C-banding
technique modified by G.P.di Meo (1995) is most suitable to show the HC-blocks
in goats chromosomes. It was obtained a good resolution of C-bands, on different
age of slides. Starting with the main moments of the C-banding technique, the
work protocol was succesfully adapted to our lab’s conditions. It means that: the
time of denaturation in 5% solution of Ba (OH)2 irrespective of the age of the
preparations without exception was 25 minutes and Acridine orange staining
was replaced by Giemsa staining.
The best images were observed and studied by using the image analysis
equipement. Every chromosome was identified by using the standard karyotype.
It is already known that the chromosomal set of the goat (Capra hircus L.) has the
basic Bovidae chromosome complement with a diploid number of 60. All the
autosomes and the X chromosome are acrocentric, whereas the Y chromosome is
an extremely small metacentric chromosome.
Concerning the C-banding pattern, like cattle chromosomes, in goat
chromosomes, all of the autosomes have blocks of heterochromatin at the
centromere, which give positive C-bands, whereas the X and Y chromosomes are
negative for C-banding or only small amounts of this material can be observed
(fig.1).
Fig.1 Acridine-orange C-banding in goat chromosomes
- 312 -
The constitutive heterochromatin polymorphism has revealed a large

variability of shape and size in the heterochromatic blocks of the chromosomes
(fig.2).
Fig.2 The karyotype of C-banded chromosomes of goat
CONCLUSIONS
1. The most suitable C-banding technique to study the constitutive

heterochromatin pattern in goats is the C-banding technique slightly modified by
G.P.di Meo (1995).
2. Even usually the denaturation time is directly correlated with the age
of the chromosomal preparations, at the goat the best resolution of the
heterochromatic blocks was obtained by using much longer denaturation time,
irrespective of the age of the preparations.
3. In the chromosomal complement of goat the relatively uniform
disposition of the constitutive heterochromatin in the pericentromeric area of the
acrocentric chromosomes was found out whereas the X and Y chromosomes were
negative for C-banding or only small amounts of this material could be observed.
4. The constitutive heterochromatin polymorphism has revealed a large
variability of shape and size in the heterochromatic blocks of the chromosomes.
- 313 -
BACK
REFERENCES
1. BUNCH,T.D., FOOTE,W.C., SPILLET,J.J., 1976b - Translocations of acrocentric chromosomes
and their implications in the evolution of sheep. Cytogenet.Cell Genet.17,122-136.
2. EVANS,H.J., BUCKLAND,R.A., SUMNER,A.T., 1973 - Chromosome homology and
heterochromatin in goat, sheep and ox studied by banding techniques. Chromosoma,42, 383-
402.
3. Di MEO,G.P.,PERUCATTI,A., IANNUZZI,L., RANGEL-FIGUEIREDO,M.T., FERRARA,L.,
1995 - Constitutive heterochromatin polymorphism in river buffalo chromosomes.
Caryologia,vol.48, n.2 : 137-145.
4. LIVESCU,B.E., SAMARINEANU,M.,1972 – Contribuţii la îmbunătăţirea tehnicii de microcultură
din sânge integral pentru studiul cromozomilor la speciile taurine şi ovine, Ses.şt., ICCT.
5. LONG,S.E., 1975 - An investigation of a centric fusion (Robertsonian) translocation of sheep.
Ph.D Thesis, Univ.of Glasgow.
6. NICOLAE IOANA – Studiul comparativ al distribuţiei şi polimorfismului heterocromatinei
constitutive la unele specii din Familia Bovidae şi implicarea sa în evoluţia cariotipică a acestor
specii. Teză de doctorat, 20.10.1999, A.S.A.S., Bucureşti.
7. POPESCU,C.P.,1975 – L’etude du caryotip bovin(Bos Taurus L.) par les methods des bandes.
Ann.Biol.anim.Biochim.Biophys., 15, 751-756.
8. SCHNEDL,W., CZAKER,R., 1974 - Centromeric heterochromatin and comparison of G banding
in cattle, goat and sheep chromosomes (Bovidae).Cytogenet.Cell Genet.13, 246-255.
9. SUMNER,A.T. 1972 - A simple technique for demonstrating centromeric heterochromatin.
Exp.Cell Res. 75, 304-306.
- 314 -
BACK
STUDY ABOUT THE POSSIBILITY OF PHASE FEEDING OF

THE YOUNG QUAILS FROM A EGSS-MEAT
MIXT POPULATION
Elena POPESCU-MICLOŞANU, L. IONIŢĂ, I. CUSTURĂ,
Minodora TUDORACHE, Cristina NEGRE
The experiment has been placed on S.C. Ferma Nova Bucharest

on 375 young quails divided in 3 equal lots. The youth quail have been
raised 2 weeks on the ground and then transferred in batteries. Their
feeding was made in 2 phases, with mix feed with around 2984 kcal ME
/kg and 25,1% BP in the period 0-25 days and 3124 kca l/kg and 20.29 %
BP between 26-42 days at the control batch. The first experimental batch
received mix feed made according to same recipe in the first 14 days of
life ,after that the energy value was decreased at 2864 kcal and the
protein at 22.8 %. The second experimental batch has received the same
recipes with the control, but their change was made at 14 days of age.
The body weight of the quails was significantly bigger in the control
group and the first experimental batch by comparing with the second
experimental group at 28 and 35 days of age. The differences between
batches had become insignificant at 42 days.
The raising of Japanese quails for eggs and meat production has know a
big development in the last decades because of the fact that the eggs and meat
from the quail has a recognized quality (great nutritional value, well balanced
composition, special taste), and on the other side the naturist doctors prescribe the
use these products with therapeutic special effect.
The quails can be raised in intensive conditions and with great
economical efficiency because of their physiological characteristics like the
precocious egg laying and the big production of the mass-egg per quail,
precocious sexuality, great fertility percent, long production cycle, fast raising and
good resisting for diseases. They need little space to live (the quails raised in
batteries of cages permits a great density on the constructed square meter). The
expenses with the farm equipment and with the acquirement of bed material are
pretty low. The quail rising represent a limited activity in Romania, so the
competition on the market is not too high.
The purpose of the experiment is to determinate if it is possible to decline
the protein, correlative with the energetic level of the mix feed, beginning with
the 14 days of age, or if it is possible to reduce the protein level of the diet,
correlative with the rising of the energetic level beginning from the same age. The
present study has in view other previous studies on young quails made in the past.
- 315 -
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The trial took place in S.C. Ferma Nova S.R.L Bucharest, on 375 young
“Baloteşti” quails for egg-meat, divided in 3 equal lots, respectively a control
batch and 2 experimental ones. It was used an experimental plan in controlled
blocks in one direction and the testing of the differences between the averages
was made with the Fisher and Tukey tests.
The control lot received: in the period of 0-25 days the first formula of
mix feed (table 1) and in the period of 26-42 days the second one.
Table 1
The composition of the of the trial diets (kg)
Trial diets
Raw materials
I II III
Corn 53,35 56,00 59,00
Soybean meal 34,50 29,4 33,40
Sunflower meal - 5,50 3,38
Fish meal 6,50 1,62 1,62
Limestone 1,40 1,30 1,30
Dicalcium phosphate 1,00 0,18 0,20
DL- methionine 98 % 0,15 0,20 0,30
Salt 0,30 0,30 0,30
Oil 2,30 5,00 -
Mineral-vitamine premix 0,50 0,50 0,50
Total 100 100 100
Table 2
Nutritional parameters of the feeds
Nutritional parameters M.U. Trial diets
I I I
Metabolizable Energy Kcal /kg 2983.76 3124 2864
Crude Protein % 25.15 20,29 22,82
Energo-proteic rate - 119 154 126
Lisine % 1.40 1,06 1,38
Meth. + cistine % 0.96 0,81 0,90
Crude Fibre % 2.81 3,59 3,48
Calcium % 1.25 1,02 1,06
Phosphorus % 0.76 0,64 0,68
First experimental lot received feed in the following way: between the
ages of 1-14 days the first diet and between 15-42 days the third recipe. To the
second experimental batch it was administered between 1-14 days first recipe and
between 15-42 days the second recipe of mix feed. In the second table it is
presented the nutritional and energetic value of the used feed.
- 316 -
RESULTS AND DISSCUTION

The obtained results are synthetically presented in tables and graphics
1. The average body weight evolution in the period 0-6 weeks
In the period 0-2 week of life, the body weight and the weight gain are practically
equal between them at all batches. It was followed in continuation the effect of
the 2 feed diets in the period 3-6 weeks.
The testing of the differences between the averages body weight at each age
with Fisher, shows that they are distinctly significant between batches only at the
age of 28 days and significant at the age of 35 days. The differences are not
statistically assured.
Table 3
The body weight of the young quails in the period 0-6 weeks
Average body weight (g) /age (days)
Trial group
1 7 14 21 28 35 42
Control 8,9 31,0 76,6 100,79 139,76** 173,56* 202,96
I 8,9 31,1 76,5 102,92 138,81** 171,67* 201,36
II 8,9 31,0 76,5 99,00 133,61** 166,98* 199,00
Note: numbers marked with * shows that between the batches are significant differences
and the numbers marked with ** show that the differences are distinctly significant
Were it appeared significant and distinctly significant differences, it was

appealed to the Tukey test, to determine in what batches appear those differences.
In this way, at the 28 days of age appear differences distinctly significant between
the control and the first experimental batch, who records bigger body weight,
against the second experimental batch. At the 35 days of age, the differences are
significant between the same batches.
2. The weight gain evolution by the period 0-6 weeks
The weight gain presented two peaks, in week 2 and fourth and than it
decreased slowly.
Table 4
The weight gain of the young quails in the period of 0-6 weeks
Weight gain (g)
Trial Specifi- Week I Week II Week Week Week Week
cation III IV V VI
Control Weekly 22,14 45,6 24,19 38,97 33,80 29,40
Daily 3,16 6,51 3,45 5,57 4,83 4,20
I Weekly 22,14 45,5 26,42 35,89 32,86 29,69
Daily 3,16 6,5 3,77 5,13 4,69 4,24
II Weekly 22,14 45,5 22,5 34,61 33,37 32,02
Daily 3,16 6,5 3,21 4,94 4,77 4,57
- 317 -
The fig. 1 shows the graphical representation of the average weekly weight gain
of the young quails.
The weight gain evolution of the young quails from the two
experimental groups compared with the control
50
40
LM
30
g/week LE I
20
LE II
10
0
I II III IV V VI
week
Figure 1 - The evolution of the average weight gain of the youth quail from the studied
batches
The growing system

In a previous trial done by the same researchers over youth quail from the
same population [7], the weekly weight gain evolution is the same with the
present study, with the difference that in the first study the peak of the growing
curve was registered in the fifth week of life, not in the fourth week, like in the
present study.
Also, must be specified that in the prior study the young quails were moved in
batteries at 21 days, not at 14 days like in the present study. Earlier transfer of the
youth quail in batteries in the present study has made that the second peak of
growing was registered at four week of age, one week earlier than it was in the
other study. After that, the weight gain slowly decreases in the fifth and the sixth
week of age.
After comparing the results of the booth studies, we see that the transfer
in batteries has a stressing effect on the young quails, so we conclude that the
raising of the youth quail in batteries from one day old is probably the best
solution and this will have as effect the avoiding of the decreasing of the weight
gain in the week 3 or 4 and will have only one peak of growing rate which will
result in a normal growing curve and best results of the birds.
Adapting stress problems of youth quail
It can be said that the adapting stress of the young quails last around one
week, because in the next week after the transfer from ground to batteries, the
weight gain decreases and after that became normal.
- 318 -
Based on the results of the two studies, two remarks are to be made:
¾ The youth quail are to be raised from 1 day old in batteries which
will result in only one peak of growth in week 2 and then the
weight gain slowly decreases;
¾ The youth quail will be raised at first on the ground for better
watching and at the age of 7 – 21 days they are to be transferred to
batteries. In this case the growth rate will encounter a decrease of
approximately one week.
More studies are to be done in order to establish which of the two systems
the best to be used is.
Phase feeding of the youth quail
In the first two weeks the batches were fed with the same feed recipe. In
the third week of growth, the control continued to be fed with the same feed
recipe which had a level of energy of 2983 Kcal EM /kg mix feed, a protein level
of 25,15 % CP and an energy – protein ratio of 118.
Giving a feed diet with the energy level of 2864 Kcal ME /kg and the
protein level of 22,82% with 126 energy – protein ratio, to the experimental I in
the third week of age has not resulted on significantly improved performances of
growth. In the forth week of age the performances obtained by this batch were not
significantly different of the levels of the control.
The feed based on a diet with an energy level of 3 124 kcal EM/kg and a
protein level of 20,29%, with an energy – protein ratio of 154 given to a second
batch did not show different performances in the third week of age, but starting
with week 4, the growing differences between trials start to appear significant and
in the fifth week of age those differences became distinctly significance between
experimental batch two and the control. In the sixth week of age no more
differences of growing between the tree samples were recorded.
The fact that no differences appear between the growing performances of
the tree groups, shows that starting with the fourteen days of age, the energy level
can be decreased with 100 kcal and the protein level with 2,3% from the levels
given in the first diet of feed. The proposal are also according with the
recommendation of the French breeders.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The transfer of young quails from ground to batteries can be done
before 21 days of age, like 7 – 14 days old or even from the first day
of life, which will determine only one peak of weight gain and a
normal growing curve of the birds.
2. It can be said that the adapting stress of the young quails last around
one week. In the following week after transfer from ground to
batteries, the weight gain decreases and after that became normal.
- 319 -
BACK
3. The fact that no significantly differences were to be seen between the

performances of the control and the experimental batches, shows that
after the first phase, the energy level can be decreased with 100 kcal
and the protein level with 2,3% starting with the fourteen day of life.
4. For feeding the young quails from the egg – meat breed, the French
system of feeding can be used, in the first phase (0-2 weeks) a diet
with a height level of energy and protein, in the second phase (3-4
weeks) a diet with an energy and protein lower levels and in the third
phase depending of the destination of the youth, can be used: for
replacing quails will be used the same diet like in the second phase,
or can be based on even more decreased levels of energy and protein.
For the meat quails we will use a diet with an energy level bigger
then in the first phase and a protein level lower than in the second
phase.
REFERENCES
1. A.. Alexandru, „Prepeliţa, fazanul”, Editura Alex-Alex, Bucureşti, 2001.
2. Bălăşescu M. şi col, „Avicultura”, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1980.
3. Ioniţă L., - Studiu privind performanţele de producţie ale prepeliţei „de Baloteşti în
funcţie de nivelul bateriei de cuşti, Lucr. de dipl., Col. Univ.Agr., Specializ. Cr.. Anim..
Mici, Fac. Zootehnie, U.Ş.A.M.V. Bucureşti, 2003.
4. Ioniţă M., Stoica I., „Cercetări privind influenţa unor nutreţuri combinate cu nivele
energo-proteice diferite asupra performanţelor de creştere ale prepeliţelor”, Lucrări
ştiinţifice ale I.C.P.C.P.A.M. Baloteşti, p. 125, Bucureşti, 1995.
5. Marin Gh. şi col., „Tehnologia Creşterii prepeliţelor domestice pentru producţia de ouă
şi carne”, Editura Pământ românesc, Bucureşti, 1990.
6. Oroian T. şi col., „Influenţa factorului proteic din hrană asupra producţiei de ouă la
prepeliţa japoneză”, A 30-a Sesiune de Lucrări ştiinşifice, Facultatea de Zootehnie,
U.Ş.A.M.V. Bucureşti, Bucureşti, 2001.
7. Popescu Elena-M., Lucian Ioniţă ş.a., “Comparative study regarding the productive
parameters of the youth quailes in two populations”, The 35-th International Session of
Scientific Comunications the Scientific Papers of the Faculty of Animal Science,
Bucharest, 2006.
8. Stoica I şi col., „Bazele nutriţiei şi alimentaţiei animalelor”, Editura Coral-Sanivet,
Bucureşti, 2001.
9. Van I., „Creşterea prepeliţelor pentru producţia de carne şi ouă”, Editura Ceres,
Bucureşti, 2004.
10. www.fermanova.go.ro
11. www.agromarketing.ro
- 320 -
BACK
THE COW MILK AS BIOACCUMULATION MEDIUM FOR

ORGANOCHLORINE PESTICIDES AND THE IMPACT ON
THE HUMAN HEALTH
C.I. WEBER, GH. MUREŞAN, B. GEROGESCU
The intensive agriculture was possible by using the chemical substances

to combat the pests at the crop plants and farm animals. The first effect of using
these chemical substances was that the production growth, but in time the negative
effects show up on the soil, the flora and fauna, and the humans health, too. Among
the chemical substances most used were organochlorine pesticides. The
organochlorine pesticides are dangerous because their traits such as: high stability
and remainence in the environment, affinity for fat animal and vegetal tissue (milk,
red meat, eggs) and bioaccumulation in environment and fat tissue. This fact makes
possible the entrance of these substances in human trophic chain through soil-
forages-animal--human population, with some negative effects on the human’s
health. Many researches, at national, European and world level, show the presence
of this organochlorine pesticides both in the environment and animal products
(cow milk, red meat, eggs), but also in human body (human milk).
The organochlorine pesticides were used for the first time in Romania, in
1948. These substances were made, in the most part of them, on the DDT
(dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane) basis, but there were another substances, which
were made from aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane, endrine, heptachlor, toxaphene. All
these substances were imported, with the exception of those on DDT and
heptachlor basis, which were made in Romania. After 1988, these substances
were banned for agriculture, in Romania. In present, the only organochlorine
pesticides used in Romania are those on the lindane basis, used for seeds
treatments, but these are not on the persistent organic pollutants list (POP) of the
Stockholm Convention (2001) (Cadariu, Arinda, 2005).
The organochlorine pesticides have two particular traits with big
significance for the sanitary quality of the food and fodder products:
- chemical stability in the environment, in the animal and vegetal organisms,
which leads to accumulation and remainence for a long period of time.
- liposolubility, which leads to diffusion in fat issues and elimination from
organisms through secretion-excretion products with a high content of fat (milk
and eggs) (Ionescu, 1982).
In 1982, the European Commission has published a list, which contained
126 chemical substances (named List I), on volume production basis, toxicity
estimation, persistency and bioaccumulation degree in environment and animal
and vegetal tissues (Crathhorne et al., 1996). Among these substances were
organochlorine pesticides, such as: aldrin, dieldrin, DDT (dichlorodiphenyl
trichloroethane) and HCHs (hexachlorocyclohexanes).
In 2001, the Stockholm Convention, regarding the Persistent Organic
Pollutants (POP) establishes the elimination or reduction of 12 POP, among these
were: aldrin, DDT, dieldrin and heptachlor (Cadariu, Arinda, 2005).
- 321 -
DDT (dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane) (C14H9Cl5) was traded under

different names (Detexan-5, Detox-5, Deparatox etc.), being in a solid state, white-
yellow colour, waxy consistency, odourless, a little fatty at touch, and technical
product being a mixture of three isomers (p,p’; o,p’ and o,o’) (Râpeanu, 1983).
DDT was used for the first time in agriculture in USA, in 1946 and little
later in the most of the other countries. It was used on cotton crops, fruits, cereals
and potatoes (WHO [World Health Organization], 2003) and the total amount of
the production is about 2,8-3 millions tones (Garaba, 2005).
In the table 1 is presented the situation of DDT utilization (tones), in
European countries, in 1970-1996 period of time.
Table 1
The period of time of DDT utilization, in the European countries (tones), after
Pacyna (1999)
Country 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1996
Albania 90,00 12,00 6,66 3,00 0 0
Austria 20,50 10,90 5,70 0 0 0
Belarus 872,25 95,22 67,19 29,07 12,21 0
Belgium 70,00 7,80 7,85 0 0 0
Bulgaria 600,00 63,00 59,20 27,70 0 0
Czechoslovakia 270,00 33,30 28,00 13,00 0 0
Denmark 18,00 0,80 1,20 0 0 0
Estonia 106,08 11,58 8,17 3,54 1,49 0
Finland 6,10 0,62 0,67 0 0 0
France 1800,00 200,34 108,53 31,29 0 0
Germany 1652 58,71 2,78 4,03 0,65 0
Greece 235,00 239,30 27,04 13,01 0 0
Hungary 20,60 0,60 0 0 0 0
Island 9,00 0,90 0,56 0 0 0
Italy 2178,00 1569,50 196,48 103,20 54,72 0
Latvia 306,47 33,46 23,61 10,22 4,29 0
Lithuania 365,40 39,89 28,15 12,18 5,12 0
Holland 130,00 14,13 9,44 0 0 0
Norway 1,73 1,24 0,99 1,46 0 0
Poland 2528,00 16,70 8,78 0 0 0
Portugal 165,00 17,97 13,66 7,60 0 0
R. Moldavia 695,44 75,92 53,57 23,18 9,74 0
Romania 196,00 26,20 12,00 0 0 0
Russia 6000,00 654,99 462,22 200,00 83,99 0
Spain 1200,00 103,31 192,66 131,48 46,02 0
Sweden 13,80 0,94 0 0 0 0
Suisse 10,00 10,00 2,70 0 0 0
Ukraine 5150,97 562,31 396,81 171,70 72,11 0
England 49,62 3,38 2,32 0,004 0 0
Yugoslavia 3150,60 311,40 80,00 50,00 31,50 0
TOTAL 27911,00 4176,00 1807,00 836,00 322,00 0
- 322 -
Biological degradation of DDT is very slow, the estimated half-time was

until to 20 years, in soil and sediments, depending of the chemical structure and
the physical proprieties of the soil (Gulden, 1998), and in the ground waters from
16 to 31 years (Franse and de Voogt, 1997).
From soil, DDT passes in crop plants, the propagation rate in food chain
is very high. Thus, the wheat is absorbing 3-10 % of the DDT from soil, reaching
a level of 0,00005-0,1 mg DDT/kg. By contaminated forages consuming with 7
mg/kg DDT, through milk it is eliminated 3 mg/l from contaminated forage, and
the butter obtained from this milk will contain 67 mg/kg. DDT it is eliminated
from the animal bodies through milk, bile, urine, faeces, etc., by milk it is
eliminated even before the appearance of the toxicity symptoms (Râpeanu, 1983).
The studies on animals show that p,p’-DDE has antiandrogenic
proprieties, and o,p’-DDT has oestrogenic action (Kurihara, 2000).
Due to its persistency and bioaccumulation in environment, also because
of the growing worries about the adverse effects against the environment and
health, it was banned in Sweden (1970) and USA (1972), and later in many other
countries WHO (World Health Organization), 2003.
HCHs (hexachlorocyclohexans) are present under more trade names and
they are presenting them like an white-grey powder until brown, sometimes
amorph and with a strong sent of musty. The technical HCH product contains 7
stereoisomers: alfa, beta, gamma, delta, epsilon, niu and sigma (Râpeanu, 1983).
Lindan (γ-HCH) (C6H6Cl6) is known under more names such as
Lindatox, Delitex, Radox etc. and it is the pure gamma isomer of HCH (at least
99 %), presenting it like a white, white-yellow or grey powder.
Lindavet-15 is the name of Romanian product used for treatments against
the scabies and lice at animals. From soil, the lindan is absorbed mainly by
alfalfa, but also by another forage plants, in dangerous quantities for the animal
body (Râpeanu, 1983).
The lindan presence in the human body and cow milk was reported in the
countries from the entire world (Wolffe, 1985; Moses, 1993; Schafer, 2000).
In 1981, it was produced around 3000 tonnes/year, in Europe, being
produced in Germany, France, Spain and Romania (Fraunhefer, 1999). In present,
it is still produced only in Romania and India US EPA (United States
Environmental Protection Agency), 2005.
The lindan presents effects on the liver, kidneys, pancreas, testis, and
imunitary system at humans and animals, but it is also an neurotoxic with the
potential carcinogene effects and acts disturbing the endocrine system (Cole, et
al., 1999; WWF (World Wide Fund), 1999a; WWF, 1999b; US EPA, 2000).
Aldrin (C12H8Cl6) had more trade names (Aldotox, Algran, Mersect,
Aldex, Aldrin 20 etc.) and it is the hexachloro-hexahydro-exo-
dimethanonaphthaline (Râpeanu, 1983).
- 323 -
It was produced for the first time in 1949, reaching a total amount of
production of 240000 tones and it was used against the soil pests (termites) at
maize, potatoes and cotton. The half time in soil for aldrin is until 4 years
(Garaba, 2005).
By biological oxidation it is transformed in dieldrin. It is highly toxic for
mammals, but also for fish, bees and birds, acting against central nervous system.
It does not give taste or smell to the foods but it is accumulated in fats, thus the
chronically toxicity is very important. By milk it is eliminated over 40 days
(Râpeanu, 1983).
Dieldrin (C12H8Cl6O) (HEOD, Octatox, Dieldrex, Sapodiel, Octalon,
Alvit etc., and indigene products like Dieltox and Dieltox CE) is hexachloro-
epoxi-octhahydro-endo-exo-dimethanonaphthaline, respective the aldrin epoxide
(Râpeanu, 1983).
It was produced for the first time in 1948, reaching a total amount of
production of 240000 tones and it was used against the soil pests (termites) at
maize, potatoes and cotton. The half time in soil for aldrin is until 7 years
(Garaba, 2005).
It is highly toxic for the bees and fish, but also for humans and mammals.
It enters in body by all the ways (including the intact skin), strongly affecting the
nervous system. Dieldrin may pass from forages in cow milk in proportion by 42
%, contaminating the milk and milk products. It is eliminated through milk and it
is accumulating in fat tissues but also in muscular tissue. In animal body it is
accumulating by over 15 times more than dieldrin content from the ingested
forage (Râpeanu, 1983).
Dieldrine is a chemical substance with a potential carcinogene effect
(WWF, 1999a). Aldrine and dieldrin are dangerous chemical subsatnces because
of their toxicity, persistency and bioaccumulation in environment and animal
tissues (Crathhorne et al., 1996). They have higher acute toxicity effects than
DDT and the same neurotoxicity effetcs with this (O’Shea and Geraci, 1999).
Also, aldrin and dieldrin were identified like disrupting substances of the
endocrine system activity (Cole et al.; 1999; WWF, 1999b ).
Heptachlor (C10H5Cl7) had more trade names (Velsicol-104, Neptagran,
Dronix, Hepta, E-3315 etc.), and it is heptachloro-tetrahydro-endo-methano-inden
(Râpeanu, 1983). Heptachlor was produced for the first time in 1948, being used
like insecticide against the soil pests and the malaria vectors, having a half-time
by until 12 years (Garaba, 2005).
From soil, heptachlor may passes by radiculare absorption, in initial state
or under epoxide state, in oat, maize, barley, soybean, alfalfa, peas bean, carrots,
etc. It is entering in body by every ways and it is accumulating in fat animal or
vegetal tissues. The accumulation, in animal body may reach values by 20 times
bigger than the content of the ingested forage. The heptachlorepoxide may passes
from forage in milk in proportion of 62 % and it is found at values of 1,8 mg/l
after 14 days when the forage contains 3 mg heptachlor/kg, and 44 mg/kg in fats.
- 324 -
In USA, aldrin and dieldrin were banned until 1974, and heptachlor until
1978 (USDA, 2006a).
In Romania, aldrin and dieldrin were used until 1980, DDT was used until
1985 and heptachlor allowed in some products, until 1995 (Cadariu, Arinda,
2005).
The imports of aldrin, DDT, dieldrin, heptachlor, HCH were banned, in
Romania, beginning with January 2003. Lindan is allowed for use in the plant
protection products like insecticide, and the import until 1 January 2007 (Ordinul
MAAP nr. 396/2003, published in M. Of. Nr. 829/18.11.2002).
In USA, even if the DDT utilization was banned until 1972, a research
from 1993-2003 period showed that 15 % cow milk samples and 44 % meat
samples contained p,p’-DDE (DDT metabolite) (Punzi, 2005), and the PDP
(Pesticide Data Program) studies, also from USA, showed the presence of p,p’-
DDE and dieldrin in 96 % and 41,5 % in milk samples, in 2004 and in 85,4 % and
23,3 %, in 2005 (USDA, 2006a; USDA, 2006b).
In some European countries, the organochlorine pesticides levels (DDT,
HCH, heptachlor) were over the maximum residue levels, in milk and other milk
products, for example in Spain (Martinez et al., 1997) and Russia (Mamontova,
Elena, et al., 2004), and in the most of the other countries were at high values
(Manes et al., 1993; van der Hoff et al., 1996; Malatou et al., 1997; Losada et al.,
1999; Cerkvenik, Vesna et al., 2000; Filek, Gerda et al., 2000; Yague et al.,
2001).
The studies and researches which were made in Romania show that the
organochlorine pesticides levels were over maximum residue levels, in milk and
milk products in 1985-1999 period (Telniceanu, Ana and Camelia, Pârvan, 1998),
and even after 2000 year (Rusu and Şindilar, 2004; Răducu, Camelia et al., 2005;
Oros, N.A., et al., 2005), but also the massive presence of these pollutants in the
southern and eastern counties of the country, in 1990-2003 period (Telniceanu,
Ana and Camelia Pârvan, 1998; Hura, Carmen, 2001, 2003, 2004).
In the table 2, it is shown the maximum residue levels of the
organochlorine pesticides, in cow milk and milk products, in the EU countries
(available in Romania too; MAAP (Ministery of the Agriculture, Waters and
Forrests) Order no. 356 from 14 september 2001).
- 325 -
Table 2
The maximum level admitted of organochlorine pesticides in milk and milk
products, in EU countries (after, Council Directive 86/363/EEC)
Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) Heptachlor

Aldrin+ DDT Isomer Isomer Isomer (heptachlor +
Pesticide alfa beta gamma
Dieldrin (total) heptachlorepoxid)
(lindan)
Maximum
residue
level, 0,006 0,04 0,004 0,003 0,008 0,004
mg/kg
(ppm)
Many studies showed important links between exposure to pesticides and

development of diffrent cancers at brain, prostate, breast, tests, kidney, pancrease,
but also illness of the nervous system and mental disturb, fertility decrease,
thyroid affections. The parents exposure to pesticides was associated with birth
defects and abnormal foetus development. It may be mentionated the effects of
the pesticide mixtures, at very low levels which may have a synergic action and
can determine disturbing of endocrine system with effetcs on body developement
(brain development, of the different functions (especially, the sexual function)
and organs, behaviour) at humans and animals PAN (Pesticide Action Network)
Germany, 2005.
CONCLUSIONS
5 From the bibliographical studied and presented data in this paper, it is obvious
the presence of the organochlorine pesticides in the cow milk and environment
both at international level and in Romania;
5 Also, there are obvious the negative effects on human health (cancers,
reproductive function toxicity, nervous system affections, disruption of endocrine
system), due to the entrance of the organochlorine pesticides in human trophic
chain;
5 Although, the most of organochlorine pesticides were banned from ‘70’s, these
are found even today in milk and milk products, showing the stability and
remanence in environment, and the affinity for the fat tissue of these substances.
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15. Ionescu, A., (1982) - Fenomenul de poluare şi măsuri antipoluante în agricultură. Editura Ceres,
Bucureşti.
16. Kurihara, N., (2000) – Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides (DDT, methoxychlor, HCH).
Nippon rinsho, 58: 2417-2421.
17. Losada, A., et al., (1996) - Organochlorine pesticide residues in bovine milk from Leon (Spain).
Science of The Total Environment. Volume 181, issues 2, 1996, p. 133-135.
18. Mallatou, H., et al., (1997) - Pesticide residues in milk and cheeses from Greece. Science of the
Envirnment, Volume 196, issue 2, p.11-117.
19. Moses, M., (1993) – Pesticides and breast cancer. Pesticides News 22: 3-5.
20. Mamontova, Elena, et al., (2004) - PCBs, HCHs and DDTs in cow’s milk and soil of pasture the
Irkutsk Region, Russia. Organohalogen Compounds, Volume 66, p.2004-2010.
21. Manes, J., et al., (1993) - Evaluation of a solid-phase extraction system for determining
pesticides residues in milk. Journal of Chromatography A, Volume 642, issue 1-2, p.195-204.
22. Martinez, M. P., et al., (1997) - Organochlorine pesticides in pasteurized milk and associated
health risks. Food and Chemical Toxicology, Volume 35, issue 6, p. 621-624.
24. Oros, N.A. şi col., (2005) - The surveillance of organochlorineted pesticides and heavy metals
residues in animal products, along the Harghita county, during 1999-2004 period. Buletin USAMV-
CN Seria Med. Vet., 62/2005, p.237-239.
25. O’Shea, T., and J.R. Geraci (1999) – Toxicology in marine mammals, in Zoo and Wild Animal
Medicine, M.E. Fowler and R.E. Miller, Editors. 1999, W.B. Saunders Company: London. p.472-
478.
26. Pacyna, J.M., (1999) - Environmental cycling of selected persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in
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27. PAN (Pesticide Action Network) Germany, (2005) – Towards Pesticides Use Reduction in
Germany, Hamburg.
28. Punzi, J., (2005) - USDA Pesticide Data Program. Pesticide residues on fresh and processed
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information Ltd. P.131-137.
29. Răducu, Camelia, şi col., (2005) - Research concerning milk contaminants and contamination
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30. Râpeanu, M., (1983) - Toxicologie sanitar veterinară. Editura Ceres, Bucureşti.
31. Rusu, V., şi E. Şindilar, (2004) - Cercetări privind contaminarea laptelui şi a caşcavalurilor cu
pesticide organocloruate. Lucrări ştiinţifice Medicină veterinară, Vol.47(6), p.278-287. Editura Ion
Ionescu de la Brad, Iaşi.
32. Schafer, K., (2000) – Going, Going, Gone: Lindane moves closer to elimination. Global
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35. USDA, (2006b) – Pesticide Data Program-Annual Summary, Calendar Year 2005.
36. USEPA (U.S. Government Environmental Protection Agency) (1998) - Endocrine Disruptor
Screening Testing Advisory Committee (EDSTAC), final report Available at: <http//www.epa.gov/
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38. USEPA (2005) – Country Status Report: US Lindane Use. Office of Pesticide Programs.
39. Wolffe, M., (1985) – Blood levels of organochlorine pesticides and risck of breast cancer.
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40. WHO (World Health Organization), (2003) Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen, Denmark,
http://www.euro.who.int
41. WWF (World Wide Fund), (1999a) – Hazadrs and exposes associated with DDT and synthetic
pyrethroids used for vector control.
42. WWF, (1999b) – Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals.
43. Yague, C., et al., (2001) - Multiresidue determination of organochlorine pesticides and
polychlorinated biphenyls in milk by gas chromatography with electron-capture detection after
extraction by matrix solid-phase J AOAC int. 2001 Sep-Oct, 84 (5): 1561-8.
44. XXX - Directiva Consiliului Europei 86/363 privind nivelele maxime ale pesticidelor în lapte şi
produsele lactate.
45. XXX - Ordinul MAAP nr. 356 din 14 septembrie 2001 pentru aprobarea Normei sanitar
veterinare privind limitele maxime stabilite pentru reziduurile de pesticide, reziduuri de
medicamente de uz veterinar şi pentru alţi contaminanţi în produsele de origine animală.
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BACK
CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING ANIMAL’S SLEEP

Elena COSTĂCHESCU, G. HOHA, Alexandrina DIAC
The researches effectuated on animals gives emphasis that the sleeps it’s
not represent un cerebral repose but the cerebral activity supports modifications.
It also gives emphasis the fact that in the paradoxal sleep phase
wich appears the dreams, wave encephalogramy resembled with those from the
wakefulness state.
All the vertebrates, but the most those superior can’t not live in the
absent sleep.
The domestic animals sleeps in different positions and the sleep duration
registers differences on species. The domestic and also the wild animals sleeps
more than the erbivor animals.
Sleep can be defined as a state of recumbency of the human and animal

body, which recurrently alternates with the wakefulness state. During sleep, there
is a decrease of several physiological parameters such as: pressure, body
temperature, oxygen consumption and excretive activity. On the other side the
activity of the endocrine pancreas, parathyroid and hypophysis is more intense.
During sleep, the cerebral activity continues, meaning that the sleep is not
the recumbency of the brain.
There are some resemblances between the human and animal sleep: the
existence of the two stages the calm sleep and parodoxal and the way that the
proper sleep devolves. There have been ascertained the present of dreams moves
of the eyeballs or of some muscle groups accompanied sometimes by sounds.
The role of sleep in the individual’s life hasn’t been yet cleared up, but it
is assumed that during sleep some cells that have a secondary role in remitting the
neural flow (the neuro-transmitters) are renewed.
It has been discovered that physiologically, the sleep, the wakefulness
state, the attention, orientation and several other functions are dependent on the
reticular system of the brain. During sleep, the activity of this system stops by its
functional breaking off from the sense organs.
The alternations between sleep and the wakefulness state represents an
essential rhythm on which other circadian rhythms depend.
All the vertebrates sleep, and in the absence of sleep, the mortality is
higher than in the case of starvation.
At animals, the alternation sleep- wakefulness state has a polyphasic
nature, at the adult animal this rhythm has only two phases like at the human
child.
The development of this type of behaviour differs from one species to
another, this aspect being presented in the following table:
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Alternations between sleep- wakefulness state at the main animal species
Species Necessary Sleep- Total sleep % from 24

Sleep wakefulness periods hours
(hours/day) state periods (hours/day)
(number)
Horned cattle - 3-40 2-5 8 -21
Caballine 2-5 15-20 3 12,5
Adult pigs 10-16 6-9 25-37,5
Fatted pigs 30-35 20-21 83
Dog 10 - 10-12 50
Cat 12,5 10-30 10-15 62,5
Elephant 3 - 2 -
The reduction of the sleep period at herbivorous animals can be the result
of the selection that man has exerted in time.
The explanation for the long period of time that the carnivorous animals
rest is that their central nervous system is more evolved that at the herbivorous
animals.
Another explanation would be that these animals, being prowiors, have
less enemies, so that during sleep
By analysing the table, we can see that at the herbivorous animals the
alternation between sleep and the wakefulness state varies, being registered 3-40
sleep periods with a total duration between 2-5 hours from 24 hours.
At the caballine animals , sleep is fragmentized into short periods of
several minutes, resulting a total of 3 hours of sleep from 24 hours.
At the adult pigs, sleep duration is estimated at 6-9 hours/ day, in 10-16
rounds/ day, with the duration from 3-3,5 minutes.
At the fatted pigs, the selection for the realization of greay quantities of
meat is realized by 20-21 hours of sleep per day, which represents almost 83%
from the duration of a day.
At the carnivorous animals the duration of sleep is almost 50% from a day.
CONCLUSIONS
Vertebrates, especially the superior ones, cannot live without sleep, the
lack of it causing them death
At animals, this type of behaviour is characterized by a polyphasic
rhythm, with numerous periods of sleep and wakefulness state, unlike the one at
humans which has only two phases.
The different sleep duration at animals is dependent on the evolution of
the SNC, and on the direction that the humans made the selection for different
productions.
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BACK
Physiologically speaking, while sleeping, the activity of the reticular

system is stoped by the discount from the sense organs. That is why the animal
looks for quiet and safe places, so that it wouldn’t be troubled.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Coman I şi col., 2004 – Etologie şi etopatologie, Editura Tehnopres, Iaşi;
2. Cociu M., 1999 - Comportamentul animalelor, Editura All Bucureşti.
3. Decum M., 2004 – Somnul la animale, revista Ferma nr.1;
4. Elena Ciudin, 2000 – Pisicile creştere şi patologie, Editura Moldogrup, Iaş;
5. Eugenia Chenzbtaun, 1978 – Comportamentul animalelor, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică
Bucureşti;
6. Kolb E., 1981 – Despre viaţa şi comportamentul animalelor domestice. Ed. Didactică şi
Pedagogică Bucureşti;
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BACK
RESEARCHES ON THE PRODUCTIVE EFFECT OF A LIPID

ABSORPTION IMPROVER, USED IN BROILERS FEEDING
I.M. POP, D. SIMEANU

According to the researches results, the chickens within the experimental
groups performed better values for the live weight gain and for the feed
conversion rate, as compared to those in the control group. Economically
speaking, the revenue was 2,30-7,35% higher in the E2 group, which yield the
best production parameters (highest live weight and lowest FCR), than those
obtained by the chickens in the other studied groups.
The best performances, considering all the parameters, were observed in E2
group, which received a concentration of 500 g feed additive (LB)/tone of mixed
fodder, in order to improve the lipids absorption rate in chickens gut.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The experiment was setup within the Iaşi Animal Husbandry Faculty
Experimental Farm, using a flock of 240 broilers, belonging to Shaver Starbro
commercial hybrid, reared in BP-4 type coops.
Four groups, of 60 broilers each, were established (a control group – C
and three experimental groups – E1, E2, E3), in order to assess the productive
effect of a fodder additive designed to improve the digestive lipids absorption in
chicken broilers.
Three mixed fodders recipes, specific to each age period of the chickens,
were used in broiler feeding. The control group did not receive the experimental
factor in feed (fodder additive as lipid absorption improver -LB), while the
experimental groups feed contained various amounts of the fodder additive (tab. 1).
Table 1. Experimental design

Feed type
Experimental
Treatments Flock Starter Grower Finisher
period
(day 0-10) (day 11-31) (day 32-38)
Control (C) 60 38 m.f. m.f. m.f.
Experimental 1 m.f.+ 250 g m.f.+ 250 g m.f.+ 250 g
60 38
(E1) LB/tone LB/tone LB/tone
60 38
60 38
Studied parameters:
- chickens weight gain;
- feed conversion rate;
- flock looses;
- European efficiency factor.
m.f. – mixed fodder, according to each technological period.
- 332 -
The mixed fodders used within the experiment were formulated and
produced by the AviTop S.A. Iaşi feed plant; the feed was pelleted and its
nutritional features were designed to match the Shaver Starbro nutritional
requirements (tab. 2).

a). Chickens body weight
The live weight of the chickens was slightly close, varying between 42.8
g/chick in E1 group and 42.2 g/chick in C group, confirming thus a good
homogeneity of the 4 chicken groups (tab. 3).
Table 3. Overall weight gain and the daily average gain
Live
weight at Live weight
Overall ± as
the at the end Average
weight Experimental compared
Treatments beginning of the daily
gain period (days) to control
of the experiment gain (g)
(g) group
experiment (g)
(g)
C 42.2±0.38 2034±35.56 1991.8 38 52.41 -
E1 42.8±0.45 2049±31.25 2006.2 38 52.79 +0.72
E2 42.5±0.34 2101±33.19 2058.5 38 54.17 +3.35
E3 42.6±0.40 2083±33.13 2040.4 38 53.69 +2.44
Different results for the live weight were observed at the end of the
experiment, with differences between experimental and reference group (C); thus,
the chickens in the treatments receiving additive yielded average live weights
higher with 0.73 – 3.29% as comparing to the chickens in the group C.
Concerning the average daily gain, better results (+0.72…+3.35%) were
achieved by the experimental groups versus control group.
Best performances were found in experimental group E2, which received
500 g LB fodder additive /tone, indicating the appropriate value of the additive
amount to be used in broilers feeding.
- 333 -
Table 2. Mixed fodders recipes
Raw matters Starter Growing Finisher

Corn 48.05 48.36 45.04
Soybean meal 28.50 18.34 10.90
Full fat soybeans 7.96 20.76 21.64
Corn gluten 7.58 6.00 6.50
Fish meal 2.50 - -
Barley - - 10.00
Molasses - 2.00 2.00
Monocalcium phosphate 1.69 1.72 1.57
Calcium carbonate 1.27 1.28 1.27
Wafolin 0.70 - -
Premix 0.50 0.50 0.50
L-Lysine HCl ADM 0.38 0.24 0.15
Rhodimet 0.25 0.23 0.13
NaCl 0.17 0.21 0.19
Choline 50% 0.12 0.10 0.08
BIOPLUS 0.10 - -
BIOSAF - 0.08 -
Natrium bicarbonate 0.09 0.09 -
CYGRO 0.06 0.06 -
RONOZYME P - 0.03 0.03
KEMZYME MSdry 0.05 - -
L-threonine ADM 0.03 - -
Nutrititional features
EM kcal/kg 3094.70 3175.00 3225.00
PB% 24.00 22.00 20.00
GB% 6.27 6.37 6.43
CB% 3.47 3.57 3.64
Ca% 1.00 0.90 0.85
P% (available) 0.50 0.45 0.42
Lysine 1.44 1.25 1.05
Lysine -Digestible poultry 1.32 1.14 0.94
Methionine 0.66 0.59 0.48
Methionine - Digestible poultry 0.64 0.57 0.46
Met+Cistine 1.09 0.97 0.83
Met+Cistine - Digestible poultry 1.00 0.88 0.75
Threonine 0.93 0.82 0.69
Triptophan 0.25 0.24 0.75
NaCl 0.38 0.38 0.38
b). Feed intake
A better feed valorisation was observed in the groups that received lipids
absorption improver additive (E1, E2 and E3). Thus, the feed conversion rate
- 334 -
index (kg m.f./kg weight gain) was found of 1,747 for the control group, while the
same parameter was 0,28-3,60% lower for the chickens belonging to the
experimental groups (tab. 4).
Table 4. Feed intake
Average FCR ± as
Overall feed Average
daily feed (kg compared
Treatments intake/group Flock/group daily
intake/chick mf/kg to C
(kg) gain (g)
(g) gain) group
C 201.91 58 91.61 52.41 1.747 -
E1 199.28 57 92.00 52.79 1.742 -0.28
E2 201.16 58 91.27 54.17 1.684 -3.60
E3 202.27 58 91.77 53.69 1.709 -2.17
The beneficial influence of the lipids absorption improver was proved

again; the optimum including rate was confirmed to be, as for the live weight, of
500 g LB/tone of mixed fodder.
c). Flock looses
Some losses in the flock occurred during the experiment (tab. 5).
However, these looses were in accordance with the accepted limits for the studied
species and technological category.
Table 5. Flock looses
Treatments Flock at the beginning of Flock at the end of the Looses %

the experiment (chicks) experiment (chicks) (chicks)
C 60 58 2 3.33
E1 60 57 3 5.00
E2 60 58 2 3.33
E3 60 58 2 3.33
An overall value of 3.75% was noted for looses, the higher incidence
being recorded in the first week of life, related to some individuals lower
viability. It was not recorded illness casualty.
d). European Efficiency Factor
The European Efficiency Factor was computed at the end of the

experiment, when chickens reached 38 days age. This factor was used to estimate
the economical efficiency of the broilers husbandry.
- 335 -
Some parameters were used as computation basis: chickens slaughtering

age (days); average live weight recorded before slaughtering/group (kg);
viability/group (%) and feed conversion rate (FCR kg m.f./kg weight gain). Table
6 includes the computational values and the final EEF results, according to the
mathematical relation:
viability (%) × weight (kg)
EEF= × 100 .
age (days) × FCR (kg feed/kg weight gain)
Table 6. European Efficiency Factor
FCR
Age Average live
Treatments Mortality (%) (kg m.f./kg EEF
(days) weight (kg)
gain)
C 38 2.034 3.33 1.747 296.18
E1 38 2.049 5.00 1.742 294.05
E2 38 2.101 3.33 1.684 317.38
E3 38 2.083 3.33 1.709 310.06
Analyzing the EEF values, it could be observed that the C group had a
value with 0.71% higher than that obtained for the E1 group, mainly due to the
looses existing in the latter group Otherwise, for the E2 and E3 groups, which
meet the same mortality occurrence as the C group, the EEF values were 4.68-
7.15% higher, due to better values of the live weight and to lower FCR values.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Using a fodder additive designed to improve the lipids absorption in broiler
chickens feeding leaded to beneficial results concerning the poultry body
development; the weight gains pf the experimental groups were 0.72-3.35%
higher as compared to that achieved by the control group.
2. The presence in feed of the lipid absorption improver beneficially influenced
the food conversion rate (FCR); all the experimental treatments (E1, E2 and
E3) performed 0.28-3.60% lower values than those found in the control group
(C).
3. An appropriate poultry health status was observed, most of the flock looses
occurring during the first days post hatching. Overall flock looses reached
3.75%.
4. Values over the 290 limit were established for the EEF, in all experimental
groups. The E2 group, which issued the best body development results and
the lowest FCR, had the EEF value 2.30-7.35% higher as compared to the
values corresponding to the other groups.
5. The best performance, considering all the studied parameters, was achieved
by the E2 group, which received 500 g LB/tone of feed.
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BACK
REFERENCES
1. BORMAN, K.N. and col., 1999 – British Poultry Science, vol. 40, CARFAX, UK.
2. HALGA P. and col., 2005 – Nutriţie şi alimentaţie animală. Editura Alfa, Iaşi
3. LARBIER, M. and LECLERCQ, B., 1994 – Nutriţia şi alimentaţia păsărilor. Editura Alutus D,
Bucuteşti.
4. PANĂ, C. and CHIHAIA I.A., 2004 – Rolul nutriţionistului în asigurarea calităţii şi
biosecurităţii nutreţurilor combinate. Rev. NutriCom, Nr. 2 iunie, pag. 4-5.
5. POP I.M., 2006 – Aditivi furajeri. Editura Tiop Moldova, Iaşi.
6. POP I.M. and col., 2006 – Nutriţia şi alimentaţia animalelor. Editura Tipo Moldova, Iaşi.
7. ROSEN, G.D., 2003 – Pronutrient antibiotic replacement standards discussed. Feedstuffs
75(30):11-13. pp. 16.
8. SIMEANU, D., 2004 – Biostimulatori în alimentaţia păsărilor. Editura Alfa, Iaşi.
- 337 -
BACK
THE EFFICIENCY OF UTILIZATION OF SUSTENANCE

FROM MULBERRY TREE LEAF BY SILKEN LARVA,
DEPENDING ON TYPE
M. DOLIŞ
During the experiments performed upon different types of mulberry tree,

the mean ratio between the dry substance from the ingested leaf and the dry
substance gathered by larva in the form of body matter, during all the larva
period, was 4,6901, in this case, the efficiency of conversion of ingested food in
the body matter of larva (ECI-body matter) being 21,81%.
As regarding the utilization of sustenance from the mulberry tree leaf in
the silk shell of cocoons, the mean ratio between the ingested dry substance and
the dry substance from the silk shell of cocoons was 10,5633, the efficiency of
conversion of ingested food in silk shell (ECI-silk shell of cocoons) being, in this
case, 9,47%.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The vegetable biological material used in the following experiments was
represented by two types of mulberry tree (Kokuso 21 şi Eforie) and one hybrid
(The selected hybrid of mulberry tree).
The animal biological material was represented by simple hybrid of
Record silkworm.
The efficiency of utilization of sustenance from mulberry tree leaf was
expressed by:
- Ingested dry matter (DM) needed for the increase of body matter of
g ingested DM leaf
larva with 1 gram ( );
g DM body matter larva
- Digested DM needed for the increase of body matter of larva with 1
g ingested DM leaf
gram ( );
- Ingested DM needed for the production of 1 gram of silk shell
g ingested DM leaf
( );
g DM silk shell
- Digested DM needed for the production of 1 gram of silk shell
g ingested DM leaf
( );
g DM silk shell
- The efficiency of conversion of integrated substances (ECI) into body
matter
- 338 -
larva body matter

(ECI = x 100);
ingested leaf
- The efficiency of conversion of digested substances (ECD) into body
matter
larva body matter
(ECD = x 100);
digested leaf
- The efficiency of conversion of integrated substances (ECI) into silk
shell
silk shell
(ECI = x 100);
ingested leaf
- The efficiency of conversion of digested substances (ECI) into silk
shell
silk shell
(ECD = x 100).
digested leaf
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The data referred to the efficiency of utilization of sustenance from
mulberry tree leaf by silken larva, depending on mulberry tree type, were
centralized in Table 1 (fig. 1 -4).
Table.1
The efficiency of utilization of sustenance from mulberry tree leaf by silken larva,
depending on mulberry tree type
Mulberry tree type
Specification Mean
Kokuso 21 Eforie Selected hybrid
Ingested DM/ body matter DM 4,4227 5,0833 4,5642 4,6901
Digested DM/ body matter DM 2,4708 2,8340 2,6676 2,6575
Ingested DM/ silk shell DM 10,2343 10,9992 10,4563 10,5633
Digested DM/ silk shell DM 5,7176 6,5117 6,1112 6,1135
ECI body matter 22,61 20,90 21,91 21,81
ECD body matter 40,47 35,29 37,49 37,75
ECI silk shell 9,77 9,09 9,56 9,47
ECD silk shell 17,49 15,35 16,36 16,40
- 339 -
5,100 Ingested DM/ body matter DM

4,900 5,083 Digested DM/ body matter DM
4,700
4,500
4,564
4,300
4,422
4,100
3,900
3,700
g
3,500
3,300
3,100
2,900
2,700 2,834
2,500 2,667
2,300
2,470
2,100
Fig. 1 The efficiency of utilization of sustenance from mulberry tree leaf in body matter of
silken larva, depending on mulberry tree type
ECI
41
40
39
38
40.47 EC
37
36
D
35 37.49
34
33 35.29
32
31
30
% 29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
22.62 21.91
19 20.6
18
17
Kokuso 21 Eforie Hibridul selecţionat
Fig.2. The efficiency of conversion of sustenance from mulberry tree leaf in body mass of
silken larva, depending on mulberry tree type
ingested DM/ silk shell DM

11,000
10,700
digested DM/ silk shell DM
10,400 10,999
10,100
9,800 10,456
9,500 10,234
9,200
8,900
8,600
8,300
g 8,000
7,700
7,400
7,100
6,800
6,500
6,200
5,900
6,511
5,600 6,111
5,300 5,717
5,000
Fig. 3. The utilization of sustenance from mulberry tree leaf in silk shell of cocoons
depending on mulberry tree type
- 340 -
18 ECI
17 ECD
16
17.49
15
16.36
14 15.35
13
12
% 11
10
9 9.77 9.56
8 9.09
7
6
5
Fig. 4. The efficiency of conversion of sustenance from mulberry tree leaf in the silk shell
of cocoons, depending on mulberry tree type
CONCLUSIONS
During the experiments performed upon different types of mulberry tree,
the mean ratio between the dry substance from the ingested leaf and the dry
substance gathered by larva in the form of body matter, during all the larva
period, was 4,6901, in this case, the efficiency of conversion of ingested food in
the body matter of larva (ECI-body matter) being 21,81%.
The best utilization of sustenance from the mulberry tree leaf ingested in
the body matter of larva was recorded at Kokuso 21 type (ECI-body
matter=22,61%), being followed by the selected hybrid (ECI-body
matter=21,91%) and Eforie type (ECI-body matter=20,90%).
As regarding the utilization of sustenance from the digested mulberry tree
leaf, in the body matter of larva, the mean ratio between the digested dry
substance from leaf and the dry substance deposited in the body matter of larva
was 2,6575, the efficiency of conversion of digested food in the body matter of
larva (ECD-body matter), being, in this case 37,75%.
The efficiency of conversion of digested food in body matter of larva was
better at Kokuso 21 type (ECD-body matter=40,47%), being followed by the
selected hybrid (ECD-body matter=37,49%) and by Eforie type (ECD-body
matter=35,29%).
As regarding the utilization of sustenance from the mulberry tree leaf in
the silk shell of cocoons, the mean ratio between the ingested dry substance and
the dry substance from the silk shell of cocoons was 10,5633, the efficiency of
conversion of ingested food in silk shell (ECI-silk shell of cocoons) being, in this
case, 9,47%.
The best results regarding the conversion of sustenance from mulberry
tree leaf, in silk shell of cocoons, were obtained at Kokuso 21 type (ECI-silk shell
- 341 -
BACK
of cocoons=9,77%), followed by selected hybrid (ECI-silk shell of

cocoons=9,56%) and Eforie type (ECI-silk shell of cocoons=9,09%).
The mean ratio between the digested dry substance and the dry substance
from the silk shell of cocoons was 6,1135, resulting thus, an efficiency of
conversion of digested food in silk shell (ECD-silk shell of cocoons=16,40%).
Also, in this case, the best results were obtained at Kokuso 21 type (ECD-
silk shell of cocoons=17,49%), followed by the selected hybrid (ECD-silk shell of
cocoons=16,36%) and Eforie type (ECD-silk shell of cocoons=15,35%).
REFERENCES
Miranda J. E.; Takahashi R., 1998 - Efficiency of food utilization by the silkworm, Bombyx mori
L. (Lepidoptera: Bombycidae) feed on artificial diets. Sericologia, vol. 38, nr. 4, p. 601-610.
Rath S. S.; Narain R.; Prasad B. C., Roy G. C., Sinha B. R. R. P., 2003 – Food allocation
budgeting in tropical tasar, Antheraea mylitta feed on Terminalia tomentosa. Sericologia vol. 43, nr.
4, p. 557-564.
Rahmathulla V. K. ; Suresh H. M.; Mathur V. B.; Geetha Devi R. G., 2002 – Feed conversion
efficiency of elite bivoltine CSR hibrids silkworm Bombyx mori L. reared under different environ
mintal conditions. Sericologia, vol. 42, nr. 2, p. 197-203.
Sarkar A., 1993 – Efect of feeding different races of silkworm (Bombyx mori L.) with Mulberrry
(Morus indica L.) leaves varying in ploidy level. Sericologia, vol. 33, nr. 1, p. 25-34.
Tzenov P., 1993 - Study on the food utilization in genetic sex- limited breeds for egg and larval
traits of the silk worm, Bombyx mori L., at moderate, reduced and excess feeding amounts.
Sericologia, vol. 33, nr. 2, p. 247-256.
- 342 -
BACK
THE EFFICIENCY OF UTILIZATION OF SUSTENANCE

FROM MULBERRY TREE LEAF BY SILKEN LARVA,
DEPENDING ON THEIR HYBRID
M. DOLIŞ, Şt. LAZĂR, D. SIMEANU, Roxana STĂNESCU
In this work, after the effectuation of digestibility experiences, it follows

the determination of efficiency utility to the mulberry tree’s leaf nutrient from silk
larva belongs to a four difference hybrids.
The average conversion of ingested food in the body matter of larva at
studied hybrids, was 22,02%, and 9,50% in the silk shell of cocoons.
The average conversion of digested food, at studied hybrids was 37,45%
in the body matter of larva and 16,15% in the silk shell of cocoons.
Between the studied hybrids it isn’t observed semnificative differences.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The vegetable biological material used in the following experiments was
represented by the hand-picked mulberry tree hybrid.
The animal biological material was represented by simple hybrids of
silkworms: Băneasa Super, Zefir, Record and Triumf.
The efficiency of utilization of sustenance from mulberry tree leaf was
expressed by:
- Ingested dry matter (DM) needed for the increase of body matter of
g ingested DM leaf
larva with 1 gram ( );
- Digested DM needed for the increase of body matter of larva with 1
g ingested DM leaf
gram ( );
- Ingested DM needed for the production of 1 gram of silk shell
g ingested DM leaf
( );
g DM silk shell
- Digested DM needed for the production of 1 gram of silk shell
g ingested DM leaf
( );
g DM silk shell
- The efficiency of conversion of integrated substances (ECI) into body
matter
larva body matter
(ECI = x 100);
ingested leaf
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- The efficiency of conversion of digested substances (ECD) into body

matter
larva body matter
(ECD = x 100);
digested leaf
- The efficiency of conversion of integrated substances (ECI) into silk
shell
silk shell
(ECI = x 100);
ingested leaf
- The efficiency of conversion of digested substances (ECI) into silk
shell
silk shell
(ECD = x 100).
digested leaf
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The data referred to the efficiency of utilization of sustenance from

mulberry tree leaf by silken larva, obtained during the experiments performed on
four hybrids of silken grubs were centralized in Table 1 (fig. 1, 2).
Table 1
The efficiency of utilization of sustenance from mulberry tree leaf by silken larva,
depending on their hybrid
The hybrid of silken larva

Specification Băneasa Mean
Zefir Record Triumf
Super
Ingested DM/ body matter DM 4,6332 4,4811 4,5642 4,4884 4,5417
Digested DM/ body matter DM 2,7357 2,6503 2,6676 2,6292 2,6707
Ingested DM/ silk shell DM 10,7486 10,4019 10,4563 10,5201 10,5317
Digested DM/ silk shell DM 6,3465 6,1520 6,1112 6,1624 6,1930
ECI body matter 21,58 22,32 21,91 22,28 22,02
ECD body matter 36,55 37,73 37,49 38,03 37,45
ECI silk shell 9,30 9,61 9,56 9,51 9,50
ECD silk shell 15,76 16,25 16,36 16,23 16,15
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Ingested DM/body matter DM Digested DM/body matter DM

Ingested DM/ silk shell DM Digested DM/silk shell DM
11,000 10,748
10,401 10,456 10,520
10,000
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,346 6,152 6,162
6,111
6,000
g
5,000 4,633 4,481 4,564 4,488
4,000
3,000 2,735 2,650 2,667 2,629

2,000
1,000
0
Băneasa Super Zefir Record Triumf
Fig. 1. The utilization of sustenance from mulberry tree leaf by silken larva, depending on
their hybrid
ECI body matter ECD body matter ECI silk shell ECD silk shell
40
38 37.73 37.49 38.03
36 36.55
34
32
30
28
26
24
22 21.58 22.32 21.61 22.28
% 20
18
16 15.76 16.25 16.36 16.23
14
12
10 9.3 9.61 9.56 9.51
8
6
4
2
0
Băneasa Super Zefir Record Triumf
Fig. 2. The efficiency of utilization of sustenance at silken larva, depending on their

hybrid
CONCLUSIONS
The average ratio between the dry substance from the ingested leaf and
the dry substance deposited in the body matter of larva, respectively in the silk
shell of cocoons was 4,5417, respectively 10,5317.
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BACK
The mean ratio between the dry substance from the digested leaf and the
dry substance deposited in the body matter of larva, respectively in the silk shell
of cocoons was 2,6707, respectively 6,1930.
The average conversion of ingested food in the body matter of larva at
studied hybrids, was 22,02%, and 9,50% in the silk shell of cocoons.
Thus, the best results were obtained at Zefir hybrid (ECI- body
matter=22,32%; ECI-silk shell of cocoons=9,61%).
The average conversion of digested food, at studied hybrids was 37,45%
in the body matter of larva and 16,15% in the silk shell of cocoons.
The conversion of sustenance from the digested mulberry tree leaf, in the
body matter of larva, was better at Triumf hybrid (ECD-body matter=38,03%),
but the conversion of sustenance from the digested mulberry tree leaf, in the silk
shell of cocoons, was better at Record hybrid (ECD-silk shell of
cocoons=16,36%).
The worse results, regardless of the mode by which the efficiency of
utilization of sustenance from mulberry tree leaf by silken larva was expressed,
were recorded at Băneasa Super hybrid.
REFERENCES
Miranda J. E.; Takahashi R., 1998 - Efficiency of food utilization by the silkworm, Bombyx mori
L. (Lepidoptera: Bombycidae) feed on artificial diets. Sericologia, vol. 38, nr. 4, p. 601-610.
Rath S. S.; Narain R.; Prasad B. C., Roy G. C., Sinha B. R. R. P., 2003 – Food allocation
budgeting in tropical tasar, Antheraea mylitta feed on Terminalia tomentosa. Sericologia vol. 43, nr.
4, p. 557-564.
Rahmathulla V. K. ; Suresh H. M.; Mathur V. B.; Geetha Devi R. G., 2002 – Feed conversion
efficiency of elite bivoltine CSR hibrids silkworm Bombyx mori L. reared under different environ
mintal conditions. Sericologia, vol. 42, nr. 2, p. 197-203.
Sarkar A., 1993 – Efect of feeding different races of silkworm (Bombyx mori L.) with Mulberrry
(Morus indica L.) leaves varying in ploidy level. Sericologia, vol. 33, nr. 1, p. 25-34.
Tzenov P., 1993 - Study on the food utilization in genetic sex- limited breeds for egg and larval
traits of the silk worm, Bombyx mori L., at moderate, reduced and excess feeding amounts.
Sericologia, vol. 33, nr. 2, p. 247-256.
- 346 -
BACK
INFLUENCE OF PROTEAN AND POWER LEVEL OF

RATION ABOUT PRODUCTION AND REPRODUCTION
AT SHEEP MOTHER
Maria CORDUNEANU, Maria UNGUREANU
In literature of specialty, the fodder standard for sheep are establish

in accordance with weight, prolificity and physiological form, but they didn’t say
in accordance with production for these are exploited.
The convenience of growth sheep mother in permanently stabulation,
impose the control of sheep food in accordance with their principal production
(meat – milk – wool), make up of fodder ration constitute from unique mixture
with fibrouses, concentrates, brutishes and juices with different level proteic and
power, rations which goes at this products to be maximum.
At Merino from Palas which was improve în direction of goddaughter
wool production and grown in plain zone of Romania, doesn’t exist rations
institutionalize for wool production by 7,5 - 8,5 kg wool and only for sheep with a
production by 4 - 5 kg wool. After actually methodology for big wool productions,
norms are establish through equable adding the 0,15 UN and 18 g PBD for each
kg of wool moreover, without to allowance that an animal of a big productivity
turn account better fodders and that the rations must to have a concentration în
nourishing substance bigger because a sheep through dry substance quantity
ingurgitate to assure nourishing requirement establish by norm.
From this reason we porpose to esteblish an optimal level protean and
power of a fodder rations for the sheep Merino from Palas which to get at realizer of
some productions accordingly of breed, rations which can eliminate wastage by fodder
and to establish the best ration with unique mixture for sheep grown în the plain zone.
MATHERIAL AND METHOD

The work was take place 2 years in succesion, on 3 lots of sheep mother,
homogeneity and analogous under aspects of genotypes, weight, wool production, age
and physiological case (table 1).
Table 1
The characteristics principal of experimental lots
Lot I Lot II Lot III
Year Head Quality UM
X ± sX v% X ± sX v% X ± sX v%
Wool kg
8,45±0,12 4,32 8,39±0,15 5,15 8,39±0,12 4,29
2005 15 production
Weight kg 71,2±1,45 7,61 72,00±2,18 11,55 69,98±2,38 11,73
Wool kg
7,58 ± 0,22 9,68 7,68±0,22 11,20 7,60±0,30 12,98
2006 15 production
Weight kg 69,92±2,00 9,85 70,27±1,83 8,86 71,38±2,36 10,13
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Those 3 lots are size on 15 heads of sheep mother and in each of those 2
years were foddered with different forage standard (table 2).
Table 2
Structure of exepriment
Lot The characteristique of fodder Valoarea relativă a normelor furajere (%)
standard S.U. UN PBD
I The standard in accordance with 100 100 100
decree 50
II The standard thrifty after test of 80 80 60
balance
III Consumption at pleasure All fodders (fibrouses, juicies, concentrates
were administered on sortiments at
pleasure)
Thus lot I received fodder standard in accordance with Decree 50

(control lot), lot II received the standard thrifty to base on test of balance, and it was
lower with 20% at power and 40% at protean against lot I, and lot III received the
fodders at pleasure, administered apart. At first 2 lots the standards of fodder were
differentiate on physiological form. The fodder were administered at lots I and II
under form of unique mixture by 2 or per day and at lot III were administered
permanantly and in receptacle separate.
All fodders were weigh on lots daily at the hour of administration and
recurrently was collected and weigh the rest and it was establish the consumption
for each lot. The water and salt was at pleasure to all animal.
The consumption of fodder and nourishing substance which was
realised are presented in table 3:
Table 3
The structure of fodder rations spent / head / day in Dry Substance (%)
The fodders Lot I Lot II Lot III
and parameter U.M.
2005 2006 2006 2006 2005 2006
of ration
Alfalfa hay % 46,80 52,20 33,89 37,26 24,10 15,04
Brutishes % - - 1,95 - 0,71 -
Juicies % 17,92 17,70 22,95 23,21 25,09 29,92
Concentrates % 34,28 29,10 40,21 38,53 49,10 54,04
Mineral salts % 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0
Total % 100 100 100 100 100 100
U.N. /kg S.U. 0,96 0,94 1,03 0,96 1,09 1,20
PBD g/U.N. 103 132 79 87 73 97
- 348 -

The rations administered was mixed type, concentrates was 34,28 –
29,10% at lot I (martor), 40,21 – 38,53% at lot II (hese rations were under form of
unique composition), and lot III was foddered at plesure, consumption of
concentrate represented 49,10 – 54,04% from dry substance of ration.
Regarding of fibrous, these were various: 46,80 – 52,20% at lot I,
33,89 – 37,26% at lot II and 24,10 – 15,04% at lot III.
The concentration of ration in power was 0,96 – 0,94 UN/kg SU at lot
I, at lot II 1,03 – 0,96 UN/kg SU and 1,09 – 1,20 UN/kg SU at lot III, and
concentration of protean was the greatest at lot I, 103 – 132 g/UN, followed by lot
III 73 – 97g/UN, and on the last place lot II 79 – 87 g/UN.
The values of the consumption of nourishing substance / head / day at
the 3 lots are restorable in table 4.
Table 4
The consumption of nourishing substance/ head / day
The consumption of nourishing substance
Year Dry substance (kg) Net power (UN) Protean ( g PBD)
I II III I II III I II III
2005 3,00 2,47 3,15 3,00 2,55 3,67 310 215 254
2006 2,96 2,65 2,09 2,78 2,35 2,98 322 201 252
Average 2,98 2,56 2,62 2,89 2,45 3,32 316 208 253
Regarding of medium power consuption on 2 years it was found that

sheep from lot III had consumption bigger, 3,32 UN/head/day against 2,89 UN at lot
I and 2,45 UN at lot II, bigger with 4,5% against control lot and with 20,5%
against lot II.
But the medium consumption of protean / head / day was the higher at
lot I (control lot) 316 g/cap/zi, followed by lot III foddered at pleasure to 253 g.
The lower level of consumption had sheep from lot II with 208 g/cap/zi, lot I was
consumed with 25,6 % more protean against lot III and with 41,3% against lot II.
It was followed the influence of rations on reproduction parameter and
on realised productions.
The principals parameters of reproduction are presented in table 5.
Table 5
The principals parameters of reproduction
Parameters of reproduction ( % )
Year Fertility Prolificity Birth rate
I II III I II III I II III
2005 95 101 94 110 115 120 100 112 115
2006 89 92 92 119 118 123 100 105 116
Average 92 96,5 93 114,5 116,5 121,5 100 108,5 115,5
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It was found that fertility isn’t influenced by the level of fodder, and
the average on 2 years was between 92% at lot I (control lot), 96,5% at lot II and
93% at lot III – normal results for this race. The season of reproduction was
normal with freshening in July and August months and the bring forth in
November and December month. The same thing was founded like at fertility and
birth rate and these was 114%, 116,5% and 121,5% and 100%, 108,5% and
115,5%.
Regarding of increase bodily of a lamb grow from the bring forth
sheep from the 3 lots it was found that the weight at birth is equable and wasn’t
meaningful difference (table 6).
The average weight on the 2 years at the 3 lots at age of month was quite
equable, 11,15 kg la lotul I - martor, 11,11 kg la lotul II şi 11,51 kg la lotul III.
Neither in case of weight at wean at age of 80 days, average of lambs results from
their 3 lots aren’t difference: 21,84 kg at lot I, 22,27 kg at lot II and 22,49 kg at lot
III, these were insignificant (P>0,05).
Table 6
The bodily develop of lambs in period birth - wean
Specification Lot I Lot II Lot III
Year 2005 2006 Average 2005 2006 Average 2005 2006 Average
Weight at
4,78 5,10 4,90 4,90 5,34 5,12 5,00 4,98 4,99
birth (kg)
Weight at
age of 1 11,78 10,52 11,15 11,12 11,10 11,11 11,93 10,09 11,51
month (kg)
Weight at
24,47 19,21 21,84 24,08 20,47 22,27 23,15 21,82 22,49
wean(kg)
SMZ weight
birth – 1 245 185 215 218 186 202 234 205 219,5
month (g)
SMZ weight
birth – wean 239 148 193,5 241 162 201,5 229 176 202,5
(g)
The daily average spore till at 1 month was almost equal at lots I and III,
215 g and respective 219,5g, but less with 6% at lot II, 202 g against lot III.
Very important because is about Merino from Palas, the evolution of
wool production on the 3 lots in 2 year consecutives (table 7).
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Table 7
The wool production and lock length
Specificati
Lot I Lot II Lot III
on
Year 2005 2006 Average 2005 2006 Average 2005 2006 Average
Weight of
wool
7,39 5,68 6,54 7,25 5,49 6,37 7,05 6,13 6,59
physiscs
(kg)
Weight of
wool 4,92 2,95 3,93 4,28 2,28 3,28 3,82 2,67 3,25
laundered
Lock
length 8,78 8,23 8,51 8,88 7,82 8,35 9,41 8,95 9,18
(cm)
The average of quantity wool realises in the 3 lots was less at lot II,
6,37 kg, which was consumed with 41% less protean then lot I, lot which realised
an average of 6,54 kg, bigger with 5,5% then lot II, and sheep from lot III had an
average production of 7 kg, near of lot I. The semnificative difference was
between lots II and I (P< 0,05).
Lock length was by 8,51 mm at lot I, by 8,35 mm at lot II, so bigger
with 7%, and lot III had lock length the bigger, 9,18 mm, bigger with 5,36% then
lot I.
The evolution of weight of a sheep mother has normal for Merino from
Palas and the weight of a sheep from the 3 lots was likewise (table 8).
Table 8
The weight of a sheep
Specification Lot I Lot II Lot III
Aver- Avera Aver
Year 2005 2006 2005 2006 2005 2006
age ge age
At freshening
70,53 70,03 70,28 72,00 70,53 71,27 70,28 71,33 70,31
(kg)
At bring 72,9 72,0
72,65 72,82 75,21 73,62 68,73 74,88 71,81
forth (kg) 8 2
At wean
of lamb 77,90 71,10 74,50 80,29 77,63 78,96 80,60 79,30 79,95
(kg)
After shorn
70,65 67,10 68,88 69,70 69,20 69,45 71,88 71,30 71,59
(kg)
At the wean of lambs all type of lots of sheep mother had weight
bigger then at freshening: 74,5 kg against 70,28 kg at lot I, 78,96 kg against 71,27
kg and 79,95 kg against 70,31 kg at lot III, bigger with: 5,9% at lot I, with 10,9%
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BACK
at lot II and with 12,08% at lot III, fact evidential of that rations the 3 lots has
adequate under aspects of weight of a sheep. Meaningful difference existed at lots
II and III (P< 0,005).
CONCLUSIONS
It was foud that the biggest consumption of SU and UN was registered
at lot of sheep which received the fodder therefore, fact which gone at growth of
outlay with fodder.
Allowance with 40% at a protean level and with 17% at power
influenced negatively bodily increase of a lambs and the reproduction parameter
of sheep.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bacouier F., Guillouret P., Barillet F. – Alimentation hivernale des brebis laitieres.
Productions animales, feb. 1995, vol. VIII nr. 1
2. Mocanu A., Patape M., Rascu D. – Aspecte privind influenta temperaturii scazute asupra
productiilor si a indicilor fiziologici la oi si miei. Lucr. Stiintifice ale ICPCOC Palas vol.
VI, 1989.
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BACK
INCIDENCE OF FUSARIUM SPECIES AND OF THEIR

TOXINS IN THE COMPOUND FEEDS FOR POULTRY
Cristina TABUC
The genus Fusarium includes species of mesohygrophilous mycetes that

grow on plants in the cold and temperate regions and that produce a large
number of substances that are toxic to the humans and animals.
The level of fungal contamination, the isolation and identification of the
Fusarium species was done on samples of compound feeds for poultry (broilers,
layers and reproduction layers). The fungal contamination was evaluated by
cultivation on malt-agar and incubation for 7 days at 25°C. Fusarium species
were identified on 53% of the analysed samples next to other toxinogenous
species belonging to Penicillium, Aspergillus, Rhizopus and Mucor genera.
The following Fusarium species were frequently observed in the
analysed samples: Fusarium culmorum, F. graminearum, F. moniliforme, F.
oxysporum, F. poae şi F. sporotrichoides, species known to produce mycotoxins
(toxin T2, deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, zearalenone and fumonisin).
Mycotoxin determination with the immunoenzymatic method ELISA
revealed the presence of low amounts of deoxynivalenol and zearalenone; toxin
T2, nivalenol and fumonisins were not present, or if they were present their
concentration was so low that it could not be detected by the Veratox kits that
were used.
INTRODUCTION
Micromycetes (moulds) contaminate the foods altering their physical
(look, taste, smell) and chemical (lower nutritive value) traits. These
microorganisms develop in time allergies and mycoses in humans and animals.
About 100,000 species of moulds are known so far which contaminate the foods
and which are able to synthesise toxic compounds for the humans and animals:
mycotoxins.
The cereal grains are the carriers most contaminated by moulds; rich in
nutrients, the cereal grains provide optimal conditions for mould development and
mycotoxin production. The spores (conidia) and mycotoxins can be removed only
to a very low extent therefore they are always to be found in the processed feeds.
The main mycotoxins produced by Fusarium species belong to 3 families of toxic
substances regarded by the WHO as very dangerous to humans and animals:
trichotecenes, zearalenone and fumonisins.
The family of trichotecenes includes about 60 types of active biological
molecules divided into four groups A, B, C and D. The cereal grains and the
compound feeds contain only trichotecenes from groups A and B. The most toxic
one is T2 (group A), while the most frequently met is the deoxynivalenol or the
vomitoxin (group B). The trichotecenes inhibit DNA synthesis, protein synthesis,
- 353 -
they stimulate lipoperoxidizing, they reduce the mitochondrial respiration and

render the organism prone to suprainfection by diminishing the defence
mechanisms of the organism (thymus hypoplasia with the consecutive depression
of the thymocyte count, it depresses phagocytosis and macrophages
chemiotactism, it increases the production of IL2, IL3 and INFγ in the
macrophages) (Balzer 2004).
Zearalenone is involved in numerous cases of animal intoxications. This
mycotoxin produces changes in the DNA, chromosomal aberrations, it determines
the build up of glycogen in the liver and in the skeleton muscles by increasing the
release of insulin followed by the depression of glycaemia, it causes the
tryglicerides to build up in the liver, it stops the oxidative phosphorilation in the
mitochondria. The intoxication with zearalenone is characterised by oestrogenism
phenomena: vaginal oedema, ovary atrophy, mammary gland hypertrophy,
testicles atrophy, lower amount of sperm, lower spermatozoid motility and lower
height of the offsprings. Zearalenone renders the organism prone to suprainfection
by diminishing the defence mechanisms of the organism (Gaumy, 2001).
The family of fumonisins includes numerous substances assigned to 4
series FA, FB, FC and FP (Pfohl-Leszkowicz, 2001). So far about 15 types of
substances were identified, among which fumonisins FB1, FB2 and FB3 are
frequently met during the natural contamination of the cereal grains. Fumonisins
are substances with hepatotoxic and nephrotoxis effect in the farm animals. At the
molecular level fumonisins intervene in sphingolipids metabolism by inhibiting
sphinganine- and sphingosine- N-acyltransferases which cause the sphinganine to
build up and to alter the sphinganine to sphingosine ratio in the tissues and blood
(Bailly, 2005).
All farm animals are sensitive to the action of these mycotoxins but the
intoxication has different manifestations depending on the species, age, sex, time
of exposure.
This paper shows the presence of Fsarium species in the compound feeds for
poultry, their identification and isolation, their testing for toxinogenous capacity
and the quantification of the mycotoxins observed in the surveyed compound
feeds.

Material:
Samples of compound feeds for poultry (broilers, layers and layers for
reproduction), highly pure methanol for chromatography ((Merck, Germania),
Veratox kits (Neogen, USA).
Methods:
Determination of the level of fungal contamination: 20 g feed, finely
ground, was mixed in 180 ml sterile saline; 1 ml of each dilution (10-1-10-4) was
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put into a Petri dish, then 20 ml of malt-agar medium were added (20 g agar, 20 g
malt extract, 50 mg chloramphenicol, 1000 ml distilled water); after incubation
for 7 days at 25±1oC we counted the total number of colony forming units (CFU)
and we identified the growing colonies by their genera according to the methods
of Botton (1990) and Tănase (2002).
Isolation and identification of the Fusarium species: the Fusarium
colonies identified at the genus level were repicked several times on malt medium
to obtain pure cultures that were identified to determine the species based on their
microscopic characters. Identification was done using the identification manuals
for fungi (Pitt, 1988; Raper, 1965; Nelson, 1983).
Quantification of the mycotoxins present in the analysed samples:
mycotoxin concentration was determined with the immunoenzymatic method
ELISA using Veratox- Neogen kits. Mycotoxin extraction was done with
methanol : distilled water (70:30 or 50:50) or just with distilled water.
10 g sample, finely ground, were dispersed in the extraction solvent and
energetically agitated for 5 minutes, thereafter filtered through Whatmann nr.1
filter paper; 100 µl from this extract was used in the subsequent stages. 100 µl
conjugate were put into red bottom wells, thereafter 100 µl of the standard or
sample and the wells were slightly agitated horizontally. 100 µl were thereafter
transferred into colourless bottom wells coated with the antimycotoxin antibody,
the wells were agitated horizontally for 10-20 sec. and were left to rest for 10 min.
at room temperature. The wells were rinsed 5 times with distilled water and each
time the microplate was shook on filter paper to remove the water drops from the
wells. 100 µl chromogen solution were added to each well and the wells were
agitated horizontally for 10-20 sec. The optical density was read for 20 min. with
a TEKAN densitometer at 650 nm.
RESULTS
Determination of the level of fungal contamination: The mycological
analysis shows a high contamination of the analysed samples, in average by 17 ×
103 CFU/g (8 – 48.5 × 103 CFU/g). The identified fungi species belong to
Aspergillus, Penicillium şi Fusarium genera and to yeasts. Table 1 shows the
level of contamination and the identified toxinogenous species.
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Table. 1 Level of contamination of the analysed samples and identified toxinogenous

species
Sample CFU × Identified species of fungi
103/g
Compound feeds for broilers
NC 21.1 S 8 Fusarium culmorum, F. graminearum, Penicillium
brevicompactum, P.purpurogenum , P. simplicissimum,
Mucor circineloides, M. mucedo, M. racemosus, Rhizopus
nigricans, yeasts
NC 21.1 F 9 Mucor circineloides, M. mucedo, yeasts
NC 21.1 S 48,5 F. graminearum, F. moniliforme, F. oxysporum, Rhizopus
nigricans, yeasts
NC 21.1 S 16 yeasts
NC 21.1 G 13 yeasts
NC 21.1 S 20 Mucor mucedo, Rhizopus nigricans, yeasts
NC 21.1 G 22 Rhizopus nigricans, Fusarium culmorum, F. graminearum,
F. moniliforme, yeasts
NC 21.1 F 11,6 Fusarium culmorum, F. graminearum, Penicillium
griseofulvum, P. simplicissimum, Aspergillus niger, A.
fumigatus, A. flavus, Rhizopus nigricans, yeasts
NC 21.1 S 8,2 Fusarium culmorum, F. graminearum, Rhizopus nigricans,
yeasts
NC 21.1 G 8,3 F. oxysporum,Fusarium sporotrichoides, Rhizopus
nigricans, Mucor circineloides, M. mucedo, yeasts
NC 21.1 G 23 Fusarium culmorum, F. graminearum, Mucor mucedo, M.
racemosus, Rhizopus nigricans, yeasts
Compound feeds for layers
NC 21.5 15 F. moniliforme, Penicillium brevicompactum,
P.purpurogenum , yeasts
NC 21.5 9,75 Penicillium citrinum, P.purpurogenum , P. simplicissimum,
yeasts
NC 21.5 9,25 Penicillium brevicompactum, P.citrinum, P.purpurogenum ,
yeasts
NC 21.5 23 Rhizopus nigricans, yeasts
NC 21.5 6,5 Rhizopus nigricans, Penicillium griseofulvum, P.
purpurogenum , yeasts
NC 21.5 18,5 Aspergillus niger, yeasts
NC 21.5 14,5 Mucor circineloides, M. mucedo, M. racemosus, Rhizopus
nigricans, yeasts
NC 21.5 14,5 Fusarium culmorum, F. graminearum, Penicillium
brevicompactum, P.purpurogenum , yeasts
Compound feeds for layers for reproduction
NC 21.7 44 Penicillium simplicissimum, F. graminearum, F.
moniliforme, Mucor circineloides, M. mucedo, M.
racemosus, Rhizopus nigricans, yeasts
NC 21.7 15 F. graminearum, Penicillium brevicompactum,
P.purpurogenum , Aspergillus niger, A. fumigatus, yeasts
- 356 -
Isolation and identification of the Fusarium species: Fusarium species

were identified in 53% of the analysed samples. All identified species are
potentially toxinogenous, able to release trichotecenes, zearalenone and
fumonisins. F. graminearum was identified in 82% of the samples, followed by F.
culmorum identified in 55% of the samples. The other species were observed in
proportions of up to 20%. Figure 1 shows the identified Fusarium species.
F. poae 9.00%
F.sporotrichioides
9.00% ,
F. oxysporum F. graminearum
18.00% 82.00%
F. moniliforme
36.00%
F. culmorum
54.00%
Fig. 1 Identified Fusarium species
Quantification of the mycotoxins present in the analysed samples: The

mycotoxicological analysis of the samples revealed the presence of low doses of
deoxynivalenol and zearalenone. T2 toxin, nivalenol and fumonisins were not
detected with ELISA. Table 2 shows mycotoxin concentration.
Table. 2 Mycotoxin concentration in the samples of poultry feeds
Sample Mycotoxin concentration (ppb=µg/kg)

toxin T-2 nivalenol deoxynivalenol fumonisine zearalenone
Compound feeds for broilers
NC 21.1 S ND ND 2265 ND 1525
NC 21.1 F ND ND 405 ND 700
NC 21.1 S ND ND 1120 ND 1705
NC 21.1 S ND ND ND ND ND
NC 21.1 G ND ND ND ND ND
NC 21.1 S ND ND 4455 ND 1090
NC 21.1 G ND ND 2350 ND 890
NC 21.1 F ND ND 1975 ND 665
NC 21.1 S ND ND 1310 ND 705
NC 21.1 G ND ND 7025 ND 1515
NC 21.1 G ND ND 1190 ND 1900
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BACK
Compound feeds for layers

NC 21.5 ND ND 1305 ND 1535
NC 21.5 ND ND 615 ND ND
NC 21.5 ND ND 110 ND 525
NC 21.5 ND ND ND ND 995
NC 21.5 ND ND 1095 ND 335
NC 21.5 ND ND 1775 ND 275
NC 21.5 ND ND ND ND ND
NC 21.5 ND ND 3985 ND 670
Compound feeds for layers for reproduction
NC 21.7 ND ND 1325 ND 1455
NC 21.7 ND ND 7045 ND 1675
CONCLUSIONS
The analyses revealed that the species of Fusarium genus are found in high
proportions in the compound feeds for poultry (53% of the analysed samples); of them,
Fusarium graminearum is present in 82% of the samples;
All identified Fusarium species are potentially toxinogenous, able to synthesise
mycotoxins (trichotecenes, fumonisine and/or zearalenone);
The mycotoxicological analysis reveals the presence of some mycotoxins in over
80% of the analysed samples;
The quantified mycotoxins are in low concentrations, below the limit admitted by
EU legislation (8 ppm (mg/kg) for deoxynivalenol and 2 ppm (mg/kg) for zearalenone);
The other investigated mycotoxins, either did not exist in the analysed samples, or their
concentration was far too low to be detected with the used method;
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bailly J.D., Querin A., Tardieu D., Guerre P., 2005, „Production and purification of
fumonisins from a highly toxigenic Fusarium verticiloides strain”, Rev. Med. Vet.,156 (2), xxx-xxx.
Balzer A., Tardieu D., Bailly J.D., Guerre P., 2004, Les trichothecenes: nature des
toxins, presence dans les aliments et moyens de lutte, Rev Med Vet, 155 )6), 299-314.
Botton B., Breton A., Fèvre M., Gauthier S., Guy P., Larpent J.P., Reymond P.,
Sanglier J.J., Vayssier Y., Veau P., 1990, “Moisissures utiles et nuisibles.Importance industrielle”,
Ed. Masson, Paris.
Gaumy J.L., Bailly J.D., Burgat V., Guerre P., 2001, “Zéaralénone: propriétés et
toxicité expérimentale“, Revue Méd. Vét, 152 (3), 219-234
Nelson P.E., Toussoun T.A., Marasas W.F.O., 1983, “Fusarium species: an illustrated
manual for identification. Pennsylvania state Univ. editor
Pfohl-Leszkowicz A., 2001, „Définition et origines des mycotoxies” in „Les mycotoxines
dans l’alimentation: évaluation et gestion du risque”, Ed. Tec & Doc, 3-14
Pitt J.I., 1988, “Laboratory guide to common Penicillium species”, Academia Press
editor, London
Raper K., Fennell D.J., 1965, “The genus Aspergillus”, Williams and Wilkins editors,
Baltimore
Tănase C., 2002, “Micologie- Manual de lucrări practice”, Ed. Uiv. “Alexandru Ioan
Cuza”, Iaşi
- 358 -
BACK
EFFICIENCY OF DIETS BASED ON ALFALFA PRESERVED

BY DIFFERENT MEANS FED TO FATTENING STEERS
IL. VOICU, Dorica VOICU, Aurelia SOARE
The efficiency of diets based on alfalfa preserved as hay, haylage and wilted
alfalfa was studied on Romanian Spotted steers fattened from 150 to 300 kg and
from 300 to 450 kg. The following average values were observed throughout the
entire period of growth and development:
- Dietary energy digestibility and dietary protein digestibility ranged between
69% and 72 %, and between 63% and 75%, respectively.
- The use of diet as metabolisable energy ranged from 58% in the hay-based
diets and 62% in the haylage-based diets, with intermediary values for the
wilted alfalfa-based diets.
- The gross efficiency RE/ME ranged from 20.35% (hay-based diets) and 25%
(haylage-based diets) in the first category of steers and between 15.9% hay-
based diets) and 19.7 (haylage-based diets) in the category 300 - 450 kg.
- The wilted alfalfa-based diets and the haylage-based diets provided better
animal performance than the alfalfa hay-based diets, from 1403 g to 1062 g
in the category 150-300 kg and from 1400 g to 1153 g in the category over
300 kg.
This is part of a larger study on the ingestibility and utilization of different

diet formulations by Romanian Spotted fattening steers between 150-300 kg. The
paper presents the ingestibility, digestibility and metabolisation of three types of
diets based on alfalfa preserved as hay, wilted alfalfa and haylage.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

During the experimental period we used 8 steers for each type of diets, 4
of them weighing between 150-300 kg and 4 weighing between 300-450 kg.
Table 1 shows diet structure.
Table 1
Diet structure (%)
Feed Steer weight
150 – 300 kg 300 - 450 kg
Diet 1 Diet 2 Diet 3 Diet 1 Diet 2 Diet 3
Alfalfa hay 57.3 - 4.1 59 - -
Wilted alfalfa - 58 - - 60 -
Alfalfa haylage - - 46 - - 47
Corn 18.7 35 41 14 39 52
Peas 23.0 6 2.4 26 - -
Sunflower meal - - 5.5 - - -
Vitamin-mineral premix 1 1 1 1 1 1
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The animals had free access to the bulk forage while the concentrates
were added to balance the dietary energy and protein supply (Burlacu et al.,
2002).
The feeding norms for animals and the nutritive value of the dietary feeds
were assessed using the principles of the new Romanian system based on the
French system of feed units (Vermorel, 1993) and on the British system for
protein assessment (Alderman, 1993).
The experiments lasted between 88 and 129 days, period during which records
were kept for feed intake, diet digestibility, excreted urine, body weight evolution.
Four steers were slaughtered at the beginning of the experiment and other 4 were
slaughtered at the end of each period of growing and fattening and assessed for
their net weight and achieved gain, as well as for the quality of the body weight
gain, the proportion of protein and fat. The feed and manure were analysed with
the improved method of Weende (Criste et al., 2003), while the energy content of
the feed and manure and of the biological samples was determined with an
adiabatic calorimeter.

Table 2 shows the chemical composition f the feed ingredients.
Table 2
Chemical composition of the dietary feed ingredients
(g/kg feed) (g/kg DM)
Feed DM OM CP EE CF NFE Ash GE (MJ)

Alfalfa hay 869 773 143 19 300 311 96 15.81
1000 890 165 22 345 358 110 18.18
Wilted alfalfa 503 455 105 11 139 201 48 9.24
1000 904 208 21 276 399 96 18.37
Alfalfa haylage 388 351 76 17 103 155 37 7.25
1000 905 197 43 266 399 95 18.69
Corn 874 851 92 39 24 696 23 16.60
1000 974 105 45 28 796 26 19.00
Peas 875 842 214 17 64 547 33 16.48
1000 962 245 19 73 625 38 18.84
Sunflower meal 834 771 278 23 208 262 63 15.71
1000 925 333 28 250 314 75 18.93
Table 3 shows he intake of feeds expressed as dry matter and animal

performance. The dry matter intake ranged from 6089 g/day during the first
period to 7760 g/day during the second period for the alfalfa hay-based diet and
between 5252 g/day and 8460 g/day for the diets based on wilted alfalfa and on
alfalfa haylage.
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Steer gain averaged 1062 g/day during the first period and 1153 g/day
during the second period for the first diet, between 1356 g/day and 1432 g/day for
the wilted alfalfa diets and between 1403 g/day and 1400 g/day for the alfalfa
haylage diet, for the steers of 150 - 300 and 300 - 450 kg, respectively.
The net gain resulting from the net body weight of the steers (gross
weight minus the digestive content) varied between 814 g/day and 991 g/day for
diet 1 and between 1134 g/day and 1238 g/day for the steers fed on diets 2 and 3.
Table 3
Steer feed intake and body weight
Diet Weight Exp. DM Gross weight (kg) Net weight - kg (without the
category days intake digestive content)
per Initial Final Total ADG Initial Final TNG DNG
day, g gain (g) (calc.) (actual) (g)
1 A 129 6089 179 316 137 1062 138 243 105 814
B 111 7760 306 434 128 1153 263 373 110 991
2 A 100 5252 145 281 136 1365 116 225 109 1095
B 88 8460 312 438 126 1432 268 377 109 1238
3 A 119 5775 165 332 154 1403 134 269 135 1134
B 120 7539 300 468 168 1400 258 402 144 1200
A = 150 – 300 kg
B = 300 – 450 kg
ADG = average daily gain
TNG = total net gain
DNG = daily net gain
Table 4 shows the conversion ratio for dry matter, digestible energy and
protein. The 5.73 kg DM/kg gain feed conversion ratio for diet 1 is significantly
higher than the corresponding values for the other diets, 3.85 and 4.10 for the first
category of steers and 6.57 kg DM/kg gain for diet 1 compared with 5.38 kg
DM/kg gain for diets 2 and 3 for the steers of 300 - 450 kg.
The same observation goes for the dietary energy and protein conversion,
which was better for the diets with wilted alfalfa and with alfalfa haylage.
Table 4
Dry matter, energy and protein conversion
Diet Weight Conversion ratio
category DM kg/kg gain meat FU/kg IDP/kg gain
gain
1 A 5.73 5.67 480
B 6.57 6.60 520
2 A 3.85 4.02 379
B 5.90 6.08 495
3 A 4.10 4.53 370
B 5.38 6.30 490
- 361 -
DM = dry matter
meatFU = meat feed units
IDP = intestinally digestible protein
Table 5 shows the nitrogen balance (digestible nitrogen as percentage of

the ingested nitrogen) ranging between 63% and 75% in both categories of steers
and values for the retained nitrogen between 21.5 and 22.3% for the first category
of steers and between 13 and 14.4% for the second category of steers.
Table 5
Nitrogen balance (g/day/steer)
Diet Weight Nitrogen
category Ingested Faeces Digested Urine Retained
g % g % g % g % g %
1 A 134.24 - 47.04 35 87.20 65 58.40 43.5 28.80 21.5
B 179.36 - 66.40 37 112.96 63 89.12 50 23.84 13
2 A 143.52 - 35.84 25 107.68 75 75.68 52.7 32.00 22.3
B 208.16 - 52.00 25 156.16 75 126.24 61.0 29.92 14.4
3 A 152.00 - 56.32 37 95.68 63 62.72 41 32.96 22
B 177.12 - 46.08 26 131.04 74 108.75 41 22.29 13
The energy balance for the three diets (Table 6) shows the use of diets as
metabolisable energy varying between 58 and 61% in the first category of steers
and between 59 and 62% in the second category of steers.
The gross efficiency (RE/ME) of these diets was lower for the alfalfa hay
diet, 20.35%, higher in the haylage diet, 25% and intermediary in the wilted
alfalfa diet 22%.
The same goes for the steers weighing 300 - 450 kg.
Table 6
Energy balance (kJ/steer/day)

Diet Weight GE FE DE UE ME RE Pr Lr
category
1 A 110950 33275 77675 3293 64351 15474 180 226
B 148280 44600 103680 4800 87683 13944 149 268
2 A 96355 29852 66502 3170 57169 12558 200 203
B 156006 48361 107645 6660 93603 17742 187 343
3 A 107540 32282 72258 3130 65222 16350 206 296
B 140728 39410 101318 5460 87999 17354 140 360
Our experimental data are in agreement with the values obtained by

Williams et al. (1995), Mc. Cracken, 1998, Poppi et al., 2000 (cited by Burlacu.R
et al., 2006) who used steers fed on diets with similar dietary protein levels.
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
- Diet digestibility as energy and protein ranged between 69% and 72% and
between 63% and 75% , respectively;
- The use of diets ad metabolisable energy ranged between 58% in the hay
diets and 62% in the haylage diets, the wilted alfalfa diets displaying
intermediary values;
- The gross efficient RE/ME ranged between 20.35% (hay diets) and 25%
(haylage diets) for the first category of steers and between 15.9% hay diets)
and 19.7 (haylage diets) for the category of 300 - 450 kg;
- Steer performance was higher in the wilted alfalfa and alfalfa haylage diets
than in the alfalfa hay diets, 1403 g to 1062 g for the category 150-300 kg
and from 1400 g to 1153 g for the category over 300 kg.
- The use of hay to fatten steers is less efficient than the use of ensiled
forages as shown both by the energy metabolisation indices, by RE/ME
ratio and by steer performance.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1 Alderman G. (1993) - Energy and Protein Requirements. CAB International , AFRC.
2. Burlacu Gh., Cavache A., Burlacu R. (2002) – Potenţialul productiv al nutreţurilor şi
utilizarea lor. Editura Ceres, Bucureşti, p. 13-31.
3. Burlacu R., Dorica Voicu, Voicu I., Burlacu Gh. (2006) - Modelarea matematică a
proceselor de metabolism energetic şi proteic la taurine. Editura CERES, Bucureşti.
4. Criste Rodica Diana, Veronica Hebean, Doina Grossu Valentina, Margareta Olteanu, C.
Dragomir, Anca Bercaru (2003) – Metode analitice specifice studiului nutreţurilor. Vol. I,
Colecţia Cărţile Centrului de Excelenţă „Nutriţia şi Alimentaţia Animalelor”, p. 21 – 51.
5. Vermorel M., J. B. Coulon et M. Journet (1987) – Revision du système des mités
fourragères. Bull. Tech. C.R.Z.V. Theix, INRA, p. 9 – 18.
6. *** INRA (1988) - Alimentation des bovines, ovins & caprins. Ed. R. Jarrige, Paris.
7. *** NRC (1996) – Nutrient reqiurementes of beef cattle, 7 th., Ed. National Academy Press,
Washington DC.
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BACK
EFFECTS OF PROBIOTIC AND PREBIOTIC

SUPPLEMENTATION ON EGG QUALITY AND LAYING
HENS PERFORMANCE
Cristina RADU-RUSU, I.M. POP
The goals of the study were to assess the effects of Biotronic® and IMBO®
feed additives on the performance and egg quality of commercial laying hens
approaching the end of the laying cycle. The trial was setup at the Animal Husbandry
Faculty’s Experimental Farm in Iasi, Romania, during a 4 weeks period. A flock of
90 hens, 57 week old ISA Brown layers were introduced into a completely
randomized experimental design with three groups, with 30 birds each.
Experimental treatments consisted in feeding hens a corn-soybean meal
basal diet with supplementation of 0.3 % Biotronic® (treatment E1) and of 0.1%
IMBO® (treatment E2).
The studied parameters are listed below: hens living weight and feed
intake dynamics, feed conversion ratio, laying intensity, egg mass production,
egg weight, eggshell weight, eggshell thickness, shell index, Haugh Index.
Both treatments which received supplemented feed given superior results,
concerning the production performances, the internal and external egg quality.
The use of probiotics, prebiotics and symbiotics (feeding probiotic

microorganisms together with prebiotic substances), might contribute due to the
development of beneficial microorganisms in the gastrointestinal tract (Pelicano et
al., 2002). Consequently, there would be an improvement of the intestinal
environment for the processes of digestion and absorption of nutrients (Pop, 2002).
Many researchers have reported improvement laying hen productive and
qualitative performance with the utilization of such additives (Nahashon et al.,
1993, 1994, 1996; Haddadin et al., 1996; Tortuero and Ferandez, 1995;
Abdulrahim et al., 1996; Mohan et al., 1995; Chen et al., 2005), whereas others
found no improvement (Goodling et al., 1987;).
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of probiotic and
prebiotic inclusion supplements on laying hen’s performance and egg quality.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The experiment was hosted by the Experimental Farm of the Animal
Husbandry Faculty in Iasi city, Romania, during 28 days.
A flock of 90 laying hens belonging to the ISA-Brown hybrid, 57-61
weeks old, was used and accommodated in three leveled pyramidal coops
batteries (two hens/ coop). The fowl were divided in three treatment groups:
control, A1 and A2. The Control group (C) included 30 hens which received a
diet based on a corn-soymeal mixture (table 1). E1 group (30 hens), received a
®
0.3% BIOTRONIC Se Forte supplementation of the basal diet. IMBO® product
was 0.1% added into the E2 group (30 hens) feed.
- 364 -
Table 1
Chemical composition of the basal diet used in laying hens feeding
Composition MU Value
Moisture % 14
Metabolisable energy Kcal/Kg 2750
Crude protein g/Kg 175,00
Gross fiber g/Kg 50,00
Crude Lysine g/Kg 8,50
Crude Methionine g/Kg 4,20
Crude Met+Cis g/Kg 7,30
Crude Threonine g/Kg 6,50
Crude Triptophan g/Kg 1,85
Total Calcium g/Kg 38,00
Available Phosphor g/Kg 6,50
Sodium g/Kg 1,6
Total chlorides g/Kg 8,5
Linoleic acid g/Kg 15,0
BIOTRONIC® is an acidifier based on a combination of organic acids

(mainly formic and propionic acids) and salts designed for the preservation of
animal feed and protection against harmful micro-organisms. The acidifier
controls the microbial contamination of feed via creating acidic conditions in the
feed, which are unfavorable to pathogenic bacteria. It also reduces the acid
binding capacity of feed, which is particularly important for a healthy digestion in
young animals and helps to prevent enteric disease.
IMBO® product helps to establish, maintain and stabilize a beneficial gut
microflora. Infection resistance in the laying hens is improved through the
combined effects of this product components: probiotics (Enterococcus faecium),
prebiotics (fructo-oligosaccharides and levure cell wall fragments) and
phycophytic substances (derived from sea algae).
The lighting program was 16L:8N type. The temperature into the shelter
was of 24-28°C and the relative air humidity of 75%. The feed was given once a
day, while the water was permanently assured.
The parameters assessed in our study included: hens’ living weight, feed
intake and laying intensity dynamics – as productive features; egg weight,
eggshell weight, eggshell thickness, shell ratio participation in the whole egg
eight, shell index – as eggshell quality parameters; Haugh index – as eggs’
internal quality feature.
Eggs’ weight was daily assessed through weighting, using digital
technical scales.
The eggs’ quality parameters were assessed weekly, on 10 eggs harvested
from each group, randomize selected. Eggshell weight and thickness were
measured after the removal of the inner and outer shell membranes, after 24 hours
shell drying at room temperature. A micrometric device was used to measure the
eggshell thickness. Three fragments of shell was taken from sharpen and rounded
- 365 -
poles and from the equatorial zone of each egg. The thickness represents the mean
of the three mentioned shell sections. Haugh index was computed accorded to the
formula which includes height of the dense albumen (h) and egg’s weight (G):
U.H. = 100log (h-1,7 X G0,37 + 7,57).
Data concerning the entire amount of eggs produced, the amount of
broken, cracked, rough, pale or deformed eggs were recorded on a daily base.
The experimental values were statistically processed, using a single factor
ANOVA algorithm, included within the MsExcel software package.

Production performances
The results achieved, concerning the productive performances, showed
improved values in both experimental groups. Thus, the average amount of eggs
produced per period and, par consequence, the laying intensity was increased,
while the feed intake decreased (table 2). The best results were achieved by the
E2 group (+0.1% IMBO®), with an egg mass yield of 56.6 g egg mass/hen/day
(+5.17% reported to control), with an average intake of only 1.859 Kg feed to
obtain 1 Kg egg mass (-11.61%, as compared to reference). Moreover, the
differences found between control and experimental groups were statistically
distinguished significant.
Table 2
Effects of BIOTRONIC Se forte® and IMBO® products usage in laying hens feed
supplementation on their production performances
Groups
Experimental
Studied character period E1* E2**
(week) Control (+acidifier) (+mixture of
probiotic & prebiotic)
Initial hens’ body weight (Kg/hen) - 1.79 a 1.74 a 1.76 a
a a
Final hens’ body weight (Kg/hen) - 1.83 1.75 1.76 a
Average daily feed intake (g/hen/day) 1-4 113.21 114.29 105.24
1 25.0 a 25.3 a 25.3 a
26.9 a a
2 27.4 27.1 a
Egg production a a
(eggs/day/group)
3 26.1 28.0 27.0 a
25.8 a a
4 26.6 27.0 a
1-4 25.9 a 26.8 a
26.6 a
a
1 83.33 84.28 a 84.28 a
2 89.52 a 91.42 a 90.47 a
Laying intensity a a
(Mean values)(%)
3 87.14 93.33 90.00 a
a a
4 86.19 88.57 90.00 a
86.54 a a
1-4 89.40 88.69 a
Egg-mass (g/hen/day) 53.82 a 56.74 c
56.60 c
1-4
production % (C=100) 100.00 105.43 105.17
Feed (kg feed/kg egg mass) 2.103 2.014 1.859
1-4
conversion % (C=100) 100.00 95.76 88.39
* basal diet + 0.3% BIOTRONIC Se forte® (Biomin, Austria)
** basal diet + 0.1% IMBO® (Biomin, Austria)
a, b, c, d – within the same row - insignificant statistical differences between means with identical
exponents, significant (ab; F̂ > F crit. for α 0.05), distinguish significant (ac; F̂ > F crit. for α 0.01)
high significant (ad; F̂ > F crit. for α 0.001) differences between means with different exponents
- 366 -
Egg production quality

Table 3 reveals the experimental results concerning the quality of the
eggs issued from the laying hens belonging to the used treatments.
Table 3
Effects of BIOTRONIC Se forte® and IMBO® products usage in laying hens feed
supplementation on egg quality
Experimental
Groups
E1* E2**
Studied character period
Control (+acidifier) (+probiotic &
(week)
prebiotic mixture)
1 65.66 a 66.03 a 65.26
2 65.37 a 67.01 a 63.49
Egg weight
(grams)
3 65.95 a 66.42 a 65.82
4 63.35 a 66.12 a 65.17
1-4 65.09 a 66.40 a 64.94 a
(%) (C=100) 100.00 102.01 99.77
1 6.08 a 5.86 a 5.74 a
Eggshell weight
2 6.11 a 6.30 a 6.15 a
(grams)
3 6.02 a 6.40 c 6.59 c
4 5.94 a 6.51 d 6.57 d
6.04 a 6.27 b 6.27 b
1-4
(%) (C=100) 100.00 103.81 103.81
1 9.30 a 8.88 a 8.86 a
2 9.37 a 9.41 a 9.69 a
% shell in whole egg weight 3 9.15 a 9.66 b 10.02 c
4 9.40 a 9.91 b 10.17 b
9.31 a 9.47 a 9.69 a
1-4
(%) (C=100) 100.00 101.72 104.08
1 0.392 a 0.386 a 0.383 a
Shell thickness
2 0.377 a 0.404 a 0.395 a
(mm)
3 0.399 a 0.409 a 0.423 a
4 0.380 a 0.400 b 0.419 c
0.387 a 0.400 b 0.405 b
1-4
(%) (C=100) 100.00 103.36 104.65
1 8.00 a 7.67 a 7.60 a
2 8.05 a 8.16 a 8.25 a
Shell index 3 7.89 a 8.35 b 8.64 c
4 8.00 a 8.54 c 8.71 c
7.99 a 8.18 a 8.30 a
1-4
(%) (C=100) 100.00 102.38 103.88
1 89.74 a 87.44 a 86.41 a
2 91.25 a 92.37 a 86.01 a
Haugh Index
(UH)
3 85.33 a 83.18 a 84.31 a
4 77.52 a 89.47 c 88.20 c
1-4 85.96 a 88.12 a 86.24 a
(%) (C=100) 100.00 102.51 100.33
a, b, c, d – within the same row - insignificant statistical differences between means with identical
exponents, significant (ab; F̂ > F crit. for α 0.05), distinguish significant (ac; F̂ > F crit. for α 0.01)
high significant (ad; F̂ > F crit. for α 0.001) differences between means with different exponents
- 367 -
Average egg weight was found, during the entire period, between 64.94 g
and 66.40 g values, the differences between treatments being insignificant,
similarly situation being already reported by Mohan et al., 1995; Haddadin et al.,
1996; Chen et al., 2005. However, there are also other reports with different
opinion, showing that usage of probiotic supplements significantly affects the egg
weight (Nahashon et al., 1993; Tortuero and Ferandez, 1995). These controversial
results might be related to the feed probiotic dosage and bacterial concentration.
Eggshell weight, as assessed for the entire 4 weeks period was found as
identical for the experimental treatments and superior to that measured for the
eggs in the control group (significant differences). The eggshell weight
progressively increased in experimental treatments, during weeks 1-4 and
maintained around the same value for the control group. The differences between
means proved to be distinguished and very significant during 3rd and 4th weeks.
Percentage of eggshell participation in the whole egg structure followed
an almost similar evolution, the E2 group (+ 0.1% IMBO®) having best results,
with 9.69% shell in the entire egg weight. The differences between experimental
and control groups were found as significant or even as distinguished significant
(week 3 and 4).
Shell thickness was found as better in the eggs belonging to E2 group (+
0.1% IMBO®), existing some significant and distinguished significant statistic
differences, during the 4th experimental week, as good as statistical significant
differences between control and both experimental treatment, for the entire
period.
Shell index was found as superior in experimental groups, as compared to
the reference group, with its better value in group E2. Thus, during week 3 and 4,
the differences recorded were found as significant or distinguished significant.
Despite this, when the entire experimental period was considered, no statistically
significance were found.
Better results obtained for the eggshell quality parameters could due to
the prebiotic influence on the metabolic activity of the beneficial bacteria colony
within the layers’ intestine, which positively influenced mineral absorption rate,
especially those of Ca2+ and Mg2+ (Roberfroid et al., 2000).
Similarly results were reported by Mohan et al., 1995 and Nahashon et
al., 1994, which affirmed that slight improvement of the eggshell quality in hens
was given by probiotics supplementations during laying peak period. This
beneficial effect might be attributable to a favorable environment in the intestinal
tract, which may have helped to assimilate more calcium. It is known that
probiotics might improve the content of calcium, phosphorus, caroteinoid and
albumen in serum of layers, which is responsible for the probiotics effect in gut
(Xu et al., 2006).
- 368 -
Haugh index was considered within normal limits, not any significant
difference being found between the three groups, when the entire period was
analyzed. During the 4th week, feed supplementation with both additives given
beneficial results on the inner eggs’ quality, a longer lasting consistence of the
dense albumen being noticed. Thus, during week 4, the results was found as
distinguished significant when the groups supplemented with 0.3% BIOTRONIC
Se forte®, respectively with 0.1% IMBO® were compared to control group.
The results achieved by the hens in the experimental groups, concerning
the eggshell quality parameters, had straight incidence on the percentage of eggs
quality conformity/unconformity (Table 3). It should be noticed that in both
experimental treatments, the percentage of eggs with quality unconformities was
found within recommended references limits (max. 3%, meaning 1.9% for
acidifier supplementation – E1, respectively 2.5% for probiotic & prebiotic
mixture supplementation – E2).
Table 4
Egg production quantitative and qualitative features of the control and
experimental groups
Groups
E2**
E1*
(+probiotic &
Studied character Control (+acidifier)
prebiotic
mixture)
Eggs % Eggs % Eggs %
Total amount eggs: 727 100 751 100 745 100
- integer eggshell 679 93.4 737 98.1 726 97.5
- cracked eggshell 18 2.5 5 0.7 4 0.5
- broken eggshell 30 4.1 9 1.2 15 2.0
- rough eggshell 30 4.1 13 1.7 9 1.2
- pale eggshell 29 4.0 32 4.7 23 3.1
- deformed eggshell 34 4.7 43 5.7 30 4.0
CONCLUSIONS
Better results were obtained by the hens within the experimental
treatments, concerning the egg mass production, as compared to reference group:
5.43% higher in E1 group (+ 0.3% BIOTRONIC®) and 5.00% higher in E2 group
(+ 0.1% IMBO®), while the food conversion rate was 4.24% lower in E1,
respectively 11.61% lower in E2.
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BACK
Eggshell quality was improved in experimental groups, as referred to the

control one. Thus, the shell thickness increased with 3.36% in E1 group; with
4.65% in E2 group.
Prebiotic and probiotic supplementation leaded to the decreasing of the
eggs with unconformities. Thus, the amount of the eggs with integer shell was
found as 5.03% higher in E1 group (+0.3% BIOTRONIC®), respectively 4.39%
better in E2 group (+ 0.1% IMBO®), compared to the values found in control
group.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ABDULRAHIM S.M., HADDADIN S.Y, HASHLAMOUN E.A., ROBINSON R., 1996 The
influence of Lactobacillus acidophilus and bacitracin on layer performance of chickens and
cholesterol content of plasma and egg yolk. Br. Poult. Sci. 37:341-346
CHEN Y. C. AND CHEN T. C., 2004. Mineral utilization in Layers as Influenced by Dietary
Oligofructose and Inulin, Intl. J. of Poult. Sci. 3 (7):442-445
CHEN Y.C., NAKTHON AND CHEN T. C., 2005. Improvement of laying hen performance by
dietary prebiotic chicory oligofructose and inulin, Intl. J. of Poult. Sci. 4 (2):103-108
GOODLING A. C., 1987. Production performance of white leghorn layers fed Lactobacillus
fermentation products. Poult. Sci. 66:480-486
HADDADIN S. Y., ABDULRAHIM S. M., HASHLAMOUN E.A., ROBINSON R., 1996. The
effect of Lactobacillus acidophilus on the production and chemical composition on hen’s eggs.
Poultry Sci., 75: 491-494
MOHAN B., KADIRVEL R,M BHASKARAN M., NATARAJAN A., 1995. Effect of probiotic
suplimentation on serum/yolk cholesterol and egg shell trickness in layers. Br. Poult. Sci. 36:799-
803
NAHASHON, S. N., NAKAUE H. S., MIROSH L. W., 1993. Effect of direct – fed microbials on
nutrient retention and production parameters of single comb white leghorn pullets. Poult. Sci. 72
(Suppl. 1): 87
NAHASHON, S. N., NAKAUE H. S., MIROSH L.W., 1994. Production variables and nutrient
retention in single comb white leghorn pullets fed diets supplemented with direct-fed microbials.
Poult. Sci. 73:1699-1711
NAHASHON, S. N., NAKAUE H. S., MIROSH L.W., 1996. Performance of single comb white
leghorn pullets fed a diet supplemented with a live microbial during the growth and laying period.
Anim. Feed Sci. Techol. 57:25-33
PELICANO ERL, SOUZA PA, SOUZA HBA., 2002. Prebióticos e Probióticos na nutrição de aves.
Ciências Agrárias e da Saúde; 2(1):59-64.
POP I. M., 2002. Aditivi furajeri. Editura Pim, Iasi, Romania.
ROBERFROID M.B., 2000. Prebiotics and probiotics: are they functional foods? Am. J. Clin. Nutr.,
71 (Suppl): 162S-168S.
TORTUERO, F., RIOPEREZ, J, FERNANDEZ, E. & RODRIGUEZ, M. L., 1995. Response of
piglets to oral administration of lactic acid bacteria. J.Fd. Prot. 58 pp.1369-1374
XU C.T., JI C., MA Q., HAO K., JIN Z.N., LI K., 2006. Effects of a dried Bacillus subtilis culture
on egg quality. Poult. Sci. 85:364-368
- 370 -
BACK
FODDERS’S POLLUTION AS A RISK FACTOR FOR THE

ANIMALS AND HUMAN’ HEALTH
Irina ISAC, I.M. POP, A. GRUBER
Pollution is a complex of phenomena that has changed and is about to

change the environment against the ecological equilibrium. The polluting factors
which affect water, air and soil generate situations that threaten the normal and
complete evolution of life, that determine the installation of structural and
functional unsetllements at the level of vegetal and human organism (Lăcrămioara
Ivănescu, Constantin Toma, 2003).
Nowadays, the threat of pollution has become so obvious that most of the
countries with a developed economy applied drastic measures of prevention and
combat this scourge.
In order to do some efficient actions of prevention, avoidance or remedy, of
the pollution’s effects it’s important to know all the ways and moments when a
potential risk of pollution or contamination can manifest itself, as well as the
effects of various polluting agents against the environment and organism, which
have a negative impact and cause major structural and functional changes of
vegetation and animals, with repercussions to the human’s health.
Vegetal fodders represent an important transfer from the soil , air and
water’s polluting agents to man, through the animal produces eaten by him.
The main toxic substances found in the fodders, can be grouped in the
following way:
- Antinutritional substances that can naturally be found in fodders;
- Toxic substances that can naturally be found in fodders;
- Toxic produses that contaminate or grow themselves in fodders during
the conservation and the processing;
- Mycotoxins;
- Pesticides;
- Heavy metals and metalloids with toxic potential;
- Pathogenic microorganisms.
Each of these groups is presented and analyzed, the final conclusion being
that the animals produces may contain toxic substances transferred from
fodders, which can jeopardize the food security of people. That’s why it’s
necessary to insist on the chain: soil- plant- animal- man.
INTRODUCTION
As a result of the organisms’ “adjustment” to the “modern civilisation”,
which has transformed nature into an universe of electricity, of computers, atomic
energy, major changes of the metabolism of plants and animals can be identified.
Man is aware of the fact that this dramatic situation is the result of his activity,
which is controlled insufficienty and not adjusted to the environmental realities
(L. Ciplea, Al.Ciplea, 1978). The fodders used to feed the animals become toxic due
- 371 -
to the highly content of polluting agents. The majority of these toxic substances
can persist within the plants, having real implications in the animals and human’s
health, with the possibility of remanence in tissues and organs’ level.
Natural pollution of waters with chemicals coming from various industries
(derivatives of alumimium, antimony, arsenic, bromine, chlorine, copper, iron,
cadmium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, lead, plumbum, selenium, zinc,
sulphates, sulphites, hydrogen, ammoniac, nitrogen and nitrous, detergent,
pesticide, amine, phenols, tars, solvents, slag etc.) can contribute to the
contamination or pollution of the vegetal organisms.
The industrial pollution of air, with various emanations, smoke, gases,
aerosols, dust, vapours, smog represent in the same time a polluting factor of the
vegetal and animal organisms (Lăcrămioara Ivănescu, Constantin Toma, 2003).
Radioactive pollution of the environment (soil, air, water) and of the plants is
a consequenence of the nuclear explositions, of the higly grown usage of the
ionizing radiations, of the radioactive elements and of the nuclear power.
There is a great diversity of factors which may influence the hygienic quality
of fodders. In a concise classification, there can be distinguished natural toxic
substances, different parasitical diseases, catching diseases contagious by
swallowing fodders, food toxinfection, mycotoxins secreted by a great variety of
moulds, polluting chemicals substances etc.
The main toxic substances found in the fodders, which reduce or even
annililate their resistence, can be grouped in the following way:
A. Antinutritional substances that can naturally be found in fodders;
B. Toxic substances that can naturally be found in fodders;
C. Toxic produses that contaminate or grow themselves in fodders during
the conservation and the processing;
D. Mycotoxins;
E. Pesticides;
F. Heavy metals and metalloids with toxic potential;
G. Pathogenic microorganisms.
A. Antinutritional substances that can naturally be found in fodders and

have the capacity to reduce the nutritive potential of the ingested food.
Nowdays there have been underlined the following effects of the
antinutritional substances:
- occur during the digestion of the proteins, reducing their utilisation by
the animals organism (trypsinic inhibators and phytohaemaglutens from
various vegetables, etc.). From a nutritional point of view, the lack of the
essential aminoacides leads to deficiency which can manifest through
various pathologic states.
- interfere with the utilisation of minerals, leading to their elimination
(fodders with a high content of fibres, fitted acid and fiats, oxalic acid);
- 372 -
- occur in the glucides assimilation (anti-amylases); can be found in corn,

potatoes, vegetables, wheat (Toma C., Toniuc Angela, Niţă Mihaela, Aiftimie
Anca, Ivănescu Lăcramioara, 1994);
- inactivate vitamins or diminish their activity: natural antagonists of B6
vitamin, ascorbic acid, antibiotin, thiamine etc.
B. Toxic substances that can naturally be found in fodders among wich

amino-acids, related compounnds with toxic action, biogen amines and related
products, methylxanthines, phenolic cetones, phenolic ethers, tannins,
theophylline), toxins from poisonous mushrooms (Amanita species), A vitamin in
excess etc.
The effects that these substances can have in the organism when there are
eaten by animals, are the following:
- toxic amino-acides produce the speeding down of growing and lesions of
the renal tissue;
- biogen amines produce cardiac lesions, actioning upon the suprarenal
gland, determining a high blood arterial pressure;
- chemical substances from plants produce gastro-intestinal disorders,
haematolithic lesions;
- toxins from poisonous mushrooms produce nervous disorders, death.
C. Toxic produses that contaminate or grow themselves in fodders

during the conservation and processing (nitrates and nitrites, condensed
polycyclic hydrocarbons)
Being natural components of the soil, nitrates and nitrites get -by means of
the fodders and water-into the animal organism and from there into the human
food.
Nitrates have a reduse toxicity, producing disorders only if they are eaten in
large quantities.
Nitrites are more toxic than the nitrates. Nitrites have a methemoglobinic
effect (methemoglobine being a highly oxidisinc hemoglobin).
Toxic effects (cephalagia, tachycardia, vertigoes) come as a result of a great
quantity of eaten vegetables which contain important quantities of nitrates. These
toxic products have an irritating action on the digestive tube, generating
congestions and bleedings, high blood pressure and have a strong liver effect,
generating liver lesions.
Aromatic polycyclic hydrocarbons contaminate the fodders in different ways.
Air pollution is one of the most important way of contamination: gasses, dust,
soot particles disperssed by the air streams affect the cereals, the vegetables, eaten
by the animals, situation certificated by the researches.
- 373 -
D. Mycotoxins are metabolites of the moulds having a chemical structure

more or less known, with a capacity to change abnormal biological structure with
degradating effects both to the animals and to man.
These toxins can be present in mould spores, in mould or eliminated in the
fodder.
Fodders’ contamination with mycotoxins is conditioned by temperature and
humidity. The infection with mould spores can take place in the field, during the
harvest, storage or distribution (Dancea Zoe, Maria V., Morar. A. Macri, 2003).
Mycotoxins, despite the bacterian’s toxin, don’t generate an imunoreaction and
resist to the various technological processes; they are thermostable (the thermic
effect destroy only the mould and spores, not their metabolism).
Mycotoxins are very toxic for the liver, being strongly cancerigenic (liver
necroses).
E. Pesticides is the generic name for all the chemical substances used against
the pests. Because the pesticides used nowdays don’t have a absolute selective
action, for the chemical substances from this group; it has also been suggested the
generic name of “bioacid”.
The contamination of fodders with pesticides can be direct, by means of
some vegetal raw material which is eaten directly, or indirect by means of residual
soil, water, air materials or by means of pesticides’ transfer to the animals and to
the animal raw materials through fodders and water.
Herbicides, defoliants and other chemical substances utilised in agriculture
have a direct impact upon vegetation. Beacuse they have a selective action, they
destroy the majority of the plants which grow in the field, except for those
cultivated, affecting a great deal of the wild flora.
The existence of the pesticides’ remanences in the agricultural produces
(leaves, vegetables etc.), whici, to a certain extent, can be explained by the
outrunning their administrative norms, demonstrating some capacities of plants to
absorb and keep in their tissues for a long time the toxic chemical compounds,
fact which leads to the break down of the photosynthesis’ processes and the
reduction of the biological systems’ productivity.
Researches have shown that the utilisation of the pesticides influences all the
living organisms. They accumulate themselves in the normals’tissues having
cancerigenic, embryotoxic, neurotoxic, immunotoxic proprieties modifying the
hormonic system, arousing anaemia and liver diseases.
As for their destination, pesticides can be classified in: fungicides and
bactericides (anorgamic, organic); insecticides (organochlorides,
organophosphoric); acaricides; herbicides; defoliants; growing regulators.
Pesticides have a permanent action upon the animal organism, that’s why
they can produce chronic intoxications, with allergical, neurotoxic, cancerigenic,
teratogenics effects.
- 374 -
F. Heavy metals and metalloids with toxic potential
Fodders’ contamination with heavy metals is a consequence of the

insecticides and fungicides’ utilisation which contain chemical elements in their
composition, of the utilisation of inadequate equipments in the technological
processes, animals’ treatment and the usage of contaminated water and fodders.
The pollution with heavy metal in big concentrations and with toxic
metaloids represente a real threat –water, air- being the frequent ways of leading
the animal and human organism due to the intensive process of industralisation.
Fodders’ pollution through water is done either by using the polluted residual
waters in irrigations or by the powders emitted by various industries or those
generating energy.
Food animal is usually polluted through the consumption of the polluted
fodders or through their selective capacity to concentrate such polluting agents in
the environment.
G. Pathogenic microorganisms producing diseases or parasites, can enter

the animal organism thgough water, eaten fodders, direct contact with infected
animals.
Pathogenic microorganisms act upon animal organism through toxins
(endotoxins, exotoxins) which they secret.
Due to the pathogenic microorganisms, man can catch either a microbial
contagious disease from animals (tuberculosis, anthrax) or a food contamination.
CONCLUSIONS
1. As mentioned above, it’s obvious the great importance of knowing and
preventing the effects of various polluting agents against the environment and
organism, which have a negative impact and cause major structural and
functional changes of vegetation and animals, with repercussion to the
human’s health.
2. Science can’t be benefactress unless it is built on a truly human
consciousness. Science has influenced the great change of the relation
between man and nature.
3. Permanently, there are discovered new polluting agents but the restriction of
the toxic effects and of the quantities of the residues in the animals’ products
rose new and larger responsibilities to the biotechnologists responsible with
the consumers’ protection.
4. The majority of the fodders which presents chemical modifications,
associated with a high quantity of fungi and bacteria, are considered to be the
causes of the low productive results obtained from animals.
- 375 -
BACK
5. In the infested fodder there result produces degradation’ produces of the

organic substratum which increase the pathogenic potential of the food
ingested by the animals.
6. To intessify the growing process of animals it’s necessary to use food
products from which result anorganic residues and gas emanations in a
smaller quantity.
7. The installed disorders at the level of the animal organism are caused by the
feeding-up process with infessed fodders,being well-known the influence of
the toxins upon the tissues and organs.
8. Food technique and the quality of various types of fodders are essential to
obtain healthy animal produces.
9. Animal produces may contain substances transferred from fodders which can
be a threat for the food safety.
10. Important consequences due to the large usage of polluted fodders both to
man and animals determine the search of new solutions for producing and
stocking the fodders of toxic substances in their composition.
11. It’s necessary to pay attention to animal’s nutrition and food, insisting on the
chaim: soil-plant-animal-man.
12. The task towards a step-by-step, but consistent improvement on urban
hygiene conditions is extremely complex and difficult but it deserves the
challenge. This is the only way which might lead to establishing acceptable
living conditions, alleviating human suffering as well as reducing social
expenses and increasing productivity. In this context, it should be noted that
investing in the health of people means investing in the future capital of the
country, in its dynamics and finally in its progress.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Dancea Zoe, Macri A., Maria V., Morar, 2002 - ,,Conclusions on Quality Control Activity of
Feeds Correlated with its Importance in Man and Animal Health Protection’’, Bul. USAMV-
CN;
2. Dancea Zoe, Maria V., Morar. A. Macri, 2003 - ,,The Mycotoxicological Pollution of
Forages and it’s Impact Upon Animal and Human Health’’, 28-th ARA- CONGRESS 3-8
June, Tg. Jiu;
3. Dumitrescu R., Ciobanu I.R, Popescu D., 1998 - ,, Electromycroscopic Study Concerning the
Polluting Factors’Effect on the superficial structure of Phaseolus vulgaris L. and Pisum
sativum’s”, Bul Soc de Biol.cel., nr. 15: 102, Timişoara;
4. Lăcrămioara Ivănescu, Constantin Toma, 2003 - ,,The Influence of Air Pollution Upon the
Plants structure’’, Ed.Fund.,, Andrei Şaguna’’, Constanţa;
5. Toma C., Toniuc Angela, Niţă Mihaela, Aiftimie Anca, Ivănescu Lăcramioara, 1994 - ,,
Morphological and histo-anatomical modifications determinated by the atmosphere pollution
upon the leaves of some species belonging to the families Aceraceae, Fagaceae and
Leguminoasae’’, An.st. Iassy. Univ;
6. * * * www.greenagenda.org;
7. * * * www.cartiagricole.ro;
8. * * * www.icpa.ro
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BACK
RESEARCHES REGARDING THE USE OF SOME

ECOLOGICAL COMBINED FODDERS IN THE
ALIMENTATION OF BROILER CHICKENS
Cristina IONESCU
As a result of the researches carried out by us we can affirrn that the

chickens in the experimental lot Lexp registered superior values compared to those in
the control lot Lc for the live weight and the food consume index. From the economic
point of view, in the experimental lot Lexp, we determined the highest value of the
European efficiency factor (EEF) to be in a percentage of 6.28% higher compared
to the reference lot Lc.
Therefore, the administration regarding the broiler chickens from the
experimental lot Lexp of some recipes of combined fodders without fodder
additives proved to be successful, in the context of out attempts to ensure an
ecological food to this category of birds.
The production of ecological combined fodders has been the desideratum

of nutritionists lately. These specialists are trying to obtain animal products without
the involvement of some fodders or substances that can influence negatively the
quality of these products.
For the time being, the specialists from aviculture do not consider that the
creation of very good products can be achieved without the combined fodders
containing additives.
Researches regarding the production of ecological combined fodders in
the alimentation of broiler chickens in view of containing good productions of meat
and with special organoleptic qualities tend to become a current practice in the
whole world lately.
Our researches belong to this context, having as objective to establish the
productive effect of the combined fodders without fodder additives in the broiler
chickens.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The experiment was organized within S.C AVITOP S.A Iaşi, on a number of
15.850 broiler chickens, one day od, belonging to the commercial hybrid "Ross-
308" , distributed in two lots, of which : a control Lot (Lc), with a number of 7900
chickens, and a different lot Lexp, with 7950 chickens.
Since some targeted indicators, as the dynamics of gain weight, could not
be determined on such a big number of birds, we formed some control groups , each
group for each experiment lot (control group no. 1 and control group no. 2),
summing up 200 chickens/lot. AII the chickens from the control groups were
individualized. The chickens marked that were eliminated during the experiment
- 377 -
were replaced with other chickens, having a body weight similar to the group
average.
The breeding of chickens took place on permanent bedding until the age of 42
days, when they were killed. (table 1)
Table 1. The schema of experiment organization
The experiment lot Lc Lexp

No of meat chickens of one
7.900 cap. 7.950 cap.
day old
Control group No. l No. 2
The number of chickens on a
200 cap. 200 cap.
control group
The period of chicken
0- 42 days
breeding
The characteristics of Combined fodders with Combined fodder without
combined fodders fodder additives fodders additives
Expected indicators:
- the dynamics of gain weight of the studied chickens;
- food consume;
- the losses of numbers and their causes;
- the European Efficiency Factor.
The combined fodders administered were formulated and produced by the

combined fodders factory AviTop S.A Iasi; these combined fodders were
granulated; the nutritive characteristics of these fodders were in conformity with the
Ross 308 broiler requirements (table 2).
- 378 -
Table 2 The administered combined fodders
Starter Grower Finisher

Raw materials (1-10 days) (11-25 days) (26-42 days)
Lc Lexp Lc Lexp Lc Lexp
Corn 44,34 44,60 44,52 44,76 40,16 40,26
Soya groats 23,95 23,95 19,17 19,17 12,97 12,97
Full fat soya 15,58 15,58 25,02 25,02 26,67 26,67
Corn gluten 7,00 7,00 4,50 4,50 4,00 4,00
Barley - - - - 10,00 10,00
Fish flour 2,00 2,00 - - - -
Molasses 2,00 2,00 2,00 2,00 2,00 2,00
Monocalcium phosphate 1,62 1,62 1,61 1,61 1,46 1,46
Calcium carbonate 1,37 1,37 1,29 1,29 1,26 1,26
Premix PT 0,60 0,60 0,60 0,60 0,60 0,60
Rhodiment 0,56 0,56 0,51 0,51 0,39 0,39
L-Lizină HCl ADM 0,34 0,34 0,16 0,16 0,03 0,03
Salt 0,14 0,14 0,20 0,20 0,18 0,18
Colina 0,12 0,12 0,10 0,10 0,08 0,08
Bioplus 2B 0,10 - - - - -
Baking soda 0,08 0,08 0,08 0,08 0,10 0,10
BIOSAF - - 0,08 - - -
AVATEC (lasalocid) 0,06 - 0,06 - - -
KEMZYME MS dry 0,05 - 0,05 - 0,05 -
MYCOSORB 0,05 - 0,05 - 0,05 -
L-Treonină ADM 0,04 0,04 - - - -
TOTAL 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00
Nutritive characteristics
EM kcal/kg 3050 3055 3175 3178 3225 3228
PB % 24,00 24,00 22,00 22,00 20,00 20,00
GB % 5,82 5,82 7,66 7,66 7,89 7,89
CB % 3,62 3,63 3,74 3,75 3,90 3,90
Ca % 1,00 1,00 0,90 0,90 0,85 0,85
P disponibil % 0,50 0,50 0,45 0,45 0,42 0,42
Na % 0,16 0,16 0,16 0,16 0,16 0,16
Cl % 0,22 0,22 0,22 0,22 0,22 0,22
Lysine % 1,44 1,44 1,25 1,25 1,05 1,05
Lysine -digestible poultry % 1,32 1,32 1,13 1,13 0,94 0,94
Metionine % 0,96 0,96 0,85 0,85 0,71 0,71
Metionine digestible poultry % 0,93 0,93 0,82 0,83 0,69 0,69
Met.+Cis. % 1,36 1,36 1,21 1,22 1,04 1,04
Met.+Cis. digestible poultry % 1,27 1,27 1,13 1,13 0,96 0,96
Treonine % 0,93 0,93 0,82 0,82 0,75 0,75
Triptophan % 0,26 0,26 0,22 0,25 0,23 0,23
- 379 -
OBTAINED RESULTS
a). Bodyweights
At the end of the experimental period, when the chickens reached the age
of 42 days,the differences of gain weight were of 5.73% in favor of lot Lexp,
compared to the comparative lot (Lc) (1854.45 +/- 15.55 from the Le lot and
1960.85 +/- 15.89 at the Lexp lot) (table 3).
Table 3. The Hve weight of chickens at the age of 42 days
The experiment lot n x ±s x (g) V%

LC 200 1854,45 ± 15,55 11,85
Lexp 200 1960,85 ± 15,89 11,46
Fisher test LCvs. Lexp: F̂ = 22,90>F0,001 (1,398) 10,83.
The statistic differences are very significant e (***).
The variation coefficient was under 20%, which indicates for this
parameter a middle homogeneity (V%= 11,46-11,85).
By calculating the Fisher test, the fact that there were very significant
differences between the two experiment lots was emphasized.
b) Food consume
The degree of food consume was in aceordance with the obtained body
weight. As we know, there is a correlation between the speed of growth and the
specific food consume, in the meaning that the animals with better growth
performance register smaller specific consumes and vice-versa.
At the end of the 42 days of breeding regarding the studied chickens, the
specific consume of food was calculated , being of 1.862 kg c.f (combined
fodders)/kg increase at the Lc lot, and 11.853 kg c.f. (combined fodders) /kg increase
in the Lexp lot, this one being 0.48 % smaller than the control lot Lc ( table 4).
Table 4. The specific food consume
Experiment Total increase Average consume IC (kg ±% compared

lots (kg/ chicken) (kg/ chicken) n.c./kg spor) to Lc
LC 1,815 3,380 1,862 -
Lexp 1,921 3,560 1,853 -0,48
c) The loss in number and its causes
The losses in number, during the whole period of the experiment was of
6,15% in the Lc lot and 6,10% in the Lexp lot; these values are slightly higher than
- 380 -
the normal limits provided by the norms of hybrid growth taken into account
(table 5).
Table 5 The loss in number
Number at the beginning Number at the end of

Experiment Losses
of the experiment the experiment %
lots (chickens)
(chickens) (chickens)
LC 7.900 7.414 486 6,15
Lexp 7.950 7.465 485 6,10
Most of the losses were mostly registered in the first week of life of the
chickens, being of accidental nature. These causes that determined these losses
were the enteritis and the coccidioses. During the period that determined these
losses no specific diseases were registered.
d) The European efficiency factor

At the end of the experimental period, when the chickens were 42 days old,
the European efficiency factor was calculated with the help of which the
efficiency of the breeding of studied broiler chickens from the experimental lots
was evaluated.
As a calculation basis for determining EEF we used: the age, in days, of
chickens' killing ; the average live weight registered at the age of killing/lot (kg);
the viability discovered/lot (%) and the conversion index of the food (IC c.f./kg
increase). In table 6 we present the calculation elements and the values obtained
for EEF, established based on the formula below:
viability (%) × weight (kg)
EEF= × 100 .
Age (days) × IC (kg cf/kg increase)
Table 6. European efficiency factor
IC
Age Live weight
Experiment lots Mortality (%) (kg cf./kg EEF
(days) average (kg)
increase)
LC 42 1,855 6,15 1,862 222,61
Lexp 42 1,961 6,10 1,853 236,60
Analyzing the values calculated for EEF, we can observe that, in the control
lot, we registered a lower value in a percentage of 6,28% compared to the one
obtained for the Lexp lot, this fact being especially due to the increased weight of
the killed chickens from the Lexp lot, higher in a percentage of 5,71% compared to
those in the control lot (Lc).
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
1. Appreciating the weight of the studied chickens, we discovered that, at the age
of 42 days old chickens, the standard value (2400 g/chicken) was in a percentage of
22,73% bigger compared to the average body weight of the chickens from the
control lot Le and in a percentage of 18,9% bigger compared to the average of the
chickens from the experimental lot Lexp.
2. The accumulated consume of food (g/chicken) was bigger with 5,32% in the
experimental lot (Lexp) compared to the control lot (Lc) tightly correlated with the
evolution of the body weight; in exchange, the specific consume of food (kg c.f/kg
increase) in this lot was reduced with 0,48% compared to the control lot (Lc)
3. The total losses of numbers represented 6,15% from the control lot Lc and
6.10% at the experimental lot Lexp. Most of the losses were registered, especially, in
the first week of life of chickens, being of accidental nature. Other causes that
determined these losses were enteritis and the coccidioses. Along the period of
observation we did not register specific diseases.
4. The established values for EEF, in both lots, were situated over the level of 200
(222,61 in the control lot Lc and 236,60 in the experimental lot Lexp) In the
experimental lot Lexp, we registered a higher value with 6,28% compared to the
calculated value for the control lot Lc
5. In conclusion, we can appreciate the fact that, the administration in the broiler
chickens studied from the experimental lot Lexp of some recipes of combined
fodders without fodder additives proved to be successful, in the context of our
attempt to ensure an ecological food for this category of birds.
REFERENCES
1. BORMAN, K.N. and col., 1999 – British Poultry Science, vol. 40, CARFAX, UK.
2. FERKET, P.R., 2004 – Alternatives to antibiotics in poultry productions: responses,
practical experience and recommendations. Proceeding of Alltech’s 20th Annual Symposium.
Nottingham University Press, pag. 53-67.
3. LARBIER, M. şi LECLERCQ, B., 1994 – Nutriţia şi alimentaţia păsărilor. Editura Alutus D,
Bucuteşti.
4. PANĂ, C. şi CHIHAIA I.A., 2004 – Rolul nutriţionistului în asigurarea calităţii şi
biosecurităţii nutreţurilor combinate. Rev. NutriCom, Nr. 2 iunie, pag. 4-5.
5. ROSEN, G.D., 2003 – Pronutrient antibiotic replacement standards discussed. Feedstuffs
75(30):11-13. pp. 16.
6. ROSEN, G.D., 2004 – Optimizing the replacement of pronutrient antibiotics in poultry
nutrition. Proceeding of Alltech’s 20th Annual Symposium. Nottingham University Press,
pag. 53-67.
7. SIMEANU, D., 2004 – Biostimulatori în alimentaţia păsărilor. Editura Alfa, Iaşi.
8. VACARU-OPRIŞ, I. şi col., 2002 - Tratat de avicultură, vol. II. Editura Ceres, Bucureşti.
- 382 -
BACK
AMMONIA NITROGEN AND PROTEIN NITROGEN DYNAMICS

FROM RUMINAL FLUID UNDER INFLUENCE OF SOME
COMPLEMENTARY NUTRITIONAL FACTORS
Jana STĂNCULEŢ, D. DRINCEANU, H. SĂRĂNDAN,

Rodica CĂPRIŢĂ, A. CAPRIŢĂ, I. LUCA, I. BENCSIK
The experiments were carried out at a private dairy farm on a

Holstein-Friesian cow fitted with rumen fistula. The content of ammonia nitrogen
and protein nitrogen in the rumen fluid was established consecutively to
successive addition to a basis diet of some nutritional factors: slow release urea,
sugar, live yeasts and premix. The basis diet ensures the formation of ammonia
nitrogen in the rumen fluid within close limits of variation, between 6.25 and
14.14 mg N / 100 mL rumen fluid, and protein nitrogen ranging between 32.81
and 41.25 mg N / 100 mL rumen fluid. After administering the foregoing
nutritional factors in 5 periods of 14 days each, we observed a better utilization
of ammonia nitrogen by rumen microsymbionts, and an increase of the protein
nitrogen values.
INTRODUCTION
The level of ammonia is critical for efficient microbial fermentation of
feed. The critical ammonia level in the rumen for efficient microbial growth on
different substrates is likely to vary according to the fermentability of the substrate.
Rumen ammonia nitrogen should be at least 3-5 mg/ 100 ml rumen fluid. Synthesis of
microbial protein and growth of ruminal microbes depends on adequate energy and
nitrogen for synthesis and assimilation of amino acids. Simultaneous ruminal
degradation and utilization of dietary protein and carbohydrate are necessary for
optimal microbial growth and protein synthesis (1, 2, 3, 4).
This study presents the ammonia nitrogen and protein nitrogen
dynamics in rumen fluid after administering slow release urea, sugar, live yeast
and vitamin-mineral premix to the basis diet.
The experiments were carried out at a privat dairy farm on a Holstein-

Friesian cow fitted with rumen cannula. The cannula was surgically inserted into
the rumen six weeks before the experiment to allow postoperatory period to
recover.
Previously and during the experiment the cow was fed with a diet
consisted of: gramineae hay and concentrated mixture (maize, triticale and sun
flower meal).
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The content of ammonia nitrogen and protein nitrogen in the rumen

fluid was established under the influence of nutritional factors in the following
periods:
- Period I – basis diet (BD) with 12.46 UFL; 1242 g PDIN,
and 1350g PDIE;
- Period II – basis diet + 160 g slow release urea (Optigen)
which ensured 1398 g PDIN and 1392 g PDIE.
- Period III: basis diet + 160 g slow release urea+320 g sugar;
- Period IV: basis diet + 160 g slow release urea+320 g sugar
+10g live yeasts (Yea Sacc 1026);
- Period V: basis diet + 160 g slow release urea+320 g sugar
+10g live yeasts + 50 g premix.
Each period lasted 14 days. After each period of feeding the same diet
and supplement, rumen fluid was collected during 3 days. 8 samples of rumen
fluid were taken daily at: 8 a.m., 9 a.m., 10 a.m., 11 a.m., 14 p.m., 17 p.m., 20
p.m., and 2 a.m.
Ammonia nitrogen and protein nitrogen content in the rumen fluid
samples were determined in the laboratory of Animal Nutrition Department.
Ammonia nitrogen was determined by steam distillation and protein nitrogen was
determined by the Kjeldhal method on the precipitated protein.

The obtained results for ammonia nitrogen are presented in Table 1 and
Diagram 1, and for the protein nitrogen in Table 2 and Diagram 2. Both tables
present the average data of the samples from each period.
Table 1
Ammonia nitrogen values in the 5 experimental periods (mg N/ 100mL rumen fluid)
Sampling
hour Period I Period II Period III Period IV Period V
8 7.86 8.30 7.54 8.16 6.89
9 14.14 42.92 39.70 37.27 35.91
10 12.92 36.61 32.67 27.26 27.78
11 8.20 27.73 25.95 21.03 21.42
14 7.54 12.24 8.78 11.55 12.57
17 7.34 9.07 7.59 8.02 9.61
20 8.34 10.68 9.82 9.02 8.50
2 6.25 8.36 7.71 7.74 7.78
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Table 2
Protein nitrogen values in the 5 experimental periods (mg N/ 100mL rumen fluid)
Sampling
hour Period I Period II Period III Period IV Period V
8 40.73 50.06 54.13 48.19 52.04
9 41.85 54.09 56.71 58.12 65.09
10 38.41 46.15 50.41 51.79 56.96
11 40.27 46.25 51.70 51.38 56.51
14 37.71 53.39 52.01 53.35 58.68
17 32.90 48.35 47.14 48.78 54.63
20 39.08 53.71 52.45 52.78 58.58
2 32.81 44.05 48.17 49.30 54.23
According to these values following appreciations can be made:

- The basis diet ensures the formation of ammonia nitrogen in the
rumen fluid within close variation limits, 6.25-14.14 mg N /100 mL rumen fluid.
The highest values of ammonia nitrogen, 14.14 and 12.92 mg N, appeared in the
first two hours after morning feeding. After that, during all day and night, the
ammonia nitrogen values varied between 7-8 mg N / 100 mL. Table 2 shows that
the basis diet ensures a protein nitrogen concentration between 32.81 and 41.25
mg / 10 mL rumen fluid. The synthesis of protein nitrogen in a long time process,
the smallest values are obtained at 8-9 hours after ratio administering: 32.9 mg at
17 p.m. and 32.81 mg at 2 a.m.
- The urea supplementation (160g slow release-urea/ day) in the
second period can induce after one hour an intense increasing of ammonia
nitrogen. The value is 3 times higher than in the first hour of the first period, and
2.8 times higher after 2 hours. After that the value is decreasing slowly. After 6
hours from morning feeding (14 p.m.) the N-NH3 concentration is near the
reference value. The protein nitrogen value has a reduced fluctuation (44.05 and
54.09 mg), the peak apeared at 3-6 hours after feeding: 53.39 mg at 14 p.m. and
53.71 mg al 20 p.m.
- In the third period 320 g sugars were added in the morning
feeding to offer to the ruminal microorganisms sugars besides ammonia nitrogen.
The result of sugar administering can be observed when comparing the ammonia
nitrogen values from this period with those from the previous experimental
period. So, the difference between the values at 10 a.m. in period 2 and period 3 is
10.8 %. The difference between the values at 14 p.m. is higher, respectively
28.3%. These observations confirm that the rumen microorganisms use the
ammonia nitrogen for microbial protein synthesis. This affirmation is sustained by
the values of protein nitrogen, which are with 4.8% to 11.8 % higher
comparatively to the same time in the second period.
- 385 -
50.00
45.00
mg N/ 100 mL rumen fluid
40.00
35.00 Period I
30.00 Period II
25.00 Period III
20.00 Period IV
15.00 Period V
10.00
5.00
0.00
8 9 10 11 14 17 20 2
Sampling hour
Diagram 1 – Dynamics of ammonia nitrogen during the five experimental periods
- 386 -
70.00
mg N/ 100 mL rumen fluid
60.00
50.00 Period I
40.00 Period II
Period III
30.00 Period IV
20.00 Period V
10.00
0.00
8 9 10 11 14 17 20 2
Sampling hour
Diagram 2 – Dynamics of protein nitrogen during the five experimental periods
- 387 -
BACK
- Knowing the influence of live yeasts upon rumen activity of some

bacteria we have supplemented the basis diet with 10 g yeast (Yea Sacc 1026). As
seen in Table 1, and more suggestive in Diagram 1, the tendency is to level the N-
NH3 concentrations. Comparatively to period III, after 3 hours from morning
feeding the content of N-NH3 from ruminal fluid decreases with 6.1 to 19 %. The
effect of yeast administering determines a constant increase of the protein
nitrogen, which is with 2.1-2.5 % higher than in period III.
- In the last period of the experiment in addition to all nutritional
factors mentioned before a vitamin-mineral premix is added in proportion of 1%
to the concentrated mixture. The influence of premix upon N-NH3 is not as
relevant as in the protein nitrogen case. The values of nitrogen protein increased
constantly with 8-12 % comparatively to period IV.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The urea supplementation (160g slow release-urea/ day) in the
second period can induce after one hour an intense increase of the ammonia
nitrogen (42.92 mg N), while the protein nitrogen fluctuation on the whole was
reduced (44.05 and 54.09 mg).
2. Sugar administration determines at 14 p.m. a 28.3 % rise of
ammonia nitrogen, comparatively to the previous period, confirming that the
ammonia nitrogen was processed by rumen microorganisms.
3. The yeast administering determines at 3 hours after the morning
feeding a reduction of the N-NH3, content with a 6.1 to 19 % and a constant
increase of the protein nitrogen, which is with 2.1-2.5 % higher than in period III.
4. In the last experimental period the addition of all nutritional
factors increased the value of protein nitrogen with 8-12 % comparatively to
period IV.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bach A., Calsamiglia S., Stern M.D. (2005), Nitrogen metabolism in the rumen, J. Dairy
Sci., vol. 88, pag. E9-E21.
2. Cameron M.R., Klusmeyer T.H., Lynch G.L., Clark J.H., Nelson D.R. (1991), Effects of
urea and starch on rumen fermentation, nutrient passage to duodenum, and performance of cows, J.
Dairy Sci., vol. 74, pag. 1321-1336.
3. Drinceanu D.(2000), Biotehnologii în alimentaţia animalelor, Ed. Eurobit, Timişoara.
4. Galo E., Emanuele S.M., Sniffen C.J., White J.H. Knapp J.R. (2003), Effects of a
polymer-coated urea product on nitrogen metabolism in lactating Holstein dairy cattle, J. Dairy Sci.,
vol. 86, pag. 2154-2162.
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BACK
THE INFLUENCE OF FATS NATURE ADDED IN

COMPOUND FEEDS UPON DUCKLINGS PRODUCTIVE
AND SLAUGHTERING PERFORMANCES
D. DRĂGOTOIU, Monica MARIN, Elena POGURSCHI
The aimed objective within the research resided in the analysis of

different fat sources effect upon the breeding and slaughtering performances for
ducklings. The ducklings weight gain has been influenced by the used fat source,
the least gains being registered for the stocks which have used as formula
addition the lard. The specific ducklings consumption of compound feed has
been manifested an improvement tendency for the stocks which have consumed
sunflower oil or fats mixture. Ducklings slaughtering benefit hasn’t been
influenced by the type of fat introduced in the compound feed.
Animal and vegetal fats are the most concentrated energy sources for
poultry feeding , the vegetal ones having a high content in unsaturated fatty acids,
thus, being characterized by a very high digestibility.
Out of the vegetal fats used in the compound feed for ducklings,
sunflower oil is more often used, having a digestibility of about 96%. The animal
fat used in compound feed for ducks is represented by lard, which is characterized
by a high content in saturated fatty acids, the most important being the myristic
acid, the palmitic acid and the stearic acid .
Scaife J.R. (2002) has remarked that the fats use in poultry feed causes
productive performances and carcasses quality improvements.
The research made during the latest years concerning the human health
proves a deeper concern regarding Ω3, Ω6 fatty acids and trans-unsaturated fatty
acids. There has been remarked that the faty acids report Ω6/Ω3 for human beings
may become more important than the total quantity of Ω3 fatty acids (Whitehead
C., 2001). The use of oil (Nir I., 1998) in poultry feeding led to a very effective
decrease of meat Ω6/Ω3 report. The aimed objective within the research resided
in the analysis of different fat sources effect upon the breeding and slaughtering
performances for ducklings.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

In order to aim at the proposed objectives, the experiment was organized
in the biological basis of the Biology and Animal Nutrition Institute – Baloteşti,
the biological material being represented by 360 ducklings, meat hybrid,
distributed in 6 experimental variants, uniformous on account of body weight and
of sexes report. The experimental scheme is presented in table 1.
- 389 -
Table 1
Experimental scheme
Specification MU Experimental stocks
E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6
Ducklings no. head 60 60 60 60 60 60
Experiment days 49 49 49 49 49 49
period
Starter 0-3 weeks
feeding PB % 22 22 22 22 22 22
EM kcal/kg 2900 2900 2900 2900 2900 2900
Rearing-finisher 3-10 weeks
Feeding PB % 19 19 19 19 19 19
EM kcal/kg 2900 2900 2900 2900 2900 2900
Fat added to Mixture Mixture Vegetal
the compound Animal of Vegetal Animal of fat
feed fat vegetal fat fat vegetal
fat+ fat+
animal animal
fat fat
- starter % 2 2 2 2 2 2
- rearing- % 1 1 1 1 1 1
finisher
The breeding has been made in soil boxes, according to standard breeding
technology, the maintenance conditions being identical and the feeding ad
libitum. The formulas for compound feed used in the experiment were isoprotean
and isocaloric during the breeding period such as: starter (0-3 weeks) – 22% raw
protein and 2900 kcal/kg metabolic energy and during the breeding-finisher
period (3-10 weeks) – 19% raw protein and 2900 kcal/kg metabolic energy .
The structure of formula used during the starter stage has been
represented by 56% maize, 34,8% soya meal, 4% fish meal, 0,8% calcium
carbonate, 0,9% dicalcic phosphate, 0,1% DL-methyonine, 0,1% choline premix,
0,3% salt, 1% premix. During the stage of breeding–finisher, the formula has
been made of 63,7% maize, 30% soya meal, 2% fish meal, 0,8% calcium
carbonate, 0,9% dicalcic phosphate, 1% DL-methyonine, 0,1% choline premix,
0,3% salt, 1% premix. The difference between variants resides in different fat
sources used in compound feed formulas, such as sunflower oil, lard and mixture
of 50% oil and 50% lard, in proportion of 2% in starter formula and of 1% in
formula of breeding-finisher.
During the experimental period, we analysed the productive
performances, the evolution of the body weight, the average daily gains and total
gains, the compound feed consumption, as well as the slaughtering performances
recorded by ducklings at the age of 7 weeks, when there have been made
- 390 -
checking slaughterings in order to establish the slaghtering benefit and the fat
layers deposition in the carcass.

In table 2, there are presented results concerning the evolution of
experimental stocks ducklings body weight. We remarked, that at the age of 14
days, ducklings average body weight registers values comprised between 528 g
(E1 stock) and 639 g (E6 stock), observing significant differences for males,
respectively 426 g (E1 stock) and 553 g (E6 stock). For females a similar situation
has been observed. The average weight of stocks fed with vegetal oils (E1, E4
stocks) has been lower than the one of those fed with lard and fats mixture (E2,
E3, E5, E6 stocks).
Table 2
The evolution of the ducklings body weight during the breeding period
Experimental Sex Initial Average Average weight
stock average weight at 2 at 7 weeks
weight (g) weeks (g) (g)
M 528±6,89 2285±37,72
E1 stock F 426±8,47 1962±33,87
M+F 45±1,40 478±8,68 2123±31,83
M 554±7,96 a 2295±29,92 a
E2 stock F 460±7,79 a 1987±24,52 a
M+F 45±1,44 508±8,29 a 2141±28,55 a
M 549±5,21 a 2320±18,86 a
E3 stock F 441±8,50 a 2004±39,32 a
M+F 45±1,61 495±8,71 a 2163±32,09 a
M 564±5,57 a 2336±26,90 a
E4 stock F 454±10,73 a 1985±42,21 a
M+F 45±1,38 508±9,72 a 2160±45,69 a
M 555±6,50 a 2372±59,91 a
E5 stock F 468±7,41 a 2092±34,31 a
M+F 45±1,56 511±7,72 a 2232±31,99 a
M 639±6,65 a 2440±18,94 a
E6 stock F 553±7,20 a 2102±18,84 a
M+F 45±1,42 596±7,58 a 2271±26,02 a
a= significant differences (p≤0,05)
At the age of 7 weeks, there has been achieved ducklings average body
weights comprised between 2285 g (E1 stock) and 2440 g (E6 stock) for males
and 1962 g (E1 stock) and 2102 g (E5, E6 stocks). The ducklings stocks, which
had in the formula of compound feed fats mixture, have recorded almost similar
weights (unsignificant differences) to the ones of the stocks which were fed with
- 391 -
vegetal fat, because of the balanced report between the saturated and unsaturated
fatty acids .
The average daily gains have been comprised between 42,4 g/day for E1
experimental stock and 45,4 g/day for E6 experimental stock and the total gain
achieved by ducklings has been comprised between 2078 g/period for E1
experimental stock and 2225 g/period for E6 experimental stock (table 3).
Table 3
The ducklings weight gain recorded during the experimental period
Specification The stock
E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6
Total gain 2078 2092 2117 2146 2185 2225
g/period
Average gain 42,4 42,7 43,2 43,8 44,6 45,4
g/day
Difference from 100 100,7 101,8 101,9 105,2 107,0
the control
stock %
From the data analysis concerning body weight evolution and daily
average gains, we notice that the best results were obtained with the the
experimental stocks which had in the formula sunflower oil, results which have
been confirmed by other researchers too (Hill F.W., 2001).
The compound feed consumption for the achievement of one kg gain in
living body weight (specific consumption of compound feed) has reached the
following values 2,92 kg compound feed/kg gain at the E6 experimental stock and
3,05 kg feed/kg gain for the experimental stock E1 (table 4).
Table 4
Compound feed, raw protein and metabolisable energy consumption for the
achievement of one kg living weight gain
Specification The stock
E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6
Compound feed kg 3,05 3,02 2,98 3,00 2,95 2,92
% 100,0 99,0 97,7 98,3 96,7 95,7
Raw protein g 628 622 613 618 607 601
% 100,0 99,0 97,6 98,4 96,6 95,7
Metabolisable energy kcal 8886 8799 8682 8740 8595 8507
% 100,0 99,0 97,7 98,3 96,7 95,7
The ducklings, in the experimental stocks which have consumed lard, had
the bigger consumptions, such as 3,0 kg/kg gain (E4 stock) and 3,05 kg/kg gain
(E1 stock).
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Concerning the specific consumption of compound feed of ducklings,

which had an addition of fats mixture to the formula (50% oil and 50% lard), we
noticed a tendency of improvement, respectively 3,02 kg/kg gain (E2 stock) and
2,95 kg/kg gain (E5 stock).
The most favourable results have been recorded for the stocks, where it
has been added to the formula sunflwer oil, such as 2,98 kg/kg gain (E3 stock)
and 2,92 kg/kg gain (E6 stock), noticing a lowering of specific consumption for
these stocks with 4,3%.
The consumption of raw protein in order to achieve one kg gain is
comprised between 601 g protein/kg gain (E6 stock, with addition of vegetal fat)
and 628 g protein/kg gain (E1 stock with addition of animal fat).
The consumption of metabolisable energy is comprised between the
following values 8507 kcal/kg gain (E6 stock) and 8886 kcal/kg gain (E1 stock).
In table 5, there is presented the benefit at slaughtering of ducklings
according to sex, as well as the fat layer deposition in the carcass.
Tablel 5
Slaughtering benefit and fat deposition in carcass for ducklings
Experimental stock Sex Slaughtering benefit Raw fat
(%) (% from DM)
E1 M 75,60 13,4
E2 M 76,20 12,4
E3 M 75,70 9,4
E4 M 75,40 16,0
E5 M 76,00 15,9
E6 M 76,35 12,4
E1 F 75,80 15,3
E2 F 75,45 12,2
E3 F 76,60 10,2
E4 F 76,80 16,2
E5 F 76,14 11,1
E6 F 76,65 10,0
E1 M+F 75,70 14,3
E2 M+F 75,80 12,3
E3 M+F 76,15 9,8
E4 M+F 76,10 16,1
E5 M+F 76,07 13,5
E6 M+F 76,50 11,2
The benefit of the eviscerated carcass is comprised between the following

values 75,40-76,80%, not being able to record significant differences between
variants, no matter the nature of the used fat source
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BACK
Concerning the fat layer in the carcass, we remark that the lowest values
have been obtained with the experimental stocks, where we used additions of
vegetal fats, 9,4% raw fat from dry substance (E3 stock) for males and 10% (E6
stock) for females, and for the stocks with addition of animal fat we registered
the following values 13,4% (E1 stock) for males and 16,2% (E4 stock) for
females.
CONCLUSIONS
►At the age of 14 days, the average weight of ducklings stocks fed with
formulas of compound feed where it has been added vegetal oil was bigger in
comparison with the ducklings which consumed lard or fats mixture.
► At the age of 7 days, the body weight of ducklings has been with 1,8
up to 6,9% bigger for the stocks which have used veget fats in comparison with
the ones which have used animal fats.
► The ducklings weight gain has been influenced by the used fat source,
the least gains being registered for the stocks which have used as formula addition
the lard, such as 42,4 g/day (E1 stock) in comparison with 45,4 g/day (E6 stock).
► The specific ducklings consumption of compound feed has been
comprised between 3,05 kg/kg gain (E1stock) and 2,92 kg/kg gain (E6 stock),
remarking an improvement tendency for the stocks which have consumed
sunflower oil or fats mixture.
►Ducklings slaughtering benefit hasn’t been influenced by the type of fat
introduced in the compound feed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Georgescu Gh. şi col. (2000) – Tratat de producerea, procesarea şi valorificarea cărnii.
Ed.Ceres, Bucureşti, 2000.
2. Halga P. şi col. (2005) – Nutriţie şi alimentaţie animală. Ed. Alfa, Iaşi.
3. Hill F.W., Dansky L.M. (2001) – Studies of the energy requirements of chickens. The
effect of dietary energy level on growth and feed consumption. Poultry Science, 33, 112-
119.
4. Nir I. (1998) – Effect of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acid concentration on performance,
fat deposition and carcass fatty acid composition of broiler chickens. Poultry Science, 1,
1504-1512.
5. Scaife J.R., Moyo J., campbell V. (2002) – Effect of different dietary supplimental fats
and oils on tissue fatty acid composition and growth on female broilers. British Poultry
Science, 35, 107-118.
6. Stoica I., Stoica Liliana (2002) – Bazele nutriţiei şi alimentaţiei animalelor. Ed. Coral
Sanivet, Bucureşti.
7. Whitehead C. (2001) – Essential fatty acids in poultry nutrition. Fats in Animal Nutrition.
London U.K.
8. *** (2000) - Poultry International, 71, 133-140.
- 394 -
BACK
RESEARCHES REGARDING FOOD VALORIFICATION

DURING LACTATION FOR SHEEP WHICH ARE
SPECIALIZED IN MILK PRODUCTION
Daniela JITARIU, Violeta SIMIONESCU
In Romania, the creation and growth of some specialized in milk production

sheep population represents an important link of profitableness of this species; for
this purpose, at I.C.D.O.C. Palas Constanta a such sheep population has been
created. In consideration of, the sheep which are specialized in milk production have
a similar metabolism with milk cows, it is necessary to elaborate some specific feed
technologies of these sheep, in order to emphasize their maximum genetic potential.
In this context, the present work-paper studies the influence of experimental feed
rations on nutrients consumption during lactation, for a more efficient and constant
utilization of energetic substances (expressed in Milk Nutritive Unit- UNL), and
especially of proteic substances (expressed by Digestable Protein- PDIN and PDIE)
from forage by the animal organism.

The reserches of this work-paper were made at I.C.D.O.C. Palas Constanţa, the
biological material being represented by lactation sheep, taken from milk
production sheep population. The experiment duration was 215 days, and the 20
sheep of the experimental plot were feeded with feed rations in accordance to
forage standard established by Burlacu, Gh. and colab. (1998). In the
administration of sheep rations, have been used volume forages (maize forage
silos, whole plant, harvested in milk stage and lucerne hay) and concentrated feed
(corn bean and soybean oil meal); their row chemical composition is presented in
table 1. Based on row chemical composition determinated in the forages
biochemical laboratory from I.C.D.O.C. Palas and on digestibility coefficients
from specialized literature (BURLACU, GH., 1983), the nutrients nutritive value
was calculated and expressed in specific parametres of food standarization at
ruminants, using the values established by Burlacu, Gh. and colab. (1998), all
these being presented in table 2.
Table 1
Row chemical composition of used nutrients (personal determinations)
Forage The nutrients content (g/kg)
DM OS CP EE CF CNFE CA
Corn silo 300 282 24 10 76 172 18
1000 939 82 32 253 572 61
Lucerne hay C1; 875 797 139 23 290 345 78
Beginning flowering 1000 911 159 26 332 394 89
Corn bean 860 847 94 35 21 697 13
1000 985 109 41 24 811 15
Soybean oil meal 900 835 451 14 64 306 65
1000 928 501 16 71 340 72
- 395 -
Table 2
Nutritive value of experimental nutrients (Burlacu, Gh., 1998)
Conţinutul în nutrienţi (g / g SU)
Forage DM MNU PDIN PDIE SSU Ca P
(g) (g) (g) (g) (g)
Corn silo 300 0.31 14 20 0.39 1.30 0.70
1000 1.05 46 66 1.30 4.30 2.30
Lucerne hay 875 0.5 74 51 1.19 12.00 1.75
1000 0.65 85 58 1.36 14.10 2.00
Corn bean 860 1.23 83 100 - 0.26 2.50
1000 1.43 96 116 - 0.30 2.90
Soybean oil meal 900 1.23 293 180 - 3.20 5.80
1000 1.37 326 200 - 3.60 6.40
*Note: for mineral balance were used :-calcium carbonate: 98 % DM; 38% Ca ;-bicalcic
phosphate: 98 % DM; 18% Ca; 23% P;-salt (NaCl): 92 % DM.
THE RESEARCHES RESULT

The forage standards have taken into consideration the sheep weight (50 kg),
lambs weight increase during suckling period (250 g/day) and milk production
after lambs weaning (BURLACU, GH. and colab., 1998) (table 3.).
Table 3
Used forage standard (Burlacu, Gh. and colab., 1998)
Requirements in enery and nutrients / day
Lactation period DM (kg) MNU DIP Ca P DIP/
(g/kgSU) (g/kgSU) (g/kgSU) MNU(g)
0-3 weeks max. 2.50 1.51 155 11.9 6.0 1.3
4-6 weeks max. 2.90 1.64 154 10.4 5.4 94
7-8 weeks max. 2.45 1.39 124 8.3 7.3 89
1-2 months after max. 2.30 1.44 144 9.9 5.0 100
lambs weaning
Last 3 months max.2.20 1.29 122 8.0 4.3 95
of lactation
During milking period, at the forage standards establishing was taken into
consideration the sheep milk production, respectively 1.0 l/ day in the first two
months and 0.6-0.7 l in the last 3 months of sheep milking. Based on the
established food standards were made the specific food rations for each
researched period. In 0-3 weeks lactation period, was used the forage ration
presented in table 4.
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Table 4
The forage ration used in 0-3 weeks lactation period
DM MNU PDIN PDIE Ca P IDP/
Forage kg kg g/kg g/kg g/kg g/kg g/kg MNU
DM DM DM DM DM -g
Corn silo 0.88 0.26 0.27 11.96 17.16 1.12 0.60 -
Lucerne hay 0.32 0.28 0.18 23.70 16.24 3.95 0.56 -
Bean corn 0.44 0.38 0.54 36.48 44.08 0.11 1.10 -
Soybean oil meal 0.42 0.38 0.52 123.88 76.0 1.37 2.43 -
Salt 0.01 0.01 - - - - - -
Dicalcicphosphat 0.02 0.02 - - - 6.4 3.6 -
Total - 1.33 1.51 196.58 154.15 12.95 8.29 102.08
Standard - max.2.5 1.51 155 11.9 6.0 103
In 4-6 weeks of lactation was used the forage ration presented in table 5.
Table 5
DM DM DM DM DM -g
Corn silo 1.21 0.36 0.37 16.56 23.76 1.55 0.83 -
Lucerne hay 0.58 0.51 0.33 43.35 29.58 7.19 1.02 -
Bean corn 0.48 0.41 0.58 39.36 48.96 0.12 1.19 -
Soybean oil meal 0.29 0.26 0.36 84.76 52.,00 0.94 1.66 -
Salt 0.01 0.01 - - - - - -
Dicalcic phosphate 0.01 0.01 - - - 3.20 1.80 -
Total - 1.56 1.64 184.03 154.30 13.0 6.50 94.08
Standard - max2.9 1.64 154 10.4 5.4 94
The forage ration of 7-8 weeks of lactation is presented in table 6.
Table 6
DM DM DM DM DM -g
Corn silo 1.34 0.40 0.42 18.40 26.40 1.72 0.92 -
Lucerne hay 0.74 0.65 0.42 55.25 37.70 9.16 1.3 -
Bean corn 0.31 0.2 0.39 25.92 35.32 0.08 0.91 -
Soybean oil meal 0.13 0.12 0.16 39.12 24.0 0.43 0.77 -
Salt 0.01 0.0,1 - - - - - -
Total - 1.47 1.39 138.69 123.42 17.79 7.5 88.79
Standard - max.2.45 1.39 124 8.30 7.3 89
- 397 -
As part of the forage rations set up during lambs suckling period, the
percentage of volume forages was between 40.61% and 71.43% and concentrated
feed represented 54.14% and 26.53% from ration dry matter. The salt and the
dicalcic phosphate had each one of them a percentage of 0.6-1.5% from the ration
dry matter, in this period. During the sheep milking period, in the first two
months, the forage ration was presented in table 7.
Table 7
The forage ration used in the first two months after lambs weaning
Forage kg DM kg MNU PDIN PDIE Ca P IDP/
g/kg g/kg g/kg g/kg g/kg MNU
DM DM DM DM DM -g
Corn silo 1.01 0.30 0.31 13.80 21.4 1.29 0.69 -
Lucerne hay 0.42 0.37 0.24 31.45 21.46 5.22 0.74 -
Bean corn 0.38 0.33 0.47 31.68 38.28 0.10 1.96 -
Soybean oil meal 0.34 0.31 0.42 101.06 62.0 1.12 1.98 -
Salt 0.01 0.01 - - - - - -
Dicalcic phosphate 0.01 0.01 - - - 3.8 - -
Total - 1.33 1.44 177.99 143.14 11.53 5.37 99.4
Standard - max.2.3 1.44 144 9.9 5.0 100
In the first 3 months of sheep milking, the experimental plot was feeded
with the forage ration presented in table 8.
Table 8
The forage ration used in the last 3 months of the sheep milking
Forage kg DM MNU PDIN PDIE Ca P IDP/
kg g/kg g/kg g/kg g/kg g/kg MNU
DM DM DM DM DM -g
Corn silo 1.01 0.30 0.31 13.80 1.29 1.29 0.69 -
Lucerne hay 0.49 0.43 0.2 36.55 25.94 6.06 0.86 -
Bean corn 0.36 0.31 0.44 2.96 35.96 0.10 0.90 -
Soybean oil meal 0.22 0.20 0.17 65.20 40.0 0.72 1.28 -
Salt 0.01 0.01 - - - - - -
Total - 1.26 1.29 143.51 121.76 11.37 5.53 94.39
Standard - max.2.2 1.29 122 8.0 4.30 95
The suckling period lasted 60 days, milking period having 155 days. The
administrated forage rations were characterized by a high percent of edibleness,
the percent being of 99%. The nutrients consumption/sheep/day is presented in
the table 9.
- 398 -
Table 9
Nutrients consumption/ sheep/ day
Lactation DM-kg MNU IDP- g Ca- g P- g
0-3 weeks (sucking) 1.30 1.48 151.20 12.70 8.13
4-6 weeks (sucking) 1.50 1.61 151.31 12.75 6.37
7-8 weeks (sucking) 1.44 1.37 121.48 13.10 6.92
1-2 months (milking) 1.29 1.40 139.18 11.21 5.22
3-4 months (milking) 1.22 1.25 118.28 11.04 5.37
5th month (milking) 1.22 1.025 117.70 10.99 5.35
The consumption of the whole lactation 1.30 1.37 131.21 11.57 5.82
In the first two months after lambs weaning, the dry matter
consumption/sheep/day decreased with 10.42% and respectively with 15.69%,
compared with 7-8 weeks and 4-6 weeks milking period. In the last two periods,
3-4 months and respectively the fifth month of milking, the dry matter
consumptions/sheep/day was practically equal. On the whole experimental period
(215 days), the average of the dry matter consumption/sheep/day was 1.30 kg,
decreased compared with suckling period with 15.03% (the period of 4-6 weeks),
9.72% (the period of 7-8 weeks) and increased with 6.56%, compared with the
consumption registered in 3-5 months milking period. Compared with 0-3 weeks
of suckling and 1-2 months of milking period, the average dry matter
consumption/sheep/lactation had similar values. The energy consumption
(MNU)/sheep/day in 4-6 weeks suckling period increased with 8.78% compared
with 0-3 weeks of suckling period. In 7-8 weeks suckling period, the energy
consumption/sheep/day decreased with 7.43%, compared with 0-3 weeks of
suckling period and with 14.91%, compared with 4-6 weeks suckling period. In 1-
2 month of milking period (after lambs weaning), the value of energy
consumption/sheep/day decreased with 5.40%, respectively with 13.04%,
compared with 0-3 and 4-6 weeks of suckling periods. As part of the last two
milking periods (3-4 and 5 months), the energy consumption/sheep/day was
equal. On the whole experimental period, the energy consumption/sheep/day
decreased with 7.43%, respectively with 14.91%, compared with consumption
registered in 0-3 weeks of suckling period, respectively 4-6 suckling weeks,
almost equal with 7-8 weeks suckling period and 1-2 months of milking and
increased with 9.6%, compared with the consumption registered in the last 3
months milking period. The protein consumption (IDP) has presented, in the first
two periods, approximately equal values. In 7-8 weeks suckling period, the
protein consumption/sheep/day decreased with 19.66%, respectively 19.71%,
compared with the first two suckling period. In the first two months of milking
period, the IDP consumption/sheep/day decreased with 7.95% and respectively
8.02%, compared with 0-3 weeks and 4-6 weeks sucking periods. In 3-4 and 5
months of milking, the protein consumptions were almost near as values. On the
whole experimental period, the protein consumption/sheep/day decreased with
- 399 -
13.28%, compared with 0-3 weeks sucking period, with 13.22% compared with
4-6 weeks suckling period and with 5.73% compared with the first two months of
milking and increased with 8.0% compared with the consumption from 7-8 weeks
of suckling period, with 10.93%, compared with 3-4 months milking period and
with 11.48%, compared with the 5-th month of milking. The most increased
protein consumption (IDP)/sheep/day was in 0-3 and 4-6 weeks suckling period,
the consumption having a decreased evolution in the next period; in the order that
the first two months of milking sheep, when the milk′s level production was
increased, the protein consumption (IDP)/sheep/day had almost near values, the
differences between these two periods being insignificant.
CONCLUSIONS
*On the whole experimental period, the dry matter consumption/sheep/day was
increased till 4-6 weeks of lactation period, after that an insignificant decreasing
was registered, especially in the sheep milking period (graphic 1).
1. 0-3 weeks period;

3. 7-8 weeks period ;
4. the first 2 month of
milking;
5. 3-4 month milking
period;
6. 5th month of milking
Graphic 1- Dry matter consumption evolution/sheep/day during lactation
* The energy consumption (MNU)/sheep/day had an ascending evolution during

the period of lactation, till the first 4-6 sucking weeks, with a maximum value
registered in this period, following a decreased value in 7-8 weeks sucking period;
after this, a small increasing was registered till the 1-2 month of milking period,
and with a maintaining level in the last 3 months of milking (graphic 2).
- 400 -
BACK

milking;
5. 3-4 month milking period;
Graphic 2. – Energy consumption evolution/sheep/day during lactation
* The most increased protein consumption (IDP)/sheep/day was registered in 0-3

weeks and 4-6 weeks of suckling period, this being followed by a decreased
evolution in the next period; then, in the first two months of sheep milking, when
the milk′s level production was high, the protein consumption/sheep/day was
superior compared with the last period. In the last 3 months of sheep milking, the
protein consumption/sheep/day had near values, the differences between these
two periods being unsignificant (graphic 3).

milking;
5. 3-4 month milking
period;
Graphic 3. – Protein consumption evolution/sheep/day during lactation
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. BURLACU, GH., BURLACU R., CAVACHE, A., 2002- Potenţialul productiv al nutreţurilor şi
utilizarea lor. Editura Ceres, Bucureşti.
2. BURLACU, GH., BURLACU R., CAVACHE, A., CĂLĂTOIU, A., VICOVAN, A., VICOVAN,
G., 1998- Ghid pentru alcătuirea raţiilor de hrană la ovine şi caprine. I.B.N.A. şi SIAT- SA., Bucureşti.
3. CĂLĂTOIU, A., VICOVAN, A., GRIGORE, L., PĂUNESCU, J., 1998- Rezultate experimentale
privind alimentaţia oilor specializate pentru producţia de lapte. Lucrările ştiinţifice ale I.C.P.C.O.C.
Palas- Constanţa, vol. VI.
4. HALGA, P., 2002- Alimentaţie animală. Editura pim, Iaşi.
5. HALGA, P., 2000- Nutriţie animală. Editura DOSOFTEI, Iaşi.
- 401 -
BACK
EVALUATION OF HEAVY METALS

(LEAD AND CADMIUM) CONTENT IN FEEDS FROM
MOLDAVIAN AREA, USING ATOMIC ABSORBTION
SPECTROFOTOMETRY METHOD
Aida ALBU, Felicia ŢÂRCĂ, I.M. POP
The aim of researches was to identify and evaluate the heavy metals content
(Pb, Cd) in feeds, durind 2006 agricultural year. The feeds issued from several
livestock farmes and feed factories accross Moldavian area. Lead and cadmium
contents were assesed using atomic absorbtion spectrofotometry method.
Various samples of corn, barley, wheat, rye, sunflower meal, soybean meal,
wheat husks, mixed fodders for pigs, broilers, laying hens and dairy cows, vetch,
pasture, alfalfa, shorgum, corn and alfalfa sillage, alfalfa and pasture hay, barley
straw, brewery dregs and vitaminic-mineral premix were used in our assesments.
The results shown that 98.24% of analyzed samples contained lead and
99.64% of analyzed samples contained cadmium. Values of lead content in
samples varied between analytical 0 (undetected) and 5.90 mg/kg, while the
cadmium content was found within analytical 0 (undetected) and 0,807 mg/kg.
The results of the researches were under the maximal limits estabilished by the
MAAP Ord. no. 120/2005.
The results of the undertaken researches until now, are showing that a lot
of vegetable or animal products are chemically contamined, having harmful
agents of great risk, like heavy metals (Pb, Cd) and other chemical substances.
That fodders become a potential danger for the animals, being harmful
according to their results contamination degree, from different chemical
pollutions.
The main source of the pollution for feeds is industrial emissions.[1]
The affinity of plants for heavy metals is different from a species to
another; for example, the corn is accumulator and tolerant to heavy metals
pollution, against shorgum witch is moderately accumulator and tolerant to heavy
metals.[4]
Some heavy metals arrived in animals and humans bodies over limits and
determinate toxical states. The degree of toxicology depends on the chemical
contaminant, or its solubility, on the accumulative effect in tissues, on the metal
dose intake and on the heavy metal action time.
Lead and cadmium have a toxic effect and oncological action, made
hepatic, cutaneous and pulmonary cancer and changed hematological parameters.
[2, 3, 6]
- 402 -
MATERIALS AND METHOD

These researches were set up to identify the presence of heavy metals and
to evaluate the heavy metals content (Pb, Cd) in feeds, in order to follow their
trasability.
The investigations were made in 2006 year on 285 samples: of corn,
barley, wheat, rye, sunflower meal, soybean meal, wheat husks, mixed fodders for
pigs, broilers, laying hens and dairy cows, vetch, pasture, alfalfa, shorgum, corn
and alfalfa sillage, alfalfa and pasture hay, barley straw, brewery dregs and
vitaminic-mineral premix. The fodders issued from different locations of
Moldavia area.
The harvesting and the preparation of fodder samples for analysis were
made according to the present standard (SR ISO 6498:1999) and to sanitary-
veterinary norms.
The samples were calcinated at 500ºC, and the ash results were washed
with HCl and distilated water; at the end, the solution sample was brought to an
wanted volume to be analised at spectrofotometer.
The determination of Pb and Cd content from the samples was made by
using atomic absorbtion spectrofotometry method in flame, with burner feedet
with mixted air-acetylene at maximum 2250°C. The wave-lenght used for
determination of Pb was 282 nm and the wave-length used for determination of
Cd was 237 nm.
The results of Pb and Cd was shown in mg/kg (ppm), through raportation
to 12% fodders umidity;

The results of lead and cadmium content in fodders ranged from
undetectable values to possitive values, being presented in tables 1, 2 and 3.
The average values at the investigated samples ranged from undetected
(ud.) to 5.90 mg/kg for lead and from undetected (ud.) to 0.807 mg/kg for
cadmium.
- 403 -
Table 1
Average content of Pb and Cd in corn, barley, wheat, rye, sunflower meal, soybean
meal, wheat husks
Pb (mg/kg) Cd (mg/kg)
No. of
Sample
sample Lim
X ± sx min/max V%
X ± sx lim
V%
min/max
1.76± 0.07- 0.056± 0.019-

Corn 10 16.08 0.012
0.05 3.70 0.002 0.098
0.15± 0.07- 0.016± 0.007-
Barley 10 24.21 0.015
0.01 0.22 0.002 0.028
0.086± 0.079-
Wheat 5 Ud.* ud.* ud.* 0.012
0.002 0.090
3.26± 3.18- 0.089± 0.085-
Rye 5 2.42 0.011
0.04 3.70 0.002 0.090
2.17± 0.88- 0.242± 0.047-
Sunflower meal 30 4.18 4.838
0.03 3.31 0.002 0.807
1.59± 1.35- 0.069± 0.039-
Soybean meal 15 4.06 9.523
0.03 1.77 0.002 0.086
1.34± 0.34- 0.111± 0.026-
Wheat husks 20 9.16 7.944
0.04 2.81 0.002 0.275
*) ud. – undetected
Table 2
Average content of Pb and Cd in mixed fodders for pigs, broilers, laying hens and
dairy cows and vitaminic-mineral premix
No. of
Sample
sample X ± sx Lim
V%
X ± sx lim
V%
min/max min/max
Mixed fodders 2.02± 0.45- 0.116± 0.020-

20 6.63 6.211
for dairy cows 0.02 5.90 0.002 0.311
Prestart 0.53± 0.28- 0.089± 0.055-
R 01 10 8.41 5.503
er pig 0.02 0.81 0.002 0.122
Starter 0.72± 0.40- 0.118± 0.065-
R 02 10 8.20 4.615
pig 0.02 1.00 0.002 0.170
Starter 0.45± 0.09- 0.073± 0.020-
R 21–1 15 13.51 11.561
broiler 0.02 0.85 0.002 0.147
Grower 0.27± 0.20- 0.071± 0.016-
R 21–2 10 18.38 12.521
broiler 0.02 0.33 0.002 0.130
1.00± 0.77- 0.067± 0.004-
Layers R 21–5 15 5.51 18.103
0.02 1.23 0.004 0.143
Repro 1.35± 1.04- 0.035± 0.002-
R 21–7 10 6.85 26.873
layers 0.04 1.73 0.055 0.067
0.885± 0.02- 0.109± ud.*-
P.V.M. for pig 30 12.55 8.801
0.03 1.36 0.004 0.198
*) ud. - undetected
- 404 -
Table 3
Average content of Pb and Cd in vetch, pasture, alfalfa, shorgum, corn and alfalfa
sillage, alfalfa and pasture hay, barley straw, brewery dregs
No. of
Sample
sample X ± sx Lim
V%
X ± sx lim
V%
min/max min/max
0.71± 0.63- 0.073± 0.069-

Vetch 5 11.13 5.892
0,04 0.82 0.002 0.079
2.72± 2.46- 0.087± 0.084-
Pasture 5 6.34 2.816
0.08 2.93 0.001 0.090
0.53± 0.48- 0.080± 0.075-
Alfalfa 5 8.85 4.921
0.02 0.60 0.002 0.084
0.69± 0.60- 0.047± 0.041-
Shorgum 5 8.39 10.849
0.03 0.75 0.002 0.054
2.8± 2.52- 0.049± 0.010-
Corn sillage 10 4.33 22.751
0.03 2.99 0.003 0.093
1.52± 0.99- 0.083± 0.030-
Alfalfa sillage 10 5.06 10.276
0.03 2.06 0.002 0.138
0.55± 0.28- 0.197± 0.060-
Alfalfa hay 5 11.93 3.907
0.02 0.83 0.002 0.333
1.975± 1.60- 0.143± 0.075-
Pasture hay 10 3.15 4.605
0.035 2.38 0.003 0.214
1.46± 1.33- 0.105± 0.097-
Barley straw 10 5.31 6.098
0.03 1.52 0.003 0.112
1.07± 1.00- 0.091± 0.088-
Brewery dregs 5 7.06 2.802
0.03 1.18 0.001 0.095
From 285 samples analyzed, lead content in wheat samples was

undetected as good as in one sample of PVM, cadmium content was undetected;
in five samples of sunflower meal, cadmium content was higher (maximum value
ranged from 0.796 mg/kg to 0.807 mg/kg), but the values were under the maximal
limits.
Values of Pb and Cd content in fodders, were different within same tipe
of sample and also, the values of content in heavy metals were variate betweens
samples; those variations were different because the samples were harvested from
different polluated Moldavian zones.
Levels of lead and cadmium contamination in 285 samples of fodders
were relative low and the assesed values were under the admited maximal limits
estabilished by the MAAP Ord. no. 120/2005:
- for lead, the maximal limit established for fodders is 10 mg/kg (determinated
maximal value in this research was 5.90 mg/kg)
- for cadmium, the maximal limit established for fodders is 1.0 mg/kg
(maximal value determinated in this research was 0.807 mg/kg)
- 405 -
These values indicated a relative low pollution level with Pb and Cd, for
studies areas.
Lead average content in fodders were higher: rye (3.26 mg/kg), corn (1.765
mg/kg), pasture (2.69 mg/kg) and corn sillage (2.75 mg/kg).
Cadmium average content in fodders were higher: sunflower meal (0.427
mg/kg), alfalfa hay (0.196 mg/kg), mixed fodders for dairy cows (average content
was 0.165 mg/kg).
The average content of Pb and Cd in assortments of fodders are shown in
figure no. 1.
A – corn, barley, wheat, rye

B – sunflower meal,
Cd Pb soybean meal, wheat
2.500
2 . 16 0 husks
2.000 1. 7 8 1
2.020
C – mixed fodders for dairy
1. 4 18
cows
1.500 1. 3 0 2 D – mixed fodders for pigs,
1. 16 2
1. 0 7 0
broilers, laying hens
1.000 0.885
0.725
E – vetch, pasture, alfalfa,
0.500 shorgum corn and
0 . 0 5 3 0 . 16 1 0 . 116
0 . 0 7 4 0 . 0 7 1 0 . 0 6 6 0 . 0 9 1 0 . 15 7 0 . 10 9 alfalfa sillage
0.000 G – brewery dregs
A B C D E F G H – alfalfa and pasture hay,
H I
barley straw
I – PVM
Fig. 1. Average content of Pb and Cd in fodders from Moldavian area in 2006
Comparing the results of these researches, regarding Pb content in

fodders from Moldavian area with the results of researches of Pb content in
fodders from other areas of our country (for example the average values in corn
for lead ranged from 5.85 mg/kg to 8.39 mg/kg), lower values were observated
[5].
These degrees of lead and cadmium contents in fodders could be a
potential harmful for the animal, through long time accumulative effect in tissues;
par consequence necessary to continue the investigations and monitoring in heavy
metals content of fodders.
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
After the analitical researches of heavy metals had been expressed the
following conclusions:
1. From 285 analised fodder samples, in 280 analised fodder samples
(98,24 %) was found values of Pb content, in 284 analised fodder samples
(99,64%) was found values of Cd content.
2. Values of Pb and Cd content in fodders, were variate betweens same
tipe of sample and also, the values of content in heavy metals were variate
betweens samples; those variations were different because the samples were
harvestind from different polluates zones of Moldavia.
3. Values of Pb content of fodders are higher than values of Cd
concentration.
4. The highest value of Pb content at mixed fodders for pigs was 5,90
mg/kg and the highest value of Cd content of sunflower meal was 0,807 mg/kg
5. The results obtained by analiysis of fodders determined to continue the
investigations and monitoring in heavy metals of fodders on Moldavian area.
REFERENCES
1. ALBU, AIDA – 2006 – Proiect de cercetare la tema ”Incidenţa şi mărimea reziduurilor de metale
grele şi nitraţi/nitriţi în furaje vegetale şi evaluarea riscului lor toxic” prezentat în Şedinţă
de Catedră, Facultatea de Medicină Veterinară, USAMV, Iaşi
2. BIANU ELISABETA, NICA, DANIELA – 2004 – Monitorizarea efectului cadmiului la păsări
într-o zonă intens poluată cu metale grele, Lucrări ştiinţifice, U.Ş.A.M.V.B., Seria C, vol.
XLVI-XLVII
3. GHERGARIU, S. – 1980 – Oligomineralele şi oligomineraloze. Edit. Academia Română,
Bucureşti
4. MATHE-GASPAR GABRIELLA, ANTON A. – 2005 – Phytoremediation study: Factors
influencing heavy metal uptake of plants, Proceedings of the 8th Hungarian Congress on
Plant Physiology and the 6th Hungarian Congress on Photosynthesis, Acta Biologica
Szegediensis, vol. 49 (1-2):69-70
5. MIHĂILĂ, CLAUDIA, CRISTE, DIANA-RODICA, BERCARU, MARIANA-ANCA – 2005 –
Determinarea conţinutului de metale grele (Pb, Cr, Cd) din materii prime furajere folosind
metoda spectroscopiei de emisie cuplată inductiv cu plasmă (AES-ICP). IBNA –
Baloteşti, Bucureşti
6. POPESCU, O., ENACHE, T. – 1996 – Medicina legală veterinară vol II, Edit. ALL, Bucureşti
7. XXX – SR ISO 6498:1999 – Pregătirea probelor pentru analiză. Nutreţuri. Eşantioane.
8. XXX – Ordin MAAP nr. 120/2005 – Norme sanitar veterinare şi pentru siguranţa alimentelor
privind substanţele nedorite din hrană pentru animale.
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BACK
THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF ALFALFA HAY FROM

SMALL DAIRY FARMS
Raluca RADU, Teona AVARVAREI, Aida ALBU,

E. TEODORESCU-SOARE
The alfalfa hay represents a basic fodder in dairy cows feeding both in
winter and grazing time.
In this study we focused on the dynamics of the basic indexes of nutritive
and energetic value of alfalfa hay used in dairy cows diet from some small farms.
The alfalfa hay samples were collected from the dairy farms which participated
in a dairy cows feeding improvement programme. There was a variability of raw
chemical composition of alfalfa hay samples. The protein content varied between
13,87- 19,20% CP, the highest value belonging to the alfalfa hay from Lespezi.
The fibre content varied between 19,58- 34,20% CF, the highest values were
recorded by the on alfalfa hay from Movileni and Verseni.
Drying green fodders represents one of the most used fodder conservation
methods for the winter time.
Hay is a basic fodder in herbivore alimentation, seldom being used as
unique fodder during the winter time when the animals can not be fed with green
fodder.
In many dairy farms, hay covers up to 40% of energy requirements and
over 50% of protein requirements in herbivore feeding; and it is a good source of
minerals and vitamins, especially in winter time. (Halga and col., 2005)
In this study we focused on the dynamics of the basic indexes of nutritive
and energetic value of lucerne hay used in dairy cows diet, especially during the
winter time, in some small dairy farms from Iasi county.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Alfalfa hay samples were collected with the purpose of determining the
nutritive value. The data were used to calculate the dairy cow’s diet in a dairy
cows feeding improvement programme, organised by I.S.P.A. Association, Iasi.
The alfalfa hay samples were collected from 20 dairy farms which took
part in this programme in Lespezi, Mirosloveşti, Movileni, Moţca and Verşeni
villages. The raw samples from every location were mixed and homogenised until
we obtained one medium sample for each village.
The nutritive value of alfalfa hay was assessed having the crude chemical
composition as basis.
The samples have been chemically analysed in the laboratory of ”Animal
nutrition and alimentation” department, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Iasi.
Alfalfa hay characterisation from the energetic and nutritive point of view
took into account the following indexes: UFL, UFC, ENL, ENC, PDIE and PDIN
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using the specific equations for the nutritive value estimation in the INRA system
[INRA- France, 1988].
Samples preparation
The fodder samples were dried in the drying closet at 600C and mill-
grinded. After having had the samples prepared the dry, organic and mineral
matters were assessed using the methods presented in table 1:
Table 1
Working method used in Proximate Analyse
Estimation Method- method Equation
principle
Water content The samples were
content dried to drying 100 x(a − b)
closet at 1050C for
Ua% =
4 hours
a
Raw ashes The samples were cx100
content calcined to 6000C Cen.B % =
m
Raw protein Kjeldhal method–
content mineralized ( n1 f 1 − n 2 f 2 )x0,0014 x6,25 x100
organic matter till PB% =
CO2, H2 and NH3
m
Raw fat content Soxhlet method– m1 − m2
extracting fat with EE % = x100
organic solvent m
Raw cellulose Acid hydrolysis – m − m2
content filtration – CB % = 1 x 100
calcinations m
Raw non- Hanneberg method
structural S.E.N.= S.O. - (PB%+ GB%+ CB%)
carbohydrates
The nutritive value was assessed using the following equations after
having previously established the raw chemical content of alfalfa hay samples:
Table 2
Equations for estimating the protein value of alfalfa hay
Index Equation
PDIA PDIA= CP * (1,11*(1-TD))*1*dr
PDIN PDIN= PDIA + PDIMN
PDIMN PDIMN= CP * [1-1,11*(1-TD)]*0,9*0,8*0,8
PDIE PDIE= PDIA+ PDIME
PDIME PDIME = MOF* 0,145* 0,8* 0,8
SOF MOF= MOD- CP (1-TD)- CF- FP
Source: INRA, 1989
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Table 3
Equations for assessing the energy value of the alfalfa hay
Index Equation
Digestible energy ED= EB*dE
Metabolic energy EM= ED*EM/ED
EM/ED= 0,8417- 9,9*10-5CFo- 1,96*10-4CPo +
0,0221NA
The fodder concentration in metabolic energy q= EM/EB
Efficiency of using the metabolic energy in net energy
For lactation kl= 0,60+ 90,24*(q- 0,57)
For maintenance km= 0,287q+ 0,554
For fattening kf= 0,78q+ 0,006
For maintenance and meat production kmf= (km*kf*1,5)/ (kf+ 0,5*km)
UFL value UFL= EM*kl / 1700
UFC value UFC= EM*kmf / 1820
RESULTS AND DISSCUSIONS
• Raw chemical content

The results obtained in proximate analyse are presented in table 4:
Table 4
Raw chemical content of the alfalfa hay (g/ kg)
Village U% DM% Ashes% O.M.% CP% EE% CF% SEN%
Lespezi 9,74 90,26 8,66 81,60 19,20 1,22 19,58 41,60
Mirosloveşti 10,14 89,86 5,91 83,95 17,11 1,26 24,08 41,50
Movileni 8,80 91,20 7,55 83,65 13,87 1,47 32,58 35,73
Moţca 10,63 89,37 7,92 81,45 17,31 1,40 20,28 42,46
Verşeni 8,50 91,50 6,98 84,52 14,20 1,10 34,20 35,02
Analysing the data from the table 4 one notices that there is a variability
of raw chemical content of alfalfa hay in the studied villages.
The dry matter content of the analysed samples varied between 89,37 –
91,5%. The lowest value was recorded to the alfalfa hay from Motca
(89,37%DM).
The raw ashes content varied between 5,91- 8,66%, the lowest value was
recorded to the hay from Miroslovesti.
The raw protein content varied between 13,87- 19,20%, the highest value
was recorded to alfalfa hay from Lespezi, as well as one of the lowest levels of
fibre content (19,58% CFibre). This can be explained by the fact that hay was
collected to the first mowing when plants were harvested at the beginning of their
blooming phase. The alfalfa was dried on supports that accounts for the great
amount of leaves. This way, the crude protein content increased, for it is well
known that the highest level of protein is found in leaves.
To alfalfa hay samples collected from Miroslovesti and Motca presented a
raw fibre content of 24,08%, 20,28% respectively. Alfalfa was harvested on
second scythe in the blooming phase. The alfalfa was dried on the ground and the
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hay was stored into the haystack depot. Thus, a big amount of leaves was lost and
the hay was mainly made up of stems.
Alfalfa hay samples collected from Movileni and Verseni had a fibre
content of 32,58%, and34,20% respectively. Due to unfavourable climate
conditions the lucerne was harvested in an advanced vegetation phase, namely
complete blooming and after blooming phase.
Another reason that accounts for the high level of fibre content in the
alfalfa hay is caused by inadequate transportation to haystacks depot (hay
manipulation, the transport of the hay on warm weather).
• Nutritive value
Alfalfa hay energetic value was assessed and results are presented in table
5:
Table 5
The energetic value of alfalfa hay (/ kg fodder)
Village UFL UFC ENL ENC
Lespezi 0,58 0,50 988 903
Mirosloveşti 0,58 0,50 993 901
Movileni 0,57 0,48 970 873
Moţca 0,57 0,49 972 884
Verşeni 0,58 0,48 976 881
Analysing the data from table 5 one notices a low variability of UFL
(0,57 - 0,58) and UFC (0,48- 0,50) in alfalfa hay. Energetic value of ENL varied
between 970- 993, the highest value being recorded by the alfalfa hay from
Miroslovesti. The value of ENC varied between 873- 903, the highest value being
recorded by the alfalfa hay from Lespezi.
Table 6
The protein value of the alfalfa hay (/ kg DM)
Localitate PDIA PDIN PDIE
Lespezi 60 136 118
Mirosloveşti 54 122 110
Movileni 43 98 91
Moţca 55 124 113
Verşeni 44 100 91
The data presented in table 6 offer information regarding the protein

value of alfalfa hay samples. Thus, the highest values were obtained by the alfalfa
hay from Lespezi 136 g PDIN/ kg SU and 118 g PDIE/ kg SU. The lowest values
were obtained by alfalfa hay samples from Movileni (98 g PDIN/ kg SU and 91 g
PDIE/ kg SU) and Verseni (100 g PDIN/ kg SU and 91 g PDIE/ kg SU).
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BACK

As a result of alfalfa hay analyses the following conclusions may be
drawn:
o Alfalfa hay is a valuable fodder for dairy cows both winter and
grazing time.
o Alfalfa hay from Lespezi village recorded the highest level of CP%,
19,20% CP, harvested during the beginning of blooming phase and dried on
supports.
o The lowest level of crude protein content was recorded by the alfalfa
hay from Movileni (13,87% CP) and Verseni (14,20% CP).
o Alfalfa hay sample from Lespezi had the lowest value of fiber
content, 19,58% CF.
o Alfalfa hay samples collected from Movileni and Verseni had an
increased level of crude fiber 32,58%, and 34,20% respectively. Harvesting
was performed when plants were in complete blooming and after blooming
and they were dried on the ground.
o The energetic value of alfalfa hay samples present a low variation; the
UFL value varied between 0,57- 0,58 while the UFC value between 0,48-
0,50.
o The protein value varied depending on crude protein content; thus,
the highest values were recorded by alfalfa hay from Lespezi 60 g PDIA/ kg
DM, 136g PDIN/ kg DM and 118 g PDIE/ kg DM.
o For the purpose of decreasing losses of organic matters and obtaining
quality hay some things are worth paying attention to in what the preserving
and depositing technologies are concerned:
- the optimal moment for harvesting,
- drying on supports or on the ground till the humidity is 14- 15%;
- do not to transport the hay in the very warm periods of the day.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Avarvarei Teona, 1999 – Nutriţia animalelor domestice - îndrumar practic, Ed. „Ion Ionescu de
la Brad”, Iaşi
2. Burlacu Ghe., Cavache A., Burlacu R., 2002 – Potenţialul productiv al nutreţurilor şi utilizarea
lor, Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti
3. Halga P., Pop I.M., Avarvarei Teona, Popa Viorica, 2005 - Nutriţie animală, Ed. Alfa, Iaşi.
4. Iacob T., Vîntu V., Samuil C., 1997 – Plante furajere - tehnologii de cultivare, Ed. Junimea, Iaşi.
5 Jarrige, col., 1988 - Alimentation des bovins, ovins et caprine, I.N.R.A., Paris
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BACK
THE IMPLICATIONS OF POLY-PARASITSM ABOUT

DAIRY SHEEP KEPT ON PASTURES
Doina ARDELEANU, Marilena-Gabi NEACŞU,

C. NEACŞU, Carmen- Ana PIVODĂ
We carried out researches to determine both the parasitical infestation

degree of sheep and pastures, pasture-sheep relationship, as well as the coefficient
of correlation existing between the infestation of these and the correlations between
milk production and intesivity of parasitical infestations. The copro-parasitological
examination was carried ovoscopicaly (flotation - by Willis and Mc. Master
methods; sediment – by polyvalent method) and larvoscopicaly – by Baermann
method). The parasitic examination of grass samples were carried out
larvoscopically by Baermann method. The sheep of Palas Dairy Population
present parasitical infestations with gastro-intestinal nematodes from
Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Strongiloydes genres and pulmonary
nematodes (Protostrongylus, Dictyocaulus), but the pasture surfaces exploited
with sheep are infested with larvae of strongyloide type in the third stage,
characteristic of parasitic nematodes. The statistical calculus was performed by
using well-known statistical methods (Student, Fischer and Cochran tests). The
correlation coefficient existing between the infestation of sheep and of pastures
has positive value (+0,85%), distinct significant. Between the degree of poly-
parasitical infestation on dairy sheep and the milk production are the negative
correlations with different statistic significances (distinct and very significant),
the correlation coefficient being on average – 0,83 .
1. INTRODUCTION
The poly-parasitical infestations of sheep represent a major problem in
the integration conditions of Romania in Union European, because of economic,
ecological, sanitary and social consequences. The poly-parasitism of sheep has
negative repercussions on pastures, which are infested with the parasitic elements
eliminated by infested animals. Numerous authors were studied the implications
of poly-parasitism about productive performances on sheep (Cuadrado C.,1992;
Dulceanu, N., 1996; Olteanu, Gh., 1995, 2001 Ardeleanu, 2004). The
dissemination of parasitic elements constitutes a biological polluting factor,
altering the hygienic situation of the environment, with grave consequences as
concerns health of men and animals. Some stages of the biological cycles of
parasites (eggs, larvae) evolve on the surfaces of the pasture and in intermediary
hosts, until they reach the infesting stage. The pasture represents a reservoir which
preserves the infesting forms of the parasites for a long time.
The aim of our researcs were the increase of quantity and quality of sheep
milk and implicitely, the ensurance of food safety. The principal objectives of
our researches were:
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- the determination of the sheep endoparasites and of infestations degree

through effectuation of
coproparasitological examination;
- the determination of the parasites on sheep and their intermediary stages on
pastures;
- the research of pasture - sheep interrelations, as well as of their seasonal
dynamics;
- the calculation of correlation coefficients existing between the intensivity of
poly-parasitical infestation on sheep and the number of infesting strongyloide
larvae/kg grass;
- the study of the parasites influence on dairy sheep and the calculation of
correlation coefficients between degree of parasitical infestation and milk
production.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

The parasitological determinations were effected at Research-
Development Institute for Growth of Sheep and Goats - Palas, Constantza, on
sheep of Palas Dairy Population. On the basis of the obtained results by
parasitological examination of coprology samples following indicator was
calculated:
The intensivity of parasitical infestation (I) – is the ratio between the
number of parasitical elements (eggs and larvae) found in a sample and the
quantity of excrements that make the said sample, expressed in grams:
I = the number of parasite elements
grams of sample
The degree of parasitic pollution of pastures which were exploited with

sheep, was investigated in Palas Experimental Field of ICDCOC-Palas . Monthly,
during grazing season were harvested grass samples off different surfaces of
pastures cultivated with graminaceae plants (Gramineae family)-80% and
leguminous plants (Leguminosae family) - 20%. The parasitological examination of
grass samples was effected larvoscopically by Baermann method. The results which
were obtained through parasitological determinations on sheep and pastures were
correlated in order to establishing the correlation coefficient existing between
parasitical infestation of sheep and pasture. The statistical calculus was performed
by using well-known statistical methods (Student, Fisher and Cochran tests ).
3. THE RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

● Pasture-sheep interrelations
The degree of parasitical infestation at a lot of Dairy Sheep which are
infested with gastro-intestinal nematodes from Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus,
- 414 -
Strongiloydes genres and pulmonary nematodes from next genres:

Protostrongylus, Dictyocaulus presents seasonal variation (Table 1), depending
on the degree of parasitical pollution on pastures and the hydro-climatic
conditions, which have an important role in the development and the survival of
sheep parasites.
Table 1
The seasonal variation of the parasitical infestation degree with nematodes

on Dairy Sheep
The Average intensivity of the parasitical infestation (I)

drawing Spring Summer Autumn
period March April May June July August Sept. Oct.
of
samples
Monthly 37,5 88,0 145,5 136,7 166,5 152,5 105,0 67,0.
Season 90, 3 151, 9 86,0
The maximum values of parasitical intensivity on sheep are determined for

the contact with the pasture which was infested in the previous year (the greater
value of intensivity in May-145,5) and the super-infestation of pasture in the
current year (the maximum value of the intensivity was registered in July-166,5.
The infestation curve of the sheep in the grazing season presents the greatest
values during summer. In the most part, this is due to the need of the parasites for
heat and humidity necessary for their transformation in infesting forms.
In the summer months, due to favourable conditions, the life cycle of the
parasites is shorter and a greater number of larvae survive. The larvae of
helminths ( gastro-intestinal and pulmnary nematodes from Trichostrongylus,
Strongyloides, Nematodirus, Protostrongylus, Dictyocaulus genres developed on
pastures from eggs disseminated in the last ten days of April and are maintained
viable during the whole grazing period. The infestation of pastures with
strongyloide larvae in the third evolution stage presents a seasonal variation /
months and seasons (Table 2).
Between the seasonal dynamics of parasitical infestations on sheep and
pastures exist an interdependence reflected in the aspect of infestation curve (Fig.
1). As well as the sheep, the pastures are infested with larvae of parasitical
nematodes which presents a seasonal dynamics with a maximum point registered
in August (3600 larvae/kg grass) and the second, in July (3200 larvae/kg grass).
Also, it comes out that the infestation degree of the pastures has greater values
during summer, comparatively with the other seasons The parasitical elements
(eggs, larvae) eliminated on pasture in May determine the appearance of a greater
value of infestation degree with larvae L3 on pasture in July.
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Table 2
The seasonal variation of the infestation degree on pasture exploited with

Dairy Sheep
The Average larval load of the pasture (number of larvae /Kg grass)
drawing Spring Summer Autumn
period of March April May June July August Sept. Oct.
samples
Monthly 800 1250 2000 2950 3250 3600 2750 1600
Season 1350 3266 2175
The meteorological factors especially the best temperature in the first

summer months give the possibility to incubation, hatching and development of
eggs, until the infesting stage. The larvae L3 are eaten by sheep together with the
grass. In the body of sheep the infesting larvae develop to L4 and L5 stages,
afterward they transform into grown-ups thus the biological cycle begins again.
The interdependence sheep-pasture results from the specificity of the
biological cycle of sheep parasites, which consists in a succession of endogenous
and exogenous development stages. In July, when the infestation of the pasture
with larvae is great, the sheep again become contaminated, their infestation being
massive; thus, appears the second peak of the infestation curve on sheep in July.
The greatest value of infestation on pasture registered in August derives from the
super--infestation with sheep in June-July months.
180
160
140
Average intensivity on sheep
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct
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4000
3500
Number of larvae/kg grass
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct
Fig. 1 – The seasonal dynamics of parasitical infestation on sheep and

pastures
Result therefore, the existence of inte-relations between sheep and

pasture: the contamination source of pastures is represented by the infested sheep,
but the sheep become contaminated again while grazing, the pasture being thus,
the infection source of the sheep. Through processing the data with the computer
it comes out that between the infestation of sheep and of pastures there is a
positive correlation, distinct significant (+0, 85).
● The implications of parasites about the milk production
At Research-Development Institute for Growth of Sheep and Goats-

Palas was studied the total average milk production/head and the intensivity of
parasitical infestations on sheep of Palas Dairy Population (3 lots x 20 heads) –
Table 3.
Table 3
Correlations between the parasitical infestation and milk total
production (l)
Number Average intensivity Total milk production Correlation
Lot of (average/head) coefficients
sheep X ± sx V% X ± sx V%
1 20 39,23 ± 2,11 90,48 183,16 ± 9,51 87,35 - 0,72 **
2 20 42,16 ± 1,82 67,71 176,32 ± 8,12 72,09 - 0,99 ***
3 20 35,14 ± 1,90 73,74 177,18 ± 4,23 32,59 - 0,85 **
Average 38,84 ± 1,94 77,31 178,88 ± 7,28 64,01 - 0,83 * *
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BACK
The analysis of the data in this table reveals a strong infestation (average
of 38,84 ± 1,94), for a total equal with 60 Dairy Sheep and a total production of
milk / head, which was registered on average, equal with 178,88±7,28. The
speciality literature mentions that sheep free from parasites or with litle level of
infestation give greater milk productions than in the case of infested sheep
(Olteanu and colab., 2001)
The obtained data were processed through statistic calculus to establish
the correlation type between the intensivity of parasitical infestations and the total
average productions of milk. Between the two variables which were studied on
Dairy Sheep exist negative correlations comprised between r= - 0,72 ( distinct
significant) and r= - 0,99 ( very significant), the average being r= - 0,83
(.distinct significant).
The existence of the negative correlations (the average value: r = - 0,83,
distinct significant) shows that the production of milk is influenced by the
presence of parasites in the organism of Dairy sheep, existing a proportional
inverse report between the milk quantity and the degree of parasitic infestation.
CONCLUSSION
● The Dairy sheep which were investigated present the bioecological phenomenon
of polyparasitism with gastro-intestinal nematodes (Trichostronlylidae,
Nematodirus spp., Strongyloides papillosus), pulmonary nematodes
(Protonstrongylus rufescens, Dictyocaulus filaria, Muellerius capillaris).
● The parasitical infestation degree of the Dairysheep is correlated with the
infestation degree of pastures, between these existing interdependence relations
expressed through positive correlation, very significant, but the correlation
coefficient (r) is equal with +0,85);
● The poly-parasitical infestations on Dairy Sheep determine a decrease of milk
total production, between these two variables existing negative correlations, with
a average value/3 lots (r= - 0,83), distinct significant.
● The existence of negative correlations between the degree of parasitical
infestations and the milk production of Dairy Sheep, praises the noxiousness of
parasites in breeding and exploitation of sheep
BIBLIOGRAPHY
● ARDELEANU D., 2004 – Norme sanitar-veterinare în creşterea ovinelor, S.C. Europolis Print
S.R.L, Constanţa
● CUADRADO C., HERNANDEZ M., 1992 – Efectul încărcăturii parazitare asupra producţiei
de carne la mieii întreţinuţi pe pajişti neirigate, A 43-a Reuniune Anuală a Federaţiei Europene de
Zootehnie, Madrid
● DULCEANU N. 1996 – Parazitozele animalelor de fermă, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti
● OLTEANU GH., 1995 - Implicaţiile parazitozoonozelor, Revista Română de Parazitologie
,vol. V, nr. 2
● OLTEANU Gh., 2001 - Poliparazitismul la om animale ţi mediu, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti
● SANDU Gh., 1993 – Inginerie în exploatarea ovinelor, Editura Alutus – D, Bucureşti
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BACK
TESTING THE VARIOUS LEVEL OF FODDERING AT

FEMALE YOUNG SHEEP FOR EARLY COUPLING
C. NEACŞU, Gabi NEACŞU, Adriana VICOVAN,

Doina ARDELEANU, Alina NICOLESCU
Establishing an optimum level of foddering the female young sheep creates

the possibility of precocious introduction in the economic circuit and thus the
maximization of the genetic potential. The experience was made on three lots of
female young sheep; of 10-11 months old, from the population specialized for milk
production. The witness lot was fed only with green mass by grazing, and the other
two lots were administrated a supplement of 200 g and respective 300 g of
concentrated. The consumption of dry substance / animal / day was of 1.05-1.07 kg
at the 1st and the 2nd lots and of 1.16 kg at the 3rd lot, the latter consuming more with
approximately 8.41-10.48%. The body weight in the moment of introduction to
coupling was of 33.8-38.7 kg bigger at the 3rd lot with 14.50 % beside the 1st lot and
with 6.03% comparatively to the 2nd lot. At the date of introduction to coupling, the
proportion of females entered the heating period was bigger at the 3rd lot
(supplemented with 300 g concentrated) with 28.57 % comparatively to the 1st lot
(without supplement) and with 5.88% beside the 2nd lot (supplemented with 200 g
concentrated). In the conditions of making a body weigh of 65-70% from the weigh
of the adult female, the female young sheep have sexual cycle in proportion of 70-
80% the rate of pregnant females being of 60-65%.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The scientific researches were made on female young sheep of 10 months

old, from Palas Milk Line, there being organized three homogenous and analogue
lots under the aspect of age, body weight and genetic type. The experimental
scheme, after which the researches were made, is presented in table 1.
Table 1
Experimental scheme
Body weight (kg) in the

beginning of the experiment
Lot n Fodder Ratio _ _
X±sX v%
st
1 20 Grazing + straw 29.6±1.45 21.91
2nd 20 Grazing +200 g barley 29.2±1.38 21.13
3rd 20 Grazing + 300 g barley 29.8±1.31 19.66
The used pastures were characterized by a high rate of grain plants (80%),
while the leguminous plants had a proportion of 12% (table 2).
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Table 2
Locality Floristic composition (%) Consum

Grains Vegetables Other plants (%)
ICDCOC Palas 80,0 12,0 8,0 81
From the grain plants, the highest rate was represented by couch grass
and the leguminous plants were represented by some species of clover.

At all the three lots the consumption of green fodder / animal / day (table 3).
Table 3
Consumption of nutritive substances
Specification U.M. 1st Lot 2nd Lot 3rd Lot
Green fodder Kg 5.4 5.4 5.4

Wheat straw Kg 0.19 - -
Barley Kg - 0.20 0.20
Dry substance Kg 1.05 1.07 1.16
UNC - 0.99 1.16 1.28
PDI (PDIN-PDIE) g 102/94 112/105 118/109
The average quantity of consumed green fodder / day / animal was of 5.4 kg
at all lots, they grazing in common. The consumption of dry substance at the 1st
and the 2nd lots was of 1.05-1.07 kg bigger at the 2nd lot with 1.9%.
At the 3rd lot, the consumption of dry substance was of 1.16 kg / animal /
day, being superior to the 1st and the 2nd lot and with 10.48% and respectively
8.41%. The energy consumption (UNC) was between 0.99 UNC and 1.28 UNC,
bigger at the 3rd lot with 29.29% comparatively to the 1st lot and with 10.34%
beside the 2nd lot.
At all the lots the level of protein based on azoth was bigger beside the
level of the protein based on energy. Until the beginning of coupling, the body
weight increased differently at all lots, according to the applied type of feeding
(table 4)
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Table 4
The body weight of the female youth
Body weight (kg)

Beginning of experiment Coupling % from
Lot n _ _ _ _ adult
X±sX v% X±sX v% weight
1st 20 29.6±1.45 21.91 33.8±1.57 20.77 67.6

2nd 20 29.2±1.38 21.13 36.5±1.51 18.50 73.0
3rd 20 29.8±1.31 19.66 38.7±1.59 18.37 77.4
In the beginning of coupling period, the body weight of the three lots was
of 33.8-38.7 kg, bigger at the 3rd lot with 14.5% and respectively 6.03%
comparatively to the 1st lot and respectively the 2nd lot.
Body weight of female young sheep, at the date of coupling, was 67.6%
at the 1st lot, 73.0% at 2nd lot and 77.4% at the 3rd lot, comparatively to the body
weight of the adult female.
The best results were obtained at the 3rd lot, which received a supplement
of 300 g concentrated fodders, this fact demonstrating the necessity of
supplementing the ratio in order to make a optimum body weight.
The proportion of females entered in the heating period at the first sexual
cycle is presented in table 5.
Table 5
Activity of reproduction
Females in the heating period Not returned females after

at the first sexual cycle the first coupling
Lot n
Animals % Animals % din total
1st 20 14 70 6 30.0
2nd 20 17 85 6 30.0
3rd 20 18 90 9 45.0
At the 1st lot the proportion of females which entered in the heating
period at the first sexual cycle was of 70%, 85% at the 2nd lot and 90% at the 3rd.
The number of females which entered in the heating period at the first sexual
cycle was the highest at the 3rd lot, this being superior to the 1st and the 2nd lots
with 28.57% and respectively with 5.88%.
The proportion of females that were supposed to be pregnant was of 30%
at the 1 and the 2nd lots and of 45%at the 3rd lot.
st
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BACK
In the three lots, the applied level of foddering, respectively the body
weight significantly influenced the proportion of female young sheep which
entered the heating period.
CONCLUSIONS
Following the obtained results, by testing the various levels of foddering

the female young sheep, for the early coupling, the following conclusions result:
¾ Stimulating feeding of the female young sheep of 10 –11 months old,
with concentrated fodders determines the getting of optimum body
weights and improves the reproduction indicators.
¾ The increase of the body weight was of 4.2 kg at the lot which was fed
only by grazing, 7.3 kg at the youth which received a supplement of 200 g
concentrated fodders and of 8.9 kg at the lot which was supplemented
with 300 g concentrated fodders.
¾ The average body weight at the beginning of coupling was of 33.8 kg at
the 1st lot, 36.5 kg at the 2nd lot and 38.7 kg at the 3rd lot, the latter having
an average weight superior to the 1st and the 2nd lots with 14.5% and
respectively with 6.03%.
¾ The proportion of females which manifested heating period was of 70%
at the 1st lot (without supplement), 85% at the 2nd lot (200 g concentrated
fodders) and of 90 % at the 3rd lot (300 g concentrated fodders).
¾ The body weight of the young females is positively correlated with the
reproduction function.
¾ In the conditions of making a body weight of 65-70% from the weight of
the adult female, the female young sheep have sexual cycle in proportion
of 70-80% and become pregnant in a proportion of 60-65%.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ASPLUND J.M.- Principles of protein nutrition of ruminants. Ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton, USA,
2005.
BURLACU GH. – Guide for making the food ratios at milking cows, young cattle, sheep, goats,
horses. IBNA-SIAT – BUCHAREST, 1998
DINESCU S., STEFANESCU GH. – Feeding animals in small and mean farms. Ceres Publishing
House, Bucharest, 1996.
HALGA P. and team – Animal nutrition and alimentation. Ed. Alfa - IAŞI, 2005
HALGA P. and team. – Alimentation and reproduction at domestic herbivores. Ed. Dosoftei –
IAŞI, 1999
CHURCH C. – Basic animal nutrition and feeding - NEW YORK, 1999.
GÎLCĂ I. –Special Animal Breeding. Editura Vasiliana 98, Iasi, 2001.
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BACK
THE TECHNOLOGY OF GOATS’ FODDERING

DURING MILKING THE KIDS
C. NEACŞU, Gabi NEACŞU, Adriana VICOVAN,

Doina ARDELEANU, Alina NICOLESCU
The researches were made on goats being in the kids’ milking period,
from the local period, being organized on four lots, foddered with ratios with a
similar nutritional value, but different by their structure. The consumption of dry
substance / animal / day was of 1.97-2.18 kg, the differences between lots being
very small. The highest average daily milk production was made at the 2nd lot
(ratio of fibre type), this exceeding the 1st (witness) and the 4th lot (ratio of semi-
concentrated type) with 14.6%, and the 3rd lot (ratio of juicy type) with 47.3%.
The milk content in fats had the highest value at the 4th lot, this exceeding the 2nd
lot with 19.25%, the 1st lot with 15.3% and the 3rd lot with 10.4%. The weigh
increase rate of the kids at the age of 60 days was the highest at the 4th lot,
followed by the 2nd lot. The best results were obtained by feeding the goats with
fodder ratios of fibre and semi-concentrated types.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The experience was made at ICDCOC Palas – Constanţa on goats from
local population, four homogenous lots being organized depending on age, date of
dropping, body weigh and milk production from previous milking.
The four lots had identical fodder ratios, assuring the same fodder norm,
being different from one another by their structure (table 1)
Table 1
Fodder ratios administrated in the first part of lactation
Fodder and U.M. 1st Lot 2nd Lot 3rd Lot 4th Lot
nutritional value (witness) (fibres) (juicy) (semi-
of the fodder ratio concentrated)
Lucerne hay Kg 1.2 1.8 0.8 1.2
Marc of grapes Kg 2.4 0.8 3.0 0.8
warehouse
Corn Cobs Kg 0.6 0.6 0.6 1.0
Salt g 10 10 10 10
Chalk g 15 15 15 15
Dry substance Kg 2.08 2.18 1.97 2.0
UNL - 1.80 1.81 1.76 1.81
PDI g 180/140 178/146 151/133 161/152
Dry substance from:
Fibres % 49 70 34 51
Juicy % 29 9 38 10
Concentrated % 22 21 28 39
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At all lots, the level of the nutritional value assured by the fodder ratios was
identical that of 1.97-2.18 kg dry substance, 1.76-1.81 UNL, 123-152 g digestible protein
based on energy and 151-180 g intestinal digestible protein based on azoth.

The consumption of dry substance in the four lots varied between 1.97 kg
and 2.18 kg (table 2).
Table 2
Consumption of nutritive substances
Specification Lot
1st (witness) 2nd (fibres) 3rd (juicy) IV (semi-
concentrated)
Projected fodder
norm: 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
S.U.(kg)
UNL 1.81 1.81 1.81 1.81
PDI (g) 140 140 140 140
Consumed fodder 2.08 2.18 1.97 2.0
norm:
S.U. (kg)
UNL 1.80 1.81 1.76 1.81
PDI (g) 140 146 133 152
Consumption of energetic substances (UNL) was identical with the projected

norm (1.80-1.81 UNL) at the 1st, the 2nd, the 4th lots and of 1.76 UNL at the 3rd lot, smaller
with 3 % beside the norm.
The consumption of protein substances, expressed in intestinal digestible
protein, was bigger with 4% at the 2nd lot and with 8% at the 4th lot comparatively
to the norm, and at the 3rd lot the consumption of PDI was with 5% smaller than
the norm.
The highest average daily milk production (990 ml) was made at the 2nd
lot (fed with a ratio of fibre type), this exceeding the witness lot and the lot which
was fed with a ratio of semi-concentrated type with 14.6%, and the lot fed with
ratio of juicy type with 47.3% (table 3).
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Table 3
Milk Production
Specification U.M. LOT

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
X ± sX X ± sX X ± sX X ± sX
v% v% v% v%
Milk quantity ml
864 ± 90.7 990 ± 81.2 672 ± 54.3 865 ± 93.1
34.73 28.36 27.97 35.75
Dry Substance %
11.98 ± 12.01 ± 12.09 12.66 ±
0.024 0.033 ±0.030 0.036
1.68 1.16 1.27 1.31
Proteins %
3.25 ± 3.30 ± 3.26 3.30 ±
0.090 0.061 ±0.009 0.050
9.14 6.37 1.14 5.29
Fats %
3.60 ± 3.48 ± 3.76 4.15 ±
0.151 0.108 ±0.290 0.094
13.91 10.71 29.67 7.55
Lactose %
5.05 ± 5.14 ± 5.04 5.15 ±
0.016 0.078 ±0.024 0.018
1.07 5.29 1.86 3.35
Consequently, the quantitative milk production is stimulated by the ratios

with high content of hays (of fiber type) administrated in the goats’ food. The
highest content of dry substance of milk was registered at the 4th (ratio of semi-
concentrated type) that of 12.66%, exceeding the 1st lot (witness) and 2nd (fibrous)
with 5.88% and the 3rd lot (juicy) with 4.48%.
The content in proteins of milk was near at the four lots, varying between
3.25% and 3.30%, and the lactose from milk had values between 5.04% and
5.15%.
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The fat in milk had the highest value at the 4th lot (ratio of semi-
concentrated type), this exceeding the 2nd lot (fibrous) with 19.25%, the 1st lot
(witness) with 15.3% and the 3rd lot (juicy) with 10.4%.
The average body weight of the kids at birth was bigger at the 3rd lot with
approximately 8.2% comparatively to the other lots (table 4).
Table 4
The evolution of the body weigh (kg) of the kids
Specification LOT
I II III IV
n X ± sX n X ± sX n X ± sX n X ± sX
v% v% v% v%
The body 13 1.82 ± 11 1.82 ± 12 1.97 ± 11 1.85 ±

weigh at birth 0.074 0.135 0.109 0.112
14.73 24.67 19.16 20.13
The body 13 4.59 ± 11 4.87 ± 12 4.70 ± 11 5.11 ±

weigh at 30 0.243 0.293 0.362 0.366
days 19.08 19.97 26.62 23.78
The body 10 6.94 ± 10 7.47 ± 11 7.26 ± 11 22.74 ±

weigh at 60 0.443 0.415 0.470 0.537
days 20.19 17.56 21.50 22.74
The average body weigh of kids at the age of 30 days was at the 4th lot
with 11.3%, at the 2nd lot with 6.10% and at the 3rd lot with 2.4% bigger
comparatively to the body weigh of the kids from the witness lot.
At the age of 60 days, the body weigh of kids varied at the lots between
6.94 and 7.85 kg, the highest value being registered at the 4th lot, where mother
goats were fed with a ratio of semi-concentrated type.
CONCLUSIONS
From the presented data, which refers to the goats’ foddering technology
during the kids’ milking period, the following conclusions are drawn:
¾ The fodder norms of milking goats which are established by the new
system of foddering herbivore animals are appropriate.
¾ The structure of fodder ratios influences the morph-productive parameters
of the milking goats.
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BACK
¾ The fodder ratios of fibrous type assure a milk production which is

superior to the witness lot with 14.6%.
¾ The kids in milking period, at the age of 60 days, registered a total weigh
increase of 5-6 kg, the best results being obtained at the 4th lot (semi-
concentrated ratio) and at the 2nd lot (ratio of fibrous type).
¾ Consequently, the ratios of fibrous and semi-concentrated type are the
most productive.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BURLACU GH. (1991)-Bazele nutriţiei ovinelor şi caprinelor. Editura ceres, Bucureşti
BURLACU GH. şi colab. (2002) – Potenţialul productiv al nutreţurilor şi utilizarea lor. Editura
Ceres, Bucureşti
DEMARQUILLY C. (1996) – Bases rationelles de l’alimentation des ruminants. INRA,
Production Animales.
DULPHY J.P. şi colab. (1995) – Ingestion et digestion comparees des fourrages chez differentes
especes d’herbivores. Productions Animales, Vol.8,No.8.
JARRIGE R. şi colab. (1988) – Alimentation des bovines, ovins et caprins. INRA, Paris.
MORAND FEHR P. (1995) – Les cles du success en alimentation des chevres. La chevre, p 208-
209.
PEACOCK C. (1996) – Improving Goat Production in the tropics. Farm.Africa. Publ.Oxford U.K.,
P-386.
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BACK
THE PRODUCTION PERFORMANCES FROM SC.

CRISANI&CO SRL. FARM FROM CLUJ COUNTY
S. BOCA
The researches conducted for the present paper are integrated into the
Phd activity with the title:”Researches regarding the morfo-productive
characters of cattle in the context of some constructive solutions from
Transilvania farms”, that follows the dairy cow’s morfo-productive performance
in SC. Crisani&Co SRL farm from Gherla city.
Into SC. Crisani&Co SRL. farm with 44 dairy cow Romanian spoted
breed infused with German spoted breed and young, we followed: the biological
material component, keeping the breeding technologies, material and forage
basis and the production obtained.
As a result analysis that were made we came to the conclusion that
reaching the productive performances of E.U. Normes imposes: special
arrangement of the space for maternity,ventilation problem resolve; all these
following the economical efficiency increase.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The researches were carried out in SC. Crisani&Co SRL. farm, near
Gherla city. The unit is specialiyed in dairy cow breeding for milk production.
The farm disposes of a total livestock of 101 animals (tab.1) from which
44 cows and 6 heifers, all Romanian spoted breed infuzed with German spoted
breed.
Livestock structure
Table1.
Specification Age in months Nr. of animals
Cows - 44
Heifers - 6
young females 0-6 18
The existing livestock presents the folowing zoo-economical indicators:

age of the first succesfull mating (A.F.M) is realized at 21 months and first birth
(F.B) at 30 months.
Replacement of the initial livestock is assured by the young reproduction
females existing in the farm.
One of the most important problems in the farm is represented by
reproduction that influences: the cattle reproduction rhytm, reproductions level,
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the genetic structure of the populations, the state of health and not at last the
economical efficiency.
The system of programing the mating and getting birth used into the farm
is the lagging because an uniform and constant production assurance is wished
during the whole year. Taking into consideration the present exigences the
farmer’s goal is to obtain increased productions during the cold season.
The cows are inseminated at the second and respectively third
heat cycle after getting birth. The reproductive material is maintained into a
„reproduction condition” continuously and permanent.
The animals present a vivid temper and a perfect healthy state,
characteristics that are influenced by a good feeding technique and accomodation
and by the exercise system assured. The artificial insemination was addopted
because of the advantages realized by applyng „ male pressure” and the low costs
level.
Cattle breeding is relized iside closed shelters with compartiments
structured according to animals age. Into the shelter for young females, housing is
realized in collective pens with 4-6 animals/ pen. The surface/ animal is respected,
between 2,00 – 4,00 mp/ animal and feeding froont between 40-50 cm. The
feeding is form exterior at padock, in concrete mangers. It was adopted solution
of manures hydraulic disposal with weirs.
The dairy cows shelter assures housing for 44 cows in free
accommodation system, with resting zone in individual pens placed on two rows
butt to butt. Feeding is realized with technological trailer allong a 2,40 m width
alley in high manger at padock.
Animal housing is on individual pens with rubber floor. The individual
pens allow free entering and autleting of the animals in/from the resting zone but,
separating grids restrain to occupy the neighbouring place and returning. The
water delivery is realized on request with colective dead/level waterings. The
waste disposal is mechanic with rake blade mounting at the tractor .
Milking is mechanic on stands, the milk is collected into the dairy through
pipes. The dairy is placed at the end of the shelter, it contains a single room for
milk reception and temporary storage. The milk production is sold to SC.
Napolact SA.
The total milk production vary between 5556- 5975 l with a media of
5765 l during the analyzed lactation period, and 3,98 % fat content and 240,77 kg
pure fat.
The farm has beside the shelters the folowing constructions:

• Surface silo
• Forage kitchen (cereal mill)
• Locker; farmer’s house
• Milk procesing center
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• Store for concentrates storage

• Mechanical sector
• Manure platform
The agricultural surface of the exploitation is represented by the 100 ha of

land with: 18 ha pasture and grass land, 82 ha plougning ground from which 40
ha with corn for silo,18 ha barley, 24 ha wheat.

The exploitation technologie from SC. Crisani&Co SRL farm is
characterized by an intensive breeding system through an efficient practical
application of the food resources an existing conditions, together with the
assurance of an optimum selection program, animal health care and appropriate
techical rigging.
CONCLUSIONS
As a result of the studies we came to the conclusion that for the best
funcioning of the farm it can be intervened as follows:
Biological material and breeding technology:
- increasing the milk production by increasing the livestock
and their productive potential;
- adequate organization of the reproduction activities;
- total respect for the imposed technological rules.
Material basis:
- separate maternity arrangement from dairy cow house, where
the comfort conditions, deseases and poison gas prevention;
- ventilation problem resolve is neccesary inside the existing
shelters, to maintain the micro-climate conditions between
the limits imposed by the Normes.
Improvement of the foraging basis:
- choosing high rating foraging crops and their rational
location. One of the most important measures is the crop’s
structure that influence both the level and the economy of
forage production as well as the milk production level. This
is the reason why the foraging crops has to be represented by
anual and permanent leguminos and anual grain crops
divided in proportions of 70%, silo corn20% and root plants
10% from the total available surface;
- application of high technologies for forage productions
involve the productions increase of natural pastures by
realizyng surface or radical works. Regarding the forage
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BACK
productions increase into the owner’s field, some high

productions hibrids can be choose combined with
fertiliyation, crops rotation and land preparation;
- efficient harvesting technologies and forage conservation
assure quality forage and reduce the nutritive substances.
This way the grains are havested at the begining of the
earing, the flowering vegetables and the silo corn in the
milk- wax phase. The forage conservation in the hay case is
reccommended to be realized by boundling or half-hay and
silo corn mixed with different grains as barley.
- in the future the forage can be prepared with the use of
unique foraging mixtures, in granular or briquette form.
All these aspects lead to the increase of economical efficiency by

improving the medium ratio between the labour costs and production volume,
also obtained by increasing the total production, the marchandise one and the
individual one.
REFERNCES:
MicleaV., Ladoşi, I. (1997): Biologia reproducţiei animalelor de fermă, Editura Bahai,Cluj- N.
Onaciu G., (1999): Rasa Bălţată Românească, Teză de doctorat, Cluj-Napoca.
Marcela Sîrbu., ( 2001): Construcţii Agricole, Editura Risoprint Cluj- Napoca
Stanciu G. şi col. (1999): Tehnologia creşterii bovinelor, Editura Brumar, Timişoara.
Şara A., Mierliţă D., (2003): Nutriţia şi alimentaţia animalelor de fermă, Editura Academic
Pres, Cluj-Napoca.
Velea C., (1983): Tehnologia creşterii bovinelor, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca.
Velea C. şi col. (1985): Îndrumător pentru creşterea şi îngrăşarea tineretului taurin, Editura
Pres, Cluj-Napoca.
Velea, C. (1999): Producţia, reproducţia şi ameliorarea taurinelor, vol I şi II, Editura Tehnică.
Agricolă, Bucureşti
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BACK
THE IMPACT OF THE SOMATIC CELL COUNT

ON THE MILK QUALITY
Gabriela CRIŞAN, Gh. MUREŞAN, Daniela CRIŞAN
The qualitative and quantitative controls of the milk yield is an absolute,

determinant factor in improvement procedures, as each farmer wants a greater
efficiency in exploiting the milk cows.
The somatic cell count represents an important criterion in evaluating
the udder’s health state and in estimating the milk quality. The somatic cell count
is an ordinary, but also complex and confusing subject in the milk industry, as
it’s important that producers understand the importance of the somatic cell
count, and the relation between it and others factors. The somatic cell count is
related to the animal health, milk quality and has direct implications on
productivity, being influenced by lactation, lactation state and not ultimately
individuality.
There is an important issue lately in the quality of the consumed food

stuff, as everyone needs healthy and fair price products as possible.
The physical-chemical and organoleptic characteristics, microbial load
and not ultimately the somatic cell count (SCC) are considered when talking
about the milk quality.
The milk cells were first pointed out by Stokes almost 100 years ago,
and were considered ones of the milk small ingredients. Their importance for the
mammary gland health and implicitly the hygienic, quality milk was outlined
relatively late, and now it is one of parameters for the hygienic, quality human
consuming milk.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The research was carried out during June – September, in a diary farm of
Holstein – Black-Spotted German cow, on a 93 heads population in average.
The goal of this research was maintaining the individual milk
production and quality at a high level during summer time: July, August and
September. The Black-Spotted German cows have a negative response to the high
temperatures, mostly by decreasing the diary quantity and quality, concomitant
with the abrupt increasing of the somatic cell count, according to the precedent
years data.
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The major desiderates tackled by numerous researches were, and are
still, the milk quality as consuming food and the its early tracking down, when
mammitis or udder diseases which produce lactation perturbations occur.
In this research, there were compared: the milk production per cow, and the
qualitative parameters (with important role in establishing the delivery milk price),
during three periodical controls (at 28 days) in June, July, September, as there were 3
milkings/day during 27.07 – 06.09.2006. The cow population of this research has a
high production potential, with over 7500 kg milk, and on the other hand there was
necessary to maintain or decrease the somatic cell count to a low level.
The average results obtained in the diary farm considered in this research
demonstrate that the milk production can be maintained at about 28 kg/day during
summer time and with qualitative parameters (fats%, proteins %), plainly superior to
the data obtained in same period of the precedent year (Figure 1, 2, 3).
Figure 1.
Milk production in the control day per tank
Figure 2.
The fat content of milk in the control day per tank
- 433 -
Figure 3.
The protein content of milk in the control day per tank
As for the somatic cell count – the most important indicator of the milk
quality, there was not possible to maintain it at the June level, but slightly
increased. When compared to the precedent year, the somatic cell count increase
is very significant. It suggests that there are a few cows with at least an infected
udder quarter, although the somatic cell count per tank is small, aprox. 213,000
cell/ml milk (in September), accepted by the European hygiene milk standard
(Figure 4).
- 434 -
Figure 4.
SCC per tank in the control day
The results lead to identifying and culling the cows with mammitis and
comparing the somatic cell count in accordance with lactation, lactation state
(milked days from calving) and the somatic cell count were classified in 6 grades
of quality.
The somatic cell count increases with the number of lactation, for the
same milk output in the control day, according to Table 1. The highest values of
the somatic cell count were obtained for cows over 5th lactation, with the mention
that for each lactation taken into account the highest value of the somatic cell
count was obtained in September.
When referring to the lactation state (Table 2), a greater somatic cell
count is found in the first period from calving, followed by a decrease and another
increase of the SCC.
From the number of cows with somatic cell count less than 400,000
cell/ml milk point of view, a slight decrease is registered from June to September,
and the number of cows with somatic cell count over 400,000 cell/ml milk is
maximum in September – 14 heads compared with the 8 heads in June (Figure 5).
- 435 -
The effect of lactations on the SCC Table 1.

M. P.
Month of M. D. - Day M.P. kg/cap Fat.% Proteins.% Somatic Cells
Lact. n kg/day
control
x±sx V% x±sx V% x±sx V% x±sx V% x±sx V% X
224,43 21,76 3,82 3,38 135,48
Iunie 23 36,70 20,70 11,49 17,24 133,39 500,4
±17,176 ±0,939 ±0,091 ±0,121 ±37,681
220,78 21,78 3,87 3,24 102,91
Iulie 23 43,33 16,44 11,22 7,28 88,24 501
L1 ±19,946 ±0,747 ±0,090 ±0,049 ±18,935
188,82 22,87 4,12 3,44 102,55
Sept. 22 70,63 14,00 12,45 7,60 117,20 503,2
±28,434 ±0,683 ±0,109 ±0,056 ±24,988
178,73 27,52 3,76 3,22 190,12
Iunie 26 64,24 26,84 16,65 11,23 158,33 715,6
±22,518 ±1,449 ±0,123 ±0,071 ±59,033
164,04 27,43 3,77 3,15 234,17
Iulie 23 51,13 24,83 12,17 9,40 163,76 630,8
L2 ±17,490 ±1,420 ±0,096 ±0,062 ±79,964
185,43 26,87 4,28 3,45 269,76
Sept. 21 47,77 24,86 16,99 7,19 450,64 564,2
±19,329 ±1,457 ±0,159 ±0,054 ±98,338
155,60 29,07 3,65 3,22 101,60
Iunie 15 55,74 20,37 13,27 7,09 100,50 436
±22,392 ±1,529 ±0,125 ±0,059 ±26,364
147,53 29,67 3,68 3,17 199,53
Iulie 17 64,59 22,03 13,14 7,56 190,55 504,4
L3 ±23,111 ±1,585 ±0,117 ±0,058 ±92,214
137,00 29,42 4,28 3,42 195,79
Sept. 19 69,92 22,96 21,69 9,94 125,54 559
±21,975 ±1,550 ±0,213 ±0,078 ±56,390
129,18 35,05 3,57 3,15 188,82
Iunie 11 52,58 15,74 10,69 4,72 120,67 385,6
±20,481 ±1,664 ±0,115 ±0,045 ±68,700
127,07 32,57 3,99 3,18 143,71
Iulie 14 66,52 18,79 13,99 8,79 91,47 456
L4 ±22,590 ±1,636 ±0,149 ±0,075 ±35,131
152,71 31,23 4,16 3,49 191,57
Sept. 14 55,19 30,76 19,76 8,44 162,44 437,2
±22,524 ±2,568 ±0,220 ±0,079 ±83,169
118,87 33,83 3,76 3,04 241,,07
Iunie 15 82,17 15,73 12,57 7,680 122,55 507,4
±25,220 ±1,374 ±0,122 ±0,060 ±76,280
138,31 32,98 3,69 3,02 301,50
Iulie 16 72,57 16,41 12,00 7,43 135,72 527,6
≥ L5 ±25,094 ±1,353 ±0,111 ±0,056 ±102,296
171,82 32,20 4,09 3,35 379,94
Sept. 17 60,98 16,20 15,30 8,13 165,11 547,42
±25,410 ±1,265 ±0,152 ±0,066 ±152,148
- 436 -
The impact of the state of lactation on the SCC Table 2.

Month of M. D.- day M.PL. kg/head Fat.% Proteins% Somatic Cells kg/day
Days n
control x±sx V% x±sx V% x±sx V% x±sx V% x±sx V% X
20,13 33,45 3,91 3,17 89,25
Iunie 8 49,93 21,66 13,21 7,42 106,07 267,6
±3,553 ±2,561 ±0,183 ±0,083 ±33,470
25,47 32,15 3,89 3,13 238,00
≤ 50 Iulie 15 56,10 23,05 15,40 10,47 168,89 482
±3,689 ±1,913 ±0,155 ±0,085 ±103,787
15,92 30,80 4,34 3,30 213,00
Sept. 12 67,43 28,24 16,33 9,93 136,47 369,6
±3,098 ±2,511 ±0,204 ±0,095 ±83,914
78,90 36,15 3,51 2,93 174,43
Iunie 21 19,06 12,99 11,67 7,87 159,11 759,2
±3,283 ±1,025 ±0,090 ±0,050 ±60,562
50-100 79,90 36,40 3,58 2,92 184,30
Iulie 10 21,21 7,32 15,44 7,40 139,50 364
±5,359 ±0,842 ±0,175 ±0,068 ±81,300
70,06 33,00 3,75 3,28 103,19
Sept. 16 21,71 18,52 12,99 7,91 114,50 528
±3,802 ±1,528 ±0,122 ±0,065 ±29,537
122,42 28,55 3,51 3,17 221,00
Iunie 12 9,83 19,64 15,39 5,36 283,03 342,6
±3,474 ±1,619 ±0,156 ±0,049 ±81,704
124,62 32,08 3,71 3,01 223,90
100-150 Iulie 21 11,85 14,61 14,85 6,61 166,14 673,6
±3,222 ±1,022 ±0,120 ±0,043 ±81,176
131,67 33,48 3,81 3,29 210,50
Sept. 12 12,07 12,13 15,71 8,45 187,44 401,8
±4,586 ±1,172 ±0,173 ±0,080 ±113,901
173,17 28,82 3,87 3,28 121,75
Iunie 12 9,88 14,95 12,17 4,88 83,84 345,8
±4,939 ±1,244 ±0,136 ±0,046 ±29,466
175,00 25,44 3,84 3,23 125,36
150-200 Iulie 11 8,44 15,61 8,84 6,12 105,21 276,2
±4,452 ±1,182 ±0,102 ±0,060 ±39,770
173,45 28,41 4,09 3,43 264,15
Sept. 20 8,66 15,30 17,28 6,93 214,22 568,2
±3,357 ±0,972 ±0,158 ±0,053 ±126,532
225,71 24,36 3,63 3,24 212,00
Iunie 17 6,91 16,81 8,68 4,69 122,61 414,2
±3,781 ±0,993 ±0,077 ±0,037 ±63,045
200-250 227,62 24,92 3,85 3,33 244,46
Iulie 13 5,50 23,31 6,84 5,64 190,39 324
±3,474 ±1,612 ±0,073 ±0,052 ±129,089
225,30 24,32 4,41 3,50 250,30
Sept. 10 6,14 24,57 16,53 4,38 199,51 243,2
±4,377 ±1,890 ±0,231 ±0,048 ±157,917
307,25 20,78 4,03 3,52 159,10
Iunie 20 19,75 23,13 13,90 17,89 160,20 415,6
±13,571 ±1,075 ±0,125 ±0,141 ±56,992
289,96 21,73 3,86 3,28 143,87
≥ 250 Iulie 23 12,72 16,49 10,82 6,49 84,50 499,8
±7,690 ±0,747 ±0,087 ±0,044 ±25,348
308,52 21,75 4,60 3,63 272,30
Sept. 23 15,95 22,07 14,89 6,13 118,61 500,22
±10,262 ±1,001 ±0,143 ±0,046 ±67,347
- 437 -
Figure 5.
The classification of cows in accordance with SCC per tank in the control day per farm
79
<400 81
82
14
>400 8 12
1 Sept.
250-400 56
July
22
100-250 26
25 June
42
50-100 31
30
14
<50 19
21
0 20 40 60 80 100
Increasing the number of cows with over 400,000 cells/ml milk is related
to the cows which are at the beginning or at the end of lactation, which have a
SCC accepted by the European Union, and also to the sudden increase of the
somatic cell count at 3 cows with over 1,000,000 cell/ml milk compared to the
precedent control of the milk output.
The results can be added to a numerous researches which clearly
demonstrate a significant variation of the somatic cell count in accordance with
race, number of lactation, lactation level, and not ultimately the cow individuality.
Thus, there can be explained the reasons why the values for the somatic cell count
are in a large range, in evaluating the hygienic milk quality establishing the
classes of quality were needed; in accordance to these classes of quality milk is
collected and paid to producers.
1.The somatic cell count per farm is good, but cows with high individual SCC and
which do not have a propitious response to the treatment applied in order to
decrease the SCC should be culled from herd.
2. Cows with high SCC are in the 3rd lactation and over, at the beginning or the
end of lactation. An adequate treatment before and during the drying off period is
recommended, and if the SCC remains high at the first control after calving, those
cows should be culled from the herd.
- 438 -
BACK
3. Using the Californian Mastitis Test at least once a week is recommended.

4. Permanent supervision of the udder health state is recommended, as it is the
most important production mean of the animal. If infection occurs and is and not
treated on time, financial productivity of the producer is lower.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.Kuczg Marian 1995- Somatic Cell Count and Bulk tank cultures
2.Mihaela Ivancea (2004)- Celulele somatice – Indicator de calitate a laptelui , Ed. Alfa
3.Diana Sabău, O. Rotaru ( 2006)- Celulele somatice şi sănătatea laptelui, Ed. AcademicPres
4.Cornelia Vintilă (2007)- N.C.S. – este doar un indicator al sănătăţii ugerului, Rev. Ferma Nr.
1/2007
5.Winston I şi col. (1998)- Somatic Cells, Mastis and Milk Quality – www.moomilk.com
- 439 -
BACK
RESEARCH REGARDING THE MORPHOPRODUCTIVE

PARAMETERS FOR THE ROMANIAN
FRIZA – BLACK SPOTTED COWS FROM TRANSYLVANIA
Gabriela CRIŞAN, G. ONACIU, Daniela CRIŞAN
The goal of this research was the characterization of the

morphoproductive parameters in normal and total lactation, for a Romanian
Friza – Black-Spotted cow population from three Transylvanian counties private
farms.
The results have proven that the Romanian Black-Spotted cows from
this area present a high genetic potential if adequate attention and importance
are given; thus, farmers are encouraged in the milk production cows growth.
The milk production of over 6000 kg milk, surpasses Romanian
improvement standards for this race and can be compared to those obtained in
similar diary farms from European Union, which is the goal of many Romanian
Friza – Black-Spotted cow farms.
The growth of numerous animal species is influenced by the

development of the human society, for profit and prosperity.
Although the Romanian Black-Spotted cows do not have a significant
weight, being accepted with abstention by the Romanian farmers, the production
performances will recommend it in the milk production farms situated especially
in proximity of the urban agglomeration.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The biologic material taken into account is represented by a 769 heads of
Romanian Friza – Black-Spotted cows, breaded in similar conditions from the
growth and exploitation technologies point of view, in private farms from three
counties: Bihor, Cluj and Mureş.
Investigations aimed at: establishing the dynamic of the main parameters
of the milk production in normal and total lactation, of the main reproduction
parameters, the growth and exploitation technologies, processing procedures and
milk capitalization.
The primary data were systematized, analysed and interpreted by usual
specific methods.

The animal growth involves professional activities, in order to reach
quantitative, qualitative and fair price products, before and after the regular
- 440 -
procedures in a farm for the zoo technician, in contrast with the householder,
whose concern is to ensure the milk, meat, eggs for personal, family usage.
The start point of this research is the need of a deep knowledge of the
morphoproductive parameters of the Romanian Black-Spotted biologic material,
breaded in private farms from three counties: Bihor – S.C. “Acţiunea Felix” S.A.,
Cluj – S.C. “Ada Prodcom” S.R.L., Mureş – S.C. “Silvaur Impex” S.R.L. –
Lechinţa.
The essential motives of this research have a correspondent in finding
the most adequate ways and means for an effective and fast improvement of the
production performances of these populations and, at the same time to emphasize
the value and advantages of this race’s growth.
The cow population of this research distinguishes positive characteristics
in milk production, which point out an ascendant evolution up to a maximum
lactation, with the mention that during 2-3 lactations it accomplishes a plateau
where the milk production is at a high level. This evolution is obvious in the
dynamics of the milk production on normal and total lactation, but the values
were superior to the normal lactation (Figure 1, 2).
Figure 1.
The dynamics of the milk production on normal lactation in
the investigated farms
8000
6706 6427 6488 6559 6488 7049
7000 6391 6360 6340
6036 6343 6106
6000 5406
5000 4502
M .P. - kg
4000
6160 6173 6677 6366
3000 5910 6065
2000
1000
0
L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 MEDIA
Laction
BH CJ MS
- 441 -
Figure 2.
The dynamics of the milk production on total lactation in the investigated farms
7508
8000 7217 7377 6963
7182 6946 6916 7142 7087 7260
7017
7192
7000
5903
6000
5000 4538
M .P. - kg
4000
6784 6994 6645 6930 6826
3000 6394
2000
1000
0
L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 MEDIA
Lactation
BH CJ MS
It is important to withhold the fact that in the first lactation there was
obtained a milk production of over 89% from the maximum lactation production.
A first negative aspect that draws the attention is the first calving age
(F.C.A.), reminding that there is something to do and improve, of major
importance, with repercussions on the investment costs in the unproductive
period; the first calving age is marked at 34 months and 2 days in the Clujean
farm, 32 months and 12 days in the Mureşean farm and an acceptable 26 months
and 15 days for the Bihorean farm. The F.C.A. values are with 5.71 – 26.64%
greater than the estimations predicted by the F.C.A. improvement programs for
the Romanian Black-Spotted cows; these data demonstrate the disastrous growth
of the young reproductive female young stock.
At the same time, there is accomplished an average range for two
consecutive calvings that corresponds to an average birth rate of 88 – 91%,
dependant to the investigated farm and a drying off period, which are framed in
the values mentioned by different authors – 65-75 days.
The graphic representation confirms those mentioned before with a much
clearer visibility (Figure 3).
If the milk fat content is considered to be a good and very good (3.79-
3.92% in range for normal lactation and 3.80-3.93% in range for total lactation), it
is not same thing to be said about the protein content (3.08-3.24% in range for
both normal and total lactation). The fat and protein values, in percent, are
- 442 -
registered in the Bihorean farm, which is a farm with a 10 years tradition in this
race’s growth.
Figure 3.
The average values of the reproduction parameters in the investigated farms
1200
1000 985
806
800
BH
D ays / %
600 CJ
1036 416 431
345 362 MS
400 298 296
200 367 435

300 63 91 90
65
75 88
0
V.P.F. D.L.T . D.L.N. R.M. C.I. I.N.
Parameters of reproduction
Thus, there is recommended that, alongside the usage of improving

breeding stock, in the fat content direction, the farmers ought to have in mind the
usage of a breeding stock with improving characteristics marked for the protein
content, with a positive effect on the milk selling price (Figure 4).
From the fat and protein content point of view, it presents a similar
character to the milk production one, with the mention that the values greater than
400 kg fat and protein substances from the first lactation demonstrate once again
the high genetic potential of these Transylvanian populations, which situate the
investigated population in the line of the most valuable ones at national and
international level.
- 443 -
BACK
Figure 4.
The average values of the qualitative parameters of the milk production in
the investigated farms
4.5
3.92 3.79 3.93 3.8
4
3.24
3.5 3.24 3.08
3.08
3
BH
2.5
CJ
%
2 3.9 3.93
MS
1.5 3.14 3.17
1
0.5
0
GR.-LN-% GR.-LT -% PR.-LN-% PR.-LT -%
Qualitative parameters
CONCLUSIONS
1. The Romanian Friza - Black-Spotted cow populations have biological values of
production that surpass the average ones, predicted by the improvement programs
for this race at national level and which at the same time can be compared to those
registered at international level from similar growth and exploiting farms.
2. The production differences between farms are not absolutely due to the genetic
potential, its manifestation degree in interaction with the environment, especially
the applied feeding conditions and the farmer’s experience concerning “the needs
and comfort” to which this race manifests at maximum.
3. The milk production of over 6000 kg of milk per normal lactation demonstrate
the fact that in Transylvania the growth of more performance animals and getting
the quality productions which satisfy the European Union exigencies are carried
out, at the same time militating for this race’s constraint in the diary farms from
this area of the country.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Gabriela Crişan, Maciuc V.- 2005 – Studiul comparativ privind caracterele
morfoproductive la taurinele de rasă Bălţată cu negru crescute în ferme private din
Germania şi România, Rev. Agricultura 2005 pg. 106-114
2. 2.Gabriela Crişan 2006 – Comparative researches concerning the milk production indices
in Blak Spotted breed cattle grown in private farms from Romania und Germany, Lucrări
Ştiinţifice – Zootehnie şi Biotehnologii, Vol. 39 / 2006 Timişoara, pg . 155- 160
3. Onaciu G 2006 – researches regarding cattle husbandry from Transylvania in adhessionto
E.U. perspective, Lucrări Ştiinţifice – Zootehnie şi Biotehnologie, vol. 39/2006 Timişoara,
pg. 183-188, ISSN 1221-5287
4. Onaciu G – (2006) – Characterization of the milk production traits in cows included in the
Official control of production (OCP) in 4 counties from Transylvania.
Buletinul USAMV-C-N, 62/2006, pg. 71-74, ISSN 1454-2382
- 444 -
BACK
THE PROJECTING AND THE ORGANIZATION OF A FARM

OF COW MILK TO A CAPACITY OF 50 HEADS
G. ONACIU
The general objective from this paper, starts from existence on market of a
requirement of technological module standardized for growth dairy cattle where at are
added and requirement measure from National Program for Rural Development 2007-
2013, Modernization the agricultural exploitations, presented the real project the good
documented and in sight approval financial support. The farm project proposes the
settlement optimum parameters of exploitation, their in a integration circuit of genetic
program for improvement milk production and the optimization proceeding of milking,
preservation and the integration in a farms program for the application the new
technologies from area and turns to good account the milk production.The necessary of
agricultural surface that comes for one dairy cow in the fertility conditions of the soil
from the Transylvania area is 0.1 ha/head lucerne, 0.15ha/head hay field, 0.12 ha/head
silo corn, 0.55 ha/head pasture and 0.15 ha/head cereals. The maintenance system of
milk cows is in half opened stable(could), build volume/cow 70 m3 from metallic
structures 130 kg/m2 snow, wood side walls and for roofing, flax wall system, spout and
water-shot, individuals berths for resting (2.5/1.25), adaptors antifreeze, 1/25 index of
natural illumination, metallic pool for stoking the dejections. The projecting and the
execution of this shelter need a financial effort between 3500 and 4500 euro/milk cow.

The projecting of 50 milk cow farm started with the necessity of existance
of a schematic model of projecting a technological flux of breeding milk cows.
So, depending on the adopted solution for the flow effective of the farm (closed
and opened circuit or specialised farm) they were calculated the following
elements: the calculation of the predictable total effective when the farm is being
populated to it’s maximum capacity, the mating and births plan, programming the
increasing of the young female and male reproduction (farm with closed circuit),
technological files with the effective’s movement for all the categories of animals,
the programming of milk production by months, trimesters and year, unique
fodder mix for cows and portions for all categories depending on the expected
production (milk, gain weight) the calculation of the fodder necessary for all
animals in farm, technological files of fodder cults, including the cost made in the
farm, the maintenance sistem and economical efficiency.

The calculation of the farm project it’s more vast, but considering the lock
of space I attached just tables with: mating and births plan when the farm is at it’s
capacity and appear firsts heifer from it’s own breeding , programming the
incrasing of the female youth of reproduction, the calculation of the necessary of
- 445 -
fodder and on the resulting price cost from the technological files of the cults I
calculated the cost of production of 1 kg of milk and reproduction traits:
- the age of the first fertile mating 18 months; - the weight at 18 months (455 kg)
represents 70% from the adult weight; - the age of the first birth 27 months.
The programming of increasing the youth assures realisation of a weight at
18 months of 455 kg that assures for Romanian Yellow Spotted breed a rising
coeficient of 70% and optimal conditions for going to reproduction.
At projecting the structure on physiological situations in a cow farm it has to
be taken into consideration the fact that the cow effective must be into production in
minimal proportion of 80% and 20% without milk production ( mammar repose).
Thus in the mating and births plan I considered that 56% from the cows are pregnant
, 24% inseminated, 14% calved and 6% no pregnant (this will be reprogramated at
mating from the next month), 94% natality, 51% fecundity at cows and 68% at
female youth and an yearly reforming index at cows of minimum 10%.
The associative programming of the growth to Romanian Yellow Spotted

(for a weight of 650 kg)
Table 1
Average Weight
Total
daily (kg)
Age category Period (days) Spore
weight
(kg) Initial Final
(g)
0-3 months 90 767 69 40 109
3-6 months 90 778 70 109 179
6-12 months 180 822 148 179 327
12-18 months 180 711 128 327 455
The data from the mating and births plan were taken over and worked on
in the technological files for each every category of animals to which it’s added
the calculation of the fedding days by months, trimestres and agricultural year.
Likewise I projected the feeding sistem for cows with variants in winter -
unique fodder mix an all the winter period, in summer – field, and for the youth I
chosen the fodder mix sistem in winter with stoch fodder, and in summer with
green grass on the field specifying that were made balanced portions and
optimised for all the nutritional parameters. Thus the necessary of fodder for the
farm is: 55 tons of hay lucerne, 34 tons hayfield, 357 tons silo corn, 467 tons
pastures, green grass from the field, 75 tons cereals and concentrated fodder from
which: 14 tons of corn, 15 tons of barley, 18 tons triticale, 18 tons oil meal(soy or
sun flower), 4 tons bran, 6 tons premix and others fodder, 1500 kg powder milk
(90 days, breastfeeding with substituent of milk immediately after the colostral
phase from the age of 5 to 95 days with an average suit of 32 kg powder milk).
For a feeding in good conditions the effectives from farms, its needed 6.12
ha lucerne, 8.38 ha hay, 7.15 ha corn silo, 31 ha field and roughly 10 ha of
cereals, and the rest of the fodder necessary for the concentrate mix and powder
mix it’s being bought.
- 446 -
The mating and births plan

Table 2
TRIMESTER I TRIMESTER II TRIMESTER III TRIMESTER IV Total
Traits
I II III Total IV V VI Total VII VIII IX Total X XI XII Total year
pregnant 4 4 2 10 4 4 2 10 20
nosis
Diag
no preg. 2 2 2
PREVIOUS YEAR
COW
reform
insemination 4 4 4 12 12
calving 2 2 3 7 7
reform
pregnant 1 1 2 4 1 1 2 4 8
HEIFER
no preg. 1 1 1
Female insemination 2 2 2 6 6
Cows 4 4 5 13 7 7 6 20 7 8 8 23 6 5 6 17 73
mating
heifers 1 1 1 3 2 2 3 7 - 1 2 3 1 1 - 2 15
TOTAL 5 5 6 16 9 9 9 27 7 9 10 26 7 6 6 19 88
Cow 4 4 2 10 4 4 2 10 2 2 2 6 2 2 3 7 33
birth
CURENT YEAR
Heifer 1 1 2 4 1 1 2 4 1 1 2 4 1 - 1 2 14
TOTAL 5 5 4 14 5 5 4 14 3 3 4 10 3 2 4 9 47
REFORM INDEX - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 2 2 5 5
Male 3 2 2 7 3 2 2 7 1 2 2 5 2 1 2 4 23
Calf
Female 2 3 2 7 2 3 2 7 2 1 2 5 1 1 2 5 24
TOTAL 5 5 4 14 5 5 4 14 3 3 4 10 3 2 4 9 47
Pregnant Cow 2 2 2 6 2 2 3 7 4 3 3 10 4 4 4 12 35
diagnosis Calf 1 1 2 4 1 - 1 2 2 1 2 5 - 1 1 2 13
No pregnant Cow 2 2 2 6 2 2 2 6 3 4 3 10 3 4 4 11 33
on control Calf 1 1 - 2 - 1 - 1 - 1 1 2 - - 1 1 6
- 447 -
Centralizer concerning necessary of fodders on choice and categories of animals

Table 3
Others
Hay From which:
Feeding Silo Cereal fodder
Category Pastures
days corn total Oil Others Supply
Lucerne Hayfield Corn Barley Tritical Bran
meal fodder milk
Cow milk 16524 36564 27424 274240 369150 49574 - 14872 18095 15021 - 1586 -
Heifer 2651 5997 - 31984 19560 5302 3022 - - 318 1007 955 -
Female 12 –
4020 3586 2989 23904 44616 8040 4583 - - 482 1528 1447 -
18 months
Female 6 –
2807 3745 3121 24960 15994 5614 3200 - - 337 1067 1010 -
12 months
Female 3 – 6
1806 1727 2340 17678 3108 1647 - - 497 466 498 -
months
Female 0 – 3
2163 1536 - - - 1516 637 76 - 485 - 318 780
months
Young male
2120 1505 - - - 1485 624 74 - 475 - 312 748
0 – 6 months
TOTAL 32091 54660 33534 357428 466998 74639 13713 15022 18095 17615 4068 6126 1528
Average 8930 4000
production - 44650 16000 50000 15000 - 4900 4000 5500 - - - -
kg / ha mv mv
Surface 6,12 8,38 7,15 31,13 - 2,80 3,76 3,29 From buying
Necessary surface - 62,6 ha from which: - arable- 23,12 ha, hayfield - 8,38 ha, pastures - 31,13 ha
- 448 -
BACK
CONCLUSIONS
The calculation made on the fodder necessary on all categories of animals,

on the flow effective and on the base of some balanced portions and adapted to
the requests for the milk production prognosis, on the daily average planed gain
for realization the weight necessary for introduction to reproduction for the
female youth. So at an total annual effective feeding of 88 heads it resulted the
following necessary of surface: 63 ha from which 23 ha arable, 8.4 ha hayfield
and 31 ha pasture. The necessary of agricultural surface that comes for one dairy
cow in the fertility conditions of the soil from the Transylvania area is 0.1
ha/head lucerne, 0.15ha/head hayfield, 0.12 ha/head silo corn, 0.55 ha/head field
and 0.15 ha/head cereals. Thus, for one good cows farm project is need
investigatory visa follow up of a farm of cow from Transilvania again on the
strength of gives real from zone investigatory to is projected the technological
new module in correlation with size exploitations, form of relief and the degree of
fertilizes the soils in sight significant growth milk productions
The maintenance system of milk cows is in half opened stable(could), build
volume/cow 70 m3 from metallic structures 130 kg/m2 snow, wood side walls and
for roofing, flax wall system, spout and water-shot, individuals berths for resting
(2.5/1.25), adaptors antifreeze, 1/25 index of natural illumination, metallic pool
for stoking the dejections. The projecting and the execution of this shelter need a
financial effort between 3500 and 4500 euro/milk cow.
The percentages of a kg of milk in this situation of projecting is of 0.44 lei
RON that at an average sale price of 0.3 euro cents (meaning roughly 1 leu RON)
assures a remarkable profit, but it doesn’t have to be forgotten that this is
redistributed on the other categories of youth from the farm.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. G. Onaciu (2007)- The milk production traits for yellow spotted cows included in OCP from
Transilvania county, 42nd CROATIAN & 2nd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON
AGRICULTURE, February 13-16, 2007, Opatija, Croatia, pag. 560-562 ISBN -978-953-6135-57-8
2. Jurco E., Onaciu G., (2006) -Researches concerning the characterization main indexes for the
milk production to biological material breeded in the S.C. Crisan ranch Gherla. Lucrări ştiinţifice
Zootehnie şi Biotehnologii, vol. XXXIX-2 (2006), Timişoara, pag. 173-178, ISSN 1221-5287
3. Gabriela Crişan, Onaciu G., (2005)- Comparative researches between populations of Fleckvieh-
Yellow Spotted and Romanian Spotted reeds concerning some yielding features for mechanical
milking. Al 4-lea Simpozion Internaţional Perspective ale agriculturii mileniului III, 6-7 octombrie
2005, Buletin USAMV-CN, 61 /2005 (pag. 81-86), ISSN 1454-2382
- 449 -
BACK
THE PROJECTING AND THE ORGANIZATION OF A FARM

SPECIALIZED IN FATTENING YOUNG CATTLE WITH AN
ANNUAL CAPACITY OF 360 TONS OF MEAT
G. ONACIU, E. C. JURCO
The fattening area has its purpose to produce average weight young
cattle, from Romanian Yellow Spotted breed, in continuous growing system. The
quantity of fresh meat that must be delivered annually is of 360 tons at an
average weight of delivery in live, of 550 kg/head at a period of fattening of 517
days that means that we will have to deliver annually 655 heads of young cattle,
with the condition of not loosing anything in all four phases of fattening. To
reach this yearly goal, the capacity of the fattening must be of 978 heads at an
index of annual occupying of 95% and of 67% on the total period of the
fattening. The total necessary of surface for the production of the fodder is of:
388 ha from which, 199 ha cereals (corn and barley), 121 ha fibrous (Lucerne,
trefoil) and 68 ha silo corn.

On the base of a single element of projecting theme, the quantity of meat
that must be delivered annually (which to ensure average carcass over 300 kg),
the entire technological flow it’s running with calculations for each technical
element. Because of the lack of space we attach the most important data without
which it can’t be made a real business study for positioning of a fattening farm in
a particular agricultural area.

The technological projecting for each phase of fattening needs to retrace
more calculation steps, thus: continuous fatten with technological flow all full all
empty, establishing the period of fatten, the period of occupying the shelters
meant for fatten, the period allocated for depopulation, cleaning and disinfection
after each series, the index of occupying a place in the fatten, the capacity of the
fatten, the calculation of the percentage weight of the places needed on fattening
phases, the calculation of the number of places on phases, the calculation of the
number of series from each phase (n series) the rolling of the phases on year and
on the period of fattening, establishing technical-economical indexes of the
fattening, the program of population, the movement of the effective on fattening
stages, establishing rations and receipts of suckling and combined fodder for the
fattening phases, the total necessary of fodder, a plan of production of the fodder
with the establish of the necessary surfaces, the establish of the maintenance
system and the number of shelters, estimations of economical efficiency per total
and for 1 kg of meat made in projected fatten.
- 450 -
Effectives and the percentage weisht on fattening phases

Table1
Traits Heads %
Young cattle, phase I 117 12
Young cattle, phase II 245 25
Young cattle, phase III 499 51
Young cattle, phase IV 117 12

TOTAL 978 100
Evolution weight on the fattening period

Table 2
Fattening Weight (kg) Daily average Total weight
days
period Starting Final growth (kg) (kg)
1. Suckling
63 45 95,4 0,8 50,4
period
2. Growth and
129 95,4 211,5 0,9 116,1
fattening period
3. Fattening 263 211,5 474,5 1,0 263
4. Finishing 62 474,5 550 1,22 75,6
The maintenance system is in free breeding stable, half opened stable

(could), in conjoint breeding area, situated on two rows, separated by a feeding
area, and the evacuation of the compost its hydraulic made. The feeding it’s made
mechanically with a technological trailer, which distributes the forages in the
feeding area. The manger assures a feeding front which corresponds to the
fattening phase. The watering is made with automatic watering place.
The sintetic scheme of main technical-economical actions of projecting,

organisation and functioning of exploitations of cattle fattening
• THE VALORISATION MEAT PRODUCTION ON EXPLOITATION

• TONS OF MEAT – THE HEADS AND THE WEIGHT ON DELIVERY
• FUNCTIONALPARAMETRAJ–EFFECTIVES ON TECHNOLOGICAL
PHASES
• TECHNOLOGICAL FATTENING SYSTEM AND METHOD
- biologic material
- age and weight to overtake
- age and weight to deliver
- daily average weight accumulation.
- 451 -
ENSURANCE PROGRAM AND MOVEMENT OF THE EFFECTIVE

- the overtake graphic of biologic material on farms and
proveniences
- the graphic of the effectives movement on technological
phases
- the delivery graphic (weight and numerical)
- overtake protocol on farm contract bases with the
producers
- protocol of qualitative and quantitative improvement on
the base of the farm contract with the beneficiary
FEEDDING SCALE
- fodder necessary on forage range
- forage production – their own
– buying
- production forage program
CONSTRUCTIVE SYSTEM
- animal shelters numerically projected on capacities and
technological phases
- contributory arrangements
ECONOMIC- FINANCIAL PARAMETERS

- technical-economical indexes
- economical-financial scale
- reliability project in fluctuation conditions 10% market
- 452 -
Production and the consumption indexes of intensive fatten young cattle

Table 3
Phases of fattening Total or

Traits U.M.
I II III IV average
Body weight
– in the beginning kg/head 45 95,4 211,5 474,5 45
– to end kg/head 95,4 211,5 474,5 550 550
Total weight kg 50,4 116,1 263 75,5 505
Average daily weight kg 0,8 0,9 1,0 1,22 0,98
Fattening period days 63 129 263 62 517
Average daily consumption
– milk substitute l 4 - - - 4
– hay of lucerne kg - - 1 1 1
– hay of trefoil kg 0,7 1,5 - - 1,10
– hayfield kg - - 2 2 2
– silo corn kg - 4,5 10 18 10,83
– combinat fodder kg 1 1,6 3 3,5 2,27
U.N. 2,374 3,815 7,22 9,87 5,82
P.D. g 319 405 612 683 505
Total fodders consumption/ fatten period
–milk substitute l/head 252 - - - 252
– hay of lucerne Kg/head - - 263 62 325
– hay of frefoil Kg/head 44,1 193,5 - - 237,6
– hayfield Kg/head - - 526 124 650
– silo corn Kg/head - 580,5 2630 1116 4326,5
– combinat fodder Kg/head 63 206,4 789 217 1275,4
U.N. Total 149,56 492,13 1898,86 611,94 3152,49
P.D. Total 20097 52245 160956 42346 275644
Specific average consumption/ kg. meat
U.N. number 2,97 4,24 7,22 8,10 5,63
P.D. g 399 450 612 561 506
Combined fodder kg 1,25 1,77 3 2,87 2,22
- 453 -
The calculation of the forage for fatten period

Table 4
First fattening year (tons) Second fattening year (tons)
Phases Combined Hay Hay Hay Silo Combined Hay Hay Hay Silo
fodder Lucerne trefoil field corn fodder Lucerne trefoil fied corn
I 42,8 - 29,9 - - 42,7 - 29,9 - -
II 99,9 - 93,7 - 280,9 131,2 - 122,9 - 368,9
III 118,4 39,5 - 78,9 394,6 496,5 165,5 - 330,9 1654,8
IV 112,6 32,2 - 64,4 579,2 149,5 42,7 85,4 768,7
Total 373,7 71,7 123,6 143,3 1254,7 819,9 208,2 152,8 416,3 2792,4
The calculation of the cultivated surface
Table 5
Crops Hay
Phases Silo corn
Corn Barley Lucerne Trefoil hayfield
I t 37.180 25.641 - 59.831 - -
ha 6.76 5.70 - 5.98 - -
II t 127.092 60.080 - 216.634 - 649.903
ha 23.11 13.35 - 21.66 - 10.83
III t 424.232 122.966 204.943 - 409.886 2049.43
ha 77.13 27.32 17.08 - 51.23 34.16
IV t 220.147 27.518 74.88 - 149.76 1347.84
ha 40.02 6.12 6.24 - 18.72 22.46
TOTAL t 808.651 236.205 279.823 276.465 559.646 4047.173
ha 147.02 52.49 23.32 27.64 69.95 67.45
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
The projected option starts from that the farm is new established „ green
field”, the reason for which is necessary of the 1st year for filling up the fattening
area because first group of animals go to 4-th phase of fattening at 455 days from
the date of the population. Thus, all methodology of technological projecting is
calculated for 2.3 years. The projecting of the feeding system efferent to the
period of fatten necessary to the realization of the annual production which was
planned by a project has in the end a total necessary of fodder for the 2 years
from the 6 table.
Table 6
Forage Quantity (t )
Supply milk 341,9
Fodder crops 1193,5
Hay Lucerne 279,8
Hay trefoil 276,5
Hayfield 559,6
Silo corn 4047,2
I consider that no matter what technological way of continuous gaining

weight you adopt (calf for white meat, light, average heavy, or very heavy) or the
way of fattening young cattle with of the weight (light, average or heavy) it’s
needed a technological projecting which to ensure a vision of dimensional
technical and economical implications necessary to realization a certain
production of meat considering the requests of the market in a particular moment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. C.Velea, G.Onaciu, M. Vomir -2000-Cercetări privind dinamica segmentelor osoase în carcasă
şi în principalele sortimente de carne la Tineretul taurin de rasă Bălţată româneasc. Sesiunea
ştiinţifică anualăTimişoara, vol.XXXIII (2000) 26 mai., pag.252-257,ISSN-1221-5287, Editura
Agroprint
2. C. Velea, G.Onaciu, M.Vomir, (2001) Synthetic index of estimating certain traits of meat.
production in young cattle, Simpozion “Perspective pentru agricultura mileniului III”, USAMV
Cluj-Napoca 25-27 oct., p.155, vol.55-56, ISSN 1454-2382
3. Onaciu G., (2006) -Researches regarding cattle husbandry from Transylvania in adhesion to EU
perspective. Lucrări ştiinţifice Zootehnie şi Biotehnologii, vol. XXXIX-2 (2006), Timişoara, pag.
183-188, ISSN 1221-5287
- 455 -
BACK
PREVENTION MEASUREMENTS AND TREATMENT OF

SOME CHINCHILLA DISEASES
M. BOTHA, I. BUD, ANDREA HETTIG, Şt. RÉKA
Pathological situations and premature die is due to unfavorable

environment conditions, inadequate feeding, accidents, and not in the last, to
parasites and diseases. In this branch of animal breeding, techno-preventive
measurements are very important to eliminate the possibility of pathological
micro-flora and fauna proliferation. Often, amazing results, has obtained by
using simple and cheap treatments, without any side effect.
Chinchilla species was lately introduced in intensive fur animal system

breeding, maintaining the most of the rustic characteristics, lending itself very
well in different reproduction systems, and hearing about examples in step
conditions. Though chinchilla is not perfectly adapted in captivity develops a
weak immunity as a response to pathogen agent’s attacks, compeering to other
earlier domesticated species. These are the reasons why it can be affirmed, that
the health condition of the chinchillas are depending on breeding and care
conditions.

Observations, respectively the applied treatments was made on subjects
from the Fur Animals Department bio-basis of the Faculty of Animal Husbandry
and Biotechnology from the University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary
Medicine, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, and on the effective from de S.C. Mendiora
S.R.L., Reghin, Mureş County, Roumania.
Studying the printed and on-line publications and the scientific papers we
where compared with our results.
Harem is the used breeding system, for each male corresponding 5
females (5+1), which has permanent access in the female’s cage through a visiting
corridor. The bedding cages dimensions are: 50x40x40 cm, the bedding was done
weekly.
In enteritis situations we used with more success mint infusion (Mentha
piperita) than the rice juice because of his palatability it was consume restraint by
the animals. In constipation cases for the intestinal transit, we used an autochthon
nutritive supplement, named Eridiarom, which main component is the fruit of
bilberry.
These natural preparates have the avantages that they didn’t have secondary
effects, comparative to sinthetical medicametions which have an aggresive effect
on intestinal flora and mucous membrane, wich are good known.
- 456 -

It is known you better avert a disease that you treat it. Preventing diseases
of chinchillas breeds in captivity involves a very attentive observation of them,
and especially we must pay attention to physico-chemical and biological
parameters of environment.
Table 1
Prevention methods and treatment for some fur, respiratory and digestive diseases
Diseases Symptom’s Cause Treatment

1 2 3 4
Fur diseases
Fur chewing Own or/and others Inadequate Atypical. Transfer in a
fur chewing. medications, quite place, diversified
defective feeding, feeding (fruits,
stress, genetic roughage) with pellets.
cause, Assuring natural
temperament. illumination.
Mycosis Skin wound. Trichophyton Different fungicide
mentagrophyte and uses gives very good
Trichosporon results in each case.
giganteum caused
by excessive
humidity and high
temperature.
Intern diseases
High temperature Different food Emergent fever lowing
(40ºC), or to low intoxications. and antibiotic
(35-36ºC). medication as vet
indicated.
Respiratory
diseases
Pneumonia Forage refusing, Streptococus 3 days injection
depressed animal, pyogenes, medication with
staying immobile Pasteurella, penicillin (50 000 I.U.),
in the corner of Klensiella plus
the cage. pneumoniae, etc. Dihydrostreptomicine
(50 mg).
Lung congestion 39-40ºC fever, Pneumococoses, Preventive should
depressed animal, cold, sweating assure constant
and refuse the animal during temperature without
food. parturition. draught, curative large
spectrum antibiotics
using.
- 457 -
1 2 3 4
Bronchitis and Cough, tearing Draught, high Assuring a constant
cold in the head eyes, depressed humidity, suddenly 20ºC temperature,
animal. changing avoid by drought.
temperature.
Digestive diseases
Tympanites and Accelerate Overheated green Oral: acid lactic
meteorism breathing, dilated forage solution 3-5% 2-4
stomach. administration cm3/animal or paraffin
(stored fresh and oil 10-20 cm3/animal.
wet). Plus coffeine injection
0,5-1 cm3 25% conc.
Enteritis Small intestines Mouldy, rotten, Eliminate causing
inflammation. infected forage, or factors. In bacteria
bacteria and causes large spectrum
parasites; suddenly antibiotics use. Roasted
change feeding. corn and barley
feeding, instead of
water rice juice
administration. It was
also successfully to
substitute the water for
a week with mint
infusion.
Constipation Depressed animal, Defective cellulose Succulents, fruit juice,
light dilated intake, intestine or 2-3 cm3/day paraffin
stomach. stenosis with oil administration. We
tumor or scar have obtained very
origins. good results by oral
administration 4/5 days
½ Eridiarom tablets
3x/day.
CONCLUSIONS
Exaggerated intensivization of chinchillas breeding technologies, by
antibiotics and vitamins abuse, it is not increase its productions performance. But
we can reach all these by rational feeding, adequate sheltering and applying
faultless hygienically and sanitary measurements.
Beginning with the idea that is easier to prevent the start of some
diseases, it is imperative to apply a whole complex preventive measurement, to
have healthy animals. Moreover that the medications and investigations involves
high costs, these aren’t gives us the expected results, as often as not these
interventions ending with the animals exitus.
- 458 -
BACK
Because of preventive causes every chinchilla ranch should have extra

clean and disinfected cages, to can replace immediately the dirty ones and those
they are occupied by sick animals.
We recommend washing and disinfection of water trough weekly and
monthly the feeding trough, because these represent an important source of
microbial proliferation.
Also moreover the weekly cleaning is necessary that once a week to make
a general cleanup by washing the floor with hot water and soda, to hinder the
parasites and different pathogen germs proliferation.
REFERENCES
1. BUD, I., REKA ŞTEFAN, 2006, Animale de blană: creştere, reproducere, valorificare, Ed.
Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca.
2. BURA, M., 2003, Chinchilla: biologie, întreţinere, nutriţia, reproducere, ameliorare, valorificare,
patologie, Ed. Agroprint, Timişoara.
3. HOLDAS, S., 1981, A csincsilla tenyésztése, Mezőgaydasági Kiadó, Budapest.
4. HOLDAS, S. és J. UDVARDY, 1998, Prémesállatok tényésztése, Agroinform Kiadóház,
Budapest.
5. REBREANU, ŞT., L., 2002, Animale ierbivore cu blănuri preţioase, Ed. de Vest, Timişoara.
6. REBREANU, ŞT., L., 1982, Creşterea chinchilelor, Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti.
7. SIMON, L., 2006, Posibilităţi de creştere, înmulţire şi valorificare a chinchilei în ferme de tip
familial, Lucrare de diplomă.
8. ZEINERT KAREN, 1986, All about chinchillas, T.F.H. Publications, New Jersey.
- 459 -
BACK
DIRECTIONS AND TENDENCIES FOR OBTAINING

RABBIT HYBRIDS FOR MEAT IN EUROPE
M. BOTHA, I. BUD, ANDREA HETTIG, Aurelia PECE
At world level, industrial breeding of meat rabbits almost in exclusivity

used industrial hybrids, rule that was based on 4 lines, two paternal lines and
two maternal lines. Generally the maternal lines were formed by the New-
zealand white and Californian lines, and the paternal lines were formed by,
New-zealand and White giant for the white hybrids, and French silver respective
Burgoni red for the pigmented hybrids (Label). In present, the hybrid parents
have specific a middle prolificacy, with over than 9 offspring’s/bring. Young’s
are slaughtered at 70/80 days old, when they reached a 2200 - 2900 g body
weight, these weights differ from country to country.
At world level almost in exclusivity, the rabbit meat is obtained from

special hybrids and just a little part of the total meat is obtained from pure breeds.
The exploited hybrids are bi, tri or tetra- linear or racial, the last ones, are most
frequently used, to the prejudice of simply hybrids, for the maximization of
heterosis through genes frequency manipulation (BUD et al., 2000). The main
aim of making hybrids is to assure an economical, competent and high quality
meat production. At the same time, hybrid making suppose some choice farms
foundation and function, with selected nucleus of pure races, were the reproducers
are tested, allowed, and the results of these selections and testing centers
determinate a better knowledge and a continue adaptation of exploitation
technology, in breeding/fatting farms and also in private farms.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Information’s are from different sources: media, internet, scientific
papers, books and specialized courses, respective annually report concerning live
stock of different countries with tradition in industrial rabbit meat production. We
find a lot of information from internet, but the strict technically information are
more generally. So, the most relevant results, which reflect the features and
performances of rabbit hybrids productivity, were found in scientific papers and
in the domain station’s research announcements.
- 460 -
Table 1
Research stations and marketing society for some rabbit hybrids for meat
(by Holdas Sándor, 2000)
The hybrid and the origin Research station Center
of this
France
SOLAF, SOLAM FRANCE LAPIN Belleville sur vie
HYPLUS GRIMAUD FRÉRES Foussay
HYCOLE HYCOLE Ribécourt-la-Tour
HYLA EUROLAP SARL Argentrè du Plessis
GENIA CUNIFRANCE GIE 28 rue du Rocher Paris
HY 2000 CEGAN St. Mars d’Egrenne
VITALINE UCAAB Chateau Thierry Cèdex
COL / MED /
MASHYBRI VIDALOT Poucharramet
OPTIMA HEXALAP Pompetuzat
Germany
ZIKA ZIKA Untergröningen
Spain
REHI CAPA CUNICULA Cordoba
GM80-82 MASALLES Ripollet-Barcelona
Belgium
CUNISTAR MDL VERABREED–VERSELE Deinze
LAGA
Italy
PROVISAL PROVISAL SpA Molinella
ELCO PADOVANI S.I.R. GET Faenza
HYPED SIMEM SpA Montemarciano
YTANCO GENES ZOOCONSULT Lucca
Almost in exclusivity the rabbit hybrids for meat marketing in Europe are
created from four lines, the females are originate from New-zealand white and/or
Californian, the weight of adults of these females sometimes overtake 4 kg, and
the selection criterions takes account by the number of offspring’s, the number of
weaned rabbits, the viability of offspring’s and the suckling capacity of females.
At males selection the main aim is to increase the daily weight accumulation, and
also the carcass dressing, to improve the sperm quality, and latter to obtain color
offspring’s.
- 461 -
In France, the first society which produce rabbit hybrids program were
SOLAF and SOLAM, which begins from 1975 selling hybrids parents (BURA
and BENCSIK, 2000).
Zimmerman, the author of German hybrid, Zika, works more than 25
years to improve programs for hybrids, which were commercialized in different
countries.
Also, researchers from Spain, working at perfecting the improvement
program of Rehi hybrid, more than 30 years. Their improvement program based
on a french system from INRA (SOLAM-SOLAF).
In Belgium the obtaining of a hybrid was begun in 1974, using New-
zealand white and Californian lines, and latter for obtaining color offspring’s they
used Burgoni red and French silver males.
Italian researchers have more than 25 years of experience in meat rabbits
improvement. They made hybrids from big rabbit parents; these hybrids have a
60-61% slaughter efficiency, and superior feed conversion.
Table 2
Productive performances of some hybrids
( by Holdas Sándor, 2000)
Hybrid
Features
Hyplus Hycole Zika Hyla
Fecundation, % 70-80 75-85 75-85 70-85
Prolificacy:- total 9,5-10,5 9-10 8,5-9,5 8,5-9,5
-alive 9-10 8,5-9,5 8,0-8,5 8-9
Weaned rabbits 8,0-8,5 7,5-8,5 7,0-7,5 7,5-8
Weight of young’s, g 58-60 60-62 60-65 60-63
- at 28 days 650-700 550-600 550-600 -
- at 35 days 900-950 - - 750-850
- at 70 days 2400-2500 2200-2400 2200-2400 2400-2500
- at 77 days - 2400-2600 2500-2700 2600-2700
- at 84 days - - 2700-3000 2800-2900
Daily weight increase, 38-43 35-40 40-45 40-43
g/day
Feed consumption, g/day 125-135 120-130 130-150 130-150
Specific consumption, g/g 3,0-3,3 3,1-3,3 3,1-3,3 3,2-3,4
Carcass dressing, % 58-60 57-59 58-59 58-59
It must be reminded that in literature and scientific communications, annual

productivity performances are mentioned in function of the animal number, not in
function of the female’s number. So, the values can be higher over 50% for each
female, due to this the results represent just partially the hybrid performances.
According to the results of National Institute for Quality Control in
Agriculture from Hungary, in 2006, the hybrids productive performances
presented earlier were not suffered changes. With a certain reserve we can talk
- 462 -
about a biological limit concerning the productive performances of industrials

rabbit hybrids for meat.
Depending on consumers preferences for bigger rabbits carcass, these
were slaughter at 2,5 kg alive and over this weight (in Italy, Germany and
Hungary), or for smaller rabbits, they were slaughter at 2,3-2,4 kg alive, in
France and 1,8-2,0 kg alive in Spain, we used parental paternal lines with 5,5-6,0
kg or 4,5-5,0 kg. Specific for these parental lines, is that, they can reach even 50 g
daily weight accumulation.
A new tendency is to obtain pigmented hybrids (colored hybrids) for
satisfy the market demand. The consumers prefer the rabbit’s proceed from micro
farms with a natural breeding way, with the Label sign. For this aim, were used
Burgoni red and French silver parental lines, crossbred with albino hybrid
females.
When we talk about hybrids we have to remind two hybrids, one created
in our country: Supercuni, the result of 15 years of work, selection and
improvement (FRĂŢILĂ et al., 1985), and the second one created in Hungary,
White Pearl hybrid (Fehér Gyöngy).
Supercuni hybrid was a tetra-linear hybrid, formed by two paternal lines
(L.B. 111 and L.B. 121) and two maternal lines (L.B. 112 and L.B. 122 ), to the
forming operation contribute the next breeds: French silver, White giant, New-
zealand white, Burgoni red, as paternal lines and Big chinchilla, Californian,
New-zealand white , Giant russian white, White German giant and common white
from France as maternal lines.
Table 3
Some features of romanian meat rabbit – Supercuni
(by Liviu Şt. Rebreanu, 1989)
Specification M.U. Value
Weaned rabbits /female/year piece 55-60
Weight at 70-80 days kg 2,3-2,5
Specific consumption kg 2,8-3,5
Slaughter efficiency % 55-58
Reproductive maturity:
- male month 5,5
- female 4,5
Period of female exploitation year 1,5
Temperament - mild
Supercuni hybrid was created in artificial conditions, pretending similar

exploitation conditions for the genetic potential exteriorization. Finally, the Food
Industry and Agricultural Ministry has elaborated a new breeding technology
specially for this hybrid. Some features of romanian meat rabbit Supercuni,
picked from the literatures are illustrated in Table 3.
- 463 -
In Hungary, in ’70th, was created the tri-linear, White pearl hybrid, at the
Research Institute for Small Animals, presented officially at National Food and
Agricultural Exhibition from 1970.
Like maternal lines were used the Californian and New-zealand white
breeds, and as terminal male, was used a big size of New-zealand white.
The productive performance of the White pearl hybrid can compete with
the most famous hybrids of the times. The choice farms had an effective with
10.000 females for reproduction (grandparents and parents), which offered 40 –
50.000 reproducers for many other micro farms, moreover replaced the annual
reform.
Ones with the appearance of the private farms, the hybrids breeding were
stopped. For a while the lines were maintained at the Research Station for the
Small Animals from Gödöllő, but in the present it’s not exist already. Other
hybrids that disappeared or had been replaced were the following: Hy-Lyne,
Buxted and Norfolk from England, Carolina from France, and Vértes hybrid from
Hungary.
Fig.1. Fehér Gyöngy hybrid ( by HOLDAS S. et al., 1975 )
CONCLUSIONS
France has the greatest tradition in rabbit meat production and
consumption. Also, France has the most numerous homologated hybrids, and the
second place is represented by Italy.
According to annual report of National Institute for Quality Control in
Agriculture, seams that we can talk about a biological limit concerning productive
performances of industrials rabbit hybrids breed for meat.
It is important that latter, the modern consumer has change his culinary
habits and he beginning a healthfully diet, fact which is reflected by the market
demanding for pigmented hybrids, which remind us a rustic animal, grown in
extensive exploitations.
Regrettable is the fact that we lost the only native hybrid, with really
competitive features for the European rabbit meat market. This is due to the
cessation of export; it is known that our country doesn’t have a tradition in rabbit
meat consumption.
- 464 -
BACK
REFERENCES
1. BUD, I., MARIANA DINEA, DANIELA LADOŞI, 2000, Iepurii. Mică enciclopedie
Cuniculă, Ed. AcademicPres, Cluj-Napoca.
2. BUD, I., şi ADRIANA POP, 2005, Iepurii – ceştere, hrănire, înmulţire şi valorificare, Ed
Risoprint, Cluj-napoca.
3. BURA, M.şi I. BENCSIK, 2000, Ameliorarea genetică a iepurior de rasă, Ed. Mirton,
Timişoara.
4. FRĂŢILĂ, N., G. VOICU, V. COFAS, V. STĂNESCU, 1985, Creşterea industrială a
Iepurilor, Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti.
5. HOLDAS, S., 2000, Nyúltenyésztés. Fajták és fenntartásuk, Gazda Kiadó, Budapest.
6. REBREANU, ŞT., L., 1989, Tehnologia creşterii iepurilor de casă, Ed. Facla, Timişoara
7. *** Fajtajegyzék Magyarország gazdasági haszonállatairól - 2006
- 465 -
BACK
CONTRIBUTIONS OF SIZE AND QUALITATIVE INCREASE

TO THE HUNTING WITCH IS CONSUMED BY HUMAN
Şt. REKA, I. BUD, M. BOTHA
The management of the hunting includes a wide gamut of activities, with

economical aims, in one hand (meat, trophies and furs), and with relaxing aims
(sport, cinegetic tourism), on the other hand. To fulfill these aims, we considered
opportune to accomplish some thoroughgoing studies of ecology, biology,
etiology and improvement, and also it is necessary to make some analysis for
game meat quality evaluation. We consider opportune the following reasonable
measures: the efficient management of the hunting backgrounds, and the efficient
fight with the poachers. Anothe important measure is the improvement of the
hunting backgrounds flora. The supply of the supplementary food for games,
especially in winter and in special situation of the relief, vegetation and clime
diversification it is very important, also. It is necessary to make a detailed
selection plan, which should provide the priorities and methodology for each
species. The artificial selection of the game is different from the domesticated
animal’s selection. In the case of the domesticated animals which are selected
the more values examples, in the case of the game, are selected the inadequate
examples. The demand of the game meat and game sausages is increase in the
last period, and it is our duty, of the specialists, to improve the quantity and
quality of the game and to turn to good account the cinegetic patrimony of our
country. For the improvement of the morpho-productive performance in each
generation, it is needed a selection of the biological material.
In present, everywhere in the world, it is practice the hunting and the

game effective’s management. These actions include a wide gamut of activities,
with economical aims, in one hand (meat, trophies and furs), and with relaxing
aims (sport, cinegetic tourism), on the other hand.
To achieve these aims, beside the biological material harvesting, in the
present, it is very important the game breeds increasing and diversification, and
the improvement of: the breeding performances, the development of the game
effectives, and the trophies quality.
Beside the game effectives increase, the researchers’ attention is aimed to
some actions which improve the game meat quantity and quality. The game meat
demand is bigger and bigger on the world market; it is consumed like meat or like
different sausages.
To fulfill these aims, we considered opportune to accomplish some
thoroughgoing studies of ecology, biology, etiology and improvement, and also it
is necessary to make some analysis for game meat quality evaluation.
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The results which were statistically debates were originated from some
enclosures forest, personal experiences and literatures. Also, it was made the
game meat quantitative and qualitative analysis, comparative to domesticated
animals meat analysis.
The actual statistically debates related big variations of game meat
effectives, with alarming diminutions of some species. Due to these results we
considered opportune to give a big importance to these situations.
There are many causes of the effectives diminution (more or little
objectives causes), these causes can be eliminated or decreased for the national
patrimony recovery.

We consider opportune the following reasonable measures: the efficient
management of the hunting backgrounds, and the efficient fight with the
poachers.
Other important measure is the improvement of the hunting backgrounds
flora. The sowing and the over sowing of the hunting backgrounds pastures
which determined the flora improvement, it is very important. Pastures flora offer
the necessary food for games, so the reproduction index, body weight increasing,
and also the game meat quality.
Also, we appreciate that we can arrange trees; fruit bushes in the forest
for improve the games forage, without to many financiers’ efforts.
Beside the enumerated measures, we can also, mentioned the supply of
the supplementary food for games, especially in winter and in special situation of
the relief, vegetation and clime diversification.
Implications of the humans were very necessary in winter, when the
natural food quantity is low. In winter, it is very important the supply of the
supplementary food for the assurance and maintenance of a good development of
body weight.
For a good function of the organisms, for the skeleton consolidation and
for a good development of the trophies, it is necessary a supplementary mineral
food supply.
A very big deficit in minerals, especially in calcium and phosphor, in cold
season, determine a supplementary food supply in all these elements, during
entire winter. Beside these two minerals, calcium and phosphor, it is necessary the
supply of a vitamin – mineral premix, which provide high resistance for the
animals in heavy winters.
In our country, the game selection it is a domain that was low exploited,
at some species it wasn’t at all. Due to this the biological material value
decreases, under the trophies quality and the body weight development aspects.
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Natural selection it is considered like the nature’s law, which includes the
external and internal factors, acting in game’s life, and promoting game’s survival
of the healthiest examples, in the existent conditions of the moment. In the case
that some natural selection factors acting at inadequate directions, the role of the
artificial selection must be compulsory to correct and to complete the natural one,
and giving a significant progress in every game generation. During history, in
game effective’s evolution, humans made some serious errors, harvesting the
most valuable examples, and offered a chance for inadequate animals to the
reproduction process. All these manage to the organism’s debility, under the
trophy’s values and morphologic aspects.
This is why we considered immediate a very important measure to
improve the game’s effectives in our country.
At the beginning, we considered opportune the thoroughgoing elements
tied to the effectives knowledge, to the density of the game in the area, to the
morphological features, to the sex report, and the quality of the trophies.
Also, it is necessary to make a detailed selection plan, which should
provide the priorities and methodology for each species. In this sense, we
recommended the following selection criteria for the cinegetic species which
provide meat for human consumption (Table 1).
Table 1
Recommendations concerning some species selection from Romania
Body Harvesting criteria of the
No Waist Body length
Species weight inadequate biologic
(cm) (cm)
(kg) material for reproduction
1 2 3 4 5 6
The wick, undeveloped,
with precarious health
examples, with broken or
little antlers, it will be
Chamois
harvested. The harvesting
1 (Rupicapra 70-80 110-130 30-35
period of the younger is
rupicapra)
between November and
December, and for the
adults is between: 15 Sept. –
31 Dec.
The little wild boars, the
examples with defect, with
abnormal coloration, with
anomaly, with broken or
Wild boar
2 80-100 150-200 200-250 wick fangs, the metis with
(Sus scrofa)
domesticated pig, all these
examples will be harvested.
The harvesting period: 1
Aug.-15 Feb.
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1 2 3 4 5 6
Examples with debility, or
with defects, it will be
eliminated, no matter of the
sex or age. Examples with
Bear
congenital anomalies, the
(Ursus
3 90-130 150-250 250-400 aggressive to humans and
arctos)
other animals. It will be
important the color of the
animals and the shape of the
skull. Harvesting: 15 Mar. -
15 Mai and 1 Sep. – 31 Dec.
Under weight calf’s and
with debility, wick antlers,
inadequate rays on the pole,
or with unsymmetrical
branches will be eliminated.
Carpathian The adults with short,
deer irregular, unsymmetrical
4 130-150 200-250 250-350
(Cervus poles and without rays on
elaphus) the top of poles will be
eliminated. The old hinds
with inadequate constitution
and inadequate offspring’s.
Harvesting period: 1 Sept-
28 Feb.
Under weight calf’s with
debility, wick antlers,
inadequate rays. The adults
Fallow deer with short, irregular,
5 (Dama 80-110 125-150 75-130 unsymmetrical poles and
dama) without rays on the top of
poles will be eliminated.
Harvesting: 1 Sept. - 30
Nov.
Also, for the improvement of the trophies (furs), we recommended the

following selection criteria (Table 2).
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Table 2
Recommendations concerning some fur species selection from Romania
Body Harvesting criteria of the

Waist Body length
No Species weight inadequate biologic material
(cm) (cm)
(kg) for reproduction
1 2 3 4 5 6
Underweight examples, with
debility, anomalies, atypical
coloration and inadequate
Lynx
conformation will be
1 (Lynx 45-80 100-150 40-50
eliminated. It is very important
lynx)
the maintenance of density for
this specie. Harvesting period:
1 Sept. -30 Apr.
coloration, with rare fur, short
Red fox tail, inadequate conformation
2 (Vulpes 35-40 100-130 7-10 and ill examples will be
vulpes) eliminated. Where the density
is too high, the inadequate
examples will, maintain 2-3
individs/100 ha.
Wolf coloration, with rare fur, short
3 (Canis 70-90 150-180 30-50 tail, inadequate conformation
lupus) and ill examples will be
eliminated. Harvesting period:
during entire year.
The younger were selected
concerning to the size, color,
healthy and the trophies size.
Mouflon
4 (Ovis 60-70 120-130 40-50
musimon)
coloration, conformation and
ill examples will be
eliminated.
The maintenance and protection of some values nucleus from each species
and in each area, will be determine a proper report of the examples, in one hand and
on the other hand it will be improve the development of the body and the quality of
the trophies. The artificial selection of the game is different from the domesticated
animal’s selection. In the case of the domesticated animals, are selected the more
values examples, and in the case of the game, are selected the inadequate examples.
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BACK
When the game effectives of some species are over the optimal density, the
selection it must be following the next rules: first it will be eliminated the examples
with debility, illness, olds, with exterior defects, or the underweight examples, and
last it will be eliminated the wick developed, underweight males, with insufficient
musculature or with inferior quality of the trophies, and the inadequate females,
morphological point of view. It is very important to eliminate the males before the
mating period to avoid the transmissions of the features to the next generation, and
the females will be eliminate in winter, when these are more easily identify and to
turn a good account. The persons which made the selection it must examined with
much attention the examples, due to this they must known very well the selected
species biology, to known the aims of the selection and the value of the parameters
of the selection.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The game management is a very important responsibility, which can’t
determine a significant progress without the assurance of the good quality
supplementary forage, and beside this is needed a selection and improvement of
the biological material, based on the last conquers of the genetics and genetics
improvement.
2. The demand of the game meat and game sausages is increase in the last period,
and it is our duty, of the specialists, to improve the quantity and quality of the
game and to turn to good account the cinegetic patrimony of our country.
3. For the improvement of the morpho-productive performance in each generation,
it is needed a selection of the biological material.
4. With human interventions in supplementary forage assurance during the cold
season, and with sowing and over sowing of the hunting area, we determine the
increase of the game effectives, the lost diminution of these and the increase of
the game meat quality.
REFERENCES
1. BUD, I., REKA ŞTEFAN (2006) - Animale de blană: creştere, reproducere, valorificare, Ed.
Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca.
2. BUD, I., GH., JIBOTEANU, V., MOLDOVAN, I. MAN (2002) – Vânatul, vânătoarea şi
turismul cinegenetic, Ed. AcademicPres, Cluj-Napoca.
3. GEORGESCU, M., G., C., GEORGESCU (1996) – Enciclopedie zootehnică, Ed. Albatros,
Cluj-Napoca.
4. ŞELARU, N. (1995) – Mistreţul – monografie, Ed. Salut 2000, Bucureşti.
5. REKA ŞTEFAN, I., BUD, (2005) – Analysis of game’s physico- chemical features compared
to domesticated animals, Buletin USAMV – C.N., Vol. 61, ISSN 1454 – 2382, pag.284-289
6. . REKA ŞTEFAN, I., BUD (2007) – Comparative reasearch into the microstructure of beef and
deer meat muscles, 42nd Croatian & 2nd International Symposium on Agriculture, ISBN
978 – 953 – 6135 – 57 – 8, pag. 570-572
7. VINTILĂ, I. (1998) – Bazele genetice ale populaţiilor de animale, Ed. Facla, Timişoara.
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RESEARCH REGARDING THE BODY WEIGHT DYNAMICS

ON A SET OF BUFFALOES FROM SCPCB SERCAIA
Maria UNGUREANU, Maria CORDUNEANU
In our country, raising buffaloes has been a common occupation in

certain areas even since the 4th or 5th centuries, still being among the income
sources of village inhabitants.
Buffalo meat is of poor quality, but when animals are raised for their
meat, intensively fed and slaughtered at an early age, we get a meat of superior
organoleptic quality, hardly different from beef.
Control during fattening is the first stage in appreciating the overall or
individual production of meat.
Depending on age, sex and the amount of feeding, buffaloes develop
different rhythms of body weight dynamics.
INTRODUCTION
In our country, raising buffaloes has been a common occupation in certain
areas even since the 4th or 5th centuries, still being among the income sources of
village inhabitants.
The first written information on raising buffaloes come from Porumbaru
de Jos and regarded the buffaloes in the Fagaras county, and the first selection
nucleus was created at Sercaia between 1870-1879.
Now, in Romania, buffaloes are being raised in three large centres, geo-
climatically suitable for their needs.
Buffalo meat is of poor quality, but when animals are raised for their
meat, intensively fed and slaughtered at an early age, we get a meat of superior
organoleptic quality, hardly different from beef.
In our country, buffalo meat is less appreciated because it comes from old
low quality animals.
Control during fattening is the first stage in appreciating the overall or
individual production of meat and aims at establishing the rhythm of body weight
accumulation and the capacity of food conversion (or the specific consumption),
features that have a direct impact on the technical and economical proficiency of
production.
Depending on age, sex and the amount of feeding, buffaloes develop
different rhythms of body weight dynamics, but they must be situated in all cases
over a minimal level so that fattening can be considered efficient. The analysis of
the way in which the fattening process takes place is based on the results of
periodical weighing that, in order to be relevant, must take place after a 12-hour
diet and always in identical conditions.
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MATERIAL AND METHOD

The research has been carried out on a set of 20 buffaloes from SCPCB
Sercaia, observing the methodology of this type of analysis.
The monthly assessment was made on control sets, representing 50% of
each fattening stage and from each shelter, the same all through the fattening. The
results of the weighing were written down in data charts.
The assessment of the fattening process based on weighing is expressed
in absolute values, through the accumulation of daily total and average body
weight, through intensity and growth coefficient.
The Dynamics of the increase

The increase is the accumulation of body weight over a certain period of
time (month, trimester, year, etc.). It is established based on the difference
between the initial and final weight of that period.
It is an index widely used in planning, in defining production parameters,
exploitation technologies, in research, in economical activity, in labor retribution, etc.
Average increase = final weight – initial weight
Daily average increase (s.m.z.) is the result of total accumulation over
time, expressed in days. It is a very important index which, besides the above-
mentioned goals, ensures the characterization of the way in which the fattening
process takes place and brings up problems that may arise during it, thus
contributing to adopting suitable technological solutions.
In the total accumulation of body weight, an important part is played by
the birth weight. With the buffalo population in discussion, it is an average of 32
kg for males and, respectively, 28 kg for females.
The next chart presents the average values of the daily average increase
for males and females, from birth to the age of 1, between 2005-2006.
Table 1
Average values of the dailty average increase
Daily average increase accumulated
Age interval
Males Females
Birth-3 months 540 g 527 g
3-6 months 417 g 413 g
6-12 months 521 g 495 g
The Dynamics of food consumption

The assessment of the food assimilation capacity or the specific
consumption is established by calculating the contents in standard feeding units of
food consumed over a given period of time or during fattening, which is
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BACK
compared to the total body weight accumulation over the same period of time.
Our standard feeding unit is UN, and the specific consumption is expressed in
UN/kg body weight increase.
Monitoring the specific consumption during fattening allows us to
appreciate the way the food used is assimilated, the efficiency of the meal
structure, the optimal duration of fattening and the production potential of animals
in the given technological conditions.
The quantitative parameters of meat production for young buffloes are
presented in table 2.
Table 2
The daily feeding level of young buffaloes exposed to semi-intensive fattening,
depending on the rhythm of the expected body weight accumulation
Body weight Required Required UN/day, depending on the rhythm of

kg SU/day kg weight accumulation
500 g 600 g 700 g 800 g
100-150 3,1-3,5 3,0-3,5 3,5-4,2 4,0-5,0 4,8-5,3
151-200 3,8-4 3,5-4,5 4,0-5,0 4,5-5,8 5,0-6,5
201-250 5,7 4 –5 5,0-5,7 5,0-6,5 6,0-7,2
251-300 7,3 4,5-6 5,5-6,0 5,5-7,0 6,3-7,5
301-350 8,5 5,5-6,5 5,7-6,6 6,0-7,2 6,5-7,8
351-400 10,0 6,5-7,5 6,5-7,5 6,3-7,8 6,7-8,2
401-450 11,0 7 –8,5 6,5-7,5 6,6-8,2 7,2-8,8
CONCLUSIONS
Knowing the characteristics of meat production is a burning issue as the
world meat demand is increasing, and the buffalo populations can also contribute
to meet this increasing demand of animal protein, and this species is not used for
meat production at its complete capacity.
We hope that, in our country, buffaloes will play a more important part in
animal breeding, given the fact that there are no production ratio granted by the
European Union for buffalo milk and meat, raising great opportunities for turning
them into a wide range of products.
Breeding this species may also easily qualify as what is to become
“sustainable animal breeding”, aiming at a certain development direction, based
on a new policy of managing natural resources and integrated biological, technical
and financial fluxes, by creating “eco-farms” in an area as large as possible.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Georgescu, Gh şi colab. - Tratat de creştere a bovinelor, vol I, Ed Ceres, Bucureşti, 1988.
2. Stoica, I, Stoica Liliana - Bazele nutriţiei şi alimentaţiei animalelor, Ed Coral Sanivet,
Bucureşti, 2001
3. Velea, C-tin - Tehnologia creşterii bovinelor, Ed Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1983
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BACK
RESEARCH CONCERNING THE REPRODUCTIVE

PERFORMANCES RECORDED AT THE PIC 1075 BOARS
EXPLOITED AT SC SUINPROD ROMAN S.A
G. HOHA, B. PĂSĂRIN, Elena COSTĂCHESCU,

Alexandrina DIAC, Roxana STĂNESCU
The efficency of pigs rising is influenced by various factors, among

which reproduction has an essential role.
The knowledge of the dynamics of the spermatic production, rated to
other factors, gives the specialists the opportunity of improving these for a better
expression of the reproductive potential.
The level of semen production made by the PIC 1075 boars is listed in
the upper levels presented by the specialized literature, which gives the
opportunity of exploiting a smaller number of male pigs.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The study needed three boars belonging to the PIC 1075 line, boars which
are exploited currently at SC SUINPROD ROMAN S.A.. The sperm from the
1075 boars is used for artificial insemination of the female pig G.P. 1050 raised in
the hybridizer farm from the unit reminded earlier.
The accommodation and testing conditions were similar for the three
boars which were studied, the age difference between them being small (7,9
months boar number 1, 8 months boar number 2, and 8 months boar number 3).
The first three weekly series of ejaculation, obtained starting with the age
of 8 months, weren’t evaluated, the reproduction use intensity being of one
sampling per day, followed by 5 day pause.
After the sampling , every individual was evaluated, from the point of
view of quantity and quality, in the unit laboratory, laboratory which is equiped as
the standard analysis for the semen material requires, and it is appreciated the
volume of ejaculation, the spermatozoids concentration of the sperm, as well as
the number of doses resulted from the ejaculation.
RESULTS
1. Results concerning the volume of ejaculation
The first table presents the results concerning the quantitative evolution of
the ejaculation, at the three studied boars, by age. As it can be observed, the
ejaculation volume has vacillated in broad terms from 75 to 630 ml, the higher
level being obtained between the age of 25-36 months. The average level of
ejaculation for the three boars, throughout the study period was of 294,2 ml, being
also reminded in the specialized literature.
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Table 1
The volume of ejaculation at the PIC 1075 boars per
Value of Age (months) Average
statistic (x )
8-12 13-24 25-36
parameters
Minimum 75 210 200
Maximum 315 475 630
Average ( x ) 232 310,4 340,2 294,2
Sx 7,8 7,2 8,4
V% 28,3 25,7 23,8
Analysing the results from the Table 1 we can observe an upward curve
of the ejaculation volume . So, if between the age of 8-12 months the volume was
of 232 ml, there has been a growth, so that between the age of 25-36 months the
level is of 340,2 ml. This situation is similar to the one presented in the
specialized literature, which also states that the function of the reproductive
apparatus is correlated to the age of the individual (Feredean T., Bogdan AT.,
1999, Nacu G.,2005).
The volume of ejaculation has registered differences concerning the
variation of the individual (table 2).
Table 2
The individual variation of the ejaculation volume at the PIC 1075 boars
Value of statistic Boar 1 Boar 2 Boar 3 Average
parameters (x )
Minimum 120 120 75
Maximum 500 630 440
294,2
Average ( x ) 280,8 310,7 291,1
Sx 7,2 8,1 6,9
The greatest variation of this factor can also be expressed by the

vacilliation coefficient, which was higher than 20% for all the studied boars. It is
obvious, that for each boar, the volume of semen production varies from one
sampling to another, being conditioned by various factors (Stan T, 2001).
2. Data concerning the spermatozoids concentration of the semen

The spermatozoids concentration of the semen is the main parameter on
which the dilution of the sperm is based. In the case of the three PIC 1075 boars,
this has registered an average of 380,9 mil. spermatozoids/ ml. (table 3), being
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superior to the many results presented in the specialized literature, and at the same
time being in the terms of scientific communications from the past years (Kunk
J.,2001, Stoica Angela 2003).
Table 3
The spermatozoids concentration of the semen at the PIC 1075 boars
(x 106 spermatozoids / ml)
Value of Age (months) Average
statistic (x )
8-12 13-24 25-36
parameters
Minimum 130 192 220
Maximum 518 560 590
Average ( x ) 350,5 372,3 420 380,9
Sx 8,4 9,3 7,8
V% 24,2 22,1 21,6
From the analysis of the results presented in table 3, we can notice that in the
first study period, at the age of 8-12 months, the spermatozoids concentration was
lower, about 350,5 mil spermatozoids/ ml, growing at the age of 25-36 months to 420
mil. spermatozoids/ml, perhaps because the intensification of the spermatogenesis
from the sexual maturity, associated with a better feeding and maintenance.
3. Data concerning the mobility of the spermatozoids and number

of doses obtained
The average mobility of the spermatozoids from the semen material was
of 77,1%, this not being influenced by the age of the boars. Expressed in values
that are implicit, the differences between the maximum level reached at the age of
13-24 months (78,6%) and the other ages were between 1,3% and 3,2%(Figure 1).
79
78 78.6
77 77.3 77.1
Mobility (%) 76
75 75.4
74
73
8-12. 13-24 25-36 Average
Age (month)
Fig. 1. The mobility of the spermatozoids depending on the age of the boars
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The values which were obtained at the PIC 1075 boars are close to the
ones that are found in the specialized literature for the boars from different
synthetic lines and pure species (Watson PF, 2002, Thibault 1991).
Considering that the mobility of the spermatozoids was of 75% at the
moment that doses were used for insemination of the female pigs, and the number
of spermatozoids per dose was of 4 billions, the average dose number per
individual was determined, as presented in the figure 2.
25
24.3
20 20.8 20.76
Number of 15 17.2
doses
10
0
8.-12 13-24 25-36 Average
Age (month)
Fig.2 The average dose number obtained depending on the age of the boars
From Fig. 2 it can be observed that for the whole study period was
obtained a number of 20,76 doses per individual, being higher by the middle of
the study period, (24,3 doses/ individual) and being lower for the boars that
started the study period(17,2 doses/ individual).

1. The knowledge of the dynamics of semen, rated to other factors, gives
the specialists the opportunity of improving these for a better expression of the
reproductive potential.
2. The level of semen production made by the PIC 1075 boars is listed in
the upper levels presented by the specialized literature, the spermatozoids
concentration and the number of doses per individual being at the level presented
in the specialized literature.
3.Because of the high spermatozoids concentration per individual,
registered throughout the study period, the intensive use of the PIC 1075 boars for
reproduction can become higher so that the period between the sampling to go
down to 3 or 4 days compared to 5 days.
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BACK
4. At the PIC 1075 boars the level of semen production gives the
opportunity to use a smaller number of males, this having good zootechnical and
economic implications.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bogdan A.T. şi col., 1999 – Tratat de reproducţie şi însămânţări artificiale la suine, Editura
Tehnică Agricolă Bucureşti;
2. Feredean T. 1974 – Reproducţia la porcine, Editura Ceres Bucureşti;
3. Kunk J. and col., 2001 – Study of reproduction abilitz in boars, Animal breeding Abstract,
vol.69, no.5, page 465
4. Nacu G., 2005 – Cercetări privind unele posibilităţi de optimizare a funcţiei de reproducere la
suine, Teză de doctorat
5. Stan T. şi Păsărin B., 2001 – Creşterea suinelor, Editura Vasiliana 98, Iaşi
6. Stoica Maria Angela, 2003 – Biologia şi patologia reproducţiei animalelor, Editura Granada
Bucureşti
7. Thibault C., Levasseur M.C., 1991 – La reproduction chez les mammiferes et l”home, Editure
Marketing, Paris
8. Watson P.F., Behan J.R., 2002 – Intrauterine insemination of sows with reduced sperm
numbers: result of a commercially based field trial, Theriogenology, vol.57, page 1683-1693
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POULTRY MEAT QUALITY AS INFLUENCED BY FOWL´S

TRANSPORTATION CONDITIONS
M.G. USTUROI, I. VACARU-OPRIŞ, R.M. RADU-RUSU
The pH level of the poultry meat is straightly influenced by the

conditions that occur during the farm-slaughterhouse transportation.
Even the transportations is made on short distances, a too high
density/coop, some inappropriate climatic conditions and the absence of the rest
period before slaughtering lead to a suddenly pH decreasing in the meat,
reaching a 5.4-5.6 level less than two hours postmortem. Meantime, the meat
gains a pale appearance, the tenderness and the juiciness decrease and the
processing losses increase. An unlikely situation occurs after a too long
transportation period, followed by an immediate slaughtering of the birds, the pH
reaching thus a level of 6.0, as a consequence of poor glycogen and ATP supplies
within the muscles, leading meantime to a high probability of meat’s microbial
dangerous contamination.
The goal of these researches was to study how the density of the birds in
coops and the rest period length before slaughtering influence the pH value of
the poultry meat.
MATHERIALS AND METHODS

The chickens we studied belonged to the commercial ROSS-308 hybrid,
having an average living weight of 2125g.
A truck of 10 tones, with a 50 m2 (5 x 10m) platform was used for
transportation, being loaded with 384 coops (96 coops/level x 4 levels).
The coops were standard type, made of plastics, with 80 x 60 x 30 cm
dimensions.
The distance of 65 km, between poultry farm and slaughterhouse was
covered in 180 minutes, while the environmental temperature reached +25 ÷
+27oC, and the air relative humidity was of 55%.
According to the experimental design (tab. 1), 4 groups were set up: a
witness (control) group (Lc) and three experimental groups (L1exp., L2exp. şi
L3exp.), which were differentiated through the density in the transportation coops
but especially by the length of the rest period between shipment and slaughtering.
Table 1
Experimental design
Group Density/coop Post transportation rest period (minutes)
(heads) I II III
Lc 10 60 120 180
L1exp. 8 60 120 180
L2exp. 12 60 120 180
L3exp. 14 60 120 180
- 480 -
A digital pH-meter was used to assess the pH value of the meat issued
from the studied chickens. The assessments were made in three different
moments, such as: straight after the slaughtering, 6 hours and 12 hours post
mortem.

1. Ante-mortem rest period of 60 minutes. The assessment of the pH value
immediately postmortem (tab. 2) showed that for the groups characterized by a
density of 10, 8 or 12 chickens/transportation coop (Lc, L1exp and L2exp groups),
the indicator was found within normal range, the limits oscillating between
7.09±0.081 (L2exp.) and 7.18±0.072 (L1exp.). Despite this, the overpopulation in
the coops of the L3exp group, (14 chicks./coop) generated a sudden decreasing of
the pH value at a level of 6.66±0.077.
At 6 hours postmortem, the meat pH value decreased in all groups, but
more evident in the groups with higher transportation density (5.02±0.057 at
L2exp. and 4.57±0.052 at L3exp.), comparing to the groups with less chickens per
coop (5.44±0.055 at Lc and 5.58±0.048 at L1exp.).
During the inspection done at 12 hours after slaughtering, the pH value
was found as normal only in the L1exp. group, which had 8 chicks/coop, while the
other groups the data indicated pH levels under normal and usual values
(5.73±0.052 at Lc; 5.15±0.054 at L2exp. and 4.91±0.057 at L3exp.).
Table 2
pH value of the meat
(60 minutes rest period after transportation)
Assessment Statistical Experimental group

interval estimators Lc L1exp. L2exp. L3exp.
Assessment X ±s 7.11±0.087 7.18±0.072 7.09±0.081 6.66±0.077
x
interval
V% 8.62 6.34 9.09 9.71
After X ±s 5.44±0.055 5.58±0.048 5.02±0.057 4.57±0.052
x
slaughter
V% 7.13 5.41 8.88 9.59
6 hours X ±s 5.73±0.052 5.89±0.055 5.15±0.054 4.91±0.057
x
postmortem
V% 6.45 5.89 8.12 9.78
2. Ante-mortem rest period of 120 minutes. Even if the poultry were

transported on the same distance (65 km), the longer period of rest allowed a well
regain of the muscular glycogen supply (tab. 3).
- 481 -
Table 3
Assessment Statistical Experimental group:

Assessment X ±s 7.15±0.073 7.19±0.063 7.11±0.076 6.84±0.075
x
interval
V% 7.24 5.55 8.40 9.16
X ±s 5.57±0.064 5.61±0.066 5.40±0.061 4.81±0.057
After slaughter x
V% 8.12 7.45 9.07 9.91
6 hours X ±s 5.84±0.072 5.99±0.075 5.52±0.064 5.07±0.059
x
postmortem
V% 8.74 7.89 9.15 9.74
Thus, according to the assessments done on fresh meat (immediately after

slaughtering), its pH level was found as normal in the Lc (7.15±0.073), L1exp.
(7.19±0.063) and L2exp. (7.11±0.076) groups or lower in the L3exp. group
(6.84±0.075); the same situation was observed after a storage of 6 hours, at the
meat issued from the L3exp. group, which had an abnormal pH value, under the
lower normal limit (4.81±0.057).
The analyses that were set up on the meat aged of 12 hours revealed a less
favorable regain of the pH value, especially in the groups with a higher chicken
density during transportation. Thus, the pH reached a 5.52±0.064 value, for the
L2exp. group and a 5.07±0.059 value, for the L3exp group.
3. Ante-mortem rest period of 180 minutes. When the chickens (transported on
the same 65 km distance) passed through a longer rest period ante mortem–180
minutes–the biochemical processes within their muscles developed almost
normally, even in the groups characterized by a higher chicken density.
The beneficial influence of a long enough rest period, which allowed a
regeneration of the muscular glycogen, was more evident shown in the L3exp.
transportation version (14 chickens/coop), the pH value of the meat issued from
these poults being almost normal, immediately post-mortem (7.05±0.081), 6
hours postmortem (5.29±0.051), as good as at 12 hours after slaughtering
(5.72±0.061). The assessed pH values were found in normal range, immediately
after slaughtering (7.13-7.20), as well as after 6 hours (5.49-6.61) or 12 hours post
mortem (5.81-6.00) (tab. 4).
- 482 -
Table 4
Assessment Statistical Experimental group:
After X ±s 7.19±0.086 7.20±0.093 7.13±0.088 7.05±0.081
slaughter x
V% 8.47 8.13 9.61 9.75
6 hours X ±s 5.59±0.054 5.61±0.064 5.49±0.064 5.29±0.051
postmortem x
V% 6.85 7.21 9.45 8.62
12 hours X ±s 5.92±0.068 6.00±0.051 5.81±0.059 5.72±0.061
postmortem x
V% 8.12 5.42 7.91 9.84
The climate conditions during transportation and the distance between flock
shelters-slaughterhouse, were identical, only the bird’s density into the coops
were different, leading to some differences on the glycogen consumption
within the muscles, which also influenced the pH dynamics in the meat after
slaughter.
Applying a recovery program, after transportation, allowed the pH value to
regain its normality, as faster as the ret period was longer, covering also the
inconvenient related to a higher birds density into the coops during
transportation.
The results obtained during this study allowed us to submit some
recommendations:
• it imposes to assure a post transportation rest period and to correlate its length
to the distance between farm and slaughter point;
• the transportation of living poultry on long distances and under bad climate
conditions should be avoided;
• an optimal payload within the transportation coops, related to the climate
conditions and especially to the distance between rearing and slaughtering
facilities should be assured.
REFERENCES
1. Bayliss, P.A. and Hinton, M.H., 1990, Transportation of broilers with special reference to
mortality rates. Applied Animal Behavioural Science, no. 28, pg. 93-118, U.S.A.
2. Fletcher, D.L., 1992, The influence of ante-mortem and post-mortem factors on broiler meat
quality. World's Poultry Congress, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 20-24 sept.
3. Gardzielewska, J., 1993, Dynamics of pH in breast muscles of broilers. 11 th European
Symposium on the Quality of Poultry Meat, Tours, France.
- 483 -
BACK
4. Jensen, J.F., 1978, The influence of transportation on broilers. Poultry International, no. 17.
pg. 3, U.S.A..
5. Mitchell, M.A. and col., 2000 – The responses of birds to transportation. XXI World’s Poultry
Congress, Montréal, Canada, Aug. 20-24.
6. Nagla, M., 2000, The impact of post-slaughter bacterial contamination on poultry carcasses.
XXI World’s Poultry Congress, Montreal, Canada, Aug. 20-24.
7. Vacaru-Opriş, I. şi col., 1981 – More meat from tranquillized broilers? Poultry International,
vol. 29, nr. 7, pg. 82-89, U.S.A.
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BACK
OBSERVATIONS ON THE MORPHO-PRODUCTIVE

FEATURES OF THE ROMANIAN BLACK SPOTTED
MEMBERS OF THE BOVIDAE FAMILY FROM THE JORA
FARM, COUNTY IASI
V. MACIUC, V. UJICĂ, Rodica DĂNĂILĂ
The genetic melioration of the members of the Bovidae family and the
selection of the most valuable individuals to produce new generations with a
superior genetic fund represent „the foundation on which one builds the
production of milk and meat”. The increasing of the genetic potential and the
productivity of the present-day populations and breeds of members of the
Bovidae family together with the optimization of the exploitation technologies in
the small and medium size farms, the optimization of correct management and
economic administration represent important ways to increase the milk and meat
production that brings profit and the numeric augmentation of the present-day
livestocks and their qualitative improvement.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The genetic material studied is represented by 150 heads of cows from the
breed Romanian black spotted exploited on the Jora farm from county Iaşi.
We analyzed several aspects for this population: the genetic structure and
the ascendance value, the productive performances during the exploitation period
(5-7 lactations), the main reproduction indices, the corporal development, the
sanitary-veterinary state, the technology practiced in the farm, the manner of
processing and valorization of the milk. The primary data were taken form the
books of the Unit for Melioration and Reproduction in Animal Science,
(UMRAS) Iasi. They were systematized, analyzed and interpreted by methods
specific to such researches. We must mention that the analysis of these data was
made by their combination and correlation with the numerous observations made
directly on farms and the official statistical data and by reporting the results
obtained to the requirements of the transition period to the market economy and
accession to the European Union (EU).
RESULTS OBTAINED
The results regarding the ascendance of the nucleus of members of the
Bovidae family on the farm Jora, county Iasi are presented in table 1. From the
table results that the grandmothers on the maternal line (MM) have a medium
performance of only 3974,1 kg of milk with limits between 1313 – 6686 kg of
milk, 3,91 % fat and 154,81 kg of pure fat. Grandmothers on the paternal line
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(MT) gave a quantitative production of milk on average of 7265,29 kg of milk

with 3,92 % fat and 293,59 kg of pure fat.
Table 1
Average values and estimates of the variability of production features for the
ascendance of the population of the Friza type from the farm Jora, county Iaşi
Statistics M.T. M.M.
U.M. Milk Kg Fat % Fat Kg Milk Kg Fat % Fat Kg
X 7265.29 3.92 293.59 3974.1 3.91 154.81
± sx 236.16 0.04 10.68 90.51 0.01 3.60
s 1789.70 0.39 92.68 877.56 0.18 34.98
V% 31.51 9.92 32.19 22.08 4.67 22.51
Min 4238.00 3.50 160.00 1313.00 3.50 53.00
Max 13232.00 5.10 580.00 6686.00 4.42 242.00
The average production performances (tab. 2) of the studied population

were 3531,3 kg of milk in the period of normal lactation I, evolving in an
ascendant manner up to the IVth lactation (305 days) reaching 4198,7 kg of milk
and decreases in the Vth lactation to 3988,1 kg of milk. As for the fat contents in
the milk it is between 4,06 – 4,16 %, and the protein contents is between 3,24 -
3,38 %. In the same time, the quantity of fat and protein has an identical evolution
with that of the milk production taking into account the intensely positive
correlation existing among the mentioned characteristics.
The average values and estimates of variability of reproduction features
by lactations for the population of the Friza type from the farm Jora are presented
in table 3. The data from the table highlight the following aspects: age at the first
littering was 1165,09 ± 15,37 days (38,8 months), and the calving interval
oscillated between 376,93 and 429,92 days what indicates great deficiencies in the
reproduction activity for the population in question. The mammary repose is
within the normal limits that is 71 – 84 days.
- 486 -
Table 2
Average values and estimates of the production features by lactations
of the population of the Friza type from the farm Jora, county Iaşi
Lactaţion Statistics Total lactation Normal lactation
U.M. Duration Milk Fat Fat Protein Protein Milk Fat Fat Protein Protein
(days) (Kg) % (Kg) % (Kg) (Kg) % (Kg) % (Kg)
X 348.8 3971.21 4.06 163.55 3.27 114.56 3531.3 4.06 142.96 3.27 114.6
±sx 9.41 121.85 0.01 4.81 0.01 2.66 73.48 0.03 3.16 0.01 2.66
L1 s 92.72 1200.14 0.19 47.44 0.11 24.80 723.72 0.30 31.15 0.11 24.80
V% 26.58 30.22 4.67 29.00 3.61 21.65 20.49 7.49 21.79 3.61 21.65
Min 94.00 591.00 3.56 57.00 2.94 46.00 1379.00 3.50 57.00 2.94 46.00
Max 654.00 7840.00 4.52 329.00 3.64 193.00 5285.00 6.36 220.00 3.64 193.00
X 329.5 4125.99 4.08 170.73 3.28 124.02 3736.8 4.06 152.53 3.28 124
±sx 8.77 152.80 0.02 6.31 0.01 3.47 99.06 0.02 4.27 0.01 3.47
L2 s 86.37 1504.91 0.22 52.19 0.12 33.71 975.66 0.23 42.14 0.12 33.71
V% 26.21 36.47 5.42 35.42 3.85 27.18 26.10 5.70 27.63 3.85 27.18
Min 54.00 458.00 3.67 47.00 3.06 33.00 945.00 3.31 47.00 3.06 33.00
Max 619.00 8467.00 5.00 349.00 3.91 206.00 6524.00 5.00 265.00 3.91 206.00
X 312 4418.13 4.15 180.8 3.28 134.2 4100.03 4.16 170.36 3.28 134.2
±sx 10.81 201.80 0.02 8.10 0.02 5.26 159.75 0.03 6.74 0.02 5.26
L3 s 84.46 1576.13 0.22 53.32 0.18 41.10 1247.7 0.23 52.65 0.18 41.10
V% 27.06 35.67 5.41 35.02 5.66 30.63 30.43 5.54 30.91 5.66 30.63
Min 66.00 469.00 3.69 18.00 2.98 15.00 469.00 3.69 18.00 2.98 15.00
Max 161.00 8636.00 4.80 349.00 4.34 241.00 7463.00 4.80 295.00 4.34 241.00
X 328.3 4624.82 4.11 189.75 3.24 132.00 4198.7 4.08 170.14 3.24 132.00
±sx 17.64 284.94 0.03 11.87 0.02 8.20 207.10 0.04 10.97 0.02 8.20
L4 s 93.38 1507.76 0.15 62.84 0.11 43.41 1095.9 0.25 58.04 0.11 43.41
V% 28.44 32.60 3.81 33.11 3.38 32.89 26.10 6.14 34.11 3.38 32.89
Min 148.00 1848.00 3.80 77.00 2.9 16.00 1848.00 3.09 14.00 2.90 16.00
Max 615.00 7896.00 4.38 337.00 3.43 209.00 6300.00 4.38 268.00 3.43 209.00
X 316.9 4541.08 4.17 193.31 3.38 132.9 3988.1 4.18 169.54 3.38 132.9
±sx 29.71 674.20 0.07 31.20 0.06 16.52 381.28 0.08 22.95 0.06 16.52
L5 s 107.1 1730.89 0.28 112.52 0.23 59.56 1735.3 0.29 82.76 0.23 59.56
V% 33.8 53.53 6.74 58.21 6.92 44.81 37.51 7.00 36.81 6.92 44.81
Min 91.00 1039.00 3.71 41.00 3.14 39.00 1039.00 3.71 41.00 3.14 39.00
Max 470.00 9670.00 4.49 427.00 3.99 263.00 7635.00 4.52 343.00 3.99 263.00
- 487 -
Table 3
Average values and estimates of the production features by lactations of the
population of the Friza type from the farm Jora, county Iaşi
Lactation Statistics Age of first Calving Mammary
littering interval (days) repose (days)
(days)
X 1165.09 429.92 84.23
L2 ± sx 15.37 9.73 6.99
s 151.41 95.85 68.85
V% 12.99 22.29 81.74
Min 760.00 287.00 10.00
Max 1490.00 771.0 565.00
X - 399.56 71.05
L3 ± sx -
9.21 2.57
s - 71.94 20.07
V% - 18.00 28.25
Min - 321.00 39.00
Max - 667.00 161.00
X - 376.93 72.75
L4 ± sx -
10.75 3.99
s - 56.89 21.12
V% - 15.09 29.03
Min - 314.00 34.00
Max - 527.00 119.00
X - 403.69 84.23
L5 ± sx -
14.98 11.43
s - 54.04 41.21
V% - 13.38 48.93
Min - 344.00 54.00
Max - 508.00 212.00
In the succession of lactations, the livestock studied indicates a normal

corporal development (tab. 4). The body weight increases from 513,28 kg in
lactation I to 570,1 kg in lactation III, and the size increases accordingly, 129,33
cm in lactation I and 131,2 cm in lactation III.
Analyzing the genetic parameters to the population in question we
noticed an intense genetic determinism (tab. 5) for the characteristic traits of fat
and protein in milk (h2=0,58-0,60), intermediate for size (h2=0,40) and the
characters of milk quantity, fat, protein and the age of first littering are weakly
genetically determined.
- 488 -
Table 4
Average values and estimates of the corporal development by lactations of the
population of the Friza type from the farm Jora, county Iaşi
Lactation Statistics Body weight (Kg) Height at withers
(cm)
X 513.28 129.33
L1 ± sx 1.85 0.2
s 18.26 1.98
V% 3.55 1.53
Min 490.00 124.00
Max 600.00 133.00
X 547.5 130
L2 ± sx 17.5 0.25
s 37.17 1.71
V% 10.26 1.74
Min 490.00 124.00
Max 600.00 134.00
X 570.1 131.2
L3 ± sx 12.31 0.21
s 28.14 1.64
V% 10.5 1.6
Min 490.00 123.00
Max 600.00 134.00
Table 5
Values of the heritability coefficient ( h2) for certain morpho-productive features,
normal Ist lactation of the population of the Friza type from the farm Jora, county
Iaşi
Characteristic trait Heritability coefficient ( h2)
Milk quantity 0.25
Fat contents of milk 0.58
Fat quantity of milk 0.31
Protein contents of milk 0.60
Protein quantity of milk 0.30
Size 0.46
Body weight 0.40
Age of first littering 0.25
The values of the repeatability coefficient (tab. 6) highlight the same

aspects as the heritability coefficient. The characters of fat contents and milk
protein are intensely repeatable, the characters specific to the corporal
- 489 -
development are moderately repeatable and the characters of milk quantity, fat
quantity and protein quantity are weakly repeatable
The genetic and somatic variations determine the variability of features
and characters in the meaning that by modification of the parameters of a
character one may produce the modification of another character with which it is
correlated either in the same direction (positive) or in the opposite direction
(negative).
Table 6
Values of the repeatability coefficient (R) for certain morpho-productive features,
normal Ist lactation of the population of the Friza type from the farm Jora, county
Iaşi
Character Repeatability coefficient ( R)
Milk quantity 0.28
Fat contents of milk 0.60
Fat quantity of milk 0.30
Protein contents of milk 0.56
Protein quantity of milk 0.26
Size 0.49
Body weight 0.42
Table 7
Values of the phenotypic correlation coefficient (rp), genotypic correlation (rg), and
environment correlation (re) for certain pairs of morpho-productive features, normal
Ist lactation of the population of the Friza type from the farm Jora, county Iaşi
Pairs of characters rp rg re
Milk quantity
Fat contents of milk -0.25 -0.21 -0.27
Fat quantity of milk 0.96 0.98 0.94
Protein contents of milk -0.20 -0.22 -0.30
Protein quantity of milk 0.79 0.88 0.77
Size 0.48 0.49 0.49
Body weight 0.46 0.43 0.43
Age of first littering -0.14 -0.24 -0.02
The data in the table indicate negative correlations among the quantitative
milk production, the normal lactation, the fat contents, the protein contents and
the age of first littering. There is a strong and positive correlation between the
quantitative milk production and the quantity of fat and protein and the same
correlation is between size and body weight. Intermediate correlations were
registered among the quantitative milk production, size and body weight.
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
1. Grandmothers on the paternal line (MT) registered superior performances to
those of mothers’ (MM) of 7265,24 kg of milk as compared to 3974,1 kg of
milk.
2. The average performances of production of the population studied were
3531,3 kg of milk in the Ist normal lactation evolving in an ascendant manner
up to the IVth lactation (305 days) reaching to 4149,7 kg of milk. The
population is heterogeneous (V % = 26%), with high possibilities of
melioration by selection and use of a valuable seminal material.
3. The studied livestock indicates a normal corporal development that is 513, 29
kg in the Ist lactation and 570, 1 kg the IIIrd lactation, and the size has the
same development of 129,33 – 131,2 cm.
4. The genetic determinism is included in the characters of fat contents and
protein contents of milk (h2=0,59-0,60), it is intermediate for size and weight
and weak for the reproduction features and the milk quantity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CUCU GR. I., MACIUC V., MACIUC DOMNICA 2004 - Cercetarea ştiinţifică şi elemente de
tehnică experimentală în zootehnie. Edit. Alfa, Iaşi
GROSU, H., LUNGU. S., SOYSAL IHSAN, M. – 2003 – Estimation of the genetic parameters
and variance components in the production records of farm animals.Trakya University, Tubitak,
Tekirdag, Turcia
GROSU, H. – 2003 – Programe de ameliorare. Edit. Tehnică Agricolă, Bucureşti
MACIUC, V. – 1999 – Studiul comparative asupra principalelor elemente de genetică cantitativă şi
imunogenetică la unele populaţii de taurine Bălţată cu negru din R. Moldova şi zona de est a
României. Teză de doctorat, Chişinău, R. Moldova
MACIUC, V., UJICĂ, V., NISTOR, I. - 2003 – Ghid practic de ameliorare genetică a bovinelor
pentru producţia
UJICĂ, V., – 1973 – Variabilitatea şi heritabilitatea caracterelor ugerului la vacile din rasa
Brună de Maramureş. Rev. de Zoot. şi Med. Vet., nr. 6, Bucureşti
UJICĂ, V., GÂLCĂ, I. – 1992 – Tehnologia creşterii bovinelor. Lucr. Practice, Lito., U.Ş.A.M.V.,
Iaşi
*** - Revista de zootehnie şi medicină veterinară, Bucureşti
*** - Vol. Lucr.şt. (anale). Inst. Agr. Iaşi, seria Zootehnie ş Medicină Veterinară
*** - Revista Cercetări agronomice în Moldova, Iaşi
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BACK
PRESENT AND PERSPECTIVES IN

BROWN CATTLE BREEDING IN ROMANIA
Roxana STÃNESCU, I. GÎLCĂ, G. HOHA
The bovines breeding for the milk or meat production it is, still, in
exploitation with a small number of animals, and exploitation tehnology
conditions are influenced by the financial resources of breeders.
In this paper it follows the situation of Brown breed population in
Romania but also on globe, the size of cattle exploitations, the milk production
and some objectives in Brown breed improvement in Romania.
In the past decade and a half, agricultural net production increased

annually by 2.2%. This growth has been mainly in the developing world which
increased output by almost 3.4% per year, while the developed countries
increased by just over 0.2% per year.
Both crop gross production (63% of total production) and livestock gross
production (37% of total production) increased by over 2% per year. Food crops
gross production went up 2%, but the most important of them, cereals, just 1%.
Oil-bearing crops increased by 4%, fruit and vegetables by 3.8%, eggs by 3.8%,
meat 2.7%, milk 1.2%.
Probably the oldest of the dairy breeds, the Brown breed are descended
from cattle used in the valleys and mountain slopes of Switzerland since before
historic records began. It was here that the transmitting ability of certain breed
characteristics became so firmly established that they mark it to this day.
The Brown Swiss breed is possibly the purest of all recognized breeds of
dairy cattle. It is definitely believed there was little or no infusion of foreign
blood, no apparent crossing with other cattle throughout the establishment of the
breed. So well fixed did the characteristics of the breed become, and so apparent
was the prepotency and vigour of the animals, that cattle raisers from Germany,
Italy, and other surrounding domains made regular importations of Swiss stock to
strengthen the productive quality of their herds.
Although considered a dual-purpose breed (dairy and beef) in Europe,
pioneer North American breeders recognized their great potential for milk
production and concentrated their efforts for improvement in the direction of
developing a dairy cow.
The original characteristics including size, ruggedness, strong sound feet
and legs that wear, quality udders that last, and thriftiness and gain-ability have
been maintained and improved. These quiet, docile tempered cows are ideally
suited for either the family-sized farm or the large commercial operation in any
climate. Brown Swiss, being hardy and rugged, perform well in all climates and at
all altitudes.
- 492 -
Just to sum up, Brown Swiss, the unique breed excelling in both dairy,
Brown Swiss, and beef, Braunvieh. Look for high profitable production, long
productive lives, quiet, docile temperament, a wide range of adaptability,
durability unexcelled and rapid growth. What more could we ask for?
The brown cow is known as Braunvieh in German speaking countries;
Bruna Alpina in Italy, Brunedes Alpes in France, and Pardo Suizo in Spain and
Latin America including Brazil.
1. The population situation

a. On globe
Fig.1 Members of the Bovidae family population evolution, on globe, between
1996-2005 year (FAO, 2006)
1360 1355.08
World bulls population (mil. heads)
1349.18
1350
1349.98
1340
1334.6
1330
1318.87
1320 1320.92
1311.96
1314.51
1310
1309.3 1309.05
1300
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
In 1996-2005 year, on globe, it observed that members of the Bovidae

family population evolution follows a curve lightly ascendency, realising a plus
3,38% in 2005 by the year 1997 and a plus 2,68% in 2005 by he year 1996.
If it studied each continent in part, it observed that this increase of
bovines number it isn’t at all continents, some of them like North and Central
America and Europe has registers decreasing in this studied period of time.
In figure 2 is presented the situation on world and continents of members

of the Bovidae family population.
- 493 -
Fig.2 Members of the Bovidae family population evolution, on continents, between

1996-2005 year(FAO, 2006)
1996 2005
1355.08
1318.87
1400
1200
Bulls population (mill.heads)
1000
800
455.48
449.77
600
327.02
289.65
203.92
172.42
239.2
400
163.74
131.55
166.95
38.04
36.14
200
0
Africa North and South Asia Europe Oceania World
Central America
America
Development of the breed came into its own in the 18th century in the
mountain valleys of Switzerland and production records on milk and meat
performance were established in the 19th century. Today, roughly 40% of the
cattle in Switzerland are Braunvieh and they have spread throughout the world.
Due to their high performance and adaptability, Braunvieh are used in all major
countries of the world. Braunvieh are found in over 60 countries extending from
the Arctic Circle to the tropics at altitudes varying between 0 and 12,500 feet.
World population of Braunvieh is over 7,000,000 head. Herdbooks are being kept
by breeders' associations in 42 countries.
b. In Romania
In table 1 is presented the bovines population dynamics on different

breeds in our country.
- 494 -
Table 1
The bovines population dynamics in Official Control of Production
Bull breeds Buffaloes

Year Total
B-SW BR-SIM PZ BNR-HF MO NO LM J SS Buffalos
1992 27278 53281 1141 80048 0 0 0 0 0 985 162733
1996 44439 57613 2745 96634 0 0 0 0 25 1282 202738
2000 47191 72773 1730 68047 0 0 0 0 15 1374 191130
2001 18920 34146 446 40314 0 0 0 0 13 680 94519
2002 19316 31898 543 44405 0 0 0 0 10 391 96563
2003 20466 32926 629 44937 120 0 0 0 18 275 99371
2004 20376 31105 576 44227 118 53 290 0 23 268 97036
2005 19256 32526 393 48630 354 51 349 3 25 283 101870
B-SW=Brown-Schwyz; BR-SIM=Bălţată Românească(Romanian Spotted)-Simmental; PZ=Pinzgau de

Transilvania(Transylvanian Pinzgau); BNR-HF=Bălţată cu Negru Românească(Romanian Black and White)-Holstein
Friesian; MO=Montbeliard; NO=Normandy; LM=Limousin; J=Jersey; SS=Sură de Stepă(Grey Steppe).
- 495 -
On table 1 it remarks that over the years are passing this number of
bovines population are growing slowly. These remarkers are valid also for Brown
breed. In last 3 years has entered 4 new breeds in Official Control of Production.
2. The size of animal exploitation

The size of bovines exploitation in generaly and on different breeds it is
observed on table 2
Table 2
The size of bovines exploitation on different breeds
(Official Control of production)
The size of animal population the end of year 2005
Race 1 2-3 4-7 8- 16- 32- 64- >127 Total
15 31 63 127
Bulls 33446 8908 1497 721 403 132 73 73 45253
B 14295 2527 142 54 47 4 4 6 17079
BR 8101 4207 845 344 139 44 20 22 13722
BNR 10739 2082 500 321 216 84 49 45 14036
PT 309 92 10 1 - - - - 412
S 2 - - 1 1 - - - 4
Buffaloes 10 59 6 - - - 1 - 76
On globe, the bulls exploitation mean size varies from a geographical

zone to other, role of social and echonomics conditions. In Europe, the bulls
exploitation size is between 30-50 heads, with variations from 70 heads in
England to 2 heads in Romania. In USA, the dairy cows exploitation size is
almost 100 heads.
3.The evolution of breed structure in Romania
The breed structure, in Romania, in the course of years has known

important modifications as a result to social and economic factors, to productive
potential evolution of biological material, to the preferences of breeders and to the
improvement programs direction.
As a result to improvement process, the breed structure has increased in
some breeds by table 3 presents.
The distribution of these races has looking for the soil and climate
conditions specific, the economic needs and means from different zone of the
country, the preferences of breeders.
In this way, in Romania, it prevails the breeding of Brown race in
following counties: Maramureş (92,6%), Vâlcea (92,4%), Argeş (82,6%), Bacău
(77,7%), Gorj (76%), Neamţ (58,5%), Vrancea (51,8%), Prahova (55,1/).
- 496 -
Table3
The evolution of breed structure in Romania (G. Stanciu, H. Grosu)
Rasa 1935 1969 1981 1994 2005
Brown, Schwyz 2,1 27,3 33,9 27 26
Bălţată Românească, 35,5 43,9 36,1 35 36
Simmenthal
Bălţată cu negru Românească, - 0,4 23,2 34 35
Holstein-Friză
Pinzgau de Transilvania 6,8 9,4 3,8 3,5 2
Other races 55,5 11,6 3,0 0.5 1
It observed that near Maramureş zone where comes the name of this race,
Maramureş Brown breed, this are breeding in a great weight in Moldova zone.
4. Milk production
Table 4
The milk production, fat and protein mean on standard lactation in years 2001-2005 to
Brown breed (Official Control of production)
Milk The fat content The protein content
Year production Kg % Kg %
mean kg
2001 3299 124 3,76 106 3,27
2002 3813 149 3,90 126 3,35
2003 3860 150 3,89 128 3,32
2004 4047 158 3,89 131 3,26
2005 4214 166 3,94 136 3,24
On table 4 it observed that the milk production mean has increased in the
last years very significant, from 3299kg in 2001 to 4214kg in 2005. The same
progress has the fat percent from 3,76% in 2001 to 3,94% in 2005. The protein
percent has changed from 3,27 in 2001 to 3,24 in 2005. This values are litlle in
Romania by the values registers in other countries.
On table 5 are presented the milk production mean, the fat and protein
percent depending by lactation number.
Table 5
The milk production mean (L), fat (G) and protein (P) on standard lactation and
depending on lactation number in year 2005 to Brown breed
(Official Control of production)
Lactation L G P
(number) Kg Kg % Kg %
1 3748 148 3,96 123 3,28
2 3902 154 3,96 128 3,28
>=3 3893 153 3,94 126 3,24
All 3873 153 3,94 126 3,25
All (EM) 4214 166 3,94 136 3,24
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BACK
From this data presented on table 5 it results that the best milk production
were obtained in the second lactation, after this, it has decreased. The best
obtained fat and protein percent were in first and second lactation.
The national bulls improvement program from 2003 stipulates for Brown
breed the follows objectives until 2010:
-the milk production to increase to 4800 kg;
-the fat percent and quantity to increase to 3,95% and 190 kg;
-the protein percent and quantity to increase to 3,35% and 160 kg.
CONCLUSIONS
1.The members of Bovidae family population, on globe, has an
ascendency evolution in the last ten studied years, from 1318,87 mil heads in
1996 to 1355,08 mil heads in 2005, this thing tell us the interest of breeders for
this species.
In Romania, from the total number by members of the Bovidae family,
the Brown breed occupy an important weight, in the last five years this number of
animals lightly increasing.
2.In our country, it still prevails the exploiations with 1-3 heads on all
exploitated breeds by the other countries or continents where prevails the
exploitations with 30-50 heads or more.
3.Concerning the the evolution of breed structure in Romania, it observed
that are prevailing the Romanian Spotted breed, Romanian Black and White breed
and Brown breed, the last one beeing the thirst breed exploitated.
4.The milk production of Brown breed, in last five years has increased
from 3299 kg in 2001 to 4214 kg in 2005, in 2010 wishing to obtain from this
breed 4800 kg milk. A same evolution has the fat percent and the protein percent
has registers a lightly drawback.
REFERENCES
1. Stanciu Gavril, 1999 – Tehnologia cresterii bovinelor, Editura Brumar, Timisoara
2. Grosu H., 2005, - Situatia actuala a cresterii bovinelor si unele obiective de perspective, Revista
de zootehnie, nr 2, Iunie, Iasi
3.Ujică V. şi col.,2006 – Parametrii programului de ameliorare de genetică şi management a
taurinelor de rasă Brună din zona Moldovei pentru perioada 2005-2010, Lucrări ştiinţifice, vol.49,
seria Zootehnie, Iaşi
4. www.fao.org
5. www.agroinfo.ro
6. www.ansiokstate.edu
7. www.anarb.it
8 www.braunvieh.ch
9 www.brownswiss.co.uk
10. ww.brownswissusa.com
11. www.braunvieh.org
12. www.cresterea-taurinelor.ro
- 498 -
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RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE PRODUCTIVE AND

REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCES IN SOME PRIVATE
EXPLOITATIONS OF BROWN BREED GROWN IN
SUCEAVA COUNTY
Roxana STĂNESCU, I. GÎLCĂ, G. HOHA, M. DOLIŞ
The reaserches were done on a population of 44 cows Brown

breed from two different private exploitations in Suceava county.
In reaserches results’ presentation and interpretation concerning
the main features for milk production, as milk production indicators were
taken the first parturition age, the lactation duration, the milk and fat
production on normal and total lactation, the mammary rest duration and
calving interval.
The Brown breed, in Moldova region, owns an important weight on the

whole population members of the Bovidae family, beeing intensive used in
improvement working. In this paper we will present the main productive and
reproductive index for Brown population in Suceava county.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The reaserches were done on a population of 44 cows Brown breed from
Suceava county. These are from two different exploitations from the area of
Câmpulung Moldovenesc city, Sadova commune and Vama commune.
As productive and reproductive parameters were taken the first parturition
age, the lactation duration, the milk and fat production on normal and total
lactation, the mammary rest duration and calving interval. These allowed us to
settle the principals characteristic quantitative and qualitative milk production.
The primary data were picked from the evidences on Suceava
UARZ(Improvement and Reproduction Unity in Animal Husbandry), which after
these data were being statistical processing and interpretate.
OBTAINED RESULTS
1.Data concerning milk production
On the cows from the same bull breed, milk production varies, in wide or
small limits, to an individual to other. The individual variation of milk production
are, in generally, bigger that the variation between races owns the proper genetic
base , as a result combination the parental genes and the different mode in which
the individual reacts to the influence of environmental factors.
- 499 -
On the presented data in table 1 it finds that, the milk production on first
lactation in both studied exploitations registers values over on the average of milk
production to this race on Romania. In the first exploitation (Sadova), the
analysed population has achieved an production of 4838 kg milk and in the
second exploitation (Vama) has achieved an production of 4757 kg milk, with
about 80 kg little than the first exploitation. The variability on normal lactation is
high, on the first exploitation being between 4317 kg and 7936 kg milk, and the
second being 4282kg and 6644kg milk.
Table 1
Mean values and milk production variability on normal and total lactation
Exploitation 1 Exploitation 2
Specificatio Normal Total Normal Total
n lactation lactation lactation lactation
4838,57 ± 5511,94 ± 4757,08 ± 5422,92
X ± sX 73,87 240,25 92,46 ± 162,0
1
V% 6,65 18,99 9,52 14,64
Min. 4210 4317 4028 4282
Max. 5473 7936 5966 6644
Comparing the obtained data with those presented by the Official Control
of production we can appreciate that the studied biological material has higher
biological potential, milk production mean from both exploitation (4798 kg milk)
being with about 1000 kg more than milk production mean by 3748 kg on the first
lactation of Brown breed.
2. Data concerning fat and protein production

The fat and protein percent dynamics is similar during on whole lactation.
These have smaller values in first months of lactation, after that with little
oscillation grows to the end of lactation.
The milk obtained quality parameters in both exploitations are presented

in table 2 and 3.
- 500 -
Tablel 2
Mean values and fat and protein production variability on normal and total
lactation
Exploitation 1
Normal Total Normal Total
lactation lactation lactation lactation
Speci
Kg G %G Kg G % G Kg P %P Kg P %P
ficare
X± 197,11 4,07 223,4 4,11 158,08 3,25 179,9 3,26

± ± ± ± ± ± 5± ±
s X 3,61 0,04 9,75 0,06 2,67 0,01 7,68 0,01
V% 8,0 4,47 19,4 6,85 7,36 2,52 18,61 2,53
Min. 171,1 3,78 172,3 3,77 138,7 3,09 141,8 3,11
Max. 227,5 4,49 316 4,52 179,8 3,37 256,8 3,42
In the first exploitation (Sadova) it finds that the fat percent has values
between 3,78 and 4,48% with a mean value by 4,07, what it’s means a very good
result by the mean race on the first lactation 3,96%. Looking the protein percent,
values has oscillates between 3,09 and 3,37%, race mean being 3,25%. This value
isn’t satisfactory because it is below race mean in Romania (3,28%).
Table 3
Mean values and fat and protein production variability on normal and total
lactation
Exploitation 2
Specifi- Normal Total Normal Total lactation
cation lactation lactation lactation
Kg G %G Kg G % G Kg P %P Kg P %P
X ± sX 187,17 3,93 220,98 4,08 154,09 3,24 177,65 3,26 ±

± ± ± ± ± ± ± 0,05
3,82 0,02 6,37 0,03 3,59 0,03 6,92
V% 9,99 2,44 14,3 3,99 1,40 4,18 19,9 6,93
Min. 160,2 3,78 183,3 3,51 132,0 2,91 133,3 2,83
Max. 239,7 4,11 284,4 4,36 210,1 3,52 334,4 3,63
- 501 -
On table 3, which is presented the fat and protein milk content from the
second exploiatation (Vama), it shows too that the fat and protein percent is below
the mean race on the first lactation and namely: 3,93%fat by 3,96% fat and 3,24%
protein by 2,28% protein(registers values by the COP).
Comparing the obtained results on both studied exploiatations, it observed
that the fat value was bigger on the first exploitation(4,07%) by the second
exploitation(3,93%), and the protein percent was nearly(3,25% by 3,24%).
3. Data concerning reproction index

The reproduction index on both studied populations are presented on table
4.
Table 4
Mean values and reproduction index variability on the first lactation

Specificati Exploitation 1 Exploitation 2
on X± V% Mi Ma X ± V% Min. Max.
n. x.
s X s X
The first 915,35 14,72 830 108 935,46 18,15 804 1130
parturition ± 33,41 9 ± 45,6
age (days)
The 373,42 20,92 285 526 377,46 16,18 310 519
lactation ± ±
duration 17,21 12,47
(days)
The 71,54 14,2 44 98 79,37 18,3 42 104
mammary ± 3,31 ± 5,6
repose
(days)
Calving 425,18 17,4 356 481 436,24 18,9 346 488
interval ± 31,2 ± 34,5
(days)
The first parturition age influences milk production on the first lactation
even the next lactations, the obtained calfs number as well production longevity.
On table 4 it observed that on both exploitations the first parturition age is about
30 month, bordering in Brown breed standard which presents limits 28-30
months.
The duration of lactation is extremely important indicator which
influences milk production performances and also the reproduction activity. On
the first exploitation the duration of lactation registers values between 285 and
526 days with a mean by 372,4 days. Big differences has register between the
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BACK
duration of lactations also to the second exploitation, mean beeing 377,4 days
with limits by 310 and 519 days.
The mammary repose, neceseraly for ensuring quality of the new produce
and a normal level to milk production, in next lactation has register on Sadova
exploitation a mean value by 71,54 days with limits between 44 and 98 days
beeing in concordance with presented data by the speciality literature. On Vama
exploitation has also register big variations 42 and 104 days with a 79,37 days
mean accepted value by the speciality literature. The duration is longer because
that these cows had a delay lactation.
The duration of calving-interval influences the number of lactation on
productive life, but also the calfs number. The calving-interval has surpass 400
days, 425,18 days mean on the first exploiatation and 436,24 days mean to the
second exploitation. This reproduction parameter had the same accentuated
variability like the mammary repose, which demonstrate the strongly influence of
technological factors and the reproduction function management.
CONCLUSIONS
1.The knowing of obtained milk production dynamics allows specialists
to act in sense of these optimization, in expression Brown breed productive
potential.
2.On studied populations, the mean of milk production was 4798 kg milk
beeing with about 1000 kg over the mean milk production on the first lactation for
Brown breed in Romania.(3748 Kg)
3.The fat and protein percent has registers different values on the studied
exploiations (4,07%fat şi 3,25%protein-Sadova, 3,93%fat şi 3,24%protein-Vama)
in comparison with fat and protein percent on this country at Brown breed on the
first lactation (3,96%fat şi 3,28%protein).
4.The obtained reproduction index on both studied exploitations are, in
generaly, approaching by the speciality literature data.
REFERENCES
Stanciu Gavril, 1999 – Tehnologia cresterii bovinelor, Editura Brumar, Timisoara;
Gîlcă I şi col., 2006 – Studiul însuşirilor morfoproductive ale taurinelor de rasă Bălţată cu
Negru Românească (BNR) crescute în gospodăriile populaţiei din arealul comunei Vârfu Cîmpului,
judeţul Botoşani, Lucrări ştiintifice, Seria zootehnie, vol. 49, USAMV Iaşi
Dănăilă Rodica, Ujică V. şi col., 2006 – The study of the Brown breed husbandry in some
private exploitation from Suceava county, Lucrări ştiintifice, Seria zootehnie, vol. 49, USAMV Iaşi
Ceteraş Codruţa, Pece Aurelia, 2006 – Cercetări privind exploatarea taurinelor pentru
producţia de lapte din statţiunea didactică Mănăştur, Lucrări ştiintifice, Seria zootehnie, vol. 49,
USAMV Iaşi
- 503 -
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RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE GREAT QUALITATIVE

COMPONENTS OF BUFFALO, COW AND SHEEP MILK
Aurelia PECE, Z. MARCHIŞ, M. BOTHA, Codruţa CETERAŞ
In our country the milk production is not situated to an adequate level

as concerns the quantity and the qualitative aspects are often neglected, so an
alternative important milk source is that obtained from buffalo cows bred in
population farmsteads and in specialized farms. The buffalo milk can be used to
make some cheese assortments with special organoleptic value (Mozzarella,
Vlădeasa), to prepare yogurt and cream. The buffalo milk can be used in
mixture with cow milk to obtain the mixed cottage cheese. The buffalo milk has a
special nutritive value doe to its chemical composition (81.5% water, 7.9% fat,
4.8% lactose, 4.8% protein). The researches were done on buffalo, cow and
sheep milk from factory afferent zone, and the analyses were effected with
MilcoScan S50 apparatus.

The researches were effected inside the lactate products’ factory of SC Bodia
SA from Buciumi commune, located to Meses Mountains’ foot. In this zone the
inhabitant majority has as main occupation the animal breeding. For grazing are used
the communal pasturelands, which are managed by the mayoralty. Thus, the animals
graze on fields properly delimited, the buffaloes and cows graze on heights between
600 and 800 m, and the sheep species on height of 1000 m. The milk collecting is
done daily between 6.00 and 9.00 hour, and all milk quantity is directed to obtain the
melted cheese, the cottage cheese, yogurt and cream. The producers keep the milk
until delivery in refrigerator in enamel vases, both the milk from evening milking and
that of morning one. The persons, which collect the milk, effect and determine the
milk quantity, acidity, pH and density. The milk is put in stainless steel vases with lid,
of 30 liters capacity. The received milk is filtered and introduced in a cooling and
storage tube of milk until processing.

The researches were done on the milk as collecting raw material from
collecting basis of lactate product factory SC Bodia SA and afferent zones, and
contain the well-balanced averages for a number of five collecting routes for cow
milk, four collecting routes for buffalo milk and three collecting routes for sheep
milk. It comes out that milk mixture components’ variation from the three species
from factory collecting zone is enough no-uniform both on months and also years.
The main cause is the existence of a heterogeneous population with weak
performances as concerns the milk production, fed with inferior quality fodder
- 504 -
and empirically kept. It is necessary to realize a progress as concerns the quality

because there are some restrictions for the raw material.
Tabel 1
SEASON BUFFALO COW SHEEP
Fat Winter 6.890 3.860 0
2005
Spring 6.886 3.972 6.430
Summer 6.546 3.969 7.150
Autumn 6.975 4.297 0
Average 2005 6.854 4.079 6.910
Fat Winter 6.715 3.870 0
2006
Spring 6.890 3.982 6.575
Summer 6.642 4.191 7.386
Autumn 6.978 4.290 0
Average 2006 6.840 4.124 7.115
Tabel 2
Proteins Winter 3.485 3.356 0
2005
Spring 3.860 3.386 5.204
Summer 3.680 3.337 5.179
Autumn 3.532 3.329 0
Average 2005 3.617 3.368 5.292
Proteins Winter 3.521 3.346 0
2006
Spring 3.795 3.460 5.200
Summer 4.080 3.429 5.338
Autumn 3.965 3.454 0
Average 2006 3.865 3.445 5.187
Tabel 3
Lipids Winter 6.956 3.820
Spring 6.735 3.740 6.865
Summer 6.660 3.860 7.336
Autumn 6.645 3.848 0
Average 2005 6.816 3.894 7.179
Lipids Winter 7.120 3.835 0
Spring 6.712 3.840 6.957
Summer 6.820 3.990 7.576
Autumn 6.715 3.826 0
Average 2006 6.728 3.863 7.369
- 505 -
Tabel 4
Lactose Winter 4.385 4.184 0
2005
Spring 4.432 4.230 4.38
Summer 4.460 4.260 4.10
Autumn 4.536 4.035 0
Average 2005 4.469 4.148 4.193
Lactose Winter 4.512 4.320 0
2006
Spring 4.430 4.338 4.34
Summer 4.620 4.170 4.28
Autumn 4.645 4.204 0
Average 2006 4.570 4.247 4.300
Tabel 5
S.U.N. Winter 8.860 8.258 0
2005
Spring 9.080 8.420 10.586
Summer 9.060 8.320 10.498
Autumn 8.070 8.338 0
Average 2005 8.628 8.334 10.527
S.U.N. Winter 8.930 8.396 0
2006
Spring 9.256 8.458 10.524
Summer 9.645 8.440 10.860
Autumn 9.008 8.342 0
Average 2006 9.169 8.395 10.748
CONCLUSIONS
• all these values were obtained for the large mixture milk collected in SC
Bodia SA, the values obtained in previous tables are smaller given to those
presented in specialty literature.
• is remarked the fact that the analyses effected on small populations or
isolated individuals emphasis another values, close to those mentioned in
specialty literature.
• the milk component variation has unsteady evolution caused mainly by next
factors:
• the animals’ fed with qualitative inconstant foods, with compositions and
nutritive values different from a season to another one.
• climatic conditions, different from season to another one, fact that leads to
animal thermal solicitation (very warm or very cold), with impact in milk
composition.
- 506 -
BACK
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Dharon Tyler Herbst, – The food lovers companion,2nd edition, Barron

Educational Services, Inc., 1995.
2. Georgescu Gh., şi col., - Tratat de creştere a bovinelor (vol.1). Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti, 1988.
3. Georgescu Gh., şi col., - Tratat de creştere a bovinelor (vol.II). Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti, 1989.
4. G. M. Costin – Tehnologia laptelui şi a produselor lactate – Editura didactică şi pedagogică,
Bucureşti, 1965
5. G. M. Costin – Valorificarea subproduselor din industria laptelui, Editura tehnică,
Bucureşti, 1985.
6. Sorrels, M., Patricia – US water buffalo history, USA, 1998.
7. Popovici I., - Buffalo population and production in Romania, MAA, 1966
- 507 -
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RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE MAIN QUALITATIVE

FEATURES OF MILK IN A BUFFALO POPULATION FROM
SĂLAJ COUNTY
Aurelia PECE, Z. MARCHIŞ, A. CÎMPEAN
Having in view the fact that in Sălaj County there are the greatest
buffalo forces from country, so there obtained great milk quantities from this
species, we considered opportune to do researches concerning the hygienic
quality of this especial important food. The notion of milk quality is very
complex, hard to be use up by a single researcher, so I want that in present study
to tackle the variation of great components of buffalo milk depending on diverse
factors. Even the body resistance of milking buffaloes is mire increased given to
another females, however the possibilities of milk intravital contamination are
greater doe to environment factors’ aggression, bend of specific behavior on
pasture by frequent baths in wet places. The contamination of milk and products
obtained from buffalo milk with residues is possible having in view the fact that
part of them are liposoluble and could have greater concentration on volume
unit than other products, reason for which periodic supervision is
imposed.Analyzing the buffalo competitiveness problem it can be concluded that
they provide inferior performances than cattle, but the advantages must be
appreciated through technical-economical efficiency viewpoint reported to
biological special features of adaptation to different breeding and exploitation
conditions.

In Sălaj County is registered the greatest buffalo milk production from
our country, proceeded exclusively from population farmsteads’ sector. In present
days, the producers’ interest is to obtain great milk productions and lactate
products with small efforts, often being done concessions as concerns the hygiene
conditions. To Sălaj County level the quality of milk and lactate products
obtained from buffalo milk is appreciated as non-adequate for a series of
parameters of quality and is necessary their correction. In this study, to appreciate
the buffalo milk components were collected samples from 30 individuals, in the
morning and evening and were determined: fat, protein lactose, nonfat dry
substance, freezing point in pasture and stalling season.
- 508 -
Tabel 1.
CRT MOMENT FAT PROT. LACT. S.U.N. FREEZING
NR. OF DAY (%) (%) (%) (%) POINT
1. 710002 Morning 10.06 3.62 5.05 9.43 -0.570 º C
Evening 10.09 3.64 5.07 9.4 7 -0.572 º C
2. 710003 Morning 6.87 3.94 5.63 10.41 -0.605 º C
Evening 6.69 3.88 5.56 10.26 -0.595 º C
3. 720006 Morning 6.72 3.85 5.51 10.18 -0.587 º C
Evening 6.75 3.87 5.54 10.19 -0.588 º C
4. 720007 Morning 6.50 3.76 5.39 9.96 -0.573 º C
Evening 6.55 3.75 5.37 10.00 -0.572 º C
5. 760008 Morning 6.71 3.87 5.54 10.23 -0.593º C
Evening 6.75 3.89 5.57 10.29 -0.597º C
6. 760009 Morning 8.27 3.74 5.29 9.82 -0.583 ºC
Evening 8.34 3.78 5.33 9.91 -0.589º C
7. 810002 Morning 7.93 3.96 5.64 10.45 -0.609 °C
Evening 8.05 4.02 5.72 10.60 -0.619 ºC
8. 810005 Morning 8.32 4.03 5.72 10.60 -0.622º C
Evening 8.30 4.03 5.72 10.60 -0.609° C
9. 810008 Morning 8.58 4.00 5.67 10.51 -0.617 °C
Evening 8.71 3.89 5.46 10.17 -0.607 °C
10 810009 Morning 10.36 3.92 5.49 10.24 -0.612 °C
Evening 10.34 3.90 5.47 10.25 -0.610 °C
11. 920008 Morning 7.24 4.13 5.91 10.92 -0.635 ºC
Evening 7.26 4.12 5.90 10.91 -0.634 ºC
12. 920009 Morning 6.63 3.88 5.54 10.25 -0.612 °C
Evening 6.65 3.87 5.53 10.24 -0.613 °C
13. 930001 Morning 9.66 4.46 6.34 11.74 -0.619 °C
Evening 9.69 4.48 6.36 11.79 -0.618 ºC
14. 930002 Morning 9.52 4.53 6.44 11.92 -0.608 °C
Evening 9.48 4.52 6.42 11.90 -0.610 °C
15. 930003 Morning 8.42 4.01 5.70 10.57 -0.616 ºC
Evening 8.46 4.03 5.72 10.60 -0.618 ºC
16. 930004 Morning 8.72 4.03 5.69 10.56 -0.620 ºC
Evening 8.72 4.02 5.71 10.59 -0.618 ºC
17. 930005 Morning 6.54 4.26 6.15 11.32 -0.618 °C
Evening 6.53 4.27 6.15 11.35 -0. 620 °C
18. 930006 Morning 7.88 4.65 6.67 12.32 -0.612 ºC
Evening 7.85 4.64 6.66 12.30 -0.616 ºC
19. 930007 Morning 12.45 5.32 7.48 13.92 -0.610 ºC
Evening 12.46 5.30 7.50 13.90 -0.614 ºC
20. 930008 Morning 10.80 4.61 6.53 12.12 -0.615 ºC
Evening 10.82 4.60 6.50 12.10 -0.614 ºC
21. 930009 Morning 10.06 3.62 5.05 9.43 -0.570 ºC
Evening 10.09 3.64 5.07 9.47 -0.572 ºC
- 509 -
22. 940002 Morning 6.87 3.94 5.63 10.41 -0.605 ºC

Evening 6.69 3.88 5.56 10.26 -0.595 ºC
23. 940003 Morning 6.72 3.85 5.51 10.18 -0.587 ºC
Evening 6.75 3.87 5.54 10.19 -0.588 ºC
24. 940004 Morning 6.50 3.76 5.39 9.96 -0.573 ºC
Evening 6.55 3.75 5.37 10.00 -0.572 ºC
25. 940005 Morning 6.71 3.87 5.54 10.23 -0.593 ºC
Evening 6.75 3.89 5.57 10.29 -0.597 ºC
26. 940006 Morning 8.27 3.74 5.29 9.82 -0.583 ºC
Evening 8.34 3.78 5.33 9.91 -0.589 ºC
27. 940007 Morning 7.93 3.96 5.64 10.45 -0.609 °C
Evening 8.05 4.02 5.72 10.60 -0.619 ºC
28. 940008 Morning 8.32 4.03 5.72 10.60 -0.622 ºC
Evening 8.30 4.03 5.72 10.60 -0.609 °C
29. 940009 Morning 8.58 4.00 5.67 10.51 -0.617 °C
Evening 8.71 3.89 5.46 10.17 -0.607 °C
30. 950005 Morning 10.36 3.92 5.49 10.24 -0.612 °C
Evening 10.34 3.90 5.47 10.25 -0.610 °C
Med. - - 8.326 4.037 5.735 10.574 -
Dev. - - 1.551 0.350 0.504 1.029 -
st.
sx - - 0.198 0.044 0.064 0.130 -

Analyzing the buffalo origin and main morpho-productive features from
Sălaj County, it comes out that they belong to Mediterranean common riverside
type with mixed production features for milk-meat. It comes out the fact that exist
some valuable morpho-productive features, which by improvement and selection
can lead to obtain some remarkable results. The study of buffalo milk chemical
composition is imposed by scientific reasons, but also by technological ones,
having in view the increased weight in total milk as raw material from Sălaj
County. To effect the physical-chemical examination was used Milko Scan
Apparatus. The buffalo milk samples were individually collected in pasture period
and in free stalling period. To know the chemical composition of buffalo milk
proceeded from existent populations in Sălaj County, were effected
determinations of fat, protein, lactose, non-fat dry substance, freezing point in
pasture and stalling season.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The motivation of great buffalo milk components’ study is to can appreciate the
correlation existent among different parameters and substitution possibilities by
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different swindles of major components and also to conduct the technological

processes to obtain some quality finite products.
2. From the effected study comes out the conclusion that buffaloes represent a
species with superior potential enough used for milk production.
In present days, the producers’ interest is to obtain great milk productions and
lactate products with small financial efforts often being done concessions as
concerns hygiene conditions.
3. Also, by their extraordinary capacity to adapt to environment conditions and to
use all existent fodder resources, they can represent animals with priority for
lasting agriculture.
4. The buffaloes are kept in exclusivity by private producers and used for milk
production, but sometimes or in season activities are often used also for
agricultural works.
5. In spite of these, the buffaloes from the County present favorable features for
milk production and were initiated improvement actions of existent populations
by artificial inseminations with seminal material proceeded from bulls of Murrah
breed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Cherecheş, I., (2002) – Cercetări privind însuşirile fenotipice ale populaţiei de bubaline
Românescă din judeţul Sălaj şi posibilităţi de ameliorare a acestora. Teză de doctorat.
2. Bud, I., (1983) - Contribuţii la caracterizarea morfoproductivă a bubalinelor din nord-vestul
Transilvaniei, Teză de doctorat, Cluj-Napoca.
3. Velea, C., Bud, I., Tăpălagă, A. (1983) - Creşterea bivolilor, Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti.
4. Velea C., Bud, I., Mureşan Gh., Marcu N., David v. (1985) - Rezultate privind tehnologia de
exploatare a bubalinelor pentru producţia de lapte, Lucrări ştiinţifice Taurine , vol. 10.
5. Velea, C., Mureşan, Gh., Bud, I., Marcu, N., David, V., Vomir, M., Corlăţeanu, M., Tăpălagă, A.,
(1981) – Studiul şi perspectivele creşterii şi exploatării bubalinelor în Transilvania, Bul. A.S.A.S.
6. Velea, C., Bud, I., Corlăţeanu, M., Mureşan, Gh., Marcu, N., David V., Vomir, M., (1983) –
Estimarea producţiei de lapte la bubaline prin metoda controlului diversificat, Bul. I.A.C.N., vol.37,
Cluj – Napoca.
7. Velea, C., (1994) – Principalele însuşiri pentru producţia de lapte şi carne ale rasei Românească
de bubaline. Bul. Şt. USAMV Cluj – Napoca.
8. Cherecheş, I., (2002) – Cercetări privind însuşirile fenotipice ale populaţiei de bubaline
Românescă din judeţul Sălaj şi posibilităţi de ameliorare a acestora. Teză de doctorat.
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A STUDY ON THE GROWING OF ROMANIAN BLACK

SPOTTED COWS IN SOME PRIVATE EXPLOITATIONS
FROM COUNTY BOTOŞANI
Rodica DĂNĂILĂ, V. UJICĂ, V. MACIUC
Taking into account that the breed Romanian black spotted cow has a
significant share, we considered that it is useful to make studies and researches
on their productive performances in variable conditions of environment and
exploitation technologies practiced in different units from county Botosani.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The study was made for a population of 297 heads of Romanian black
spotted cows grown in commune Dumeni (210 heads), Lefter Gheorghe (16
heads), Portariuc Gheorghe (71 heads).
For this population we analyzed some aspects such as: the productive
performances, the main indices of reproduction and some genetic parameters.
The primary data were taken from the records of the Unit for Melioration
and Reproduction in Animal Science (UMRAS), Botoşani. They were
systematized, analyzed and interpreted by specific methods to such researches.
RESULTS
In table 1 we present the average values of the milk production, the

fat contents and the fat quantity as well as the protein contents and the
protein quantity these being presented for the first normal lactation.
Analyzing these average values by exploitations, we notice that the biggest
milk production is obtained in the exploitation of Lefter Gheorghe
(3799,64 kg) (tab. 1, fig. 1). In the same exploitation they also obtain the
highest value of the fat and protein contens (4,16 %, 3,41% respectively)
(tab. 1), mentioning that in commune Dumeni we did not establish the
protein contents for the first lactation. Following these indices for the
entire population and analyzing the successive lactations, we notice the
evolution of the milk production up to the fifth lactation where we register
the biggest quantity of milk 4195,98 kg (tab. 2, fig. 2), the lowest quantity
of milk being registered in the first lactation of 3160,83 kg (tab. 2). As for
the qualitative indices of the milk production, their highest values are
registered in the first lactation both for the fat and the protein contents of
3,91 %, 3,39 % respectively (tab. 2).
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Table 1
Average values of the milk production indices by farms in the first normal lactation
Lactation Milk Fat Fat Prot. Prot.
Exploitation N
period (days) (kg) (%) (kg) (%) (kg)
1. Commune Dumeni 210 295,68 2915,38 3,71 108,01 0 0
2. Lefter Gheorghe 16 287,36 3799,64 4,16 158,70 3,41 129,36
3. Portariuc Gheorghe 71 289,17 3242,28 4,04 131,01 3,37 110,18
4. Total population 297 291,69 3160,83 3,91 124,17 3,39 114,68
Table 2
Average values and variability of milk production indices, by successive lactations,
for the Romanian black spotted cows from commune Dumeni
Total lactation Normal lactation
Sample Lactation Lactation
Specification Milk Fat Fat Prot. Prot. Milk Fat Fat Prot. Prot.
statistics period period
kg (%) (kg) (%) (kg) kg (%) (kg) (%) (kg)
(days) (days)
n 60 60 60 60 0 0 60 60 60 60 0 0
X 341,88 3234,28 3,73 120,31 0 0 295,68 2915,38 3,71 108,01 0 0
Lactation ± sx 10,129 104,619 0,023 3,922 0 0 2,268 75,649 0,027 2,912 0 0

I
s 78,46 810,38 0,18 30,38 0 0 17,57 585,97 0,21 22,56 0 0
V% 22,95 25,06 4,78 25,25 0 0 5,94 20,10 5,58 20,89 0 0
Min 220 2029 3,26 78,70 0 0 220 2029 3,12 3,19 0 0
Max 571 5887 4,19 234,40 0 0 305 5349 4,19 3,29 0 0
n 163 163 163 163 29 29 163 163 163 163 29 29
X 331,89 3315,88 3,69 122,10 3,28 109,10 296,90 3075,91 3,68 112,92 3,27 104,45
Lactation ± sx 4,719 53,509 0,018 1,912 0,052 5,548 1,156 41,786 0,019 1,514 0,052 4,773
II
s 60,25 683,16 0,23 24,41 0,28 29,88 14,75 533,49 0,24 19,34 0,28 25,71
V% 18,15 20,60 6,24 19,99 8,50 27,39 4,97 17,34 6,57 17,12 8,52 24,61
Min 241 1875 3,31 71,90 3,00 63,30 241 1875 3,29 71,90 3,01 63,30
Max 584 6680 4,34 259,90 4,59 220,20 339 5975 4,34 229,30 4,59 194,70
n 151 151 151 151 70 70 151 151 151 151 70 70
X 319,51 3449,56 3,84 132,16 3,25 122,63 292,92 3247,23 3,83 124,38 3,25 118,08
Lactation ± sx 4,773 71,869 0,018 2,702 0,019 3,133 1,373 58,549 0,019 2,280 0,019 2,740
III
s 58,65 883,15 0,23 33,20 0,16 26,21 16,88 719,46 0,23 28,01 0,16 22,93
V% 18,36 25,60 5,86 25,12 4,84 21,37 5,76 22,16 6,06 22,52 4,86 19,42
Min 232 1728 3,20 65,10 2,90 76,80 232 1728 3,20 65,10 2,91 75,80
Max 711 8007 4,95 276,20 3,84 197,80 307 5530 4,95 219,50 3,84 187,00
n 154 154 154 154 123 123 154 154 154 154 123 123
X 323,13 4010,05 3,88 155,69 3,22 130,82 290,60 3707,77 3,87 143,22 3,22 123,77
Lactation ± sx 5,689 87,097 0,020 3,576 0,012 2,909 1,524 63,421 0,019 2,523 0,012 2,241
IV
s 70,60 1080,85 0,25 44,38 0,13 32,27 18,91 787,03 0,024 31,31 0,14 24,86
V% 21,85 26,95 6,39 28,50 4,09 24,66 6,51 21,23 6,19 21,86 4,18 20,08
Min 232 2010 3,30 79,60 2,97 78,40 232 2010 3,13 79,60 2,94 78,40
Max 644 8408 5,25 385,50 3,55 274,00 305 6145 4,42 237,70 3,55 194,50
n 158 158 158 158 133 133 158 158 158 158 133 133
X 315,30 4441,39 4,06 172,21 3,42 148,63 290,08 4208,02 3,85 162,48 3,20 141,69
Lactation ± sx 4,575 86,982 0,210 3,370 0,219 2,653 1,490 69,927 0,016 2,896 0,012 1,967
V
s 57,51 1093,35 2,644 42,36 2,52 30,59 18,73 878,97 0,21 36,40 0,13 22,60
V% 18,24 24,62 65,09 24,60 73,70 20,58 6,46 20,89 5,31 22,40 4,46 15,95
Min 238 2161 3,27 81,30 2,82 79,40 238 2161 3,27 81,30 2,82 79,40
Max 625 8775 4,26 339,80 3,53 285,50 305 6881 4,26 250,00 3,53 226,30
n 139 139 139 139 116 116 139 139 139 139 116 116
X 318,76 4506,10 3,82 173,19 3,20 148,25 288,07 4206,65 3,82 161,59 3,20 139,92
Lactation ± sx 6,509 91,386 0,032 4,116 0,013 3,14 1,704 72,391 0,032 3,339 0,013 2,138
VI
s 76,74 1077,42 0,38 48,53 0,14 3,84 20,09 853,48 0,38 39,36 0,14 23,03
V% 24,07 23,91 9,82 28,02 4,35 22,83 6,97 20,29 10,01 24,36 4,37 16,46
Min 229 2518 3,21 87,10 2,88 80,00 229 2293 3,21 87,10 2,88 80,00
Max 752 9337 4,33 403,90 3,51 314,40 305 6355 4,44 260,00 3,51 201,10
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3799,64
4000
3242,28 3160,83
3500 2915,38
3000
2500
ilk, kg
2000
M
1500
1000
500
0
Comuna Lefter Portariuc Total populaţie
Dumeni Gheorghe Gheorghe
Exploatation
Fig. 1: Variability of milk production in the first normal lactation by exploitations

for the population of Romanian black spotted cows under study
4500
4000
4195,98 4190,94
3500
3705,9
3000 3324,96
3160,83 3175,69
Milk, kg
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
I II III IV V VI
Lactation
Fig. 2: Milk production by successive lactations for the population of Romanian

black spotted cows from county Botoşani
As for the reproduction indices we analyzed: the age at first litter by

exploitations and the entire population, the interval between litters, the mammary
repose and the service period for the entire population by successive lactations
(tab. 3, fig. 3, 4, 5,6).
On average, we registered a value of 856,93 days for the entire
population. Analyzing this index by exploitations we notice a belated population
in the exploitation of Lefter Gheorghe, registering a value of 1148,19 days (fig.
3).
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1148,19
1200
1000 827,72 815,97 856,93
800
Days
600
400
200
0
Comuna Lefte r Porta riuc Total
Dume ni Ghe orghe Ghe orghe popula ţie
Exploatation
Fig. 3: Average values of the age at first litter by exploitations for the population of
Romanian black spotted cows under study
Table 3
Average values and variability of the reproduction indices for the population of
Romanian black spotted cows under study from county Botoşani
Sample statistics n X ±sx s V% Min Max
Age at first liter, days 147 856,93 15,817 191,77 22,38 564 1246
I-II 211 399,84 9,460 137,41 34,37 69 799
II-III 173 396,50 9,353 123,02 31,03 43 850
CI
III-IV 161 398,03 8,296 105,26 26,45 82 682
days
IV-V 163 440,71 5,257 67,12 15,23 321 586
V-VI 143 408,50 6,827 81,64 19,98 100 682
II 211 92,24 7,264 105,02 112,63 12 468
III 173 88,97 6,129 80,61 95,99 28 454
RM
IV 161 64,34 5,399 68,50 106,46 18 378
days
V 163 52,34 0,702 8,968 17,13 29 82
VI 143 53,35 2,557 30,58 57,32 18 378
II 211 138,83 7,186 104,38 75,18 39 530
III 173 147,00 8,578 112,83 76,75 12 565
SP
IV 161 108,07 3,877 49,35 45,66 100 226
days
V 163 148,17 6,605 84,33 56,91 22 302
VI 143 112,93 4,699 56,19 49,75 31 445
The maximum value of the interval between litters was registered in the
fifth lactation with 440,71 days (fig. 4), the mammary repose registering
decreasing values from 92,24 days in the first lactation to 52,34 days in the fifth
lactation (fig. 5). As for the service-period, in all lactations we registered values
over 108 days. On the whole, the main reproduction indices are inadequate and
they are characterized by a high individual variability.
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92,24
440,71 100 88,97
450
90
440
80 64,34
430 70
52,34 53,35
420 408,5 60
Days
50
Days
410 399,84
396,5 398,03
40
400
30
390 20
380 10
0
370
II III IV V VI II III IV V VI
Lactation Lactation
Fig. 4: Average values of the interval between litters Fig. 5: Average values of the mammary
by successive lactations for the population under study repose by successive lactations for the
population under study
147 148,17
138,83
160
140 112,93
108,07
120
100
Days
80
60
40
20
0
II III IV V VI
Lactation
Fig. 6: Average values of service-period, by successive

lactations for the population under study
Among the genetic parameters we present the values of the heritability

(h2) and repeatability coefficient for some characters (tab. 4).
Thus the value of h2 for the milk quantity (h2=0,21), fat quantity (h2=0,28)
and protein quantity (h2=0,29), show these features as being medium inheritable.
The values of h2 for the fat contents and protein contents are features strongly
genetically determined – 0,74, 0,52 respectively. For the reproduction indices (CI
2, RM 2, SP 2), the heritability coefficient falls into the category of weakly
heritable characters.
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Table 4
2
Heritability (h ) and repeatability of the morpho-productive characters in the first
lactation for the population of Romanian black spotted cows from county Botoşani
Specification Heritability Repeatability
Duration of normal lactation (1th L) 0,17 0,31
Milk quantity (305 days) 0,21 0,26
Fat contents 0,74 0,69
Fat quantity 0,28 0,36
Protein contents 0,52 0,48
Protein quantity 0,29 0,30
Age of first litter 0,28 0,14
CI 2 0,07 0,15
RM 2 0,09 0,12
SP 2 0,07 0,09
CONCLUSIONS
1. The population studied is characterized by high productive performances of
cows comprised between 3160,83 kg of milk and 4195,98 kg of milk with a
variability (V>20 %), offering the possibility for genetic improvement of the
nucleus in question by selection and use of the seminal material from bulls
with high biologic value.
2. On the whole, the main reproduction indicators are inadequate and are
characterized by a high individual variability.
3. The genetic determinism is strong for the fat and protein contents of milk but
the reproduction features have a weak genetic determinism except for the age
at first litter that is in the category of medium inheritable characters.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CUCU, GR., MACIUC, V., MACIUC, D., 2004-„Cercetarea ştiinţifică şi elemente de tehnică
experimentală în zootehnie”, Ed. ALFA, Iaşi.
DINESCU, S., ANNE-MARIE TONTSCH, 2002-„Creşterea vacilor pentru lapte”, Ed. Ceres,
Bucureşti.
DRĂGĂNESCU, C., GROSU, H., 2003 – „Ameliorarea animalelor”. Edit. Agrotehnică, Bucureşti.
GEORGESCU, GH., VELEA, C., STANCIU, G., UJICĂ, V., GEORGESCU D., RÂMNEANŢU,
N., 1990- „Tehnologia creşterii bovinelor”, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti.
GEORGESCU, GH., şi col. 1998-„Tratat de creştere a bovinelor”, Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti.
GEORGESCU, GH., şi col. 1998 – „Tratat de ameliorare a bovinelor – ameliorare”, partea I. Edit.
Ceres, Bucureşti.
GROSU, H., 2003 – „Programe de ameliorare”. Edit. Agrotehnica, Bucureşti.
MACIUC, V., UJICĂ, V., NISTOR, I., 2003-„Ghid de ameliorare genetică a bovinelor pentru
producţia de lapte”, Ed. ALFA, Iaşi.
NEGRUŢIU, E., PETRE, A., PIPERNEA, N., 1969 – „Genetica şi ameliorarea animalelor. Edit.
Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti.
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NORMS FOR DAIRY FARM FROM PRIVAT SECTOR

NORMATIVE PENTRU FERME DE LAPTE DIN SECTORUL
PARTICULAR
S. CHILIMAR, T. BAJURA, N. DUMBRĂVEANU
There were elaborated norms for project, building and exploitation of milk
production farms with 20 dairy cows (basic variant) or 10-40 cows from the private
sector of Republic of Moldova. Are presented the requirements for placement,
general project of farm, sanitary-veterinary norms and space, for reproduction and
breeding of young animal to renovated the herd. It was calculated effective and the
herd structure, volume of production and necessary quantity of fodders in
obtaining 4-6 thousands kg of milk from each cow in a year.
INTRODUCERE
Creşterea bovinelor este ramura principală a sectorului zootehnic din

Republica Moldova. Scopul principal al creşterii bovinelor constituie obţinerea
laptelui şi cărnii – produse alimentare importante pentru alimentarea populaţiei şi în
calitate de materie primă pentru industria produselor lactate şi din carne. Bovinele
folosesc cel mai efectiv furajele voluminoase, deşeurile fitotehniei şi a
întreprinderilor industriei alimentare, fiind şi furnizoare de îngrăşăminte organice
extrem de preţioase, ieftine şi necesare pentru dezvoltarea fitotehniei şi a agriculturii
în ansamblu la etapa actuală de dezvoltare a agriculturii în Republica Moldova.
MATERIAL ŞI METODE
În baza analizei rezultatelor cercetărilor ştiinţifice au fost elaborate
normativele întreţinerii taurinelor crerscute în Republica Moldova şi obiectivele
principale ale proiectării şi construcţiei grajdurilor pentru taurine în condiţiile
sectorului particular. Au fost propuse normativele necesare pentru desfăşurarea
activităţii de proiectare a fermelor mici şi mijlocii de producere a laptelui.
REZULTATE ŞI DISCUŢII
Construcţia adăpostului (grajdului pentru întreţinerea bovinelor) se va
realiza în baza unor proiecte-tip, elaborate de o echipă de specialişti licenţiaţi de
tehnologi, arhitecţi, constructori, energeticieni, medici veterinari, ingineri cadastrali
etc. în funcţie de doleanţele investitorilor, scopul fondării fermei, metodele de
creştere, nutriţie şi întreţinere a animalelor, posibilitatea păşunării, etc.
La alegerea locului de amplasare a fermei se vor lua în consideraţie
următoarele cerinţe generale:
- Existenţa terenului de amplasare a fermei sau posibilitatea de achiziţionare a
terenului pentru construcţie.
- 518 -
- Existenţa pieţei de desfacere a laptelui (produselor lactate). Ferma se va amplasa

în apropierea consumatorilor – centre de colectare a laptelui, întreprinderi de
prelucrare a laptelui, piaţa de realizare a laptelui proaspăt şi lactatelor.
- Existenţa căilor de acces (şosele, drumuri practicabile în orice anotimp al
anului.
- Posibilitatea: producerii a cantitţii necesare de furaje voluminoase şi verzi, de
producere sau achiziţionare a furajelor concentrate, premixurilor, rizidurilor
industriale; de asigurare cu apă potabilă, energie electrică gaze naturale, alt
combustibil de diferită natură; de deservire a fermei de către oficiul local pentru
deservirea zootehnică, veterinară, însămânţare artificială; asigurării cu forţă de
muncă; gestionare raţională şi folosirea dejecţiilor.
- Amplasarea se va planifica, în măsura posibilităţilor, pe terenuri cât mai ieftine,
dar utile pentru realizarea construcţiilor. Terenul ales trebuie: să permită
optimizarea amplasării clădirilor şi a drumurilor din incinta fermei; să aibă o
suprafaţă suficientă pentru a extinde pe viitor ferma în caz de necesitate; să fie
amplasat pe o pantă cu uşoară înclinaţie (1-6%) pentru a facilita funcţionarea
sistemului de canalizare şi a evita eroziunea solului. Sunt preferate terenurile cu
expunere sudică, sud-vestică şi sud-estică.
Cerinţe de ordin sanitar-veterinar: Distanţa minimă de protecţie sanitară
între localităţi şi ferme este de 50 m. Între adăposturile de animale şi căile de
comunicaţie (şosele, căi ferate, drumuri locale) va exista o distanţă nu mai mică de
20 m. Între sectorul de producţie (adăpostul pentru vaci şi tineret de reproducţie) şi
pavilionul sanitar-veterinar distanţa minimă constituie de 30 m. Căile de acces a
taurinelor către păşune nu trebuie să se intersecteze cu căile de comunicaţie (şosele,
căi ferate, drumuri locale). Ferma va fi amplasată ţinând cont că se va evita poluarea
accidentală a apelor curgătoare care traversează localitatea învecinată. Ferma se va
izolată de localitate printr-o perdea forestieră cu rol de paravan împotriva vânturilor
puternice care ar răspândi gazele nocive şi praful din fermă.
Planul general al fermei de producere a laptelui (modulul de bază) include
în componenţa sa:
- Grajdul pentru întreţinerea a 20 vaci şi 24 capete tineret pentru reproducţie de
diferite vârste.
- Construcţii auxiliare (secţie pentru răcirea şi depozitarea temporară a laptelui).
- Amenajări pentru depozitarea furajelor (depozite pentru furaje concentrate,
siloz, rădăcinoase, fân, fânaj, paie).
- Reţeaua internă de drumuri cu ieşire la drumurile centrale.
- Instalaţii de încălzire a apei tehnologice.
- Rezervor de apă (fântână sau staţie de pompare de la reţele centrale).
- Sector de depozitare a dejecţiilor.
- Pavilion administrativ sau casa de locuit a fermierului şi membrilor familiei sale.
Capacitatea fermei şi utilizarea materialului biologic. Modulul de bază
include efectivul de 20 vaci şi 24 capete de diferite vârste. Modulele derivate pot
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fi: ferma cu 40 vaci şi 48 de capete tineret sau cu 10 vaci şi 12 de capete

tineret.
La proiectarea fermelor se va ţine cont de normativele din următoarele
tabele.
Tabelul 1
Normativele minime de suprafaţă şi volum în grajduri
Vârsta Mărimea boxelor, Front de Spaţiu pentru un Spaţiul pentru Cubatura
animalelor, m furajare, animal în boxe animale în boxe minimă,
luni cm colective, m2 individuale, m2 m3
lungimea lăţimea
6-12 1,7-1,9 0,80 45 - 50 2,0 0,7 – 1,0 10-12
12-18 1,6-1,8 0,85 50 - 55 3,0 1,1 – 1,4 12-14

18-24 1,7-1,8 0,90 60 - 65 3,5 1,4 – 1,6 14-18
Vaci adulte 1,7-1,9 0,9 80 4,0 1,7- 1,9 14-18
(stand)
Padoc pentru x x 80 8,0 6,0 –8,0 x
vaci
Suprafeţele minime vor asigura adăpostirea raţională şi igienică a

bovinelor, reducerea impactului negativ ai factorilor climatici nefavorabili în
perioada de stabulaţie – 6-7 luni.
Tabelul 2
Normativele confortului termic în grajdurile pentru bovine
Temperatura (0C)
Categoria de animale
minimă maximă optimă
Vaci în lactaţie 6 24 12-16
Vaci în maternitate 12 24 16-18
Viţei în creşă, boxe individuale 12 24 16-18
Tineret de la o lună până la 5-6 luni 8 24 12-15
Tineret mai mare de 6 luni 8 24 12-15
Pentru menţinerea stării de sănătate şi obţinerea producţiei maxime de la

vaci şi tineretul bovin la proiectarea grajdurilor se va ţine cont de normativele
oprime ale temperaturii grajdurilor. În perioada rece a anului crearea confortului
termic se va asigura prin folosirea unor saltele sau balote de paie anexate la pereţii
exteriori, iar în perioada cea mai caldă a anului aerul poate fi răcit trecându-l
printr-un strat de paie umede.
Din condiţiile care trebuie să le îndeplinească adăposturile animalelor se
numără şi realizarea unei umidităţi normate în interiorul acestora. Umiditatea
rezultă de la animale prin expiraţie şi transpiraţie, precum şi prin evaporarea apei
din furajele suculente, urină, fecale, din apele folosite pentru necesităţi
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tehnologice – spălarea ugerului, vaselor, etc. Din cercetările efectuate rezultă că în

grajdurile fără încălzire pentru bovine umiditatea relativă a aerului necesită să fie
menţinută la 70-85 % pentru tineret şi 70-90 % pentru animalele adulte, iar în
grajdurile cu încălzire suplimentară, respectiv, 70-80 şi 75-85 %.
Tabelul 3
Normativele pentru asigurarea iluminării grajdurilor
Iluminare Intensitatea iluminării,
Categoria de animale naturală artificială, lucşi
w/m2
Vaci cu lapte 1/20 2,5 50-60
Maternitate 1/20 4,5 50-60
Viţei în creşă, boxe individuale 1/14 3,5 60-70
Tineret de la o lună până la 5-6 1/16 3,5 60-70
luni
Tineret mai mare de 6 luni 1/25 2,5 50-60
Lumina este un factor deosebit de important pentru sănătatea şi producţia

animalelor. Lumina asigură funcţionarea tuturor proceselor fiziologice, stimulează
creşterea şi productivitatea animalelor. Sistemul de iluminare natural se asigură la
proiectarea adăposturilor prin raportul suprafeţei geamurilor la suprafaţa totală a
grajdului, precum şi prin folosirea padocurilor în toată perioada anului pentru
plimbarea animalelor tinere şi adulte. Iluminarea artificială se asigură prin folosirea
curentului electric, însă în acest caz folosirea padocurilor este obligatorie.
Tabelul 4
Normativele compoziţiei aerului în grajdurile pentru întreţinerea vacilor şi
tineretului
Specificare Unitate de măsură Normative
Viteza aerului m/s vara 0,7-0,9; iarna 0,2-0,3
Concentraţia amoniacului mg/l nu mai mare de 0,02
Concentraţia hidrogenului sulfurat mg/l se admit urme
Concentraţia hidraţilor de carbon % după volum nu mai mare de 0,15
Aerul are în compoziţia sa mai multe gaze, printre care oxigen, fără de
care viaţa animalelor nu ar fi posibilă, dar cantităţile lui diferă în aerul din
atmosferă şi aerul din interiorul grajdurilor. Deoarece animalele petrec o mare
parte din viaţa sa în adăposturi – spaţii închise la proiectarea grajdurilor este
necesar de asigurat parametrii optimali ai microclimatului, inclusiv concentraţia
minimă a gazelor nocive.
În calitate de aşternut se vor folosi paie, rumegătură de lemn, coji de
floarea soarelui sau alte riziduri ale plantelor cu umiditatea nu mai mare de 17-20
% şi fără mucigaiuri. În rumegătura de lemn nu trebuie să existe aşchii sau alte
obiecte care pot provoca traume animalelor. Pentru tineret în creşă şi cu vârsta de
până la 6 luni se va folosi cel mai calitativ aşternut din punct de vedere al
cerinţelor sanitar-veterinare.
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Tabelul 5
Nocesarul de aşternut pentru bovine
Categoria de animale Cantitatea de aşternut la un cap pe zi, kg
Vaci cu lapte cu patul până la 1,7 m2 2-3
Vaci cu lapte cu patul mai mare de 1,7 m2 3-4
Vaci în maternitate 4-5
Viţei în creşă, boxe individuale 2-3
Tineret de 1-6 luni în boxe colective 2-3
Tineret mai mare de 6 luni în boxe colective 2-3
Normativele de organizare a reproducţiei animalelor

La proiectarea fermelor se va prevedea crearea efectivului:
- cu circuit deschis, dacă materialul biologic (rasa, tineretul pentru înlocuirea
vacilor reformate) se va procura de la agenţii economici din ţară sau de peste
hotarele ei;
- cu circuit închis, dacă tineretul pentru reproducţie se va creşte în una şi aceeaşi
fermă.
După modalitatea de reproducţie normativele prevăd organizarea
reproducţiei:
- simplă - fără a majora efectivul de animale;
- lărgită – majorarea în timp a efectivului de animale.
Normativele calităţii materialului biologic folosit în fermele de producere a
laptelui. La alegerea materialului biologic - rasei de taurine se vor lua în
consideraţie, în special, criterii de ordin economic – producţia anuală şi calitatea ei,
consumul specific de furaje, longivitatea productivă, calităţile reproductive,
cerinţele pieţei pentru producţiile principale ale taurinelor, adaptarea rasei la
condiţiile pedo-climatice specifice zonei în care este amplasată ferma, posibilităţile
fermierului de a procura taurine pentru reproducţie (vaci, juninci, viţele).
Pentru obţinerea unei producţii anuale de 4000-6000 kg de lapte de la o
vacă se recomandă de crescut taurine din tipul moldovenesc al rasei Bălţată cu
Negru, potenţialul genetic al producţiei de lapte al căreia constituie 7-9 mii kg şi
mai mult. Se va ţine cont, de asemenea, şi de faptul că, conform rezultatelor
cercetărilor ştiinţifice tineretul taurin din populaţia tipului moldovenesc al rasei
Bălţată cu Negru în condiţiile creşterii intensive asigură posibilitatea obţinerii
sporului mediu zilnic în greutate de 900-1000 g, Greutatea corporală la creşterea
intensivă a tăuraşilor la abatorizare (vârsta de 15-18 luni) constituie cca 475-500
kg, consumul specific de furaje nu depăşeşte 6,1- 6,5 unităţi nutritive.
Procurarea altor rase de taurine din import cu aptitudini productive
superioare taurinelor de tipul moldovenesc al rasei Bălţată cu Negru trebuie făcută
cu mare prudenţă, luând în consideraţie rezistenţa şi adaptabilitatea noilor rase la
condiţiile locale, posibilităţile fermierului de a asigura toate cerinţele biologice
specifice pentru realizarea potenţialului lor productiv, riscul răspândirii unor
maladii periculoase care nu s-au înregistrat în Republica Moldova, precum şi
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preţurile animalelor de prăsilă care sunt mult mai înalte comparativ cu preţurile
existente în ţara noastră.
Vârsta medie la prima fătare depinde de intensitatea creşterii viţelelor
pentru reproducţie, greutatea corporală şi vârsta lor la prima însămânţare.
Conform rezultatelor cercetărilor ştiinţifice nominalizate viţelele din populaţia
tipului moldovenesc al rasei Bălţată cu Negru în condiţiile creşterii intensive
asigură posibilitatea atingerii masei corporale 360-380 kg la vârsta de 15-16 luni,
când pot fi admise pentru prima însămânţare. Astfel, prima fătare va fi posibilă în
medie la vârsta de 25-26 luni. Longivitatea productivă sau vârsta cea mai efectivă
a reformei pentru rasa Bălţată cu Negru este în medie de 7,5 ani. Normativele
prevăd că la ferma cu un efectiv de 20 vaci anual vor fi reformate 4 vaci, iar
pentru înlocuirea lor se vor creşte 4-5 juninci
Normativele creşterii tineretului pentru reproducţie şi înlocuirea vacilor
reformate. În tabelul 6 sunt prezentate normativele greutăţii corporale şi adaosului
mediu zilnic a viţelelor crescute pentru înnoirea cirezii.
Tabelul 6
Greutatea corporală şi adaosul mediu zilnic a tineretului taurin
Specificare Indici minimali Indici optimali
a) Greutatea corporală, kg:
La naştere 25 35
6 luni 125 140
12 luni 235 280
16 luni 325 375
18 luni 370 425
24 luni 510 570
b) Sporul mediu zilnic, g:
În perioada vârstei 0-6 luni 550 580
6-9 luni 560 670
9-12 luni 670 890
12-16 luni 740 790
16-18 luni 750 800
18-24 luni 800 800
Programarea introducerii viţelelor la reproducţie este o acţiune

tehnologică deosebit de importantă, cu implicaţii directe asupra dezvoltării
ulterioare a femelelor şi performanţelor lor productive. Indiferent de intensitatea
creşterii tineretului de reproducţie primele călduri la viţele pot apărea la vârsta de
10-12 luni, dar însămânţarea lor la această vârstă este prematură, dezvoltarea
corporală va fi insuficientă şi va condiţiona producţii mici de lapte, ceea ce din
punct de vedere economic este inacceptabil.
Creşterea extensivă a viţelelor tot nu este binevenită din cauză că nu se va
asigura greutatea corporală optimală (360-380 kg) la vârsta primei însămânţări –16-
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18 luni. Consecinţele vor fi (I) scăderea producţiei de lapte şi (II) sporirea

cheltuielilor la creşterea tineretului de reproducţie. Conform rezultatelor cercetărilor
ştiinţifice efectuate, viţelele din populaţia tipului moldovenesc al rasei Bălţată cu
Negru în condiţiile creşterii intensive asigură posibilitatea atingerii masei corporale
360-380 kg la vârsta de 15-16 luni, când pot fi admise pentru prima însămânţare. În
asemenea condiţii la prima fătare vârsta vacilor poate fi până la 2,5 ani, ceea ce dă
posibilitatea de a obţine 4-5 mii kg de lapte pe lactaţie şi reducerea semnificativă a
cheltuielilor la creşterea tineretului de reproduţie.
Se va planifica sistemul de însămânţări şi fătări eşalonate, urmărindu-se
producerea relativ uniformă a laptelui în decursul anului. Însămânţarea artificială
a viţelelor şi a vacilor se va face cu material seminal al taurilor incluşi în
programele de împerecheri, elaborat anual de Institutul de cercetări ştiinţifice
pentru zootehnie şi medicină veterinară. Momentul optim de însămânţare a
vacilor este în medie de 60-90 zile după fătare.
Tabelul 7
Normativele privind calculul efectivului şi volumului producţiei
Specificare Mărimea fermei, vaci
10 20 (varianta de bază) 40
1 2 3 4
1. Perioada între fătări, zile 365 365 365
2. Se vor obţine viţei anual, capete 10 20 40
inclusiv viţei de la vaci, capete 8 16 32
viţei de la primipare 2 4 8
3. Anual se vor creşte junci pentru înnoirea 2 5 10
cirezii
4. Rebutarea vacilor adulte, capete 2 5 10
5.Durata perioadelor fiziologice a vacilor, zile în
medie:
- repaus mamar 60 60 60
- ciclului sexual (după fătare) 21 21 21
- avansarea producţiei de lapte şi însămânţarea 120 120 120
- lactaţia 305 305 305
6. Producţia anuală de lapte la o vacă, kg 5000 5500 6000
7. Producţia anuală de lapte, tone 50 110 240
8. Consumul specific de furaje (un. nutritive / kg 1,25 1,20 1,15
lapte )
9. Necesarul de furaje pentru producţia laptelui,
unităţi nutritive, tone 62,5 132 276
10. Greutatea medie corporală a unei vaci adulte, kg 500 550 600
11. Efectivul tineretului, în medie pe an capete: 11,56 23,12 46,24
inclusiv de la naştere până la 30 zile 0,98 1,96 3,92
de la 30 zile până la 6 luni1 2,87 5,74 11,48
de la 6 până la 12 luni 3,45 6,90 13,80
de la 12 până la 17 luni 2,05 4,10 8,20
de la 17 până la 26 luni 2,21 4,42 8,84
12.Necesarul de locuri pentru tineret 12 24 48
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13. Realizarea viţelelor la vârsta de 12 luni, 2 4 6

capete
Cu greutatea vie totală, kg 520 1040 1560
0 1 2 3
14. Realizarea viţelelor la vârsta de 17 luni, 1 2 4
capete
15. Realizarea vacilor adulte rebutate, capete 2 4 10
16. Realizarea tăuraşilor la vârsta de 30 zile 5 10 20
Greutatea corporală a tăuraşilor, kg 250 500 1000
Adaos total în greutate, kg 75 150 300
17. Producţia de carne în greutate vie totală, kg 2130 4280 9540
Inclusiv producţia de carne de la tineret, kg 1130 2280 4540
18. Greutatea corporală a viţelelor, kg:
- la naştere 35 35 35
- la vârsta de 6 luni 140 140 140
- la vârsta de 12 luni 280 280 280
- la vârsta de 16 luni (prima însămânţare a 375 375 375
viţelelor)
19. Vârsta medie la însămânţarea viţelelor, luni 17 17 17
20. Metoda de întreţinere:
A vacilor şi juncilor cu două luni înainte de La legătură în perioada de stabulaţie, în
fătare perioada de vară combinat (la legătură, liber la
păşunat)
A tineretului la toate vârstele Până la vârsta de o lună – în boxe individuale,
în continuare liber
21. Longevitatea productivă, ani 5 5 5
1 La vârsta de 30 de zile tăuraşii se vor realiza altor agenţi economici pentru a fi crescuţi la carne.
Respectarea cerinţelor prezentate în tabelul 7 va asigura un confort

fiziologic şi o folosire mai raţională a grajdurilor, menţinerea stării de sănătate a
viţelelor.
Din experimentele efectuate în cadrul Institutului Naţional pentru
Zootehnie şi Medicină Veterinară s-a constatat că pentru viţelele mai mari de 6
luni în perioada de iarnă nu este necesar de încălzit suplimentar grajdurile.
Menţinerea temperaturii optime va avea loc din contul căldurii eliminate de
animale. Grajdurile însă urmează să fie bine curăţite, uscate şi protejate de
pătrunderea aerului rece din exterior. În timp de vară animalele se vor proteja de
razele solare puternice prin instalarea acoperişurilor în padocuri.
O influenţă mai mare are umiditatea relativă a aerului. Sporirea umidităţii,
mai cu seamă în perioada de iarnă, poate provoca suprarăcirea organismului şi în
consecinţă îmbolnăvirea animalelor. Pot fi provocate şi dereglări ale
metabolismului de gaze. Din aceste considerente este necesar să fie asigurată
ventilarea grajdurilor în mod natural sau prin folosirea utilajelor respective care
vor asigura parametrii vitezei aerului indicaţi în tabelul 4.
Un factor important de sporire a producţiei de lapte este producerea
furajelor calitative şi organizarea nutriţiei tineretului de reproducţie şi vacilor în
corespundere cu necesităţile fiziologice de obţinere a producţiei preconizate
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anual. În următoarele tabele se prezintă normativele necesarului anual de furaje şi

astructurii raţiilor anuale.
Tabelul 8
Normativele necesarului annual de furaje în natură pentru o vacă, kg
Producţia anuală de Fân Fânaj Siloz Sfeclă Furaje
lapte, kg furajeră verzi Concentrate
4400 953 358 4086 3337 10169 1664
4600 973 365 3963 3893 10058 1752
4800 992 186 4038 3967 10247 1839
5000 857 188 3857 4500 10330 1909
5400 871 191 3921 4575 9828 2052
5600 880 193 3740 5133 9582 2128
5800 887 194 3770 5175 9660 2145
6000 891 195 3566 5200 8667 2212
Tabelul 9
Normativele structurii raţiei anuale pentru vaci, % după valoarea nutritivă
Producţia Fân Fânaj Siloz Sfeclă Furaje
anuală de furajeră verzi Concentrate
lapte, kg
4400 7 2 20 7 32 32
4600 7 2 19 8 31 33
4800 7 1 19 8 31 34
5000 6 1 18 9 31 35
5400 6 1 18 9 29 37
5600 6 1 17 10 28 38
5800 6 1 17 10 28 38
6000 6 1 16 10 25 39
Tabelul 10
Normativele necesarului de furaje în natură pentru a creşte o viţică de la naştere la
vârsta de 16 luni
Vârsta, luni
Furaje Total în perioada
0-6 6-12 12-16 0-16 luni
Lapte integral 320 - - 320
Lapte degresat 350 - - 350
Concentrate 235 420 270 925
Fân 210 - - 210
Fânaj 50 513 261 824
Siloz 310 1017 1000 2327
Sfeclă furajeră 210 279 - 489
Furaje verzi - - 615 615
Paie - 171 87 258
Sare de bucătărie 2,7 3,1 4,6 10,4
Fosfat de monocalciu 2,1 3,0 4,5 9,6
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BACK
CONCLUZII
Normativele pot fi folosite pentru proiectarea, construcţia şi exploatarea
fermelor de producere a laptelui din sectorul particular al Republicii Moldova cu
un efectiv de 20 vaci mulgătoare (varianta de bază) sau cu 10 – 40 capete şi
producţia anuală a vacilor de 4-6 mii kg de lapte..
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Chilimar S. Tehnologii de creştere a tineretului taurin. ACSA, 2003.
2. Chilimar S. Modele de creştere a taurinelor. Simpozion Internaţional. UASM, Chişinău 2005.
3. Chilimar S., Bajura T. Strategia dezvoltării sectorului zootehnic în Republica Moldova. Revista
de zootehnie. Anul III, nr. 2, Iaşi, 2006.
4. Bajura T., Chilimar S., Dumbraveanu N. şi al. Argumentarea tehnico-ştiinţifică a investiţiilor
capitale şi proiectelor-tip de afaceri pentru întreprinderile mici şi mijlocii în sectorul
agroalimentar (sectorul de creştere a taurinelor). Economie şi dezvoltare rurală, IMDRP, 2006.
5. Bajura T., Chilimar S., Dumbraveanu N. şi al. Tarife de costuri in agriculrură. IMDRP, 2004,
2005, 2006.
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BACK
CONTRIBUTIONS ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE

RESULTS IN THE EGGS ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION
I. C. BOCIOAGĂ
The author proposes to bring new contributions to the hatching process

of the eggs issued from meat type breed hens, using the alteration of some
technological factors: eggs storage and sanitation conditions, microclimate and
technological flow within an incubation station etc.
Main topics were focused on some technological customizations which
lead to some high incubation results, straightly concerning the hatchability and
hatching proportions as well as the quality of the new hatched chickens.
The researches are still ongoing.
The research goals were to identify those technological and biological

factors affecting incubation process results as good as the finding of best methods
to be applied within practical conditions, in order to obtain best incubation
parameters (higher hatching percentage, better day old chicken quality and lower
mortality and economical looses).
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The biological material consisted in 20248 incubation eggs, allocated in
four groups (control group and three experimental treatments): Lc = 5010 pcs.; L1
exp. = 5062 pcs.; L2 exp. = 5094 pcs.; L3 exp. = 5082 pcs. (table 1). The eggs
were produced by ROSS 308 hens, reared within 1 RRG-Amara Farm, belonging
to S.C. “AVICOLA” S.A. Slobozia. The age of the hens was about 41-42 weeks
An amount of 17060 day old chickens were hatched from the 20248
incubated eggs: Lc = 4160 chicks; L1 exp = 4290 chicks; L2 exp = 4360 chicks;
L3 exp = 4250 chicks (tab. 1).
Eggs incubation passed in I.V.-60 incubators, having a total capacity of
57024 eggs, respectively 9504 eggs/incubation series. Some thermoregulators
with bimetallic sensors served to temperature maintenance in both incubator
sections (front and rear); air moisture was passive maintained, through the
vaporization of the water from the recipients placed on the incubator central floor;
egg turning was automatically done, under a 90° degree (45º right and 45º left).
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Table 1
Biological material used in experimentations
Treatments Incubated Hatched Males Females
eggs (pcs.) chickens Amount % Amount %
Lc 5010 4160 1940 46.63 2220 53.37
L1 exp. 5062 4290 2100 48.95 2190 51.05
L2 exp. 5094 4360 2140 49.08 2220 50.92
L3 exp. 5082 4250 2040 48.00 2210 52.00
Total 20248 17060 8220 48.18 8840 51.82
For the instance, the eggs passed qualitative and quantitative inspection
then they are treated through aerosols (1st fumigation) with 1% Virkon’s solution,
continuously for 2 minutes. Solution temperature reaches 30-34º C, while the
environmental temperature should reach 18º C. Five sanitation samples were
taken before 1st fumigation and immediately after it. A 2nd fumigation was done
right before preincubation, under the same parameters. Sampling was done using
sanitation swab and Decun method.
Various types of thermometers and thermohigrographs were used in order
to assess physical parameters (temperature and relative moisture) during the entire
experimental period.
During egg incubation, another fumigations with 1% Virkon’s solution
were done (during 2 minutes, aqueous solution at 30-34º C), continuously or
intermittent, depending on the experimental design requirements for each group.
Eggs biological incubation controls (1st and 2nd) were passed during the 8th and
18th day of embryonic development, using a hand ovoscope.
The eggs transfer to hatching machine passed differently, depending on the
studied group. Thus, for the Lc group, the 2nd biological control was done in
incubators hall, while the eggs transfer on hatching traces has been done into the
hatching machines hall. All these maneuvers passed in 15-20 minutes for the
control group, but it was shorter 10 minutes for the experimental treatments (L1
exp., L2 exp., L3 exp.), whose biological control and transfers had been done into
the transfer hall.
During our study, main technical indexes of the incubation process and
the microclimate physical factors dynamics were assessed, as it follows:
• Environmental temperature and air moisture were recorded using an
incubator integrated monitoring system, which records every 15 seconds
and print it every 15 minutes. The daily average value was established on
their basis (37.7º C and 55-60% relative moisture).
• Percentage of non fecundated eggs in 1st and 2nd biological controls;
• Fertility percentage in 1st and 2nd biological controls;
• Dead embryos count in 1st and 2nd biological controls;
• Viable embryos count in 1st and 2nd biological controls;
- 529 -
• Weight loss percentage in 1st and 2nd biological controls;

• Hatchability percentage;
• Hatching percentage;
Some specific mathematical relations were used to calculate the incubation
statistic results:
1. Weight loss of the eggs in 1st biological control (%) = 100 – (eggs weight
in 1st biological control /eggs weight at the incubation beginning x 100)
2. Weight loss of the eggs in 2nd biological control (%) = 100 – (eggs weight
in 2nd biological control /eggs weight at the incubation beginning x 100)
3. Fertility (%) = 100 – (not fecundated eggs/eggs submitted to incubation x
100)
4. Dead embryos in 1st biological control (%) = 100 – (dead embryos in 1st
biological control / eggs submitted to incubation x 100)
5. Dead embryos in 2nd biological control (%) = 100 – (dead embryos in 2nd
biological control / eggs submitted to incubation x 100)
6. Dead embryos in 1st and 2nd biological control (%) = 100 – (dead embryos
in 1st and 2nd biological control / eggs submitted to incubation x 100)
7. Hatchability (%) = viable day old chickens / Fertile eggs x 100
8. Hatching (%) = viable day old chickens / eggs submitted to incubation x
100

Concerning eggs weight at incubation submission moment, the L2 group
showed lowest values (63.25±0.11 g) while the L3 one showed the highest ones
(63.67±0.11). Statistical significance of the difference was found between L3 and
other treatments (tab.2).
Due to the uniform weight loss during incubation, not significant
differences were found at the 1st and 2nd biological control moments (tab.2).
Concerning the day old chickens weight, very significant differences were
found between groups Lc (42.08g), L2 (41.97 g) and L1 (41.46), L3 (41.51)
groups (tab 1) (fig.1).
Fertility percentage, as main indicator of the reproduction activity within
any farm, was straightly correlated with eggs fecundity. Lower fertility levels
were observed in L1 group (85.06%), situation leading to observing statistically
significance between its fertility value and other groups values (tab.3). We should
reminder the eggs issued from birds belonging to same flock, having same age.
Highest hatching percentage was found in L1 group, meaning 91.38 %, as
compared to the other groups: 83.2 % in Lc, 85.96 % in L2 and 83.99 % in L3.
Distinguished statistical differences were observed between L1 and the rest of
treatments (tab.3) (fig. 2).
- 530 -
Table 2
Weight of the incubation eggs and of the day hatched chickens
LC L1 L2 L3
Notice
X ±s XV% X ±s V% X X ±s X V% X ± sX V%
a a a b
Icubation Submission 63.49 0.08 0.79 63.38 0.11 1.07 63.25 0.11 1.11 63.67 0.11 1,13
eggs Control I - - - 59.97a 0.10 1.10 59.78a 0.11 1.15 60.13a 0.11 1,20
weight Control II 55.57a 0.07 0.85 54.75 a 0.85 9.77 55.43 a 0.11 1.28 55.83a 0.11 1,28
Day old chickens weight 42,08a 0.12 1.77 41.46d 0.11 1.66 41.97a 0.11 1.70 41.51d 0.13 1.97
a, b, c, d – within the same row - insignificant statistical differences between means with identical exponents,
significant (ab; F̂ > F crit. for α 0.05), distinguish significant (ac; F̂ > F crit. for α 0.01) high significant (ad; F̂ > F crit. for
α 0.001) differences between means with different exponents
65,00
60,00
55,00
LC
weight (g)
50,00
L1
45,00 Fig.1 – Weight of the incubation eggs and
L2 of the new hatched chickens
40,00
Eggs weight - Eggs weight - Eggs weight - Eggs weight -
submission Ctrl. I Ctrl. II Hatching L3
LC 63,49 55,57 42,08
L1 63,38 59,97 54,75 41,46
L2 63,25 59,78 55,43 41,97
L3 63,67 60,13 55,83 41,51
- 531 -
Table 3
Fertility, hatchability and hatching of the studied incubation eggs
LC L1 L2 L3
Parameter
X ± sX V% X ± sX V% X ± sX V% X ± sX V%
Fertility 92.55a 0.43 2.90 85.06b 0.55 2.90 92.14a 0.38 2.90 91.05a 0.39 2.74
a c a a
Hatching capacity 83.20 0.52 3.97 91.38 0.35 2.43 85.96 0.46 3.38 83.99 0.51 3.85
a d d d
Hatchability 89.86 0.33 2.35 93.11 0.38 2.59 93.19 0.36 2.46 92.27 0.41 2.81
a, b, c, d – within the same row - insignificant statistical differences between means with identical exponents,
significant (ab; F̂ > F crit. for α 0.05), distinguish significant (ac; F̂ > F crit. for α 0.01) high significant (ad; F̂ > F crit. for
α 0.001) differences between means with different exponents
93,00
91,00
89,00
%
LC
87,00
L1 Fig.2 – Fertility, hatchability and hatching of the

85,00
studied incubation eggs
83,00
L2
81,00
Fertility Hatching capacity Hatchability L3
LC 92,55 83,20 89,86
L1 91,38 85,06 93,11
L2 92,14 85,96 93,19
L3 91,05 83,99 92,27
- 532 -
Table 4
Dead embryos found in biological controls I and II
LC L1 L2 L3
Notice
st a d d d
1 biological control 4.15 0.29 44.60 1.96 0.24 44.60 2.01 0.18 44.60 2.13 0.23 67.14
2nd biological control 2.37a 0.19 50.78 2.44 a 0.25 65.59 2.05 a 0.26 81.26 2.37 a 0.21 55.69
Overall incubation 6.51a 0.29 28.53 4.39 d 0.34 49.37 4.06 d 0.32 50.38 4.51 d 0.30 42.65
a, b, c, d – within the same row - insignificant statistical differences between means with identical exponents, significant (ab; F̂ > F crit.
for α 0.05), distinguish significant (ac; F̂ > F crit. for α 0.01) high significant (ad; F̂ > F crit. for α 0.001) differences between means with
different exponents
7,00
5,00
%
LC
3,00 L1 Fig.3 Dead embryos found

in biological controls I and II
L2
1,00
1st biol. control 2nd biol. control Overall incubation L3
LC 4,15 2,37 6,51
L1 1,96 2,44 4,39
L2 2,01 2,05 4,06
L3 2,13 2,37 4,51
- 533 -
Table 5
Non fecundated eggs found in biological controls I and II
LC L1 L2 L3
Notice
st a b a b
1 biological control 7.42 0.43 36.24 8.61 0.35 36.24 7.84 0.38 36.24 8.98 0.39 27.58
2nd biological control 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Overall incubation 7.42a 0.43 36.24 8.61b 0.35 36.24 7.84a 0.38 36.24 8.98b 0.39 27.58
a, b, c, d – within the same row - insignificant statistical differences between means with identical exponents, significant (ab; F̂ > F
crit. for α 0.05), distinguish significant (ac; F̂ > F crit. for α 0.01) high significant (ad; F̂ > F crit. for α 0.001) differences between
means with different exponents
10,00
8,00
6,00
%
LC
4,00
L1 Fig.4 – Non fecundated eggs
found in biological controls I and II
2,00
L2
0,00
1st biol. control 2nd biol. control Overall incubation L3
LC 7,42 0,00 7,42
L1 8,61 0,00 8,61
L2 7,84 0,00 7,84
L3 8,98 0,00 8,98
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BACK
Concerning hatchability, it is well known as an indicator of which

computation eliminates the deficiencies within the reproduction farms (not
fecundated eggs). In our study, the high embryonic mortality rate produced
hatchability decreasing. Par consequence, the lowest percentage was observed in
Lc eggs (89.96 %), mainly due to the amount of dead embryo during overall
incubation period. Very significant differences were shown between reference and
experimental groups (tab. 3) (fig.2).
The amount of dead embryos found in 1st biological control moment gave
very significant differences between control and other studied groups. Highest
value was observed in Lc group (4.15%), followed decreasingly by L3 with
2.13%, L2 with 2.01% and L1 with 1.96% (tab.4) (fig. 3).
The 2nd biological control did not give statistical differences concerning
embryos mortality, but the counted deaths contributed to a cumulative effect for
the overall incubation periods. Thus, the final results placed Lc with 6.51%
embryo mortalities; L1 with 4.39%; L2 with 4.06% and L3 with 4.51% (tab.4).
It is well known that the first and last embryonic development period is
accompanied by a high mortality rate. Despite this it could be clearly observed
that the mortality decreased within the experimental groups, some very significant
differences being observed when compared to control treatment (Lc) (fig. 3).
The number of non fecundated eggs that were found in 1st incubation
control remained the same during incubation period, including at its ending: Lc –
7.42%; L1 – 8.61%; L2 – 7.84%; L3 – 8.98%. Some differences were considered
as significant (Lc vs. L1 and L2) (tab.5).
CONCLUSIONS
Best hatchability value was achieved by the L2 group (93.19%), closer
followed by the eggs within the L1 group, although the highest fertility value was
observed for the eggs belonging to control group (92.55%).
Highest rate of embryos mortality was found for the eggs in the reference
group (6.51%), while best embryos viability was observed in L2 group (95.94%).
Day old chickens weights were different enough to produce statistically
significant differentiation. Best weight at hatching moment was found in Lc group
but this great feature was counterbalanced by the poor embryo and new hatched
chicks’ viability. Otherwise, the L2 group gave chickens with good body weight
value as well as with good condition.
Better results obtained by the eggs from the experimental treatments due
to a better management of hygiene during incubation and to some more
appropriate proceedings of chicken transfer to hatching machines.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
• Ralph A.E., 2004 – Hatching Egg Sanitation: The Keystep in Succesful Storage and
Production, Univ. of California, Division of Agriculture and natural resources,
http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/InOrder/Shop/Shop.asp
• Vacaru-Opriş, I. şi col., 2002 – Tratat de Avicultură, vol. II, Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti.
• Zoons, J., Baere, K., 2004 – Incubation technique & post-hatch performance. World Poultry,
pg. 29-30, vol. 20, No. 6.
- 535 -
BACK
STUDY ON THE HUŢUL HORSE BREED

GENEALOGICAL STRUCTURE
D. SIMEANU, M.V. BURLICĂ, M. DOLIŞ
Since Lucina Stud establishment, the Huţul horse has been reared as pure
breed, basing on blood lines, as a management form of the entire breeding activity
In order to prevent a too close consanguinity within the breed, there are
commonly used 5 genealogical blood lines: Hroby, Goral, Pietrosul, Ouşor şi
Prislop.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The study has been set up within the Lucina Stud, using 7 breeding
stallions of whose genealogy trees has been studied, beginning with the first
records, from 1898, till now.

1. HROBY BLOODLINE
It was established by the homonym stallion, bought in 1898, from
Ciocăneşti place – Suceava county. From the beginning of its genesis, 2 major
blood trends were formed and developed, one of them in Lucina Stud, through
Hroby II stallion and the other in Czechoslovakia, trough the progeny of the Hroby
I stallion (fig. 1).
During 1931, from the Czech branch, a stallion named Hroby V was
imported and then used to maintain the bloodline through Hroby XIV stallion with
153 Goral IV –III mare, resulting Hroby XVII steed. From the same Czech branch,
another male genitor was imported in 1956, named Hroby X, which continued
through Hroby XII and Hroby XIII stallions. Another stallion, Hroby XVI, issued
from Hroby XII steed and 141 Goral IV - 4 mares. This male acts as a breeding
stallion within Lucina Stud, since 1975. The most valuable specimen of the Czech
branch was Hroby VIII stallion, used as breeder since 1937 till 1949, giving 97
progenitors. Then, between 1951 and 1959, the same male produced other 43
progenitors.
- 536 -
HROBY
Bought in 1898
Ciocăneşti - Bucovina
II I (n. 1908) III (1910-1928)

3 Miszka I-7 Huţul mare from 9 Miszka I-7
Bucovina
IV (1928-1934)
1 Panca
4 (n. 1928) Lucina V (1931-1932)

Topolcianky (imported)
65 Goral 11
VI (1934-1936) VII (1935-1937) VIII (1937-1949)

7 Roibu – 1 7 Roibu I (1951-1959)
47 Goral I – 6
X (1956-1967)
(imported)
490 Goral III IX (1950-1951)
177 Goral III – 4
XI (1958-1968)
200 Ouşor – 6
XIV (1968-
1976) Prislop I
XII (1967-1970) XIII (1970- –5
63 Goral IV – 6 1975) 71 XV (1970-1972)
Pietrosu II – 4 31 Pietrosu
XVII (1977- II – 6
1984) 153
XVI (1975– Goral IX-3
1983) 141
Goral VI – 4
XX (1985-1994)
301 Pietrosu
VI-18
XVIII (1984-) XIX (1983- XXI (1987-

232 Pietrosu V- 1990) 1994) XXII (1989-
2 323 Goral X-83 323 Goral X-83 2005) 425
Ouşor VI-19
XXIII (1998-)
623 Pietrosu
IX-8
Fig. 1. Hroby bloodline genealogy tree
- 537 -
The Romanian branch, continued through Hroby II and Hroby IV was not so
productive as progeny or so appropriate as morphoproductive features, when
compared to the Czech branch. The local branch ended between 1936- 1937, when
the Hroby VI and Hroby VII stallions (sons of Hroby IV) finished their activity.
A valuable specimen was Hroby XVI which gave Hroby XVIII, Hroby XIX,
Hroby XXI. The last one is the father of the Hroby XXIII, used now as breeding
stallion within the stud.
2. GORAL BLOODLINE
The second bloodline as ageing, name Goral, was established by the Goral
stallion, born in 1898 and brought to Lucina Stud in August 20, 1905. The
bloodline has Polish origins, its founding being born in Zabie place (Galiţia). This
line starter was a well conformed and robust specimen, representing the perfect
breed type, and being able to give those features with fidelity to the progenitors. It
has a strong hereditary force, especially for the high withers height, this character
being the main reason for the accommodation of the stallion within the stud.
Goral acted as breeder in Lucina Stud till 1914. Goral III and Goral VI
remarked as valuable bloodline keepers.
Goral III acted as breeder between 1930 and 1946, giving 142 progenitors.
Goral III could be considered as the most famous breed representative specimen, not
only of the own bloodline, his genotype being spread in almost all of the breed
specimens, contributing to the breed features homogeny and consolidation. Goral III
continued through Goral IV (b. 1938) which activated as breeder between 1945
and 1949.
Goral IV was followed, only for a year (1954-1955) by Goral VIII.
Goral V had a valuable activity, most of its successors being used as
breeder within the stud: Goral VI (b.1947) used as breeding stallion between 1950
and 1959, followed by Goral XII (b. 1959) between 1964-1972 years; Goral VII (b.
1949) used as breeding stallion since 1953 till 1955, followed by Goral XI, between
1955-1963; Goral IX (b. 1950) used as breeder between 1954-1962. From Goral IX
as father and 30 Pietrosu II - 3 mare, as mother, issued Goral XIII born in 1962,
which acted as breeder during 1967-1977 period. It has been continued by Goral
XVI, since 1979.
Goral X (b.1955) was used between 1959-1967, being then continued by
Goral XV, which activated since 1979 till 1983 within the stud.
Goral XX, a stallion issued from Goral XIX, acts now in Lucina Stud
(fig. 2).
- 538 -
GORAL (n. 1898)

Introduced in Lucina Stud in
20 VIII 1905
I (1911 – 1930)
14 Miszka I
II (1927 – 1934) III (1930 – 1945)

22 Parana 3 Tatarca
IV (1937 – 1952)
27 Găina
V (1945 – 1959) VIII (1954 – 1955)

85 Mănăilă 174 Pietrosu – 13
VI (1950 – 1959) VII (1953 – 1955) IX (1954 – 1962)

117 Ouşor – 2 223 Ouşor – 11 223 Ouşor – 11
X (1959 – 1967)
218 Ouşor – 5
XI (1959 – 1963)
264 Pietrosu II – 14 XIII (1966-1977)
30 Pietrosu II – 3
XV (1979-1983)
XII (1964 – 1972) 204 Pietrosu IV-9
243 Pietrosu I – 5
XIV (1960-1973) XVIII (1985-1987)

Hroby VIII – 6 441 Hroby XIII-53
XVI (1980-1992) XVII (1984-1987)

224 Pietrosu IV-1 332 Hroby XIII-94
XIX (1991-2005)
466 Pietrosu VIII-31
XX (2005)
554 O VI-69
Fig. 2. Goral bloodline genealogy tree
- 539 -
3. PIETROSU BLOODLINE
The blood line was established by Pietrosu stallion, bought from Brădeşti -
Odorhei and brought in 1934 in Lucina Stud.
The line founder was continued through I, used between 1943-1947
(without other progeny) and through Pietrosu II, used between 1947-1956. Both
stallions had as mothers some mares from Hroby bloodline, proving thus the
affinity of Pietrosu bloodline for the maternal bloodline
Pietrosu II was continued by two stallions: Pietrosu III, which acted between
1954-1958 and continued through Pietrosu IV (1960-1972) and Pietrosu VI (1964
- 1975); Pietrosu V, which acted between 1961-1964 years, being continued by
Pietrosu VII between 1968-1974.
The Prislop breeding stallion used now in the stud, named Prislop VII (b.
1967) issued from Pietrosu VI steed x 62 Prislop I-8 mare. It is used as breeder
since 1971.
Pietrosu VII did not give progenitors, while Pietrosu VI gave Pietrosu VIII,
Pietrosu IX, Pietrosu X and Pietrosu XI, the latter ones acting in present within the stud.
The specimens of this blood line have small heads and long shoulder
blades. Meantime, the thorax depth is smaller than those existing in other
bloodlines specimens, giving an appearance of a decreased robustness. Their
temperament is more nervous, the pacing being more airy and wider posterior, as
compared to the other bloodlines specimens (fig. 3).
4. OUŞOR BLOODLINE
It was established more recently, in 1934, through the Ouşor stallion, bought
from an area situated on the western side of the Eastern Carpathians, inhabited by
Seklers. The stallion was used in mating between 1934 and 1943. Two branches was
deliberately formed within the bloodline, by the mixture of the Ouşor specimens
with those issued from both initial bloodlines: Hroby şi Goral.
The first branch produced Ouşor I, which acted between 1944 and 1951,
without follower. The second branch gave Ouşor II, which was used between 1949
and 1962 and was followed by Ouşor III and Ouşor IV. After a year of activity
(1959), Ouşor III did not act anymore within the stud and it has not been
continued. Ouşor IV (b. 1951) was used since 1960 till 1973, being followed by
Ouşor V between 1967-1976, Ouşor VI (b.1966) – introduced as breeder since
1970; Ouşor VII (b. 1972) – used as breeder since 1976.
Nowadays two stallions are used within the stud: Ouşor IX and Ouşor X,
issued from Ouşor VII.
The atual succesors of the Ouşor bloodline have some characteristics, such
as: a relative high withers height, weak skeleton, with a relative value for the
cannon perimeter of 13% from the withers height. The neck is short and thick,
somehow disproportionate as compared to the trunk length.
- 540 -
All of the Ouşor bloodline specimens are well appreciated, having mixed
draft aptitudes, right pacing, small and high repetitive steps.
The Ouşor bloodline has breeding affinity with Goral bloodline (fig. 4).
PIETROSU
Bought in 1934
Brădeşti-Odorhei
I (1943 – 1947)
103 Hroby III - 6
II (1947 – 1956)
90 Hroby III - 3
III (1954 – 1958) V (1961 – 1964)

213 Goral III – 1 487 Goral III – 18
IV (1960 – 1972) VII (1960-1973)

17 Goral V – 2 236 Ouşor I – 3
VI (1964-1975)
231 Goral V – 3
VIII (1971)
62 Prislop I – 8
IX (1982-1994)
69 Hroby VIII-1
X (1991-)
436 Ouşor VI-33
XI (1999-)
670 Hroby XIX-18
Fig. 3. Pietrosu bloodline genealogy tree
- 541 -
OUŞOR (1934 – 1937)

Cumpărat din Brădeşti
Odorhei
I (1944 – 1951)
67 Hroby III – 4
II (1949 – 1962)
87 Goral I – 2
IV (1960-1973) III (1959 – 1960)

222 Hroby VIII-1 214 Goral III – 4
V (1968-1976) VI (1971-1981) VII (1977-1987)

89 Pietrosu III – 5 128 Pietrosu III - 1 229 Pietrosu IV-11
VIII (1984-1991) (import IX (1991-)

Ungaria) 327 Hroby XII-2 391 Goral XIV-43
X (1999-)
691 Pietrosu IX-50
Fig. 4. Ouşor bloodline genealogy tree
4. PRISLOP BLOODLINE
The bloodline was designed in order to enlarge the genetic pool of the
Lucina Stud selection nucleus. The new line was formed through the mating of
the public mating stallion, named 174 Goral 1-7, with a mare bought from the
specific husbandry region and added within the stud mother mare, named 84 Diana.
The progeny of the mating had a high withers height, a remarkable
energetic capacity. Par consequence, the stallion was named Prislop and was used
as breeder in the stud, in order to improve the value of the withers height within the
Huţul population.
Despite its appearance and energetic qualities, this stallion was cancelled
from the stud after one year of usage as breeder (1936- 1937), because it did not
match the general breed characteristics. The line keeper was, during 1950-1953
- 542 -
period, Prislop I, a stallion with a docile to lymphatic temperament, small withers

height, agile pacing. Between 1952-1956, any stallion from this line was not used
as breeder within the stud.
Prislop II (Prislop I x 296 Goral IV -7) acted as breeder between 1959 and
1958, and Prislop III (Prislop II x Ouşor V) during 1964 - 1967 period (fig. 5).
PRISLOP (1936-1937)
84 Diana
I (1950)
47 Corbu – 4
II (1956 - 1958)
206 Goral IV – 7
III (1964 - 1967)

16 Ouşor - 5
IV (1969 - 1972) V (1970 - 1972) VI (1972-1976)

117 Goral IX - 3 130 Pietrosu III – 1 117 Goral IX – 3
VII (1976-1979) VIII (1980-1988)

279 Pietrosu IV-63 341 Hroby XIV
IX (1982-1994)
270 Ouşor IV-61
X (1994-)
574 Hroby XVI-55
Fig. 5. Prislop bloodline genealogy tree
Prislop III was followed by three stallions: Prislop IV during 1970-1972;

Prislop V between 1970 and 1972, Prislop VI since 1971 till 1976.
Prislop VII issued from Prislop IV x 279 Pietrosul IV -63 mating and was
used as breeder between 1976-1979. Prislop VIII stallion, issued from the mating
with 341 Hroby IV - 9 mare, acted as breeder from 1980 till 1988.
Prislop VII was followed by Prislop IX and Prislop X, the latter being the
actual breeder of this bloodline in the Lucina stud.
- 543 -
BACK
Another tries of hereditary pool enlargement were done, such the import in
the Lucina Stud of a bloodline created in Czechoslovakia. The main breeder stallion,
named Gurgul, was mated with mares belonging to all Romanian bloodlines, even
with mares of the same origin as its own, like 70 Hroby -3 mares, imported from
Topolcianky. Neither Gurgul, neither its successor issued from the mating with the
foreign mare gave an appropriate progeny, able to continue the bloodline.
CONCLUSIONS
Analyzing the genealogy trees of the five bloodlines belonging to the
Huţul breed reared within Lucina Stud, it could be stated that the trees are not
enough branched now, possible leading to consanguinity and even to the loss of
the bloodlines.
Par consequence, it imposes to find some appropriate stallions, in order to
use them as line keepers. The sources of valuable genitors could be: public mating
flocks, imports or even private farms.
REFERENCES
1. Bennett D.K., 1986 – The origin of horse breeds. Equus 110 p. 33.
2. Brandsch H, Gerber J., 1988 – Beiträge zur Vererbung der Abzeichen bei Pferden. Archiv für
Tierzucht 31 p. 385-390.
3. Călinescu E. şi col., 1956 – Munca de ameliorare a calului Huţul în cei 100 ani de la
înfiinţarea Hergheliei Lucina. Probleme Zootehnice nr. 11, Bucureşti.
4. Călinescu E., Ujică V., 1982 – Producerea unui nou tip de cal utilitar pentru zona montană:
„Calul de Bucovina”. Cercetarea în sprijinul producţiei, MAIA, Bucureşti.
5. Gassebner H., 1896 – Die prerdezucht, vol. I, Wien.
6. Marcenac L.N., 1980 – Encyclopédie du cheval, Ed. Maloine, Paris.
7. Rădulescu I., 1957 – Calul Huţul din R.P.R. Ed. Agro-Silvică, Bucureşti.
8. Ujică V. şi col., 1977 – Parametrii fenotipici la tipul actual al calului Huţul crescut în
Herghelia Lucian. Lucrare ştiinţifică, seria Zootehnie-Med.Vet., I.A. Iaşi.
9. Ujică V. şi col., 1986 – Calul de Bucovina – un nou tip utilitar pentru zona montană. Revista
de Creştere a animalelor, nr. 5, Bucureşti.
10. Wendling Chr., 1930 – Cercetări asupra cailor Huţuli, Bucureşti.
- 544 -
BACK
THE VIABILITY ASSES OF THE LIGHT CHICK BREED

EGGS FOR INCUBATION
I. BENCSIK, N. PACALĂ, D. DRONCA,

Jana STANCULEŢ, Alena BENCSIK, Ada TELEA
The viability of the chick embryos from light breed was based on the
principle of evidencing the bio-electromagnetic field generated by the embryo
cells. The bio-electromagnetic field can move a pendulum indicating its viability.
In our experiment, in order to practically demonstrate this phenomenon we
incubated 120 eggs. The eggs were from the same breeding facility and they
belong to light breeds. The experiment was repeated. 60 eggs were in the control
group (M) and 60 were the experimental group (E). The eggs that manifested
visible activity of the bio-electromagnetic field were chosen to be included into
the experimental group. In the experimental group M1 six clear eggs were
eliminate at the firs mirage (10%). In the experimental group E1 only one egg
was clear. In the second experiment at the first mirage five clear eggs were
eliminated (8.33%) from the M2; in the E2 no egg was eliminated. The hatching
percent was 81.66% and 83.33% in the M1 respectively M2, and 91.66% and
90% in the E1 respectively E2. The difference between the hatching percent of the
M1 and E1 was 10% and 6.67% for the M2 and E2. The mean difference between
the control groups and the experimental groups was 8.33%. This difference is
very important economically.
MATERIALS AND METODS

The appreciation of the chick embryo viability from the light breed was
based on evidencing the bio-electromagnetic field generated by the embryo cells
(1). The bio-electromagnetic field can move the pendulum indicating the viability
of the chick embryo. In case that the embryo has an inactive bio-electromagnetic
field we consider that it is not viable (2, 3).
In our experiment, in order to practically demonstrate this phenomenon,
we incubated 120 chick eggs from the same breeding facility. The experiment was
repeated twice. In each experiment there were two groups (experimental E and
control M) each of 60 eggs. The eggs from the control group were put directly
into the incubation tray, and the eggs from the experimental group were tested
fore bio-electromagnetic activity. Only the eggs with evident bio-electromagnetic
activity were included into the experimental group and put into the incubator.
The viability of the eggs was tested as fallows: the egg was placed on a
horizontal plane and left fore 5 minutes to turn with the yolk up and then using a
pendulum the presence or absence of bio-electromagnetic field was determined.
The embryos that moved the pendulum, by their bio-electromagnetic energy were
considered viable and those that didn’t were considered not viable.
For the incubation we used the IV-0-120 incubator with a 120 egg
capacity.
- 545 -
The incubation conditions were classic: 37.5-38°C, 62% humidity in the

first 18 days and 70% in the last, the eggs were turned manually 3 times a day.
The drawers place was changed once a day in the morning, the first mirage was
performed at 7 days and the second was performed at 14 days.
For the fires incubating series the control group was noted M1 and the
experimental group were noted E1, and in the second series the control group was
noted M2 and the experimental group E2.

In the case of the firs incubation series the first mirage was performed at 7
days when the clear eggs were eliminated and the eggs with the embryos that died
were also eliminated. The results from the first mirage are presented in table 1.
Table 1
Results at the first mirage in the series I incubation
Group n Number of eggs eliminated
Clear % Eggs with % Total %
eggs dead eliminated
embryos eggs
M1 60 6 10% 2 3.33% 8 13.33%
E1 60 1 1.67% 2 3.33% 3 5%
From the data obtained in the table 1 we observed that at the first mirage
at the control group (M1) from 60 eggs eight were eliminated from which 6 were
clear eggs and 2 were with dead embryos. Expressed in percent the total lost is
13.33%.
In the case of the experimental group E1 at the first mirage 3 eggs were
eliminated from which one clear and two eggs with dead embryos. The total lost
in the first mirage was 5%.
The biggest number of eliminated clear eggs (6) was from the control
group M1 and it’s represented 10%. At the experimental group there were only
one clear egg eliminated.
Table 2
Results at the first mirage in the series II incubation
Clear % Eggs and % Total number %
eggs embryos of eggs
dead eliminated
M2 60 5 8.33% 2 3.33% 7 11.66%
E2 60 - - 2 3.33% 2 3.33%
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From the data in the table 2 it can be observed that at the first mirage in
the control group M2 from 60 eggs seven were eliminated from which 5 were
clear eggs and 2 were dead embryos. In percent the total lost at the first mirage
11.66%.
In the case of the experimental group E1 at the first mirage were
eliminated 3 eggs from which 1 was clear and two were dead embryos. The total
lost at the first mirage is 3.33%.
The highest number of clear eggs eliminated at the first mirage (5) was
found at the control group M2; this means a percent of 8.33%. At the experimental
group E1 there was no clear egg.
Table 3
Results obtained at the second mirage series I
Clear % Dead eggs, % Total eggs %
eggs embryos eliminated
M1 52 1 1.92% 1 1.92% 2 3.84%
E1 57 - - 1 1.75% 1 1.75%
From the data in the table 3 we observe that after the second mirage in the
control group M1 we have lost another two eggs which represents 3.84% from the
eggs left after the first mirage. At the experimental group E1 there is eliminated
another egg that represents 1.75% from the eggs left after the first mirage.
Table 4
Results obtained at the second mirage series II
Clear % Eggs, % Total eggs %
eggs dead eliminated
embryos
M2 53 1 1.89% 1 1.89% 2 3.78%
E2 58 1 1.72% 2 3.44% 3 5.16%
From the data in the table 4 we observed that after the second mirage
from the second series put into the incubation at the control group M2 we lost
another 2 eggs that represents 3.78% from the eggs left after the first mirage. At
the experimental group E2 another 3 eggs are eliminated which represents 5.16%
from the eggs left after the first mirage.
From table 5 we can conclude that the percent of hatching at the M1 and
M2 groups were 81.33%, respectively 83.33 %, and at the experimental groups E1
and E2 were 91.66%, respectively 90%. This shows us that at the both
experimental groups the percent of hatching is bigger. Between the controles
group M1 and experimental group E1 there is a 10% difference and between M2
and the E2 the difference is 6.67%. The mean difference between the two groups
- 547 -
BACK
is 8.33%. These percent represents an important difference because it has

economical importance.
Table 5
The hatching percent at the two series
Specification M1 E1 M2 E2
Number of incubated eggs 60 60 60 60
Number of eliminated eggs 8 3 7 2
after the first mirage
Number of eliminated eggs 2 1 2 3
after the second mirage
Eggs lost at hatching 1 1 1 1
Live chicks 49 55 50 54
Hatching percent 81,66% 91,66% 83,33% 90%
CONCLUSIONS
1. The bio-electromagnetic field generate by the live chick embryo can
move the pendulum
2. The hatching percent in the case of the control group M1 is with 10%
lower than the hatching percent of the E1.
3. The hatching percent of the M2 group is with 6.67% lower than the
hatching percent of experimental group E2
4. From the economicall point of view, using this method can be obtained a
bigger mean hatching percent (8.33%) for the experimental groups
compared with the control groups.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Veteray,L., Slobonikova Jana, Broska, E., Cervenova Eva, (2005) Vplyv premenliveho
magnetickeho pola na embryonalny vyvin Capotea tetrazona a Gallus domesticus, Garmond
Nitra, ISBN 80-89148-12-3.
2. Bencsik, I., Păcală, N., Jana Stănculeţ, Alena Bencsik, 2003, Aprecierea viabilităţii
embrionilor la decongelare, SNBC Bucureşti, 31, 49, ISBN 973-86118-6-5.
3. Bencsik, I., Păcală, N., Jana Stănculeţ, Alena Bencsik, 2003, Aprecierea viabilităţii
embrionilor de şoricioaică prin metode neconvenţionale, SNBC Bucureşti, 31, 51,ISBN 973-
86118-6-5.
- 548 -
BACK
THE EXPANSION OF THE SPECIES APIS MELLIFERA
St. LAZĂR, O.C. VORNICU, M. DOLIŞ, B. IGNAT
The authors present retrospectives regarding the spreading area of

the most important species of the Apis, Apis mellifera king which has become
more and more wide spread owing to its qualities. The work presents aspects of
the spreading of this species both on latitude and on longitude, as well as the
“conquest” of new territories at the same time with the Europeans exode
towards the “New World”. In some of these territories, the bees found very good
conditions of development such as in some areas in Australia, Argentina,
Mexico, Chile, etc., countries which are considered among the main producers of
honey in the world.
Along the time, under the influence of the climate and environment,
natural or geographical breeds were formed, known in taxonomy as subspecies.
All these breeds were the result of the general selection.
From among the numerous geographical breeds spread in certain
regions of Europe, the Near East, Caucasus and Africa only some of them have
been proved to be really important, all of them formed in Europe: A.m. iberica,
A.m. mellifera, A.m. ligustica, A.m. carnica and A.m. caucasica. Although there
have been certain attempts to classify the breeds according to a series of
peculiarities of bees in certain zones, these are doubtful and lead to a series of
controversies in the author’s opinion.
By introducing the african bee A.m. scutellata in Brazil, this one got
new territories owing to its genetic peculiarities, representing a real danger
because of its excessive aggressiveness. The risk of the expansion of the non-
tropical bee which followed is however limited because it does not survive at
average, annual temperatures of 16ºC.
The expansion on the Earth of the mellifera bee is due mainly to
people who have realized the economic, ecological and social importance of bee
keeping.
Concerning their systematic aspect, bees belong to the Hymenoptera

Order which consists of insects with membranous wing. From among the
Hymenoptera Order the aculeate are characteristic by the presence of the sting at
females and among the aculeate the most important ones are the families
Formicoidea (ants), Vespoidea (wasps), Apoidea (bees). Apoidea consist of 6
families among them the Apidae family with their types Apis (mellifera bees),
Melipora (the bees without a sting) and Bombus (bumble bees).
The kind Apis consists of four species: Apis dorsata, Apis florae, Apis
cerana and Apis mellifera (Louveaux, 1987). The first three species are spread in
the countries of East Asia and they are less important as compared with Apis
mellifera which has achieved the greatest biological progress is the most
widespread and presents the highest biological value.
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1. THE GEOLOGIC AND GEOGRAPHIC EXPANSION

During the evolution process, bees turned from the vegetal, rough food
consisting of leaves, to the concentrated one, consisting of pollen and nectar. The
oldest fosile bee dates back from the Ulicogen, a number of 13 fosile bees being
know, fosiles belonging to different geologic periods from a very wide geographic
area. The first solitary bees appeared 50-25 million years ago and social bees that
gather honey in order to store it, appeared 20-10 million years ago, while the man
appeared much late, one or two million years ago.
Looking for food, the primitive man, discovered honeycombs by chance
in the hollows of the trees or in the rock holes. At first they took out the
honeycombs with great risks because of the stings. At the beginning man used
water to protect himself and then smoke. This way the muting of the bee nests
became an occupation that has lasted for centuries and is still performed
nowadays in some regions in Africa and Asia. The first steps in bee-keeping as a
human occupation appeared with the people’s attempt to get the bees closer to
their houses, building the first primitive hives.
Before people used Apis mellifera species in an organized way, the area
of its spreading in Europe, both on longitude and latitude, was limited by the low
temperatures during winter time; this bee didn’t appear in America or Far East.
For instance in Scandinavia, lime honey was discovered in a pot made of burnt
clay dating from the bronze era, and the lime-tree together with the oak tree and
the hazel-nut-tree represented species spread up to 60º worth latitude. Today at
this latitude, bees can be seen only if they are kept in artificial conditions of living
because of the long and cold winters. As far as the altitude is concerned, the
natural habitat of Apis mellifera species in the Mediterranean zone does not
exceed 1200-1500 m high, depending on the temperatures during winter time.
When winters were not so cold, bees succeeded to get over this obstacle and
people could begin using them.
After introducing Apis mellifera in the “New World”, during the last
centuries the habitat of the wild bees didn’t exceed the altitude too much, but
instead they expended towards the equator. So, in Bolivia bee’s line is mean 15-
20 degrees south latitude; there are also wild clusters at altitudes of 2500-3200 m.
When bee-keeping began in Europe, while looking for honey resources,
the hives got to altitudes of over 3200 m. This situation was possible owing to the
use of some methods against low temperatures (Insulating materials, the
protection of the hives, inside building, the artificial feeding of the bees).
Due to the expansion of the European bee-keeping, the bees were
exported towards America, Asia, and Oceania. Apis mellifera was imported in
America – 1622, in Cuba – 1763, in Australia – 1822, in New Zealand – 1842, in
Brazil – 1839, in Chile – 1857 (Eva Crane, 1980)
Today the species is present on all the continents except for Antarctica
(fig.1). Only in East Asia, the other three species of Apis rival can be found: Apis
dorsata; Apis florea; Apis cerana (Prost, 1987).
- 550 -
Fig.1. The Geographic Position of the species of the Apis kind.
Apis mellifera is raised today up to the far north of Canada (Alberta). In

Siberia the number of the bee colonies exceeds one million. In these regions there
are plants such as the dandelion (Taraxacum officinal) which allow the gathering
of 50-100 kg honey/colony.
Reaching some regions of the New World, bees found extremely
favourable conditions for performant bee-keeping. So, in Australia, especially in
Sydney regions, South Australia (Adelaide), Victoria (Melbourne) and Western
Australia, Perth are regions which provide proper conditions for developed bee-
keeping. Here, there are especially forests of eucalypt kinds a reason why there
are productions of 8-100 kg honey per hive every year and Australia has become
one of the greatest honey exporters in the world.
A similar situation can be found in Argentina, Mexico and Chile. In Chile
where winters are mild, the bee colonies produce on average 30-45 kg of honey
every season without pastoral. In Mexico there are situations in which the average
production of every hive is of 80 kg. Argentina is considered the third great
exporter of honey in the world.
According to FAO statistics, the world’s production of honey has varied
during the last years around 1,200,000 tons.
On geographic regions, the contribution of Asia was 400,000 tons that of
Europe of 300,000 tons, that of Central and Northern America of 200,000 tons,
that of Africa of 180,000 tons; the production of South America was of 120,000
tons and that of Germany of 30,000 tons (Bura, 2005).
- 551 -
2. THE BIOLOGIC EXPANSION

Along the time under the influence of the climate and environment breeds
and varieties of more or less value have been formed. They are possible to be
further improved owing to the important variability. So in the climatic regions of
Europe, Near East, Caucasus and Africa where Apis mellifera is predominantly
spread after the acclimatization to the conditions of the geographic areas and after
many generations, along the years natural or geographic breeds have been formed
which (in taxomerie) are known with the name of subspecies. These natural
breeds are the results of natural selection. A simplified represented in table 1
Natural or geographic breeds have been formed which are known with the
name of subspecies. These natural breeds are the results of natural selection. A
simplified list of the main geographic breeds is represented in table 1.
The Main Geographic Breeds of Apis Mellifera Species

(according to J.M.Philippe, 1994)
Breed Common Geographic Distribution
Western Europe, France, Germany,
A.m. mellifera Black Switzerland,
Great Britain
A.m. iberica Iberian Black Iberian Peninsula
A.m. ligustica Italian Italy
A.m. sicula Sicilian Sicily
A.m. carnica Carniole Austria, Balkan Peninsula
A.m. caucasica Caucasian Caucasus
A.m. lehzeni Scandinavian Norway, Sweden
A.m. acervorum Russian European Russia
A.m. silvarum Siberian Siberia
A.m. cypria Cypriote Cyprus
A.m. syriaca Syrian Syria, Liban ,Israel
A.m. intermissa Telic North Africa
A.m. larmackii Egyptian Egypt
A.m. sahariensis Saharian(of oasis) Morocco and Algeria
A.m. andanson Tropical West Africa
A.m. scutellata Tropical East Africa
A.m. litorea Tropical East Africa on the cost
A.m. monticola Tropical East Africa at over 2000 m
A.m. yemenitica Tropical Yemen and Oman
A.m. capensis South Africa
A.m. unicolor Malgasa Madagascar
A.m. remipes Chinese Northern China
According to Ruttner ′s opinions, from the list presented above only five
breeds hove been proved important, all of then formed in Europe: A. m. Iberica,
A. m mellifera, A. m. ligustica, A. m. carnica, A. m. caucasica.
- 552 -
Inside the breeds or subspecies it was possible to make the difference

between some ecotypes with specific characteristics, o reason why, in our
opinion, the presented classification is controversial. In speciality literature which
has appeared along the time it was stated that. A. m. lehzeni and A. m silvarum
were similar to A. m. mellifera, being versions of the last one. Other opinions
show that A. m. mellifera looks very much like A. m intermissa. Our native bee,
A. m. Carpatica, even if it has not been recognized as a breed, can be only a
version of A. m. carnica. The spreading of the breeds of Apis mellifera species is
represented in figures 2 and 3.
The acclimatization of the mellifera bee in the tropical regions was not
successful because of its low resistance to acari and parasites specific to Asian
bees.
In tropical Africa the crossings that were made showed that the European
bees are dominant as compared to the tropical cone but not compared to Apis
mellifera scutellata.
The European mellifera bee was acclimatized in tropical America, too,
except the equatorial zone of loo altitude (Amazonia). After introducing the
African bee, this one spread very fast and crossed Amazonia due to its clustering
capacity and its possibility moving to long distances up to 500 km 2 year The
Equator zone (3 degrees South and 3 degrees North) of Amazonia, as compared to
the same equatorial latitude of Africa is not favourable because it is very rainy for
the installing and development of the African bee, Apis mellifera scutellata.
Fig.2. The zones of breeds of Apis mellifera species in Europe and South –
Western Asia
- 553 -
Fig. 3 The zones of Apis mellifera breeds in Africa
Apis mellifera scutellata is genetically dominant in comparison with the

European bee. The males of Apis mellifera scutellata are recognized by the
European queens who accept the reproduction while the greens of Apis mellifera
scutellata do not accept the drones of Apis mellifera mellifera.
The genetic studies showed that during its expansion to North America,
Apis mellifera scutellata bas remained genetically pure and today it is known with
the name of Neotropical African bee and is characterized by special
aggressiveness.
Owing to its strong clustering instinct, the Neotropical African bee has
spread in all tropical and subtropical America at low altitude, crossed the Panama
Channel around 1980, and was identified in Costa Rica in 1983 and in Mexico in
1985. In 1990 in spite of all the taken measures it gets to Texas. The fear of the
expansion of Apis mellifera scutellata in American is due to its aggressiveness
and has not been understood yet.
The bee-keepers in America have already adopted measures and methods
of manipulating the characteristics of these bees which produce great quantities of
honey. The risk of the expansion of the African bee towards the North of America
is limited because it cannot resist under the average, annual temperature of 16ºC;
it cannot be adapted to very cold winters.
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BACK
3. PEOPLE’S ROLE IN INCREASING THE EXPANSION OF

MELLIFERA BEE
The expansion on the Earth of mellifera bee is due to people who realised
its economic importance and a bit later the ecological and social role of bee-
keeping.
In defining the economic role of bee-keeping one should start from the
fact that the nectar and pollen of plants represent very important natural resources,
which without the presence of the bees would be lost, because there is no other
possibility of taking them over.
The value of the apiarian products for the nutrition, and health of people
should also be taken into account and especially the contribution of bees to the
growth of crops by pollination (Levin 1989, Lazar, 1991, 2002). As a result of
pollination, bees have an essential role in the perpetuation and survival of
numerous species of plants. Nowadays the bee is considered one of the most
important sensors of the environment pollution, constituting a real barometer of
the ecological stability degree (Pimentel, 1989).
The social importance of bees consists both of the nutrition, energizing
and therapeutic value of the apiarian products and the possibility to provide
people with jobs connected directly or indirectly with bee-keeping. Many
branches of agriculture cannot exist without bees, a reason why bee-keeping
should be considered not only from the material view point but also for the social
advantages that bees bring about in the national economy.
4. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bura M. and collaborators (2005) – Apiarian Technology, Edit. Solness, Timisoara-Romania.
2. Crane E. (1980) - Honey: A comprehensive survey. W. Heinemann Ltd, in cooperation with Inter.
Bee Res. Assoc, Crane edits, Hill House, Gerrards Cross, Bucks, Londres, 624 p.
3. Lazar St., Tanase M (1991) –The importance, the place and the role of bee – keeping as an
alternative to the development of agriculture and the preservation of ecological balance.
Agronomic Research in Moldavia, Supplement, Iasi – Romania, p.167-174
4. Lazar St. (2002) – Apiarian Biotechnology and Technology, Edit. Alfa, Iasi- Romania
5. Levin M.D., Weller G.D. (19879) – The role of mellifera bee in food products, Apiacta, 3, p. 65-
69
6. Louveaux J. ()1987 – Bees and bee-keeping, Editorial Apimondia, Bucharest- Romania.
7. Marghitas L.A. (2002) –Bees and their products, Editorial Ceres, Bucharest
8. Philippe J.M. (1994) – Bee-keepers guide. Edisud Aix-eu-provence-France
9. Plimentel D. (1989) – Intensive bee-keeping and the surrounding environment in search of
alternatives, Apiacta, 1, p.51-54
10. Prost Jean P. (1987) - Apiculture, Edit. Lavoisier, Paris - France
11. Ruttner F. (1981) - On the taxonomy of honeybees of tropical Africa. Proc. Of the XXVIII
Intern. Congress of Apiculture, Acapulco, p. 278- 283, Apimondia, Bucharest, Romania
- 555 -
BACK
EFFICIENCY OF VETERINARY PROPHYLAXIS

ON GROWING HEN BROILER IN A SMALL DIMENSION
EXPLOITATION COMPARING THE INDUSTRIAL
AVIAN SHED
Doina LEONTE, C. LEONTE, Valerica MACOVEI
This study propose the costs analysis made for prophylactic actions on
growing hen broilers in a small dimensions exploitation comparing the ones
obtained in a industrial avian shed utilizing high performance hybrids and
feeding programs based on complete mixed forage, decontamination and
vaccination.
Observations reveals the necessity of using prophylactic
decontamination and vaccination schemes, together with the utilization of mixed
forage.
This material propose the importance os sanitary-veterinary
prophylactic action in a small farm enterprise

It is known the fact that is good to forestall apparition of one disease than
to treat her. This diseases presents a series of phenomens to reduce feed
consumption, to diminish the speed of growth.
The experiments was done in a small farm, the results have been
comparated with the results what have been made in a industrial avian shed at
S.C. Avicola Focasni.
That small farm have a 12.3 m2 surface and the industrial avian shed have
2.
1300 m
Before populating it have been made the operation of decontaminating
and instruments cleaning in the farm.this operation was made in the industryali
avian she S.C. Avicola Focsani
The operations of shelter disinfection was identical with those from S.C.
Avicola Focsani. The avian shed was clean up mechanic, washed and sterilized
the battery of poultry farming with three days before to populate was effected a
general disinfection of shelter through formalizing.

The prophylactic operations represents les then 9% from overall
expenses.(Tab 1).
- 556 -
Tabelul 1
Proportion of expenses (% din total)
Specification %
Biological material 16,7
Feed 63,2
Pills, disinfectants 8,6
Carburant 1,2
Electric energy 4,0
Work force 5,8
Other expenses 0,5
Over the six weeks of experiment the following vaccination scheme was
applied (Tab.2)
Tabelul 2
Vaccinations
Age (days) Vaccination for Way of administration
7 Newcastle disease Drinking wather
9 Bursitis Drinking wather
21 Newcastle disease Drinking wather
In the frame of our experiments we used some chemical decontaminating

substances with high efficiency.
Using of this substances was impose by the following criteria’s:
- to have a big capacity to destroy microorganism
- not to be corrosive for the other materials
- to be soluble in water
- to be effective
- to have a good price
In this context we used some substances like: calcium hydroxide, calcium
hypochlorite, potassium permanganate, chloramines, that have the price wrote in
table 3
- 557 -
Tabelul 3
Prices of procuration for the decontaminating substances and pills
Product UM Price (RON)
Vaccin La Sota doza 0,05
Vaccin BiaRomvac doza 0,05
Oxivit kg 38
Soda ash kg 3,5
Formicum aldehide l 3,2
Lime chloride kg 1,8
Calcium hydroxide kg 0,5
Sodium hydroxide kg 2
Cationic decontaminant kg 8
Chloramines B kg 3
Quatersan kg 9,4
Butan Gas butelie 20
The shelter has a42 mp decontaminated surface and a 30.6 mc air volume,
the industrial avian shed has a1527 mp decontaminated surface and a1800 mc air
volume. We used some decontaminated substance wrote in table 4.
Tabelul 4
Concentrations and quantitis of decontaminating substances used in the
private microfarm and in avian shed at SC Avicola SA
Used quantity
Substance Concentration
Microfar, Avian shed
Formicum aldehide 50 ml/mc air 1,5 l 90 l
Lime chloride 25 g/mc air 0,7 kg 45 kg
Soda ash 1 % (1 l sol./mp) 0,4 kg 15,7 kg
Calcium hydroxide 20 % (1 l sol./mp) 8,4 kg 314 kg
Sodium hydroxide 2 % (1 sol.l/mp) 0,8 kg 31,4 kg
Cationic
1 % (o,5 l sol./mp) 0,2 l 5l
decontaminant
Chloramines B 2 0/00 0,1 kg 2 kg
Quatersan 1 % (10 ml./mc air) 0,3 l 18 l
Butan gas 0,2 bottle 5 bottle
Vaccinations have ben made using a dose/offspring, the work for

vaccination being 0.1ron/offspring. table 5
- 558 -
Tabelul 5
Cost if vaccination scheme
Action Cost of operation(ron)
Micro farm for: Avian shed for:
All One All effective One
effective offspring offspring
Vitamins 7,6 0,076 228 0,01
Vaccination for 30 0,3 600 0,3
Newcastle disease
Vaccination for 15 0,15 300 0,15
Bursitis
TOTAL 52,6 0,52 922,8 0,46
In the industrial avian shed where are 20.000 chicken broiler the
decontaminating process was not so expressive.
Tabelul 6
Cost of decontamination
Costul operaţiunii
Micro farm Avian shed
Acţiunea All One All One
effective offspring effective offspring
(RON) (bani) (RON) (bani)
Decontaminating to fasten 1,4 0,140 54,90 0,0275
To pulveriye of Sodium 1,6 0,160 62,80 0,0314
hydroxide
To dip water trough, nipple 1,6 0,160 40,00 0,020
drinker
Decontaminating plumbing 0,3 0,030 6,00 0,003
To whitewash 4,2 0,420 157,00 0,0785
Aerosols of formalin 6,06 0,606 369,00 0,1845
Aerosols of Quatersan 2,82 0,282 169,20 0,0846
Flaming 4,00 0,400 100,00 0,050
TOTAL 21,98 2,198 958,90 0,4795
The prophylactic action in table 6 shows that in the private micro farm the
expenses for one offspring are 7.458 RON, comparing with the industrially avian
shed were the prophylactic actions costs 5.094 RON.
The cost of prophylactic action represent 8% from total expenses.but the
application of this prophylactic measure ensures obtaining in the planed time a
good production.
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
The base of this project is that is more economic to warn a disease than to
treat her.
In the private small farm the total expenses were 87RON and by
allocation of 0.7 RON/offspring prevents loses of the investment for rising a
chicken up to 42 days.
Af the pseudo –fowl pest appeas the death rate is up to 90% off effective.
Another diseas who can produce loses of approximately 20% is the avian
bursitis.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bălăşescu M., Marin, Gh., 1997 - Micii crescători de păsări, între a fi şi a nu fi, Revista
Avicultorul, nr.1
2. Boboc Viorica, 2002 - Un important proiect pentru realizarea produselor avicole biologice, Rev.
Avicultorul, nr.3
3. Castellini C., 1974 - Dispense di avicoltura, Instituto di Zootehnica Generale, Borgo XX Giugno,
74- Perugia
4. Chiran A, Elena Gîndu, 2000 - Zooeconomie şi marketing, Ed. Ion Ionescu de la Brad Iaşi
5. Decun, Mihai, 1995 – Sanitaţie veterinară, Ed. Helicon, Timişoara
6. Savuţa Gh, 2001 - Epidemiologie veterinară generală, Ed. “Ion Ionescu de la Brad’, Iaşi
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BACK
MULTIPLE MONITORING OF THE BEEHIVE

MICROCLIMATE
O.C. VORNICU, ŞT. LAZĂR, Aurelia VASILE
This work presents the continuous and simultaneous monitoring of the

main parameters of the microclimate of the bee hives. This fact allows the
registering and observing data in order to interpret and analyse the results of the
experiments comparatively and to extrapolate them at different intervals of time
to all the bee families in the apiary.
For this purpose a complex equipment of obtaining data using our
own means has been designed and achieved.
For monitoring we used four hives at a distance of 3-4 m, from each
other and having the families with similar power and organisation in the hive.
The continuous monitoring of the following parameters was achieved:
temperature (Tº C), relative humidity (RHº) and dew point (DPº C) which are
considered to be essential for the quality of the microclimate in the bee hive. The
parameters of the environment were measured simultaneously. The three
parameters were registered and observed continuously at certain points inside
the hives, beginning with December, 3rd 2004.
The work presents the results of monitoring achieved between
January 3rd and January 13th 2005 after establishing the correct work of the
equipment which achieves the acquisition and saving of interesting data at the
presented both in tables and graphs.
For each graph, respectively parameter represented and analysed,
the parameters of the environment were taken as reference.
The results and use of complex equipment for simultaneous
monitoring of several hives were proved to be extremely useful for the bee
keeper, having in view the obtained results. From the computer screen the bee-
keeper can find out exact information in the bee hives without inspecting them
personally.
INTRODUCTION
Modern bee keeping requires continuous and efficient activity in order
to ensure the health and proper development of the bee colonies. In order to
achieve high quality products in necessary quantities and having in view an
increasingly demanding market, such activities are needed. For efficient, multiple
and safe monitoring of bee colonies it is necessary to achieve special equipment
which can provide the exact information about what happens in any bee hive, so
that the bee keeper could intervene when a problem appears.
Throughout the world there are studies referring to the influence of
different factors on the quality of the microclimate in the bee hives, but the
acquisition of the data [1-4] was achieved with the help of general use equipment,
specific to bee keeping for the acquisition of data and transmitting the main
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parameters in the bee hives which characterize the condition of the bee colonies at
any moment. Such equipment was achieved by the company GoNet Media Inc.
and was tested by bee keepers for three years [5] proving the necessity of
developing such equipment.
This work presents the simultaneous monitoring of the main parameters
of the microclimate in the bee hives which allows the registering and archiving of
data in order to interpret and analyze comparatively the experimental results and
extrapolate them, at different intervals of time, to all the bee families in the
apiary. For this purpose, a complex equipment of data acquisition was achieved.
Four bee hives were used for monitoring; they were situated at a
distance of 3-4 m, having the same characteristics (standardized dimensions, good
quality, conventional isolation), populated with strong bee families, chose at
random from the apiary (no 56, no 29, no 77, and no 52 which was considered a
reference hive) in order to allow the generalization of the results. In order to
express the results in a simpler way, the hives used in the experiment were
numbered as follows: 56-H1, 29-H2, 77-H3, and 52-H4.
1. MATERIAL AND METHOD

1.1 Materials
Four bee hives were used for the experiment. The apiary was situated
near Iaşi town. The equipment designed and achieved for this purpose was used
while monitoring the hives. The parameters tested were: temperature (T, ºC),
relative humidity (RH, %) and dew point (DP, ºC), measured by means of some
transducers set in judiciously chosen points. So, the three parameters were
continuously registered and archived in the following points, using the symbols:
a) above the frames of the hive H1: symbols T1, RH1, and DP1;
b) under the frames of the hive H1: symbols T2, RH2, and DP2;
c) under the frames of the hive H2: symbols T3, RH3, and DP3;
d) above the frames of the hive H2: symbols T4, RH4, and DP4;
e) above the frames of the hive H3: symbols T5, RH5, and DP5;
f) under the frames of the hive H3: symbols T6, RH6, and DP6;
g) outside the reference hive, hive H4: symbols T7, RH7, and DP7;
h) over the frames of the reference hive, hive H4: symbols T8, RH8,
and DP8;
i) under the frames of the reference hive, hive H4: symbols T9, RH9,
and DP9.
The hive H4 is considered a reference hive the translator T7, situated
under the hive, provides the parameters of the environment.
According to this arrangement the parameters of the environment,
available for all the hives, are obtained from the translator situated under the hive
H4.
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1.2. Method
As testing method, the observation method regarding the way the
equipment worked, was used, respectively on the obtained and presented data,
having in view the previous analyses, during different situations.
So after testing the equipment in laboratory conditions (translators set
in different their relative position in the open air in a room on a heater etc. –
November 2004); on December the 3rd 2004, the setting of the equipment in the
mentioned hives had begun. Ever since the equipment has been working
continuously, achieving the acquisition and saving of the data of interest in the
wanted points.
2. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This work presents and analyzes the results of monitoring achieved in
the intervals of time: 3rd and 13th January 2005. An example of saved and
registered monitoring in tables or Excel type, on the 10th of January 2005,
between 9 am and 13 pm is represented in Table 1.
Table 1. Example of data on 10th January, between 9 am and 13 pm
Time T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 RH1 RH2 RH3 RH4 RH5 RH6 DP1DP2DP3DP4DP5DP6

1/10/2005 9:00 9 7 7 13 9 6 73 83 72 67 72 88 4 4 2 7 4 4
1/10/2005 9:10 9 7 7 13 9 7 72 83 72 68 73 88 4 4 2 7 4 5
1/10/2005 9:20 10 7 7 13 9 7 73 83 73 68 74 89 5 4 2 7 4 5
1/10/2005 9:30 10 7 8 13 10 7 73 83 74 70 76 89 5 4 3 7 5 5
1/10/2005 9:40 10 7 8 13 10 7 74 83 74 70 77 89 5 4 3 7 6 5
1/10/2005 9:50 10 7 9 13 10 7 75 83 74 71 78 89 5 4 4 7 6 5
1/10/2005 10:00 10 8 9 13 10 8 75 83 74 71 79 89 5 5 4 7 6 6
1/10/2005 10:10 10 8 9 13 10 8 75 83 75 72 80 89 5 5 4 8 6 6
1/10/2005 10:20 10 8 10 13 11 8 76 83 74 73 81 89 5 5 5 8 7 6
1/10/2005 10:30 11 9 10 14 11 8 76 83 75 73 82 89 6 6 5 9 8 6
1/10/2005 10:40 11 9 10 14 11 8 76 83 75 73 83 89 6 6 5 9 8 6
1/10/2005 10:50 11 9 11 14 11 9 76 83 76 73 83 89 6 6 6 9 8 7
1/10/2005 11:00 11 9 11 14 12 9 76 83 77 74 85 88 6 6 7 9 9 7
1/10/2005 11:10 12 9 11 14 12 9 76 83 77 75 85 89 7 6 7 9 9 7
1/10/2005 11:20 12 10 12 14 12 9 77 83 77 75 85 89 8 7 8 9 9 7
1/10/2005 11:30 12 10 12 15 13 9 77 82 77 76 86 88 8 7 8 10 10 7
1/10/2005 11:40 13 10 12 15 13 9 77 82 77 76 86 89 9 7 8 10 10 7
1/10/2005 11:50 13 10 12 15 13 10 78 82 77 76 86 89 9 7 8 10 10 8
1/10/2005 12:00 13 10 13 15 13 10 78 82 77 77 86 89 9 7 9 11 10 8
1/10/2005 12:10 13 11 13 16 13 10 78 82 77 77 86 89 9 8 9 11 10 8
1/10/2005 12:20 14 11 13 16 14 10 77 82 75 77 86 89 10 8 8 11 11 8
1/10/2005 12:30 14 11 13 16 14 10 79 82 77 78 86 88 10 8 9 12 11 8
1/10/2005 12:40 14 11 13 16 14 10 80 82 77 78 86 87 10 8 9 12 11 7
1/10/2005 12:50 14 11 13 16 14 10 80 82 78 79 85 87 10 8 9 12 11 7
1/10/2005 13:00 14 11 13 17 14 10 81 82 78 80 85 88 10 8 9 13 11 8
Table 1 consists of the moments of registering (every 10 minutes),

respectively the 18 values noticed (6 temperatures, 6 relative humidity, and 6 dew
points).
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2.1. Temperature variation

In Figures 1 and 2, the evolutions of the temperature and relative
humidity values are presented, having in view the registered data, by means of the
achieved equipment, during 3rd – 13th January 2005, for the four monitored hives.
For each graph, respectively represented and analyzed parameter, the
data provided by the transducer situated under the hive H4 which provides the
parameters of the environment: T7, RH7, and DP7, were taken as reference.
According to the analyzes of the variation graphs of the temperatures
measured in the given locations, the temperature values in the monitored hives
depend on the outside temperature oscillations, both under the frames and above
them; the temperature above the frames, in all the hives, was higher than under
the frames due to the temperature effect of the biologic activity of the bees.
a) b)
c) d)
Fig.1. Temperature variation between 3rd and 13th January 2005:

a) hive H1; b) hive H2; c) hive H3; d) hive H4.
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There aren’t important differences between the temperature values from

a hive to another for none of the chosen points and this proves that the achieved
equipment works correctly.
2.2. Variation of the relative humidity
a) b)
c) d)
Fig.2. The variation of the relative humidity between 3rd and 13th January 2005:
a) hive H1; b) hive H2; c) hive H3; d) hive H4.
Analyzing the graphs of the relative humidity it is obvious that although

the outside humidity had important variations, the variations of the relative
humidity inside the monitored hives were much reduced, of at most 5 percent.
The relative humidity measured under the frames (RH2, RH3, RH6,
and RH9) was higher than the one measured above the frames (RH1, RH4, RH5,
and RH8). This variation is the result of the synergy of several interdependent
factors: the natural variations of the climate conditions in the area where the
apiary is situated (temperature, humidity); the restrictive circulation of the air in
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the hive; the circulation of the water vapours both from the atmosphere and as a
result of the differentiated biologic activity of the bees in the cluster, respectively
at the surface of the cluster; the value of the temperature in the hive.
2.3. Variation of the dew point

The cyclic variation of the dew points was similar with the variations of
the temperature values. In all the monitored points, the value of the dew point was
higher than the value of the dew point of the environment, which means that
inside the hives there was no danger for condensation to appear (Fig. 3). The
value of the dew point registered above the frames with bees has been, in all the
cases, higher than under the frames due to heating effect of the biological activity
of the bees.
a) b)
c) d)
Fig. 3. The variations of the dew point between 3rd and 13th January 2005:
a) hive H1; b) hive H2; c) hive H3; d) hive H4
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Comparing the variations of the dew point with those of the

temperature measured above the frames, shown in fig. 4, a significant difference
between the values of these parameters has been noticed which means that there is
the necessary and satisfactory difference in order to prevent the forming of the
condensation (small drops of water on the hive walls, frames, bees at the surface
of the cluster) with all the known negative consequences. The same reaction can
be also noticed when the variations of the parameters measured under the frames,
proving the fact that in all locations in the hives under observation, there was no
danger for condensation to appear.
2.4. Temperature and dew points variations
a) b)
c) d)
Fig. 4. Temperature and dew points variations between 3rd and 13th January 2005:
a) hive H1; b) hive H2; c) hive H3; d) hive H4
The average values of the dew points are smaller than those of the
temperature both above and under the frames, on the whole period of monitoring,
proving the fact that the condensation of the water vapours was not possible, so
there is no risk for the condensation or the ice to appear.
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BACK
The achieving and use of complex equipment of the simultaneous

monitoring of several hives was proved, by the results obtained to be extremely
useful for the bee keeper.
3. CONCLUSIONS
The complex equipment of simultaneous monitoring, meant to be used
by bee keepers, works correctly proving, by the obtained results, its usefulness for
the bee keeper, who, from the computer screen, can find out, the condition of the
microclimate in the hives, at any time, without inspecting them. At the same time
the achieved equipment is a good premise for using it in other apiaries.
The simultaneous monitoring of several hives under the same
circumstances provides exact information about the quality of the microclimate of
the bees during cold weather.
4. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. www.campbellsci.com/documents/apnotes/21x-prom.pdf
2. Charles D. Owens. The Thermology of wintering honey bee colonies. Agricultural Engineering
Research Division, Agricultural Research Service. American Bee Journal – September, 2003.
www.beesource.com/pov/usda/ thermology/ techbulletin 1429.htm - 64k.
3. www.kippzonen.com/pages/8/3/SolarInstrum
4. Dodologlu, A., C. Dulger, F. Genc (2004) – Colony condition and bee behaviour in honey bees
(Apis melifera) housed in wooden or polystyrene hoves and Fed ‘bee cake’ or syrup – Journal of
Apicultural Research (43) 200 4. For coming Paper
5. .Apitronix, monitoring your hives from home. www.apitronics.com, APITRONICS™, 105, Av.
Général Eisenhower B.P. 1036, F-31023 Toulouse Cedex, France.
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BACK
THE OBTAINED PERFOARMANCE AFTER THE

COLECTION APPLYED TO IMPROVE THE COLORS AT
THE SHEEP RASED FOR THEIR SKIN
C. PASCAL, F. DOROFTEI, V. STAN, I. PĂDEANU, T. DIMA
The intesification of the selection progresive directional works, as a

consequence of the international demand, has determined the advent of new
types of skin, that are differenced by the colors and by the modelling and the type
of the loop. According to these preoccupations, recently, at a world level appears
some tendencies that are headed for a variety of colored skins and of the light
komor (with beige shades) and of the wild ones with all their valuable shade.
Another contoured tendency in the last period at a world level has it’s
origin in the forming zone of the Karakul rase and overviewing the variety of
colors at the Karakul Karakalpak type. In Uzbekistan there is already formed
and consolidated a rich gene poool represented by 10 types inter-racial and of
elite and high productive (Iusupov S., 2004).
The obtained results shows the fact that the presence of the desired type
of sheep with black skin is found in a biger proportion at the sheep from the
zoothecnical exploitation from the Iasi region, which means that in this zone the
black sheep selection for the color intensity has a very good level, superior to the
selections from the other regions.
The performed estimations in 2004 to the efectives included in the
production surveillance that are in the Iasi regions dignifies that the total of 411
grey sheep at 373 sheep ascertaines the dark and normal nuances, and at the
difference of 9,3% it was registered the open grey nuance. Seeing the big weight
of these raising sheep from the same zone have succeeded that first plan of
supervision of copulation to redus the light grey sheep’s weight at 4,5%.
MATERIAL AND METHODE

The biological material that is taken in consideration belongs to the
Karakul breed from Botosani which is increasing and exploitated in the north –
east part of the country on the teritories from the Botosani, Iasiand Neamt regions.
To determine the performance degree that was touched by the skin breeds as a
seguel of the aplication of the official production check, the researches were made
in three consecutive years. In the performed researches, the quality of the skins
has been considered on the base of the characteristical elements presented at 24
hours since the lambing, and it was based on the deliverance level fixing of each
one of the basic appropriation, using the criterions and the oficial methodology
from our country. The obtained dates have been centralized, statisticaly processed
and commensurated translated.
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OBTAINED RESULTS
At the international level, if we discus of the clasic Karakul we must
specify the fact that the high variability of corporal development and of
conformation and the variaty of curls are seam to be due to the crossings and
intial unsuperised selection between the arabian sheep – with curls like pea, rings
and openers – and Karakul rams, of different colors – with curls loke paralel
crests, silky shiny design and pronounced glisten (Mochnacs M., Tafta V., Vintila
I., 1978).
At a national level the interes vis a vis skin production grows after the
second national war and since that time are set practicaly the base of creating an
inland rase with skins of a superior quality. The base of this rase mading has been
represented by the grey and black Turcana sheep, adapted to the geoclimate
conditions from the north-east part of the country, which shows a superior level
qualitative speaking through copulation with Karakul genitors imported from the
ex-URSS, east Germany and reacently from Austria (C. Pascal, 1997).
The skin color is determened by the presents in the fiber stucture of the
melanin pigments, beeing extremly important in the ensemble value exprimation
of skins. The pigment granules, named and melanocyte, take birth in melanophore
starting with the age of 90 days of the fetus, initialy in the basic ledge of the
epiderm and in the cortical one, less in the marrow ledge of the fibers. Parallel
with the development of hair folicles, the melanomorphes break in a large number
in the bulbs, from where they extend in the epitelial tecae of the folicles, in the
cortical ledge of the fiber and in the aeres of the sebaceous gland and
sudoriparous glands (V. Tafta 1983 quoted by C. Pascal 2000).
Because at the numbers of Karakul type that were submited to the oficial
control of production there is a great viriaty of colors, in the made researches
there were taken into consideration only two basic colors. The obtained results
after the characteristical estimation are in tabel 1.
In 2004, the highest lamb number there were submited to the control for
the produvtive performances was registered in Neamt. From a total of 1464 lambs
almost 45% were black, 64,3% presented the desired type which is black-blue and
with a very good shine. (fig 1.).
The obtained results show that the presence of the wanted black lamb
type it’s found in a higher proportion at the lambs from the zootechnical
exploitations that are in Iasi and Botosani, fact that lets us to affirm that through a
practical selection it has come to a very good intensification of the black skin
color. The higher proportion than 60% of the blue-black lambs shows the fact that
the selection process has place in the wanted way and if it will be pursued with
the rigorous observance of the criterions of wich depends the exprimation degree
of the wanted color type, surely the number of lamb with a valuable black skin
will rise offering this way the efficiency in sheep exploitation for this production.
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Iasi 29.7 40.1

50.6
9.3 Total grey
36.4 Dark grey
Botosani 47.2
47.8 Normal grey
5 Light grey
Neamt 40.2
52.7
6.3 41.1
0 20 40 60
Fig. 1. The highest number of black lambs and the shade distribution at
considered lambs from 2004 (%)
35.2
Iasi 62.8
38.7
4.5 Total grey
36 Dark grey
Botosani 38.7
Normal grey
54.9
5 Light grey
35.9
Neamt 44.7
5.3 50
0 20 40 60 80
Fig. 2 The highest number of back lambs and the nuance distribution at
considereted lamb in 2005(%)
The higher number of lambs of grey color from the total number of lambs
that were subjected to the productive control from 2004 diversifies from one zone
to another in the established parts from the north east of the country. The highest
number of grey color estimated in that year was in the Neamt region. Here, from a
total of 1464 lambs, almost 589 were of grey color. From these ones, almost
16,6% were ordinary grey and another 21,1 dark grey and 2,5 light grey
In the same region, but in the next year from those 1649 lambs that were
subjected to estimations the proportion of the grey ones is reduced, on the base of
enteries and of other sheep numbers from the control, at 35,9%. From all of the
grey lambs the normal type was recovered at 50%, other 5,3% presented light
shades and a estimation of 44,7% presented dark grey.
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Table 1.
Skin quality
2004 2005
Specificati
Color type Iasi Botosani Neamt Iasi Botosani Neamt
on
n % n % n % n % n % n %
Blue black 502 36,2 264 26,0 438 29,9 607 35,8 354 40,4 541 32,8
Black 197 14,2 138 13,6 233 15,9 205 12,1 47 5,5 275 16,6
Normal grey 208 15,0 177 17,4 242 16,6 181 10,7 173 19,9 296 17,9
Color
Light grey 38 2,9 21 2,0 37 2,5 41 2,5 20 2,2 31 1,9
Dark grey 165 11,9 172 17,0 310 21,1 375 22,2 122 13,9 265 16,1
Other colors 275 19,8 244 24,0 204 14,0 285 16,7 159 18,1 241 14,7
169
1385 100 1016 100 1464 100 100 875 100 1649 100
Total 4
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In the zootechnical exploitations from the Iasi perimeter where there are
raised skin sheep, in the lambing period from the year 2004, the highest number
of grey lambs from the total that were apreciated after the looping quality was of
29,7%. In which regardes the estimation from 2005 the highest number of grey
lambs has raised at 35,5%. This raising is owed first of all to the enteries and
other cores in productive surveillance and less as a result of the effectuated
copulating. From the total of 411 grey lambs subjected to estimtions in 2004 at
373 lambs were ascertained dark and normal shades, and at the difference of 9,3%
was registered a light shade of the grey color.
The presence of the light grey lambs is not wanted from a lot points of
view. First of all at these lambs, the looping quality is inferior compared to the
other classical types from the grey categorie. Usually, at them, because the fibers
from the loop are longer it looks as a disentangled looping, large and high.
Second of all, the presence of light grey color is not pleased because these lambs
are possible bearers of the W gene and can present different formes of affection
of the neurovegetative system, and of stomach anomaly and finnaly they end
dieing. Observing the high number of these lambs through the supervision plan of
coupling was corrected this fact and in the next season their number has dropped
to 4,5%.
29.7
Iasi 40.1
50.6
9.3 Total grey
36.4 Dark grey
Botosani 47.2
47.8 Normal grey
5 Light grey
Neamt 40.2
52.7
41.1
6.3
0 20 40 60
Fig.3. The highest number of grey colored lambs and the shade
distributions at the estimated lambs in the year 2004. (%)
The presence of the grey lambs from the zootechnical exploitations

included in the production control from the Neamt regions has kept almost the
same number in the two analysed seasons, but on the raising background the
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number of lambs subjected to the estimations in the year 2005, their highest
number is reduced to 40,2% how many represented in 2004 at just 35,9 in 2005.
At the grey color in 2005 the number of light color lambs droppes from
6,3% to 5,3% and the number of dark colors raises from 40,1% to 44,7%. This
showes that the coupling supervision is a well established digram that allows the
obtaining of light grey from a reduced number of lambs.
35.2
Iasi 62.8
38.7
4.5 Total grey
36 Dark grey
Botosani 38.7
Normal grey
54.9
5 Light grey
35.9
Neamt 44.7
5.3 50
0 20 40 60 80
Fig. 4. The highest number of grey colored lambs and the shade
distributions at the estimated lambs in the year 2005. (%)
The presence of other types of color at lambs from the core s that were
oficialy taken into official surveilance of production, represents a lower number in
all the three zones. Usually, their number is under 20% from the total lambs
number, exception making the committed situation in 2004 when in the Botosani
region the colored lambs represented 24%.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The appreciation making dignifies the fact that in the year 2004 the
highest number of lambs subjected to the control that regards the productive
performances has been registered in the Neamt region, and from the total of 1464
lams almost 45% were black, from which 65,3% was the wanted type which is
blue-black and with a good sheen.
2. In the lambs from the zootechnical exploitations from the Iasi region
from a total of 1385 appreciated in the year 2004 approximate 700 were uniform
black, from which 71,9% presented a color associated with blue reflex.
3. At the existened lambs from the exploitations situated on the territories
of the Botosani region, in the year 2004 from 1016 lambs over 39% had a uniform
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BACK
black color, and the needed type for the selection and amelioration of sheep was
recovered at 65,7%.
4. In the year 2005 in the zootechnical exploitations the highest number
of black lambs from the total that was appeciated represented 47,9% in Iasi,
proximativ 45,9% in Neamt and almost 50% in Botosani
5. The highest number of grey lambs from the total that was subjected to
the productive control in the year 2004 difersifies from a zone to another, but in
Neamt from a total of 1464 lambs almost 589 had a grey color from which 16,6%
were normal grey, other 21,1% dark grey and 2,5% light grey.
6. Also in Neamt from the total of 1649 lams subjected to the
appreciations in 2005 the proportion of the grey ones reduces to 35,9% and from
this total the normal color type was found at 50%, other 5,3% presented light
shades and 44,7% presented the dark type of the grey color.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Mochnacs M., Tafta V., Vintila I. (1978) -The genetic and amelioration of sheep. Ceres
publishing house, Bucarest
Pascal C. (1999) - Technical methode of precursory appreciatin of sheep and goat selection.
"Corson" publishing house, Iasi
Pascal C., Gilca, I., Creanga, St., Vintila, V. (1994 -1995) - Comparative researches
regarding some characteristics which influences the skin quality at Karakul lambs and crossbreds.
Scientific researches, vol. 37/38. Zootehny Series, USAMV Iasi,
Pascal C., Creanga St., Stan V., Gilca I. (1996-1997) - The heritability estimation for
different characteristics appreciated at young sheep. Scientific researches, vol. 39/40. Zootehny
Series, USAMV Iasi,
Pascal C. (2000 – 2001) - The obtained skin qualityat the Karakul sheep raised and exploited
in the Andrieseni farm from the Iasi region. Scietific researches, vol. 43/44, Zootehny Series,
USAMV Iasi,
Pascal, C., Stan, V.- (2000 – 2001) - Researches regarding the heredity transmition of the
loop specific characters and Karakul lambs. Scietific researches, vol. 43/44, Zootehny Series,
USAMV Iasi
Stan, V. and collaborators. (1993) - The dynamic of skin quality at Karakul sheep
population, the consistecy selection, Scietific researches, vol 35-36, p. 90-94. USAMV Iasi
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BACK
RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE ASSURANCE OF THE

MICROCLIMATE CONDITIONS FOR BROILER CHICKEN
WITH PULTRY EQUIPMENTS OF DIFFERENT SOURCES
Gabriela MITREA, D. SIMEANU
The microclimates factors studied ( temperature, relative air humidity ,

ventilation) have not registered important variations against the “ISA 15 “
hybrid requirements in the halls nr. 2, 3 and 4, accordingly the experimental lots:
L1exp, L2exp and L3exp; but , in the hall nr. 1, where check lot - Lc was
accommodated and which was endowed with traditional installations and
equipments, there were established important microclimate variations.
Because a very important role in the development of the broiler chicken is

represented by the way in which the microclimate is assured in the halls where
these are accommodated, as well as their foddering and watering, in the last two
decades appeared a large number of firms that manufacture poultry equipments,
autochthones or from foreign countries, which work competitively, trying to
assure a steady and flourishing sale market.
As a result, through the present paper we proposed to test the main
poultry equipments for the broiler chicken riseing, made by three famous firms:
Big Dutchman, Roxell and Lohmann, which are situated in the top of the
european firms that manufacture this kind of equipments. As a statement for our
researches helped the classic technology (traditional technology) of broiler
chicken riseing, in blind halls, without windows, on permanent sheets utilized
with automatic feeders and suspended anchor rings with valves watering places.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Researches were made in the farm number 4 – Magurele, part of S.C.
“AVICOLA” BRASOV S.A., farm specialized in broiler chicken rising. They
worked on an total effective of 92.000 one-day old chicken “ISA 15”, which were
divided in 4 lots, each of 23.000 heads. The four experimental lots corresponded
to the four raising technologies known in these farm. Thus the chicken from the
check lot (Lc) were rose on permanent sheets, using the classic/traditional
technology, implemented at us few decades ago but still actual in many chicken
meat production unities; the chicken from the first experimental lot (L1exp) were
rose in rigged halls with Big Dutchman equipments; for the chicken from the
second experimental lot (L2exe), the Roxell technology was utilized, and for the
third experimental lot (L3exe), the Lohmann technology.
- 576 -
Table 1. The structure plan of the experiment
Total nr. of Duration of

Lots Hybrid Used equipments
one-day chicken experiment(days)
Classical riseing
Lc 23.000 42
technology (traditional)
ISA BIG DUTCHMAN
L1exp 23.000 42
15 technology.
L2exp 23.000 42 ROXELL technology.
L3exp 23.000 42 LOHMANN technology.
Chased indicators
Microclimate factors: surrounding temperature (tº);air’s relative humidity (%),
ventilation (m3 air/hour/kg corporal weight)

a) Temperature
Because the air-conditioning equipments in the halls were of different
provenience, the microclimate registered some variations from a hall to another,
respectively from an experimental lot to another.
Speaking about the temperature factor it was established that in the hall
nr. 1 with chicken from the check lot (Lc) utilized with electric heating for
warming, the dynamic registered for this microclimate factor the biggest errors
from the specific temperatures of the hybrid “ISA 15” they worked on (tab. 2). As
an example, in the first day of life, the temperature under the heating lamps was
+32,12ºC, and in the rest of the hall +30,05ºC, comparing with +33ºC under the
heating lamp and +31ºC in the rest of the hall, the optim temperature that the
standard curve for this hybrid permits.
Some observations were made also for the next steps of chicken growth
until the age of sacrifice, at 42 days old.
- 577 -
Table 2. The temperature evolution in the halls
Lc
L1exp L2exp L3exp
Standard
Under the heating lamp The rest of the hall
Control day
x ± s x (ºC) V% x ± s x (ºC) V% x ± s x (ºC) V% x ± s x (ºC) V% x ± s x (ºC) V%
1 32,12±1,27 4,17 30,05±1,12 2,42 31,64±1,24 3,82 30,06±0,97 3,84 30,63±1,13 3,28 31
2 31,11±1,38 5,61 29,09±1,42 5,91 29,28±1,26 4,11 29,86±0,98 5,13 30,92±1,17 4,96 31
3 30,16±1,31 5,89 28,14±0,94 4,74 27,09±1,29 4,78 28,91±0,99 4,49 28,91±1,21 5,63 29
4 30,10±1,25 6,16 28,60±1,14 3,85 28,61±1,21 4,84 27,73±0,97 4,06 27,07±1,20 6,14 29
5 30,19±1,27 5,42 28,19±1,29 6,80 28,04±1,17 5,25 29,07±0,93 5,22 28,81±1,14 6,52 29
6 29,23±1,30 6,45 27,23±0,99 3,13 27,01±1,19 5,69 28,64±0,94 5,74 28,63±1,17 7,02 29
7 29,12±1,31 7,03 26,20±1,07 4,22 28,06±1,20 6,11 27,43±0,94 6,65 28,28±1,17 7,40 27
8 29,13±1,33 7,50 26,81±1,25 6,90 27,31±1,20 6,22 26,16±1,86 7,13 26,43±1,18 7,56 27
9 29,15±1,34 7,77 26,56±0,79 3,74 26,06±1,19 7,21 27,38±0,89 5,32 26,61±1,19 7,86 27
10 28,19±1,35 7,98 25,24±1,07 4,44 25,11±1,27 7,28 25,37±0,94 3,13 24,46±1,20 8,23 26
11 28,16±1,36 8,21 25,23±0,82 2,21 24,36±1,27 7,35 24,46±0,95 3,84 25,42±1,22 8,56 26
12 28,23±1,37 8,54 25,09±1,19 6,74 25,79±1,26 7,64 24,62±0,99 4,51 24,73±1,22 8,92 26
13 27,20±1,38 8,91 24,03±1,13 5,91 24,85±1,27 8,13 24,53±1,02 4,65 23,91±1,21 9,51 25
14 27,28±1,38 9,42 24,07±1,26 7,89 24,25±1,28 8,59 23,58±1,02 4,89 24,73±1,23 9,55 25
15 26,33±1,39 9,65 24,16±1,28 8,35 24,09±1,31 9,29 24,56±1,03 4,95 23,12±1,22 9,78 25
16 25,42±1,39 9,99 23,19±1,64 3,85 23,16±1,34 9,86 24,35±1,01 5,06 23,83±1,23 4,08 24
17 25,33±1,45 8,34 23,42±1,84 7,06 22,74±1,36 4,42 23,39±1,01 5,85 22,61±1,23 4,35 24
18 25,16±1,50 9,75 23,22±1,77 6,15 23,62±1,38 6,13 24,44±1,05 6,22 23,39±1,25 4,55 24
19 25,19±1,56 9,49 22,26±1,51 2,28 22,92±1,43 3,48 23,77±1,06 7,03 22,59±1,29 5,74 23
20 24,14±1,64 8,37 22,34±1,75 5,94 23,83±1,52 5,56 23,83±1,09 8,44 22,43±1,34 5,96 23
21 24,31±1,72 8,18 22,21±1,64 2,26 22,43±1,59 4,11 23,63±1,17 9,29 22,91±1,39 6,72 23
22 21,30±1,74 5,81 21,44±1,61 5,33 22,91±1,22 4,75 21,73±1,46 6,86 22
23 21,37±1,75 6,19 21,43±1,70 6,24 22,60±1,37 3,13 21,22±1,45 7,05 22
- 578 -
Table 2. The temperature evolution in the halls
Lc
L1exp L2exp L3exp
Standard
Under the heating lamp The rest of the hall
Control day
x ± s x (ºC) V% x ± s x (ºC) V% x ± s x (ºC) V% x ± s x (ºC) V% x ± s x (ºC) V%
24 21,48±1,84 7,21 21,67±1,75 4,16 22,79±1,45 2,74 22,43±1,49 3,13 22
25 21,34±1,53 2,71 21,76±1,63 5,05 21,43±1,43 2,58 22,65±1,51 3,96 22
26 20,36±1,63 4,03 21,63±1,69 4,18 21,42±1,44 2,41 22,32±1,53 4,75 21
27 20,15±1,72 5,15 20,51±1,64 3,96 21,85±1,43 2,02 20,52±1,52 5,81 21
28 20,94±1,80 6,02 20,24±1,64 3,56 20,08±1,42 6,75 20,96±1,48 6,08 21
29 20,53±1,63 3,74 19,46±1,60 6,78 20,61±1,41 9,38 19,25±1,35 6,75 21
30 20,76±1,39 6,11 19,58±1,56 4,19 18,34±1,26 9,25 19,73±1,17 6,89 21
31 19,81±1,33 9,31 19,76±1,46 8,64 18,80±1,25 9,11 18,24±1,13 7,13 19
32 19,93±1,26 8,25 19,64±1,42 4,96 18,30±1,27 8,88 18,34±1,04 4,58 19
33 19,43±1,25 7,96 18,91±1,40 6,34 17,51±1,27 8,55 17,42±0,99 5,31 19
34 19,35±1,09 5,72 17,46±1,36 8,35 18,64±1,26 8,19 17,91±0,94 6,17 19
35 19,39±1,20 7,21 18,63±1,30 9,61 17,45±1,24 8,08 18,17±0,86 6,89 19
36 18,46±1,18 6,84 18,79±1,26 8,72 17,62±1,23 7,77 17,13±0,87 7,15 19
37 18,51±1,13 6,13 18,52±1,23 8,13 17,78±1,22 7,13 18,23±1,54 3,96 19
38 18,59±1,12 5,98 17,34±1,21 7,64 18,96±1,18 6,74 17,45±1,44 4,77 19
39 18,57±1,11 5,96 18,21±1,18 7,33 18,52±1,15 6,52 18,09±1,36 5,99 19
40 17,62±1,28 6,21 17,46±1,16 6,89 18,63±1,14 5,23 17,23±1,20 6,54 19
41 17,42±1,63 4,21 18,67±1,25 6,54 17,86±1,69 6,12 17,46±1,14 5,66 19
42 17,11±1,42 3,98 17,63±1,36 5,94 17,65±1,43 4,35 18,24±1,05 5,13 19
- 579 -
Because the optimal temperatures were not respected, this was due to a
larger amount of food consumed by the chicken in order to adjust their body
temperature and also with a smaller efficiency of growth, thing that shall be
demonstrated later.
In halls nr. 2, 3, and 4, which correspond to lots L1exp; L2exp; and
L3exp, the registered temperatures were close to the ones in the standard curve of
temperature, than the temperature in hall nr. 1 , corresponding to the lot Lc (with
some exceptions) ,and this is due to the more efficient heating installations, of
gas air-heater.
Also, in the second day of chicken life, the temperature was of:
+29,28±1,26ºC in hall nr. 2 (lot L1exp); +29,86±0,98ºC in hall nr. 3 (lot L2exp)
and+30,92±1,17ºC in hall nr. 4 (lot L3exp) in contrast with +31 ºC as the standard
curve of temperature permits for this age. Between 3 and 7 days old, the
temperature in the hall nr. 2 (L1exp) was +27,09 ÷ +28,06ºC; in hall nr. 3
(L2exp), of +28,91 ÷ +27,43ºC and +28,91 ÷ +28,28ºC in hall nr. 4 (L3exp),
while the firm recommendations for this period are +29 ÷ +27ºC; this differences
of temperature, appreciated by us as being relatively small, especially for lots
L1exp and L2exp maintained also in the next weeks of chicken’s life.
In the last week, the standard curve of temperature sates a value of +19
ºC, while in the experimental halls the registered temperatures were between
+18,79 ÷ +17,63ºC in hall nr. 2 (L1exp) and between +17,62 ÷ +17,65ºC in hall
nr. 3 (L2exp); in the hall nr.4, (L3exp), the dynamic of temperature evolved in the
same way as in the halls nr.2 or nr.3, with birds from lots L1exp and L2exp,
lower in the seventh day of life, when the temperature in this hall was of
+28,28±1,17ºC contrasting with +27ºC as the standard of the hybrid „ISA15”
permits.
b) The comparative air humidity

The air in atmosphere contains a certain quantity of water in the form of
steam, which is variable, because of the season, the climate characteristics of the
zone and the level of the meteorological factors (Drăghici C., 1991).
In the shelters, beyond the increasing level of the air humidity also
contributes the water vapors from the chicken breath, from dejections, and from
technological evaporation (feeders, sheets, etc.) (Van I and col., 1999).
For broiler chicken, climates with 90% humidity causes severe breath
diseases, and also air infections, and wet vapors maintains a longer life for germs.
(Coman I. and col, 1990). The relative humidity of the air with values under 60%,
doesn’t permit the sheets to maintain a level of 30% water, which is a reason of
producing large quantities of powder.
The establishing of relative humidity of the air in the halls where broiler
chicken were accommodated, underlined the fact that by introducing the new
equipments (at the experimental lots) they managed to get closer to the standard asked
- 580 -
by broiler chicken „ISA 15”, made by „HUBBARD” while the traditional equipments
used in the check holl (Lc) doesn’t assured an optimal humidity (tab. 3).
Thus, in the first week of life, at the experimental lots, the relative
humidity of the air was closed to the one recommended by „HUBBARD”
(57,23÷60,14% at L1exp; 58,74÷62,62% at L2exp and 55,84÷60,51% atL3exp,
comparing 55-60% as the standard of hybrid permits).At the check lot (Lc) ,
starting with the 9-th day of life, registered a 3-6% higher value than those of the
experimental lots, being of 62,25%. At this age, the hybrid’s standard
recommends a relative air humidity of about 63%.
Further, they enlighten an equal dynamic, on each lot, for this indicator,
so that at the age of sacrifice (42 days), the relative humidity of the air in the hall
where the experimental lot - Lc was of 70,72±2,88%, while at the experimental
lots L1exp; L2exp and L3exp, this value was decreasing: 67,61±6,72% for lot
L2exp; 66,13±3,83% for lot L3exp and of 65,26±4,16% for lot L1exp, contrary
with what the technological requirements permit.
From those presented, we can see from the check lot that the use of vacuum
feeders and after of suspended anchor rings with valves, brought the raising of the
relative humidity of the air in the hall; at experimental lots, the use of drop-feeders
didn’t influence at all the microclimate but, maintained a level close to the normal and
encouraged a rational consumption of water, without showering the sheets. There
weren’t any errors mentioned for these type of feeders.
Table 3. The dynamic of relative humidity of the air in the halls
Experimental lots
Chicken Lc L1exp L2exp L3exp
age (days) x ± sx x ± sx x ± sx x ± sx
V% V% V% V%
(%) (%) (%) (%)
2 55,12±1,78 9,06 57,23±3,25 3,21 58,74±5,82 6,49 55,84±2,53 9,75
6 66,13±1,99 8,52 60,14±3,72 4,18 62,62±6,21 5,61 60,51±2,41 8,62
9 67,25±2,19 9,74 65,16±4,16 5,61 65,24±6,50 5,20 63,23±2,11 8,41
12 65,29±2,49 6,61 60,32±4,81 7,44 58,26±6,79 4,77 61,64±1,84 8,11
15 64,61±2,81 8,45 61,24±5,55 9,69 62,37±6,69 5,42 60,42±1,78 7,95
18 73,30±3,25 9,12 68,37±5,89 7,22 70,32±7,13 4,58 67,47±1,69 7,58
21 71,41±3,72 9,75 65,00±5,47 8,75 66,95±7,33 3,21 65,97±1,64 9,61
25 72,60±4,16 9,98 70,11±5,69 9,20 71,34±7,47 8,74 70,45±1,55 8,52
30 71,37±4,81 9,68 68,22±5,74 9,48 69,33±7,63 9,20 67,43±2,19 6,44
35 70,16±5,55 9,54 67,37±6,11 8,81 66,46±6,99 9,52 68,15±3,01 8,71
42 70,72±2,88 7,44 65,26±4,16 7,63 67,61±6,72 8,20 66,13±3,83 7,43
c) Ventilation
Through a good ventilation, the quality of the air in the halls improves
and the temperature and relative humidity levels. If there can be observed a
tendency of toxic gas accumulation in the hall, over the allowed limits, extra
- 581 -
ventilators may be used in order to optimized the air quality for the chicken.
(Vacaru-Opriş I. and col., 2002, 2005).
In the studied halls, each corresponding to one of the four experimental
lot (Lc; L1exp; L2exp and L3exp), the ventilation rate (the accepted air) ,
determined until the age of 21 days, was of 0,8-1 m3/kg live weight/hour at lots
L1exp÷L3exp and of 0,8-0,9 m3/kg live weight/hour for lot Lc. In all these period,
the air speed didn’t get over 0,1 m/s in any hall.
Starting with the 22 nd day of life, the ventilation rate rised
correspondently with the growth spore of the chicken. So, at lot Lc, the
ventilation rate was of 1-3 m3/kg live weight/hour and, at the experimental lots,
this was of 0,8-4 m3/kg live weight/hour.
As a conclusion, we may appreciate that the ventilation rate, in all the
halls, was between normal limits required for hybrid „ISA 15”; however, we may
underline that in hall nr 1, corresponding to check lot (Lc), there was established a
ventilation rate sensible lower until the age of three weeks, comparing to the
ventilation rate in the halls where the experimental lots were accommodated.
After the first three weeks of life, in hall nr. 1, the rate of ventilation didn’t get
over 3 m3/kg live weight/hour, while in hall nr. 2, 3 and 4, the air contribution was
of 4 m3/kg live weight/hour.
d) Light program
A proper light program guarantees an optima growth curve, if the other
influent ional factors of meat production work at an optimal level. (Vacaru-Opriş
I. and col., 2002, 2005).
The light program recommended by „HUBBARD ISA” firm, for
commercial hybrid „ISA15” was applied in each one of the four halls, as we may
see in table 4.
Considering all presented here, we may appreciate that, the microclimate
parameters in the four halls, haven’t registered important variations from a hall to
another maintaining at a level close to the one required by „HUBBARD ISA”
firm for commercial hybrid „ISA 15”. Though, at the check lot (Lc), the errors
were much more visible than those from the experimental lots (L1exp; L2exp and
L3exp) as it was demonstrated.
Tablel 4. Light program for broiler chicken
Chicken age (days) Hours of light Power of light

(Lux)
1-7 24 20
8-21 Dark period of 15 min. once at 4
20 la 5
22-37
38-42 23 5
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
The microclimate factors we studied (temperature, relative humidity of
air, ventilation) haven’t registred important variations between hybrid „ISA 15” in
halls nr. 2, 3, and 4, of experimental lots L1exp, L2exp and L3exp; but, in hall nr.
1, where the check lot (Lc) was accommodated, equipped with traditional
installations and equipments, were observed important microclimate variations.
Termic values measured under the heating lamp and also in the rest of the hall,
were with +1...+4 ºC lower the standard, fact which determined a higher food
consumption and a lower growth spore.
Relative humidity of the air in the halls were influenced by the
type of feeders and the way of maintaining them. As an example, at the check lot
(Lc) the use vacuum feeders and suspended anchor rings with valves caused a
higher relative humidity in the hall with about 3-7,7% comparing with the
standard; also, at this lot were registered leaks of water in the sheets, thing that
depreciated the quality of it. At the experimental lots, the errors permitted by the
producing firm were under 3%.
Ventilation for whole lots of broiler chicken studied were in accord with
norms and recomandations of ‚HUBBARD ISA „ firm for the commercial hybrid.
The light program applied for all experimental lots was the same with
the one recommended for the commercial hybrid „ISA 15”.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. COMAN, I., 1990 – Zooigiena şi protecţia mediului. Curs Lito., centrul de multiplicare al
Universităţii Agronomice, Iaşi.
2. DRĂGHICI, C., 1991 – Microclimatul adăpostului de animale şi mijloace de dirijare. Editura
Ceres, Bucureşti.
3. USTUROI, M.G. şi PĂDURARU, G., 2005 – Tehnologii de creştere a păsărilor. Editura Alfa,
Iaşi.
4. VACARU-OPRIŞ, I. şi col., 2002 - Tratat de avicultură, vol. II. Editura Ceres, Bucureşti
5. VACARU-OPRIŞ, I. şi col., 2005 – Sisteme şi tehnologii de creştere a puilor broiler de găină.
Editura Ceres, Bucureşti
- 583 -
BACK
THE EVALUATION OF MILK’S QUALITY AND THE

HEALT’S UDDER BASED ON THE SOMATIC CELL
COUNTS
I. GÎLCĂ, Mihaela IVANCIA, D. BREBEANU,
Roxana STĂNESCU, E. ŢICĂU, C. DUBIŢ
The mastitis there is the main causes which determine great losses in
quantity and quality of milk, because a great part of production can't use in
human nutrition. Thus, the mastitis increases the expenses in farms with the
medical treatment and the slaughter of dairy cattle before to finish the economic
cycle. The analysis of somatic cell count (SCC) allows the diagnosis of mastitis
into incipient stage.
Lacto-genesis is a complex process of synthesis, filtration and

concentration of all components from milk at the level of epithelial cells from the
glandular cell. For 1 liter of milk is necessary to pass through udder about 400 –
500 liter of blood. So, the intensity of the metabolic process is strong at the level
of this structure.
About the alveolar cell we can appreciate that the lacto-genesis has three
phases: secretion (synthesis), excretion (ejection) and rehabilitation. A complete
cycle of lacto-genesis at the level of one cell has a medium duration of three
hours.
A great number of researchers which done quantitative and cyto-
morphological determination appreciated that the number of cell count from the
health’s milk exceed at least of ten times the number of leucocytes from blood.
Thus, the exam of milk offers us data about the health of udder and the quality of
milk.
The last research in the field of milk’ quality was based on the number of
somatic cell count (SCC) from milk and established the norms of quality in
function of nr of SCC/ml milk and in EU after the 1990 there is the interdiction
the human’s consume of milk which the SCC/ml exceed 400000. The mastitis is
the great important disease of udder which determined the quantitative and
qualitative lost in milk production with influence about the status of human
health. The determination of SCC creates the possibility to diagnose the mastitis
in the incipient stage.
Nardelli, quoted by Cassell (1994) on a great number of cases established
a correlation between the SCC from milk, situation of mastitis in farms and the
lost of quantitative production (tab. 1).
- 584 -
Table 1
Correlation between the evolution of the nr of SCC, situation of mastitis and the
lost of milk production (after Nardelli, quoted by Cassel, 1994)
The mean of SCC Mastitis situation Estimation of the lost
(cells./ml milk) in milk production
(%)
<200,000 Optimum (small level of infections) 2%
200,000-299,000 Satisfactory (medium level of 2-3%
infections)
300,000-499,000 Alarming (is necessary the urgent 3-5%
measure of prophylaxis)
500,000-750,000 Serious (mastitis in proportion of 20- 7-10%
40% - necessary measures of
reclamation)
>750,000 Very serious (mastitis in proportion of 10-15%
60-80% - necessary severe measures of
reclamation)
On the basis of the monitoring of the number of SCC into a long period
and a great number of dairy cows, Serieys (1991) constructed a norm of
epidemiological appreciation of udder infections (tab. 2).
Table 2
Norm of epidemiological analyses of the infections in dairy herd based on the
correlation of the nr of SCC from milk and the clinical mastitis
(after Serieys, 1991)
Nr. of SCC The frequency The level of Dynamic of Origin of the
from milk of the clinical infection infections dominated
mastitis infection
>500,000 < 20% Great Infections of Endogen
long period
<300,000 > 40% Medium Numerous Exogenous
infections with
short period
The new methods which allowed the automatically counted of SCC

determined a permanent monitoring of the quality of milk. Faust and Timms,
quoted .by Shook (1993), from the Institute of Milk Quality (Iowa-USA)
established on the basis of great determinations, four categories of milk quality,
using the nr of SCC (Somatic Cell Counts):
- Milk with little SCC CCS (< 125000 cell/ml) – high quality;
- Milk with medium SCC (125000 - 249000 cell/ml) – good quality;
- 585 -
- Milk with much SCC (250000 - 500000 cell/ml) – medium quality;

- Milk with very much SCC (> 500000 cell/ml) – unsuitable quality.
The milk from this last category will eject from the milk processing and the farm
will be entering into a program of mastitis control.
In the case of monitoring the total number of cells from milk (TNC) an
efficiency program of control must cover a big number of lactations. A great
number of researchers consider that into a milk sample of farm the NTC increase
in correlation with the udder infections. A norm established by a great number of
determinations show a correlation between the NTC and the proportion of
quarters’ udder infected (tab. 3).
Table 3
Norm for correlation between TNC with the proportion of quarters’ udder
infected (after Serieys, 1991)
TNC/ml milk % quarters’ udder infected
200,000 5
400,000 10
600,000 20
800,000 30
In France the Inter-Professional Center for Milk Analyses (CIAL)

established the norm fro milk appreciation with marks in the scale 1 to 3, in
function of the TNC and total number of germs/ml milk (TNG). The sum of all
three marks allowed the established the category of milk’s quality and the price of
milk (high price for A category and low price for C category (tab. 4).
Table 4
Norms for appreciation the quality of milk in function of the level of TNC and
TNG (after the standard of CIAL)
Category of quality Marks granted*) Sum of 3 marks
A 3 3 3 9
3 3 2 8
3 3 1 7
3 2 2 7
B 3 2 1 6
2 2 2 6
3 1 1 5
2 2 1 5
C 2 1 1 4
1 1 1 3
*) 3 = <300000 cell/ml milk and <100000 NTG/ml milk;
2 = 300000-500000 cell/ml milk and 100000-250000 NTG/ml milk;
1 = >500000 cell /ml milk and >250000 NTG/ml milk
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BACK
After the last norms the Federation of Cheese Producers from France
granted to farmers a price bonus, respectively a price decreasing per liter of milk
in function of category of quality.
REFERENCES
1. BERNARD F., 1992 - Maitrire et qualité cellulaire du lait. Actualité et perspectives. Bull. des
G.T.V. 1 (B-413), 7-15.
2. BROUILLET P., 1988 - L'élaboration du lait et son contrôle hormonal chez la vache. Bull. des
G.T.V. 4/ (B-326), 3-36.
3. CASSELL B.G., 1994 - Using somatic cell score evaluations for management decisions. Journal
of Dairy Science, 77(7):2130-6.
4. GILCA I., VOS H., GROEN A., 1993 - Contribution to study of relation between cell count and
lactose in breeding experiment. Wageningen Agricultural University. Department of Animal Breeding.
The Netherlands. Publication No 3/march.
5. HANSEN C.H., 1994 - Physiopathology de la glande mammaire dans l'especés bovine. Aspects
individuels et d'élevage. Univ. de Liége. Fac. de Médicine Vétérinaire.
6. SERIEYS F., 1991 - Utilisation des numération des cellules du lait de vache dans la lutte contre
les mammites. Thése de Docteur. Ecole Nationale Supérieure Agronomique de Montpellier.
7. SHOOK G.E., 1993 - Genetic improvement of mastitis through selection on somatic cell count.
Vet. Clinics of North America. Food Animal Practice. 9(3): 563-81.
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INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF RISK ELEMENTS IN

BULLS AND DAIRY COWS BREEDING AROUND OF THE
INDUSTRIAL AREA OF BUCHAREST
I. GÎLCĂ, D. BREBEANU, Roxana STĂNESCU, E. ŢICĂU, C. DUBIŢ
It was the aim of our study to investigate the effect of risk elements on
biological material of bulls and dairy cows coming from the area polluted by
emissions. It was found out that in the examined organs of beef cattle, in dairy
cows Cd, Pb, Cu are being accumulated in higher amounts in kidneys. In bulls,
the higher accumulation of Cd, Zn and Ni in liver was found. Likewise, when
assessing the presence of Zn in muscles and heart, the higher values were found
in bulls. No significant differences between bulls and dairy cows were found in
muscles and in heart.
The pollution of the environment by risk elements becomes a serious

worldwide problem. Metals are a particular interest because they may have a
positive effect as micronutrients at low concentrations as well as a toxic effect at
higher levels.
The deposition of risk elements on soil surface may induce the increased
levels in plants. The similar process can be observed also in animals, where the
burden with risk elements by the feeding of contaminated plants feeds.
Consequently, the increased bioaccumulation in the organs of animals can be
observed. Chemical and metallurgical factories which work with heavy metals
may contaminate their neighborhood with exhalation up to distance of 20-100 km.

It was the aim of our study to observe the effect of imission on the
penetration of risk elements into meat and organs of cattle from the industrial’s
area near the Bucharest focused on the comparison of their levels in bulls and
dairy cows.
The samples of muscles, liver, kidneys and heart of dairy cows and bulls
destined for slaugthering presented the basic material for the determination of the
residues of risk elements (Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn, Ni). The distance between farms and
industrial’s area of Bucharest is about 6-10 Km. The prevailing wind direction in
that region is southwest. Altogether, 4 collections per 6 heads of animals, of
which 2 collections from dairy cows and 2 collections from bulls were carried out.

In the tables 1 and 2 the mean concentrations are given along with
obtained maximum values of Cd, Pb, Zn, and Ni.
- 588 -
Table 1
Concentration of Pb, Cd, Cu, Ni, Zn in the biological materials of bulls
(mg . kg-1 original matter)
Element Statistics Organs and muscles
Liver Kidneys Heart Muscles
X 0.639 0.251 0.180 0.048
Pb ±sx 0.211 0.149 0.074 0.024
s 0.140 0.040 0.039 0.005
X 0.508 0.525 0.041 0.036
Cd ±sx 0.152 0.192 0.024 0.011
s 0.128 0.132 0.029 0.008
X 65.000 8.850 4.370 2.012
Cu ±sx 36.573 5.074 2.962 1.044
s 21.337 1.970 0.795 0.408
X 0.817 1.023 0.154 0.318
Ni ±sx 0.422 1.733 0.188 0.196
s 0.066 1.145 0.040 0.030
X 125.150 67.980 88.450 191.030
Zn ±sx 55.081 30.480 37.606 56.158
s 31.929 13.943 18.522 31.684
Table 2
Concentration of Pb, Cd, Cu, Ni, Zn in the biological materials of dairy cows
Element Statistics Organs and muscles
Liver Kidneys Heart Muscles
X 0.645 0.208 0.051 0.065
Pb ±sx 0.254 0.208 0.017 0.016
s 0.138 0.057 0.016 0.012
X 0.364 0.298 0.033 0.037
Cd ±sx 0.145 0.298 0.011 0.014
s 0.069 0.118 0.007 0.005
X 102.600 11.500 20.160 5.280
Cu ±sx 47.883 11.500 4.453 1.598
s 22.575 3.200 4.038 1.105
X 0.672 0.863 0.318 0.310
Ni ±sx 0.300 0.863 0.158 0.149
s 0.128 0.084 0.037 0.035
X 52.500 26.600 27.380 59.730
Zn ±sx 30.040 26.600 13.173 32.657
s 13.734 13.000 4.312 9.842
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It was found out that of the analyzed spectrum of risk chemical elements
in muscles and in the internal organs of bulls, only the levels of Zn and Ni were
markedly elevated.
The most pronounced differences between bulls and dairy cows in Zn
were found in heart where the values were 2.85 times higher than in dairy cows.
The higher Zn accumulation in bulls was found also in the liver, muscles and
kidneys (1.80, 1.71. and 1.14 times higher than in dairy cows respectively).
The obtained value were compared with maximum allowable hygienic
limits for individual chemical elements and individual tissues and organ of cattle
(table 3), and we don’t observed significant differences.
Table 3
The highest permissible hygienic limits of risk elements
Element Muscle Internal organs Kidney
Hg 0.01 0.10
Pb 0.50 1.00
Cd 0.05 0.50
Cu 5.00 60.00 1.00
Ni 0.50 2.00
Zn 50.00 80.00
Mn - -
As the observed groups of animals came from the area of imission fallout
of an industrial plant it must not be forgotten that all the chemicals from imissions
had an effect on the organism as a whole and the resulting effect was given by
interactions between them. Depending on the presence of some trace metals, the
concentrations as well as the toxic effect of risk elements increased or decreased.
At occurrence of risk elements in the environment, in the case of beef and
dairy cattle not only hygienic quality of products of animals origin is poorer
because of the higher content of toxic elements in meat, milk etc. but also the
reproductive and growth indices are worsened.
CONCLUSIONS
In summary, the common level of risk elements in this area polluted by
imissions as well as the degree of the burden of the organism of the examined
animals from the locality point out to the increased levels of risk elements mainly
in liver and kidneys.
It was found out that Cd, Pb and Cu accumulate in higher concentrations
in kidneys of dairy cows. In bulls the higher accumulation of Cd, Zn and Ni in
liver was found. Likewise, when evaluating the presence of Zn in muscles and
heart, the higher values were observed in bulls. In other analyzed elements, no
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significant differences between bulls and dairy cows were observed either in
muscles or in the heart.
REFERENCES
1. Fargasova A., 1994 – Comparative toxicity of five metals on various biological subject. Bull.
Environ. Contam. And Toxicology, No 53
2. Fishbein L., Forst A., Mehlman M.A., 1988 – Advances in Modern Environmental Toxicilogy.
XI-Genotoxic and Carcinogenic Metals. Princeton Sci. Publ. Inc.
3. Niemi A., 1993 – Heavy metals in muscle, liver and kidneys from Finnish cattle. Bull. Environ.
Contam. Toxicol, No. 50.
4. Salisburry C.D., 1991 – Multielement concentration in liver and kidney tissues from species of
Canada slaughter animals. J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem, No. 74.
5. Solly S.R., Revfeim K.J., Finch G.D., 1990 – Concentration of Cd, Cu, Se, Zn, Pb in tissues of
New Zealand cattle. New Zealand J. of Sciences, No 24.
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ASPECTS OF IMPLEMENTING MILK PRODUCTION AND

COSUMPTION SYSTEM
Simona Margareta BADIU, Claudia MURESAN
Romanian tradition in animal breeding for milk production may well

result in a trump for opportunity capitalization and thus play an active part in
intra-community trade. In this respect, our country should aim towards the
improvement of milk quality and the quality of dairy by-products and so comply
with European standard requirements.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Quality and sanitation requirements will gradually be attained until the
end of 2009, by means of race structure modifications, by directing this sector
towards farm specialization in milk production and eventually by stimulating
livestock numbers per exploitation.
The milk market can be defined as an economic space where sellers and
buyers, as agents of offer and demand in goods and services, negotiate
merchandise exchange, by assigning the price and quantities of these two market
constituents. Dairy product demand increases tremendously, production rises, but
the import doubles, thus showing that internal consumption has risen, as well.
Meanwhile, assortments diversify, in their turn.
Consumer goods market consists of all sales and purchasing, of goods and
services demand and offer, aiming towards satisfaction of personal and collective
needs, as well as all operations including retailing and wholesale trade.
Production factors market represents the set of sale-purchasing acts
involved by enticing, purchasing, consuming, replacing and potentiating all
production factors (labour, natural resources, capital, informational resources
etc.). We can thus distinguish, within production factors, between labour market,
natural resources market, capital market, education market, information market,
and managing services market.
Table number 1
The average annual milk and dairy consumption, per inhabitant
Specification U.M 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Milk and dairy products,
in milk equivalent of 3,5 liters 194,4 194,0 193,0 197,4 215,0 225,0 238,9
fat (excluding butter)
Source: The Romanian Statistic Annuary, 2005
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As compared to the corresponding month of the previous year, the

production of cow milk collected by processing units in December 2006,
increased by 5646 tons (+7,9%). Production of all processed dairy products
increased, as well. The highest increases corresponded to consumer sour cream
+664 tons (+19,6%), cheese products +665 tons (+16,5%) and consumer milk
+1654 tons (+12,2%), while the increase in acidulated milk and butter quantities
was rather moderate 9,7% (+782 tons), and 4,5% (+29 tons).
Table number 2
Collected cow milk and dairy production
Decemb November December

Specification U.M
er 2006 2006
2005
Cow milk collected by processing tone 71834 80279 77480
units
Average fat content % 3,77 3,78 3,78
Average protein content % 3,23 3,27 3,24
Dairy products resulted
Consumer milk tons 13592 15055 15246
Consumer sour cream tons 3390 3363 4054
Acidulated milk tons 8050 9968 8832
Butter tons 643 605 672
Cheese products - total tons 4030 4805 4695
Out of which - exclusively cow
tons 3781 4569 4203
milk products
Source: National Statistics Institute, Press Release 19 /2007
Considering the previous year production in 2006, the production of

collected cow milk in processing units decreased by 1675 tons (-0.2%).
All processed milk products increased in production, especially
acidulated milk, by +23898 (+25.9%), the highest increase yet.
Consumer milk production registered an upward trend, from 159464 tons
in 2005 to 191335 tons in 2006, thus showing an increase of 31871 tone (+20,0%)
Significant production increases appeared in butter and consumer sour
cream as well, namely +1151 tons (+17,5%), and +5434 (+16,0%).
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Cheese production evolved slowly, the increase being 2,8% (+1846

tons), compared to the previous year, as cow milk cheese accounted for
the greatest part (91,2%) of the entire cheese production.

The complexity and heterogeneity of this market segment are primarily
conditioned by the diversity and dynamics of consumer goods, food products and
clothing, etc.
A paramount issue consists in the stimulation of producers employing
milking devices, special milking chambers, cooling tanks, so that milk can reach
its destination in the adequate conditions. Performance limits for agricultural
producers were also modified, namely for milk cattle and bubaline breeders. The
annual subvention per capita cattle, according the delivered physical milk
production, will reach 75 RON per capita/ a year for delivering a minimum of 500
litres of milk per year, 85 RON for a minimum 750 litres per capita, 100 RON for
1.000 litres, 150 RON for 1.500 litres, 200 RON for 2.000 litres, 250 RON for
3.000 litres, 300 RON for 3.500 litres, 400 RON for 4.500 litres. Furthermore, the
amount of financial subventions for animal breeders was supplemented by 97.2
million RON, thus reaching 497.2 million RON.
Hence, for the following 7 years (2007-2013), Romania will receive 12
billion euro from the European Union, namely 5 billion in direct
payments and 7 billion in rural development funds.
CONCLUSIONS
A growth in the entire adult population numbers in Romania was
registered, while food tastes and preferences formed before 1989. None of the
existing market brands makes a visible effort in educating the public on the taste,
and various qualities of processed milk, in order to enhance its consumer base. I
do not believe that the only cause for this passivity lies in the reduced profit
margin. My opinion is that an effort of the sort may become a serious opportunity
for an existing or new brand. This is not an easily-exploitable opportunity, but it
should be based on an objective product characteristic and therefore, on an
immediately perceptible and appraisable one at that, for the consumer.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. www.modernizare.mai.gov.ro
2. www.euractiv.ro
3. www.mapam.ro
4. www.issn.ro
5. http://www.dadrarges.ro/
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AUTOMATION OF MILKING DEVICES
O. BALAN, V. CRACIUN
The pass from manual milking to automated machine milking has been
achived following certain steps; the most important among them having been the
automatic removal of teat cups at the end of the milking process and the
automatic identification of each animal. In this respect, the speed of the milking
process increases, one milker can milk with 30…50% more cows.
GENERAL APPRECIATIONS
Among the branches of animal breeding, the breeding of bovines occupies
a special place, due to its notable contribution in which regards the ensuring of the
quantities of milk and meat necessary for human nourishment, the ensuring of the
raw materials in food industry, in light industry and even in pharmaceutical
industry.
The ruminants transform the vegetable organic matter into animal organic matter,
the maxmium point of efficiency being attained in the process of milk yield.
Modern agriculture treats this matter seriously, imposing such demands as
productivity, efficiency and quality. Technological development, especially in
developed countries, has constantly led to the improvement of work conditions,
on the one hand, and to the reduction of effort regarding the activities in the
zootechnical sector, on the other hand.
Mechanical milking devices, which imitate the calf’s sucking, have rapidly
expanded, since they offer multiple advantages: milk yield grows due to the
complete elimination of the milk within a period of time correlated to the activity
of synthesis-secretion hormone (ocitocine); the quality of the nutrients in milk
improves, because the last drops (which are extracted by means of mechanic
milking) contain much more fats; work productivity is doubled and could actually
increase thrice if milking rooms are used; the effort on behalf of the milker is
reduced and the quality of milk is increased because it is collected in better
hygienic conditions and is cleaner from a sanitary-veterinary viewpoint; the
possibilities of transmitting diseases and microbes from man to animal and vice-
versa are reduced; and finally, the number of animals with udder infections is
diminished.
The introduction of electronics in this field made it possible to pass from
mechanized to automatic work, and in some cases even to robotized activities. In
an intensive system, the breeding technology could be completely mechanized
and all the operations (feeding, water supplying, milk gathering, exhaustion of
dejections etc) could be automatically done by mechanical devices.
- 595 -
In order to apply this technology it is necessary that animals are equipped with
systems of automatic identification, and that the shelter is equipped with calculus
technique for the gathering and processing of data for the command of foddering
and milk gathering devices. (see Figure 1)
Fig.1.Automatic system for milking process
The introduction of process computers in the zootechnical farms and the

spreading of devices for automatic recording of data diminish the farmers’ work,
reduce the personnel and offer the possibility of supervising the entire number of
animals.
Each animal from the shelter is individualized by means of an electronic system
of recognition, which can take the form of a neck belt, an ear mark, can be
swallowed or implanted. In this way each animal is treated individually, since one
knows its exact location at any moment and most of all one can thus
electronically record data about milk yield, fat composition, milk temperature
at the moment of milking, time spent by the cow at the feeding sector, the resting
area or the curry-combing; furthermore such work processes like feeding
according to the milk yield, or milk gathering can become automatic.
Mechanical milking devices can be equipped with automatic elements in order to
fulfil the following purposes:
* the increase of work productivity, mainly due to the fact that a milker
can work with a higher number of milking devices; consequently, the value of
work related to the number of animals is decreased;
- 596 -
* the improvement of work conditions of milking devices, special

emphasis being placed on the avoidance of in void milking, the complete milking,
as well as the avoidance of the habitual overmilking of animals.
Automatic milking systems proper are classified according to their action as
follows:
a. systems for the automatic detection of the end of milking;
b. systems for the automatic interruption of milking;
c. systems for the automatic removal of milking device cups;
d. milking devices controlled according to the milk flow;
e. systems for the checking of milk quality;
f. systems for the identification of cows with mastites;
g. automatic identification of animals.
This paper presents some positive functional elements, resulted from the
exploitation of the systems for the automatic interruption of the milking and the
systems for the automatic removal of milking devices cups.
THE DESCRIPTION OF THE CONSTRUCTIVE SOLUTIONS

1. The automatic interruption of milking. Under the concept of
automatic interruption of milking one understands the ceasing of pulsations in
milking devices. When the given milk flow is below 0.2 kg/min, one should
automatically pass the pulsatory to the continuous compression stage.
The vacuum and the atmospheric pressure no longer alternate, in between the
sleeve and the milking cup; quite on the contrary, continuous air on atmospheric
pressure is kept. The milking cups are attached to the teats during the compression
stage (massage).
The devices for the automatic interruption of milking devices can be controlled
pneumatically, electrically and electronically.
The devices for the pneumatic control are equipped with sliding floats , valves,
diaphragms, with which one can modify the communication channels for the
atmospheric air and for the vacuum in the case of a normal pulsatory
pneumatically controlled.
The electric devices for the interruption of milking (see Figure 2) are made up of
cameras with magnetic slide floats and inductive electromagnetic
switches, which are connected to the electric pulsatory. The position of the sliding
float is determined by the value of the milk flow. When the floating unit is
brought down to the lower part of the working camera (see Figure 2 a), the
electromagnetic switch determines the interruption of the vacuum by the milkging
device.
The electronic devices for the interruption of milking are equipped with cameras
to measure the level of milk; these have level electrodes and are connected to the
electronic pulsatory, which makes sure that the milking devices function properly.
Once the milk flow is decreased, the electric circuit stops working and the
electronic pulsatory remains in the position characteristic to the massage stage.
- 597 -
It is possible for the the systems of automatic interruption of milking to start the
milking device again, though attached to the udder. This can be done in order to
end the milking process and simply by pressing a button.
The devices for the automatic interruption of milking can be equipped with
signallning units, as well.
a b
Fig. 2. The structure of the electromagnetic device for the
interruption of milking:
a-No milk flowing; b-Milk flowing: 1-Centre tub; 2-Float; 3-
Matering orifice; 4-Seating; 5a-Reed switch closed; 5b-Reed
switch closed; 6-Magnet; 7-Milk inlet
2. Systems for the automatic removal of milking cups. The systems for
the automatic removal or the automatic cluster removal (ACR) of milking cups
when the milking process is over was in fact the main concept for the automation
of milking cow farms, which drew the attention upon the whole potential of the
automation process in milk production and which furthermore led the way into
the implementation of other „high-tech” devices in milking rooms. Despite initial
hesitations regarding the ability of a sensor to determine the moment when the
milking is over, the advantages of reduced effort, the ability to double the number
of milking units a single man can handle in one milking room, as well as the
removal of milking cups at a consistant point in milking, have rapidly transformed
many people from sceptics into advocates of automatic milking devices. Beside
the aspects mentioned above, the use of the systems for the automatic removal of
milking cups also has the following assets: avoidance of in void milking;
reduction of the milker’s runs, who can thus focus upon other operations.
The basic principle for the removal of milking devices is the automatic correlation
between atmosphere and the milking device, the moment the milk flow is lower
than 0.2 kg/min over a period of 15 to 45 minutes. The milking cups tend to fall
- 598 -
from the udder and are in fact removed, being overtaken by a device for
detachment and suspension.
The correlation between the milking cups and the atmosphere can be achieved by
electronic, pneumatic or combined means. Structurally, the devices for automatic
removal fall into several categories: with vacuumatic cylinder and cord, with
rotative arm, with articulate arm and cord.
The most common devices for removal are those with vacuumatic cylinder and
cord, since these are simpler, cheaper and easier to handle with.
The functionability of the system of automatic removal, equipped with a
vacuumatic cylinder and cord device (see Figure 3) is as follows: when the milk
flow given by the udder is below the minimum value, the electric detector of milk
flow transmits an impulse towards the command device, which in its turn orders
the three ways tap for the vacuum. Changing the position of the tap determines
the interruption of the vacuum by the hose which collects the milk, and
susbsequently within the sleeves of the milking cups.
The command is given once the atmospheric air reaches the diaphragm from the
detector’s camera and the closure, by means of a diaphragm, of the prolongated
coupling of the milk hose. At the same time, the vacuum tap allows the
transmission of the vacuum to the removal cylinder, which pulls the milking cups,
with the help of the cord.
Fig.3.Removal of the teatcup shells:

1-Flow-meter; 2-Piston; 3-Wire or nylon cable; 4-Collector milk.
The drawback of the system of automatic removal equipped with cylinder and
cord is that the removal movement is not exactly correct, i.e. the milking device is
not lowered a little at first, but is directly moved sideways, at the same time with
the lifting. That is why the latest systems are equipped with rolls for the guiding
of the cord, fixed on the floor of the milking platform or room.
- 599 -
In the case of automatic systems equipped with removal arm, the movements are
very close to those done by manual removal; these systems are however more
complex.

For a good function of the flowmeter it is needed that the nozzh diameter
permit a flow of 0,2 l/min. The higth of the milk column in the flowmeter must
assure the flowing in 15 … 45 s, the necessary time for a complete milking.
Experimental researches stated up that the nozzle diameter has an important role
concerning the time of detaching of cups.
In fig.4 is presented a sketch which propose a solution for optimising the milking
process and animal welfore.
If we analyse the time sketch for
the operator of the mechanical
milking system we conclude:
- entrance of the cows in the
milking platform takes - 0,5 min;
- udder preparing – 0,5 min;
- milking operation, approximately
- 8 min;
- end of milking – 1 min;
- removal of the teatcup shells;
- cows stall out – 5 min
The automatic chester remover
(or automatic milking machine
detacher) determine a reduction of
milking process up to 2 min.
In this way an operator could have
a greater productivity, up to 50%.
Fig.4.Optimisation for the removal
teatcup shells:1 - Piston; 2 - roll; 3 -
pneumatic system; 4-electric system
CONCLUSIONS
At present hand milking must be removed, because its desadvantages,
namely: hard work and hygienic restrictions.
Mechanical and automatical milking systems has many advantages:
- reduction of labor force;
- increasing the ptoductivity up to 3 times;
- automatic milking system considerably reduces the degree of contact
with cows, offering conditions for hygienic quality of the milk.
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REFERENCES
1. Akam, D.N., Spencer, S.B.,1999, Desingn and Operation of Milking Machine
components,London, Anglia.
2. Balan, O., 2002, Mechanization Methods of the Technological Processes in Stock Farms,
Transactions No 215 Agricultural machinery, buildings, energy and hidraulic engineering, Estonian
Agricultural University, Tartu, 5-9, ISSN 1406-4049.
3. Chrila, C., Balan, O., 2004, Evolutia instalatiilor de muls, Zootehnie si medicina veterinara, 9,
9-16, Ed. AGRIS Bucuresti, ISSN 1220-8507.
4. Ordolff, D., 2001, Introduction df electronics into milking trchnology, Computers and
Electronics in Agriculture, 30, 125-149, Ed, ELSEVIER
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SOME ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS OF THE EAST

ENLARGEMENT OF THE EUROPEAN UNION
G.C. MURSA, Roxana CIURCANU
The East enlargement is one of the main challenges the European

Union is facing. The paper aims at analyzing some of the main economic
consequences of this enlargement for the EU as well as for the twelve new
member states. Although the impact of the enlargement is yet difficult to
appreciate, we want to emphasize the most important problems and fears of this
process, as well as the consequences for the European competitiveness in the
context of the Lisbon Strategy.
On the basis of Maastricht Treaty from 1992, at the Copenhagen Summit

in 1993 the European Council has expressed the firm commitment of the
European Union concerning enlargement to Eastern and Central Europe, and the
Luxemburg Summit from December 1997 marked the beginning of negotiations
with a first group of five countries. Subsequently, after the Helsinki Summit from
1999, negotiations were extended for the rest of the candidate countries, plus
Cyprus and Malta. The main purpose of these negotiations was for the respective
countries to adopt the whole acquis communautaire. The prospect of an
enlargement of twelve additional states raised the problem of changes necessary
up to the Union level and thus, following the Nice (December 2000) and Laeken
(December 2001) Summits, the fifteen heads of state of the member states of the
Union have agreed upon the necessity of an institutional reform to make effective
the activity of the European Union with twenty-seven states. The 1st of May 2004
was the date on which ten of the twelve candidate states became members of the
European Union and on the 1st of January 2007 the remained countries –
Romania and Bulgaria – also joined the EU.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

This paper studies the impact of the East enlargement of the EU using as
tools the macroeconomic analysis of the performance and outcomes in the EU27
and EU25, during the period prior to accession. Issues addressed are economic
growth, nominal convergence, macroeconomic stability and the labor market
performance. The impact of the enlargement on the level of integration is also
analyzed by studying the flows between the new member states and the EU15 in
goods and services (trade) and capital (foreign direct investment).
- 602 -

The European Union officials consider that the enlargement to the East
of the European Union has represented a success, determining the increase of the
European Union surface, population and national income as well as of cultural,
historic and economic diversity. The initial fears, connected to the migratory
afflux or to the economic difficulties did not take form, at least not at the levels
anticipated prior to the enlargement.
The East enlargement has produces many hopes, as well as many fears,
and was preceded by several studies1 which were trying to preview the
economical consequences of the process. Although the methodology and the
approaches have been different, the studies have reached pertinent conclusions,
suggesting important gains of the enlargement. The enlargement was expected to
be beneficial to all member countries, but especially to the new members, as a
consequence, on the one hand, of their smaller dimensions as compared to EU15,
and, on the other hand, of their lower development level. Among the positive
factors that the studies display are intensifying commercial links, strong foreign
direct investment flows, greater efficiency through adopting market mechanism,
macroeconomic stability and structural reforms stimulated by membership in the
EU.
The major fears regarding the EU East enlargement included, among
other things, the possible impact of work force migration on the EU labor market
and especially on its more vulnerable segments. In the 1990’s, the Central and
East European countries have seen a dramatic fall of the employment rate,
unemployment being a major problem of those countries, as much so as to
threaten even more the work market in the EU-15. Given that barriers to trade,
FDI and other capital movements had already been largely removed prior to
enlargement, the free movement of persons and workers probably constituted the
most significant dimension of economic integration which was to change after
the adhesion compared to the status-quo. More than 30 studies were made
concerning the situation of migration after the enlargement, the majority of which
predicting the long run migration potential for the EU of between 2% and 4% of
the source population of the EU10. Cumulated over 15 years, the number of
migrants has been estimated at around 3 million people. The short run annual
impact was estimated at 300-350,000 in the first few years following the
enlargement. Specialists consider that these figures are not big enough to affect
the EU labor market in general. Concerns are especially linked to some areas,
Austria and Germany, which receive a more important volume of the migration
flows.
1
Among the most important studies concerning the economic impact of the EU enlargement to the
East can be mentioned those done by Baldwin (1997), Barry (2004), Kohler (2004) Maliszewska
(2003) Read and Bradley (2001)
- 603-
While the consequences of the adhesion of Romania and Bulgaria are

impossible to evaluate after only 3 months, we can evaluate the adhesion oh the
other 10 new members. The evolution of work force migration has been, up to
the present, within the predicted limits, and has not created significant labour
market disturbances in the EU-15 countries. The enlargement coincided with an
improvement on the labor market, which appeared on the background of a wide
economical growth. The employment hasn’t decreased in 2004, and in 2005 it
saw an average increase of 1,5%. In addition to that, the evolution of the labor
market in EU-15 was positive too, the employment rising by 0,6% in 2004 and
0,7 % in 2005. Nevertheless, there are substantial differences between the
situations of the labor market in the two groups of countries. EU-10 has an
average unemployment rate of 13,4%, 5% higher than the EU-15 average. The
unemployment rate in EU-10 varies between 6% in Cyprus and Slovenia, to 16.4
% in Slovakia and 17,7 % in Poland. The labor market in the new member states
is characterized by a bigger long term unemployment rate than in EU-15, by high
unemployment rate of the youth (approximately 30%, which signifies almost the
double of the rate in the EU-15), by high unemployment rate of low qualified
persons and by important regional incongruities. High unemployment of the
youth constitutes a threat for EU-15 member states, as the young also represent
the most mobile category of population.
The effective impact of the enlargement on the most important macro-
economical indicators of the EU was comparatively small, as a result of the
relatively modest economic power of the 10 new member states. The EU’s GDP
measured at current prices grew by 6%, while the population increased by much
more, around 26%, reaching 480 million. Income per capita in the EU-12 is
substantially lower than in the UE-15. The poorest members of the EU, Romania
and Bulgaria make up 6% of the EU's population and less than 1% of its GDP,
with GDP per capita about a third of the EU average. Subsequently, prosperity in
the EU-27, measured by income-per-capita, is more dispersed than before.
As far as commercial flow between EU-12 and EU-15 is concerned, they
have seen a significant growth in the pre-adhesion period as a consequence of the
integration predictions of the 12 states, as well as a result of the commercial
agreements which have contributed to liberalization of exchanges, starting with
the second half of the 1990’s. Statistics show an increase by 130% of the export
in CEEC (Central and Eastern Europe Countries) to the EU between 1989 and
1994. During the same period the rate of CEEC imports from outside the
community has increased from 2,7% to 4,8%, reaching, in 2001, above 11%.
Several studies made concerning the evolution of commercial flows between EU
and CEEC suggested the fact that commercial liberalization was only one of the
factors which had generated that growth. A return to the natural pattern of East-
West relationships, artificially distorted by planned systems, can also be
mentioned. Additionally, the increase of these changes has partially resulted from
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the need of central and eastern European states to be reoriented towards other
markets as well, with the disappearance of COMECOM.
After the adhesion, the presence of the EU-15 in the commerce of EU-10
remained relatively stable, at a rate of 62%. This percentage signifies a high level
of integration of the new member states, which exceeds even that of EU-15,
between whose markets the trade has a rate of approximately 60%. The
difference is understandable, as EU-10 states are, mostly, small, economically
speaking, and are more widely open than the EU-15.
The EU East enlargement affected the competitive position of the old
member states. Firstly, CEEC have reached access to previously restricted
markets, as, for instance, the agricultural market. Hungary and Poland are
considered important competitors as far as agricultural products in the temperate
area are concerned, and Poland is also important for its fish production, changing
the market rate previously owned by the northern states.
Secondly, after the adhesion, candidate countries have also obtained
access to the market of some industrial produces previously protected, such as
footwear, clothing, textiles, chemical products, metallurgical and siderurgical
products, generally speaking resource intensive and work intensive products.
Work intensive products will compete with southern exporters while resource
intensive products may lead to aggravation of the heavy industry problems of the
northern states.
The adhesion of CEEC commercially affects not only EU and the
candidate states, but also the third parties, influencing all previous commercial
agreements with non-member states. The intra-communitarian flows created
through the enlargement may affect third parties, such as Mediterranean
countries, or ACP (Asia, Caribbean and the Pacific). The fields in which CEEC
are comparatively advantaged in relation to EU include agricultural products, raw
materials, work intensive industrial products. Consequently, the most affected by
the adhesion of CEEC will be those who previously enjoyed comparatively
significant advantages with these products, meaning exactly some of the
Mediterranean countries and ACP.
The integration of the 10 states has also determined the increase of trade
between them with around 2%. In 2005 intra-EU-trade had a rate of 14% in the
trade of the respective countries.
The predictions regarding the future evolution of the trade flow between
the two groups of countries are optimistic, predominantly in the fields in which
trade liberalization through European Agreements had been limited. Which is
more, the use of the euro will further stimulate the commercial exchanges, by
eliminating exchange rate uncertainty, lowering transaction costs and increasing
price transparency.
Another positive effect of the integration was noticed as far as direct
foreign investment is concerned. The presence of foreign firms in the 10 new
member states has significantly increased ever since the mid 1990’s. In 2004 the
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direct foreign investment stock in the new member states has reached 191
billions euros which is approximately 40% of GDP. Among the mentioned states
can be noticed a clear concentration of the direct foreign investment in three
countries- Poland, Hungary and the Czech Republic, which had in 2004 80% of
the investment stock in the area. EU-15 is, by far, the main investor with a share
of 77,5% of the total investment stock.
While the effects on EU15 of alterations regarding direct foreign
investment have been small, the effects on EU10 have been important. Foreign
investment has completed internal financing resources and has created conditions
for the growth of production and the appearance of new jobs. Also, the presence
of multi-national firms has contributed to the increase of productivity, to the use
of comparative advantages of the respective economy and to technology transfer.
In EU-15 states this process also engendered fears concerning the risk of
displacement and of the loss of employment. The more advantageous conditions
in the new member states attract firms which have difficulties in keeping up in an
industrial background characterized by high salaries. This was the case in the
German land Baden-Wurtemberg, in the 1990’s, when a number of producers
from the automobile industry have transferred their production capacities to
central Europe. However this problem has had positive consequences too, by a
concentration of regional authorities on innovation and on the promotion of
industrial clusters (for example in the field of micro-electronics) thus turning
what appeared to be a crisis into a success.
This risk exists in work force intensive sectors with a low technological
level, but some studies, based on the relatively qualified work force in Central
and Eastern Europe also suggest a possible menace to EU sectors that use
qualified work force. On the other hand, an enlarged Union with a wider variety
of retribution levels and technological qualifications offers the opportunity of a
more competitive reorganizing of the economic activity. Larger commodity
markets and bigger resources of production factors lead to more competitive
European producers.
The industry of the 10 new EU member states represents almost 9% of
EU25 industry and 15% of its work force. The economic structure of these
countries has considerably changed during the last 10 years. The importance of
agriculture and industry has declined in favor of services, which have seen an
important expansion. These countries have an industrial specialization focused on
intensive work force sectors. Food industry, transportation and metallurgic
industry have the greatest importance. The Baltic States are specialized in textiles
and wood industry, but a reorientation has been noticed here too, towards high
technology sectors. At his moment the adhesion of these states has made it
possible to maintain inside the European Union a production that would have
otherwise been transferred towards Asia, and to reorganize on more competitive
bases the European industry. For example, the textile industry, in which work
force is more important in the final cost, has reoriented production to Eastern
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Europe and the Mediterranean. Such a strategy allows EU to maintain a series of

activities for which the risk of displacement would be considerable. An example
may be the Finnish company Nokia, which has transferred a part of its production
toward Eastern Europe in order to reduce costs and in order to maintain Finnish
firms oriented towards high technology.
As far as services are concerned, EU has had comparative advantages in
the financial and business services while the new members have a predominance
of tourism and transportations.
On a regional level, the outskirts of EU enjoy the new markets but they
are also the most affected by the growth of concurrence by the integration of the
new members. The center of the Union is expected to take the majority of the
benefits from the rise of the demand for investment funds from the newly
integrated countries, as well as from the rise of work division intensity.
Another major challenge of EU enlargement was that regarding
agriculture. This sector has an important role in the new member states’
economies, and their adjustment to common agricultural policy is still difficult.
Through enlargement, the agricultural fields of EU have increased by
25%, the agricultural production, by an average of 10%, and the number of
farmers by over 10%. These figures are suggestive concerning the agricultural
potential of new member states, which is not, however, fully exploited. But
agricultural productivity is lower than in EU15 countries, and the importance of
this sector in the whole of the economy is big, a characteristic of the less
developed countries.
In order to modernize and reorganize the agricultural sector, the new
member states are given substantial financial aid from the EU. After the
adhesion, the agricultural income has increased, in EU 10 with over 70%.
However, the average income per annual work unit in the new member states is
still far below the level is the EU-15.
The efficient functioning of the internal market in the enlarged Union can
partially limit the negative effects of the process of redistribution of resources
towards the sectors which enjoy comparative advantages. European industry will
become more competitive if the new member states will be rapidly and
effectively integrated, and the observance of unique market rules will accelerate
the process of redistribution of the resources. This involves an effort from both
new and previously existent members in the transposition and in the application
of the acquis. The creation of a stable, harmonized, predictable law system, will
lead to a good functioning of the market, will further determine a positive
evolution of the new member states’ economies and will facilitate the transition
towards the knowledge economy that EU desires. In the years prior to the
adhesion considerable attention was paid to the introduction of the acquis
communautaire and to the creation of a proper administrative capacity in the
future member states. The field for the integration of the new members was
prepared especially in the fields of the industrial products trade and services
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BACK
trade, by liberalization, and by applying the communitarian regulations

concerning concurrence and state financing. But the application of the acquis still
needs important efforts from the new members concerning the industrial field.
The industry in the twelve new EU member states needs considerable investment
in order to be compatible with the communitarian regulations concerning the
environment and public health, in a context of high competition. The EU and
especially the Commission needs to focus on the impact of proposals and other
initiatives concerning the industry, on the new members, so that it doesn’t affect
firm competition in these states, already confronting the problems of the
implementation of the acquis and the rise of concurrence.
CONCLUSIONS
The effects of the enlargement on the competition in European economy
depend on several factors difficult to predict. The Union needs to find the best
ways to integrate the economies of the new member states, with a minimum of
costs for parties, the more so since and once part of the EU, the failures or the
performances of these countries become the failures or the performances of the
Union as a whole. Competition and quality in the European economy does not
exclusively depend on the enlargement, but also on the Union’s capacity of
applying the strategies initiated in this direction, in which performances up to
now are modest. It is almost certain that the Union will not reach, by 2010, the
general objective set by the Lisbon Strategy, to become the most dynamic and the
most competitively efficient economy of the world, and there is still a
considerable distance between EU and the USA. In addition to that, the Union is
currently facing a series of internal problems, related to institutional reformation
and to the assimilation of the new members, problems which can further
decelerate the rhythm of the economic reforms necessary in order to reach the
objective of the Lisbon Agenda. The way in which the balance of the dominating
powers will look like in the future partially depends on the way in which EU will
manage and administer these problems.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dent, C., The European Economy The Global Context, Routledge, London, 1997
European Comission, Enlargement, Two Years After: An Economic Evaluation, May 2006
European Commission, Directorate-General for Economic and Financial Affairs, The economic
costs of non-Lisbon. A survey of the literature on the economic impact of Lisbon-type reforms,
March 2005.
Rheinisch-Westfälisches Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung, Impact of the Enlargement of the
European Union on Small and Medium-sized Enterprises in the Union, 2000, www.europa.eu.int.
World Economic Forum, The Lisbon Review 2006. Measuring Europe’s Progress in Reform, 2006,
http://www.weforum.org/pdf/gcr/lisbonreview/report2006.pdf
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BACK
RURAL DEVELOPMENT POLICIES IN MOLDOVA

REPUBLIC, BETWEEN EUROPEANIZATION AND
RETROGRESSION
POLITICA DE DEZVOLTARE RURALĂ ÎN REPUBLICA
MOLDOVA ÎNTRE EUROPENIZARE ŞI RETROGRESIUNE
N. DUMBRĂVEANU
Policies of Rural Development elaborated and implemented along

the period after the Republic of Moldova got independence proves an
unsteady character. This hesitation is the result of inner and outside
factors, Which act in different directions, sometimes even in opposite
ones. Therefore the elaboration and implementation of rural development
policies do not correspond de facto to European principles (beneficiaries
are excluded or have a minimum participation in this process, the local
autonomy is considerable diminished, particular informal rules prevail
over those of the community, etc.). In order that the mechanisms and
instruments of rural development bring essential benefits to communities
and to rural population it is important for them to rely on European
experience, especially of the Central European States and South - East.
Simultaneously there persists a discussion problem dealing with the
situation when the public administration is promoting de facto a contrary
policy to the endorsed one.
MATERIAL ŞI METODĂ
Metode de cercetare socio-umane: abordare conceptuală, analiza

impactului politicilor publice asupra mediului rural, inclusiv comparativ cu
experienţa europeană de succes, etc. Surse şi documente: documente şi
materialele utilizate în cadrul Uniunii Europene şi Consiliul Europei, acte de
colaborare ale Republicii Moldova cu structurile şi ţările europene, documente
strategice şi acte legislativ-normative ale Republicii Moldova, studii efectuate de
organizaţii internaţionale şi naţionale, publicaţii statistice oficiale, literatura
ştiinţifică de specialitate.
Definiţia şi componentele politicilor de dezvoltare. Diverse definiţii ale
politicilor publice reflectă complexitatea de aspecte, componente, care fac parte
din sau au atribuţie la procesul de elaborare şi realizare a politicilor publice (5,6).
In această diversitate de definiţii a politicii publice pot fi deosebite două grupe
distincte: (i) definirea politicilor ca studiu al instrumentelor formale (legislaţie,
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reglementări etc.) şi efectele produse de acestea (2) definirea acestora prin analiza
întregului proces de elaborare, implementare şi monitorizare a politicilor publice.
Ambele abordări conceptuale pot fi utilizate în dependenţă de scopurile propuse.
Astfel, în primul caz sunt studiate anumite segmente ale politicilor, iar în al doilea
caz – sunt analizate politicile ca o totalitate, ca o singură Politică.
Majoritatea cercetătorilor consideră politicile publice o prerogativă a
autorităţilor publice, alţi actori (organizaţii neguvernamentale, institute academice
şi private, fundaţii naţionale şi internaţionale etc.) , fiind priviţi exclusiv drept
factori de presiune asupra autorităţilor publice. Această opinie poate fi considerată
discutabilă, deoarece limitează actorii promotori de politici publice, în special
când este vorba despre dezvoltarea comunităţilor Spre exemplu, realizarea de
către o asociaţie obştească a unui proiect de educaţie pentru populaţia rurală
adultă, finanţat direct de organisme internaţionale, are o probabilitate destul de
înaltă de a fi considerată drept o acţiune de realizare a unei politici cu caracter
evident public. Mai mult de atât, abordarea conceptuală susmenţionată serveşte
drept o „argumentare ştiinţifică” pentru subordonarea autorităţilor publice a
tuturor activităţilor obşteşti, asigurând în acest fel controlul asupra resurselor
financiare şi extinderea modelului de activitate („apucăturilor”) administraţiei
publice asupra tuturor acţiunilor. Este evidentă necesitate unei conlucrări între
sectorul guvernamental şi cel neguvernamental, însă aceasta este necesar să fie o
conlucrare între parteneri cu drepturi şi exerciţii egale.
Politicile de dezvoltare rurală în forma lor generală sunt descrise în mai
multe documente ale structurilor europene şi naţionale. Astfel, Carta europeană a
spaţiului rural defineşte principiile de elaborare şi implementare, structura,
mijloacele şi instrumentele, scopurile politicilor de dezvoltare durabilă rurală.
Specificul rural, dimensiuni naturale mari şi economii puţin profitabile, populaţie
relativ izolată, impune necesitatea de a alege şi a aplica politici integrate de
dezvoltare rurală.
În acest articol am făcut o încercare de a analiza politicele dezvoltare
rurală ale R. Moldova în sensul următoarelor aspecte: (1) analiza acestora ca un
proces integru, ca o Politică de dezvoltare rurală (2) caracterul raportului dintre
politicile guvernamentale şi cele neguvernamentale (3) posibilitatea realizării unei
politice de dezvoltare durabilă, benefică pentru săteni şi mediu.
Examinarea situaţie actuale. Politica de dezvoltare rurală, în mod normal,
ar trebui să asigure o dezvoltare durabilă în concordanţă cu necesităţile
populaţiei. Gradul acestei asigurări a este oglindit într-o oarecare măsura în
rezultatele obţinute. Degradarea continuă a spaţiului rural (sate şi mici oraşe, cu
teritoriile aferente acestora) poate fi explicată de natura, diversitatea şi
complexitatea problemelor existente, argumentate cu ajutorul indicatorilor de
stare. În continuare vom insista asupra câtorva probleme cu caracter general.
Prima problemă ca importanţă pentru mediul rural constă în depopularea
considerabilă şi continuă a satelor moldoveneşti, ca rezultat al migrării populaţiei
, mai ales a celor tineri şi activi din punct de vedere social. În ultimii 5-6 ani o
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estimare minimă atestă, că localităţile rurale au fost părăsite de cel puţin 300 mii
de persoane. Astfel, au apărut sate practic depopulate sau care îndeplinesc rolul de
„hotel” pentru cei care se întorc pentru a petrece o vacanţă în propria casă.
Schimbarea structurii demografice, indiferenţa autorităţilor publice faţă de
problemele cu care se confruntă sătenii conduc la fenomene negative, cum ar fi
copii lipsiţi de părinţi ( circa 50 mii copii duc lipsa ambelor părinţi), condiţii de
igienă inadmisibile (de exemplu 80% de fântâni de alimentare cu apă potabilă a
populaţiei rurale sunt poluate ), rate înalte de sinucideri ale bărbaţilor din sate (
rata mortalităţii din această cauză pentru bărbaţii vârsta de 40-59 ani este de circa
70 cazuri la 10000 persoane sau de 2 ori mai mare decât media în localităţile
rurale) etc.
A doua problemă majoră cu care se confruntă populaţia rurală constă în
existenţa unui grad înalt de sărăcie a sătenilor. Astfel, rata sărăciei absolute în
mediul rural era de 31,2% (a.2004) faţă de 6,9% în oraşele mari (2). Mai mult de
atât, dacă în perioada 2000-2004 rata sărăciei avea o tendinţă clară de micşorare,
apoi în următorii doi se atestă o creştere, fie şi nesemnificativă, a acestea. Este
necesar de menţionat specificul sărăciei populaţiei rurale, care poate fi definit ca
sărăcie monetară, ca incapacitatea populaţiei de a obţine venituri curente prin
munca proprie şi folosirea bunurilor care le au în proprietate privată. Majoritatea
absolută a familiilor rurale dispun de locuinţe proprii (peste 90%) şi au în
proprietate cel puţin un teren agricol. Cu toate că statistica atestă un grad relativ
înalt de educaţie a populaţiei, capacităţile reale ale acestea rămân reduse, iar luând
în consideraţie calitatea migraţilor putem constata o agravare a situaţiei.
A treia problemă importantă este legată de existenţa unei agriculturi şi
economii rurale neagricole puţin profitabile şi competitive, atât pe plan naţional,
cât şi european. Agricultorii, cu o pondere de 40,7% din forţa de muncă a
economiei naţionale au contribuit numai cu 14,2% la crearea produsului intern
brut şi au obţinut 0,8% din profitul agenţilor economici autohtoni. Profitul
agricultorilor în a.2005 a constituit circa 12 lei (0,7 euro) la hectar (1). Rata
profitului în agricultură s-a situat mult sub dobânda plătită pentru depozite
bancare. Pe de altă parte, economia rurală neagricolă nu numai că este slab
dezvoltată, dar are şi puţine posibilităţi de creştere datorită repartizării inegale şi
în defavoarea spaţiului rural a investiţiilor în capitalul fix. Astfel, la o populaţie de
70,6% ce locuieşte în sate şi centre raionale revin numai 34,4% din investiţiile în
capitalul fix, adică de două ori mai puţin decât media pe economie.
Totodată, nu se poate de afirmat univoc că pe parcurs nu au avut loc
schimbări pozitive, existând multe experienţe de succes, însă acestea au un
caracter izolat, dependent de capacităţile personale şi nu au, cel puţin până în
prezent, un rol determinant în mediul rural.
Această descriere succintă a problemelor majore (care în realitate sunt
mult mai multe ) este necesară pentru a efectua o evaluare a politicilor de
dezvoltare rurală, pentru a vedea în ce măsură acţiunile întreprinse în cadrul
acestor politici contribuie la soluţionarea necesităţilor vitale ale mediului rural.
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În acest context este important de a găsi un răspuns raţional la

următoarea întrebare: Cum s-a întâmplat, că democratizarea societăţii, obţinerea
unor libertăţi individuale, inclusiv patrimoniale ( de exemplu, transmiterea
gratuită a terenurilor agricole în proprietatea ţăranilor) au condus la efecte
dezastruoase pentru întreg spaţiul rural. Un răspuns formal ar indica la faptul că o
agravare considerabilă a situaţie a avut loc în întreaga republică şi este în genere o
caracteristică distinctă pentru societăţile aflate în tranziţie. Acesta nu ar fi un
răspuns concret, deoarece lasă loc altor întrebări şi anume – de ce localităţile
urbane, în special Chişinăul s-au situat cu totul la alt pol de dezvoltare şi de ce în
statele vecine declinul a fost stopat sau situaţia chiar se îmbunătăţeşte.
Pentru înţelegerea politicilor de dezvoltare rurală, examinarea rezultatele
obţinute nu este suficientă, este necesar de analizat întregul proces de elaborare,
implementare şi evaluare a acestora, analiza scopurilor declarate şi a celor
adevărate.
Noua politică de dezvoltare rurală a fost declarată de oficialităţile
moldoveneşti drept o politică de dezvoltare rurala ajustată la cerinţele UE.
Necesitatea europenizării politicii de dezvoltare rurală este evidentă şi de actuală,
însă nu în mod automat şi adevărată. La prima vedere ar fi suficient de
implementat prevederile legale şi normative ale Uniunii Europene, bazate pe o
experienţă de succes, dacă această transpunerea nu s-ar confrunta cu anumite
bariere (restricţii), dintre care am menţiona voinţa politică şi capacităţile reduse
ale administraţiei publice de a realiza o astfel de politică. Atunci, când instituţiile
guvernamentale sînt impuse de organismele europene să întreprindă unele măsuri
concrete, pot fi şi sînt obţinute anumite rezultate pozitive, dar adesea în forme
neadecvate, modificate. Acest lucru se întâmplă din cauza ignorării principiilor de
dezvoltare rurală aprobate şi acceptate de statele europene, în special a
principiului autonomiei locale (regionale) referitor la primirea deciziilor, formarea
şi utilizarea bugetelor, consultarea şi implicarea populaţiei în chestiuni de o
importanţă majoră etc. Pe de altă parte, încercarea de a realiza o dezvoltare locală
în baza aşa numitei „puteri verticale”, înstrăinează şi mai mult populaţia de la
obiectivele societăţii. Un exemplu relevant în acest sens poate servi Programul
Naţional „Satul Moldovenesc”(8), cu un conţinut bogat de domenii şi metode de
dezvoltare rurală (care ar putea servi drept un ghid al activităţilor posibile în
localităţile rurale), dar practic necunoscut publicului larg şi fără de o acoperire
financiară. Acest program a fost elaborat de administraţia publică centrală în
comun cu cea locală, însă fără participarea celorlalte părţi interesate locale. În
consecinţă, chiar şi atunci, când unele măsuri prevăzute de program sunt
realizate, eficienţa lor poate fi minimă sau nulă. Drept exemplu poate servi
subprogramul de gazificare a localităţilor rurale, care este realizat în afara
principiului de cofinanţare locală. Din surse bugetare sunt construite gazoducte
magistrale până la marginea satelor, iar comunitatea şi populaţia nu au surse
suficiente pentru a continua lucrările de gazificare a gospodăriilor casnice şi
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obiectivelor de menire socială. Astfel, se creează o situaţie absurdă - sate

gazificate, cu locuitori fără de gaze naturale.
O altă restricţie în europenizarea politicii de dezvoltare rurală poate fi
definită ca „tradiţionalism şi conservatism”, trăsături caracteristice populaţiei şi
comunităţilor rurale, dar şi birocraţiei actuale. Schimbările în mediul rural se
produc mult mai lent ca în cel urban, deoarece sătenii sînt mai prudenţi în
acţiunile întreprinse, fiind dependenţi într-o măsură mai mare de forţele naturii şi
cultura populară, precum şi de amintiri mai mult sau mai puţin recente privind
unele pericole majore, cum ar fi, spre exemplu, diverse calamităţi naturale sau
foametea cu toate consecinţele negative. Această restricţie poate fi depăşită prin
informarea şi educarea continuă a populaţiei rurale, în special referitor la
modalităţile de dezvoltare a comunităţilor rurale atât din spaţiul UE, cît şi – din
alte state cu experienţe pozitive în acest domeniu.
În sfârşit, sistemul de administrare guvernamentală instaurat funcţionează
ca un sistem autoritar, făcând uz excesiv de metode administrative şi ignorând alte
metode şi instrumente de dezvoltare. Considerăm necesar de evidenţiat caracterul
retrograd al acestui sistem, restabilind tradiţiile anterioare şi manipulând
prevederile legale. Astfel, ultimul raport privind realizarea Planului de Acţiuni
UE- R. Moldova menţionează lipsa unor priorităţi clare de acţiune din partea
autorităţilor publice. Este puţin probabil ca acest sistem să se schimbe esenţial,
chiar şi sub presiunea externă. Pe de altă parte, sistemul creat, protejând propriile
interese şi interesele structurilor oligarhice, pune în pericol folosirea resurselor
financiare oferite de UE şi alţi finanţatori externi, precum şi realizarea din bună
voinţă a unei politici europene de dezvoltare rurală.
CONCLUZII
1. Experienţa anilor precedenţi, când s-a încercat ameliorare situaţiei din spaţiul
rural prin stimularea dezvoltării tehnologice a agriculturii, demonstrează
insuficienţa acestei măsuri, chiar şi în cazul când este completată cu o
instruire corespunzătore tehnologiilor implementate. Schimbarea situaţiei
poate fi obţinută numai prin introducerea unei politici de dezvoltare integrată
orientată spre beneficii substanţiale pentru populaţia rurală.
2. Politica actuală de dezvoltare rurală poate fi considerată una de retrogresiune
cu anumite elemente de europenizare. Mecanismele şi instrumentele
administrative utilizate înstrăinează şi mai mult populaţia rurală de
problemele comunităţilor. Ineficienta metodelor administrative în lipsa altor
instrumente compensatoare este demonstrată prin rezultatele obţinute în
agricultură, dar şi în alte sectoare economice, sociale şi de mediu.
3. Referitor la perspective de schimbare a politicii de dezvoltare a spaţului rural
v-om menţiona, că această schimbare se poate produce sub presiunea externă,
în special atunci când finanţatorii externi acordă o asistenţă considerabilă.
Condiţiile de acordare a asistenţei financiare nu trebuie să se limiteze la
- 613 -
BACK
crearea cadrului legal, dar să fie extinsă şi asupra condiţiilor de realizare a

politicii de dezvoltare rurală. În acest context, este necesar ca o parte de
finanţare să fie acordată societăţii civile din mediul rural, în afara controlului
financiar din partea administraţiilor publice centrale şi locale.
4. Republica Moldova este considerat un stat parţial liber, care are o economie
de piaţă nefuncţională. Această situaţie de cumpănă, totuşi poate fi privită mai
degrabă ca o pistă de dezvoltare, decât o reîntoarce la trecut. Din acest punct
de vedere devine evidentă necesitatea unei susţineri considerabile de către
statele străine şi organismele internaţionale a comunităţilor rurale în efortul
acestora de a realiza o politică de dezvoltare rurală cu caracter european.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Anuarul statistic al Republicii Moldova. – Chişinău, 2006.
2. Calitatea creşterii economice şi impactul ei asupra dezvoltării umane. PNUD: Raport
Naţional de Dezvoltare Umană. – Chişinău, 2006.
3. Carta europeană autonomiei locale (adoptată la Strasbourg, 15.10.1985).
4. Carta europeană a spaţiului rural. Recomandarea nr. 1296/1996 a Adunării Parlamentare a
Consiliului Europei. – în lucrarea V. Neagu, Gh. Stanciu. România. Carta europeană a
spaţiului rural .- Bucureşti, Cereş, 1996.
5. Nicolas Henry. Administraţie publică şi afaceri publice. – Chişinău, Cartier, 2005.
6. Michael Howlett, M. Ramesh. Studiul politicilor publice: cicluri şi subsisteme ale
politicilor. Chişinău, Epigraf, 2004.
7. Planul de acţiuni Uniunea Europeană – Republica Moldova. - www.gov.md
8. Programul naţional „Satul Moldovenesc”. – Monitorul oficial. Ediţie specială. 17.05.2005.
- 614 -
BACK
AVERAGE VALUES OF ECONOMICAL INDICATORS

ACHIEVED IN BREDDING AND USING THE MILK
COWS IN VATRA DORNEI AND CÂMPULUNG
MOLDOVENESC BASINS
Mioara BOCĂNICI
To continuously increase the milk cow production and its economical

efficiency a special attention has to be paid to rational combination of milk cows
breeding systems, the full use of the biological potential of animals, increase of
work productivity, decrease of milk production costs and so on.
To do a calculation of the economical efficiency regarding the breeding
and use of cattle in Vatra Dornei and Câmpulung Moldovenesc Basins we will
have to calculate and interpret a few economical indicators.
We shall calculate the main analytical and synthetic of the economical
efficiency of milk production for the two breeding systems (extensive and semi-
intensive) and then we shall make a comparative analyze of the results obtained.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

We shall analyze and interpret the economical indicators from table 1,
which have been calculated based on the data gathered from the area studied.
Table 1
Average values of economical indicators achieved in Vatra Dornei and Câmpulung
Moldovenesc Basins
No Breeding system
Economical indicator MU Semi
Extensive
intensive
1 Average STAS milk production per l/capita 3900 5200
cow fed
Total production expenses lei/capita 3689.8 5165.7
2 Fodder expenses lei/capita 2649.8 3679.8
Salaries expenses per cow fed lei/capita 750 1200
Average fodder consumption per cow NU/capita 5475 7300
fed
3
Average fodder consumption per NU/hl 140.3 140.4
hectoliter of STAS milk
4 The cost of a hectoliter of STAS milk lei/hl 83.84 84.91
5 The cost of a nutritive unit lei/UN 0.48 0.50
6 Final production lei/cow fed 3690 6520
7 Raw profit per cow fed lei/cow fed 0.2 1354.3
8 Raw profit per hl of STAS milk lei/hl - 26.04
delivered
9 Rate of raw profit % - 26
10 Work productivity lei/hours- 6.72 22.2
person/day
- 615 -
RESULTS:
If we make the comparative analyze of the economical indicators
presented in table 1 and graphically represented in figure 1 - 13 we can come to
the conclusion:
0.5
0.5
Fig.1
0.48
Average
STAS milk
production
per cow fed
lei/UN
Gospodăresc Semiintensiv
0.4
• Average STAS milk production per cow fed is better in the case of cows
bred in a semi-intensive system (5200 l/capita compared to 3900 l/capita).
This is due on one hand to the use technologies and the investments in these
technologies and on the other hand to the superior genetic fund in these farms
(in the semi-intensive breeding systems the farms are populated with Austrian
Brown and in the farm system the predominant breed is the Pinzgauer and its
half-breeds).
Fig.2 Total
production
6000
5165,7 expenses
5000
4000 3689,8
lei/cap
Gospodaresc
3000
Semiintensiv
2000
1000
0
• The total production expenses are greater in the case of the semi-intensive
breeding system and are due to: the average fodder consumption/cow fed;
fodder expenses; salary expenses (see data in table), but also to greater
expenses for investments’ payments.
- 616 -
4000 3679.8
3500
Fig.3 Fodder
3000 2649.8 expenses
2500
Gospodăres c
lei/cap
2000
Semiintensiv
1500
1000
500
• The fodder expenses, as shown above, are greater in the case of breeding the
milk cows in a semi-intensive system and this is due to a greater consumption
for both maintenance and production; also, in the case of the semi-intensive
system a higher quantity of concentrated fodder is used and the fodder has to
be purchased because in this area you one can not obtain the concentrated
fodder in the farm.
1400 Fig.4 Salary

1200 expenses per cow
1200 fed
1000
750
800
lei/cap
Gospodaresc
600 Semiintensiv
400
200
0
• The salary expenses per cow fed are higher also in the case of the semi-
intensive breeding system, where the work volume with the use technologies
and with the production of fodder require 2 full-time employees, working on
average 8 hours/employee/day, compared to the extensive system where only
one person can cover the work volume in about 6 hours/day.
- 617 -
8000 7300 Fig.5 Average

fodder
7000 consumption per
6000 5475 cow fed
5000
UN/cap
Gospodaresc
4000
Semiintensiv
3000
2000
1000
0
• Average fodder consumption per cow fed is higher in the case of the semi-
intensive breeding system, due to the fact that the maintenance necessities are
also higher (the weight of the animals is higher - 700 kg on average – in the
semi-intensive system, compared to 450-500 kg in the extensive breeding
system and due to the average daily production (17 l/capita/day in the semi-
intensive system compared to 12 l/capita/day in the extensive breeding
system).
141 Fig.6 Average

140,9 fodder consumption
140,8 per hectoliter of
140,7 STAS milk
140,6 Gospodaresc
UN/hl
140,5 140,4
140,4 140,3 Semiintensiv
140,3
140,2
140,1
140
• Average fodder consumption per hectoliter of STAS milk – there are no

significant differences in this regard, resulting an average consumption of 1,4
nutritive units/liter of milk produced.
8 4 ,9 1
84
8 3 ,9 8 3 ,8 4
Fig.7 The cost of a hectoliter of
8 3 ,8 STAS milk
8 3 ,7
8 3 ,6
G os podares c
lei/hl
8 3 ,5
S e m iin t e n s iv
8 3 ,4
8 3 ,3
8 3 ,2
8 3 ,1
83
- 618 -
• There are no significant differences in the cost of a hectoliter of STAS milk,

it is only slightly increased in the case of the semi-intensive breeding system.
0.5
0.5
0.48
lei/UN
Gospodăresc Semiintensiv
0.4
Fig.8 Cost of a nutritive unit
• The cost of a nutritive unit – is a little bit higher in the case of the semi-
intensive breeding system but it is due to a higher consumption of concentrated
fodder /capita /day, compared to the extensive breeding system of milk cows.
7000 6520
6000
5000
lei/vaca furajată
4000 3690
Gospodăresc
Semiintensiv
3000
2000
1000
Fig.9 Final production
- 619 -
• The final production is about 1.8 times higher in the case of the semi-
intensive breeding system and it is due to both the milk production
(5200l/capita/day in the semi-intensive system compared to 3900l/capita/day
in the extensive system) and to the higher value of the calf annually obtained
(500 lei/capita/year in the semi-intensive system compared to 300
lei/capita/year in the extensive system).
1600
1354.3 Fig. 10 Raw profit per

1400
cow fed
1200
1000
lei/vaca furajată
Gospodăresc
800
Semiintensiv
600
400
200
0.2
0
• The raw profit per cow fed – in the extensive system is inexistent; in the semi-
intensive system there is profit but its value does not allow making a very high
volume of investments that will lead to a fast development of these farms. The
profit obtained provides a decent living for a family and nothing more.
30
26.04
25
20
lei/hl
15
10 Gospodăresc
Semiintensiv
5
0
0
Fig. 11 Raw profit per hl of STAS milk delivered
- 620 -
• The raw profit per hl of STAS milk delivered – is zero in the case of the
extensive system and in the case of the semi-intensive systems it generates the
equivalent of two average salaries, providing for the survival of the family.
Therefore, it is not possible to invest some of the profit, just from selling the
milk.
30
26
25
20 Fig. 12 The rate of raw

15
Gospodaresc profit
%
Semiintensiv
10
5
0
0
• The rate of raw profit is of 26% in the case of the semi-intensive breeding
system. When calculating the rate the following contributed as incomes: the
milk production, gestation, respectively obtaining one calf every year and the
production of manure. In the case of the extensive system we already
specified that there are no profits if only 4 cows are bred, so we can not
calculate the rate of profit.
25
22,2 Fig. 13 Work
productivity
20
lei/ore-om/zi
15
Gospodaresc
Semiintensiv
10
6,72
- 621 -
BACK
• The productivity of work is 3.3 times higher in the case of semi-intensive

breeding and use of milk cows, compared to the extensive system.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
CHIRAN, A., GÎNDU, E., BANU, A., - 2002 – The economics of animal breeding– theory and
practice - Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucharest
UJICĂ, V. şi col. – 2000 – Aspects of cattle breeding in small and medium family farms in the hill
and mountain areas of Moldova- Romania - FAO Newsletter, Rev. Technical series, 57
- 622 -
BACK
NEW ASPECTS REGARDING THE MILK PRODUCTION

FROM THE NEARCITY AREA OF IASI IN THE CONTEXT
OF EUROPEAN UNION ASSESSED QUOTES
NOI ORIENTĂRI PRIVIND PRODUCŢIA DE LAPTE DIN ZONA
PREORĂŞENEASCĂ A MUNICIPIULUI IAŞI, ÎN CONTEXTUL
NORMELOR IMPUSE DE UNIUNEA EUROPEANĂ
A. CHIRAN, Florina POPOVICI, Elena GÎNDU
The ensuring of the food security represents a major desideratum both on
national and local level. that is why, the adoption of a strategy of raising the quota of
market on milk and milk products is a necessity, taking into account that the milk is
one of the zootechnical products with a high importance for humans.
Starting from these facts, the research study is presenting the situation from
the nearcity area of Iasi, which counts a number of 15 villages, regarding the existant
milk production and the quotes which have been assessed by the European Union.
The pupose of the study is to emphasise the potential of the area with regard to
milk production in order to enssure the demand, the analysis of the milk qutes following
the E.U. rules and the capitalization of the available resources on Iasi market.
Studiul s-a efectuat în zona preorăşenească a municipiului Iaşi, care
cuprinde 15 comune : Popricani, Victoria, Leţcani, Rediu, Aroneanu, Golăieşti,
Bosia, Miroslava, Holboca, Tomeşti, Ciurea, Bîrnova, Comarna, Prisăcani,
Costuleni (fig. 1).
În cazul vânzărilor directe, pentru vacile aflate în controlul oficial al
performanţelor se ia în considerare producţia înregistrată la ultima lactaţie
încheiată, iar pentru vacile care nu se află în controlul oficial al performanţelor se
aplică nivelul producţiei medii pe cap de animal, obţinută la nivel naţional, care
este de 3500 l/cap.
Fig. 1 – Amplasarea
teritorială a zonei
preorăşeneşti a
municipiului Iaşi
- 623 -
În 1984 s-a decis de către statele membre ale UE limitarea producţiei de
lapte prin introducerea cotei de lapte, pentru reducerea dezechilibrului între ofertă
şi cerere pe piaţa laptelui şi a produselor lactate.
În concordanţă cu reglementările U.E., Guvernul României a elaborat
O.G. nr.48/2005 cu privire la organizarea pieţei laptelui de vacă, aprobată şi
completată prin Legea 72/2006.
Cota de lapte reprezintă cantitatea fizică de lapte, cu procentul de
grăsime aferent, atribuită fiecărui stat membru al Uniunii Europene, ca mijloc de
gestionare a producţiei de lapte şi produse lactate în interiorul pieţei unice
europene.
Cota individuală de lapte are două componente: pentru livrare la
procesare şi pentru vânzare directă.
Cota de lapte individuală pentru livrare este cantitatea de lapte cu
procentul de grăsime reprezentativ obţinută de un producător pe parcursul unui an
de piaţă prin mulgerea uneia sau a mai multor vaci, pe care o poate comercializa,
sub forma de lapte, unui cumpărător (care colectează laptele pentru răcire,
ambalare, stocare), precum şi fabricilor de procesare a laptelui.
Cota de lapte individuală pentru vânzare directă este cantitatea de
lapte sau produse lactate vândută de către un producător în mod direct către
consumatori. Cota de lapte nu include laptele pentru autoconsum şi cel destinat
pentru alăptarea viţeilor.
Cota de lapte se acordă o singură dată şi în mod gratuit. Orice persoană
care a obţinut cota de lapte poate dispune de aceasta cum doreşte : o poate vinde,
o poate închiria, o poate lăsa moştenire, poate face conversie de la vânzări
directe la livrări şi invers.
Cotele individuale de lapte sunt acordate producătorilor proportional cu
cantitatea de lapte pe care aceştia declară că o produc şi pot dovedi acest lucru.
Dacă producătorii nu vând întreaga cotă de lapte solicitată, aceasta li se
diminuează corespunzător cu cantitatea nevândută.
Începând cu data de 1 aprilie 2007, comercializarea laptelui, respectiv
livrarea laptelui sau vânzarea directă a laptelui şi a produselor lactate, se face
numai de către deţinătorii de cotă, în limita cantităţilor de referinţă disponibile.
Cotele individuale de lapte se acordă pentru livrări şi/sau vânzări directe,
pe baza unei solicitări scrise a producătorilor, către autoritatea competentă
Departamentul de Administrare a Cotei de Lapte, denumit în continuare DACL,
prin emiterea unei decizii şi înscrierea în registrul deţinătorilor de cotă, denumit în
continuare Registrul cotelor.
Odată cu solicitarea cotei individuale de lapte, producătorii fac dovada
comercializării cantităţii de lapte livrate pentru obţinerea cotei pentru livrări, iar
pentru obţinerea cotei de vânzări directe fac dovada numărului de vaci deţinute.
- 624 -
În arealul studiat, în perioada 2004-2006, efectivul matcă de vaci de

lapte a fost de 8567, cu tendinţă de scădere, cu excepţia comunelor Bîrnova,
Aroneanu şi Comarna (tab. 1).
Tabelul 1
Evoluţia efectivului matcă de taurine pentru lapte din zona preorăşenească a
municipiului Iaşi, în perioada 2004-2006
Comuna Eferctiv vaci de lapte - capete %/2004 Media -

2004 2005 2006 capete
Bîrnova 306 310 410 134,0 342
Ciurea 663 635 595 89,7 631
Miroslava 673 655 580 86,2 636
Holboca 655 540 564 86,1 583
Leţcani 1013 950 1012 99,9 991
Tomeşti 375 346 362 96,5 361
Victoria 750 732 640 85,3 707
Popricani 984 942 845 85,9 923
Aroneanu 349 350 380 108,9 359
Bosia 688 680 632 91,9 666
Golăieşti 736 730 715 97,2 727
Comarna 310 280 395 127,4 328
Prisecani 558 565 544 97,5 555
Costuleni 302 294 304 100,7 300
Rediu 557 400 396 71,1 451
TOTAL 8919 8409 8374 93,9 8567
În medie pe cei trei ani analizaţi, producţia medie anuală de lapte pe vacă
furajată a fost de 2896 litri, tendinţa generală fiind de uşoară scădere în anul 2006,
fenomen întâlnit în majoritatea comunelelor din zonă (tab. 2).
Tabelul 2
Evoluţia producţiei medii de lapte de vacă realizată în zona preorăşenească a
municipiului Iaşi, în perioada 2004-2006 (l/cap.)
Comuna 2004 2005 2006 %/2004 Media

Bîrnova 2892 2194 3195 110,5 2760
Ciurea 3114 1682 3300 106,0 2699
Miroslava 3384 2400 3600 106,4 3128
Holboca 3165 2657 3600 113,7 3141
Leţcani 3723 2832 3900 104,8 3485
Tomeşti 3371 2081 3480 103,2 2977
Victoria 3436 1926 3610 105,1 2991
- 625 -
Popricani 3392 1868 3560 105,0 2940

Aroneanu 2870 2880 2960 103,1 2903
Bosia 3190 3240 3220 100,9 3217
Golăieşti 3290 3310 3300 100,3 3300
Comarna 3170 3300 3310 104,4 3260
Prisecani 3190 3260 3400 106,6 3283
Costuleni 3220 3290 3300 102,5 3270
Rediu 3305 3000 3500 105,9 3268
TOTAL 3283 2598 3324 101,2 3073
La nivelul zonei analizate, producţia totală de lapte de vacă, în medie

anuală, a fost de circa 263 mii hl, comunele Leţcani, Popricani, Golăieşti, Bosia şi
Victoria, asigurând 48,52 % din total.
Faţă de anul 2004, în anul 2006, în comunele Aroneanu şi Prisecani,
producţia totală de lapte a fost relativ constantă, în comuna Bîrnova creşterea a
fost evidentă (47,3 %), în timp ce, în comuna Rediu s-a înregistrat cea mai mare
scădere (tab. 3).
Tabelul 3
Evoluţia producţiei totale de lapte de vacă realizată în zona preorăşenească a
municipiului Iaşi, în perioada 2004-2006 (hl)
Comuna 2004 2005 2006 %/2004 Media

Bîrnova 8849 6801 13033 147,3 9561
Ciurea 20645 10681 19635 95,1 16987
Miroslava 22436 15240 20880 93,1 19518
Holboca 20731 14348 20304 97,9 18461
Leţcani 37714 26904 39468 104,7 34695
Tomeşti 12641 7200 12597 99,7 10813
Victoria 25770 14098 23104 89,7 20991
Popricani 32156 17596 30082 93,6 26611
Aroneanu 10016 10080 11248 112,3 10448
Bosia 21947 22032 20350 92,7 21443
Golăieşti 24214 24163 23595 97,4 23991
Comarna 9827 9240 13041 132,7 10703
Prisecani 17800 18419 18496 103,9 18238
Costuleni 9724 9673 10032 103,2 9809
Rediu 18409 12000 13860 75,3 14756
TOTAL 292879 218475 289725 98,9 267025
Din totalul producţiei de lapte realizată în anul 2006, 301 % a reprezentat

autoconsumul, 66,7 % livrările directe şi 3,2 % vânzările pentru procesare.
- 626 -
Cei mai importanţi procesatori autorizaţi au fost reprezentaţi de firmele

DANONE, INVAS, PROMILCH şi NICODAN.
În cadrul vânzărilor directe, cotele de lapte alocate au reprezentat circa
73 % (tab. 4).
România a obţinut o alocare a cotei de lapte din partea Comisiei
Europene, de 3.057.000 tone, din care :
• 1.093.000 tone pentru livrări la procesatori;
• 1.964.000 tone pentru vânzări directe;
• 188.000 tone rezerva natională
Tabelul 4
Destinaţia producţiei totale de lapte în anul 2006 (hl)
Producţia totală de lapte de vacă, din care:
Comuna Vânzări directe
Autoconsum Vânzări pentru
Prin cota de procesare
Total lapte
Bîrnova 1288,5 11744,5 9787,1 -
Ciurea 7883,1 11751,9 10399,9 -
Miroslava 9868,2 11011,8 10487,4 -
Holboca 4984,7 15319,3 13926,6 -
Leţcani 4882,4 34585,6 32323,0 -
Tomeşti 892,4 10130,2 9044,8 1574,6
Victoria 16566,4 6537,6 6053,3 -
Popricani 8075,4 18246,4 16587,6 3760,2
Aroneanu 1534,3 9713,7 8672,9 -
Bosia 8254,3 12095,7 10799,7 -
Golăieşti 7800,9 15794,1 13499,2 -
Comarna 6562,4 6478,6 5683,0 -
Prisecani 2055,7 14128,3 13584,9 2312,0
Costuleni 3039,2 6992,8 6659,8 -
Rediu 3498,2 8629,3 8378,0 1732,5
TOTAL 87186,1 193159,8 175887,2 9379,3
- 627 -
Destinaţia producţiei totale de lapte în anul 2006 (hl)
250000
193159,8
200000
T o tal co m u n e
150000
100000 87186,1
50000
9379,3
0
Autoconsum Vânzări directe Vânzări pt. procesare
Fig. 2 - Destinaţia producţiei totale de lapte în anul 2006 (hl)
Destinaţia vânzărilor directe prin cota de lapte alocată (hl)- 2006
Total vânzări
48%
52% Vânzări directe prin cota de
lapte
Fig. 3 - Destinaţia vânzărilor directe prin cota de lapte alocată

în anul 2006 (%)
La nivelul ţării, necesarul de efective de vaci de lapte pentru acoperirea

cotei de lapte este de 826.216 capete, fiind integral acoperit din efectivele
existente, care se ridică la 1.741.551 capete.
Faţă de efectivele de vaci de lapte existente, după acoperirea cotei de
lapte, rezultă un surplus de 915.335 capete, care va acoperi laptele necesar pentru
- 628 -
consum personal şi cel destinat consumului viţeilor. Aceste efective pot fi

eligibile în cadrul măsurilor de dezvoltare rurală pentru fermele de semi-
subzistenţă (1000 euro/an, timp de cinci ani pentru rentabilizare) .
Plafonul naţional total de 1.835.000 capete bovine eligibile pentru prime
speciale de alaptare, abatorizare, export sau îngrăşare este acoperit din totalul
efectivelor existente. Excedentul de efective poate fi eligibil pentru sprijin pe
măsurile de dezvoltare rurală pentru fermele de semisubzistenţă.
Cota de procesare la lapte de 1.093.000 tone/an poate fi acoperită de
capacităţile actuale de procesare, în contextul în care materia primă recepţionată
la procesare în anul 2003 a fost de 904.790 tone lapte.
Pentru perioada 2007-2010, în Uniunea Europeană se preconizează un
echilibru între producţie şi consum, astfel că, nu va exista un excedent
semnificativ care să afecteze importurile în Romania.
În arealul studiat au fost înregistrate un număr de 6054 de cereri pentru
alocarea cotei de lapte, din care doar 5 cereri pentru procesare (tab. 5).
Tabelul5
Situaţia cererilor pentru alocarea cotelor de lapte la nivelul anului 2007
Număr cereri înregistrate

Comuna Vânzări directe Vânzări directe Livrări entru
- % din total procesare
Bîrnova 279 4,6 -
Ciurea 477 7,9 -
Miroslava 518 8,6 -
Holboca 478 7,9 -
Leţcani 763 12,7 -
Tomeşti 308 5,1 1
Victoria 188 3,1 -
Popricani 550 9,1 1
Aroneanu 256 4,2 -
Bosia 329 5,4 -
Golăieşti 734 12,1 -
Comarna 238 3,9 -
Prisecani 353 5,8 1
Costuleni 301 5,0 -
Rediu 277 4,6 2
TOTAL 6049 100,0 5
CONCLUZII
1. În perioada 2004-2006, în zona preorăşenească a municipiului Iaşi
efectivele de taurine matcă pentru lapte au avut o evoluţie descendentă,
influenţând în mod direct nivelul producţiei totale de lapte.
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2. Producţia medie anuală de lapte pe vacă furajată s-a situat sub media
judeţului Iaşi, fapt ce a condus la scăderea producţiei totale de lapte.
3. În zona cercetată, în anul 2006, autoconsumul a reprezentat 30,1 %,
vânzările directe 66,7 %, iar pentru procesare s-a valorificat numai 3,2 %.
4. Pe piaţa liberă a municipiului Iaşi, laptele şi produsele lactate
provenind din arealul cercetat, acoperă circa 15 % din cota de piaţă la lapte şi
produse lactate.
5. Din totalul vânzărilor directe, 91,1 % reprezintă vânzările prin cota de
lapte alocată.
6. În zona preorăşenească a municipiului Iaşi vânzările de lapte pentru
procesare au fost nesemnificative.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Chiran A. şi colab., 2000 – Aspecte tehnico-economice privind fermele familiale
specializate în creşterea taurinelor din zona de nord a Irlandei. Rev. Cercetări agronomice în
Moldova, vol. 3-4, Iaşi.
2. Chiran A. şi colab., 2001 – Consideraţii privind creşterea animalelor în arealul
Berezeni-Vetrişoaia, judeţul Vaslui, în etapa de tranziţie la economia de piaţă. Lucr. şt. U.S.A.M.V.
Iaşi, vol. 44, seria Zootehnie.
3. Chiran A., Gîndu E., Banu A., 2003 – Economia creşterii animalelor, Ed. Prahova,
Ploieşti.
4. Chiran A. şi colab., 2003 – Perspective privind marketingul laptelui şi a produselor
lactate în România, în vederea integrării în Uniunea Europeană. Lucr. şt. U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol. 46,
seria Agronomie.
5. Chiran A., Gîndu Elena, Banu A., Ciobotaru Elena-Adina, 2004 – Piaţa produselor
agricole şi agroalimentare – abordare teoretică şi practică. Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti.
6. Chiş Margareta, Merce Elena, 1999 – Agricultura spre economia de piaţă : concepte,
cerinţe, strategii. Ed. Aletheia, Bistriţa.
7. Dinescu S., 1996 – Concepte moderne în zootehnie, Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti.
8. Georgescu D., 1987 – Prezent şi viitor în creşterea bovinelor, Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti.
9. Păduraru I, 1991 – Zootehnia şi economia de piaţă, Buletinul S.R.Z. Bucureşti.
10. Popovici Florina, Chiran A., Gîndu Elena, 2006 – Studiu privind creşterea taurinelor
şi ovinelor pentru lapte în zona preorăşeneasca a municipiului Iaşi, în perioada 2003-2005, Lucr.
Şt. U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol.49, seria Agronomie.
11. Sîrbulescu C. şi colab., 1999 – Securitatea alimentară – o prioritate absolută. Lucr. şt.
U.S.A.M.V.B., Timişoara, seria I, vol. I – Management agricol. Editura Agroprint, Timişoara.
12. * * * , 2001 – Strategia de dezvoltare a agriculturii, industriei alimentare şi
silviculturii pe termen mediu şi lung (2001-2005 şi 2005-2010). M.A.A.P., Bucureşti.
13. * * * , 2005 – Anuarul statistic al României. C.N.S., Bucureşti.
14. * * * , 2005 - Legea pentru aprobarea Ordonanţei Guvernului nr. 48/2005 privind
organizarea pieţei laptelui de vacă
15. * * *, 2006 - Hotărârea nr.852 din 28 iunie 2006 privind aprobarea Metodologiei de
acordare a cotei individuale de lapte, precum şi a modului de alocare şi reconstituire a rezervei
naţionale de lapte.
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THE RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE MICROZONE OF

ŢIBĂNEŞTI: PRESENT AND FORESIGHTS
DEZVOLTAREA RURALĂ ÎN MICROZONA ŢIBĂNEŞTI :
PREZENT ŞI PERSPECTIVE
Elena GÎNDU, Liliana BIŢIC, A. CHIRAN
The paper work presents the rural development problems, especially in

the microzone of Ţibăneşti, Iaşi coun-ty , as a part of the economical N-E region
of Romania.
The microzone of Ţibăneşti covers four villages: Ţibana, Ţibăneşti,
Tansa and Dagâţa, with a total surface of 24.769 ha and a total population of
23.150 inhabitants.
In the landed fund structure, the agricultural surface occupies 61.7 %,
whom the arable land is ruling (69,5 %). In the crops structure on arable land,
the maize holds the first place with a share of 71,2 %, followed by the wheat
and the rye (11.6 %), patato (4.8 %), vegetables (2.3 %) etc.
Presently due to rural development analyse, we can emphasize some
aspects, such as :
- infrastructure for education and health sectors insufficiently developed;
- a large number of houses without drinkingwater or sewerage system,
95,6 % whithout having branch pipe;
- a small interest for modernizing the road infrastructure (78 % being
under the minimum standards requested);
- the absence of gathering and burning systems for toxic wastage;
- an insufficient development of partnerships between the public and the
private sectors;
- an insufficient development of services sector;
- an insufficient promotion of the tourism potential of the area;
- very low buying capacity of inhabitants;
- a high percentage of the population who whorks in agriculture (81,2
%).
The authors propose to emphasize some aspects related to the
development of the analyzed zone, accordingly to the settlements of U.E.
concerning the strucural funds and the directions of development of the
Romanian rural space.
Studiul s-a realizat în microzona Ţibăneşti, judeţul Iaşi, care constituie o
parte integrantă a Regiunii de dezvoltare Nord-Est a României. Microzona
Ţibăneşti cuprinde comunele: Ţibana, Ţibăneşti, Tansa şi Dagâţa, cu o suprafaţă
totală de 24.769 ha şi o populaţie de 23.150 persoane, din care 1324 persoane sunt
salariaţi.
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Microzona Ţibăneşti dispune de un bun potenţial agricol şi al resurselor

de muncă, condiţii care pot contribui la dezvoltarea rurală sustenabilă, durabilă şi
eficientă.
Autorii şi-au propus , pe baza unui sistem de indicatori, să analizeze
situaţia existentă şi să previzioneze direcţiile şi obiectivele de dezvoltare în viitor.
REZULTATE ŞI DISCUTII
Noţiunea de ,,spaţiu rural” este definită de Recomandarea 1296/1996 a

Adunării Parlamentare a Consiliului Europei cu privire la Carta Europeană a
spaţiului rural în următoarea formă: ,,spaţiul rural cuprinde o zonă interioară sau
de coastă care conţine satele şi oraşele mici, în care majoritatea teritoriului este
utilizat pentru agricultură, silvicultură, acvacultură şi pescuit, activităţi
economice şi culturale ale populaţiei acestor zone (industrie, artizanat, servicii,
etc.), amenajări neurbane pentru petrecerea timpului liber şi distracţii sau
rezervaţii şi parcuri naţionale, regionale sau naturale şi alte folosinţe” .
În România, unde noţiunea cuprinde numai nivelul comunelor, studiile
arată că, spaţiul rural reprezintă 89,2 % (212,7 mii de km2) din suprafaţa totală a
ţării şi cuprinde 45 % (10,14 mil. locuitori) din populaţia totală.
Prezentarea problematicii dezvoltării rurale din perspectiva prezentului şi
necesităţile viitorului constituie certitudinea că dezvoltarea ruralului românesc şi a
agriculturii din România vor trebui să fie în concordanţă cu valorile şi perceptele
globale privind mediul, agricultura şi rolul tradiţiei, în concordanţă cu
reglementărilor precise, exprimate de Agenda 2000 a Uniunii Europene.
Dezvoltarea sustenabilă poate fi definită, în sens larg, ca fiind
„îmbunătăţirea vieţii fiecăruia, acum şi pentru generaţiile care vor veni”.
Conceptul actual de dezvoltare rurala este fundamentat pe cel de
dezvoltare durabilă şi are câteva principii de bază în domeniul politicilor
dezvoltării rurale:
- viaţa la ţară prezintă un interes deosebit, nu doar pentru mediul rural,
ci pentru societate în ansamblu;
- este necesară asigurarea diversităţii rurale, în vederea păstrării
patrimoniului cultural şi natural;
- încurajarea agriculturii multifuncţionale, diversificarea agriculturii,
inovarea şi acordarea de noi valenţe produselor, în funcţie de cererea
consumatorilor;
- reconsiderarea nevoile diferite ale ruralului ca factor de coeziune;
- implementarea în parteneriat a organizaţiilor private şi societatea
civilă;
- crearea de reţele pentru schimb şi promovarea practicilor pozitive;
- simplificarea politicilor de dezvoltare rurală, care trebuie să se bazeze
pe un singur program, o singură sursă de finanţare şi un singur organ de control.
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Din analiza dezvoltării rurale a microzonei Ţibăneşti pot fi evidenţiate

câteva aspecte şi anume:
- infrastructură de educaţie şi sănătate insuficient modernizată;
- număr mare de locuinţe fără reţea de apă şi canalizare (95.6 %);
- pondere scăzută a infrastructurii rutiere modernizate (22 %);
- lipsa unor sisteme de colectare şi incinerare a deşeurilor toxice;
-slaba dezvoltare a parteneriatului public-privat şi a sectorului de
servicii;
- promovarea insuficientă a potenţialului turistic zonal;
- suprafeţe foarte reduse ale exploataţiilor agricole (1-3 ha), tehnologii
agricole neperformante şi grad ridicat de eroziune a solului ;
- pondere foarte mare a populaţiei ocupate în agricultură (81.2%), cu o
putere de cumpărare foarte redusă.
În microzona Ţibăneşti , dezvoltarea spaţiului rural se va baza, în
principal, pe agricultură. Din acest punct de vedere, potenţialul agricol este
evident (fig. 1).
teren arabil
5 livezi si pepiniere
19.9 pomicole
vii si pepiniere
2.1 viticole
69.5 pasuni
3.5
fanete
Fig. 1 – Structura fondului funciar în microzona Ţibăneşti
Astfel, din suprafaţa totală, 61,7 % reprezintă terenul agricol, din care
aproape 70 % este teren arabil, circa 20 % păşuni naturale etc.Evident este faptul
că la un locuitor revin 0,65 ha agricol, plasându-se la nivelul mediei naţionale.
În structura terenului arabil, numărul culturilor s-a redus foarte mult,
astfel că , în prezent, trei culturi (porumb, grâu şi floarea soarelui) ocupă 92,4 %
din terenul arabil cultivat, exprimând un grad de extensivizare foarte ridicat
(fig. 2).
- 633 -
2.3
0.5
9.6 11.6 grau si secara
4.8 porumb boabe
cartofi
floarea soarelui
sfecla pentru zahar
71.2 legume
Fig. 2 – Structura terenului arabil pe culturi în microzona Ţibăneşti
Populaţia microzonei are o densitate de 93,6 loc./km2, situându-se foarte

aproape de nivelul mediei naţionale , cu diferenţieri evidente pe comune : 83,1, în
comuna Ţibăneşti şi 105,2, în comuna Ţibana (tab.1).
De asemenea, sporul natural al populaţiei este pozitiv, cu excepţia
comunei Tansa, unde este negativ.Se constată şi o pondere mare a populaţiei de
peste 60 de ani (29,9 %), comparativ cu populaţia de până la 18 ani, care
reprezintă , în medie, numai 20,9 %, iar în comuna Tansa 12,4 %.
Indicatorii care reflectă situaţia infrastructurii microzonei scot în
evidenţă mai multe aspecte (tab. 2):
– 99,7 % din totalul locuinţelor sunt în proprietate privată, revenind
11,08 m2 suprafaţă locuibilă/locuitor;
– reţeaua de aducţiune cu apă şi canalizarea însumează numai 12,1
Km, fiind conectate la apă curentă şi canalizare numai 327
gospodării, iar în comuna Tansa nu există reţea de aducţiune cu apă
şi canalizare;
– la 8 gospodării revine un telefon fix, iar un telefon mobil la circa 3
persoane;
– învăţământul şi cultura sunt bine reprezentate, existând 26 grădiniţe,
29 şcoli, 30 biblioteci, circa 70 % dintre locuinţe au abonament la
radio şi TV, iar 61,5 % - la televiziunea prin cablu;
– ocrotirea sănătăţii se realizează de către 8 medici şi 14 persoane cu
pregătire medie în domeniul sanitar, iar medicamentele se distribuie
prin cele 5 farmacii.
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Tabelul 1
Indicatorii privind populaţia din microzona Ţibăneşti, judeţul Iaşi
Ţibana Ţibă- Tansa. Dagîţa Total %

Indicatorii neşti microz
onă
Populaţia totală, din 7434 7819 3057 4840 23150 100,0
care:
- femei 3579 3790 1549 2298 11216 48.5
- barbati 3855 4029 1508 2542 11934 51.5
- populaţie sub 18 ani 1764 1575 380 1114 4833 20.9
- populaţie 18 -60 ani 3731 4009 1780 1874 11394 49.2
- populaţie peste 60 1939 2235 897 1852 6923 29.9
ani
- născuţi vii/an 157 115 26 92 390 1.7
- decedaţi total/an 62 111 31 51 255 1.1
- stabiliri de resedinţa - - - - - -
în localitate
- plecări cu reşed. din 81 77 42 41 241 1.0
localitate
- salariaţi total, 205 828 98 193 1324 100,0
din care:
- în agricultură 11 13 3 - 27 2,0
- în industrie 1 563 3 4 571 43,2
- în energie electrică, 1 29 2 48 80 6,1
termică, gaze, apă,
con-strucţii
- în comerţ 6 24 18 4 52 3,9
- în transport, 6 6 5 24 41 3,1
depozita-re, poştă,
comunicaţii
- în administraţia 12 12 14 10 48 3,6
publică
- în învăţămant 124 124 31 85 364 27,5
- în sănătate şi 44 57 22 18 141 10.6
asistenţă socială
În Regiunea Nord-Est există un PLAN DE DEZVOLTARE

REGIONALĂ (PDR NORD-EST) pentru perioada 2007-2013, care este centrat
pe priorităţile din domeniul economic şi social şi anume :
- dezvoltarea infrastructurii şi protejarea mediului;
- dezvoltarea mediului de afaceri;
- dezvoltarea turismului;
- dezvoltarea resurselor umane şi a serviciilor sociale;
- agricultura şi dezvoltarea rurală.
- 635 -
Direcţiile de intervenţie strategice vor putea fi finanţate prin fonduri

naţionale, europene şi alte fonduri internaţionale.
Microzona Ţibăneşti se integrează în Planul de Dezvoltare al Regiunii
Nord-Est, cu toate cele 4 comune, fiind prezente cel puţin 2 proiecte de dezvoltare
orientate spre latura socială şi infrastructură, localitatea Ţibăneşti fiind propusă
pentru trecerea în categoria oraşelor.
Tabelul 2
Indicatorii privind infrastructura existentă în microzona Ţibăneşti, judeţul
Iaşi
Ţiba- Ţibăn- Tansa Dagâ Total

Indicatorii na eşti -ţa micro-
zonă
Echiparea teritoriului
- locuinţe existente 2013 2490 1345 1577 7425
- locuinţe în proprietatea privată 2003 2489 1344 1568 7404
- locuinţe în proprietatea 10 1 1 9 21
publică
- suprafaţa locuibilă total – m2 7388 88366 42318 5204 256606
0 2
- locuinţe terminate/an 7 8 1 7 23
- locuinţe terminate/an din 7 8 1 7 23
fonduri private
- aducţiuni de apă şi canalizare 2.8 7.4 - 1.9 12.1
Poştă şi telecomunicaţii
- unităţi poştale 2 2 2 2 8
- abonamente la telefonie fixa 202 257 418 71 948
- abonamente la telefonie 2231 2843 1011 875 6960
mobilă
Învăţămant
- unităţi de învăţămant – total, 20 14 4 17 55
din care:
- grădiniţe de copii 9 7 2 8 26
- şcoli din învăţămantul primar 11 6 2 8 27
şi gimnazial
- licee, şcoli profesionale - 1 - 1 2
Cultura şi artă
- biblioteci publice– total- 8 10 3 9 30
- abonamente la radio 1818 1804 695 772 5089
- abonamente la televiziune 1822 1917 695 875 5309
- abonamente la cablu TV 1608 1826 516 613 4563
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Ocrotirea sănătăţii
- paturi în case de naştere – 3 3 2 1 9
secotor public
- medici – sector public 2 2 2 2 8
- personal mediu sanitar – 3 2 1 3 9
sector public
- personal mediu sanitar – 1 2 1 1 5
sector privat
- farmacii – sector privat 1 2 1 1 5
În viitor, promovarea unor programe de dezvoltare a microzonei

Ţibăneşti trebuie să se bazeze pe oportunităţile existente, şi anume:
- cerere mare pentru modernizarea şi extindrea infrastrucurii
exprimată de către investitorii potenţiali;
- creşterea interesului autorităţilor locale în promovarea de
parteneriate în vederea protecţiei mediului;
- posibilitatea atragerii investitorilor străini prin îmbunătăţirea
imaginii localităţilor;
- existenţa pe plan local a materialelor de construcţie şi a lemului,
care ar putea să influenţeze atragerea investitorilor străini;
- acordarea de facilităţi pentru asocierea proprietarilor de teren
agricol;
- crearea unor reţele de turism local, având în vedere existenţa unor
pensiuni în localităţile Ţibăneşti şi Ţibana, a Mănăstirii Hadâmbu,
disponibilitatea locuitorilor de a găzdui turiştii pe perioade mai mari,
existenţa unei vaste vegetaţii forestiere ce înconjoară microzona, a
lacului de acumulare „Baraj” etc.;
- valorificarea potenţialul silvic şi piscicol existent;
- posibilitatea ca infrastructura existentă, prin modernizări şi
reabilitări să servească ca spaţui pentru dezvoltarea unor servicii,
care ar putea integra unele categorii de persoane defavorizate;
- promovarea unor programe cu cofinanţare europeană, care să fie
orientate spre împăduriri şi ocrotirea mediului natural.
Aplicarea strategiei de dezvoltare a microzonei Ţibăneşti, va avea drept
scop diversificarea şi creşterea economiei locale, care să conducă la o
îmbunătăţire radicală a nivelului de trai al populaţiei.
CONCLUZII
1. Dezvoltarea rurală reprezintă o prioritate naţională şi constituie una
din preocupările majore ale Uniunii Europene.
2. Microzona Ţibăneşti se caracterizează printr-un potenţial agricol
ridicat, dar cu un grad de intensivitate foarte redus. Numărul plantelor cultivate s-
a redus radical, iar randamentele la hectar sunt foarte mici.
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3. Infrastructura şi gradul de echipare a gospodăriilor din microzona

Ţibăneşti evidenţiază nivelul de viaţă destul de scăzut al populaţiei locale, care se
corelează cu gradul de sărăcie foarte ridicat.
4. Dezvoltarea rurală a microzonei Ţibăneşti, trebuie analizată din
perspectiva viitorului, nu ca pe o rezolvare a problemelor din trecut : „zona rurală
nu trebuie să fie privită doar ca o problemă, ci şi ca o oportunitate. Politica de
dezvoltare rurală trebuie să includă agricultura într-un context socio-economic şi
ecologic mai larg”.
5. În viitor, dezvoltarea spaţiului rural din microzona Ţibăneşti, va trebui
să se coreleze şi să se integreze în Planul de dezvoltare a Regiunii Nord-Est
pentru perioada 2007-2013, punăndu-se accentul pe următoarele priorităţi :
• dezvoltarea infrastructurii şi protejarea mediului înconjurător;
• dezvoltarea mediului de afacer, a turismului şi agroturismului;
• revitalizarea agriculturii, dezvoltarea serviciilor sociale şi ocuparea
cât mai completă a forţei de muncă.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Barberis G.,1995 - L’importance de la vie rurale dans la societe d’aujourd’hui,
Troisieme Forum Europeen sur l’Agriculture, Verona .
2.Bârsan Maria, 1995 - Integrarea economică europeană, Ed. Carpatica, Cluj-Napoca.
3. Berindei Mihnea, 2004 - La Roumanie au seuil de l’Union europeenne: dossier
special, Paris: Politique internationale.
4. Bohatereţ V. M., 1997 - Dezvoltarea rurală în Moldova, Bucureşti.
5. Bleahu Ana, 2005 - Dezvoltarea rurală în Uniunea Europeană, Calitatea Vietii, XVI,
3-4.
6.Chiran A., Gindu Elena.Banu A., Ciobotaru Elena-Adina,2004 - Piaţa produselor
agricole şi agroalimentare- abordare teoretică şi practică Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti.
7. Gindu Elena şi colab.,2004 – Unele aspecte privind relaţia populaţie-alimente-
alimentaţie-risc alimentar-sănătate în unele judeţe ale Moldovei. Lucr. st. USAMV Iaşi, vol. 47,
seria Horticultură.
8. Chiran A., Ciurea I. V., Gîndu Elena, Ignat Gabriela, 2006 – Management,
marketing şi gestiune economică, Ed. Performantica, Iaşi.
9. Dona I., 2000 - Economie rurală, Ed. Economică, Bucureşti.
10. Folescu A., 2004 - Programe Regionale de Management şi Dezvoltare, Universitatea
“Al. I. Cuza”, Centrul de Studii Europene, Iaşi.
11. Gavrilescu D.,1998 - Economii rurale locale – dimensiuni şi perspective, Ed. AGRIS,
Bucureşti.
12. Groza N., Iagăru G.,1999 - Agricultura în reformă şi tranziţie. Ed. AGIR, Bucureşti.
13. Mitrache St., 2000 - Dezvoltarea durabilă rurală. Ed. Planeta, Bucureşti.
14. Otiman I. P.,1999 - Economie rurală, Ed. Agroprint, Timişoara.
15. Otiman I. P., 2000 - Restructurarea agriculturii şi dezvoltarea rurală a României în
vederea aderării la UE. Ed. Agroprint, Timişoara.
16. Pascariu Gabriela, 1999 - Uniunea Europeană: politici şi pieţe agricole. Ed. Econo-
mică, Bucureşti.
17. ***, 2000 - Pour un tourisma rural de qualité – în La gestion integree de la qualité des
destination touristique rurales. Direction generale des entreprinse, Unité Tourisma – Commission
Europeene Bruxelles.
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PRACTICAL ASPECTS CONCERNING THE SOLUTIONS

GIVEN BY THE LOCAL AND CENTRAL COMMISSIONS OF
PROPERTY LAND RESTITUTION TO THE REQUESTS FOR
PROPERTY RETROCESSION FROM IASI COUNTY
Carmen – Mariana DIACONU
The article goal is to debate an up-to-date subject: the property

law issue, more precisely the retrocession to the former owners or to their
successors. We are going to emphasize a specific aspect of Romanian
legal state: the discrepancy between the content and the finality of a law
(a typical example is represented by Law no. 247/2005 concerning the
justice and property reform) as well as its implementation.
MATERIAL AND WORKING METHOD

The research method which I have chosen is specific to the approached
studied domain. It consists in an analysis and synthesis of the legal frame specific
to the property matter (Law no. 18/1991 concerning the Law on Agricultural Land
Resources with the latest modifications and closing with Law no. 247/2005
concerning the Justice and Property Reform) reported to the number of solved
cases in Iasi county.

The article is proposed as an alarm signal upon a fundamental issue for
Iasi county and not only. It comes out that there is a total discrepancy between the
finality aimed by the legislator, which is the retrocession of all nationalized,
confiscated or abusively taken properties from their former owners or their
successors, and the way in which the authorities - respectively the local and
central commissions for property land restitution – are dealing with this issue.
We are registering two tendencies which we will illustrate with real cases
from practice. At central level there is a tendency for certain celerity of the
retrocession of all properties, ignoring a series of juridical elements which have
intervened in time, such as the properties in question which present legal
incongruence, as well as the attitude of some former owners.
It is well known at political-juridical level as well as at legal power
level that the debated law projects concerning the retrocession have generated
conflicts between the political forces sustaining the former owners who were
deprived from their legitimate owner right by an abuse of the power and the
multitude of tenants living in the nationalized old buildings. After the
promulgation of Law no. 215/1995 the ancient tenants from the nationalized
- 639 -
buildings had the right to buy their houses from the State, the owner of those
buildings at that moment. We would underline that at the date of the promulgation
of that law, upon the basis of a normative document, the former owners were
financially compensated. Not in few cases, in practice, after the compensation and
after the real estate transaction between the State and the old tenant, the former
owner changed his mind, returned the sum of money and started a legal process
with the ex-tenant owner. The practice of the instance was inconsistent in
analogous cases, giving gain either to the former owner or to the actual owner
(ex-tenant). A great deal of culpability belongs to the Central Commission of
Property Land Restitution, which, in its aim to uphold the letters of the law did
not made an accurate analyze of all elements of some dossiers. By giving these
decisions, more precisely, within their dispositions, it is ignored the existence of a
whole juridical situation and the Law no.10/2001 had generated even new
controversies. From our point of view this law was a compromise formula: the
retrocession of the properties abusively taken by the Romanian State (The Decree
no. 92/1950 or the Law no. 119/1948) by granting some rights to the ex-tenants
and the obligation of former owners to respect the decision. The reality is
completely different. In practice, in most of the cases, these rights were not at all
respected, or very least respected; there were no sale contracts between the
authorities and the ex-tenant. This explains also the huge number of litigations at
the contentious-administrative sections as these decisions could not been
contested but within the legal frame of Law no. 554/2004 of the administrative
contentious.
The other specific tendency of the local commissions was to analyze in a
superficial manner the retrocession requests, deliberately or not, by giving
rejection solution. These commissions have applied at their own will the rule
entering as law after the approval of the Governmental Decision no. 890/2005
with subsequent modifications.
It is ignored the dispositions of art.6, align.1, indices 1 – the Law
no.1/2001 had in view art art.9 of Governmental Decision no. 890/2005 which
states that the fact that “the property titles obtained previous to the appearance of
Law no. 18/1991 and the free existence of the old places are the absolute proof of
the property, forcing the land fund commissions to proceed to the validation of
the request for the property right reconstitution”.
CONCLUSIONS
The law is harsh but it is not applicable for all of us. In Romania, in order
to get what is just and rightful, your lawfully property right of which you or your
antecessor were lacked in an abusive way, you have to pray for a miracle from
God and for a good lawyer able to manage through the tangled „meanders” of the
law.
- 640 -
BACK
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Judiciary Practice
Law no.18/1991 concerning the Property Land Restitution, republished on 5th of January 1998
Law no. 1/2000 concerning the reconstitution of the Property Right (Lupu Law)
Law no.10/2001 concerning the abusively taken buildings
The Rule from 4thof August 2005 for re-establishing the Property Right
Law no.247/2005 concerning the Justice and Property Reform
- 641 -
BACK
PENAL RESPONSIBILITY OF THE PUBLIC EMPLOYEE –

INTRODUCTIVE ASPECTS
Carmen- Mariana DIACONU
The approached subject is an up-to–date one considered as such also by

the Symposium of the Romanian Society of Animal Breading entitled
“Performance and Competitiveness in Animal Breading Production”. It is
perfectly true that competitiveness and performance in the animal area are two
criteria to which we report ourselves in all activity areas and not only in animal
breading. The main goal of this article is to offer to the reader a new perspective
over the juridical-economical field. Competitiveness and performance in animal
breading sector are closely connected to the use of several resources at their
optimal parameters. The business environment in Romania, among we mention
the animal breading, is compelled to access some funds, such as the structural
funds offered by European Union through the Romanian authorities, more
precisely through the Romanian public employees. The main question that we are
trying to find an answer in this article would be: ”It is really necessary to
establish a certain responsibility of the public employee in order to obtain a
more flexible and more transparent service for the benefit of the Romanian
citizen?”
MATERIAL AND RESEARCH METHODS

The research methods I have chosen are specific to the approached
domain, respectively the analysis and the synthesis within the legal framework
(Law no. 188/1999 concerning the Status of the Public Employees, Law
no.161/2003 - Book I, Title IV – Interests’ Conflicts and the Incompatibilities
Regime in Exercising the Public Magistrates and the Public Functions, Law nor
.477/2004 concerning the Behavior Code of the Personnel with Working
Contracts Working in the Public Institutions, several governmental decisions
among which we are mentioning the Governmental Decision no. 432/2004
concerning the Professional Dossier of the Public Employees, the Governmental
Decision no. 1209/2003 concerning the Organization and the Development of the
Careers of Public Employees, the Governmental Decision no. 1201/2003
concerning the Organization and Function of the Discipline Commissions and the
Paritary Commissions within the Public Institutions, The Penal Romanian Code
and the Code of Penal Romanian Procedure) reported to their implementation
method sanctioned first of all – and why not – by the public opinion (from the
point of view of the Romanian tax payer and not only).
- 642 -

The Juridical Concept of Penal Responsibility of the Public Employee
The Usual Juridical Terms1 is defining the penal responsibility as being

“one of the fundamental institutions of the penal right together with the offence
and the punishment institutions settled by different dispositions belonging to the
Romanian Penal Code.” The main consequence of the penal responsibility in the
condition of the penal action initiation by the act of accusation foreseen by the
law (plaint - art. 222 Penal Procedure Code, denounce - art. 223 - Penal Procedure
Code, of office - art. 222 Code Penal Procedure) by the penal pursuit authorities
consists in dealing with the consequences foreseen by the law.
The penal responsibility is not defined by the Romanian Penal Code.
Art.17, paragraph 2 Penal Code specifically mentions the fact that “Infraction is
the only reason of the penal responsibility”, while art.9 Penal Procedure Code
paragraph 1 statues the fact that “the penal action has as object the penal
responsibility of the people who have performed offences”. These two legal texts
are of paramount importance. Thus art.17 paragraph 2 Penal Code points out the
conditions in which we can talk of the penal responsibility institutions as well as
art. 9 Penal Procedure Code presents the procedural way which has as final object
“the penal responsibility” and “the competent authority” (the penal pursuit bodies
supervised by the qualified attorney).
We cannot put an equal sign between the institution of the penal

responsibility and the penal accountability, which was underlined by professor N.
Giurgiu in his treaty of General Penal Right2. At the most “penal responsibility” is
only a preliminary and necessary condition but not a sufficient condition for the
birth of the penal responsibility. The penal responsibility is only a guilt premise
and one of the characteristic features of the offence. Thus the penal responsibility
indicates a certain state of normality of the mature person and implicitly its
psycho-physical capacity to understand the character of its deeds, in order to
determine and conduct its free will in report with the aimed goals. At opposite
side “irresponsibility” is defined as an abnormal psycho-physical status and a
cause that removes the penal character of the deed (art.48 Romanian Penal Code)
The penal responsibility of the public employee is stated by art. 74 –
Law no. 188/1999 concerning the status of the public employees. The article
mentioned above settles the penal responsibility of the public employee only for
the offences performed on duty or in connection with his public function duties.
The syntagm used by the legislator “severe offences performed on duty”
1
National House Publishing,1997,authors – Ph.D. Ion Pitulescu, Ph.D. Pavel Abraham, Emil Dersidan,
Ion Ranete
2
Publishing House Cantes, Iasi, 2000
- 643 -
comprises a whole juridical remedy reported to the penal general illicit under the
incidence of the Romanian Penal Code as well as the special one (e.g. Law no.
8/2000 concerning the corruption offenses or the offenses assimilated to these).
The conditions necessary for the institution of penal responsibility of the

public employee
Corroborating the dispositions of the Romanian Penal Code with those
comprised in art. 74 - Law no.188/1999 concerning the status of the public
employee we can conclude that these are similar with those specific to offence
existence (the deed that presents social danger, accomplished with guilt and
incriminated by the penal law).
From this perspective, the way we talk about generic social danger taken into
account by the legislator when incriminating the penal deed and the concrete
social danger appreciate by the penal pursuit authority, respectively by the judge,
following the criteria mentioned in art. 72 Penal Code, we can agree upon a
generic penal responsibility of the public employee and of a concrete penal
accountability of the public employee. Aprioristic we can assert that there is
concrete penal responsibility as well as there are fulfilled the specific elements of
the offence content, under the aspect of the two sides: objective and subjective.
The “institutional”3 aspects specific to the penal responsibility of the public

employee
a. The principle of penal responsibility coerciveness reflects the complexity of
this type of responsibility which transforms the juridical report compliance
established between the State, as guarantor of social order and security, in a
constraining one, the subject who has broken the law being subjected to support
the consequences. If other types of responsibilities as the civil offensive one are
following strictly material restoring measures, here the subject caught in the act
will bear a constraint of the individual freedom.
b. The principle of unique penal responsibility establishes the correlation
between offence, responsibility and punishment, only in the conditions of an
offence, as we debate upon a typical case of setting up penal responsibility. The
accomplishment of other facts that are not under the incidence of the penal illicit
attract other types of responsibilities such as the disciplinary one (art. 65 of the
Statute), contravention (art.71 of the Statute) or civil offence (art.72 of the
Statute).
3
pro for this classification are also authors such as Narcis Giurgiu; the author, University professor and
practitioner, a prodigious figure of the Iasi Bar and of the University environment underlines in his General
Penal Right Treaty that in spite of all differences of delimitation or terminology most of the authors have agreed
upon the fact that the penal responsibility material is governed by the fundamental principles characteristic to the
whole system of penal right specifically: the principle of legal, the principle of personality, the principle of
equality and the principle of humanism.
- 644 -
c. The principle of autonomy and un-repeatability underlines the autonomy of

the penal responsibility unconditioned by the existence of other types of
responsibility, as well as the fact that the penal responsibility is established only
once from the moment the penal process started. Although this type of
responsibility is autonomous it coexists with all types of responsibility regarding
the civil side of the penal process. Thus the accused, during the whole penal
process, has also a civil responsibility with reparatory title for the damage
suffered by the other party which is constituted in civil part.
As well, in case of the public employee regarded as active subject and
implicitly accused depending upon the stage of the process, the penal
responsibility coexists with the civil offensive responsibility of the person
civically responsible, respectively the public institution to whose employee is the
person in cause upon the basis of the working contract (art. 1000 paragraph 3,
Civil Code – civil offensive responsibility of the offenders for the presumed
facts).
d. The principle of penal responsibility compulsoriness underlines the idea that
the commitment of an offence is followed by the penal responsibility
compulsoriness. This principle reflects the official character of the penal action
exercised ex officio or as a result of a preliminary complaint of the offended
person. The fact that there are a series of causes that avoids the consequences of
the penal responsibility confirms only a series of exceptions of strict interpretation
from the rule of penal responsibility compulsoriness.
e. The principle of penal responsibility prescription statues the rule according
to which the penal responsibility institution is subjected to prescription as well as
the other institutions of right with the only difference that these are phased and are
longer. The prescription term can be interrupted or suspended in cases strictly
foreseen by the law. The only exception from this principle according to art.121,
paragraph 2 Penal Code is represented by the offences against peace and
humankind.
f. The principle of individualized penal responsibility often formulated as
principle of individualized penal responsibility and implicitly of the punishment,
reflects the fact that the repressive right and the penal politics are taking into
account, regarding the individualized penal responsibility, a series of real and
personal circumstances, aggravating or extenuating applied by the judiciary
authorities after appreciating the whole probated ensemble.
CONCLUSIONS
The consequences of penal responsibility reported to the actual
processual phase
a. The public employee is seen as accused in the initial phase of the penal
process, in the phase of the penal pursuit marked by the movement of the penal
- 645 -
action by means of ordinance issued by the attorney under the conditions

establishing the fact that the information act does not presents any hinder towards
the penal actions.
As a special provision for this process stage, art. 74, paragraph 2 of the
Statute imposes the obligation for the manager of the public institution to which
the public employee was employed is to suspend the working contract, or, if the
offence mentioned in the information act is one among those enumerated at art.
50, letter h. of the Statute (offences against humankind, offences against the state
or against the authority, duty offences or related to the duty that hinders the
justice, false, corruption or an intended offence that is incompatible with the
public function).
If after the administration of the proofs, during the penal pursuit the
attorney, by means of resolution, ascertains the existence of one of the cases
foreseen by art.10, paragraph 1, Penal Procedure Code and pronounces a solution
for the penal pursuit release (art. 10, paragraph 1, letters a-e) respectively for the
cease of the penal pursuit (art.10, letters f-h). In the case foreseen by art.10,
paragraph 1, letter , in the moment the legal formality is accomplished, the penal
action can be put into motion afterwards.
b. The public employee in the position of accused implies, from the perspective
of the penal process, the fact that the attorney who had instrumented the penal
cause after the administration of the probatory ensemble decides the guilt of the
accused and through the indictment made informs the competent penal judgment
court. In this situation, until the pronunciation of a definitive and irrevocable legal
decision, the working contract of the public employee remains in suspension.
The suspension of the working contract can be regarded as an immediate
consequence of the penal responsibility. When it promulgated a status of the
public employee, the legislator request was to create an administrative apolitical
apparatus in the service of the citizen-tax-payer, an apparatus beyond all
suspicion. The consequence upon long-term, in the case the competent instance
ascertains the guilt, is the execution of a punishment in privative or non-privative
regime, the repair of the damage as a result of the offence. Even in the situation in
which the accused had executed the privative or non-privative punishment (in this
situation we must take into consideration the length of the punishment at the trial
term) only after a rehabilitation period (the statute of the public employee - art.50,
letter h does not make any distinction) he/she can occupy a similar public
position.
The deletion of the consequences of the penal responsibility takes place after
the discharge or cease of the penal pursuit following up of the resolution issued
by the attorney or by the pronunciation of an acquittal legal decision. The public
employee is reintegrated in the function that he had before, with complete
payment of the salaries corresponding to the working contract suspension period.
- 646 -
BACK
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. D. Pepelea – State and Public Employee Responsibility, Publishing House Cernei, Iasi, 1997
2. N. Giurgiu – Treaty of General Penal Right, Publishing House Cantes, Iasi, 2000
3. I. Alexandrescu - The Administration Crisis, Publishing House All Beck, B, 2004.T.Toader, O.
Loghin – Roman Penal Right. Special Part, Publishing House Sansa, B, 1996
5. Law Review no. 8/2000 – Theoretical and Practical Considerations in Connection with Law no.
188/1999 Concerning the Status of the Public Employee, G. Stecoza, M. Preda
6. Review nr. 2/2000 – Theoretical and Practical Considerations in Connection with Law no.
188/1999 Concerning the Status of the Public Employee, S. Beligradeanu
7. Dictionary of Usual Juridical Terms - I. Pitulescu & collaborators, Publishing House National,
1997
- 647 -
BACK
METHODS OF IMPROVING RISK MANAGEMENT IN THE

FIELD OF FISCAL ADMINISTRATION
S. BREZULEANU, C-tin IAŢCO
The paper presents an outline of the role of risk management in

fiscal administration. The author reviews the latest methods and
procedures used by EU Member States to ensure compatibility and
integration of data and to facilitate information storage and exchange
systems between the tax authorities of different states. Such methods and
procedures are shown to be highly relevant and vital in the attempt to
improve the general collection and control of taxes and duties from all
natural and legal persons.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the fiscal field a series of criticisms have been levied for many years at
the manner of administration as international research has exposed the image of
slow administrations and ever more frequent implementation deficiencies.
It is better to prevent a deviation with financial, accounting and fiscal
consequences than to try to eliminate its effects. Once money is given out by
financial administration bodies it is hardly ever recovered. From this perspective,
prevention must lie at the very centre of countermeasure programmes.
Against the backdrop of open borders and financial markets in Europe a
highly important link exists between tracking taxes and the customs documents
aimed at countering economic and financial criminal acts; this can be achieved
through the creation of a central file and the elaboration of a strategy of analysis
based on a compatible data mining software. For this reason, presently, in several
Member States of the European Union risk analysis is being developed with the
help of mathematical statistical methods.
2. RISK MANAGEMENT METHODS USED IN THE EUROPEAN UNION

Data mining is a process based on a series of methods and procedures
which are able to elaborate complex context-based connections out of a high level
of available information.
In order to carry out such activities it is highly necessary to focus
attention adequately on coordination both at national level and in particular at
European level.
The resolution of certain tax evasion cases is hampered by other Member
States by the sometimes insufficient formal and legal assistance they provide;
- 648 -
offenders are able to transit certain countries quite freely due to the absence of
effective legal agreements.
To this end, a European cooperation programme has been prepared and
implemented, including certain framework decisions1 which emphasise the the
following points:
“The practical experience in the field of crime investigations shows that
often it is too difficult, it takes too long and in some cases it is even impossible to
gather the relevant and necessary information or intelligence from other Member
States.
One of the reasons for this situation consists in the fact that the Member
States have different legal procedures, distinct administrative structures and
conditions for the gathering and provision of information at international level.”
International studies have highlighted different degrees of implementation
of the adopted countermeasures on the one hand and of the effectiveness of their
use on the other.
For example, in 1999 the General finance inspectorate of France issued a
comparative assessment of the tax administration systems of ten countries,
according to which Germany, France and Italy have some of the least efficient tax
administrations in the EU as regards their value and also the high costs of
operations, transactions and provision of information.
In some EU Member States income tax returns can be submitted
electronically to tax authorities (e. g. Belgium, France, UK, with certain
exceptions and in Malta, the Netherlands, Austria, Portugal, with a password and
data carrier in Italy as well). In France the information is submitted electronically,
without providing documents, yet some of these must be retained for certain
subsequent examinations.
In the Netherlands and the United States more than 70% of tax statements
are submitted electronically and the percentage is rising to 80%.
In many EU Member States (Italy, Estonia, the Netherlands) highly
efficient risk analysis has been developed using statistical methods. In the United
States, Canada, the UK and Spain on-line risk management procedures are
already applied to select tax-related cases.
In Spain a processing system based on data mining and data ware housing
using data banks is currently being tested. Data of daily operations are gathered
from single data banks and can be compared and placed in context as defining
figures by applying mathematical methods.
1
Framework decision on the initiative by the Kingdom of Sweden with a view to the
adoption of a Council Framework Decision on simplifying the exchange of information
and intelligence between law enforcement authorities of the Member States of the
European Union (RATSDOK.10215/04). (vgl. BUNDESRATS-DEUCKS.995/04 DIN
DATA DE 20.12.2004).
- 649 -
In countries such as Austria, Italy, England, Hungary and Lithuania

centralised risk analysis obtained by an external audit has been introduced in
order to decide which economic entities are to be controlled on the spot.
In Italy, a data bank has been set up storing information about persons’
internal and external activities using information, obtained through bilateral
agreements, from the population register office, the trade register, the customs
office, etc.
In Sweden an external auditor has access to a multitude of information
necessary to plan the control (including an annual update of the data bases),
related to:
- the trade register
- social security
- insurance policies
- banks
- trade authorisations
- financing and home repair credits
- the Swedish federal office for automobiles
The British tax authorities have built and supported a stron central risk
analysis (CRA) system, classifying risks according to the types of activities and
ranking criteria; the information resulting from assessments serves to improve the
risk analysis or in control terms to sample the high risk areas and points.
In Austria, following the implementation of the electronic risk
management system a 70% rate of identified risks was achieved compared to the
30% rate obtained using the previous system.
In general in establishing the inherent and control risk the tax statements
of two different periods are taken into account considering the following signals:
- the order of the filling-in return forms in terms of transparent issues;
- evolution of proceeds;
- analysis of profitability;
- evolution of report source taxes;
- avoidance to report obligatory taxes.
The decision to control a certain individual is taken by financal
controllers based on risk analysis in more than 85% of cases.
In Belgium, companies are required to submit to the competent
authorities a client listing, reporting income with the different categories of
clients, which can be scanned and sent electronically to interested parties.
In Spain, a country where the EU integration has been successful since its
accession in 1986, risk analysis is performed on the basis of electronically stored
extensive company information on:
- donations and sponsorships;
- contest and lottery winnings;
- births and deaths;
- 650 -
- persons authorised to conduct operations on behalf or representing natural

and legal persons;
- activities of non-resident persons;
- stakes in private pension funds;
- state subsidies and assistance;
- any transaction exceeding 3,000 Euro.
Taking into account the provisions of the new Fiscal Code and the need to
achieve the quantitative objectives and the quality standards of tax and duty
collection, according to the goals involved by the new situation of Romania, we
consider it highly necessary to make the following goal-oriented
recommendations to the professionals involved in the process:
- simplifying the tax system (reducing red tape)
- creating a nationally-compliant software featuring a fully
comprehensive integrated risk management system
- involving and specialising personnel in controlling potentially
risk-generating cases, especially cases of unreported taxes
- implementing computerised procedures to calculate taxes
- introducing a risk management system and issuing risk profiles
backed by adequate data bases
- expanding the data bases by electronically processing the tax
returns
- network integration of existing data bases
- introducing risk classes.
3. CONCLUSION
In addition to the above we would like to make certain comments on the
effects that improved risk management will have on the competent enforcement
authorities and also on tax-payers:
- requiring companies to provide more extensive records and
storage of data
- introducing and increasing surtaxes on tax debits in cases of false
tax return reports
- adjusting the personnel to ensure the control potential risk cases
These conditions will ensure the achievement of the proposed goal of risk
management in the field of fiscal administration i. e. the development of the
general control of taxes and duties in order to cover and record the previously
unknown cases of natural and legal persons that are required to pay contributions
to the public budgets.
- 651 -
BACK
REFERENCES
1. Framework decision on the initiative by the Kingdom of Sweden with a view to the
adoption of a Council Framework Decision on simplifying the exchange of information
and intelligence between law enforcement authorities of the Member States of the
European Union (RATSDOK.10215/04). (vgl. BUNDESRATS-DEUCKS.995/04 DIN
DATA DE 20.12.2004).
2. Jürgen Storbeck, Director of Europol, “Transnational organised crime and money
laundering”, SPD pact conference in the Bundestag on 15.03.2001 in Berlin;
3. Loretta Napoleoni: Die Ökonomie des Terrors. Auf den Spuren der Dollars hinter dem
Terrorismus; Antje Kunstmann Verlag, München 2004;
4. Mircea Coşea, Economia Integrării Europene, Tribuna Economică, Bucharest, 2004;
5. C. Iaţco, M. Ghiţă, Sistemul de Control Intern, Corona, Iaşi, 2006.
- 652 -
BACK
THE ANALYSE OF HUMAN RESOURCES FROM

MIROSLAVA COMMUNE, IAŞI DISTRICT AND THE
STRATEGIES TO IMPROUVE THEM
M. DĂSCĂLESCU
The organization of Romanian economy, the economy of agriculture

specially, on laws and principles of a healthy market economy, enforces the
adoption of a human resources management that is adapted to the exigencies of
this economy.” The most expensive good” of an organization or a community are
human resources, and long term strategic objectives always will aim planning,
organization of human resources activities and the constant improvement. The
purpose of this paper is to analyze human resources from Miroslava commune,
Iaşi district, this analyze is made by calculation of some human resources
indicators, in the same time will be identify the degree of occupation and
specialization of rural people.
Rural areas are characterized by a great spatial diversity, from distant

rural areas, which are hit by depopulation and decline, to suburban areas which
are under high pressures from urban centres. These areas are confronting with
specific challenges that regard economic rise, work places and next years
durability, and giving real opportunities by theirs development in new sectors,
such as rural recreation and tourism, attractively as place for work and living with
a role of natural resources and very attractive landscape reservoir.
The commune is the base administrative unity, on his territory is
implemented the rural policy.
Miroslava commune is placed in suburban area of Iaşi district, is included
in the city metropolitan area. In the structure of commune are 13 villages, these
are: Balciu, Brătuleni, Ciurbeşti, Corneşti, Dancaş, Găureni, Horpaz, Miroslava,
Proselnici, Uricani, Valea Adâncă, Valea Ursului and Voroveşti.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

For drawing up this paper was used as work method the diagnostic
analysis, and the informational source that was the base of this study elaboration
was the dates from The Statistical Regional Office Iaşi and from The Miroslava
Commune Hall.
In diagnostic analysis was used the fallowing criteria’s: physical-
geographic, demographics, economics, residences and the way of living, technical
equipping, human resources structure by age, sex, occupation and the level of
graduated school. The analyze also study the possibility of improving human
resources correlated with the development strategy elaborated by The Miroslava
Commune Hall over the period 2004-2007.
- 653 -

Miroslava commune is one of big communes of Iaşi district, from 2006 is
a first degree commune, with a total population of 8888 persons.
From total area of 8,256.70 hectares, 6,530.31 hectares is the agricultural
area of commune. More administrative aspects are presented in table 1.
Table 1
Administrative territory of Miroslava commune
(Hectares - 2006)
Specification Inside town Outside town Total

Arable 305,37 3861,88 4167,25
Pasture 26,92 1371,73 1398,65
Grazing 8,40 336,06 344,46 Total Agricultural
Vineyards 57,40 124,13 181,53 = 6530,31
Orchards 30,10 338,9 369,00
Forests 14,46 750,92 765,38
Watters and reeds 26,30 249,26 275,56
Total
Roads 61,90 152,76 214,79
Non-agricultural
Constructions 108,64 110,15 218,79
= 1726,48
Unproductive 48,76 203,33 252,09
Total 8256,79
The commune is situated in the fifth favourability zone for meet

production and cereals and vegetables cultivation. The arable land is about 64%
from total agricultural land, and about 50.4% from commune territory. The area
covered with forests is about 765 hectares. In commune exists 275 hectares with
water in villages Ciurbeşti, Corneşti, Ezăreni, Valea Ursului and Uricani.
The commune population has a positive evolution in the last four years, in
2002 these was about 8073 peoples and in 2006 it was 8888 people, from which
4266 are men (48%) and 4622 are women (52%), chart 1.
- 654 -
Chart 1. The structure of Miroslava commune population on age categories
8888
9000
8057
8000
7000
6000 5575
5000 4507
4000 2002
2006
3000 2270
1836
2000 1304
843
1000
0
Total 0-14 years 15-59 years 60 years and
over
Studying the dates from figure 1 can be observed a diminution of number

of persons from age category 60 years and over, which leads to the diminution of
general old people percent.
In 2006, results of specific human resources value calculation are:
- Birth rate: 12,5‰;
- Death rate: 6,4‰;
- Natural increase of population: 6,1‰;
- Value of renewing the man power: 2,0;
- Value of population evolution: 1,1;
- The percent of old people from total population: 9,48%.
Different of 2002 year, in 2006 the number of husbandries grown with

72,4%, and reach a number of 4900 (chart 2).
- 655 -
Chart 2. The number of husbandry from Miroslava commune
1400
1200
960
1000
789
800
600
345 2006
292
400 256 256 2002
420 170 175
200 140 271 271 281 221
101 185 89 78 160 120
150 99 226 80 68
0 60
Voroveşti
Miroslava
Balciu
Dancaş
Horpaz
Proselnici
Brătuleni
Ciurbeşti
Corneşti
Găureni
Uricani
Valea Adâncă
Valea Ursului
Analyzing the second chart we observe that not only the big number of
husbandries appeared after 2002 year, but even the high number of husbandries
appeared in Valea Adâncă village, due the land of the old IAS which was returned
to the old owners.
In 2002 the number of occupied people was 3399 (42,3% from total
population), from that an percent of 56.2% was occupied in agriculture. In 2006
the structure of occupied population is presented in table 2.
Table 2.
Occupied population on categories
Percent from total

Economic activity Number of people
population (%)
Industry 926 18,9
Agriculture 2734 55,8
Constructions 289 5,9
Trade 294 6,0
Transportations 98 2,0
Learning 128 2,6
Health 103 2,1
Other 328 6,7
Total 4900 100
- 656 -
In 2006 the number of occupied people was bigger than in 2002 with
44%, from that 55.8% was occupied in agriculture.
The number of people that are occupied in agriculture has grown with
new scholars of Agro industrial school “Mihail Kogălniceanu”, which is situated
in commune, and from them about 70% have residence in commune, and because
of appearance of new agricultural exploitations.
In commune area there are and other economic unities which don’t have
as object of activity the agriculture. This way the degree to improve the man
power in other domains is growing. The people, who are not working at economic
agents from commune, go at work in Iaşi city and work, generally at SC.
Antibiotice SA. şi SC. Petrom SA – Valea Lupului.
The Miroslava Commune Hall has released a strategic development
project, who will lead to increase the number of population and the degree of
improvement of human resources. From this project the principal objectives are:
introduction of INTRANET, development of houses area from Uricani village,
building a market complex for small producers, setting up the system of methane
gas distribution, water alimentation and sewerage system, in a partnership with
other communes and Iaşi city, introduction of cleaning system, modernization of
villages and communes’ roads, and other.
CONCLUSIONS
The Miroslava commune has open ways to different activities which will
keep occupied the man power that exists in commune and the neighbours’
communes. There are opportunities in trade, services, small industry, agriculture,
recreation, tourism.
The population has grown in the last few years and will continue to grow
because of natural increase of population that exists (6.1‰ in 2006), and because
of people migration from urban to rural, they are attracted by free lands suitable
for constructions, situated in peaceful areas, with water, forests.
Regarding the level of population preparation, the people that are over 10
years represent about 75% from total population, from those only 2% has a degree
from a faculty, and a big part (58,5%), has finished only firs and secondary
school, and 6% don’t have any school. In 2010 the prevision is that the number of
people which will have at least a high school degree with agricultural knowledge
will have a significant growing, this is a positive aspect for economic
development of commune agriculture.
The Miroslava commune has know an important development in the past
few years, and this ting in a big measure is has happen because of the increasing
numbers of economic agents that are placed on commune lands.
There is a policy, at leading commune level, to attract new economic
agents, by creating some financial facilities.
- 657 -
BACK
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Ciurea, I.V., Brezuleanu, S., Ungureanu, G., 2005 – Management. Editura Ion Ionescu de la
Brad, Iaşi;
2. Mitrache, Şt., 2000 – Dezvoltarea durabilă rurală. Editura Planeta, Bucureşti;
3. Patricia Laura-Ioana, şi colab., 2005 – Resursele umane şi pregătirea forţei de muncă din
mediul rural. Editura Orizonturi universitare, Timişoara;
4. ***Recensământul populaţiei şi locuinţelor din 18 martie 2002, Bucureşti,2004;
5. ***Statistica Primăriei Miroslava;
6. ***Strategia de dezvoltare elaborată de Primăria comunei Miroslava – propunere 2004-2007.
- 658 -
BACK
HUMAN RESOURCES FROM THE ROMANIAN RURAL

SPACE
Ramona AIRINEI
In the last two decades of the last century, the profound change of the
economic environment mostly determined by the increase of the globalization
degree of the economic activity and by the extension of the informational
technology use also, has generated strong pressures on the labor force
employment models. These models present distinctive particularities in rural
space.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The study is based on official information referring to the rural space
dimension, to the human capital and his structure. It cam be added data
concerning the demographical situation and some strategies development for rural
tourism as an opportunity of the younger people from rural space in order to
diversify the agricultural activities.

Labor force represents one of the important factors of the growth and
development for the productive activities and to increase the welfare. The
employment level remains one of the most important priorities of an enterprise.
The mono activity represents now a characteristic feature of the rural
communities on national level. The high percentage of the people bounded by the
agricultural activity determines a low productivity and is one of the favorable
factors for subsistence agriculture.
After 1989, the rural sector – as a principal motive force, the agriculture
constituted an important absorptive factor of the economic and social shocks. The
disappearance of the cooperative sector in a first phase and of the state sector
subsequently has determined significant shifts in property form, with profound
economical and rural implications. The new small dimension exploitations, with a
precarious technical endowment and with insufficient qualified human resources
have generated subsistence agriculture, not able to face the competition on the
agricultural product market.
Rural population represents a very important resource to develop the rural
space, and is decisive in order to fulfill the rural development policies.
The industrialization and collectivization have maintained in rural space a
mono-occupational structure, almost exclusively agrarian, and even after those
transitions years represents a few employment alternatives, outside agriculture.
- 659 -
In the first years of transition, the rural development policy has mistaken
for the agrarian policy, and the most important structural change was land reform.
Agricultural land was returned to the farmer owners: two third to aged farmers
and just a small part to younger families from rural. Land reform has dramatically
changed the agricultural organization mode, creating a structure of small
properties (1-5 hectares), which is the majority of the agricultural exploitations.
Without the necessary agricultural knowledge and confronted with high
production costs because of the surfaces where are they working, the new
category of the agricultural producers has moved from modern production to the
traditional one. Hence, it appears a dual agriculture, some exploitation is
producing for the market, and private agricultural producers are producing for
auto consuming.
Outside the agriculture, the other employment and earning alternatives are
weak in rural, the under developing nonagricultural activities are emphasized by a
member of non adequate sector policies. Monitoring the prices of the agricultural
products has postponed the developing of the decentralized channels for row
material acquisitions and agricultural products selling, and the high percentage of
farmers that are producing for themselves, has impeded the development of the
agricultural market, through a reduced demand of raw material and production
factors.
After 1989, the former owners received back their lands, within the
privatization process of the agricultural structures. The land restitution has led to
discrepancies between access to land and access to labor force. The most part of
agricultural lands was returned to elders, which were lacking the necessary
working resources in order to exploit them.
Table 1
The structure of the human resources and of the land in rural space
Household % % %
type of population from land property from exploited ha/adult
surface
Pensioners 41,2 65,3 62,9 0,93
Employers 30,8 15,3 14,7 0,12
Farmers 18,9 16,8 18,6 0,63
Other 9,1 2,2 3,8 0,3
Date from Table 1 shows that 63.3% from land property is hold by
pensioners representing an elder component, with low physical potential and low
skills. From total population, the younger one employed in agriculture and also
land owners, represents 18.9% having prosperity rights on 16.8% from land
resources. These balances are impeding the development of strong agricultural
exploitations of market type.
- 660 -
The labor in Romanian agriculture has, in present, some

characteristics:
- it’s a work of family type;
- low specialization – a single worker is doing a number of operations,
within agricultural campaign;
- a very hard controlling work, it’s quality very difficult to evaluate;
- is offering a very low security to employers – the agricultural
activities have temporal character.
Table 2
Percentage of employed population on age groups
Sector Total 15-24 25-34 35-49 50-64 65 years

population Years Years years years and over
Agriculture 100 11,6 17,3 19,1 28,3 23,7
Forestry 100 12,3 27,7 45,1 14,9 -
Total 100 11,5 26,8 33,0 18,7 10,0
Statistical data from Table 2 shows that approximately 30% from

employed population, in agriculture and forestry, has the age between 15-34
years, so it’s about young population. This positive aspect is creating premises
from demographical point of view and the stage of resources in the first years of
accession it can be characterized by the followings:
- the grow of the rural population mobility;
- distortion of the demographical balance on age and sex groups
(ageing of the rural population);
- lowering the rate of birth, in the same time rising the index of general
and children mortality;
- emphasizing the gap concerning the level of education of the rural
population comparatively with urban population.
Because of the ageing process of the rural population, extern migration,
of the increased number of women in agricultural activities and the low
qualification, the quality of the agricultural labor force is relatively low. It appears
the necessity of finding out of modern solution of professional training of the
whole personal working in agriculture.
In order to stabilize young labor force in rural and to improve economical
situation of this category, are necessary solution to:
- stimulate the degree of employment of rural population and ensuring
the stabilization of the younger people;
- improve the professional training system of the younger people;
- stimulate the increase of the agricultural production, mostly in animal
breeding by modern financing systems;
- stimulate the retirement of aged farmers and sustain the farming of
family farm in tenant system;
- 661 -
- establish a legal system and regulations concerning the status of

agricultural producers.
The young people from rural, unlike the one urban have limited access to
information means and education, culture and sport, because of poor endowment
in rural, lack of the education stuff. Many younger people can’t afford to attend
high school or university courses having unequal chances.
The problem continues, so being able to work and to earn many for their
family, they are impeded in seeking for a job, in their village, or outside of it.
The demand of skilled work is low in rural, limiting the employment
opportunities, and the alternative of finding a job in a city is more complicated –
it’s about accommodation and a wage high enough to cover the expenses (
accommodation, food, transportation and savings).
There were some concerning on government level to support rural young
people, but they had little impact, with reduced effects.
A major support is offering programs granted by EU in the field
education, employment and social sector.
Rural tourism represent an alternative to the activities from rural that are
not requiring major investments for infrastructure, is rising the level of education
and civilization in rural and is contributing to economic developments of the rural
by the followings:
- putting is value of the local resources;
- new jobs creating;
- the increase and grater diversity of the incomes in rural;
- multifunctional development of the rural based on sect oral policies
of development: agriculture, rural tourism, infrastructure,
environment protection;
- increased stability of rural population;
- the increase of education level in rural;
- attracting in tourist circuit of persons with rural incomes.
The measures that are sustaining the rural tourism development should follow:
- identification of the Romanian rural potential adequate for tourist activities
and setting the household to be included in tourist circuit;
- professional training of those with will work in the field of rural tourism ;
- cooperation with international organization from rural tourism field;
- training of the rural household in order to perform tourist services;
- setting up the Rumanian tourist offers on domestic and international
market;
- experts farming in agro tourist management on local, regional and
national level;
- facilities to support rural tourism development (subsided credit interest).
The lowered educational level from rural is demonstrated by the educational level
of the labor force. Populations with primary education level represent 60% from
employed total population from rural zone.
- 662 -
BACK
Table 3
Rural population structure on sex, age and education (%)
1996 2002
Structure on sex 100 100
male 50 49
woman 50 51
Structure age category 100 100
15-30 21 24
31-54 25 29
over 55 54 47
Educational structure under 4 the 100 100
grade 9 7
4 grade 24 21
5-8 the grade 33 31
High school 21 27
Professional school 6 6
University 4 3
Other 3 5
CONCLUSION
1. Human resources, in general and those from rural space in special are the
main factors of economical development.
2. Because of the great structural changes produced in agricultural sector there
have been important changes concerning proprietorship, employment and age
structure of human resources from agriculture. Only 19% from rural
population are owners of agricultural lands and are working in agriculture, the
differences are represented by pensioners or personal employed in other
sectors.
3. There is low skilled of human resource, primary school is attended by only
60% of rural population.
4. To increase the level of skills, to maintain the younger age level in rural space
and economic development of agricultural exploitation are necessary
strategies of national and European policies to fulfill these objectives.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Ciurea, I.V., Brezuleanu, S., Ungureanu, G. 2005 – Management, Editura “ Ion Ionescu de la
Brad”, Iaşi.
2. Popescu Angela, 2002 - Dezvoltare rurală, Editura Universitară, Bucureşti
3. Prodan Adriana, 2004 – Managementul resurselor umane. Editura Universităţii “Alexandru Ioan
Cuza”, Iaşi
4. Zahiu Letiţia, 1999 - Management agricol, Editura Economică, Bucureşti
- 663 -
BACK
CHICKEN MEAT MARKET IN THE CENTRAL AND

EASTERN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
Agatha POPESCU
This study aimed to present chicken meat statement in the area

represented by the CEECs 12 countries, which are the new EU members. Based
on the statistical data provided by FAO Stat for the period 2000-2004, the
following aspects were studied: chicken meat production, exports (amount and
value), imports (amount and value), producer price and consumption. Chicken
meat produced in the CEECs-12 represents 22 % of the EU-15 chicken meat
production. The main chicken meat producing countries in the area are Poland,
Hungary, Czech Republic and Romania.
Broiler meat represents one of the most important meat sorts in the
world market. Chicken meat production and consumption exceeded all the other
meat types due to consumer preference for a lean, white, tasty, cheap an high
protein food. This is due to chicken biological performances , fodder availability
and high conversion rate in meat production as well as broiler export (1).
The 12 countries which have become the new EU members during the
period 2004-2007 bring an important contribution to the EU production. This is a
reason for which this study aims to analyze chicken meat production and trade
potential in the area represented by the following countries : Bulgaria, Czech
Republic, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia , Lithuania, Hungary, Malta, Poland, Romania,
Slovakia and Slovenia.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

For this study, the statistical data provided by FAO Stat for the period
2000-2004 were used. The following indicators were studied: chicken meat
production, exports (amount and value), imports (amount and value), producer
price and consumption. The trends for each indicator were commented at country
level but also at the CEECs-12 level.

Chicken meat production increased by 17.39 % from 1,603.52 thousand
tones in the year 2000 to 1,882.34 thousand tones in the year 2004. In 2004, the
main chicken meat producers in the CE part of Europe are, in order: Poland,
Hungary, Czech Republic and Romania, producing together 84.44 % of the whole
production in the area. There are states where chicken meat production has
continuously increased during the period 2000-2004, such as: Estonia, Latvia,
Lithuania, Poland, Cyprus and Czech Republic, but also countries where chicken
- 664 -
meat production is lower in the year 2004 compared to the level recorded in the
year 2000: Romania, Bulgaria, Slovenia, Slovakia, Hungary.
Romania is placed on the 4th position as a chicken meat producer in the
area. Its production increased from 259.41 thousand tones in the year 2000 to
344.20 thousand tones in the year 2003. At this moment, Romania could be
considered on the 2nd position in the CEECs after Poland contributing by 17.29 %
to the total chicken meat production of the group countries. But, in the year 2004,
it was facing a serious reduction (44.60 %) compared to the level registered in
the previous year (Table 1).
Table 1
Chicken meat Production (1000 tonnes)
Country 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2004/2000
%
Bulgaria 104.70 110.06 120.00 72.04 84.67 80.86
Czech 198.63 219.36 206.57 198.35 208.35 104.89
Republic
Cyprus 32.30 33.80 34.80 35.00 35.00 108.36
Estonia 7.69 9.64 12.10 15.10 15.58 202.60
Latvia 7.22 8.89 10.64 12.44 14.00 193.90
Lithuania 26.80 31.21 34.54 40.73 44.23 165.03
Hungary 280.67 278.78 278.04 267.08 270.50 96.37
Malta 6.00 6.26 6.66 7.41 7.40 123.33
Poland 579.50 686.00 832.30 898.20 957.10 165.15
ROMANIA 259.41 283.90 339.90 344.20 153.51 59.17
Slovakia 46.40 45.00 45.00 45.00 45.00 96.98
Slovenia 54.20 58.70 53.20 54.40 47.00 86.71
CEECs-12 1,603.52 1,771.60 2,023.75 1,989.95 1,882.34 117.39
Source: FAO Stat, Feb 28, 2007
The chicken meat production of the CEECs represented 19.73 % in the

year 2000 and 21 % in the year 2004 of the UE-15 production.
Chicken meat price, at farm gate, increased by 19.31 % from USD
1,018.79 /tone in the year 2000 to USD 1,215.79 /tone in the year 2003. In the
year 2003, the highest producer price was noticed in the following countries:
Cyprus (USD 2,667.97 /tone ), Romania ( USD 2,661.92 /tone), Lithuania (USD
1,424.76 /tone), Slovenia (USD 1,301.12/tone), Malta (USD 1,166.35 /tone),
Slovakia (USD 1,110.79 /tone) and the lowest one in countries such as : Latvia,
Estonia, Poland, Czech Republic, where chicken meat price was below USD
1,000 /tone. There are countries where meat price has seriously increased such as:
Cyprus (by 67.54 %), Bulgaria (by 35.65 %), Hungary (by 34.18 %), Czech
Republic (by 32.45 %), Slovenia (30.87 %), Romania (by 29.45 %), Slovakia (by
21.25 %), but also countries where chicken meat price decreased (Latvia, Estonia
and Poland).
- 665 -
Concerning producer’s chicken meat price, Romania comes on the 2nd

position after Cyprus in the year 2003. The average price registered in Romania
recorded in 2003 was USD 2,261.92 /tone, being 1.86 times higher compared to
the CEECs-12 average price (Table 2).
Table 2
Producer’s chicken meat price (USD/tone)
Country 2000 2001 2002 2003 2003/2000
%
Bulgaria 761.56 909.05 861.35 1,033.07 135.65
Czech Republic 750.57 910.13 893.84 994.19 132.45
Cyprus 1,574.53 1,554.95 1,719.45 2,637.97 167.54
Estonia 845.80 1,103.38 795.10 674.78 79.78
Latvia 810.20 1,024.15 723.07 610.25 75.32
Lithuania 1,399.25 1,453.25 1,314.67 1,424.76 101.82
Hungary 798.78 937.95 951.64 1,071.85 134.18
Malta 1,095.29 1,066.49 1,083.84 1,166.35 106.49
Poland 904.26 963.80 812.25 884.01 97.76
ROMANIA 1,747.36 2,167.62 2,322.81 2,261.92 129.45
Slovakia 916.10 987.47 950.96 1,110.79 121.25
Slovenia 994.20 1,026.44 1,049.09 1,301.12 130.87
Average CEECs-12 1,018.99 1,053.91 1,110.09 1,215.79 119.31
Source: FAO Stat, Feb 28, 2007
The average chicken meat price recorded in the CEECs-12 represented

53.72 % in the year 2000 and 58.45 % in the year 2004 of the EU-15 average
producer price.
Chicken meat exports increased by 53.25 % in the CEECs-12 in the year
2004 compared the level recorded in the year 2000. Compared to chicken meat
exports of the EU-15, the CEEC-12 exports were 1.55 times higher in the year
2004, reflecting that all these 12 countries are making important efforts to
develop exports.
In the year 2004, the most important chicken meat exporting countries in
the Central and Eastern part of Europe are, in order: Poland (80.80 thousand
tones), Hungary (76.50 thousand tones), Czech Republic (20.70 thousand tones),
Slovenia (16.90 thousand tones) and Slovakia (10.34 thousand tones), whose
exports represented 85.36 % of the CEECs-12 exports. Romania comes on the 6th
position with 8.05 thousand tones and its chicken meat exports have deeply
increased (by 53.60 %) during the period 2000-2004. In the studied period of
time, chicken meat exports recorded an important increase in the following
countries (in order): Slovenia (8.24 times), Slovakia (7.13 times), Lithuania (5.82
times), Czech Republic (3.67 times), Poland (1.74 times), Hungary (1.52 times),
Romania (1.25 times), Bulgaria (1.23 times) (Table 3).
- 666 -
Table 3
Chicken meat Exports and Imports (1000 tones)
Country 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2004/2000
%
E I E I E I E I E I E I
Bulgaria 6.86 23.31 5.99 13.45 6.12 18.66 5.42 24.28 8.44 23.89 123.03 102.49
Czech 5.64 10.92 7.08 11.82 9.65 14.33 10.48 27.39 20.70 54.38 367.02 497.98
Republic
Cyprus 0.29 0.50 0.46 0.52 0.40 0.66 0.21 0.82 0.18 1.95 62.06 390.00
Estonia 18.50 33.00 8.38 22.46 5.68 19.39 7.02 17.36 6.57 12.20 35.51 36.96
Latvia 17.92 31.05 8.09 22.10 5.22 19.04 6.98 17.12 6.03 11.95 33.64 38.48
Lithuania 1.02 9.62 1.16 9.86 11.32 22.04 10.43 22.09 5.94 20.99 582.35 218.19
Hungary 50.36 18.53 55.87 18.66 52.86 8.66 48.16 12.44 76.50 17.40 151.90 93.90
Malta 0.00 0.98 0.01 1.50 0.02 1.63 0.01 2.00 0.00 4.27 0.00 435.71
Poland 46.43 17.70 50.22 27.27 25.29 17.01 71.43 11.96 80.80 70.07 174.02 395.87
ROMANIA 6.38 34.51 6.69 68.00 5.34 82.23 6.46 85.02 8.05 122.03 126.17 353.60
Slovakia 1.45 4.97 4.34 9.35 3.67 11.98 5.47 14.69 10.34 27.09 713.10 545.07
Slovenia 2.05 4.08 13.71 2.81 12.62 2.94 14.38 2.89 16.90 4.03 824.39 98.77
TOTAL 12 156.90 189.17 162.00 207.80 138.19 218.57 186.45 238.06 240.45 370.25 153.25 195.72
Source: FAO Stat, Feb 28, 2007 E= Exports ; I = Imports
Chicken meat imports increased by 95.72 % from 189.17 thousand tones

in the year 2000 to 370.25 thousand tones in the year 2004. In the year 2004
compared to the year 2000, an important increase was noticed in the following
CEECs: Slovakia (5,45 times), Czech Republic (4.98 times), Malta (4.35 times),
Poland (3.96 times), Cyprus (3.90 times), Romania (3.54 times).The ECEC-12
chicken meat imports were 2.07 % times higher in the year 2000 and 2.86 %
times higher in 2004 compared to the EU-15 chicken meat imports. In the year
2004, the main countries importing chicken meat were, in order: Romania (122.03
thousand tones), Poland (70.07 thousand tones), Czech Republic (54.38 thousand
tones), Slovakia (27.09 thousand tones) and Bulgaria (23.89 thousand tones). All
these 5 countries imported together 80.34 % of the CEECs-12 chicken meat
imports .
Chicken meat export value increased from Million USD 242.01 in the year
2000 to Million USD 576.54 in the year 2004. This means that it increased 2.38
times during this period of time. In the year 2004, the highest chicken meat export
value was recorded in order, in the following countries: Poland (Million USD
185.72) and Hungary (Million USD 179.84), whose records represented 63.40 % of
the total value of chicken meat exports at the CEECs-12 level. But, during the period
2000-2004 , there are some countries where chicken meat export value has
substantially increased such as: Slovenia (16.23 times), Slovakia (13.40 times),
Lithuania (12.06 times), Czech republic (5.61 times), Romania (3.77 times), Poland
(2.07 times), Hungary (1.96 times), Bulgaria (1.84 times) (Table 4).
Chicken meat import value increased by 2.53 %, from Million USD
140.96 in the year 2000 to Million USD 357.54 in the year 2004. The CEECs
whose chicken meat import value recorded in the year 2004 was among the
- 667 -
highest ones are, in order: Czech Republic (Million USD 82.79), Romania
(Million USD 81.99), Poland (Million USD 55.15), Slovakia (Million USD
30.95). In 2004, the chicken meat import value in all these 4 countries together
represents Million USD 250.88, that is 70.16 % of the CEECs-12 chicken meat
import value (Table 4).
Table 4
Chicken Meat Export and Import Value (million USD)
Country 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2004/2000
%
E I E I E I E I E I E I
Bulgaria 19.79 12.95 21.40 6.54 18.82 8.57 15.06 10.69 36.59 15.53 184.89 119.92
Czech 7.75 16.36 9.73 21.65 13.17 25.03 16.09 41.54 43.52 82.79 561.54 506.05
Republic
Cyprus 0.11 1.79 0.21 2.01 0.23 2.29 0.17 3.49 0.16 6.85 145.45 382.68
Estonia 10.65 19.01 7.79 16.03 7.49 14.25 10.61 14.62 10.56 13.87 99.15 72.96
Latvia 10.20 18.88 7.22 15.92 7.16 14.01 10.34 14.09 10.24 13.14 100.39 69.60
Lithuania 0.93 9.00 1.63 11.19 7.10 14.36 8.02 18.96 11.22 24.49 1,206.45 272.11
Hungary 91.59 4.75 115.70 8.43 110.88 5.61 124.72 9.12 179.84 15.69 196.35 330.31
Malta 0.00 2.38 0.06 3.54 0.03 3.78 0.02 5.40 0.00 12.02 0.00 505.04
Poland 89.53 15.11 137.47 26.74 39.52 13.15 118.99 12.31 185.72 55.15 207.43 364.99
ROMANIA 6.59 29.81 12.47 54.58 10.61 49.88 16.03 54.88 24.85 81.99 377.08 275.04
Slovakia 1.84 6.16 7.81 12.05 5.38 13.31 9.94 18.44 24.66 30.95 1340.21 502.43
Slovenia 3.03 4.76 29.60 2.86 30.79 3.22 40.09 3.63 49.18 5.07 1623.10 106.51
TOTAL 12 242.01 140.96 351.09 181.54 251.58 167.36 370.08 207.17 576.54 357.54 238.22 253.64
Source: FAO Stat, Feb 28, 2007 E = Export value ; I = Import value
Average chicken meat consumption increased by 54.11 %, from 33.41

g/day/capita in the year 2000 to 51.49 g/day/capita in 2004.
In the year 2004, the range of CEECs-12 concerning chicken meat
consumption /capita was: Cyprus, Malta, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland,
Slovenia, Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia, Romania, Bulgaria, Slovakia. The highest
increase in chicken meat consumption was registered in the following countries:
Lithuania (73 %), Malta (60 %), Poland (32.26 %), Slovakia (20.89 %), Czech
Republic (13.73 %), Cyprus (10.02 %).
In Romania, chicken meat consumption increased by 4.31 %. In the year
2004, chicken meat consumption was 36.28 g/day/capita, representing 70.46 %
of the average chicken meat consumption in the CEECs-12 (Table 5).
CONCLUSIONS
1. In 2004 , chicken meat produced in the CEECs-12 represented 22 % of the
chicken meat production of the EU-15, showing that the new EU members,
which adhered during the period 2004-2007, have an important production
potential.
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BACK
2. The main chicken meat producers among the CEECs-12 are: Poland,
Hungary, Czech Republic and Romania, producing 84.5 % of the whole
chicken production in the area.
Table 5
Average chicken meat consumption
Country 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2004/2000
%
Czech 54.41 59.86 56.49 57.62 61.88 113.73
Republic
Estonia 44.47 48.03 52.86 52.65 44.32 99.66
Latvia 43.92 47.15 49.72 49.95 43.14 98.22
Hungary 64.29 62.27 60.42 61.40 55.05 85.62
Lithuania 26.3.8 30.19 34.42 40.14 45.64 173.00
Malta 40.62 45.31 48.22 54.54 64.96 159.92
Poland 39.46 46.56 52.31 49.48 52.19 132.26
Romania 34.78 41.86 51.27 52.16 36.28 104.31
Slovakia 25.37 25.40 27.06 27.50 30.67 120.89
Slovenia 77.43 65.90 60.03 59.26 49.35 63.73
Bulgaria 40.98 40.06 45.59 31.54 34.15 83.33
Cyprus 91.16 94.04 96.72 97.75 100.30 110.02
Verage-12 33.41 50.55 52.92 52.83 51.49 154.11
3. The main chicken meat exporters are: Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic,
Slovenia and Slovakia, whose exports represent 85.36 % of the CEECs-12
exports.
4. In the year 2004, the CEECs-12 imported almost a double amount of chicken
meat compared to the year 2000. The main chicken meat importers in the area
are, in order: Slovakia, Czech Republic, Malta, Poland, Cyprus and Romania.
5. The CEECs-12 chicken meat imports were 2.86 times higher in the year 2004
compared to the EU-15.
6. Among the CEECs-12, Romania comes on the following position: 4th position
as a chicken meat producer, 2nd position concerning chicken meat producer
price, 1st position as importer, 8th position concerning chicken meat export
value, 2nd position concerning chicken meat import value, 10th position
concerning chicken meat consumption.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. DINU, I.N. – 1996 – Animals and Mankind, CERES Publishing House, Bucharest.
2. POPESCU AGATHA, SOARE ELENA – 2006 – Poultry Meat Trade in the EU countries,
Scientific Papers, International Symposium, “Prospects of agriculture development in the
background of Romania’s entry into the EU”. Bucharest, p. 493-498.
3. * * * - FAO Stat, Feb 18, 2007.
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CONSIDERATIONS UPON ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY IN

DAIRY FARMS BY GROSS MARGIN ASSESSMENT
Agatha POPESCU
Romania’s entry into the E.U. imposes the increase of profitability in

dairy farms. The main criterium for evaluating economic efficiency in the E.U.
farms is Standard Gross Margin (SGM). It allows farm ranking and their
comparison based on their economic and financial performance. This study
presents a model for gross margin calculation in two dairy farms, F1 and F2 ,
and economic efficiency assessment is based on the comparison with the
average SGM registered in the 8 Euro-regions of Romania as well as with the
one existing in some of the E.U. countries. The farm F2 achieved a higher gross
margin compared to the one recorded by F1 . Also , gross margin obtained by F2
is higher than the average SGM of 7 Romanian Euro-regions , Macedonia and
Greece , but lower compared to the average SGM recorded in Italy and
Portugal. This reflects the gaps existing between Romania and the E.U. countries
concerning performance and profitability in dairy farming.
Romania’s entry into the EU imposes to increase profitability in dairy

farming so that Romanian dairy farms to be able to cover the EU standards.
Standards Gross Margin (SGM) represents the essential criterium for
farm classification and comparison between regions and countries. This is the
reason why it is important to asses gross margin in dairy farms and to establish
the ways to improve financial performance in the future (1,2,3).
This study presents gross margin calculation in two dairy farms and the
results are compared with average SGM calculated for the 8 Romanian Euro-
regions and in a few EU countries, in order to appreciate economic efficiency in
dairy farming
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The data were collected from two dairy farms, situated in Brasov county,
F1: 6 cows, whose average yield is 3,600 kg milk/year and F2: 9 cows, which are
producing 4,00 kg/year in average.
Gross margin was determined as difference between income and variable
costs, taking into account the following aspects: a) income sources (marketable
milk, culled cow, sold calf ); b) variable costs (feeding , milk self consumption,
heifer for replacing the culled cow, veterinary services, watering, electricity,
heating, labor, taxes to Breeders’s Association etc). The calculations are made in
current prices of the year 2005.
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Income/cow/year was Euro 2,502 in case of F2, by 13.78 % higher
compared to the one recorded by F1. This is due the fact F2 achieved 400 kg milk
in addition, got a higher milk price (Euro 0.26/kg compared to Euro 0.23/kg F1)
and a higher subsidy. The two farms registered the same income for the sold
culled cow and almost the same for the sold calf.
Variable costs/cow/year were Euro 1,618 in case of F2, by 7.65 % lower
than the ones recorded by F1. This is due to the fact that F2 spend by 25 % less
money for cow and calf feeding, but a little more for veterinary service, watering,
taxes and labor taking into account that it raises 9 cows compared to 6 cows in
case of F1.
Table 1
Incomes, Variable Costs and Gross Margin
Euro/cow/years
Specification F1 F2 F2-F1
Difference
+/-
INCOMES
Marketable Milk 820 1,056 +236
Milk Subsidy 504 560 +56
Culled cow 625 625 -
Sold calf 250 261 +11
Total incomes 2,199 2,502 +303
VARIABLE COSTS
Milk Self Consumption 186 212 +26
Feeding 1,076 808 -268
Replacing heifer 417 417 -
Veterinary Service 45 56 +11
Watering, Electricity, 25 56 +31
Heating
Taxes 3 13 +10
Labor (cowboy) - 56 +56
Total Variable Costs 1,752 1,618 -134
Gross Margin 447 884 +437
Gross margin/cow/year was almost double in case of F2, Euro 884,

compared to just Euro 447 in case of F1. The additional gross margin of Euro 437
is due to the higher income and lower costs compared to the level registered by F1
(Table 1).
Taking into account the average SGM in Romania, the GM recorded by
F2 is higher than the country average, but also by average SGM at Euro region
level.
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BACK
Table 2
Differences concerning Gross Margin between F1 and F2 and
Average Standard Gross Margin (SGM) in Romania by Euro region and
in a few EU countries
Country/Area Average SGM Differences
Euro/cow/year F1-SGM F2-SGM
ROMANIA 455 -8 +429
- Center 481 -34 +403
- North 378 +69 +506
- South East 506 -59 +378
- South 247 +200 +637
- West 357 +90 +527
- South-West 336 +111 +548
- North-West 429 +18 +455
- Bucharest 762 -315 +122
ITALY-Trentino 1,561 -1,114 -677
PORTUGAL-Beira 736 -289 +148
GREECE-Macedonia 575 -128 +309
Compared to the coverage SGM in other EU countries, the GM registered

by F2 is higher than the one in Portugal-Beira and Greece-Macedonia, but lower
compared to the one recorded in Italy-Trentino (Table 2).
CONCLUSIONS
1. There are differences concerning gross margin in dairy farming in Romania
from a farm to another, but also compared to other EU countries.
2. The gross margin/cow/year achieved by F2 is higher than the average SGM at
country level and by Euro region, than the one registered in Greece-Macedonia
and Portugal-Beira but is lower compared to the one of Italy.
3. For increasing gross margin and transform their farms into real competitive
units, farmers have to increase milk production and improve milk quality. This
can be achieved using high breeding value animals, an optimized feeding,
mechanic milking, milk storage and cooling and an efficient milk marketing.
BIBLIOGRPHY
1. POPESCU AGATHA, BECK, E, GYERESI, S. – 2000 – A comparative study concerning
production costs, incomes and gross margin in some private dairy farms. National Symposium
“Achievements and Prospects in Animal Production and Biotechnology”, UASVM Cluj-Napoca,
November, 17-18, 2000.
2. POPESCU AGATHA – 2002 – A comparative study concerning financial evaluation in Dairy
Farming in a few areas of Romania, Scientific Papers, UASVM of Banat, Timişoara, Faculty of
Animal Science and Biotechnology, vol. XXXV, p. 401- 406.
3. POPESCU AGATHA – 2005 – Financial Management in Dairy Farms, Agris Publishing House,
Bucharest.
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STUDY CONCERNING THE EVALUATION OF FINANCIAL

RESULTS IN COMBINED FODDER INDUSTRY
I. PÎRVUTOIU, Agatha POPESCU
The study aimed to evaluate financial results in combined fodder

industry based on Balance Sheet and Profit and loss Account, belonging to
producing commercial company in the years 2004 and 2005.The financial results
are the direct consequence of material , human and financial resource
management , but also of its relationships with its suppliers, beneficiaries ,
creditors, public budget etc .That is why , the analysis of financial results shows
the performance achieved in the production and commercialization activity , as
well as the causes which have determined them. The industry producing
combined fodder is deeply affected by the increase of operating expenses (raw
materials, electricity, gas, water etc ) influencing total costs whose level
exceeded the rhythm of income increase resulting a profit by 28 % lower in 2005
compared to the one registered in 2004. The turnover reduction by 8.22 %
decreased assets and equity efficiency . Solvency, efficiency and profitability
ratios reflect a trend of diminishing of financial performance . As a conclusion ,
the company has to pay more attention to its financial strategy, based on a new
policy for developing production diversification and delivering higher quality
combined fodder recipes in the market in order to enlarge the number of clients
and increase its sales in the future.
The financial results are the direct consequence of material , human and
financial resource management, but also of its relationships with its suppliers,
beneficiaries , creditors, public budget etc .That is why , the analysis of financial
results shows the performance achieved in the production and commercialization
activity , as well as the causes which have determined them. The industry
producing combined fodder is deeply affected by the increase of operating
expenses (raw materials, electricity, gas, water etc ) influencing total costs. The
increased production costs diminish gross profit and profitability rate . Under
such a circumstances a combined fodder producing company will be not able to
develop its business as its financing capacity is too low. Sometimes, many
managers draw the decision to restrain production or to increase sale price, which
could affect turnover( 1,2,5,8,9,10,11 ).
Financial analysis is a useful tool to identify just in time the firm capacity to
generate profit and to establish on this basis the future business strategy .( 3.4,7,8, 13
). For this reason, this paper presents a study case of financial analysis pointing the
key aspects related to financial results in order to identify the possibilities to improve
financial performance in combined fodder industry in the future.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The financial statement ended at December 31, 2004 and 2005,
represented by Balance Sheet and Profit and Loss Account were used. First the
evolution of Assets and Liabilities was presented concerning their value and
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structure . Then , incomes , expenses and financial results are presented step by
step by source : operating, financial and extraordinary activity . The Ratio Method
was finally utilized order to determine the following indicators and indices: . a)
Solvency: Current ratio, Quick ratio and Receivable turnover; b) Efficiency: Total asset
turnover, Fixed asset turnover, Inventory turnover, Equity turnover, Debt Equity; c)
Profitability: Gross profit margin, Operating profit margin, Net profit margin, Return on
total Equity and Return on Owner’s Equity. The formula of these ratios are the ones
specified in the literature ( 1,2,7,8,11). At the end, the interpretation of all these indicators
allowed us to draw the conclusion and establish a few recommendation concerning the
future financial management of the company.

The Assets Statement. The assets increased by 12.46 % from Euro 1,852,694
to Euro 2,083,478 as a result of tangible asset increase by 14.70 % and working assets
increase by 8.38 %. Tangible assets represent 65.95 % of total assets, while working
assets represent 34.05 %, of which inventory is over than 58 %. This could be
considered a balanced ratio specific to combined fodder producing companies.
The Debt Statement was continuously improved, so that in the year 2005 the
company had Euro 249,302 debt, by 11.93 % less than in 2004. The company did not
apply for long term or medium term loans so that the only debt it has is represented by
short term debt for supporting combined fodder production. Therefore, the firm
business development is mainly based on its own financial resources . During the last
year , the company policy is much better oriented to solvable clients assuring a
corresponding cash flow and solvency . As a result , debts are paid in time in the most
of cases and the delay in payment was noticed very rarely.
The total Equity of the company was Euro 670,929 at the end of 2005, by
60.72 % higher than in the previous year (Table 1).
Table 1
Assets and Liabilities based on Balance Sheet
Euro
Balance Item 2004 2005 2005/2004 %
Assets, of which 1,852,694 2,083,478 112.46
- Tangible Assets 1,197,871 1,374,067 114.70
- Working Assets 653,723 708,514 108.38
- Inventory 455,352 444,217 90.97
- Receivables 122,842 216,094 175.91
- Liquid Assets 75,529 78,203 103.54
- Other Assets 1,100 897 81.55
Debts, of which: 283,078 249,302 88.07
- Short term Debts 283,078 249,302 88.07
- Net Current Debts 366,047 453,901 124.00
Total Assets minus Current Debts 1,486,647 1,629,577 109.61
Long-term Debts 0 0 0
TOTAL Equity 417,462 670,929 160.72
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The Statement of Income, Expense and Results is presented in Table 2.

The company turnover decreased from Euro 3,497,418 at the end of the year
2004 to Euro 3,209,881 in the year 2005 . This means a reduction of 8.22 % .
At the end of the year 2005, the firm income was Euro 4,071,281, compared to
Euro 3,866,928 in the year 2004, meaning by 5.28 % higher . The main income
source is the operating income, which has continuously increased which is a
positive aspect . At the same time, the expenses reached Euro 4,037,462 in the
year 2005, being 1.05 times higher than the level recorded in the year 2004. Both
operating, financial and extraordinary expenses gave their contribution to the
expense increase. As a negative remark, in the year 2005, the level of financial
expenses was 142 times higher than the one recorded in the previous year . Also
the extraordinary expenses doubled their value in the year 2005 . As a result,
gross profit registered Euro 33,819 in 2005 compared to Euro 46,711 recorded
in the year 2004 . This means a gross profit by 27.60 % lower than at the end of
2004. Subtracting profit tax payable of gross profit remains net profit whose
value reached Euro 32,032 in the year 2005, being 15.28 % less than in 2004
(Table 2).
Table 2
Sales, Income, Expenses and Results from Profit and Loss Account
Euro
Specification 2004 2005 2005/2004 %
Net Sales 3,497,418 3,209,881 91.78
Total Incomes, of which: 3,866,928 4,071,281 105,.28
- Operating Incomes 3,858,118 4,070,037 105.49
- Financial Incomes 4,542 1,244 27.39
- Extraordinary Incomes 4,268 0 0
Total Expenses, of which: 3,820,217 4,037,462 105.69
- Operating Expenses 3,817,649 4,029,207 105.54
- Financial Expenses 22 3,124 14200.00
- Extraordinary Expenses 2,546 5,131 201.53
Gross Profit, of which: 46,711 33,819 72.40
- Operating Profit 40,649 40,830 100.89
Profit Tax payable 8,904 1,787 20.06
Net Profit 37,807 32,032 84.72
The Internal Liquidity Ratios show an improvement of Solvency from a

year to another , meaning that the company is able to pay its debts. While Current
ratio increased by 32.85 %, Quick ratio registered a spectacular increase of 68.57
%, being positively influenced by cash and receivables as well as by net annual
sales coming from combined fodder delivery to various clients.
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Table 3
Main Financial Ratios
Ratio 2004 2005 2005/2003 %
1. Internal Liquidity Ratios (Solvency)
Current Ratio 5.54 7.36 132.85
Quick Ratio 0.70 1.18 168.57
Receivables Turnover 28.47 14.85 52.16
2. Operating Performance Ratios
2.1. Analysis of Efficiency
Total Asset Turnover 2.35 1.97 83.83
Fixed Asset Turnover 2.93 2.34 79.86
Inventory Turnover 7.68 7.75 100.91
Equity Turnover 8.38 4.78 57.04
Debt Equity Ratio 0 0 0
2.2. Analysis of Profitability
Gross Profit Margin 92.48 83.21 89.98
Operating Profit Margin 1.16 1.27 109.48
Net Profit Margin 1.08 1.00 92.59
Return on Total Equity 9.06 4.77 52.65
Return on Owner’s Equity 11.40 9.66 84.74
The efficiency parameters do not reflect an improved situation, on the

contrary , the specific ratios were lower in 2005 compared to 2004, except
Inventory Turnover which has relatively remained at a constant level. The total
Asset Turnover decreased by 16.17 %, because the assets grew up more rapidly
than turnover. The Inventory Turnover has maintained to a relatively constant
level . The Equity Turnover decreased by 42.96 % because owner’s equity
increased much more compared to net sales. The Debt Equity ratio is zero
because the company has no long and medium term debts.
The profitability ratios reflect that the firm is facing a decrease of
profitableness. Therefore , the efforts invested in combined fodder production and
commercialization are not always compensated by effects.
Gross Profit Margin decreased by about 10 % because the cost related to
sold goods recorded a substantial increase while net sales registered a reduction.
Operating Profit Margin is the only ratio which has increased , because of the
higher operating profit recorded in the yea 2005 . The lowest ratio is Return on
Total Equity, 52.65 %, and this is because of net profit decreasing share in total
owner’s capital (Table 3).
CONCLUSIONS
1. This study shows that the financial statement of the combined fodder
producing company did not improve from a year to another. On the
contrary, its incomes, gross and net profit, as well as profit rate registered
a reduction, as costs were higher in the year 2005 compared to the year
2004 mainly operating costs (raw materials, energy, water etc).
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BACK
2. However, solvency is the only positive aspect which must be taken into
account, because this reflects the managers’ efforts in the field of
marketing, a better orientation to solvable, serious and stable clients. As a
result, the company got a more constant cash flow enabling it to pay its
debts in time.
3. As a final conclusion, the company has to pay more attention to its
business strategy, based on a new policy for developing production
diversification and delivering higher quality combined fodder recipes in
the market in order to enlarge its penetration in the market and increase
its sales in the future.
4. Financial resources have to be better managed , so that costs to be
balanced and closely correlated to production performance . The cost
increase is justified only by the obtaining of higher quality products and
by creating of more value added.
5. The higher quality products , the higher price and competitiveness in the
market . But a large range of products and a large price variety could
increase sales , profit and profitableness .
BIBLIOGRAPY
1. BRIGHAM, E.F., HOUSTON, J.F. – 1999- Fundamentals of Financial Management ,
Concise 2nd Edition , The Dryden Press
2. BRIGHAM, E.F., GAPENSKI, L.C., EHRHARDT, M.C. – 1999 - Financial
Management: Theory and Practice , 9th Edition , The Dryden Press
3. CRECANA C. – 2006 - Eonomic and Financial Anlysis .Industry.Agriculture. Economic
Publishing House , Bucharest
4. CRISTEA H., STEFANESCU N. – 1996 - Enterprise financial Management , Mirton
Press House , Timisoara, 1996
5. DEPAREZ M., DUVANT M. – 1993 - Analyse financiere, Tehnic plus Press House
6. IOSIF G. N. – 1994 - Economic and Financial Analysis of the enterprise operating in the
Agro food industry , Economic Publishing House , Bucharest
7. ISFĂNESCU A., STĂNESCU C., BĂICUŞI A. – 1999- Economic and Financial
Analysis, Economic Publishing House , Bucharest
8. MĂRGULESCU D. – 1994 - Economic and Financial Analysis of Enterprise , Economic
Publishing House , Bucharest
9. POPESCU AGATHA – 2006 - Financial Accounting and Analysis in the Commercial
Companies of Food Industry , Dominor Publishing House, Bucharest
10. POPESCU AGATHA – 2005 – Financial Accounting, University Book Publishing
House, Bucharest.
11. POPESCU AGATHA – 2007 – Financial Analysis. Dominor Publishing House,
Bucharest.
12. POPESCU AGATHA – 2005 – The alignment of the Romanian Accounting to the
I.A.S. a requirement for Romania’s entry into the E.U., The 10th Session of
Scientific Communications, Romanian-American University, May 26-27, 2005.
13. PÎRVUTOIU, I., POPESCU AGATHA – 2006 – Enterprise Statements in accordance
to the new regulations aligned to the I.A.S., The 11th Session of Scientific
Communications, Romanian-American University, May 19-20, 2005.
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STUDY CONCERNING RISK EVALUATION IN COMBINED

FODDER INDUSTRY
I. PÎRVUTOIU, Agatha POPESCU
This study aimed to evaluate business risk in case of a combined fodder

producing company. The Romanian combined fodder producing industry is
facing more and more problems due to the imported products and delivery and
payment offered by intermediary traders. The increasing price for the required
inputs for producing combined fodder recipes leads to a financial unbalance , to
cost increase and profit reduction, to business risk and uncertainty . That is why
risk evaluation is so important even before bankruptcy to happen . In this study,
risk analysis is based on Canon and Holder Model. In case of the analyzed
company ,Z function registered positive values in the both analyzed years ,
13.424 in the year 2004 and , respectively, 19.472 in the year 2005. Therefore, a
Z value higher than 9 shows that the company producing combined fodder is
facing a reduced risk for a moment, ranking between 10-35 %. As a result, firm
managers have to pay more attention to product diversification and quality,
market extent, net sales and profit.
The imported combined fodder has penetrated in the Romanian market as

a consequence of the EU enlargement and not only. New products of a large-
range origins and species destination are commercialized by various private
companies. The high quality of some of the imported combined fodder is a
challenge for the Romanian producers who have to face a continuously increased
competitiveness in the field especially after Romania’s entry into EU. However,
sometimes , it happens as imported combined fodder to be of a lower quality, but
delivery procedures and payment facilities practiced by various traders oblige
farmers to accept the conditions, affecting internal combined fodder producers’
sales. The new business environment where competitiveness is continuously
increasing imposes to use risk analysis as a tool for preventing bankruptcy by
taking the corresponding measures in time.
This study case present the risk statement for combined fodder Romanian
producer using Canon and Holder Model.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The data are collected from the Financial Statement ended at December
31, 2004 and 2005 belonging to a Romanian combined fodder producer for all
farm species. Risk analysis is based on “Score Function” symbolized by “Z”,
which takes into account business environment where the firm is operating,
selecting the ratios and joining to each of them a specific relative value, according
n
to the function equation: Z = ∑ K i R i + C, where Ki = ratio weight,
i =1
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Ri = ratio value , C – a constant. The Score function used in this study is based on
Canon and Holder Model:
Z = 16R1 + 22R2 – 87R3 – 10R4 + 24R5
where: R1 = Partial Liquidity, R2 – Financial Stability, R3 – Financial Expense,

R4 – Personnel Salaries, R5 – Profit Share in value added.
The obtained Z value was compared to the follows standards:
Z < 4, 75 % high bankruptcy risk, 4<Z<9 – 35-50 % bankruptcy risk and Z >9,
10-35 % bankruptcy risk.

Calculation of Specific Ratios for Risk Analysis, according to Canon and
Holder Model is shown in Table 1.
The Working assets of the producer increased by 3.38 % from Euro 653,723 in
the year 2004 to Euro 708,514 in the year 2005. The inventory decreased by
about 9.03 %, while Financial Expenses increased 142 times. Personnel
Expense grew up by 8.26 %. As a result, Net Sales were 8.22 % lower in 2005
compared to 2004. Long-term Equity increased by 60.72 % reaching Euro
670,929 at the end of the year 2005.
The current debts increase by 24 % and Total Liabilities by 31.15 %.
Gross profit decreased by 15-28 %, while value added increased by
42.39%.
Table 1
Calculation of Specific Ratios for Risk Analysis, according to
Canon and Holder Model
Specification MU 2004 2005 2005/2004
A. BASIC DATA
Working assets Euro 653,723 708,514 103.38
Inventory Euro 455,352 414,217 90.97
Financial Expenses Euro 22 3,124 14.200.00
Personnel Expenses Euro 507,699 549,629 108.26
Turnover Euro 3,497,418 3,209,881 91.78
Long term Equity Euro 417,462 670,929 160.72
Current Debts Euro 366,047 453,901 124.00
Total Liabilities Euro 740,885 971,669 131.15
Gross Profit Euro 37,807 32,032 84.72
Value Added Euro 546,774 778,751 142.39
B. RISK RTIOS
Partial Liquidity R1 0.542 0.648 119.56
Financial Stability R2 0.563 0.690 122.56
Financial Expenses R3 0.000 0.000 0
Personnel Expenses R4 0.929 0.706 76.00
Gross Profit Weight R5 0.069 0.041 59.42
in Value added
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BACK
Concerning Risk ratios, in the year 2005, Partial liquidity increase by

19.56 % because working assets cover much better current debts; Financial
Stability is 22.56 % higher, because the equity increase exceeded the rhythm of
Total Liabilities increase; Personnel expenses registered a reduction of 24 % and
Gross profit share in value added became by 40 % lower due to profit decrease.
Using R1-R5 in the score function formula resulted Z value as shown in
Table 2. Every year, almost all the function items recorded positive values except
the component including R3 which was zero and the item including R4 which has
recorded a negative value.
Table 2
Z function value
Function Item 2004 2005
16 R1 8.672 10.368
22 R2 12.386 15.180
-87 R3 0 0
-10 R4 -9.290 -7.06
24 R5 1.656 0.984
Z 13.424 19.472
As a result, Z function registered positive values in the both studied years.

Z value is higher than 9, therefore, the combined fodder producing company is
facing a low business risk, its value ranking between 10-35 % for the moment.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The study based on Conan and Holder Model shows that the combined
fodder producer is facing a low bankruptcy risk for the moment as Z function
value is higher than 9.
2. For preventing bankruptcy, the company as to improve partial liquidity
ratio, financial stability and gross profit share in value added and to diminish
financial and personnel expenses.
3.Risk analysis has to be repeated from time to time in order to identify
the determinants negatively affecting financial statement and to take
corresponding measures for avoiding bankruptcy.
4. Firm management has to be oriented to product quality, marketing,
market segmentation, in order to increase turnover, gross profit and self financing
capacity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. BOLTEN, S.E., CONN, R.I. – 1981 – Essentials of Managerial Finance, Boston, Mass: Houghton
Miffin Co, Chapter 10.
2. SHALIT, S.S. – 1975 – On the Mathematics of Financial Leverage, Financial Management 4, no
1, p. 55-66.
3. POPESCU AGATHA – 2007 – Financial Analysis, Dominor Publishing House, Bucharest,
p.141-142, p.224-228.
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NATURAL GEOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE

TOURISM AND AGROTOURISM OF BIHOR COUNTY
CARACTERISTICI NATURAL – GEOGRAFICE ALE ZONELOR
TURISTICE ŞI AGROTURISTICE DIN JUDEŢUL BIHOR
Maria RUGE, Ramona-Vasilica BACTER,

C.-F. BACTER, Elena GÎNDU, A. CHIRAN
Bihor County is located in the North-Western part of Romania between

46023´ and 47035´ latitude north and 21026΄ and 22048΄ longitude east. Bihor County
whose total area is of 7.544 square km ranks the 6th in size among Romania`s
counties. It has a population of 595.961 inhabitants in 2004. According to the
number of the inhabitants, Bihor County is the 13th among the other counties.
The characteristic feature of Bihor County`s relief is its variety of land
forms. The highest range of Bihor Mountains are continued by the range of the lower
mountains (Plopisului, Padurea Craiului, Codru-Moma) ,and slowly slope
downwards into foothills and plateaus till the plains stretching in the Western part.
The “Valea Iadului”area is situated in the North of Apuseni Mountains and
it has the characteristics generated by the geological structure and specific evolution
at a point where Vladeasa Mountains and Padurea Craiului Mountains are blending.
Studiul a fost efectuat în judeţul Bihor, care este situat în partea de NV a
României, între paralele 46º23´ şi 47º35 ´ latitudine nordică şi meridianele 21º26 ´
şi 22º48 ´ longitudine estică. Suprafaţa totală este de 7.544 km2, ocupând locul al
şaselea din totalul judeţelor României. Populaţia judeţului Bihor este de 595.961
locuitori plasându-se pe poziţia a 13-a.
La nord se învecinează cu judeţul Satu Mare, limita vestică este dată de
frontiera de stat cu Ungaria. Aproximativ din dreptul localităţii Boianu Mare şi
până în vârful Piatra Aradului, din Munţii Bihorului se desfăşoară limita estică,
separându-l de judeţele Sălaj, Cluj şi Alba. De la Piatra Aradului până în
apropiere de localitatea Ant se întinde limita sudică, prin care se desparte de
judeţul Arad.
Relieful judeţului Bihor este variat, dispus în trepte, cu altitudini ce scad
dinspre est spre vest. Există o distribuţie relativ uniformă a celor trei trepte de
relief: munţii înalţi (Munţii Bihor) şi joşi (Plopişului, Pădurea Craiului, Codru-
Moma), dealurile şi câmpia situată în partea de vest. La aceste trepte de relief se
adaugă numeroase depresiuni şi sectoare de defileu sau chei.
- 681 -
a) Zona montană. Judeţul Bihor deţine 16,8 % din suprafaţa totală a

Munţilor Apuseni şi se înscrie în categoria judeţelor cu potenţial turistic ridicat.
Zona montană este reprezentată prin Munţii Bihorului şi câţiva munţi joşi cu
altitudine mai redusă, în jur de 1000 m, cum ar fi: Plopişului (Şes), Pădurea
Craiului şi Codru-Moma.
Munţii Bihorului reprezintă spaţiul muntos cel mai înalt din judeţul
Bihor cu altitudini între 1200 şi 1800 m, culminând în vârful Cucurbăta Mare la
1849 m. Munţii Bihorului au o alcătuire geologică complexă. În alcătuirea lor
deosebim o grupă de roci formată din conglomerate, gresii, marne şi argile, iar a
doua grupă de roci o reprezintă calcarele şi dolomitele care dau cunoscutul relief
carstic.
Rocile carstificabile au determinat apariţia reliefului carstic în regiunea
Padişului, a platoului calcaros Fântâna Boţii - Dealul Ruguţului de pe stânga văii
Iadului şi în regiunea văii Sighiştelului. În aceste locuri relieful prezintă mici
diferenţe de nivel şi este reprezentat prin doline, uvale, polii, avene şi văi oarbe
mărginite de povârnişuri domoale. Văile Galbena, Crişului Repede, Sighiştelului
sunt adâncite puternic pe verticală, prezintă chei sălbatice care ascund peşteri
active prin intermediul cărora se scurg apele de suprafaţă.
În masivele Biharea şi Cârligatele s-a format un relief crio-nival
reprezentat prin circuri glacio-nivale, microdepresiuni nivale de versant şi culme,
relief rezidual, lacuri nivale (Tăul Mare), grohotişuri de versant.
În Munţii Bihor sunt îndeplinite toate condiţiile necesare dezvoltării
turismului rural şi agroturismului: un ansamblu natural atrăgător şi nepoluat, cu
resurse turistice naturale şi antropice numeroase şi variate.
Munţii Plopişului sunt situaţi între valea Crişului Repede şi bazinul
Barcăului şi sunt alcătuiţi din şisturi cristaline. Munţii Plopişului reprezintă o
culme largă fragmentată de văi adânci de 150-200 m şi înclinată lin de la 900 m în
S-E, până la 500 m în N-V. Valorile altimetrice cele mai ridicate se înregistrează
în Măgura Beznea (898 m), Măgura Cornului (890 m), Osoiu (776 m), Văratecul
(757 m), Poiana Florilor (706 m).
Munţii Pădurea Craiului sunt situaţi între Depresiunea Vadului şi a
Ţării Beiuşului. Suprafaţa totală a acestor munţi nu depăşeşte 750 kmp, acoperind
a zecea parte din judeţul Bihor. Munţii Pădurea Craiului sunt scunzi, înălţimile
predominante fiind situate între 400 şi 600 m, cotele cele mai înalte fiind
Hodrânguşa 1026 m, Măgura Beiuşele 1003 m, Dealul Mare 957 m, Culmea
Roşiorului 751 m, Pleşa Serghiş 466 m şi scad de la est spre vest.
Alcătuiţi din calcare, marne nisipoase şi câteva fâşii înguste de şisturi
cristaline, Munţii Pădurea Craiului sunt cunoscuţi pentru diversitatea şi amploarea
formelor carstice atât de suprafaţă (doline, uvale, chei) cât şi de adâncime (peşteri
şi avene), care le conferă un grad sporit de atractivitate turistică. Peşterile cele mai
semnificative sunt cele din valea Crişului Repede (Peştera de la Vadu Crişului,
Peştera Vântului) şi a văii Meziadului (Peştera Meziad). Cheile impresionante
sunt cele ale Crişului Repede la Vadu Crişului şi ale Roşiei la Căbeşti şi Albioara.
- 682 -
Relieful Munţilor Pădurea Craiului se caracterizează prin creste puţin

proeminente, care se destramă în platouri carstice, unele având un procent
însemnat de netezime, de exemplu la Zece Hotare, Podul Glimeii, Damiş, altele
sunt înierbate cu pâlcuri de pădure pe fundul dolinelor,de exemplu: Pusta Călăţea-
Aştileu; Gălăşeni-Josani; Bătrâna-Peştera Vadu Crişului; Ponoare-Bulz; Toaia-
Dămăşeni. Pe aceste platouri carstice se găsesc numeroase lapiezuri, uvale,
izbucuri şi doline (pe platoul carstic de la nord de Cornet se găsesc peste 100 de
doline pe o suprafaţă de numai 1,5 kmp).
Marea varietate de forme specifice, de suprafaţă şi de adâncime, specifice
acestor munţi prin excelenţă carstici, constituie obiective atractive ce necesită a fi
introduse în circuitul turistic.
Munţii Codru-Moma sunt alcătuiţi din două masive: Masivul Codru
care rar depăşeşte 1000 m (Pleşu, 1112 m; Dealul Vârfului, 1095 m; Vârful Devii,
1044 m) şi masivul Moma 900 m (Vârful Momuţa, 930 m).
Obiectivele atractive ale Munţilor Codru-Moma sunt reprezentate de
formele specifice reliefului carstic din Platoul Vaşcăului: doline, uvale, polii
(polia Ponoraşului) şi de izbucul intermitent de la Călugări.
Zona deluroasă. Unităţile deluroase din judeţul Bihor sunt alcătuite din
marne, nisipuri şi gresii şi se încadrează în unitatea Dealurilor Vestice.
Altitudinea dealurilor scade de la circa 600 m, cât au în vecinătatea munţilor, până
la circa 200 m, deasupra Câmpiei Crişurilor.
Dealurile au formă fie de culmi cu interfluvii larg bombate, fie de
suprafeţe care tivesc spaţiul muntos.
În funcţie de unităţile muntoase la periferia cărora s-au format, în cadrul
Dealurilor Vestice putem deosebi următoarele unităţi:
- Dealurile Muntelui Şes cu subunităţile:
- Dealurile Dumbrăviţei;
- Dealurile Brusturi;
- Dealurile Oradiei.
- Dealurile Pădurii Craiului cu subunăţile:
- Dealurile Vârciorogului;
- Dealurile Tăşadului;
- Dealurile Dobreştilor;
- Dealurile Vălanilor;
- Dealurile Meziadului.
- Dealurile Bihorului cu subunităţile:
- Dealurile Buduresei;
- Dealurile Goruni;
- Dealurile Lazurilor.
- Dealurile Momei şi Dealurile Codrului.
Aceste dealuri au favorizat dezvoltarea numeroaselor aşezări şi utilizarea
lor pentru agricultură.
- 683 -
c) Depresiunile
Depresiunea Vad-Borod este situată între Munţii Plopişului şi Munţii
Pădurea Craiului, iar la vest se continuă cu Depresiunea Oradiei. Depresiunea
Vad - Borod are două compartimente:
- Depresiunea Borod situată în partea de nord, la poalele Munţilor
Plopiş;
- Depresiunea Vad situată pe valea Crişului Repede, la contactul cu
Munţii Pădurea Craiului.
Defileul Crişului Repede se desfăşoară între localităţile Bologa din
judeţul Cluj şi Vadu Crişului din judeţul Bihor, făcând legătura între Depresiunea
Huedin şi Depresiunea Vad. Acest defileu are două sectoare: unul estic şi altul
vestic care se desfăşoară în judeţul Bihor. Sectorul vestic are toate atributele unei
chei şi este sculptat în calcarele Munţilor Pădurea Craiului. Frumuseţea peisajului
este dată şi de existenţa unor „lărgiri” la Bratca şi Şuncuiuş, localităţi folosite şi
ca puncte de plecare pentru vizitarea defileului.
La contactul dintre masivul Bihor – Vlădeasa şi Munţii Pădurea Craiului
se găseşte Valea Iadului cu un ridicat potenţial agroturistic din judeţul Bihor.
Peşterile reprezintă resursa agroturistică de bază a Văii Iadului, atât prin numărul
lor mare cât şi prin bogăţia speleotemelor. Mai multe peşteri au fost amenajate şi
incluse în circuitul turistic: Peştera cu Apă de la Bulz, Peştera de la Faţa Apei,
Peştera cu Apă din Valea Leşului.
În bazinul Văii Iadului grupările de ponoare sunt forme carstice foarte
răspândite care dau o tentă inedită peisajului zonelor în care se găsesc aşa cum
este cazul grupării de ponoare din depresiunea Acre.
Zona „Valea Iadului” este localizată în nordul Munţilor Apuseni, la
contac-tul a două unităţi montane – Munţii Vlădeasa şi Munţii Pădurea Craiului –
cu particu-larităţi generate de structura geologică şi evoluţia specifică (fig.1)
Valea Iadului, artera hidrografică axială a zonei, este afluent de stânga al
Crişului Repede şi izvorăşte de sub vârful Poienii (1627m), din compartimentul
montan Stâna de Vale – subdiviziune a Munţilor Vlădeasa – alături de Valea
Drăganului fiind principalii afluenţi ai Crişului Repede, în zona montană.
Valea Iadului are o lungime totală de 42 km, suprafaţa bazinului hidrografic de
225 km² (cu dispoziţie neuniformă: 70 km² pe partea stângă respectiv 155 km² pe
dreapta), lungimea bazinului hidrografic este de 29 km în lăţime medie de 7,75
km, coeficientul de asimetrie de 0,74 iar cel de sinuozitate de 1,1.
- 684 -
Fig. 1 – Zona Valea Iadului
- 685 -
Prezintă aspect de vale tânără, cu profil în „V”, numeroase praguri şi

repezişuri, panta medie a văii fiind de 25 ‰, în sectoarele superioare ajungând la
75 – 100 ‰. Profilul longitudinal al văii este asemănător cu cel al Drăganului,
rezultat dintr-o serie de condiţii foarte asemănătoare ce privesc lungimea,
suprafaţa bazinului, structura geologică, clima, relieful etc.
Bazinul hidrografic are formă sinoidală şi reprezintă rezultatul unei
evoluţii sub formă de captări locale: bucla din apropierea Crişului Repede a
rezultat prin
schimbarea scurgerii dinspre Piemontul Oşteana spre Vad, iar bucla dinspre
izvoare prin captarea de către Valea Drăganului a Sebeşului precum şi printr-o
remaniere hidrografică în zona Stâna de Vale.
Densitatea reţelei hidrografice oscilează între 1,75 – 2,0 km / km² în
zonele montane, precizând gradul de fragmentare al reliefului şi raportul între
formele de relief de versant şi suprafeţele plane. Cumpăna de ape este axată pe
suprafeţele de nivelare Fărcaş şi Mărişel.
Relieful este constituit din două unităţi montane cu caracteristici
geografice şi geologice deosebite: Munţii Vlădeasa respectiv Munţii Pădurea
Craiului.
Munţii Vlădeasa sunt localizaţi în nordul Munţilor Bihor şi reprezintă
porţiunea cea mai înaltă a bazinului Crişului Repede, una din unităţile montane cu
cea mai pronunţată masivitate din cadrul Munţilor Apuseni. Este constituit din
şisturi cristaline, sedimentar permomezozoic (conglomerate, gresii, calcare) şi
eruptiv mezozoic(predominant riolitic), ultimele formaţiuni dominând şi dând
caracterul litologic al masivului. Masivul Vlădeasa apare ca o succesiune de
culmi, vârfuri pleşuve şi înşeuări largi, care formează ca dispunere acelaşi nivel.
Din loc în loc, se detaşează altitudinal o serie de vârfuri mai înalte: Vlădeasa
(1836 m), Vîrfuraşul (1687 m), Nimoiasa (1610 m), Buteasa (1792 m).
Înclinarea lentă spre nord, sub formă de suprafaţă, precum şi masivitatea
regiunii explică, alături de alte cauze, lărgimea mare a bazinului Crişului Repede
în această zonă, precum şi puternica sa asimetrie.
Masivul Vlădeasa este divizat în trei subunităţi: în partea centrală între
văile Drăgan şi Secuen (Henţ) se află cele mai mari înălţimi (subunitatea
Vlădeasa - Vîrfuraşu); a doua subunitate este localizată între Drăgan şi Iad
cuprinzând înălţimile de la sud – vestul râului din urmă, cu aspect întortocheat şi
altitudini între 1000 – 1200 m (subunitatea Stâna de Vale); a treia subdiviziune o
formează Culmea Henţului cu altitudini în jur de 1100 m, asemănătoare ca aspect
cu prima subunitate.
Munţii Pădurea Craiului sunt localizaţi la vest de Valea Iadului,
formând cumpăna de ape între Crişul Repede şi Crişul Negru. Formaţiunile
geologice dominante sunt constituite din calcare, marne nisipoase brecii cretacice,
acestea ocupând partea de vest a regiunii. Spre est se continuă către Munţii
Vlădeasa prin câteva fâşii înguste de şisturi cristaline şi sedimentar tracic şi
jurasic. Altitudinile sunt relativ coborâte, de la vest spre est remarcându-se
- 686 -
înălţimile: Dealul Cordău (270 m), Culmea Roşiorului (751,1 m) iar în apropiere
de Valea Iadului se află Dealul Hodrincuşa (1026,5 m), Dealul Mare (957 m),
Măgura Beiuşele (1003,5 m) înălţimi care marchează în fapt cumpăna apelor.
Deşi asemănători oarecum mai ales sub aspectul morfometric cu Munţii
Plopişului deosebirile se explică în special prin faptul că fundamentul cristalin
este acoperit în Munţii Pădurea Craiului aproape total de formaţiuni mezozoice,
între care calcarele ocupă zone extinse, dând un relief carstic bine exprimat local.
După aspectele generale de relief, diferenţiate pe direcţia est – vest,
Munţii Pădurea Craiului cuprind două subunităţi: o culme muntoasă alungită
aproximativ nord – sud care se întinde în stânga Văii Iadului şi care are altitudini
frecvente de 900 – 1000 m; această zonă face legătura cu Masivul Bihorului şi
Masivul Vlădeasa (unitate denumită Culmea Beiuşele); a doua subunitate o
constituie Munţii Pădurea Craiului propriu – zişi, cu altitudini între 500 – 800 m,
cu caracter de munţi scunzi şi de platouri carstice (subunitatea numită Zece
Hotare) remarcată în partea vestică.
După elementele naturale (domeniul schiabil, configuraţia pantelor,
aspectul peisajului) Munţii Bihor ocupă locul 4 pe ţară, după potenţialul climatic,
locul 5, iar după accesibilitate locul 8.
În funcţie de configuraţia terenului, în zonele montane şi premontane ale
judeţului Bihor există un climat de adăpost şi un climat subteran.
Climatul de adăpost se întâlneşte în depresiunile închise şi în sectoarele
de vale în care amplitudinea oscilaţiilor climatice este redusă. În astfel de situaţie
se găseşte staţiunea Stâna de Vale unde climatul existent îi conferă un coeficient
superior de atractivitate. În staţiunea Stâna de Vale calmul atmosferic este
dominant (peste 70 %).
Climatul subteran este specific peşterilor şi se caracterizează printr-o
constanţă deosebită a temperaturii, umidităţii sau circulaţiei aerului. Nu în toate
peşterile există un astfel de topoclimat, ci numai în cele cu morfologie specifică:
cavităţi cu o singură intrare, fără mari denivelări : Peştera Vântului, Ungurului,
Lesiana, de sub Castel, Peştera cu Apă de la Vadu Crişului, peşteri din Munţii
Pădurea Craiului.
Climatul de munte are durata sezonului de vară sub 200 de zile (lunile
V-X) în munţii joşi şi sub 120 de zile (lunile VI-IX) în munţii înalţi, unde
compensarea este dată de zăpada necesară practicării turismului pentru sporturile
de iarnă.
Climatul de deal se caracterizează prin creşterea sezonului turistic de
vară şi reducerea celui de iarnă.
CONCLUZII
1. Zona montană a judeţului Bihor este o zonă unică în România, care se
evidenţiază prin bogăţia reliefului carstic, cu sute de peşteri, chei, defilee şi
platouri carstice.
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BACK
2. Munţii sunt uşor accesibili, ideali iarna pentru practicarea schiului, iar
în restul anului pentru drumeţie, speoturism, ciclism, turism rural şi agroturism.
3. În spaţiul montan şi premontan din judeţul Bihor se includ zone
turistice cunoscute, consacrate, căutate de turişti, cum ar fi Valea Iadului şi Stâna
de Vale.
4. Turismul care se practică în aceste zone este turismul de recreere, de
week-end. Pentru atragerea unei clientele cât mai numeroase sunt necesare
modalităţi diverse de agrement şi animaţie.
5. Zona montană a Văii Iadului din judeţul Bihor prezintă un potenţial
turistic complex. Aici sunt îndeplinite toate condiţiile necesare dezvoltării
agroturismului : un cadru natural atrăgător şi nepoluat, resurse turistice naturale
şi antropice, numeroase şi variate etc.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Berindei I. O., Pop Gr. P., 1972 – Judeţul Bihor, Editura Academiei, Bucureşti. 1972;
2. Blaj Gh., Szanto Şt., Chira I. (coordonatori) şi colab., 1979 – Bihor-Monografie,
Editura Sport-Turism, Bucureşti.
3. Bleahu M., Bordea S., 1981 – Munţii Bihor-Vlădeasa, Editura Sport-Turism, Bucureşti.
4. Bordea S., 1978 – Munţii Pădurea Craiului, Editura Sport-Turism, Bucureşti.
5. Cândea Melinda, Erdeli G., Simon T., Peptenatu D., 2003 – Potenţialul turistic al
României şi amenajarea turistică a spaţiului, Editura Universitară, Bucureşti.
6. Cocean P.,2004 – Geografia turismului, Editura Focul Viu, Cluj-Napoca.
7. Glăvan V.,2000 – Turismul în România, Editura Economică, Bucureşti.
8. Măhăra Gh.(coordonator) şi colab., 1999 – Potenţialul turistic al bazinului hidrografic
al Crişului Repede, Editura Universităţii din Oradea, Oradea.
9. Mohan Gh., Ardelean A., Georgescu M., 1993- Rezervaţii şi monumente ale naturii din
România, Editura Scaiul, Bucureşti.
10. Nistoreanu P., 2003 – Ecoturism şi turism rural, Editura ASE, Bucureşti.
11. Petrea Rodica, 2004 – Turismul rural în Munţii Apuseni, Editura Universităţii din
Oradea.
12. Tacu Al.-P., Glăvan V., 1999 – Turismul rural românesc. Actualitate şi perspectivă,
Editura Pan Europe, Iaşi.
13. Tacu Al.-P., Glăvan V., Burciu A., 2001 – Turismul rural românesc. Potenţial şi
valorificare, Editura Pan Europe, Iaşi.
14. Tonţ Gh., 2002- Ecomarketing şi dezvoltare locală, Editura Expert, Bucureşti.
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BACK
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS OF THE

AGRICULTURAL SUPPORT
D. DONOSĂ
The paper work presents the meanining of the agricultural support, the
instruments to express the support and how farm support is measured . Thus,
through these instruments we can answer to a couple of question concerning the
agricultural reform, how much does support increase farm incomes, and the
factors that are causing the gap between the domestic and world prices.
The Governments have a long history of pursuing agricultural policies,

with objectives ranging from supporting farm incomes to securing safe food
and environmental quality. Policy measures are equally varied, including
instruments such as import tariffs, export subsidies and a host of different
government payments to farmers. Many of these policies share the common
feature that they transfer money to farmers, and thereby impact on production
decisions, incomes, international trade and the environment.
What is required is a common yardstick that can measure the “size” and
“shape” of the transfers from the many disparate agricultural policy instruments, in
order to assess the progress made in achieving policy goals in more effective and
efficient ways.
In order to realize this paper work it has been used critical analysis method
of the bibliographical sources of the topic in matter.Thus, the OECD
(Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) uses some
instruments as producer support estimate, total suport estimate by
identifying and measuring the contribution of the various factors included in
the measured price gap, and thereby provides information that helps policy makers to
obtain an accurate global picture.
In public discussion, words such as support, subsidy, assistance, and aid to
producers are often used interchangeably to describe the transfers provided to
farmers or the agricultural sector as a whole, which result from government
policies that raise farmers’ revenues or reduce their costs. The OECD
(Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) uses the neutral
term “support” to estimate the monetary value of transfers resulting from
agricultural policies – whatever the intended objectives of those policies.
- 689 -
The OECD produces several indicators of agricultural support. The most

important and central one is the Producer Support Estimate (PSE), which shows
the annual monetary transfers to farmers from policy measures that:
- maintain domestic prices for farm goods at levels higher (and
occasionally lower) than those at the country’s border (market price support);
- provide payments to farmers, based on criteria such as the quantity of a
commodity produced, the amount of inputs used, the number of animals kept,
the area farmed, or the revenue or income received by farmers (budgetary
payments). The key point is that contrary to popular opinion, support not only
comprises budgetary payments that appear in government accounts, but also the
price gap for farm goods between domestic and world markets, as measured at a
country’s border.
PSEs are calculated and shown by OECD country (the European Union
with its Common Agricultural Policy is treated as one country) and by
commodity. Increasingly PSE calculations are also produced for selected
countries outside the OECD area. Market Price Support, the largest component
of the PSE, is based on calculations for commodities accounting for around 70%
of overall commodity production in the OECD area, with some differences in
shares across countries.
The monetary value of the PSE is influenced by the size and structure of
the country’s agricultural sector, as well as the country’s rate of inflation. The
PSE expressed per farmer or hectare is also influenced by differences in farm
structures across countries. Support expressed as a percentage of gross farm
receipts shows the amount of support to farmers irrespective of the sectoral
structure and inflation rate of a country, making the PSE percentage the most
widely acceptable and useful indicator for comparisons of support across
countries, commodities and time.
Farm support is measured by adding up two elements: the difference between
domestic and world prices for commodities multiplied by the amount produced, and
budgetary transfers. Budgetary transfers include payments to farmers and budgetary
revenue foregone through lowering the cost of farm inputs. Tariffs, quotas and other
restrictions on imports as well as subsidies on exports, together with government
intervention to boost domestic prices through for example stock-building, create a
gap between domestic market prices and world prices for commodities at the border.
Multiplying that price gap by the amount of domestic production gives the market
price support to producers in the PSE. At the same time that domestic producers
receive higher prices for commodities, consumers also have to pay those higher
prices. In other words, market price support channels transfers from consumers to
farmers.
Budgetary payments may be granted to farmers, based on such factors as
what they produce or the area of land farmed, or to input suppliers to compensate
them for charging lower prices to farmers. These are taken from published budgets
in OECD countries and included in the PSE. However, some countries make
- 690 -
payments to farmers to hold stocks of farm goods on their farms or to public

purchasing agencies to accumulate such stocks. The operational costs of acquiring,
holding and dispos- ing of public stocks are a budgetary cost to implement market
price support policy but do not provide support to farmers over and above market
price support, and so are not included in the PSE, but in the TSE (Total Support
Estimate).
Energy tax rebates, subsidised irrigation water and interest concessions are
examples of potential revenue foregone by the government. These are measured
by the gap between the tax, water charge or interest rates paid by farmers and
those paid by others in the domestic market.
The PSE provides a snapshot of support provided in a given time period due
to agricultural policies, in the context of given macro-economic conditions and
economy- wide policies. The benchmark is the absence of agricultural policies of
the country concerned, i.e. a situation where farm receipts are entirely generated in
the market. In that case, prices received by farmers would reflect changes in
world market conditions and exchange rates. When world prices decline,
domestic producer prices in a well functioning market follow, and vice versa.
In many cases the PSE tends to fluctuate with changing world market
conditions. This is typically the case where governments pursue policies that
insulate domestic producer prices against swings in world market prices.
Under these conditions, when world market prices decline, say because of
abundant world supplies, then the PSE tends to rise.
Where a government deliberately shields domestic producer prices from
such changes in world markets, it effectively alters market signals, even though
seemingly only through doing nothing, i.e. by keeping the domestic support
price constant behind trade barriers. In a situation like that, the relative
stability of the domestic price is clearly an effect of farm policy.
Thegovernment provides more support to domestic farmers the further the world
market price declines, and vice versa.
Similarly, even if world prices do not change, a country’s exchange rate might
appreciate or depreciate. In a well functioning market without government
interference, this would result in a decrease or increase in domestic prices in national
currency
The PSE measures transfers from taxpayers and consumers that raise farm
receipts. This transfer does not mean that farmers’ incomes change by the same
amount. In order to receive a transfer, farmers usually have to produce a commodity
or service, or use an input, and thus they incur extra costs. The transfer is
greater than the farm income generated by the amount of these extra costs.
CONCLUZII
The examples shown above serve to demonstrate that when there are
border measures that impede the transmission of world prices to domestic
- 691 -
BACK
markets, changes in market price support that result from a change in world
prices at the border can legitimately be assigned to policy measures that are in
place. In evaluating policy developments the OECD deals with this by identifying
and measuring the contribution of the various factors included in the measured
price gap, and thereby provides information that helps policy makers in interpreting
year-on-year changes in the PSE.
Countries pursue a variety of goals with their policies. Although they use
different mixes of policy measures to do so, it is the way in which the measures
are implemented in the context of the conditions in each country that determines
the impacts on production, consumption, income, trade and the environment.
In order to provide a basis for more in-depth policy analysis, the OECD not only
calculates overall support levels, but also reports their composition using
different categories of policy measures that reflect how the policies are
implemented.
Some policy measures deliver support directly related to the amount of a
specific commodity produced (market price support and payments based on
commodity production) or inputs used. These policy measures are the ones that
have the strongest influence on production incentives, although this incentive
can be weakened in those countries that place constraints on output produced or
inputs used. Other policy measures provide support based on criteria such as past
production history, the overall farm area, the income situation of the farmer, or for
the provision of environmental services. Such measures have the least influence on
production incentives.
This classification of policy measures highlights the different
production and trade incentives of various policy categories. In assessing
policy developments, the OECD takes care to highlight the trends in the policy mix,
with particular emphasis on the most production and trade distorting measures –
market price support, and output and input payments. It is thus possible to assess
policy reform in terms of the trends in the level of support and the shift towards less
production and trade distorting policies.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. OECD 2002 – Methodology for Measurement of Support and Use in Policy Evaluation
2. OECD 2006– OECD Agricultural Policies – At a Glance
3. OECD 2002 – Agricultural Policies in OECD Countries: Apositive Reform Agenda
- 692 -
BACK
SOME ASPECTS REGARDING THE CONSUMER

AND PRODUCT RELATIONSHIP ON THE MARKET
OF ORADEA CITY
Ramona-Vasilica BACTER, C.-Fl. BACTER, Maria RUGE,

Elena GÎNDU, A. CHIRAN
Oradea city has a population of 206000 inhabitants.

According to the SPSS statistic programme, families with 2 or 3
members are the most numerous and represent 65%; the difference of 15 % is
representing by families with 4 members or more ( 20 % ) and single persons.
On of the most important indicator for meat consumption is represented
by the places of residence of people inquired, having the following structure : 60
% in the urban zone and 40 %, in the rural area.
The structure of meat consumption according to species of animals is
the following : pork meat, poultry and beef.
The consumers prefer the raw meat (60 %), the refrigerated meat, 25 %
and the difference, the frozen meat. The consumers also prefer local meat
products instead of the imported ones.
The consumers favorite meat suppliers are : S.C. Avicola S.A. Oradea
(20 %), S.C. Nutrientul S.A.Palota (18 %) , S.C. Internaţional S.A. Bacău (10 %)
and others.
SOURCE AND METHOD
The potential market taken into consideration in this study is composed of

Oradea`s population which counts about 206000 inhabitants.
The studies made in this field shows that annual meat consumption per
inhabitant is about 47,5 kg meat and meat products.
Based on a simple mathematic algorithm, consisting of multiplying the
annual meat consumption estimated at 47,5 kg per inhabitant with the population
of 206000 inhabitants, it results a meat market of 9785 tones yearly in Oradea
city. This method is not 100 % certain because it is based on scientific sources of
the recommended consumption. To eliminate this trouble another method has
been used, namely: consumers` inquiry and statistic survey.
This method has two advantages comparing to standards of consumption:
delivering of information directly from consumers and the second one consisting
on information regarding the family incomes in connection with the importance
of the consumer needs solvency.
To putting this study method into practice, the following aspects have
been established:
- objectives to attend -the establishment of the consumer needs
and the request for meat on the market of Oradea city ;
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- area for realizing of the inquiry: Oradea city;

- period of time for realizing the inquiry September 25th to 30th ,
2006;
- sample size: 100 subjects;
- application area: food chain stores in Oradea, such as : 3G (5
stores) and NovaEura (3 stores).
RESULTS AND COMMENTS

The elaborated questionnaire took into account getting of clear and useful
information easy to proceed, as following:
Questionnaire
1) How many members does your family have ?

1-1 member 3- 3 members
2- 2 members 4- 4 members or more
2) How old are the members of your family ?
1-under 18 3-between 41-60
2-between 18-40 4-over 60
3) What is your profession ?
-pupil/student -public officer
-teacher -employed having a HE degree
-medical staff -employed having a college
degree
-pensioner -unemployed
4) Your residence is:
-in the town
-in the village
5) What is your favorite meat among those mentioned below and how much do
you eat weekly ?
beef between 0-150 gr
pork between 151-300 gr
poultry over 300 gr
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6) Do you prefer local or imported meat products ?

-local meat products
-imported meat products
7) Do you prefer raw meat, refrigerated meat, or frozen meat ?

raw meat
refrigerated meat
frozen meat
8) Please analyze the importance of the qualities listed below allowing percents
to them, so that the total sum be equal to 100 % :
- physical quality (shape, - validity (warrantee period)
colors, aspect, size)
- sensorz quality (smell, taste, - price
consistency)
- nourishing value (proteins, - packaging and presentation
essential amino acids) (bulk, casseroles and vacuumed
bags)
- nourishing value (calories) - the supplier / producer’s
image (the prestige)
9) What are your favorite suppliers / producers ?
- S.C. Avicola S.A. - S.C. Promesse S.A. Salonta
Oradea
- S.C. Nutrientul S.A. - S.C. Florelia S.R.L. Oradea
Palota
- S.C. Prodaliment - S.C. Cominca S.A. Oradea
S.A. Salonta
- S.C. Kosarom S.A. - S.C. Agricola Internaţional
Paşcani S.A. Bacău
- S.C. Oncos S.R.L. Others
Cluj – Napoca
Each questionnaire has been introduced in the SPSS 10 Statistic

Programme and the following aspects resulted:
-The size of the families inquired was different, as shown in the fig. 1 :
- 695 -
Fig1: The number of the persons in a family:
1 person 15 %
4 persons or more 20 %
2 persons 30 %
3 persons 35 %
The families with 2 or 3 members are the most numerous of people

inquired and represent 65 % of total ( fig 1)
The structure of the family upon their age in presented in the fig. 2 :
Fig. 2-The structure of the families upon their age
over 60- 14 %
under 18 -20 %
.
between 40 and
60 -26 %
between 18 and
40-40 %
The active population (aged between 18 and 60) has the highest percent
( 66 %) in the family structure and influences directly the family income.
Another edifying indicator which affects directly the family income is
represented by the subjects’ professions (fig. 3).
- 696 -
Fig. 3 - The profession of the persons inquired -%
employed with a degree7% unemployed3%

pupil orstudent - 20%
employed without a
degree13%
teacher 12%
public office < 15 %
medical staff10%
pensioner 20%
Another indicator that influences the meat consumption is represented by

the residence of subjects. In our case study the subjects from the urban area
represent 60 % and those from the rural area – 40 %.
It is well known that most of the people living in the country side eat
meat products from their own production. Some of these households are also rise
animals and represent a source of supply for other families living in town
(relatives or friends of families living in the area near Oradea city).
The structure of meat consumption according to the animal species
emphasizes the preference of consumers for pork meat, followed by poultry and
beef.
Consumers prefer raw meat (60 %), instead of refrigerated meat (25 %)-
due to the fact that raw meat is more secure (the risk of contamination with
different viruses is reduced).
Also, they prefer local meat instead of the imported one, even in the few
last years local beef and poultry diminished their credibility on the market,
leading to the decreasing of sales and incomes producers.
Related to selection criteria of the purchased products, the situation is
presented in the figure 4.
The main qualities taken into consideration on choosing the meat are the
following : the physical quality (shape, colour, aspect, size), the sensory quality
(smell, taste, consistency), the price for sale and the perishability degree.
Referring to the Oradea market, consumers prefer some well known
suppliers ( producers), such as presented in the figure 5.
The analyse emphasizes a general preference for local suppliers
(producers), fact demonstrated by the high percent (60 %) of consumers who
prefer raw meat. In the same time, the main selection criteria of the purchased
- 697 -
meat products are based on attributes that can be easily affected in a negative way
by the imports from other countries.
Fig. 4 - The importance of the meat qualities at the acquisition
moment
25 15 5 5 15 20 8 7
Prestige of the supplier/producer 7
Way of presentation and package 8
Price for sale 20
Perishability degree 15
Energising value (calories) 5
Nourishing value 5
Sensory quality 15
Physical quality 25
- 698 -
Fig. 5 - The consumers' preferences regarding the suppliers

(producers)
- Others 9
- SC Agricola Internaţional SA
10
Bacau
- SC Cominca SA Oradea 8
- SC Florelia SRL Oradea 12
- SC Promesse SA Salonta 8
- SC Oncos SRL Cluj – Napoca 3
- SC Kosarom SA Paşcani 5
- SC Prodaliment SA Salonta 7
- SC Nutrientul SA Palota 18
- SC Avicola SA Oradea 20
0 5 10 15 20 25
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
1. In order the estimate the relation between the consumer and the meat
products, the authors used the statistic investigation based on a written
questionnaire.
2. The meat consumption per inhabitant is influenced by many factors, such
as : the family size and structure, the proffesion, the individual income,
the place of residence etc.
3. Related to meat products, the consumers mainly prefere the raw pork
meat from their own production, followed by fowl and beef.
4. The criteria which influence the buying decision of the meat on the
market of Oradea city refer to the physical quality, the sensory quality,
the price for sale and the perishability degree.
5. Related to suppliers of meat products, the consumers mainly prefer
products of S.C. AVICOLA S.A. Oradea, followed by S.C.
NUTRIENTUL S.A. Palota, S.C. FLORELIA S.R.L. Oradea, S.C.
AGRICOLA INTERNATIONAL S.A. Bacău etc.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Chiran A., Gîndu Elena, Banu A., Ciobotaru Elena-Adina, 2002 – Marketing
agroalimentar – teorie şi practică. Ed. Orizonturi, Bucureşti.
2. Chiran A., Gîndu Elena, Banu A., Ciobotaru Elena-Adina, 2004 – Piaţa produselor
agricole şi agroalimentare – abordare teoretică şi practică. Ed. CERES, Bucureşti.
3. Boier Rodica, 1994 – Comportamentul consumatorilor. Ed. Graphix, Iaşi.
4. Gîndu Elena, Chiran A., 1998 – Aspecte privind oferta şi consumul principalelor produse
avicole pe plan mondial şi în România. Lucr.şt., U.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol. 41, seria Agronomie.
5. Gîndu Elena, 2006 – Marketing – organizare, strategii, decizii, comportamentul
consumatporilor. Ed. Tehnopress, Iaşi.
6. Gîndu Elena, Chiran A., 1999 – Studii privind metode şi tehnici de promovare a
produselor avicole. Lucr.şt., U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol. 42, seria Agronomie, CD-ROM,
Secţiunea V, Ştiinţe economice.
7. Oancea Margareta, 2003 – Managementul modern în unităţile agricole, Editura Ceres,
Bucureşti.
8. Van I., 1996 – Avicultura românească nu trebuie să rămână în urma celei mondiale.
Avicultorul - Rev. Crescătorilor de păsări, nr. 4, Bucureşti.
9. ***, 2000 – Carnea de pasăre – piaţa europeană. Centrul Român de Comerţ Exterior,
Bucureşti.
- 700 -
BACK
CARACTERISTICS OF INTERNAL PUBLIC FINANCIAL

CONTROL IN PUBLIC ENTITIES
S. BREZULEANU, C-tin IAŢCO
The paper focuses on the typology of internal public financial control in

public bodies. It focuses on the remit of official bodies competent in the area of
control, such as the Internal Public Audit Committee and the Central
Harmonisation Unit for Internal Public Audit. It focuses on the procedures of
internal control, namely the specific duties, responsibilities and the formal
procedures and courses of action of the various types of control.
1. INTRODUCTION
The paper provides a review of the types of internal public financial
control in public entities: operational internal control, preventive financial self-
control, internal public audit inspections, and internal public audit. It details the
fundamental principles, the mission and objectives, the competent bodies, the
functional characteristics, the characteristics of the position and scope, and the
characteristics of responsibility (reporting), accountability and sustenability,
respectively.
2. OPERATIONAL INTERNAL CONTROL

2.1 Fundamental principles of internal control:
- it is an executive (governmental) type of control;
- internal control is compulsory in any public sector entity;
- it is an ex ante, concomitant or ex post control;
- it is continuous;
- it is permanent;
- it is exhaustive (it focuses on every operation carried out by the public
entity);
- it is concerned more with the manner of administration rather than with
examination;
- it is not independent from the public entity;
- it is in most cases programmed (planned);
- the general regulatory framework of internal control (including that of
preventive financial control) is designed by the Ministry of Public Finance;
- internal control is planned, implemented and improved by the manager
of the public entity;
- the manager of the public entity is obliged to plan, implement and
improve the internal control;
- internal control is integrated in managerial control, the evaluation of
internal control is the remit of the internal public audit body of the
public entity and of the external public audit performed by the
Romanian Court of Auditors.
- 701 -
2.2 Mission and objectives of internal control:

- to ensure the achievement, at an appropriate qualitative level, of the
duties of public institutions, as established according to their own
mission, in compliance with regularity, effectiveness, economy and
efficiency requirements;
- to protect public funds against losses caused by mismanagement,
waste, abuse or fraud;
- to guarantee compliance with the law and the management’s
regulations and decisions;
- to develop and maintain systems for the collection, storage, processing,
updating and communication of financial and management data and
intelligence and systems and procedures for adequate public disclosure
by regular reporting.
2.3 Internal control bodies:
- the bodies performing the internal control are organised in keeping with
the functions/role that this type of financial control has within the
concerned public entity.
Thus, in general, there are no rigorous regulatory restrictions as regards the
designation of compartments charged with registering, recording, monitoring,
evaluating, inspecting, etc, the operations (transactions) performed within the
public entity.
- from a functional point of view, the following internal control bodies
can be established:
documenting bodies (e. g. accounting compartments);
communication/information/reporting bodies (e. g. computer and
automated data processing compartments) ;
inspection/assessment (e. g. by inspectors specialised in the
specific area of the public entity);
- as regards the organisation system, operational internal control can be
organized as follows:
control bodies (e. g. at ministry level or government level);
inspection compartments (at the level of public entities).
2.4 The functional characteristics of internal control:
- it ensures that the public entity achieves its objectives, by systematic
evaluation and by maintaining at an acceptable level the risks
associated to its structures, programmes, projects or operations;
- it assures the integrity and competence of the management and
executive staff and their knowledge and comprehension of the
importance and the role of internal control;
- it establishes the specific objectives of internal control so that they
should be adequate, comprehensive, reasonable and integrated with the
mission of the institution and its overall objectives;
- it ensures that the management constantly supervises all the activities
- 702 -
and that the management complies with the requirement of corrective,

expeditious and responsible action in all the reported cases of breaches
of lawfulness and regularity in carrying out certain operations or of
activites executed in uneconomic, ineffective or inefficient manner;
- to detail, in written documents, the organisation of internal control, all
the institutions’ operations and all the significant events;
- to record immediately and accurately all the significant operations and
events within the public entity;
- to ensure that operations are approved and executed exclusively by
specifically authorised persons.
2.5 The characteristics of the position and scope of internal control:
- internal control is performed on all the activities/actions carried out
within the public entity and on all financial operation (transaction)
decided on at the level of the public entity.
2.6 The characteristics of responsibility1 (reporting) in internal public
control:
- the reports drawn up by the internal control bodies are presented to the
manager of the public entity;
- documents are adequately registered and stored so that they should be
readily available for examination by authorised bodies.
2.7 The characteristics of accountability2 in internal control:
- the manager is responsible for planning, implementing, organising,
improving and assuring the quality of internal control in public entities;
- duties related to operations are separated, so that the authorisation,
control and documenting duties are assigned to different persons in an
adequate manner;
- competent management is ensured at all levels;
- access to resources and documents is limited to individuals who are
authorised and accountable for their use and custody.
2.8 The characteristics of the sustainability of internal control:
- it ensures the cooperation between the management and the execution
levels, the latter being required to answer at all times to the requests
from management and effectively support internal control.
3. THE PREVENTIVE FINANCIAL SELF-CONTROL

3.1 Principiile de bază ale controlului financiar preventiv propriu:
1
„Responsability” refers to the reporting or information procedures rather than taking or assuming
responsibility in itself.
2
„Accountability” means to give explanations, to justify, to answer for the compliance with
statutory obligations.
- 703 -
- it is organised in any public sector entity;

- it is an ex ante control;
- it is continuous;
- it is permanent;
- it is selective (it focuses only on some of the operations of the public entity);
- it is completely programmed (planned);
- it is organised by the manager of the public entity;
- it is organised and performed in the accounting compartment of the
public entity.
3.2 Mission and objectives of preventive financial self-control:
- control of legality;
- control of regularity;
- control of the operations projects’ adherence to the budgetary credits or
the undertaken loans. 3
3.3 Preventive financial self-control bodies:
- preventive financial self-control is conducted by (a) specialised
person(s), part of the accounting compartment of the concerned public
entity.
3.4 The functional characteristics of preventive financial self-control:
- preventive financial self-control results in an authorisation issued by
individuals in specialised compartments who are duly assigned by the
manager of the public institution;
- to receive the authorisation of preventive financial self-control the operations
projects must be accompanied by the appropriate supporting documents,
certified as to their authenticity and legality through the signature of the
heads of the specialised compartments that initiate the relevant operation;
- the authorisation of preventive financial self-control is put into effect
when the competent certified persons have signed and sealed the
authorisation.
3.5 The characteristics of the position and scope of preventive financial self-
control:
- the preventive financial self-control body is subordinated to the
manager of the public entity;
- it focuses on the operations projects established by the manager of the
public entity, adhering to the legal provisions on the types of operations
projects falling within the scope of preventive financial self-control.
According to the specificity of the public entity, its manager can decide
3
We would like to emphasise a very important point namely that, according to the legislation in
force, the preventive financial control (both the self-control and the delegated control) do not relate
to the performance of the operations projects that require the authorisation of the preventive
financial control (neither the „three E’s” nor the advisability).
- 704 -
to conduct preventive financial self-control over other types of

operations projects than those stipulated by the law.
- the Ministry of Public Finance also conducts preventive financial self-
control for operations relating to:
the budget of the state treasury;
transactions related to public debt;
other transactions specific to the Ministry of Public Finance.
3.6 The characteristics of responsibility (reporting) in the preventive
financial self-control:
- the preventive financial self-control body prepares ans submits
communications and reports to the manager of the public entity;
- a copy of the internal decision by which the manager of the public
entity decided to perform an operation, which was denied authorisation
by the preventive financial self-control body, will be transmitted to the
internal public audit compartment of the public entity and to the
delegated controller as the case may be;
- in all the cases when, following the denial of authorisation by the
preventive financial self-control body, the managers of legal persons
arrange to carry out an operation at their own risk, according to the
legislation in force, the person appointed to conduct the preventive
financial self-control is required to submit a written motivation of the
denial to the Court of Auditors, the Ministry of Public Finance and, as
the case may be, to the institution’s oversight body.
3.7 The characteristics of accountability in the preventive financial self-
control:
- the persons appointed to conduct preventive financial self-control are
accountable to the manager of the public entity;
- the managers of public entities are required to organise:
the preventive financial control;
the documentation of financial obligations;
- the heads of the compartments specialised in preventive financial self-
control are accountable for the authenticity, regularity and legality of
the operations whose supporting documents they authorised. When the
preventive financial self-control authorisation is granted for documents
providing data that is fictitious or inaccurate and / or subsequently
proven to be unlawful the heads of the specialised compartments are
not exempt from being held accountable;
- the person appointed to conduct the preventive financial self-control is
exempt from being held accountable only if a written motivation is
submitted to the Court of Auditors, the Ministry of Public Finance and,
as the case may be, to the institution’s oversight body reporting an
operation carried out by the manager of the public entity at their own
risk, when the authorisation by the preventive financial self-control
body has been denied.
- 705 -
3.8 The characteristics of the sustenability of the preventive financial self-

control:
- the persons assigned to conduct the preventive financial self-control
must have the professional competences necessary for this activity;
will adhere to a specific code of professional conduct, drawn up by the
Ministry of Public Finance;
- by a decision of the manager of the public entity, the persons assigned
to conduct the preventive financial self-control may be entitled to a
25% increase of their gross montly salary on account of the complexity
of the work;
must not be involved, as part of their work duties, in the operation
which is subject to the preventive financial self-control.
4. INTERNAL PUBLIC AUDIT INSPECTIONS

4.1 Fundamental principles of the internal public audit inspection:
- it is, generally, an ex post control but it can also be concomitant;
- it is conducted on site;
- it is a limited to certain issues;
- it is not continuous;
- it is permanent;
- it is selective;
- it is not programmed (planned);
- internal public audit inspections are the exclusive remit of the Ministry
of Public Finance (its central body and its territorial branches
respectively).
4.2 Mission and objectives of the internal public audit inspection:
- to examine indications of cases of illegality and/or irregularity with
regard to the operations (transactions) conducted at public entity level;
- to examine operations (transactions) within public entities carried out at
the risk of the concerned authority managing state credits, without
authorisation from the preventive financial self-control body.
4.3 Internal public audit inspection bodies:
- internal public audit directorate of the Ministry of Public Finance;
- the internal public audit services within the tax authorities of the
districts and of the capital Bucharest.
4.4 The functional characteristics of the internal public audit inspection:
The internal public audit inspection is conducted in the following cases:
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- emergence (by any means4) of indications related to the illegality or

irregularity of operations projects or operations within public entities;
- specific notifications from the chief accountants of the public entities
referring to the execution by the management, at its own risk, of certain
operations that have been denied the authorisation of the preventive
financial self-control body;
- notifications from the head of the internal public audit body of the
public entity referring to the execution of unlawful operations
authorised by delegated preventive financial control, a situation arising
in the wake of an internal public audit task;
- in the event that the inspection finds deviations from legality that have
caused losses to public funds or public assets, minutes for the
inspection will be prepared;
- in case the actions found require the payment of a fine according to the
legislation in force a fine will be issued.
4.5 The characteristics of the position and scope of the internal public audit
inspection:
- the scope of the internal public audit inspection is confined to the
situations when there are indications or notification of illegalities or
irregularities in operations projects.
4.6 The characteristics of responsibility/reporting in the internal public audit
inspection:
- reports are made to the manager of the public entity who ordered that
the internal public audit inspection be conducted;
- the person who issued the order for the internal public audit inspection
to be conducted will notify the Court of Auditors in case there are
deviations from legality or regularity which have caused or may cause
losses to public funds or public assets, and the documents containing
the allegations have not been contested in due course or the
contestation has been invalidated in full or in part.
4.7 The characteristics of accountability in the internal public audit inspection:
- the accountability for the legality, regularity and quality of the internal
public audit inspection lies with the head of the inspection team (or
with the person concerned if a single person has been charged with
conducting the inspection task).
4.8 The characteristics of the sustenability of the internal public audit
inspection:
- the internal public audit inspection is one of types of control conducted
on the spot that the manager of the public entity may use; it is part of
4
A specific notification, a media report, certain disturbances in the activity of public entities,
accompanying effects that could only be explained by the existence of certain illegalities or
irregularities, etc.
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the set of tools for real-time examination of the legality and regularity
of operations (transactions) at the level of a public entity.
5. INTERNAL PUBLIC AUDIT

5.1 Fundamental principles of the internal public audit:
- it is an internal type of control;
- it is an ex post or concomitant control;
- it is mainly programmed or planned5;
- it is continuous;
- it is permanent;
- it is exhaustive (it focuses on every operation carried out by the public
entity);
- the auditors must not be involved in preparing the internal control
procedures and in the activities that are subject to the internal public
audit.
5.2 Mission and objectives of the internal public audit:

- to provide objective assurance and counselling, aimed at improving the
systems and activities of the public entity;
- to support the achievement of the objectives of the public entity by a
systematic and methodical approach, which evaluates and improves the
efficiency of the management system based on risk management, of the
control and of the management processes;
- to evaluate the internal control system of the public entity. 6
5.3 Internal public audit bodies:
- Internal Public Audit Committee (CAPI)7;
5
According to article 14, al (2) of Law 672/2000, „the internal auditor conducts on-the-spot audits,
and exceptional internal public audit tasks, not included in the annual internal public audit
schedule”. On-the-spot audits may be associated, to a certain extent, with internal public audit
inspections which have been mentioned above.
6
This also includes the monitoring and evaluation of the gradual transfer of delegated preventive
financial control, prior to Romania’s accession to the EU, within the scope of the authority of the
manager of the public entity (as an internal control type, more precisely, as a supplemental type of
preventive financial control for high risk operations).
7
CAPI is a consultative body consisting of 11 members as follows:
- The president of the Chamber of Financial Auditors of Romania;
- University professors specialising in the field of internal public audit – 2 members;
- Highly qualified professionals in the field of internal public audit – 3 members;
- The general director of UCAAPI;
- Experts in other fields, such as public accounting, law, computer sciences – 4 members.
With the exception of the general director of the UCAAPI, the CAPI members cannot be part of
the structures of the Ministry of Public Finance.
CAPI will be chaired by a president elected for a three-year term with a simple majority of votes
from among the members of the committee; the president convenes the CAPI sessions. The
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- The Central Harmonisation Unit for Internal Public Audit (UCAAPI)8;

- the internal public audit compartments of public entities;9
technical secretariat of CAPI is provided by UCAAPI. According to its objectives, CAPI has the
following main duties:
a) to debate the strategic development plans in the field of internal public audit and expresses its
opinion on its directions of development;
b) to debate and express its opinion on the normative law drafted by UCAAPI in the field of internal
public audit;
c) to debate and authorise the annual report on the internal public audit activity, which it submits to
the Government;
d) to authorise the schedule of internal public audit tasks of national interest involving multiple
sectors;
e) to debate and express its opinion on the reports of internal public audit tasks of national interest
involving multiple sectors;
f) to analyse the significance of the recommendations made by internal auditors in cases of
divergent opinions between the manager of the public entity and internal auditors, expressing an
opinion on the consequences of the failure to implement the recommendations made by the latter;
g) to analyse the cooperation agreements between internal and external audit related to the definition
of concepts and use of standards in the field, the exchange of results from the audit activity proper,
as well as the shared professional training of auditors;
h) authorises the appointment and revocation of the general director of UCAAPI.
8
UCAAPI is an executive body which, according to its objectives, has the following main duties:
- to prepare, manage and apply a unitary strategy in the field of internal public audit and to
monitor this activity all over the country;
- to develop the normative framework in the field of internal public audit;
- to develop and implement uniform procedures and methodologies, based on international
standards, including internal audit handbooks;
- to develop methodologies in the area of risk management;
- to prepare the Code of ethical conduct of the internal auditor;
- to authorise the methodological norms specific to the different sectors of activity in the field of
internal public audit;
- to develop the system of reporting the results of the internal public audit activity and to elaborate
the annual report, as well as syntheses, on the bases of submitted reports;
- to conduct internal public audit tasks of national interest involving multiple sectors;
- to examine the adherence to norms, instructions, and to the Code of ethical conduct of the
internal auditor by the internal public audit compartments; it can take the necessary corrective
steps, in cooperation with the manager of the public entity concerned;
- to coordinate the recruiting and professional training system in the field of internal public audit;
- to authorise the appointment/dismissal of the heads of the internal public audit compartments in
public entities;
- to cooperate with the Court of Auditors and other public institutions and authorities in Romania;
- to cooperate with the public financial control authorities and organisations in other states,
including those of the European Commission.
9
"Compartment" is a generic term that can refer variously to general directorates, directions,
services, etc., as the case may be. According to its objectives, the internal public audit compartment
has the following duties:
- to prepare methodological norms specific to the public entity where it operates, with
authorisation from UCAAPI, and in the case of subordinated public entities, under the oversight
or authority of other public entity, with authorisation from the latter;
- to elaborate the annual draft schedule of internal public audits;
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- the manager of the subordinated public entity, or of the entity

coordinated or overseen by another public entity, establishes and
maintains a functional internal public audit compartment, with the
authorisation of the higher public entity; if authorisation is not granted,
the audit of the entity concerned is conducted by the internal public
audit compartment of the public entity that has made the decision.
5.4 The functional characteristics of the internal public audit:

- in small-sized public institutions10, not subordinated to other public
entities, internal public audit is confined to the regularity audit,
conducted by the internal public audit compartments of the Ministry of
Public Finance;
- in performing the audit tasks, internal auditors work on the basis of an
order issued by the head of the internal public audit compartment,
which clearly outlines the goal, objectives, type and duration of the
internal public audit and nominates the auditing team;
- the internal public audit compartment will notify the audited body 15
days in advance of the start of the audit task; the notification will
indicate the goal, the main objectives and the duration of the audit;
- the internal public audit compartment will also announce the detailed
topics, the common cooperation schedule, and the periods of on site
interventions, according to the methodological norms;
- internal auditors will have access to all the data and information,
including that stored electronically, which they consider relevant for
the goal and objectives outlined in the order;
- internal auditors can request data, information, and copies of
documents and supporting certification from natural and legal persons
connected with the audited body; they are obliged to provide them on
time as required;
- to carry out internal public audit activities to evaluate whether the public entity’s financial
management and control systems are transparent and adhere to the requirements of legality,
regularity, economy, efficiency and effectiveness;
- to inform UCAAPI on the recommendations that the public entity manager failed to adopt and on
the consequences of such actions;
- to report regularly on the findings, conclusions and recommendations of its audit activities;
- to prepare the annual report on the internal public audit activity;
- in case irregularities or potential damages are found, to report immediately to the manager of the
public entity and to the competetent internal control body;
- to examine the
- to examine the adherence to norms, instructions, and to the Code of ethical conduct of the
internal auditor by the internal public audit compartments of the subordinated public entities and
of those entities that are coordinated or overseen by other entities; it can take the necessary
corrective steps, in cooperation with the manager of the public entity concerned.
10
Small-sized public institutions are the institutions that operate on an annual budget of up to
100,000 Euros equivalent in lei for three consecutive years.
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- internal auditors can also conduct any type of financial and accounting
re-examinations of these natural and legal persons in connection with
the internal control activities that they have been subject to, such re-
examinations being used to verify the legality and regularity of the
activities in question11;
- the authorised representatives of the European Commission and the
European Court of Auditors are given the same rights as internal
auditors with a view to safeguarding the financial interests of the
European Union; these persons must be authorised through a written
document, attesting their identity and position, and also through a
document indicating the purpose and goal of the on-site control or
inspection.
5.5 The characteristics of the position and scope of the internal public audit:
- the internal public audit focuses on all the activities of a public entity,
including those of subordinated entities, related to the creation and use
of public funds and the administration of public assets;
- at least every 3 years, the internal public audit will audit, without being
limited to, the following:
the budgetary and legal obligations from which payments derive
directly or indirectly, including from EU funds;
the payments undertaken through budgetary and legal obligations,
including EU funds;
the sale, guarantee, lease or rental of goods belonging to the
private domain of the state or the state’s territorial units;
the lease or rental of goods belonging to the public domain of the
state or the state’s territorial units;
the creation of public revenue, namely the authorisation and
establishment of debits and the facilities related to payment of
debits;
the allocation of budgetary credits;
the accounting system and its reliability;
the decision-making process;
the management and control systems and the risks associated to
them;
the computerised information systems.
5.6 The characteristics of responsibility/reporting in the internal public
audit:
- the draft internal public audit report is sent to the audited body; in 15
days from reception the auditee can communicate its own point of
view, which will be analysed by the internal auditors;
11
This poses a major issue related to the re-examination of economic entities that have already been
examined. In our view, this issue, which relates public financial control to fiscal control, has not
been clearly settled in conceptual, methodological and procedural terms.
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- in 10 days from receiving the points of view, the internal public audit
compartment will organise the settlement meeting with the audited
body, during which the findings and conclusions will be analysed in
order to agree on the recommendations;
- the head of the internal public audit compartment forwards the final
internal public audit report and the results of the settlement to the head
of the public entity who has approved the task, for analysis and
approval; for a small-sized public institution, the internal public audit
report is sent for approval to the manager. After they have been
approved, the recommendations in the internal public audit report will
be communicated to the auditee;
- the audited body informs the internal public audit compartment on the
progress of the implementation of the recommendations, providing a
timetable; the head of the internal public audit compartment notifies
UCAAPI or the oversight body, as the case may be, about the
recommendations that have not been approved; the recommendations
will be accompanied by the supporting documentation;
- the internal public audit compartment examines the progress in
implementing the recommendations and reports accordingly to the
UCAAPI or the oversight body.
5.7 The characteristics of accountability in the internal public audit:
- the manager of the public entity must organise the internal public audit
compartment;
- the internal public audit compartment is directly subordinated to the
management of the public entity;
- the internal auditors are accountable for the protection of documents
related to the internal public audit conducted in a public entity;
- the management of the public entity is accountable for the measures
taken following the review of the recommendations of the internal
public audit report.
5.8 The characteristics of the sustenability of the internal public audit:
- the function of internal auditor is incompatible with the attempt to use
this tenure as a professional activity oriented towards profit or rewards;
- each time strictly specialised knowledge is necessary to properly
conduct the internal public audit, the head of the internal public audit
compartment can decide on the advisability of contracting expert
services or consultancy from outside the public entity;
- internal auditors who are civil servants are selected and have the rights,
obligations and incompatibilities stipulated in the Civil servants’
Statute;
- the appointment or dismissal or internal auditors is done by the
manager of the public entity or the collective management body, with
the approval of the head of the internal public audit compartment;
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- internal auditors are entitled to a 25% increase of their gross montly

salary on account of the complexity of the work;
- internal auditors may not be sanctioned or transferred to another
position for their actions conducted in good faith as part of their duties
and within their scope of action;
- the persons who are spouses, relatives or in-laws down to the fourth
degree including with the manager of the public entity cannot act as
internal auditors in the same public entity;
- the persons who are spouses, relatives or in-laws down to the fourth
degree including with the manager of the public entity or members of
the collective management body may not be appointed on audit
missions in a public body/entity;
- internal auditors may not be involved in any way in the activities that
they may potentially audit and in preparing and implementing the
internal control systems of the audited public entities;
- internal auditors who have responsibilities in the running of
programmes or projects financed in full or in part by the European
Union may not be involved in auditing these programmes;
- internal auditors may not be assigned internal public audit tasks in
those sectors of activity where they held positions or were involved in
any way; the interdiction can be lifted after 3 years.
REFERENCES
1. ***, Law 94/1992, republished in the Official Gazette 116/2000, on the organisation and
functioning of the Court of Auditors.
2. ***, Law 77/2002, modifying Law 94/1992, Official Gazette 104/2002.
3. ***, Law 672/2000 on internal public audit, Official Gazette 953/2002.
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THE INTERNAL PUBLIC FINANCIAL CONTROL AT

GOVERNMENTAL LEVEL
C-tin IAŢCO
The present paper provides a summary of the features of internal public

financial control at Government level, namely the delegated preventive financial
control conducted by the Ministry of Public Finance. The fundamental principles,
objectives, functions and the specific nature of responsibility, accountability and
sustainability of the delegated preventive financial control are discussed. It details
the work of financial controllers, their duties, practices and roles in connection with
the authorisation of high risk transactions.
INTRODUCTION
The paper focuses on the features of the delegated preventive financial
control, which is conducted by the Ministry of Public Finance.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
THE DELEGATED PREVENTIVE FINANCIAL CONTROL

The fundamental principles of the delegated preventive financial control:
- it is normalised and organised by the Ministry of Public Finance;1
- the delegated controllers2 put into effect the authorisation of the
delegated preventive financial control for operations projects
authorised in advance by the public entity’s preventive financial self-
control body;
- delegated controllers conduct their work at the premises of the public
institutions where they have been appointed;
- delegated controllers are independent in relation to the public entity
where they have been appointed to conduct the delegated preventive
financial control;
- the delegated controller does not pass judgment on the advisability of
operations targeted by the delegated preventive financial control;
- it is continuous;
1
It is a centralised control.
2
This is the official designation of the persons appointed, according to certain legal
criteria, to conduct the delegated preventive financial control.
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- it is permanent;
- it is an independent control;
- it is selective (it does not focus on all the public entity’s operations).
Mission and objectives of the delegated preventive financial control:

- to prevent illegalities, irregularities or the exceeding of approved limits
for budgetary credits or other undertaken credits, for those types of
operations whose impact or monetary value involve a major risk related
to the management of public money or the administration of public
assets.
The delegated preventive financial control bodies:

- the delegated preventive financial control is organised within the
Ministry of Public Finance, as the Corps of delegated controllers;
- the Corps of delegated controllers is headed by a chief financial
controller assisted by two deputy chief financial controllers;
- in addition to the Corps of delegated controllers a specialised body
operates: the special direction that provides the methodological and
informational support in the activity of the Corps of delegated
controllers.
The functional characteristics of the delegated preventive financial control:

- the delegated preventive financial control is conducted by delegated
controllers;
- in case of the temporary absence from office of a delegated controller,
the minister of public finance appoints another delegated controller to
carry out the duties of the former during his/her absence;
- the authorisation by the delegated preventive financial control is
granted or denied in writing, in a standard form, and must bear the
signature and personal stamp of the competent delegated controller;
- prior to issuing a denial of authorisation, the delegated controller is
required to provide a written notification of his/her intention, detailing
the reasons for denial, to the public funds provider;
- if the public funds provider gives written arguments in favour of the
operation for which denial of authorisation is intended, the delegated
controller may seek advice from a neutral party, before officially
registering the denial of authorisation:
to formulate a neutral opinion, an ad-hoc commission is set up,
consisting of 3 members of the Corps of delegated controllers, by
a decision of the chief financial controller;
the neutral opinion is motivated and drawn up in writing and has
a consultative function;
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the final resolution (in case of a neutral opinion) is the exclusive

responsibility of the delegated controller, in accordance with the
principle of the independent exercise of the duties of the
delegated preventive financial control.
- the persons entitled to put into effect the authorisation of the delegated
preventive financial control are required to keep a record of the
operations projects that have been denied authorisation by the
delegated preventive financial control;
- for operations that are also subject to the delegated preventive financial
control of the Ministry of Public Finance, the denial of authorisation by
the preventive financial self-control causes them to not be eligible for
the delegated preventive financial control; under the circumstances, the
public funds provider will request a consultative opinion from the
delegated controller;
- the public funds provider will analyse the point of view of the
delegated controller, as expressed in the consultative opinion, and will
decide, at its own risk, whether or not to conduct the operation
concerned.
The characteristics of the position and scope of the delegated preventive

financial control:
- the delegated preventive financial control focuses solely on the types of
operations established by an order of the minister of public finance and
which exceed the values set for each type of operation;
- the scope of the delegated preventive financial control is part of the
total of preventive financial self-control.
The characteristics of responsibility (reporting) in the delegated preventive

financial control:
- the delegated controller can notify directly the minister of public
finance on the special situations arising in his/her activity;
- the chief financial controller:
supports before the minister of public finance, the Government
and other authorities, as the case may be, the resolutions adopted
by any of the delegated controllers during his tenure;
provides the minister of public finance with quarterly reports on
the activity of the delegated controllers, the situation of the
authorisation proposals or denials, and the significant aspects
related to the use of public funds;
submits to the Government, by the end of the first quarter of the
year, an annual report for the preceding year on the activity of the
delegated controllers, which must include, among other things, an
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analysis of the resolution of the denials of authorisation by the

delegated preventive financial control, compared to the situation
of previous years, and also proposals for the improvement of
financial legislation;
prepares the annual national report on preventive control, which it
submits to the Government for debate.
- in all the cases when, following a denial of authorisation by the
delegated preventive financial control, the heads of the legal persons
decide to conduct the operation at their own risk, the delegated
controller is required to inform in writing the Court of Auditors and the
Ministry of Public Finance;
- the denial of authorisation must be motivated in writing for all cases.
The characteristics of accountability in the delegated preventive financial

control:
- the persons entitled to exercise the delegated preventive financial
control are held accountable, by the law, in accordance with their fault3,
for the legality, the regularity and the compliance with the limits of the
undertaken credits and the approved state budget credits for the
operations for which they have granted the authorisation;
- the operation for which the authorisation by the delegated preventive
financial control has been denied can be carried out by the public funds
provider at their own risk, only if it does not exceed the approved state
budget credit.
CONCLUSIONS
The characteristics of the sustenability of the delegated preventive financial

control:
- only the persons who are university graduates in economy or law and
have at least 7-years work experience in public finance can be
employed as delegated controllers. The candidates for the position of
delegated controller must present a criminal record, information and
references that should substantiate that they have a moral and
professional profile suited to the requirements of the position;
- delegated controllers are forbidden from being members of political
parties or conducting political public activities;
- the function of delegated controller is incompatible with an other public
or private function, except the teaching positions in the higher
3
This is a highly significant element of the accountability of the delegated controller,
namely the assessment of accountability in relation to the fault.
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BACK
education;
- delegated controllers are not allowed to conduct business, either directly
or through intermediaries, and to participate in the administration or
management of economic or civil companies. They cannot hold the
position of legal expert or appointed arbitrator in an arbitration;
- delegated controllers cannot be the spouses, relatives or in-laws to the
fourth degree including with the public funds provider where they have
been appointed;
- the delegated controllers re required to fulfil their duties in good faith
and utmost reliability. The delegated controllers may not be sanctioned
or transferred to another position for their actions conducted in good
faith as part of their duties and within their scope of action;
- the delegated controller cannot be constrained, by any means, to grant
or deny the authorisation of the delegated preventive financial control;
- the evaluation of the activity of the delegated controller is conducted
annually using gradings, on the basis of the information provided by:
the annual reports on the activity of delegated controllers;
the reports of the internal public audit bodies of the Ministry of
Public Finance;
the reports of the Court of Auditors.
- the annual grades given to each delegated controller recorded for the
whole duration of their tenure. The minister of public finance will
dismiss at once the delegated controller who was graded as
“insufficient” or as “satisfactory” for 3 consecutive years;
- the chief financial controller and his deputies are appointed by
government decision for a 6-year term, on the basis of the nomination
made by the ministry of public finance following the interviewing of 6
candidates selected from the Corps of delegated controllers.
REFERENCES
1. ***, Law 94/1992, republished in the Official Gazette 116/2000, on the organisation and
functioning of the Court of Auditors.
2. ***, Law 77/2002, modifying Law 94/1992, Official Gazette 104/2002.
3. ***, Law 672/2000 on internal public audit, Official Gazette 953/2002.
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CONTROL MANAGEMENT
PERFORMANCE AUDIT STUDIES
C-tin IAŢCO, S. BREZULEANU
The main object of the performance audit is to analyse the efficiency of

management, as fundamental principle of organisation of the state sector. It
combines classical procedures of auditing with modern cost-comparison
methods, multi-dimensional procedures and the cost-effectivenes or cost-benefit
analysis. The article makes a series of proposals aimed at improving control
management in Romania, now a EU member, in accordance with the German
model.
1. INTRODUCTION
Germany has a long-standing tradition in the field of external financial
control (external audit). It began almost 300 years ago, firstly with the subsequent
examination of documents for each payment. The Prussian monarch of the times
was suspicious that his subjects were not managing funds as carefully as they
ought to.
Since then however there have been multiple changes as regards the
scope of the competence of auditors. Here are some examples:
- instead of the authorities being obligated to go submit their
documents to auditors, nowadays auditors visit the authorities;
- instead of the authorities having to pay for the controls, nowadays the
costs of financial auditing are fully covered by the state;
- not only individual documents are checked nowadays but the balance
of the whole state system.
The most significant changes occurred in Germany following the
Constitution revision of 1969, which added the Court of Auditors’ competence ot
examine the efficiency of the administration; in this context was added the ability
to control all the administrative measures taken by the government and state
institutions prior to financial and accounting reports.
Thus, the Court of Auditors was no longer taking action after the damage
had been done, but rather immediately after the administration made a decision in
connection with administrative operations (transaction) or resorted to a budgetary
adjustment (a project or programme).
Financial audit gradually developed to the current state, when it controls
the whole administration according to the criteria of regularity, economy and
efficiency.
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2. FEATURES OF PERFORMANCE AUDIT

In the Constitutions of Germany and of Romania also there is no legal
definition of the concept of “efficiency”, but only a provision that the principles
of efficiency and economy must be taken into consideration when preparing and
implementing the budgetary plan.
According to specialist studies, the concept is defined as follows: the
principles of efficiency (or the principle of economy or the principle of
rationality) denotes that actions are taken to achieve a most favourable ratio
between the proposed objectives and the inputs used.
In the context of Romania, whose economy has a distinctive rate of
growth, exceeding 7.5%, the application of the minimum and maximum principle
to achieve a favourable ratio must be approached differently, because the
resources available do not yet meet the requirements for infrastructure
development. As such a further constraint arises in maximising benefits, which
must take account of the available budget, and also competition and the need to
increase the welfare of the population.
On the one hand, it is necessary then to evaluate the inputs (resources) as
payments, expenses or costs (monetary evaluation) or as external effects (non-
monetary evaluation) and also to research the effects of risk on efficiency.
On the other hand outputs (results) are evaluated as proceedings or
income (monetary evaluation) or according to the extent of benefits (non-
monetary evaluation).
In Romania, so far, such questions have not been posed and the
consequences of taking steps aimed at making the administration more efficient
have not been fully assessed, such steps in fact being dependent on the proposed
objectives and valid beyond economic objectives, omitting the cases when
consequences cannot be objectivised.
In accordance with the constitutional provisions, the de jure obligation of
the state and the de facto obligation of the professionals requires that the state
must not act uneconomically, thus guaranteeing the property of its citizens on the
basis of the proportionality of state actions.
We consider it highly necessary to also make certain terminological
distinctions as follows:
- absolute efficiency refers to the efficiency of a single measure;
- relative efficiency compares the degrees of efficiency of several
alternatives.
As a result of these typologies, there exist special cases of efficiency. For
example, labour productivity becomes the ratio between the output and the
employment of a certain factor of production; profitability describes the ratio
between the output, i. e. the company’s profit, and the invested capital. A
delimitation must be made between administrative and economic activities and
moreover it is necessary to analyse the general and specific indicators for each
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type of activities that must be individualised, since future funding will be made
according to projects and the budget management.
Performance audit will provide institutions with information to find and
eliminate, in advance, the obstacles that prevent the achievement of efficiency,
which at present are:
- the lack of delimitation of responsibilities related to the specialist
field, budget or income;
- absence of incentives;
- difficulties in evaluation, especially as far as performance is
concerned;
- absence of competition;
- the relatively low number of types of penalties.
In Romania nowadays, the Court of Auditors carries out in similar
proportion controls of legality, regularity audit, financial audit and performance
audit.
The new law for the organisation and functioning of the Court of Auditors
of Romania (to replace Law 94/1992 / republished) provides new objectives on
the qualitative side, aimed on the one hand, at expanding the scope of
competence, and on the other, at providing the administration with the necessary
information to make its activity more effective. Thus, it is hoped that the
assistance provided by warning about potential deviations should be more
concrete and offer direct solutions for achieving performance.
The activity could be organised according to three general objectives,
namely: the analysis of efficiency, assessment of costs and performance and
privatisation. Thus, in the areas where it is possible, audits can be conducted for
ongoing activities (general efficiency), efficiency audits for individual measures
(efficiency of measures) on the basis of methodologies imposed by international
standards, so that these actions can be actual planning instruments and a measure
of performance control, adapted to each area of interest.
As regards privatisation, the actions taken should be aimed at making a
critical analysis of duties, as certain obligations of the administration will be
transferred to private entrepreneurs; where applicable, private bidders will be
given the chance to show whether and to what extent they are able to carry out
economic activities for the state or for the public interest equally well or better
(the disclosure procedure).
In this respect, the necessity of particular activities must also be strictly
considered since it is well-known that dispensable activities are always
unprofitable.
3. CONCLUSION
We can state that, in keeping with the INTOSAI criteria, performance
audit can be defined as an independent evaluation or examination of the extent ot
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which state projects, programmes and organisations operate efficiently and

effectively, adhering to the economic requirement and fulfilling the goal of
facilitating the improvement of their operations.
The main fields of application should be:
- legislation;
- programmes and promotion measures;
- organisation and human resources;
- acquisitions;
- investments in infrastructure and constructions;
- internal service.
The conditions of economic activity that ensure increased awareness of
efficiency are: the proper training of the administration, awareness of costs and
especially the motivation. Studies will be selected according to:
- resources (great financial flow);
- outputs (importance of the result for accounting);
- risks (e. g. new fields of activity);
- actual situation (signals, suspicious indications);
- strategy (e. g. modernisation).
REFERENCES
1. Coşea, M., Economia Integrării Europene, Tribuna Economică, Bucharest, 2004;
2. Pohoaţă, I., Maha, L., Efecte Economico-Sociale ale Aderării României la Uniunea
Europeană, Sedcom Libris, Iaşi, 2006;
3. Biroul de Audit Naţional din Suedia, 2006-05-23, Auditarea Fraudelor Fiscale pe Plan
Internaţional, Memoriu la IT Working Group Kick off in Bonn, iunie 13-13-2006;
4. Law 94/1992 / republished
5. http://www.brut.gv.at/service/publikationen/download/berichte/Betrug2003.pdf
6. http://www.dstgb.de/-scripts/highlight.pl?ure-http%3a%27%27www%2edstgb%2ede...,
23.05.2006
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BACK
RESEARCHES REGARDING THE IMPORTANCE OF

LIVESTOCK BREEDING IN THE ZELETIN BASIN, BACĂU
I. MELINTE
Livestock breeding represents the branch that fully uses the

production of natural grasslands, as well as a consistent part of the
production of vegetal and mineral origin.
The paper intends to spotlight the area of raising animals in the
Zeletin Basin stretching over the territory of 7 rural regions, by analysing
the numbers of heads per species, the relation between the number of
animals and the resources for producing the fodder, the contribution that
this area makes to the overall production of Bacău and the quantities of
products that go back per inhabitant in the area.
It is known that about half the vegetal production represents by-products

that are not staple goods for men. However, these constitute a major source of
fodder for breeding animals. Therefore, the integral and efficient use of vegetal
production is possible with the help of animals from which products rich in
proteins, extremely necessary for the human nourishment, are obtained. Breeding
also represents the branch that uses entirely the production of natural grazing
lands, as well as an important part of the vegetal and mineral production.
Therefore, livestock or animal breeding imposes itself as a compulsory activity
within the domain of agriculture. Moreover, the technical-economic analysis
estimates that agriculture becomes more advanced, more profitable, meets the
requirements of society to a greater extent if the animal production detains the
major figures of the overall of agricultural products.
RESEARCH MATERIAL AND METHOD

The research was done in the Zeletin Basin in the county of Bacău, a
naturally formed area, part of the Tutova Hills which, in their turn, belong to the
Plateau of Bârlad, placed relatively in the centre of the Tutova Hills. From a
territorial-administrative point of view, the Zeletin Basin lies in the Eastern
extremity of the county, stretching over 7 rural regions: Izvorul Berheciului,
Coloneşti, Stănişeşti, Răchitoasa, Motoşeni, Glăvăneşti and Podu-Turcului. In
each of these rural regions there were analysed the numbers of heads per species,
the relation between live stocks and the resources for producing fodder, the
contribution of the area to the overall production of the county of Bacău and the
quantities of products that go back per inhabitant in the respective area. The data
refer to the year 2006.
- 723 -
In what follows we present some aspects regarding livestock breeding in

the Zeletin Basin, as compared to the average production of Bacău in order to
estimate the inhabitants’ interest in this field of activity.

A first aspect that we shall refer to is represented by live stocks per
species, an aspect that allows us to know the different species on a given territory
and the extent of the phenomenon (Table 1):
Table 1
Live stocks per species
Rural regions Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry
Izvoru 808 2838 348 7322
Berheciului
Colonesti 565 1989 244 5135
Stanisesti 1180 6450 1202 12140
Rachitoasa 1166 1721 1623 16800
Motoseni 1201 2691 962 26269
Glavanesti 1049 1454 709 28000
Podu Turcului 1127 1616 1464 21500
Area 7096 18759 6552 117166
% of the 7,2 1,04 7,8 4,2
county
County 98311 180127 84174 2787812
Source: D. A. D. R. Bacău
From the data of Table 1 we draw the conclusion that, within the
researched area, the rate of bred live stocks, compared to that of the county, is the
largest for sheep (10,4%), followed by swine (7,8%), then cattle on the third place
(7,2%), and poultry coming last (4,2%). If we correlate these with the surface of
land that ensure the fodder needed for each species, we observe that the level of
development of livestock breeding in the area is inferior to the average of the
county (Table 2).
From the data presented in Table 2, one can observe that, in relation to the
surface that ensures the needed fodder for each species, a smaller number of live
stocks for all species is bred in the central area, as compared with the average of
the county. The greatest percentage of live stock breeding in the area is
represented by sheep breeding with 49.4 heads per 100 ha arable field + grazing
lands + hay fields but which constitutes only 85.7 % compare to the average of
the county (58.2 heads per 100 ha of land). The second place is taken by cattle
with 18.9 heads per 100 ha, representing 59.4% compared with the average of the
- 724 -
county (31.8 heads per 100 ha). Swine occupy the third place with 23.7 heads per
100 arable land compared with 45.1 heads, the average of the county, 52.5%
respectively. The last place belongs to poultry, with only 652 heads per 100 ha of
land cultivated with cereals, compared to the average of the county of 2291 heads,
that is only 28.3%.
Breeding a number of poultry, with 100 ha cultivated with cereals, 3.5
times larger on average in the county, compared to the researched area, is due to
the presence in the county of Bacău of the greatest poultry farm in the area,
belonging to the company of “Agricola International”.
Referring to the stage of development of livestock breeding in the rural
regions, we should mention the fact that significant differences are observable for
all species. Thus, for cattle, the livestock per 100 ha of land oscillates between
25.0 heads (Glăvăneşti) and 16.6 heads (Podu-Turcului); for sheep, the difference
between the maximum density (64.5 heads – Izvorul Berheciului) and the
minimum one (11.5 heads – Stănişeşti) is of 53.0 heads; for swine the maximum
density is realised in Răchitoasa and is represented by 35.4 heads per 100 ha of
arable land, while the minimum is to be found in Izvorul Berheciului with 12.0
heads, the difference being of 23.4 heads. For poultry the difference between
maximum density (784 heads – Motoşeni) and the minimum one (122 heads –
Glăvăneşti) is of 662 heads, the maximum density being over six times larger than
the minimum.
Table 3
Density of live stocks expressed in FU per 100 ha arable land
Cattle Sheep Swine Poultry Fu – total species
Nr. % for :
Localities Per
Nr. FU Capete FU Nr. FU Nr. FU Total 100 Zone County
ha
Izvorul 808 646 2838 426 348 121 7322 29 1222 27,6 96,8 60,5
Berheciului
Coloneşti 565 452 1989 298 244 85 5135 21 856 27,8 97,5 61,0
Stănişeşti 1180 944 6450 968 1202 421 12140 49 2382 38,2134,0 83,8
Răchitoasa 1166 933 1721 258 1623 568 16800 67 1826 29,0101,8 63,6
Motoşeni 1201 961 2691 404 962 337 26269 105 1807 23,8 83,5 52,2
Glăvăneşti 1049 839 1454 218 709 248 28000 112 1417 30,0105,3 65,8
Podu- 1127 902 1616 242 1464 512 21500 86 1742 24,6 86,3 53,9
Turcului
Zone 7096 5677 18759 2814 6552 2293 117166 469 11253 28,5100,0 62,5
% for 7,2 7,2 10,4 10,4 7,8 7,8 4,2 4,2 7,7 62,5 - -
county
County 983117864918012727019841742946127878121115114628045,6 - 100,0
Source: D.A.D.R.Bacau.
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It is interesting to notice the fact that for all species, except the swine, the
maximum density and the minimum one is realised in coterminous rural regions,
which confirms that the level of development for livestock breeding is of a
subjective character.
In order to have an accurate image of the level of development of
livestock breeding as a branch of agriculture, including all the species of animals,
we proceed to turning each species in fodder units (FU) with the help of some
coefficients: 0.80 for cattle; 0.15 for sheep; 0.35 for swine and 0.004 for poultry.
In this case the relation is made with the surface of land available for agriculture.
In Table 3 we present the required data for calculating the density of live stocks,
expressed in FU per 100 ha arable land, for the county of Bacău, for the Zeletin
Basin and for each of the rural regions from the basin.
Table 3
The relation between live stocks and fodder resources
Region The surface of land for Live stocks – species overall

fodder production
Ha % of Place FU % Place FU/ha
the occupied area
area No. Place
Izvoru 1241 8,0 7 1222 10,9 6 0,98 1
Berheciului
Colonesti 1420 9,2 6 856 7,6 7 0,60 7
Stanisesti 3179 20,7 1 2382 21,1 1 0,75 4
Rachitoasa 2328 15,1 4 1826 16,2 2 0,78 3
Motoseni 2994 19,4 2 1807 16,1 3 0,60 6
Glavanesti 1578 10,2 5 1417 12,6 5 0,90 2
Podu 2690 17,4 3 1742 15,5 4 0,65 5
Turcului
Area 15430 100,0 - 11253 100,0 - 0,73 -
Source: D. A. D. R. Bacău. Processed data.
From the analysis of the data presented in Table 3 one may notice, first of
all, a fact also mentioned in the case of live stocks per species, that the level of
development of livestock breeding in the Zeletin Basin is lower than the average
of the county. By including all the species, expressed in FU, we get the result
according to which within the researched area the number of FU per 100 Ha of
arable land is 28.5 representing 62.5% compared to the average of the county of
45.6 FU per 100 Ha arable land. We also mention the fact that in none of the rural
regions of the area the average level of development of the county is realised. The
differences among regions are also obvious.
- 726 -
The region with the highest degree of livestock breeding is Stănişeşti,

with 38.2 FU per 100 Ha of arable land, which represents 34.0% more than the
average of the area. The superior level is also reached in Glăvăneşti (105.3%) and
Răchitoasa (101.8%). The lowest degree of livestock breeding is registered in
Motoşeni, with 23.8 FU per 100 Ha arable land, representing 83.5% compared
with the average of the area.
For completing the study regarding the level of livestock breeding in the
researched area, we present a comparison of the relation between the live stocks
and the resources of the regions (the surface available for producing fodder),
establishing the place taken by each of the regions, according to the two
indicators. In order to have the same basis of estimation we shall use the relative
values of the indicators, that is the figure these represent from the overall value of
the indicator for the entire area.
From the analysis of the data in Table 3 it results that only in two rural
regions the two indicators (the surface available for producing fodder and the live
stock) occupy the same place, that is Stănişeşti on the 1st place and Glăvăneşti on
the 5th place, therefore a balanced relation taking place. In three of the other five
regions, the place taken by live stocks is superior to the place taken by the land
for producing fodder (Coloneşti on place number 7, respectively 6, Motoşeni on
3, respectively 2 and Podul Turcului on 4, respectively 3), a situation which leads
to the conclusion that resources are more rationally used. Finally, in Izvorul
Berheciului and Răchitoasa the place taken by the resources for fodder is superior
to the one indicating the live stocks, a situation which proves the existence of
some significant reserves for livestock breeding.
Another indicator with the help of which we estimate the level of
development of livestock breeding, used in our analysis, is the number of FU
belonging to 1 Ha of land destined to the producing of fodder. In this case, the
most favourable situation is to be found in the rural region of Izvorul Berheciului
with 98 FU per 100 Ha, followed by Glăvăneşti with 90 FU and the lowest level,
with 60 FU per 100 Ha being realised in the regions of Coloneşti and Motoşeni.
CONCLUSIONS
The results presented above have a relative character as far as quantity,
quality and fodder composition determines directly and immediately the level of
live stock breeding. It should also be taken into account the structure of live
stocks per species and not at last the efficiency per Ha of land destined for fodder
production.
The developing of live stock breeding in the studied area, together with
the intensive vegetal branches (fruit growing and wine growing) represents one of
the chances for economic growth of the area, branches for which there exist
significant unused reserves.
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BACK
Finally, we mention the fact that no matter the indicators used for
establishing the level of livestock breeding in the Zeletin Basin, the result is that it
is inferior to the average of the county of Bacău and, inside the area, there are
significant differences to be noticed among the regions.
With a view to increasing the level of living of the inhabitants from the
Zeletin Basin we recommend the following: stimulating the agricultural farms and
households that practice pluri-activity and diversification of agricultural
production that will lead to obtaining agricultural products with ensured sale
market, measures for protecting the environment and for ensuring welfare of live
stocks, developing and improving the technical equipment of the regions and of
the rural territory, preserving, renewing and modernization of rural regions while
respecting specific traditions and architecture by using local materials, by
extending services of all kind for the groups of agricultural producers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.Alexandri Cecilia ,Davidovici I., Gavrilescu D.-Treaty of economia of the agriculture
2.Ciurea I., Brezuleanu S., Ungureanu G., Management 2005
3. Davidovici I, Gavrilescu D.- Economy of agroalimentare production Bucuresti 2002
4.Isfanescu A. – Economico – financially analyse-,Ed. –II-Bucuresti 1999
5.Economy –Manual ASE Edition –VI-Bucharest 2000
6. D. A. D. R. Bacău. Processed data
- 728 -
BACK
SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE

RURAL POPULATION FROM THE ZELETIN AREA,
COUNTY OF BACAU
I. MELINTE, St. BREZULEANU
The purpose of this study is to analyse the population from Zeletin area, taking
into account the structure of the population (male/female), age groups, the
percentage of the active population in the area, the percentage of the workforce
in agriculture and the property structure in agriculture, as compared to the
average in the county of Bacau.
In the area there is a wide variety of demographic structures, which gives them
authenticity. That is why they require different approaches with a view to an
endogenous evolution, through reinforcing those elements which can guarantee
economic and social development, supported by factors which are an integral
part of rural communities.
The population, represents an important barometer in the economic

analysis of a manufacturing complex, a town or group of towns, county area or
natural region. The population, in general, and the workforce (the active
population) in particular, represents the main manufacturing factor which can
guarantee the mobilization and utilization of all the other factors. In terms of
economic indicator and manufacturing factor, the population can be analysed
from different perspectives, such as reproduction, lifespan, sex, age group, social
status, fields of activity, knowledge and culture, work potential, etc.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

This study is based on investigations and statistical data from the 7
communes from Zeletin area. It is our aim to analyse the population from the
researched area in terms of sex structure, age groups, percentage of the active
population in the area, of the workforce in agriculture and the property structure,
as compared to the average of the Bacau county.
RESULTS AND DEBATES

The proportion of male and female population shows a balance, as well as
the reproduction capacitiy and the ability to form a family (tabel 1).
Contrary to the world tendency which shoros a larger percentage of
females (sometimes reaching 51 % or even more), in Bacău county it reached 49,
4 % in 2004. On the whole, this proves a reduced reproduction capacitiy.
In the researched area, the same tendency has been noticed, even more
obvious: 49,7 % female population and 50,3 % male population. The statistics
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vary from one commune to another; in four communes female population is under
50 %, dropping up to 47,9 % in Colonesti in the other 3 communes (Răchitoasa,
Glăvăneşti, Podu-Turcului) male population is between 50,6 % (Motoşeni) and
52,1 % (Coloneşti).
Table 1
The structure of the population according to sexes (2004)
Male Female
Place Total
Nr. % Nr. %
Izvorul Berheciului 1722 865 50,2 857 49,8
Coloneşti 2176 1133 52,1 1048 47,9
Stănişeşti 4737 2451 51,7 2286 48,3
Răchitoasa 5035 2501 49,7 2534 50,3
Motoşeni 4023 2035 50,6 1988 49,4
Glăvăneşti 3788 1890 47,0 1898 53,0
Podu Turcului 5140 2513 48,9 2628 51,1
Area 26621 13395 50,3 13226 49,7
% compared to
3,77 3,75 - 3,79 -
county
County 706623 357551 50,6 349072 49,4
Source: D.A.D.R. Bacau. Processed data
The most striking difference can be noticed in Glăvăneşti, where women

represent 53 % and men only 47 %. It is definitely an interesting case, but we
haven't investigated its causes.
A more important role is played by another factor, age group, which
shows the population's work capacity, reproduction, ageing factor, etc. We have
divided the population into 3 groups: 0-14 (youth who do not work), 15-65
(working population) and over 65 (old age population). This shows characteristic
aspects of the population from the researched area, underlying the differences
from the average county population (table 2).
There is a balance between young and elderly people, both groups
representing 21 % of the total, in comparison with the county average, which
shows that the over 65 drop to 13,2 %, proving a strong population.
In comparison with the average, although there are similarities, we can
notice significant differences. For example, the young people represent 28,5 % in
Coloneşti, only 17,8 % in Motoşeni and 15,6 % în Glăvăneşti, which will reflect
differently in the following age groups.
- 730 -
Table 2
Population structure according to age groups (2004)
Total over
% compared
Place 0 - 14 15 - 65 65
Nr. to county
county area Nr. % Nr. % Nr. %
Izvorul
1722 0,24 6,5 369 21,4 924 53,7 429 24,9
Berheciului
Coloneşti 2176 0,31 8,2 621 28,5 1162 53,4 393 18,1
Stănişeşti 4737 0,67 17,8 1265 26,7 2638 55,7 834 17,6
Răchitoasa 5035 0,71 18,9 1115 22,1 2869 57,0 1051 20,9
Motoşeni 4023 0,57 15,1 716 17,8 2234 55,5 1037 26,7
Glăvăneşti 3788 0,54 14,2 592 15,6 2282 60,3 914 24,1
Podu
5140 0,71 19,3 972 18,9 3151 61,3 1017 19,8
Turcului
Area 26621 3,77 100,0 5650 21,2 15260 57,3 5711 21,5
%
compared 3,77 - - 3,94 - 3,25 - 6,14 -
to county
County 706623 100,0 - 143426 20,3 470165 66,5 93032 13,2
In Motoşeni and Glăvăneşti there is a tendency towards an ageing

population, the people over 65 representing approximatively a quarter of the total
population, in comparision whith over a fifth in the area average and anly 13 % in
the county average.
The most important age group, which represents the active population
has the highest percentage in the whole area, in each commune.
There is a high work potential which implies am equally increased
economic developement, mainly in agriculture, since it's an exclusively rural
area. This group varies from 53 % in Izvorul Berheciului and Coloneşti, both
situated the north area and over 60 % in Glăvăneşti and Podu Turcului, situated in
the south.
This difference of almost 10 % will not influence in the same way the
workforce and work productivity, these depending on the quality of the land and
the production structure on branches of agriculture.
As mentioned above, the active population plays the most important role
in economy, by guaranteeing material and spiritual goods in society and the
standard of living. In table 3 we can notice the percentage of the total active
- 731 -
population, the population of the whole economy and the workforce in

agriculture.
As expected, the percentage of the workforce represents almost 92 % at
county level and 90 % in the researched area. These statistics are normal for the
current situation in the above mentioned area. Still, there are some differences,
which are justified, as compared to the average.
For example, in Glăvăneşti and Podu Turcului the reduced percentage of
employed workforce as compared to the total is the effect of a higher proportion
(over 60 %) of the total pupulation.
Also, the reduced proportion of the workforce in agriculture, as compared
to the total workforce in economy (90,2 % in Glăvăneşti and 75,5 % in Podu
Turcului) is justified by the presence of some non-agricultural activities as well.
Table 3
Workforce in Zeletin area
Occupied
Active population – Workforce in
population – whole
whole economy agriculture
economy
Place
% of the % of the % of the
Nr. total Nr. total Nr. total
population population population
Izvorul
924 53,7 719 77,8 648 90,1
Berheciului
Coloneşti 1162 53,4 1045 89,9 994 95,1
Stănişeşti 2638 55,7 2582 97,8 3479 96,0
Răchitoasa 2869 57,0 2613 91,1 2482 95,0
Motoşeni 2234 55,5 2036 91,1 1878 92,2
Glăvăneşti 2282 60,3 2132 93,4 1923 90,2
Podu
3151 61,3 2605 82,7 1967 75,5
Turcului
Area 15260 57,3 13732 90,0 12371 90,1
%
compared to 3,25 - 4,46 - 10,55 -
county
County 470165 66,5 308149 91,7 117257 38,1
The general conclusion that can be drawn after analysing the figures is
that the area has a strong, almost exclusive, agricultural character.
- 732 -
Still, the workforce is insufficiently used, there is a surplus, which causes

an extremely low work productivity, determined by the quality of the land which
does not allow mechanezation in certain areas (Table 4)
Table 4
Property structure in one agricultural field
Agricultural area in one

Workforce
Agricultural agricultural field
Place in
area % compared to
agriculture Ha
County Area
Izvorul
4426 648 6,83 243,1 214,8
Berheciului
Coloneşti 3080 994 2,51 89,3 78,9
Stănişeşti 6231 2479 2,51 89,3 78,9
Răchitoasa 6293 2482 2,54 90,4 79,9
Motoşeni 7511 1878 4,00 142,3 125,8
Glăvăneşti 4722 1923 2,46 87,5 77,4
Podu Turcului 7070 1967 3,59 127,8 112,9
Area 39333 12371 3,18 113,2 100,0
% compared to
1,23 10,55 113,2 - -
county
County 320589 117257 2,81 100,0 -
The agricultural area in one particular field confirms the agricultural

character of the area. We have to add that, the relative lack of non-agricultural
activities, caused by the absence of other resources than the land, makes this
region a highly disadvantaged one from an economic standpoint.
In order to improve this situation, a possible solution would be a radical
change in the structure of agriculture. This would imply developing branches such
as vine growing, fruit growing, animal rearing, which are not well-developed in
the area (vine and fruit groving represent a mere 56 % from the agricultural land).
In the distant past the population was relatively uniform, depending on
the existance of food resources. With the development and diversification of the
economy, based am the discovery and usage of various resources, the population
tends to be grouped in larger areas, forming bigger urban areas and smaller rural
ones. Comparde to larger areas, including towns and cities, the population has a
higher density, in composision with the exclusively agricultural regions.
- 733 -
Consequently, the density of the population woll be inferior to the county

average, which includes numerous non-agriculural branches agglomeration of
population and a wider job diversification.
In table 13 we present the population density compared to the total and
agricultural surface of the county, the area and it's communes.
The data from table 13 underlines the fact that the population density in
Bacău county is 1,07 inhabitants per hectare (total surface) and 2,2 inhabitants
per agricultural hectare. In the researched area which is exclusively agricultural,
the population in less dense, whith only 0,47 inhabitants per hectare (total
surface), representing 43,9 % compared to county average, and 0,67 inhabitants
per agricultural hectare (30,5 % compared to the county average). In other words,
the average population density in Bacău county is 2,3 times higher than the area
average (compared to the total surface) and 3,3 times higher if compared to the
agricultural surface.
The least dense population can be found in Izvorul Berheciului, 0,30

inhabitants per hectare compared to the total surface, 2/3 less than the area
average and 30 % less than the county average.
In this commune, the least dense population is of 0,39 inhabitants,
compared to agricultural surface. Compared to the area average, it represents 60
% less and in comparison with the county average, 18 % less.
It can be noticed that in none of the communes from the area the density
of the population reaches 40 % compared to the county average, and in two of
them (Izvorul Berheciului and Motoşeni) it is below the area average.
CONCLUSIONS
The Zeletin is typically agricultural since there are no urban areas and it
does not have the necessary resources for non agricultural branches.
The reduced population compared to the surface and its dispersion are
characteristic to agricultural areas, aspects which have direct consequences on
work productivity and standard of living.
The main aspect resulting from analysing the population structure an age
groups is that the majority is formed by the people aged 15 - 65 those who can
work, representing almost 60 % of the total at average area, whereas at county
area it reaches 2/3.
The demografic volume in terms of workforce is one of the factors that
has a positive influence on rural diversification in the Zeletin area. The
characteristics that support this statement refer to quantity, age and sex
distribution of the active and occupied population from rural areas of the Zeletin
region. There is a wide variety of demographic patterns which gives them
authenticity and requires different approaches towards an endogenous evolution,
- 734 -
BACK
through reinforcing those elements which can guarantee economic and social
development supported by intrinsec factors to the rural communities.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Alecu I, Cozac V, Agricultural management in Romania, Ceres Publishing House, Bucureşti
2002
2. Bold. I and colab., Agricultural explortation, Mirton Publishing, Timisoara 1995
3. Lipsey R, Chrystal A.K., The Positive economy, Economical Publishing, Bucureşti 2002
4. Sandu C, Popescu C., Coordinates of the optimiyation of socio-economic development, Politic
Publishing, Bucureşti 2002
5. Soroceanu V. Economic development and natural areas, Economical Publishing,
6. *** Economy, text book, Ed.VI-a Bucureşti 2000
7. *** Statistics D.A.D.R. Bacau
- 735 -
BACK
ESTIMATES OF THE EVOLUTION OF MILK QUOTA AND

MILK PRICE IN THE EUROPEAN UNION
Roxana MIRON, I.M. POP
The milk quota represents the cow milk commercialization and the
milk products achieved by the producers and subject to the national regime
of reference.
The milk sector in the European Union suffered from a significant
change the moment when the last states adhered.
In this material we present the impact of some researches over the
milk politics in the European Union, and we analyze the influence that the
increase of milk quota has, over the milk price.
Since Romania was admitted into the European Union, we were obliged
to align with the new requirements of the common agricultural Politics. After the
negotiations carried out, the milk quota attributed to Romania beginning with the
year 2007 is of 3.057 million tones and has two components: deliveries for
processing 1.093 million tones and direct sales 1.964 million tones. According to
the degree of reduction of the own consume of the producer, Romania can dispose
beginning with the 1st of April from a special reserve of restructuring of 0.188
million tones of milk in order to distribute it for deliveries and direct sales.
At the level of the European Union, the milk quota is obligatory in all the
member countries. For this reason, the milk sector attracted the attention in view
of administering it as efficiently as possible.
The changes occurred (table 1) determined the scientists to start some
research projects regarding the evolution of the milk quota and of its price during
the period 2004-2015.
Table 1: EU milk quotas (collected milk). 2003 - 2014

106 t 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 From
2008-09
EU 15 117609 117659 118140 118621 119101
EU 15 (% 0,10% 0,14% 0,55% 0,96% 1,37%
increase)
EU 25 134415 134465 134946 135427 135907
Sursa: Cathagne A. si col. 2006
The previous estimates of some researchers within INRA (Boumra Z and

colleagues 2002) indicate a possible increase of the milk production quota
gradually beginning with 2007 until 2014, of approximately 1% per year.
- 736 -
The impact of the milk quota increase in the European Union is

significant. An increase of the milk production can determine an imminent
decrease of the milk price.
In figure 1 we present an evolution of prices during the period 2003-2015
compared with the evolution of process for the same product in Oceania.
Raw Milk Price

0,30
0,28
WTO
0,26
0,24
€/kg
0,22
0,20
0,18
0,16
0,14
04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15
-20 -20 -20 -20 -20 -20 -20 -20 -20 -20 -20 -20
03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
UE 25 Oceania
Fig. 1 Raw milk price in UE25 and Oceania

Sursa : Hadj Ali H. si col. 2005
The researchers like Bouamra-Mechemache Z., V. Réquillart, C.

Sorégaroli and A. Trévisiol (2006) monitored the evolution of the milk price in
the European Union, during the period 2003-2015, three distinct phases of the
price evolution being identified: in the first phase comprised between 2003 (when
the milk price reached the maximum value) and 2007 (the period of sudden
decrease of the milk price due to the implementation of the milk quota;) the
second period between the years 2007 and 2011 respectively, during which a
plateau area was registered, and in the period 2011-2015 the price will registrate
a low increase up to 0.26 euros per milk kilogram.
At the end of the period envisaged in the study we observed that the milk
price, compared with 2003, is smaller in a percentage of 7%.
We suppose that at a milk production increase of 1%, a decrease of the
milk price implicitly occurs of approximately 3%. The increase of the milk
production has a larger impact, having also implications on the price of the
nutritive elements of the milk, fat and protein respectively.
- 737 -
Internationally, the interest for the fat quantity from milk decreased
considerably, presently taking into account the content of milk protein. Implicitly,
the requests of milk products with increased content of fat were reduced, resulting
also the decrease of the butter price with over 15% during the period 2003—2014;
that is why it is recommended that in the case when we still wish for an increase
of the fat quantity in milk, there is the risk of an impossibility to commercialize
excepting the national markets or the redirection for the immersion in other
products.
The request for the production of protein in milk is more flexible, which
allows the national and international commercialization through exportation.
Since at the European level there is a tendency to double the quantity of cheese
products, the requests for protein are justified.
The changes in the European Union of the milk prices resulted also from
the implicit changes of the protein price and milk fat. In general, the decrease of
the fat value is greater than the decrease of protein value.
Another factor of influence for the milk price is the tendency of the
consumer’s request. In order to prove the influence of the request tendency we
supposed that, for a tendency of low request, the milk price will decrease with
11% compared to the standard value.
The analysis of the sensitivity of the request tendency and the range quota
(table 2) for a minimal standard cost reflects that, for a high request tendency, the
price per kilogram and implicitly the production increases, and the quota of the
annuity registered very high values compared to the quota of the annuity
registered for a product with a high marginal cost, the other values maintaining
approximately the same values. Making a comparison between the tendency of
the standard annuity and the tendency of the decreased request for a marginal
minimum cost, the annuity quota is more reduced than the tendency of reduced
request, the productions having approximately the same values.
Table 2. Sensivity analysis to demand trend and quota rent (2014-2015)

Standard marginal cost High marginal cost
Price Production Average Price Production Average

(€/kg) (106 quota (€/kg) (106 quota
tonnes) rent tonnes) rent
(€/kg) (€/kg)
Demand 0,261 132.7 0,077 0,262 132.4 0,041
Standard
Low 0,233 132.4 0,052 0,239 131.5 0,026
High 0,284 132.9 0,098 0,284 132.8 0,060
Sursa: INRA, Sciences Sociales 2003
- 738 -
The same evolution occurs also for a product with a reduced marginal
cost and a tendency of low request.
Since the milk quota is obligatory in all the member states, the production
does not vary significantly (the variation of production is of approximately 0.2%)
from where we can deduce that the price does not vary considerably either.
The change of all the pries is reflected in the changes of the quota
annuity. Thus, the average of the quota annuity (calculated with the quota annuity
each country summing up the country production) varies to the same extent as the
price (for example when the request is low the milk price decreases with 0.028
euros per kil3ogram and the quota annuity with 0.025 euros per kilogram.
An insignificant variation of productions will occur when the request
tendencies are low. In this case, the quota annuity will be low and there is the
possibility that some countries do not produce their quota.
CONCLUSIONS
• Still, one of the effects of the compulsoriness of the quota is the relatively
constant maintaining of production.
• We estimate an increase of the milk quota with about 1-2% in the following
8-10 years.
• The impact of the increase of milk quota will be significant, the increase of
production determining a decrease of the milk price.
• The increase of the milk quota and respectively the decrease of the milk price
will determine changes regarding the price of the protein and fat in the milk,
and they appreciate that the decrease if the fat value will be higher than the
reduction of protein value.
• Globally, the requirements regarding the fat in the milk decreased reducing
also the price of products in whose composition we find the fat in
considerable quantities (for example the decrease up to 20% of the butter
price)
• The interest for protein and respectively for cheese is in continuous ascension,
at the world level the request of cheese products will increase with
approximately 50% in the following 8-10 years and we estimate the
maintenance of this tendency.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Banse, M. and H. Grethe (2005). “How will decreasing subsistence production affect future
dairymarkets in the central European countries? In Modelling Agricultural Policies: State of the
Art and New
2. Bouamra Z., J.P. Chavas, T. Cox and V. Réquillart (2002a). Partial Market liberalization and
theefficiency of policy reform : the case of the European dairy sector. American Journal of
Agricultural
- 739 -
BACK
3. Bouamra-Mechemache Z., V. Réquillart, C. Sorégaroli and A. Trévisiol (2006). Demand for

dairyproducts in the EU. INRA-ESR Toulouse, Cahiers de Recherche 2006-09.
4. Bouamra-Mechemache Z. ; H. Hadj Ali-Kein and V. Réquillart (2003). “L’impact sur les
marchésdu lait et des produits laitiers de l’accord de Luxembourg”, INRA, Sciences Sociales.
5. Cathagne A., H. Guyomard and F. Levert (2006). Milk quotas in the European union:
Distributionof marginal costs and quota rents. EDIM Working paper 01/2006.
6. Donnellan T. and P. Westhoff (2002). World Dairy Trade Reform: Perspectives from Europe
andthe USA. Bulletin of the International Dairy Federation.
7. Hadj Ali H., C. Soregaroli and A. Trévisiol (2005). Demand for dairy products: estimated
priceelasticities in selected countries. Synthesis. EDIM Technical Report.
8. Larivière S., and K. Meilke (1999). An assessment of partial dairy trade liberalization on the
U.S.,EU-15 and Canada. Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics.
9. Shaw I., and G. Love (2001). Impacts of liberalising world trade in dairy products. ABARE
Research Report 01.4, Canberra.
10. Tonini A. (2007). Agriculture and Dairy in Eastern Europe after Transition focused on Poland
11. Hungary. PhD Thesis. Wageningen University, The Netherlands.
12. Trévisiol A. (2005). The consumption of dairy products in the EU-15: 1960-2000 and 2010
forecasts. Synthesis. EDIM Technical report TR 01/2005.
13. Wieck C. (2005). Determinants, distribution, and development of marginal costs in dairy
production: An empirical analysis for selected regions of the European Union. Shaker Verlag,
Aachen.
14. www.maap.ro.pages
- 740 -
BACK
THE ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY ANALYSES OF

S.C. AVICOLA - MATCA S.A COMPANY
Aurica GRIGORE
To analises the economic efficiency concerning the poultry meat

selling to the S.C. AVICOLA - MATCA S.A, emerge that this was
profitable, with with one grow up evolution in the examination period,
therefore, in 2005, comparatively with 2003, the total profit was higher
with 39,98 %, and rate of profit forward slip the base year.
The relation between the evolution of income and total expenses
of production was positived, therefore, the income grow up quickly than
total expenses of production, finaly leading to profit incresing and reduced
the production expenses to 1000 lei total income.
THE MATERIAL AND RESEARCH METHOD

The methodological sistem used in the paper have disposed to the specific
metods and technics, including agricultural statistics, comparative analysis,
economical evidence, etc.
THE RESULTS
S.C. AVICOLA - MATCA S.A is situated in the northern part of Matca
village, Galati county towards Corod village.
The company is private coming from the old Intercooperatist
Association of Hens Breeding for eggs started in 1975.
The company is settled on the eggs producing, the breeding of the
young hens and the changing of the old hens as well as the production of
combined fodders necessary for their feeding.
The company activity is organised in two hens farms, one in Matca
village with 100000 hens and 70000 chickens and one in Corod village,
Blînzi region with 40000 hens, a farm of producing 6000 tons of combined
fodders per year and a storehouse for grains necessary the production of
these fodders.
The consumption necessary does not manifest uniform over a whole year
but has a temporary character, with variable periods of time.
The lock of uniformity of the consumption necessity influences directly
the tehnologic flux and the income level (Table 1 ).
From the present information a positive evolution of the offer and
demand in chicken is observed so, in 2005, the consumption demand is superior
to the basic year with 1/3 and the offer with 82,8 %.
- 741 -
Table 1
The evolution of consumption demand and offer to the chickens, in the S.C.
AVICOLA - MATCA S.A. Tecuci farm
The 2003 2004 2005 The average
product The The The The The The The The
demand offer demand offer demand offer demand offer
Chicken
meat -t 134,4 96,63 147,84 143,90 179,20 176,65 153,81 139,06
One day
chicken -
cap. 420 390,00 530 510 1470 1460 807 787
Flying
chickens
-cap. 177 177 269 265 2464 2422 970 954
At one day chickens, the demand was 2.8 bigger and the offer was the
same. But at fluing chickens a very big breeding is observed, so in 2004 both the
consumtion demand and the offer exceeded 2004 of 14 times.
An average between 2003-2005, the monthly evolution of the chicken offer
presented a maximus in the first semester and a minim in the second semester
after which in other months, the variation index was between 5.2-6.9%.
Regarding the capacity of using the projected production, we notice the fact
that a positive tendency was noticed at all the analysed objectives (Table 2).
Table 2
The degree of production capacity use to S.C. AVICOLA - MATCA S.A. Tecuci,
between 2003-2005
2003 2004 2005
Specifi- Projected
U.M.
cation capacity Realised G.U.% Realised G.U.% Realised G.U.%
Meat Thousands
18,82 13,88 3,31 15,11 3,60 17,02 4,05
chicken cap./seria
Incubation Thousands
0,29 0,03 0,48 0,11 1,64 0,12 1,86
station cap./seria
Chicken
Thousands
slaughter- 0,22 0,10 2,09 0,14 2,85 0,18 3,51
cap./change
house
For example, at fattening chickens farms, the degree of using the capacity
of production reached, in 2005 over 90% at the chicken slaughter-house and
almost 80% and at the Incubation Station only 41.4%.
- 742 -
The low degree of using the capacity of incubation station is argued

through the idea that the company worked only with two farms.
The production costs at chicken had a rising evolution so in 2005 it was
bigger with 28.5% than in 2003 (Table 3).
In the production structure the most important part was held by the one
with the one with the fodders expenses (41.4-47.8%) followed by those with
biologic material (11.6-22.2%) and the expenses with the labour (11.9-16.4%).
The size of the production cost, connected to the size of the selling price
and of the inflation index will influence directly the final financial results.
Table 3
The structures of production expenses for chicken meat in the condition of
S.C. AVICOLA - MATCA S.A. between 2003-2005
2003 2004 2005 (+/- %)
2005
Specification % din % din % din faţă de
Lei/Kg Lei/Kg Lei/Kg
total total total 2003
The total
production
4,20 100,00 4,61 100,00 5,40 100,00 28,47
cost from
which:
Direct
expenses 3,70 88,00 4,12 89,29 4,82 89,28 30,35
from which:
-foddes 2,01 47,82 2,19 47,48 2,24 41,42 11,26
-biologic
0,93 22,19 0,65 14,00 0,62 11,57 -33,02
material
-labour 0,69 16,41 0,63 13,71 0,64 11,92 -6,65
-other direct
0,07 1,58 0,65 14,10 1,32 24,38 1885,50
expenses
Indirect
expenses 0,50 12,00 0,49 10,71 0,58 10,72 14,73
from which:
-interests at
0,11 2,60 0,13 2,89 0,20 3,73 84,34
credits
At SC Avicola Matca SA the distribution is realised en-gros and en-detail.

The en-gros distribution is realised in the local – producer condition
(slaughter-house or the frigorific storehouse) but the most part of the distribution
is realised through the proper net of distribution the fact that the market of
chicken is less sensitive at the price than other markets is also demonstrated by
the evolution of the seeling price which was slower, the index of rising being
relatively low in comparison to the market of other meat products (Table 4).
- 743 -
Table 4
The evolution of selling price to the different sort of chicken meat, in AVICOLA -
MATCA S.A. în perioada 2003-2005 (lei/Kg)
(+/- %) 2005 faţă
The produce 2003 2004 2005
de 2003
Griller chicken 4,44 4,83 5,78 30,36
Chicken in carcase, quality I 3,83 4,28 5,29 38,05
Chicken liver 8,05 9,19 9,86 22,45
Herts+gizzards 4,45 4,32 5,19 16,60
Chicken legs 5,98 6,34 7,42 23,94
Heads and necks 1,30 1,05 1,37 5,42
Chicken skeleton 2,11 2,26 2,68 26,62
Chicken brest 6,57 7,29 8,00 21,65
Chicken wings 5,94 5,60 7,30 122,9
From the information presented above we can observe that in 2005 the
amplitude of variation in comparison with 2003 was pretty reduced, between
5.42% (heads and necks) and 38.5% (chicken in carcasse, quality I).
If we take into consideration that a chicken of meat at 1.9-2.2 kg can be
sold alive at an approximate price of 12 lei / chicken having a net income of 6.71
lei/chicken (12.0 - 5.29 = 6.71 lei) at a production period of 9 weeks from which 6
weeks of production and 3 weeks of medical – veterinary emptiness.
The breeding of meat chickens in small groups can bring extra-income for
the houseworkwrs, at a very important thing the fodder resource being superior
valorified obtained by these (for example the maize).
The access on the market of the products of SC Avicola-Matca SA Tecuci
was realised easily enough, as a result of the quality of the products, fact wich led
to a corresponding rentability (Table 5)
Table 5
The lucrativness to the chicken meat in carcasse realised to the S.C.
AVICOLA - MATCA S.A. between 2003-2005
(+/- %)
The
The indices U.M 2003 2004 2005 2005 faţă
produce
de 2003
Total income Lei 484,22 534,80 627,70 29,63
Total
Lei 454,2 498,2 586,0 29,01
Chicken expenses
meat in Total brut
carcasse Lei 29,98 36,62 41,67 38,98
profit
The brut profit
% 6,6 7,35 7,11 7,73
interest
- 744 -
BACK
The valorification of the chicken meat at SC Avicola –Matca SA was

profitable, with an increasing evolution in the analysed period of time, so that in
2005, in comparison with 2003, the total brut profit was with 39.98% superior and
the brut profit interest outran the basic year.
The relation between the business sum evolution and of total production
expenses was positive because the business sum outran the total expenses
production rhythm, driving to the end at the profit and the minimizing of the
production expenses at 1000 lei total income.
In these circumstances, the total brut profit was almost 4 times bigger
than that in 2003, the lucrativeness interest was rising shouring a rational usage of
the production expenses.
The market strategy of the company is based on the rising of the market
shore, underlining a concentrated strategy focused on certain market parts, an
active strategy in which the range renovation processes and the quality rising of
the meat products will be dominant.
CONCLUSION
The company is settled on the eggs producing, the breeding of the
young hens and the changing of the old hens as well as the production of
combined fodders necessary for their feeding.
The relation between the evolution of income and total expenses of
production was positived, therefore, the income grow up quickly than total
expenses of production, finaly leading to profit incresing and reduced the
production expenses to 1000 lei total income.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Chiran, A., Gîndu, Elena., Ştefan, G., Piaţa produselor agricole şi agroalimentare. Editura
"Ion Ionescu de la Brad" Iaşi, 1998.
2. Chiran, A., Gîndu, Elena, Ştefan, G., Lokar, A., Doga V. Agomarketing, Editura Evrica,
Chişinău ISBN 9975-941-62-1, 407 pagini, 1999.
3. Chiran A., Ciurea I., - Tendances concernant l'organisation du marche desproduits
agroalimentaires de Roumanie dans laperiode de transition a l'economie de marche,
Lucr. ştiinţifice U.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol. 37, seria Agronomie, 1994.
4. Ciurea I.V., Ungureanu G., Brezuleanu S., 1998 – Organizarea şi eficienţa producţiei la o
fermă de creştere a nutriilor. Lucrări ştiinţifice, U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi, seria Zootehnie.
5. Cliquet, G. - Management strategique des points de vente, Ed. Sirey, 1992, France
- 745 -
BACK
THE ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY ASPECTS IN MEAT

PRODUCED AND CAPITALIZATION IN TECUCI REGION
Aurica GRIGORE
We think that it is necesary to study the economic indicators because

without their study as well as volum, level and proportion, it is not posible to
appreciate the optimisation of meat production structures.
In frame of increase the economic process, in country agriculture, the
participation of fifferent regions, in concordance with the specialisation and
their capabilities, can constitute the important links in increase the total
production of meat.
THE MATERIAL AND RESEARCH METHOD

The methodological sistem used in the paper have disposed to the specific
metods and technics, including agricultural statistics, comparative analysis,
economical evidence, etc.
THE RESULTS
The approach of the concept of economic efficiency took place over one
hundred years ago, in 1890, when term of “praxeologie (the scientific science
which studies the general structure of the human activities and of its efficiency
conditions is a theory of the efficient action) seems to have used for the first time.
But the economic theory was interested, before praxeologie, of the identification
and intensification of some efficiency growth principles although the present
terminology was not used till today. The term of efficiency must not be
misunderstood with the term of eficiency. The term of efficiency was used more
in the classical analysis, in the northern while the efficiency term is refound in the
old Latin and in southern countries. The conceptual difference between the
efficiency and output was drawn in ‘50s, and by the efficiency it is understood the
report of effort and effect and by output it is understood the way in which the
effect gets closer to the one wanted .
The purpose of the economic analysis is appreciate the economic situation
of the valorification of meat production. On this analysis a new strategy of
mentaining and development in the specific environment of the local economics
of Tecuci and the offer of economic information both for those in the interior of
the farms based on the meat production and those interested outside.
The obtaining of a certain amount of income to permit the realisation of a
competitive rentability in the present stadium represents a fundamental objective
of every agricol farm organized on economical basis in a market competitive
economy.
- 746 -
Among the productivity activities income, a profound analysis is required

for the business affair the stoked production and the production subventions.
The income realised in the last 3 years of the total agricol societies whit
judicial personality are presented in the following table. (Table 1)
On our market, some meat products selling is capitalized: bovine meat,
pork, chicken in carcasse (griller chicken, reforma chicken), brest chicken and
hen, brest chicken and hen without bones, the calves of the chicken and hen,
chicken cover, mutton and other meat products.
Table 1
Production and income realized to the main provisioner of meat on the Tecuci town
trade (2005)
The provider Sheep Chicken
Taurine meat Pork meat
meat meat
tons LEI tons LEI tons LEI tons LEI
AGRICULTORUL 24,1 301,25 0 0 22,4 324,8 0
MUNTENI
SC. AGRIMAT 12,4 155 0 0 0 0
SRL
S.C. AVICOLA – 0 0 0 0 177 1327,5
MATCA S.A
S.C. CARNIPROD 0 0 0 9,82 142,39 0
S.A
S.C. FULGA S.A 0 0 0 13,2 191,4 120 900
SC. PRISACA 8,8 110 0 0 23 333,5 0
SRL MUNTENI
Total 45,3 566,25 0 0 68,42 992,09 297 2227,5
The main beneficiaries from Tecuci in meat and its derivated are the
merchants from Tecuci. These beneficiaries contract almost 80-85% from the
offer, the difference of 15-20% is valorified by different occasional
beneficiaries. A small part from the meat and meat derivates is valorified
through the proper shops net. Between 2002-2005, the sales had a rising
tendency in the main meat products and meat derivates.
The largest income were realised by AVICOLA MATCA, of 1327,5 lei.
The valorification of the chicken meat offer (Avicola Matca) on the extern
market was realised by SC Prodexport SA Bucureşti intermediary and since
2003 the unit has given up at the external market because of the low prices
offered by the foreigner partner (through intermediary) which did not cover
the production expenses.
Between 2002-2005 the medium selling price on the external market
was between 5,4 lei/kg, and unsignificant rising compared to the inflation
index realised on the internal market. In future, SC AVICOLA SA Matca has
to sim as target the permanent prospect of the external political policy, both in
- 747 -
chicken meat and eggs to get on new markets at random situations but
especially on traditional markets.
Thus, the direct export system adoption is required like the existence of
a proper distribution net adapted to marketing logistic conditions specific on
the economical global market.
Table 2
The analysis of income situation from farms profiled in the meat production from
Tecuci town
Specification U.M 2002 2003 2004 2005 (+/- %)
2005
over
2002
Associations number 6 6 6 6 0
The total meat
tons 338,55 356,79 387,5 410,72 +21,32
productivity
Income of the
total associations
lei 2911,58 3123,35 3456,7 3785,84 +30,03
from the meat
selling
Income from an
lei 485,26 520,56 576,12 630,97 +30,03
association
Income on kg of
lei 8,60 8,75 8,92 9,22 +7,18
meat
Analysing the evolution of the income realised in the last years in Tecuci
town a rising of these is noticeable for the agricol farms whit legal status an
important role having the selling prices in meat, which in certain periods, due to
inflation, has significant a rising, the obtaining of larger profits on this method is
not the result of a performing economico-financial activity from the economic
agents.
It can be observed that for agricol farms the income realised by an
association are between 485,26 lei and 630.97 lei and this fact indicates that for
some associations the income value is pretty low. In this case, without sufficient
income the agricol farm will live from one day to another, through make shifts,
being marked by a risk level and permanent vulnerable at the external changes.
The business affair sum represents the total sum of the income realised by
an economic agent in a certain period, done both by the main activity and the
secondary activities. This index does not include the financial income. The target
of each farm is to obtain a business affair sum as large as possible or a moderate
sum but with a very secure future. The calculation of the business affair sum at
the farms level is a complex action which requires more elements in their
evolution like the income from the production selling, the income from different
services, the income from interest etc.
- 748 -
Table 3
The evolution of income situation from farms profiled in the meat production from
Tecuci town
(+/- %)
U. 2005
Specification 2002 2003 2004 2005
M over
2002
Total income lei 3330,94 3620,29 3851,60 4441,05 33,33
Income from lei 3330,94 3620,29 3851,60 4441,05 33,33
exploiting from...
Business affair sum lei 2911,58 3123,35 3456,7 3785,84 30,03
The stocked lei 133,37 258,66 53,65 275,99 106,93
production
The exploiting lei 285,98 238,28 341,24 379,22 32,60
subventions
Income from the lei 0 0 0 0 0,00
financial activity
Income from the lei 0 0 0 0 0,00
exceptional activity
Thus a certain quantity from the products obtained was for selling for
different beneficiaries to cover some productivity expenses, another part was for
the association members on their contribution to the realisation of the agricol
farm, another part was for the animal s food (where it was necessary) and another
part was still in the stock so as to be sold later at a more convenient price.
From the above table it can be noticed that the total income from 2005 were
rising compared to those in 2002, especially on the exploiting activity income,
which corresponds to a better selling line both to more ascendent market and the
necessities of a farm specialised in meat production and in a rising competivity.
The values of financial income are inexistent which means a low activity of the
agricol households on the exchange market.
Between 2002-2005, the evolution of the income obtained from the meat
products and meat derivates selling (en gros and en detail) was in a permanent
rising even for the rising of the quantities or for the inflationist process which led
to the fast rising of the prices.
From this informations we can observe that the sellings from 2005 have
risen with 68.78% from those in 2002, being different on the two systems of
valorification, dominant being the en gros system (92.27%) while the en detail
selling through proper shops represents 7.92% and in 2005 its majority rose from
4.12% (in2002) to 10.22% (in 2005).
From the economical results obtained in an agricol house-hold in Tecuci
town with a total of 15 bovine (11 milk cows) 4 pigs, 14 sheep and 30 chickens it
can be observed that the largest income realised is at pigs – 464.8 lei representing
44.27% from the total income of meat production selling.
- 749 -
Table 4
The economic result getting in one agricultural households in Tecuci town, Galaţi
county
The net income of a
Specification Total income of a year Total expenses
year
lei % lei % lei %
Total from wich: 3976 100,00 2926 100,00 1050 100,00
Bovine meat 1282,4 32,25 1075,2 36,75 207,2 19,73
Pork meat 1570,8 39,51 1106 37,80 464,8 44,27
Sheep meat 602 15,14 431,2 14,74 170,8 16,27
Chicken meat 520,8 13,10 313,6 10,72 207,2 19,73
A synthesis financial – economic indicator represents the expenses on

which very important aspects can be prognosted and solved especially aspects
regarding the quality of the whole economic-financial activities from the
profitable farms in processing the meat production.
Analysing the total expenses structure it can be observed that the majority on
expenses is different in the total exploating expenses. The decreasing order regarding
the majority of the expenses is the folouring: the expenses with the agricol works and
the services done by intermediaries, with materials, with the banks interest, with
energy and water.
Different stages of rising on types of activities were recorded towards the total
of expenses in the variable expenses especially for agricol works (35,31% in 2002
→ 58,13% in 2005).
Because the fixed expenses do not influence direct the volume of the
production, the main objective should be to reduce a part of these such as: the
payment of the buildings and equipment, general interests and expenses of agricol
exploitation. If their value is high compared to the size of the forms and the value
of productivity, these must be reduced till they will have a low effect over the
production level. The rising of the fixed expenses can be appreciated as “being
positive” only depending on the elements of expenses which caused this rising
and in the same teme the objectives wich interests.
The brut profit is an economic indicator of determining the performance
and the contribution of every sector of production in the total profit of the farm
specified on the meat production. The brut profit can be used to compare the
performances of the same sector of the farm specified on meat production over
same years. Using the brut profit information of a farm specified in meat
production a comparison can be made with similar sectors of other exploitations.
To simplify the profit obtained, the follouring situation regarding the brut
interest was drawn. In the table is presented the total profit level on an agricol
farm as well as on meat kg.
- 750 -
Table 5
Profit evolution on farms profiled in the meat production from Tecuci town
Specification U.M (+/- %) 2005
faţă de 2002
2002 2005 %
Number of associations Nr. 6 6 0,00
The total meat production tone 338,55 410,72 21,32
the total income from the meat lei 3330,94 4441,05 33,33
selling
the total expenses from the meat lei 43,71
selling 2875,68 4132,54
The brut profit on a total of lei 455,26 308,51 -32,23
assocoations
The brut profit instalment % 15,83 7,47 -52,84
The brut profit on an association lei 75,88 51,42 -32,23
The brut profit on a kilo of meat lei 1,34 0,75 -44,14
% in comparison to 2002 % 100 55,86 -44,14
Analysing the situation of the brut profit and the brut profit instalment on
total farms specified in mean production it can be noticed that in 2005 and in
2002 these were in a bad situation with the profit instalment belone 15,83% in
2002 and 7.47% in 2005 which represent a decreasing of the way in which the
resources from the agricol farms for the sold meat production brought a profit.
The measurement of the connection intensity is realised through the
correlation rapport which is settled on the base of a corresponding function of the
association way of characteristics for which the independence level is analysed.
The determination of the simple linear correlation coefficient is based on
the distribution of the duration of the two variables “x” and “y”. For this it is
necessary to calculate the three coefficients of simple linear correlation (a, b, c)
after formula:
n∑ xy − (∑ x ∑ y )
rx , y =
[n∑ x 2
][
− (∑ x ) n∑ y 2 − (∑ y )
2 2
]
in which:
r – the correlation coefficient;
x – the independent variable;
y – the dependent variable;
n – the number of the data series terms.
Analysing the correlation between the variables it is noticed that in that
period of time there was a very strong connection between the total income
dynamic (x1) and that of the total expenses (y1), specifying the form and the
rising system of the meat production (rx1, y=0.993) .
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BACK
Table 6
The manifested linkage between total revenue and expenses in farms profiled in the
meat production from Tecuci town
Correlatio
The variable - lei
n
Year 2 2
X1 Y1 X Y X1Y RX,Y
1 2 3 4 5 6
2002 3330,94 2875,68 11095161,3 8269535,5 9578717,54
2003 3620,29 3324,56 13106499,7 11052699 12035871,3
0,993
2004 3851,6 3567,87 14834822,6 12729696 13742008,1
2005 4441,05 4132,54 19722925,1 17077887 18352816,8
The correlation value of 0.993 represents that the connection between the
two variables is very high, determinable, with a great dependence of one another.
So, to a rising with 100 lei of income, the expenses rising was of 993 lei.
We can say that value of 0.993 of the correlation effect represent a very
strong connection between income and expenses, this being reflected through the
very low level of profits.
CONCLUSION
The obtaining of a certain amount of income to permit the realisation of a
competitive rentability in the present stadium represents a fundamental objective
of every agricol farm organized on economical basis in a market competitive
economy.
Analysing the situation of the brut profit and the brut profit instalment on
total farms specified in mean production it can be noticed that in 2005 and in
2002 these were in a bad situation with the profit instalment belone 15,83% in
2002 and 7.47% in 2005 which represent a decreasing of the way in which the
resources from the agricol farms for the sold meat production brought a profit.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Chiran, A., Gîndu, Elena., Ştefan, G., Piaţa produselor agricole şi agroalimentare. Editura
"Ion Ionescu de la Brad" Iaşi, 1998.
2. Chiran, A., Gîndu, Elena, Ştefan, G., Lokar, A., Doga V. Agomarketing, Editura Evrica,
Chişinău ISBN 9975-941-62-1, 407 pagini, 1999.
3. Chiran A., Ciurea I., - Tendances concernant l'organisation du marche desproduits
agroalimentaires de Roumanie dans laperiode de transition a l'economie de marche,
Lucr. ştiinţifice U.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol. 37, seria Agronomie, 1994.
4. Ciurea I.V., Ungureanu G., Brezuleanu S., 1998 – Organizarea şi eficienţa producţiei la o
fermă de creştere a nutriilor. Lucrări ştiinţifice, U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi, seria Zootehnie.
- 752 -
BACK
THE FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE ARTIFICIAL

REPRODUCTION IN THE COMMON CARP
L. SASCA, P. COROI
The artificial reproduction from the fisheries is dependent to a complex

of internal and external factors, one with predominant role is occupied by the
assurance of a supling of enough number which should assembly the superior
traits of the parents to satisfy the necessary number to populate the aquatic
basins, according to the requests of the modern technologies of exploitation.
Concerning this, it is necessary the assurance of the most favorable conditions
for the reproduction activity to allow the obtaining of descendents at the high
quantitative and qualitative exigencies.
Fish reproduction is controlled by external environment factors which

affect the action of the internal mechanisms. The last process from the
reproduction cycle, the release of spawn and milt, can be controlled through the
placing of fishes in a properly environment or through the altering of the internal
regulation factors through injection of hormonal products or of other substances.
Internal mechanisms of spawning control are almost the same for all
species of fish. The external environment factors which affect reproduction vary
from a species to the other. The most of the fishes are spawning in environment
almost impossible to assure in the incubation station. Hormonal inducing of
spawning is the most useful method for the reproduction induction in these
species.
The factors which play an important role in the reproductive cycle of the
common carp are: photoperiodicity, water temperature, water quality, water flow,
clime, nutrition, diseases and parasites, internal control mechanism of
reproduction, the hormonal treatments of spawning induction of sexual products
deposition.
Photoperiodicity
As in most animal species, the light has a positive influence on the
individual physiology. In common carp the duration of the day-light has a major
importance because of the influence on the spawning process.
Water temperature
The variation limits of the aquatic environment have values between -3ºC
and 40ºC, dependent to salinity, depth, season variations, sunstroke and
submerging currents etc., factors which determine a thermical layering of the
pond. The natural reproduction of the common carp in Romania starts usually in
the first half of April and finishes at the end of August. The spawning intensity
rises related to the warming of the water and touch the maximum when the
temperature reaches 18-190C.
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The temperature represents a limitative factor; the big losses are the effect
of the great variations in temperature. Embryonated spawn and early fry are
extremely sensible, especially at sudden variations of 3-5ºC when can appear the
mortality consecutively to thermic stress. It appears frequently at population of
the fishery when there was not performed a good homogenizing of the water
temperature.
To produce latent oocytes the carp females need a water temperature of
over 17ºC. The length of ovulation is tight with the water temperature. The sum
of the hour temperatures has to reach 240 – 260ºC. The carp spermatozoa are
active for a period of 70-80 seconds.
Water quality (oxygen dissolved, pH, hardness, salinity)
The most important compound of the water is the dissolved oxygen from
the water, which in fact conditions the presence of the aquatic flora and fauna and
favorizes the oxidation and mineralization processes of the organic substances,. In
the ponds for carp breeding must be assured at list 3,5mg oxygen/liter of water,
over the summer must be between 5 and 6,5 mg oxygen/l.
The natural waters have usually an alkaline pH, determined by the
bicarbonates and carbonates, whilst the stagnant waters can easily become acid
because of the humus substances from the organic decomposition. The best waters
for fisheries is at the neutral value of the pH of 6,8 – 8, according to every
species.
Water hardness is determined by the concentration of calcium and
magnesium salts and represents an important factor to aquaculture. For the
common carp the hardness optimum limits are 5 and 12 dHº.
Salt concentrations from the water are high correlated with the freatic
water contribution and their nature, the drainage characteristics and the slooping
sources. The optimal values for the breeding of common carp are lower than 1
mg/l.
Water flow
The water flow which crosses every pot varies during incubation
according to the stage of the spawn development. For the first 10 hours water
flow should be regulated to 0,6 – 0,8 l / minute. When the spawn reaches the stage
of morula or blastula, the water flow rises to 1 – 1,2 l / minute. Finally, when the
tail, eyes and pigmentation become visible the water flow reaches 1,5 – 2 l /
minute.
Clime
According to clime, the common carp can spawn once or mare times a
year. In the temperate regions spawning take place once a year, during late spring.
The new spawn start to develop in early summer and till autumn the latent spawn
are present in the ovaries. They remain in this stage over the winter and in the
early spring until the spawning.
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Nutrition
Both deficiencies and forage excesses affect negatively the fishery
production, through the mortality recorded, degeneration and slow growing etc. in
the case of foraging with fodder with high level of lipids and sugar, on restrain
spaces, it appear an over fattening of the fishes with fat depositions on the viscera,
followed by the atrophy of organs and muscles, reproduction indices lowering etc.
Fodder deficiencies in vital elements for growing and development such as
vitamins, amino acids, mineral substances etc. lead to anemia, skin necrosis,
skeleton dotaging, edema, depigmentation, organs atrophy etc.
Disease and parasites
The fisheries populations are dependent of water and sometimes the water
itself can cause various diseases. The most used classification of the main
diseases in fish is the following: infection diseases (infectious hydropisis, swim
bladder inflammation, pox), parasitary diseases (branhiomicosis, Saprolegniasis),
constitutional diseases (undergrown, gigantism, prognatism etc.), neoplasies
(fibroma, lipoma, osteoma etc.), disease caused by the abiotic factors from the
water (air-eating), nutrition diseases (deficiencies etc.).
Internal mechanism of reproduction control
The internal mechanism which controls the fish reproduction is the
nervous system – hypothalamus – hypophisis – gonads chain. This mechanism is
very complex because of the informations which come continuously. The external
stimulus are received and translated by the brain. The stimuli which influence the
reproduction are directed to the hypothalamus. It produces both releasing (GnRH)
and inhibiting gonadotrophins. The experimental results suggest that dopamine is
a substance which inhabits the release of gonadotrophins. The gonadotrophin
releasing hormone stimulate the hypophisis to produce gonadotrophin hormones
studies performed in more fish species using the injection of the hypophisis
extract show that for the ovulation realization it is necessary to increase the blood
concentration of gonadotrophic hormones. These hormones act at the ovaries and
testicles level.
The steroids and prostaglandins are the mediators for the releasing of
oocytes from the ovary. High blood levels of gonadotrophic hormones ignite two
distinct processes in the ovary: a) final maturation of the spawn, which appear to
be stimulated by the steroid hormones (progesterone) produced by the follicles; b)
ovulation, which is stimulated by the prostaglandins. The steroids induce also the
development of the spermiation process in male.
Hormonal treatments for the induction of spawning
Spawning hormone inducing influences the nervous system –
hypothalamus – hypophisis – gonads chain on different levels by the initiation or
inhibiting of the process. The main used substances for spawning induction with
the aid of hormones are: hypophisis extracts and purified gonadotrophins for the
stimulation of the ovaries and testicles; LHRH analogs alone or in combination
with dopamine inhibitors which increase the capacity of the LHRHa to stimulate
- 755 -
BACK
the hypophisis; or steroid hormones directly the gametes.

The appropriate hormonal product must be selected on the basis of data
concerning the species in which the spawning is induced. There are a lot of
variables which affect the hormones capacity to induce the spawning process such
as: a) general state of the fish; b) sexual maturity stage; c) fish dimensions; d) data
concerning the last spawning; e) water temperature and f) season.
Hypophisis extract
Hypophisis produces and stores gonadotrophic hormones, which play an
important role in ovulation and spermiation. The hypophisis material injected
cancel the connection between brain and hypophisis and act on the gonads level
directly, providing a high level of gonadotrophins which normally appear before
ovulation and spawning.
Fresh hypophisis
The first material used for the hormonal induced spawning was the
hypophisis gland freshly harvested from the species of work. This method is still
one very much used these days but unfortunately the reproducers have to be killed
in order to obtain the hypophisis which is bad when these reproducers are of a
great value.
Commercial hypophisis extracts
The hypophisis extracts from the common carp are largely used for the
spawning induction. These products are represented by dehydrated hypophisis
glands kept in powder form. Usually, the success of spawning induction is
correlated to the closed relation of the species (donor and beneficiary)
These factors are not independently by the others, but they act together. If
the environment conditions are suitable they stimulate the reproduction, if not
they can determine the inhibiting of every try to induce the spawning process by
the aid of hormones.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Billard R., Cossonb J., Percheca G., Linhart O. (1995) – Biology of sperm and artificial
reproduction in carp, Aquaculture 129: 95-112;
2. Brzuska Elżbieta, Bialowas H. (2002) – Artificial spawning of carp (Cyprinus carpio L.),
Aquaculture Research, 33: 753 – 775;
3. Bud I., Diaconescu Şt., Mudure M. (2004) – Creşterea crapului şi a altor specii de peşti, Editura
Ceres, Bucureşti;
4. Kirpichnikov, V.S. (1999) – Genetics and breeding of common carp, Institute National de la
Recherche Agronomique, CEDEX, Paris, France. 98 pp;
5. Levavi-Zermonsky B., Yaron Z. (1986) – Changes in gonadotropin and ovarian steroids
associated with oocytes maturation during spawning induction in the carp, General Compendium
Endocrinology, Apr; 62 (1): 89-98;
6. Miclea V., Zăhan M. (2006) – Reproducţia peştilor, Editura Accent, Cluj-Napoca;
7. Rottmann R. W., Shireman J. V., Chapman F.A. (1991) – Hormonal Control of Reproduction in
Fish for Induced Spawning, SRAC Publication No. 424;
*** http://www.fao.org
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BACK
ASPECTS REGARDING THE REARING PARAMETERS ON

TWO LOTS OF ORNAMENTAL CARP FED WITH
DIFFERENT RATIONS INTO RECIRCULATING SYSTEM
CONDITIONS
Aurelia MIHALACHE, L. OPREA, V. CRISTEA
Recirculation systems are becoming increasingly popular as they

provide a predictable and constant environment for growing fish. The aim of the
present paper was to determine the influence of different levels of ration
stabilized according to metabolic weight on ornamental Japanese carp rearing
into aquaculture recirculation system. The metabolic weight in fish is the body
weight to a power of 0.8. In the closed systems, which was represent by four
aquariums with useful capacity of 180 l, was effectuated simultaneous two
experiments, each with duration of 34 days. During the first experiment were
reared 11 ornamental carp with mean initial weight of 104, 6 g/ex. At the end of
growth period, mean final weight reached 142, 8 g/ ex. The ration utilized in this
experiment was 9 g/ kg gr met and the food conversion ratio was 1, 45. During
the second experiment were reared 11 ornamental carp with mean initial body
weight of 104, 2 g/ex. At the end of growth period, mean final weight reached
158, 5 g. The ration utilized in this experiment was 13 g/ kg gr met and the food
conversion ratio was 1, 74. Each variant was tested in two repetitions. The feed
used was Soprofish 38 pellets with rough protein 38 % for both experiments and
the survival rate of biological material was 100%.

Investigations were carried out at the Experimental Station from Departament
Aquaculture and Fisheries Foods Science and Engineering Faculty, from October
6 to November 8, 2006. The biological material was brought from Malina Fishy
Farm and was obtained from natural breeding in May, 2006. Both experiments
were performed in aquariums with total volume of 0, 205 m3 (1 x 0, 5 x 0, 41 m).
Water filtration unit was represented by two layer: first represented by biological
filter and the second layer represented by biological filter. The mechanical filter
consisted of porous sponge and particles of sand and it was approved very
efficient. The biological filter was represented by bacteria film attached on the
surface of plastic covers. The water quality parameters were maintained in
tolerable range through water sterilization unit – UV lamp and water oxygenation
unit – a compressor. In V1 variant, an aquarium was populated with 11
ornamental carp with mean initial weight of 104, 6 g/ex., and a total biomass of
1151 g. In V2 variant, another aquarium was populated with 11 ornamental carp
with mean initial weight of 104, 6 g/ex., respectively a total biomass of 1146 g.
There were two replicates for each treatment and the results were similar. In V1
variant fish were fed with 9 g / kg gr met, namely 1, 4 % per body weight and in
- 757 -
V2 variant fish were fed with 13 g / kg gr met, namely 2 % per body weight. The
temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen, principal water parameters were
determined every day. The following equipment was used to measure the water
quality: oxygen concentration and temperature were measured with the WTW Oxi
315 i and pH was measured with the pH meter WTW, model pH 340. In both
variants the fish were fed with Soprofish 38 pellets distributed by Kralex
Bucuresti which contain fish meal, soya protean content, corn, minerals and
vitamins. The fish were fed four times / day. Pellets were dispensed on the surface
manually and it was completely consumed by the fish. The chemical composition
is presented in the table 1.
Tabel 1
Chemical composition of pellets
weChemical UM Value
composition
Rough protein % 38
Rough fat % 12
Aqua % 8
Rough cellulose % 3, 5
Ash % 6, 0
Calcium % 1, 6
Phosphorus % 1,2
A vitamin U.I./kg 15000
D3 vitamin U.I./kg 2500
E vitamin mg / kg 90
C vitamin mg / kg 200
At the end of the experiment the fish were weighed, based on which the following
parameters were calculated:
• Weight Gain (W) = Final Weight (Wf) - Initial Weight (W0) (g)
• Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) = Total feed (F) / Total weight gain (W) (g/g)
• Growth rate (GR) = (Wf – W0) / t
• Specific Growth Rate (SGR) = 100 x (ln Wf - ln Wo) / t (%BW/d)
• Protein efficiency ratio (PER)=Total weight gain (W) / amount of protein fed (g)

The values of dissolved oxygen concentration varied between 4, 3 – 7, 6 mg / l
(figure 1); the pH oscillated between 5, 99 – 7, 6 (figure 2) and the temperature
varied between 15, 7 – 20, 5 (figure 3).
- 758 -
Figure 1 Variation of dissolved oxygen for experimental variants
7,0
6,5
6,0
5,5
5,0
4,5
4,0
3,5
3,0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33
A1 A2 A3 A4
Figure 2 Variation of pH for experimental variants

8,00
7,50
7,00
6,50
6,00
5,50
5,00
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33
A1 A2 A3 A4
Figure 3 Variation of temperature for experimental variants

25,0
20,0
15,0
10,0
5,0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33
Time (days)
In the table 2 are presented the growth parameters for all experimental aquariums.
Aquarium 1 and 2 represent V1 variant, while aquarium 3 and 4 represent V2
variant.
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Growth parameters for experimental variants

Table 2
Indicator Start experiment Final experiment
Data 05.10.2006 08.11.2006

Aquarium 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Growth day - - - - 34 34 34 34
Fish numbers 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11
Mean weight(g/ex) 104,6 105,8 104,2 102,7 142,8 143,1 158,5 150,7
Total biomass (g) 1151 1164 1146 1130 1571 1575 1744 1658
F (g) - - - - 607,1 612,5 1040,3 1029,5
W (g) - - - - 38,2 37,3 54,3 48
FCR - - - - 1,45 1,49 1,74 1,95
GR (g) - - - - 1,12 1,09 1,59 1,41
SGR (%BW/d) - - - - 0,91 0,88 1, 23 1, 11
PER (g) - - - - 0,16 0,16 0, 23 0, 2
In figure 4 is present the growth rate evolution for V1and V2 variants. After 34
experimental days, in the V1 variant it was obtained a fish weight gain over 38
grams, while in V2 the fish weight gain was 54, 3 grams higher.
Figure 4 Growth rate for experimental aquariums
1800
1700
1600
1500
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
L1 (g) L2 (g) L3 (g) L4 (g)
06.oct 24.oct 08 nov
CONCLUSIONS
1. The experiments indicated that feeding ornamental carp with diet
contained 38 % protein result in a good growth response.
2. The weigh gain was bigger in V2 variant, while the best value of feed
conversion ratio was registered in V1 variant.
3. The ornamental Japanese carp rearing into recirculation system with
mechanical filter formed by sand is very efficient.
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BACK
REFERENCES
Burden D. -“Koi or carp profile”, Agricultural Marketing Resource Center, Iowa State University,
july 2004
Cristea V., Grecu I., Ceapa C. – “Ingineria sistemelor recirculante din acvacultura”, Editura Didactica
si Pedagogica, Bucuresti, 2002
Jauch D. - “Poissons rouges”, Hachette, 1992
Jordan R. - “Feeding koi to develop a strong champion body shape and best color development”,
Texas koi &Fancy Goldfish Society – sept. 2004
Masser M. - “Water gardens”, Southern Regional Aquaculture Center, March 1999
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BACK
THE INFLUENCE OF AMBIENTAL TEMPERATURE

ABOUT LUMBRICUS TERRESTRIS PROLIFICITY
A. GRUBER, I.M. POP, B. PĂSĂRIN
The rational alimentation of fish assure the progress and biological

equilibrium of this. The most efficiently results after we feeding a vary diet in
correspondence with species oquarium fish.
The breathind nutriment contain fundamental nutrients who is necessary
for fish increase, thid assure a power colour, the fish are active and resist at the
pathogenic agents attack.
This study presentation same results with allud at temperature influence
about prolificity of Lumbricus Terrestris, an important species who forming the
hummus and who feedingthe aquarium fish, because contein protein.
The conclusion of this experiment are: the prolificity of Lumbricus
Terrestris are direct proportional with environment temperature all time, in cold
and warm season. The temperature of Lumbricus Terrestris is 17 – 19ºC, and the
reproduction period is in the cold season .
INTRODUCTION
At Terra exist 3500 species of earthworms, those are dispersion from the
North Pole to the most aride zone from this planet. On record is Lumbricus
Terrestris.
Populary Lumbricus Terrestris is the earthworm, this name is commun with
a series of species from Oligochaeta class, from Annelida fillum. The earthworms
are from Opisthopora, because the male pores are open and that are situated
posterior in ratio with female. Earhworms are known as macroworms, namein
opozition with microworms who include Tubicidae, Lumbriculidae and
Enchytraeidae (www. Wikipedia.com ).
The earthworm are hermaphrodite because the reproductive organs of
female and male are by the same worm, but it isn’t exist autofecundation. The
male reproductive organ contain: testes in segments 11 and 10 who product
sperm; seminal vesicles in 9, 11 and 12, who stock sperm, spermatduct in 9 and
10, these transport the sperme in aoutside of body, in 15 segment. The female
reproductive organs is represents by ovisacs, are situated in 13 segment, colect
and stock the eggs; ovaries, situated in 13segment , this product eggs, the oviduct
who transport the eggs to 14 segment, where are transmission in the body (fig. 1).
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Seminal vesicles
spermathecae
testes
ovaries
duct spermatic ovisac

oviducts
Fig.1: The reproductive organs of Lumbricus terrestris

(www. student x press.ie)
The copulation happen at the soil surface, in night. The worms are in
apposite with the ventral face in contact and clitellium of every worm (32-37
segments) are in opozition with 9-15 segment of the other individ. Worms legacy
in this position by pores and by the mucus excrete by clitellum ( fig. 2).
Seminal ovaries
receptacle oviducts clitellum
Seminal
receptacle
clitellum vessels
testes testes
Fig. 2: The copulation of Lumbricus terrestris

(www simulium.bio uottawa.ca)
- 763 -
The other worm deliver sperm from 15 segment, and from 2 trench seminal
stopped in clitelium. The sperm travers spermathecals of the other worm at the 9
and 10 segmnet, where is stoke. The copulation it can be 4-5 hours and next the
worm are separate they back in soil.
At same days after copulation, the clitelium of ther worm are excrete a
strong tube, cocoon, who slide from face to posterior extremity at worm collecting
eggs by the 14 segment and sperm from spermathecal 9 and 10. Cocoon contein
zygotes, is released in soil. In cocoon hatching mach more eggs, but just one is
fertile, the other eggs are used like food for the first hatching worm (fig. 3).
Fig.3: The structure of cocoon to Lumbricus terrestris

(www simulium.bio uottawa.ca)
MATERIAL AND METHOD :

The study is made by live worm from Lumbricus Terrestris, harvest around
og Venetia lake from Iaşi. This methodis used to determinate the number of
descendants who result in every week by direct numerate with pincers, and
determinate the prolificity with this formula:
P = N1 – N2
P = prolificity;
N1 = number of worms by current week;
N2 = number o worms by last week.
EXPERIMENT I:
It started with 50 worms by Lumbricus terrestris who are introducts in
recipient with 10 liters capacity with the original soil together. The count has been
in every week, the temperature was consemn in every day, it is vary like the
environment temperature. The period of experiment it was by 3 month (01.08.2006
– 31.10.2006), in graphic is just a medium temperature for every week (fig . 4 ).
- 764 -
EXPERIMENT II :
This experiment it is like the first, the number of worms overheads are
same, the diference is at the temperature, it was relative constance ( 19-20ºC)
Duration is 3 month but with experimental period who differe: 01.11.2006-
31.01.2007. The experiment was made at the Aquaculture labory.
DISCUTION AND RESULT:

The presents of earthworms in soil is determinate by dampness, the number
of these worms can be variate, in concordace with rainfalls. The experiment
dignify the importance of the temperature and umidity nearby number of
earthworms from soil.
In conformity with the results (Fig. 4) we observed: if the temperature is
grow the number of worm is increase.
The period when the prolificity is maxim (115 -285 worms), is the second
parth at September and the firtst parth at octomer. In this period the temperature
vary in limits 17 – 19ºC.
This vary are’n good for prolificity. It’s observed at 21-24ºC the prolificity
is by 70-77 worms. At 12ºC the prolificity is 47 worms.
THE PROLIFICITY IN
AUGUST-OCTOMBRIE
300
200
100
0
25 21 24 21 18 19 17 18 17 19 17 12 21
PROLIFICIT Y 14 9 77 70 50 220 158 250 232 285 115 47 57
Fig. 4: The graph of prolificity in august-octombrie
The date from special literature, in cold season the earthworm are alive a
period in dipausa, when the activity of genital glands are stoped ( Năstăsescu M.
1977). The constant temperature 19 – 20ºC, in laboratory condition, we observ the
worm reproduction, butin a small number, like in the natural condition.
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At 20ºC, the prolificity is from 10 earhworms, is variabil direct with

temperature.
THE PROLIFICITY IN
NOIEMBRIE-IANUARIE
30
20
10
0
20 20 21 20 20 19 20 20 18 19 19 19 19
PROLIFICIT Y 10 10 30 10 10 10 14 10 6 9 8 9 9
Fig. 5: The graph of prolificity in noiembrie-ianuarie
CONCLUSIONS :
1. Lumbricus terrestri is supposed a live food, with more protein, that are very
efficiently for increase of aquarium fish;
2. These oligochete are easy to proxy, are anywhere in nature;
3. If in artificial culture the temperature are across 15ºC, Lumbricus terrestris is
peroducting in cold season, when would have to get at diapausa, and the
activity of genital glands are inactive;
4. In cold season the prolificity is reduced like warm period;
5. The temperature is an very important element with direct influence to
prolificity;
6. At temperature of 17-19ºC, the prolificity on Lumbricus terrestris is
maximum.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. Năstăsescu M. 1977, “Zoologia nevertebratelor”, Ed Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti;
2. Pisică C. 2001, “Zoologia nevertebratelor”, Ed University “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” Iaşi;
3. *** www. Wikipedia. com;
4. *** www simulium.bio.uottawa.ca;
5. *** www student x press. ie
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A STUDY CONCERNING THE USE OF EXPERIMENTAL

TECHNIQUES IN THE RESEARCH OF FISH NUTRITION
AND ALIMENTATION
Alexandrina DIAC, G. HOHA
In the investigations imposed by the scientific research, the essential

working instrument is the direct experiment on the biologic material, together
with other methods such as the observation, chemical analysis etc. In order for
the experiments to be well conducted and organized, it is recommended to use
what it is called the experimental technique. This technique is based on a series
of systematic and technical measures, which are specific to the chosen theme,
used to collect objective results, and from their interpretation to draw
conclusions and make recommendations concerning the nutrition and
alimentation of fish, for further research.
The modern experimental technique, used in scientific research, gives the

opportunity to study at the same time, in the same experiment, several factors, in
several combinations, and many times, in the same series, to establish the role of
each, in the realization of the index forsighted in the research protocole. The
experiments are more needed in a research because the pisciculture is more
developed and there are used several and numerous factors, and from their action
there has to be maximum of production.
1. Laboratory experimental techniques used on fish
The biometry. For the study and the objective settlement of the corporal
development, the growth dynamics, the influence of alimentation, the pisciculture
uses the corporal measurements and the weighting. The calculation and the
prelucration of the results concerning the expression of the followed
phenomenons are done using the biometry (Dinu, 1982).
The determination of growth.The determination of growth at fish is done
using the lenght and the weight. The methods used are different from one species
to another, and also from the work environment.
The individual weight is determined on live, dead, frozen or preserved
exemplaries. The weight varies in upper levels (0-30% loss of water in 4 hours
from the catch). Because of this, in the weight measurement on preserved
material, it is used a corrective index. The precision of the lenght and weight
determinations has to be under 1-3% (Gheracopol, 1986).
Morpho-anatomical observations. The data obtained from measurements and
weighting are used to determine different pointers such as: profile, thickness,
fatness, quality and fleshness, which are further used to characterize from the
morphological point of view a certain population of fish from a certain geographic
area (Stan, 1990). After the morphological examination the next step is the
anatomical examination of the internal organs with the help of the autopsy.
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Types of laboratory analysis. From the category of hematological analysis we

can particularize: hemoglobin, hematocrit, seric proteins and glycogen. The
hematological ponters vary, first of all, depending on species, sex, age, and
second, on the ecological conditions of the environment.
The purpose of these analisys is the establishment of the chemical
compozition of the meat, that is water, proteins, fats and ashes (Nicolau, 1959).
2. Elements of experimental technique used in the growing of fish
The formation of the lot. The group or the lot of fish represents the basic unit
for the fish research, by apreciating or comparing it to another lot one can obtain
informations about the researched factor. The lot of fish have to fulfil certain
conditions: to have an equal number of individuals, to be homogeneous; to be
healthy from the point of view of any contagious disease.
The place of the experiments. Experiments on fish can take place in ponds,
rivers, artificial lakes, submersible precincts, pendent fish wells, concrete tanks
etc., due to the followed purpose.
2.3 The selection of the biological material and the reserch conditions. The
systematisation of the experiments requires the biological material, the food, the
space, and sometimes the instruments needed for weighting, measuring, collecting
probes, keeping and preserving them etc (Cucu, 2005).
The fish comes from a research unit which has also a production sector,
from other fish stations, but only if they are from the same species, and with no
diseases. After the selection, the fish are grouped into homogeneous lot,
excluding the interferance of some factors that can damage the results.
Before the experience begins, it is beeing estimated the quantity of food
needed throughout the whole period. The food will be analysed from the
nutritional, technological and economic point of view.
The arrangement of the experimental space is done due to the organization of
the experiment. The space has to assure the confort required by the biological
needs of the fish. All the data concerning the conditions that will be fulfilled
throughout the experiment is mentioned in The Research Protocole (Cucu, 2005).
2.4 Controlled fishing. In order to observe the growth of the fish, weekly or
twice a month, it is done the control fishing. On the field , together with the
fishing, it is being observed also, the health state of the fish. The control
fishings are done for each age category (Grozea, 2003).
2.5 Determination of the specific consumption and the weight gain. The food
consumption can be determined by measuring the quantity of bowel content,
immediately after the catch, to stop it from reducing, during digestion and
absorbtion, which continues for several hours since the fish died.
The determination of the specific food consumption is done by rating the
food quantity consumed by the fish to the weight growth.
To determine the weight gain at the fish, there have to be done weekly or
monthly measurements.The weight gain represents the difference between the
final average weight and the initial average weight (Lustun, 1978).
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2.6 Determination of the health state with the ichthyopathologic examination.

The examination of the fish is done by observing the body integrity, the
colour of the skin, malformations, the arrangement and the measure of the
cuts, the pigmentation stains, traumas, the state of the scales (Balaci, 1978).
3. Methods and working techniques used in the pisciculture research
Growing fish in ponds. At the Research and Piscicultural Production Station
from Podu Iloaiei-Iassy, there have been studied improvements of the technologic
process, concerning the growth in polyculture, in summer, of the species: crap, cornel,
bufalo and sheat fish (tab. 3.1).
Table 3.1
The sapling 0+ production obtained between 1986-1987in the growing pond
(Matei, 1988)
Year Area Species
(ha) POPULATION PRODUCTION SURVIVAL
Age Samples g/individual Average Kg/ Total Total %
(Days) /ha weight ha kg
(Thousands) (g/individual)
1986 30 Co 15 20 0,8 50 565 17066 11 60
Ho 15 100 0,8 20 986 29578 49 50
Co 15 30 - 50 506 15170 10 30
Ho 3-5 130 - 30 1200 36000 40 30
1987 30 Bo 3-5 10 0,5 450 125 3750 3 31
So 20 0,1 1,0 3 109 0,06 60
The results obtained confirms the possibility of obtaining in ponds robust

saplings, with the average weigh over 30 g/ individual, in amounts between 1500-
1800 kg/ ha, with less fodder consumption (c.s. =2,3-2,8) (Matei, 1988).
Growing fish in pendent fish wells. This growing system was for the
experimental tests from the Trifeşti – Neamţ pond (Battes, 1988).
The growing of the culture crap is possible in three year cycles. The final
individual measures can go up to 1200 g/ sample. The specific consumption can
vary between 2,4- 3,5 and it is strictly conditioned by the level and the quantity of
proteins- higher as the proteic level goes under 38-40%, which has to be seen as
the optimum level (Battes, 1988).
Table 3.2
The results of the experiment concerning the raising of the crap in pendent fish wells
(Battes, 1988)
Specification 1st Summer 2nd Summer 3rd Summer
The date of the population 1st of July 25 of April 25 of April
The period of the experiment 100 100 100
The initial individual weight (g) 2,3 30 450
The final individual weight (g) 30 450 1200
The density in population (heads) 400 65 20
The density at the end of the 148 55 19
experiment (heads)
Mortality (%) 37 16 0,2
Consumption index 2,4 2,8 3,5
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Growing fish in concrete tanks.This method, was elaborated by Tanaka and

consists in raising the fish in small sized tanks. The tanks are filled with water
from rivers, which have a flow of 300-1200 l/second (Grozea, 2003). By rational
foddering throughout one years, he obtained 85 kg of crap/ mp of tank. By
populating the 13 mp with 3113 crap samples with thw average individual weight
of 24,2 g and totally about 75,4 kg, throughout a year he obtained 1142 kg of
crap, which represents 87,8 kg crap/m2 tank (tab. 3.3).
Table 3.3
The results obtained by raising the fish in concrete tanks
(Tanaka, adaptare Grozea, 2003)
Specification Concrete tank with Concrete tank with
the size of 48 m2 the size of 13 m2
Raising period (days) 365 365
The number of population samples 817 3113
The average weight/sample at population (g) 63 24,2
Total weight at population (kg) 512 75,4
Total weight at the end of the raising period (kg) 4080 1142
The production per m2 of tank (kg) 85 87,8
3.4 Growing fish in tanks using thermal water or water from thermal
power station. In the nurseries where the tanks supplied with thermal water are
used, the piscicultural production is being made in atificial conditions and with
high densities per m2 of water. The fish are raised in small tanks (under 100 m2)
and nourished with granulated fodder.The tanks are builed from concrete or
armed polyester with glass fibers, and are placed under sheds with glass roofs and
are supplied with thermal water (Rebreanu, 1984).
The way in which these principles work are different from one country to
another (tab. 3.4).
Table 3.4
The results concerning the raising of fish in tanks supplied with thermal water
or with water from thermal power stations
(Grozea, 2003).
Specification Russia Germany Japan
Tank type concrete Armed concrete 100 m3 Concrete 50-100 m3
Period of the experiment 180 180 180
(days)
Water origin Thermal power stations Thermal power stations Thermal power stations
or thermal water
Water temperature 24-25oC 24-25oC 25-28oC
Population density 150 7795 9000
Fodder type Combined granulated Combined granulated Combined granulated
fodder fodder fodder
Initial weight/individual 30 30 50
Final weight/individual 450
Production/m3 tank (kg) 296,5 110
Specific consumption 2,5 2,2 2,1
Mortality 15
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Growing fish in aquariums. The aquariums used have a capacity of 40l

of recycled water, with an invariable temperature of 23 oC. This method was used
in Germany. The exeprimental period was of 16 months. During this period the
weigh of the craps grew from 10g to 2600g and from 130g to 4000g (Grozea,
2003).These weigh growings are possible because of the avoiding of the
stagnation of body development throughout winter, as the result of maintaining
invariable temperature of the water at a high level.
4.Techniques used to determine the digestion, energetic metabolism, the

need for proteins, fats and sweets at fish
4.1 Techniques used to determine the digestion. The digestion of the
fodders was determined for some fish species such as:the trout, anghila, plaice,
crap, American cat-fish, etc. The determination of digestion involves the
knowledge of ingestion and expeled excrements. The measurement can be done
by two methods: direct method involves the measurement of the ingested fodder
and of the excrements which correspond to one or more known meals, and the
Indirect method which consists in using an inactive marker, undigestive and
unabsorbant included in the fodder (ingested fodder x marker= excrements x
excrement marker). The growing of the marker’s concentration raported to the
fodder’s concentration gives the opportunity to calculate the dissappearence of the
fodders and this is equal to absorbtion.
The digestion of dry food (expressed in %) is calculated using this formulae:
% food marker
CUDa = 100-(100----------------------------------)
% excrement marker
In the same way, the digestion of a fodder is calaculated using the formulae:
Food marker % food from excrements
CUDa = 100-(100----------------------- x-------------------------------------)
% excrement marker % food from fodder
The digestion of a particular staple can be measured in different ways:

The distribution of the staple without any other fodder obtaining the
digestion of the initial staple and the adding to the basic ration whose digestion is
known, the ration being equally raised. The CUD formulae of the staple is done in
this case either by difference with the basic diet, or by extrapolation starting with
the last. This last method was used on sturgeon, trout and crap.
At fish the ingathering of excrements is harder that at terrestrial animals
because of the environment, the water, and of the dissolving and spreading
phenomenons, which interfere from the first 5 minutes of the excrements
immersion and continues throughout hours (Guillaume,1990).
The techniques of excrements ingathering can be classified into two
groups depending on getting the fish aut of the water or not. At the fish that are
out of the water the ingathering by abdominal pressure is done by: anal
- 771-
ingathering and dissection, and at the fish that remain in the water this is done by
siphoning the excrements and continous filtering of the water (Guillaume,1999).
4.2 Techniques concerning the determination of the enegetic
metabolism at fish. The determination of the fodder’s or ingredient’s energy is
important to improve the food recipies. It can be determined as basic energy,
digestion energy, metabolism energy or as plain energy.
The Gross Energy. It can be calculated by summing up the energetic values of
each macronutrient from the fodder’s composition based on the results from the
specialized literature (Tacon, 1989).
The Digestible Energy.This form of energy is determined through digestion
research for each species and for each fish size, keeping in mind the environment
conditions. At fish the energy consumptions vary from 12-35% from BE.
The Metabolisable Energy results from the digestion energy, from which it is
substracted the energy eliminated under the form of brachial and urinary
excrements (Guillaume,1999). It is estimated that the excrements nitrate products
are made of 85 % ammonia azote şi 15 % urea azote. The metabolism energy loss
represent 2-8% from BE, because of the source of the proteins or the report
Pr/DE.
The Net Energy is obtained from the metabolism energy from which it is
substracted the energy lost with the use and the consumption of the food. The
losses that correspond to the thermal energy come from the mechanical work and
the biochemical work (Tacon, 1989). The calorific loss is influenced by the food,
by the interactions between foods and the temperature. For each species there is a
thermal area in which the calorific loss has a small value (Guillaume, 1999).
4.3 Techniques used to determine the energetic needs at fish. The
minimum energetic consumption of the fish can be determined in their
environment, left without food, for a long period of time, so that their alimentary
canal to empty. It has been observed that this consumption is 10 to 30 lower than
at mammales.
The best method to evaluate the maintenance needs is to measure the
variations of the energy content of the fish lot fed with growing amounts of
energy and by extrapolaion or interpolation to obtain an income of energy equal
to zero.
The variations of this demand, depending on the body weigh and the
water temperature, result from the effect of these factors on the minimum
metabolism, which represents the main component of the maintenance
consumption.For the cat fish, at 25°C, as well as for the trout at 18°C, the daily
maintenance ration corresponds to 0,4-0,6% of the body weight.
Determining the energetic needs for production. The energetic needs for
production can be defined as the amount of energy necessary to produce a kg of
fish. The energetic need for growing is determined depending on the composition
of the diet; the orientation of the fodder to anabolism or catabolism depends on
the equilibrium between the protean/ non-protean energy.
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Determining the energetic needs for reproduction. Fish seem to not have peculiar
needs for reproduction from the point of view of the energetic-protean report of
the fodders. When the energy contribution from the food isn’t enough, the
majority of the species are consuming first the energy for the development of the
gonads in the detrimentof the somatic growth(Guillaume,1990).
4.4 Techniques used to determine the proteins needs. As the synthesis of
the aminoacids is concerned, as well as the superior vertebrates, fish are incapable
to synthesize certain aminoacids, which must be insured through fodder. These
aminoacids, classified as essentials, can be determined by two methods: classic
and new: the classic methods which consist on taking aut of the diet the
component considered essential and determining the animal to survive like that
for a week or for a month, waiting for the lack signs to appear; the new methods
are based upon biochemical techniques, especially using radioactive prints
(stamps, signs, marks). This method has two ways: the fish is injected with
acetate or glucose, marked by Carbon 14C, and after that is being sacrificed. Part
of the body protein is being sampled and hydrolyzed. The animoacids obtained
are separated through chromatographyand are being submitted to some
radioactivity countdown which is found in great amounts only in the non-essential
acids. These two types of experiences lead to the conclusion that the same ten
aminoacids are essential to fish and to non ureotelic superior vertebrates
(Guillaume, 1990).
The determination of the proteins needs is done also depending on the
amount of proteins from the fish meat, the temperature, the waist and the age of
the fish (Guillaume,1990).
4.5 Techniques used to determine the fats needs. The need for fats is
higher at fish that the terestrial animals, with some small exceptions at birds
(Oprea, 2000).
In order to assure the necessary amount of essential fat acids, it has to be
established the fat acid which dominates one species or another (n-3 or n-6) and
which is the biconversion capacity of the fat acid into C18 the fact that the linoleic
and the linolenic acids are the most important (Tacon 1989).
Normally, the classes of fodders based on fish oil and fish flour are the most
indicated to be used in recipies, because they are very rich in essential fat acids
from the series n-3 (10-12 %).
In the case of sweet water fish, the oils which do not have the
polyunsaturated fat acids from the n-3 series, such as the corn oil, cannot
contribute to the covering of the needed amount of essential fat acids from this
series, so that the cover is being made by using inn the diet the soy oil or the fish
oil. The modern tendency concerning the alimentaion of fish aims the growing of
fat concentration in the fodders (Guillaume,1990).
4.6 Techniques used to determine the need of sweets at fish. Fish use
different carbon hydrates, depending on their nutritional specter, and the amount
of enzyme that they have. When there is plenty of food, the sweets can be stored
as back-up substances in the liver and muscles, under the form of glycogen. This
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BACK
can be used to assure the energetic needs of the body during starvation or when
the energetic level of the diets is under the optimum level.
Among the methods used to assure the quantity of sweets needed by the fish
we mention:the use of simple sugars, as glucose, incorporated in combined
fodders; of complex structure sweets from plants such as starch from cereals,
rootcrop or tubers.
CONCLUSIONS
The laboratory experiments set up on fishes have a hight importance trought
tha contribution they bring to the expresion of the phenomenon studied within.
Some elements used in fish husbandry, such those of experimental
technique, worth to be considered becouse they support the research trough the
design of the appropiate experimental conditiond provinding valuable data on the
studied subject influence on fish production.
The techniques used to assears the feed didestibility and nutritional fact
requirements of fibres are very important, in order to assure an optimized,
qualitative and economocally eficient feedig.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Balaci, P., 1978 – Profilaxia şi terapia veterinară în condiţiile creşterii intensive a animalelor, Ed.
Ceres, Bucureşti;
Battes K., Munteanu I., Bogatu D., 1989 – Creşterea dirijată a peştilor de apă dulce, Pontus
Euxinus-studii şi cercetareII, Constanţa;
Billard R., 1980 – Les carpes biologie et elevage, INRA, Publ. Paris;
Battes, K. W., Măzăreanu C., 2003 – Producţia şi productivitatea ecosistemelor acvatice, Editura
“Ioan Borcea”, Bacău;
Cucu I. si colab., 2005 - Cercetarea ştiinţifică şi elemente de tehnică experimentală în zootehnie,
Editura ALFA, Iaşi;
Dinu I., 1982- Dicţionar enciclopedic de zootehnie, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti;
Gheracopol, O., Lăbuş Selin M., 1986 – Lucrări practice de piscicultură, Editura didactică şi
Pedagogică Bucureşti;
Grozea A, Bura M., 2003- Creşterea crapului, Editura Waldpress, Dumbrăviţa;
Guillaume, J., Kaushik S., 2000 – Nutrition et alimentation des poissons et crustaces, Edit. INRA,
Paris;
Halga P., Stan Gh., Man S. , Burlacu C., 1999- Dicţionar de nutriţie şi alimentaţie, Editura
Remus, Cluj-Napoca;
Kászoni Z., 1974 – Creşterea peştilor în iazuri şi heleşteie, Editura ceres, Bucureşti;
Kaushik S., Luquet P., 1993- Fish Nutrition in Practice, INRA, Paris;
Lustun L, 1978 – Dicţionar piscicol, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti;
Manolescu, N., Bîrză H., Căprtărin A., 1978 – Ghid de hematologie a animalelor în creşterea
intensivă, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti;
Nicolau, I., 1959 – Hematologie, Editura Medicală, Bucureşti;
Oprea, L., 1996 – Cercetări privind utilizarea furajelor granulate în alimentaţia peştilor, în diferite
sisteme de cultură, Teză de doctorat;
Oprea L., Georgescu R., 2000 - Nutriţia şi alimentaţia peştilor, Editura tehhnică, Bucureşti;
Rebreanu L., 1984 – Curs de piscicultură, Lito I.A.T.
Stan, Tr., Păsărin B., 1999 – Acvacultură, curs, Editura Univ. de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină
veterinară, Iaşi;
Tacon A., 1989 – Nutricion y alimentation des peces y camarones FAO, Brazilia;
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AQUACULTURE BIO - A CHANCE AND CHALLENGE FOR

ROMANIA IN THE 3rd MILLENIUM (I)
B. PĂSĂRIN, G. HOHA, A. GRUBER,
Alexandrina DIAC, Françoise PICARD
L’harmonisation des différents cahoers de charges européens

d’aquaculture bio prendra sans doute quelques années. Lors du premier
séminaire sur ce sujet, tenu à Toulouse fin 2003, les protagonistes ont échangé
leurs points de vue l’ouverture des négociations.Première etape cruciale :
s’acorder sur une définition commune de ce qu’est ou n’est pas l’aquaculture
bio.
L’armonisation est essentielle pour protéjer le consommateur, éviter des
distorsions de concurrence et renforcer le marché.
If in respect of the vegetable production and animal breeding, especially

certain species of farm animals that live on land, there has been significant
progress, bio aquaculture is still at a trend-setting level. According to the
information provided by some specialized organizations like Soil Association
(England) or G.D.A.B. Midi-Pyrenées (France), the representatives of several
nations are striving to develop and match the technical specifications of the future
European bio Aquaculture.
A. Discussion and match-related issues

On several mettings with the competent bodies, there has been agreed that this
matching process should beging with the presentation, by all the EU countries that
wish to obtain bio aquacultural products, of the aspects that they consider
essential and not negotiable, strictly related to the following issues:
1. fish feeding;
2. fish farming density;
3. sanitary treatments;
4. size of the farms.
1. Fish feeding, given the new bio fish farming conditions, necessarily
includes the use of the natural resources of that country, with direct implications
on the type of food consciously fed and on the observance of the path of the
goods and self-consumption (Nigel Woodhouse, Soil Association, 2004).
According to recently published data, Aquaculture uses about 35% of the
flours and oils obtained from fish, as both these components together represent
about 70% of any recipe of fodder used. Therefore it is difficult to impose a
certain type of flour in all countries that could come, for instance, from the
industrial processing of fish issued, in their turn, from a biological aquaculture,
the same requirement having to be met by the vegetable flours that are designed to
be supplements and provide a well-balance fodder nutrition.
- 775 -
Another possibility would be the turning into flours of the subproducts

obtained from fish meant for human consumption or, as already done with pig and
chicken bio breeding, the replacement of animal proteins with vegetable proteins.
In this latter case, many bio Agriculture specialists and experts (especially
Spanish) considered that this would cause major damages to the consumers and
producers of bio products, who would easily notice differences in the appearance
and taste of the products and would refuse to buy them.
Another issue related to fish fodder concerns lipids. There are species of fish
for which the fodder must observe a strict ratio between omega 3 and omega 6
polysaturated fatty acids, and the non-observance of these ratios alters the taste of
the meat, those products being compromised from the organoleptic viewpoint.
(D.Verrdier, Aquabio, 2004).
2. Fish farming density in the basins or other hydrotechnical living and

processing facilities (cages, tanks for the transportation of living fish, submerged
fishing nets, floating fishing nets etc.) is also a sensitive issue of the technical
specifications for each European state. There are currently two propositions
related to the maximum accepted fish density:
■ the northern pattern (already used by the company Selon Asa Wide in
Norway), which expresses optimum density in kg of fish /m³ water, although
there has been admitted that is rather difficult to define ,,maximum load/m³
water‘‘ since there are various interpretations and fluctuations depending on the
type of fish farm, age and weight, on what the fish is bred for (consumption or
reproduction), on the type of food, as well as on the fact that in every basin the
fish is distributed at random, as areas presenting high fish densities alternate with
low or no fish areas (especially in salmonids and somonids).
For the assessment of the same optimum density one should also consider
the physiological criteria (especially the cortisone load in the water), the behavior-
related criteria (native aggressiveness between individuals), as well as the
technical-sanitary standards/treatments required and agreed by international
standards.
■ the Irish pattern, which proposes as an essential element when
determining the optimum fish density, the O2 concentration in the water, which
also includes other important elements like water flow, nature of the basin and
affluent bed soil, water surface and depth, average temperature and number of
total renewal of the water in the basins in 12 hours etc. If the water in the basins
has a O2 percentage which is high enough, stress will be removed, even though
the density is higher and, implicitly, the handling operations are more frequent. (I.
Warrer-Hansen,biologist and producer, 2002).
3. Sanitary treatments in bio Aquacultura ,,should be performed as rarely

as possible”, and this is stipulated in all the technical specifications of the EU
states, although there has not yet been established what this actually means (A.
Piccioli, General directorate for fish and fishing of the European Committee,
- 776 -
2004). Here are some self-evident examples related to the discussions and topics
under this item:
∗ antiparasite treatments, accepted in some European states, as it is
officially considered that an antiparasite substance is a chemical product and not a
medicine;
∗ treatments with anesthetic substances, currently accepted for all
categories of fish age and weight, except for the reproduction fish, although such
treatments are necessary, especially in sea Aquaculture, since the reproduction
fish that are used are large, strong, energetic and their handling often leads to their
injury and then death.
∗ immunostimulant substances, as long as they are ranked between
natural additives, may be included in the fodder, without however being sold
separately, and with the specification that they are products that may induce
immunostimulant effects. All the fodder additives that may be officially used are
listed in a standard called D.G.70-84 (M.Florez-Droop, General Agricultural
Directorate of the European Commission, 2004).
As concerns medicines, antibiotics and vaccines, specialists are trying,
unfortunately still unsuccessfully, to draw a list under which licenses to market
these products may be issued, especially concerning medicines, since vaccines
and especially antibiotics are not accepted. Also, research has been carried out,
like in other animal husbandry areas, to obtain homeopathic substances that could
replace vaccines in the near future.
4. Size of the fish farm, according to the bio standards, does not refer to the
number of basins owned by a fish farm but to the size of each basin and its yield
(fish load) (D.Verdier, Aquabio, France). Another category of specialists however
wish that in the future the maximum sizes of fish farms be limited and regulated,
according to the ecologic criteria associated to the social factor. According to
them, large fish farms impose a tough, unfair competition, thus destroying small
farms (15-30 t trout/year) which should play an essential role in supporting the
economic life in rural areas. (V.Perrot, Fnab representative, 2004).
For a more thorough view on the size of the basins and density required in
certain technical fish farming situations, here are some information provided by
the company Viviers Cathares (Technical specifications, 2000), one of the largest
companies providing the French market with a wide range of rainbow trout:
∗ type of hydrotechnical facilities: floating tanks for live fish
(11.0x11.0x2.0 m);
∗ work density (yield): 10 kg of trout in 300g/m³ of water;
∗ maximum accepted density in the basins: 35 kg trout/m³ of water;
∗ maximum legal yield: 100 t/ year;
∗ type of products: fresh, cured, frozen or tinned trout;
∗ selling price: 6-10 E/kg, depending on the beneficiary and requirements
that the goods must observe.
- 777 -
B. Aquaculture market and yield in Europe
According to some market surveys, the European market of bio products has
been continuously growing lately, and is currently a well defined and independent
market area, having its own rules and marketing principles. This market is shily
penetrated by bio aquaculture and the products sold come from three sources:
fresh water salmoniculture, sea pisciculture and pond (fresh water, saltish or sour
water) pisciculture.
According to the Product catalogues, regardless of the producing country, the
following species are sold on the bio aquacultural market: salmon, rainbow trout,
river trout, brook trout, brown trout, red trout, carp, pike, tench, roach, sturgeon,
seabream, European seabass, plaice, shells, oysters, mussels, sea snails and
shrimps (tables 1 and 2).
Table 1. Information on the countries, products and bio aquaulture

yields (according to various sources, 2000-2005)
Other species
Specification Species bred Yield (t/year) (being studied or
with low yield)
England Salmon 3 500
Rainbow trout 350
Reproduction salmon 15 Shells, oysters,
Reproduction river mussels
trout 5
Ireland Salmon 4 000 -
Norway Salmon 20
Red trout 40
Rainbow trout 40 -
Spain Rainbow trout 300

River trout 20 Shells, oysters,
Sturgeons 200 mussles, shrimps
Switzerland River trout 220 -
Germany Salmon and trout 150 Shrimps
European carp 20
Austria European carp 150 -
France Rainbow trout 300 carp, spike, roach,
Salmon and brown tench, shrimps,
trout 100 shells, oysters,
European seabass ans 150 mussels, sea snails
seabream
Plaice 80
Italy River trout 100 Shells, oysters,
mussels, shrimps
- 778 -
BACK
One of the countries that is highly concerned with bio aquaculture is

France, which is also one of the largest consumers of bio products in general.
According to official data, of about 41 000 t of rainbow trout produced each year,
about 300 t come from bio aquaculture. Also, of about 4 200 t of European
seabass and seabream, about 150 t come from bio aquaculture, and as concerns
salmon and brown trout, of about 800 t produced each year, about 100 t are
biological (table 2).
Table 2. Bio pisciculture in France

(according to various sources, 2000-2005)
Specification Fresh water pisciculture Sea pisciculture

Species and yields Rainbow trout – 300 t European seabass and
Carp, spike, roach, trench – seabream – 150 t
less than 100 t Salmon and brown trout –
100 t
Shrimps, shells, oysters,
mussels, sea snails – less
than 100 t
Number of bio farms 7 3
Concerning French production facilities, for fresh water pisciculture and

salmonids, production is restricted by the technical specifications to 100 t/
farm/year, and for sea pisciculture, production is restricted to 200 t/ farm/year. In
fact, according to the data of the French Ministry of Agriculture, Fish and Rural
Affairs, most of the trend setters in bio aquaculture have farms which have lower
yields, namely between 7-20 t/year; there are however farms that produce more
than 90 t/year.
From the viewpoint of production and attitute, bio aquaculture is
currently halfway between respect for those who produce a special category of
foodstuff and the risk of this activity becoming an industrial one, with all its
negative consequences of such production methods.
REFERENCES
1. Biofil, 2000-2006- La revue agricole de la filière bio, Angers, France
2. Les cahiers des charges des Viviers Cathares, 2000- Ministère de l’ Agriculture de la
pêche et des Affaires rurales, IUT-Angers, France
3.xxx,2003- Séminaire du pisciculture, 6-7 novembre 2003, Toulouse-Labège, France
4.www.agriculture.gouv.fr/spip/ressources.themes.pecheaculture_r59.html
- 779 -
SPECIALITY LITERATURE DATA CONCERNING THE

GROWING OF THE SPECIES FROM CORYDORAS GENUS
A. GRUBER, Roxana STĂNESCU, G. HOHA, B. PĂSĂRIN
Raising and exploitation the company animals is a business more and

more profitable on the modernization increase which prevails the directly human
contact with nature. The ornamental pisciculture is studying the aquarium fish
and in the last period of time it has obtained a vast development, detaching by
the aquaculture trunk.
The aquatic trade in Romania it’s still in initial stage, more accent are
putting on growing consumption fishes. With all these, it observed, specially
after 1989, an solicitation increase for ornamental fishes.
But this demanding has to amplify by bringing new species from
import and to create proper lots of selected breeding stocks according by
international standards.
This paper presents speciality literature data concerning growing and
reproduction in controlled environment to some species from Corydoras genus.
INTRODUCTION
The Corydoras genus includes almost 190 species, whereby the most known
are:
• Corydoras aeneus (Gill, 1858) with green plated flanks and white
yellowish abdomen
• Corydoras paleatus (Jenyns, 1842) where on grey-greenish or brown
fund it distinguish a lot of dark dots and patches on metallic bluish colour
• Corydoras arcuatus (Elwin, 1939) with a form line in “arch” on dark
brown until black colour, which starts from nose, passing over eyes and continues
on lateral flanks until caudal peduncle
• Corydoras caudimaculatus (Rossel, 1961) with pinkish fund, with
oblique lines formed by dark brown dots and with a big black dot on caudal
peduncle
• Corydoras elegans (Steindahner, 1876) which on a yellow-greenish fund
appears designing from green or brown dots and parches
• Corydoras zygatus (Eigenmann and Allen, 1942) with blue, green and
titian nuances
• Corydoras panda (Nijssen and Isbrucker,1971) with two dots, one big on
caudal peduncle, the other smallest which pass over eyes
The most frequently species meets in aquarium are Corydoras paleatus,
Corydoras aeneus, and a whiteness form, which becomes from some opinions for
Corydoras aeneus.
New discoveries appears but more than annual, the specialists speaking
about 50 species undescriptions yet. In Vest Europe, it resorts in last years to
780
denomination of each species Corydoras genus through allotment a number

preceded by letter C ( for example Corydoras latus = C 5). This way, this
classification is done more easily.
Corydoras genus it’s characterize by the presents of bony lines on both
lateral parts, the fact that they hasn’t scales, the presents of bony plate head and,
to some species, the first lines from dorsal fin and fore fins, are united on lance or
spine form. On Corydoras the dorsal fin is formed by 6-8 ears.
An important characteristic on this species is the mouth form with those
four feelers who use such on darkness orientation and such like testing apparatus
of food. The abdominal part is flatten because the adaptation on life style
characteristic to species who lives on top of substratum.
Specific on these fish is the fact that they can’t keep on water, in the
moment of let up swimming it sinks immediately. Regularly it upends on top, for
to breathe, having a double respiration, with gills and intestinal. This double
respiration has appears because in original zone they lives in a little deep waters,
which dries in droughty season. This way, has appears the Corydoras genus these
adaptation on waters with a little oxygen content. Thanks to these conditions, the
are very resistant on diseases.
The Corydoras genus fish are original from South America, finding from
south by Montevideo until north on Caracas and from Quito until east coast. The
big majority of species comes from Amazon basin with those over a thousand
rivers and adjacent brook.
AQUARIUM LIFE STYLES

The aquarium size is calculating by length of adult fish. For Corydoras the
aquarium volume it establishes after the next rule: the adult length (in cm) of each
fish in part, multiplicand with fish number, multiplicand with 1,5. This way, six
exemplary on Corydoras (max. 3 cm length) will stock an aquarium by 27 liters.
Besides Corydoras it still can stocks other fish species in this aquarium but after
the rule by one cm adult fish on one liter water. The pH must be maintain
between 6,7 and 6,9. The decrease, the increase and the control of pH it’s done
with filtering help with peat, to introduce the carbon dioxide necessarily plants
development and with the found produces in special stores. The pH values checks
on least two twice on weak.
In a new aquarium, it’s not introducing by the first day Corydoras but after
one week, time in which developments the reducting bacterium and the vegetation
puts down roots. The water will be airy and filtrate. The nitrites are toxic for
fishes and it mustn’t to pass by a value biggest than 0,5 mg/l. The nitrates are in
the big measure reduced once with stocking the aquarium with plants, but it
mustn’t to pass an concentrate over 100 mg/l, thing which is realizable and if it
changes the water volume with 20 % weekly.
The water optimum temperature for Corydoras it recommends to be
between 23-25 Celsius grades. Like substratum it can’t be utilized grit who are on
781
based hard rock which by fragmentation has sticking borders and neither the
furnishings from trade or from nature who has cutting borders, because the
Corydoras searches the food digging up in substratum, this way existing the
chance to hurts one self. The ideal substratum is the sand, but this it is quickly
pressing under the water pressure, thing which conducts to development of
noxious elements in substratum, who, gets in water and are noisome to fishes, but
also to plants roots which will not “breath”. Therefore it recommends river’s grit
with a diameter sediments about 2-3 mm, and maximum 15% sand.
An other method to grow Corydoras is utilization of a sand chestes about
20/20 cm with a deep by 3-4 cm, which in substratum gives the possibility to
imitate the natural environment. For offer backing possibilities it can use: small
caves create by stones with edges roundly pastes with silicon, or even half of
coconut shell, different caches makes up from burned clay or Amazonian roots,
which in prior must be boiled for not release to many dyestuffs in water.
Being an adapted species to looking the food in substratum, it recommends
a good water filtration for to avoid the propagation of to many parts in
suspension. The material who it’s used on filtration must be regularity washed,
but not with boiled water and with careful to not destroy in totally the bacterium
culture, ideal being using an first filter with spongy material which is a perfect
environment for respectively bacterium development.
Corydoras are in majority semi-darkness fishes, because in vast part it
doesn’t prefers the intense light waters. Ideal for these species is the introduction
of one illuminate system who can simulate the sunrise and the sunset. This thing
can do with the aid of more lamps which lights on arrow a few minutes intervals
and turns off in the same way. In the same reason, in aquarium it is recommended
using only the plants who doesn’t necessitates on them rounds an strongly
illumination. With still the green of plants is more dark, with still needs little
illumination. The plants who are a red tint on leafs necessitates more glare light.
In nature rarely finds Corydoras in environments with more plants being gathered,
therefore it isn’t obligatory to have plants which comes from the same habitat,
south-american, almost all the plants used in aquaculture can be used. In
generally the Cryptocory are the most indicated.
THE FOOD (NUTRITION)

From the effectuated researches until now on natural habitat, it has
demonstrated that the live food is the principal menu to the Corydoras, which it’s
recommended also in aquarium. The Corydoras feeds very slowly, that’s why it is
administrating a food quantity who can’t exceed the necessary, the leftovers
influencing in negative way the water qualities but in sufficient quantities. It
recommends tablets utilization, which comes on butt of aquarium, it’s
decomposed relatively slowly. Besides dry food, category in which enters also too
under flake form by big dimension ( this way having time to get on substratum)
782
it’s recommends on two, three times on week also the live food( white or red
larva’s mosquito, daphnia sp., tubifex sp.). Some specialists are using other kinds
of live food such as the micro worms (Enchytraeus albidus), who can be easily
raised and multiplies on domicile, but it recommends utilization once on week,
contrariwise taking to deposit by fats on liver.
All the kinds of speaking food it finds in speciality trade and on form by
frozen tablets the alives one being subdues over 50 Celsius grades, then being
suddenly dry, proceeding which goes by on taking a percent almost by 80% of
nutrient value. The frozen food can be administrate directly in aquarium. For the
sapling, the base food is Artemia which can be very easy produce on domicile,
after the purchase the necessary eggs from trade, but can be used also the dry food
grinds or on powder form.
THE SEXUAL DIMORPHISM

On Corydoras, the females growing up are a little big than the males, and
more roundly, thing which it’s observe best then we are looking in aquarium on
top of this. We observed that the most thick portion of body on males it finds on
chest fins zone, and from there it decrease relative constantly unto tail, the
females have the body thick as the males until almost on half. There are to little
species from Corydoras on whereon the breeding stocks can be distinguished by
fins form or skin color. With all these, on some species, it has observed that the
pectoral fins, on males, have a more acute form on extremities than those of
females, but this isn’t a generally rule. On other species, we distinguish very
easily the sex after the fines length of dorsal fin, on males being shorter and more
roundly then on females.
THE MULTIPLICATION AND THE DEPOSIT CONDITIONS

If we wanted to multiply the Corydoras it must to start with selection the
breeding stocks. The fishes must be on sexual maturity, to be healthy and the
females to be more of big dimensions. In time of reproduction it will administrate
live food in sufficient quantities. It must be changed a quarter from aquarium
water quantity, to produce a water cooling with 3-5 Celsius grades by growing
temperature. The spawn deposit it doesn’t taking places directly on water
changing, which interferes after 1-2 days. At some species, the spawn deposit is
taking place on water reheating on growing initial temperature because the spawn
growth necessitates a optimum temperature by 24 Celsius grades.
An other method is to influence the reproduction depending the rhythm of
nature seasons. In this meaning, it must to know in what period of year intervenes
the wet season, in natural environment where comes from the respective species
(in generally primary on us), and trying to imitate the natural conditions to
stimulate the reproduction. On start the choose breeding stocks (at one female al
783
least two, three males), it will be feed if it’s possibly even with special vitamins
for fish, the aquarium temperature it will be raised with 2 Celsius grades and the
aquarium water changed it will be stopped for a period by 4-6 weeks. In the same
time the water level in aquarium can be reduced with most 15-20%, after passing
by to changing a 25% from aquarium water volume, thing which it is going on an
interval by 24-48 hours. The temperature is come down with 2-4 Celsius grades.
If the deposit can’t appears, it will repeats daily a water change about 10% from
water volume on the same temperature. If after a week the deposit can’t appears,
it will effectuate again a change by 25% from water, on this time with a
temperature rising with 2-4 Celsius grades.
If the anterior method can’t gives results it can try this way: the water
changed it stopped for a period by 6-8 weeks, in this time taking care the filter
activity.
The water pH it will be maintained to a value by 7-7,5, the water level it
will be receded with a third from total water level, the fishes will be feed
abundant on all of this period with live food (tubifex sp., red larva).
After this period it will be effectuate water changes by 10%, time of two
weeks, this way that to the end of this period in aquarium to have a temperature
with 3-5 Celsius grades more diminishing than the initial and a ph about 5,5.
If neither this method can’t gives any results, that means or the fishes
aren’t to sexual maturity, or that we have only males in our aquarium. It doesn’t
succeed yet the reproduction to all the Corydoras species in captivity conditions.
The Corydoras spawns have about 2 mm diameter and, through deposit, it
will be cleave by different ornaments of aquarium, even on the glass. After the
deposit it is recommended to take out the adults, if these were introduced for the
simple act into a special aquarium, or if not, to spawns because the breeding
stocks eats them. The spawn who are against by glass or by other plain supports
can be taking away with a razor blade help, and then pulls out with an hose help,
into a small aquarium, intended growing the sapling. This aquarium must have
about 20 liters, using the same water from reproduction aquarium. The filtration
isn’t necessarily, but it needs to administrate methyl blue until the water is
coloring in a blue nuance, for the avoidance the fungus who attacks the spawns.
The methyl blue but can be substitute with Trypaflavin or Acriflavin.
Depending on species, the sapling come out from spawns on about 3-5
days, after which will outlast another 2-3 days until it will necessitate feeding,
meanwhile has consuming the nutrients from yolk sac.
In first 30 days on life it is recommended the water changing, about 25%
daily, the feeding effectuating by 3-6 times on day with arthemia sp., enchitraeus
sp. or fine food on form by tablets intended for the fishes who lives on
substratum. After the sapling has passed by 1 cm dimension, it will administrate
food used on adults growing hash or minced.
The sapling doesn’t the same color with the adults, a likeness appearing
only after the thirst or the fourth life week. The duration, relatively long life in
784
captivity (until 9 years) makes from Corydoras a species very endeared and
prevalent in the same time in aquariums from entire world.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The Corydoras fishes are hail from South America, finding from south by
Montevideo till north on Caracas and from Quito till the east coast. The big
majority of species comes from Amazon basin with those over a thousand
rivers and adjacent brooks;
2. The most frequently species meets in aquariums are Corydoras paleatus,
Corydoras aeneus, and a whiteness form, which becomes from some opinions
for Corydoras aeneus species;
3. Corydoras genus it’s characterize by the presents of bony lines on both lateral
parts, the fact that they hasn’t scales, the presents of bony plate head and, to
some species, the first lines from dorsal fin and fore fins, are united on lance
or spine form. On Corydoras the dorsal fin is formed by 6-8 spines;
4. The Corydoras spawns have about 2 mm diameter and, through deposit, it
will be cleave by different ornaments of aquarium, even on the glass. After
the deposit it is recommended to take out the adults, or if not, to spawns
because the breeding stocks eats them;
5. The duration, relatively long life in captivity (until 9 years) makes from
Corydoras a species very endeared and prevalent in the same time in
aquariums from entire world.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. BAENSCH U. – “Les poissons dòrnement”, Tera Verlag, 1992;
2. BERMANN J. C. – “Peşti de acvariu”, Editura Lucman, Bucureşti, 2006;
3. BUD I. – “Acvaristica, mică enciclopedie”, Editura Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca, 2006;
4. BUZENCHE C. – “Acvaristică”, Editura Steaua Nordului, Bucureşti, 2005;
5. MILLS D. – “Peşti de acvariu”, Editura Vox, Bucureşti, 2001;
6. TAMARU C. S., AKO H. – “Using Comercial Feeds for The Culture of Freshwater
Ornamental Fishes in Hawai”, U.J.N.R. Technical Report No 28;
7. TĂRTĂŞEANU R. – “Peştii exotici”, Editura Alex-Alex & Leti Press, Bucureşti, 2005;
8. *** http:// www. acvariu. ro htm;
9. *** http:// www infovisual. info./ poissons htm;
785
BACK
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SOME MORPHOLOGICAL

AND BIOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF
CARASSIUS AURATUS GIBELIO AND CYPRINUS CARPIO
Gabriela VASILE, Elena CIORNEA
The paper analyzes some morphological (total length, standard length,

maximum height of the body, circumference and weight) and biochemical
(catalase and peroxidase) parameters in two cyprinid species, namely: 2 year-old
crucian (Carassius auratus gibelio Bloch.) and carp (Cyprinus carpio L.)
growing in the accumulation lake of Tansa-Belceşti. For biometrical analysis, 30
individuals of each species have been investigated, while the biometrical study
was performed on 15 individuals of each copy.
In the last stage in the analysis of the morphological parameters, the
values of the most representative indices and bodily coefficients, i.e.: the profil
index, the Fulton coefficient and the Kiselev index, have been established.
As to the biochemical parameters, a comparative analysis of the activity
of some muscular oxidoreductases - enzymes involved in the oxidative stress -
has been developed.
INTRODUCTION
Starting from the general truth that fish represents an aliment with a high
dietetic and nutritive value, special attention has been recently paid, from the part
of specialists in the field, to the analysis of some biochemical and physiological
parameters.
The chemical composition of the fish meat grants to it the unanimously
recognized quality of dietetic aliment, recommended for both adults and healthy
people, for children and old-age ones, for all those suffering from digestive and
cardiovascular maladies, etc.
Quite recent investigations have shown that, apart from a high amount of
calcium and phosphorus, the fish reduces atero-sklerotic complications through
the inhibiting action of the ω 3 polynonsaturated fatty acids on the trombosis-
causing factors (TURCHETTO, 1991).
If considering that the Carassius auratus gibelio species competes with
the Cyprinus carpio one as to the consumption of additional fodders, the authors’
interest was oriented towards a comparative study of some morphological
parameters and bodily indices.
The living organisms represent the center of multiple, high-rate reactions,
developed at mild temperature and pressure values, which could be never
performed in the absence of the large range of biochemical compounds - acting as
biocatalysts and known under the name of enzymes (i.e., “instrument contributing
to establishing chemical order inside a cell”) - provided by the living organisms.
- 786 -
An important indicator of the metabolic transformations observed in the

process of fish controlled growing is therefore the enzymatic activity within
various organs.
As to the catalase activity, some researches have evidenced much higher
values in terrestrial vertebrates, comparatively with the aquatic ones, found out as
developing a two times lower enzymatic activity.
In the case of fish, the activity of catalase has been studied by RUDNICK
(1967) on silver crucian, golden crucian, carp and nünnow. In his opinion, in the
case of fish, catalase is an adaptation enzyme.
In their studies developed on rainbow trout grown in floatable cages,
BATTES et al., 1974 - 1975 observed that the activity of the hepatic and muscular
enzyme gets modified as a function of water’s temperature, density of the fish
batches, quality of the administered food and individuals’ age.
Determination of the activity of seric catalase in reproducing individuals
of both sexes from two different species of phytoplanktonophagous species, i.e.,
Aristichthys nobilis (bighead carp) and Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (silver carp),
evidenced the fact that, in the case of the silver carp, the average value of
catalasyc activity is lower, comparatively with the one recorded with the bighead
carp, mention being nevertheless made of the fact that, after the elimination of the
seminal products, the activity of catalase decreases in both species under study
(CIOFU et al., 1990).
The studies devoted to catalase and peroxidase, as well as to the other
breathing and digestive enzymes playing an important part in the process of
metabolism, have provided precious information, both for an as exact as possible
estimation of fish physiological condition and for the application of the most
efficient methods of intensive growth, for a fully rational turning to good account
of the accumulation lakes through aquaculture procedures (ARTENIE, 1990;
VASILE et al., 2006 b).
MATHERIAL AND METHODS

The experiments have been developed on 2 year-old crucian and carp
individuals from the Tansa-Belceşti accumulation lake.
The main method applied in the analysis of the external bodily variables
taken into study (i.e., total length, standard length, maximum height of the body,
circumference and weight) was the biometric one (VOICAN et al., 1974).
As to the determination of enzymatic activity, the titrimetric method with
potassium permanganate, for catalase, and respectively, the colorimetric method
with orto-dianisidine, for peroxidase, was employed (COJOCARU, 2005).
The results obtained have been statistically processed, the average,
standard deviation, standard error, variance, the variation coefficient of the
average and the limits of the confidence intervals being calculated (VARVARA et
al., 2001).
- 787 -

The processed data, listed in Table I, show that that higher values of the
main statistical indices (variance, standard deviation) of the biometrical
parameters under study in Carassius auratus gibelio Bloch. have been recorded
for total length, standard bodily length and bodily weight.
Table I. Values of the main statistical indices of Carassius auratus gibelio Bloch.
Variable
L (cm) ls (cm) H (cm) Ci (cm) G (g)
Statistical indices
Mean 22.026 18.38 7.61 16.89 172.5
Standard error 0.349 0.277 0.207 0.274 7.005
Median 22.25 18.5 7.9 16.5 169.5
Standard deviation 1.914 1.518 1.139 1.504 38.371
Variance 3.665 2.305 1.297 2.262 1472.397
Range 8.5 6.3 4.4 6.7 162
Minimum 18.5 15.7 5.6 13.8 100
Maximum 27 22 10 20.5 262
Confidence level
0.714 0.567 0.425 0.561 14.328
(95%)
Higher limit 22.714 18.947 8.035 17.451 186.828
Lower limit 21.311 17.812 7.184 16.328 158.171
CV% 8.691 8.261 14.968 8.905 22.244
L = total length of the body, ls = standard length,
H = maximum height of the body, Ci = circumference, G = weight
Depending on the values of the mean and standard deviation for the
bodily variables considered, the (higher and lower) limits of the confidence
intervals considered, within which the real mean of the population may be found,
have been subsequently calculated on the basis of the critical value t (α, n-1), as
given by α = 0.05 and n-1 degrees of freedom, that is t (0.05, 29) =2.045.
Thus, with a probability ratio of 95%, the populations of Carassius
auratus gibelio have an average total length of the body ranging between 21.31 -
22.71 cm, an average standard length between 17.81 - 18.94 cm, average height
between 7.18 - 8.03 cm, average circumference between 16.32 - 17.45 cm, while
the average bodily weight varies between 158.17 - 186.82 g.
The variation coefficient records its highest value for average bodily
weight (22.24%), the lowest one being observed for the standard average length
of the body (8.26%).
Figure 1 illustrates comparatively the limits of the confidence intervals
for the mean of the analyzed biometrical parameters.
- 788 -
25
20
15
cm
10
0
L ls H Ci
Analyzed variable
Fig.1. Limits of the confidence intervals of the

analyzed variables of Carassius auratus gibelio
In the individuals of Cyprinus carpio, higher values of both variance and

standard deviation have been recorded for circumference and bodily weight.
Table II. Values of the main statistical indices of Cyprinus carpio L.

Variable
L (cm) ls (cm) H (cm) Ci (cm) G (g)
Statistical indices
Mean 25.633 21.713 8.36 18.446 290
Standard error 0.422 0.398 0.214 0.463 5.461
Median 25.95 22 8.3 18.4 295
Standard
2.313 2.183 1.174 2.537 29.913
deviation
Variance 5.35 4.766 1.378 6.438 894.827
Range 12.5 11.5 5 9 115
Minimum 20 16.5 6 14.5 230
Maximum 32.5 28 11 23.5 345
Confidence level
0.863 0.815 0.438 0.947 11.169
(95%)
Higher limit 26.497 22.528 8.798 19.394 301.169
Lower limit 24.769 20.898 7.921 17.499 278.83
CV% 9.023 10.055 14.043 13.755 0.001
L = total length of the body, ls = standard length,
H = maximum height of the body, Ci = circumference, G = weight
Thus, with a probability ratio of 95%, the individuals under study have an
average total length of the body ranging between 24.76 - 26.49 cm, an average
standard length between 20.89 - 22.52 cm, average height between 7.92 - 8.79
cm, average circumference between 17.49 - 19.39 cm, while the average bodily
weight varies between 278.83 - 301.16 g (Table II).
- 789 -
The graphical representation of the confidence intervals limits of the

biometric parameters under analysis evidences quite narrow values for all
variables considered (Fig. 2).
30
25
20
cm
15
10
0
L ls H Ci
Analyzed variable
Fig.2. Limits of the confidence intervals of the

analyzed variables of Cyprinus carpio
On the basis of the data provided by biometric determinations and

weighing, the average values of some bodily indices and coefficients (such as the
profile index, the Kiselev index and the Fulton coefficient) could be calculated,
which permitted to characterize the whole population taken into study (VASILE et
al., 2006 a). The average values of the bodily indices and coefficients are
relatively close for both species under study, which indicates the existence of a
phenotypical similarity among the individuals of the two genera (Fig. 3).
3
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
Profil index Fulton coefficient Kiselev index
Carassius auratus gibelio Cyprinus carpio
Fig.3. Comparative representation of bodily indices of crucian and carp
In the case of crucian, analysis of catalase and peroxidase evidenced a

pronounced inter-individual variation, the average values of the activities of the
two enzymes being quite similar (1.059 mg H2O2 / g / min. for catalase and,
respectively, 1.192 UP / g x min. in the case of peroxidase) (Figs. 4 - 5).
- 790 -
1.4
mg oxygenated water / g / min

1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Samples
Fig.4. Activity of muscular catalase in Carassius auratus gibelio
1.4
UP / g x min
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Samples
Fig.5. Activity of muscular peroxidase in Carassius auratus gibelio
In the case of carp, the enzymatic activity oscillates within narrower

limits, the values recorded appearing as more homogenous (1.333 mg H2O2 / g /
min., respectively, 1.359 UP / g x min.) (Figs. 6 - 7).
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Samples
Fig.6. Activity of muscular catalase in Cyprinus carpio
- 791 -
1.6
1.4
UP / g x min
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Samples
Fig.7. Activity of muscular peroxidase in Cyprinus carpio
To check the possible differences or similarities in the activity of the

analyzed biochemical parameters for the two species here considered, the
unifactorial pattern Anova test, with an equal number of observations in the cell,
has been applied, permitting calculation of the square sources, on the basis of the
(external, internal and total) variability sources, the factor value, as well as of its
critical value (FOWLER et al., 2000).
The results of the test have evidenced that, as to the activity of the
enzymes under study, no significant differences may be observed between the two
species, the values recorded following the same curve (Figs. 8 - 10).
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Samples
Fig.8. Comparative representation of the activity of muscular

catalase in crucian and carp
1.6
1.4
UP / g x min
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Samples
Fig.9. Comparative representation of the activity of muscular

peroxidase in crucian and carp
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BACK
catalase peroxidase
1.4 peroxidase
catalase
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
crucian crucian carp carp
0.2
Fig.10. Comparative representation of the oxidoreductases activity

in crucian and carp
CONCLUSIONS
1. In the case of both carp and crucian, the limits of the confidence intervals of
the average values are extremely narrow for all morphological parameters taken into
study, the lowest values being recorded for the maximum bodily height.
2. The activity of muscular catalase and peroxidase follows the same curve in
both cyprinid species, somehow higher values being recorded in the case of carp.
REFERENCES
1. ARTENIE, VL., 1990 - Activitatea enzimelor - indicator al transformărilor metabolice în
creşterea intensivă a peştilor, Lucrările S. C. P. Piscicolă - Iaşi, Vol. 1, 357 - 364.
2. BATTES, K.W., ARTENIE, VL., MISĂILĂ, ELENA - RADA, MISĂILĂ, C., 1974 - 1975
- Die katalase Aktivitat in den Gewebe der Regenbogenforellen in Netzgehegehaltung, Lucr.
Staţ. "Stejarul", Limnol., 277 - 283.
3. CIOFU, ELENA, PLATON, C., STRAT, ADRIANA, HUIAN, GH., 1990 - Aspecte ale
dinamicii unor parametri biochimici la speciile Hypophthalmichthys molitrix şi Aristichthys
nobilis în timpul perioadei de reproducere, Ecofiziologie-Biochimie, 26 - 31.
4. COJOCARU, D.C., 2005 - Enzimologie practică, Ed. Tehnopress, Iaşi, 466 p.
5. FOWLER J., COCHEN L., JARVIS P., 2000 - Practical statistics for field biology, Second
Edition, Ed. by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., England, 186 - 207.
6. RUDNICK, VON MANFRED, H., 1967 - Vergleichende Untersuchungen über die Einwirkung
höhere und tieferer Temperaturen auf die katalase Aktivität, Zool. J. Physiol., 227 - 250.
7. TURCHETTO, E., 1991 - Significato funzionale degli acidi grassi nel metabolismo lipidico,
Conf. Intern. Dietetica, Acquacoltura, Udine, Italia.
8. VASILE GABRIELA, MISĂILĂ ELENA RADA, 2006 a - Date privind unele caractere
morfologice la Aristichthys nobilis în diferite stadii de dezvoltare, Lucr. Şt., Seria Zootehnie,
Vol. 49, U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi, Ed. „Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iaşi, 998 - 1005.
9. VASILE GABRIELA, CIORNEA ELENA, 2006 b - Comparative study on the activity of
muscular catalase in some culture cyprinids, Studii şi Cercet., Biologie, Serie nouă, Nr. 11,
Universitatea din Bacău, Ed. Univ. din Bacău, 133 - 135.
10. VARVARA, M., ZAMFIRESCU, Ş., NEACŞU, P., 2001 - Lucrări practice de ecologie, Ed.
Univ. „Al. I. Cuza” Iaşi, 152 p.
11. VOICAN, V., RĂDULESCU, I., LUSTUN, L., 1974 - Călăuza piscicultorului, Ed. Ceres,
Bucureşti, 366 p.
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RESEARCH AS CONCERNS SOME SELECTION INDEX

OF CTENOPHARINGODON IDELLA
Valerica MACOVEI, I.M. POP, Doina LEONTE,
Lenuţa FOTEA, Maricica MICHICHIUC
The experiments have been made in the “Station of aquaculture and

aquatic ecologi, Ezareni, Iasi in the summer of year 2005 and 2006.
Biological material was represented by Ctenopharyngodon Idella two
and three years old.
The experiments have as purpose to estimate the state maintenance of fishes.
In the summer of 2006 and 2007, the fishes was feed only with specifically
aquatic vegetation forms Phragmites communis and Thypha angustifolia.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

For the investigation of body conformation and for the study of grow
dynamics has been effected some body measurement and weighing. The biometry
determination war made on population and every two weeks with the occasion of
the control weight in the end of experiment.
For everyoane measurement had been well balanced of average size at
establishment effective.
The somatic measurements, what put in evidence the value of length size,
breadth, body weight in different stage of fish’s life that was effected in
accordance with the information from specialty literature (Battes and co., 2003).
Most important somatic measurements of Cyprinidae sp. at this experiment
are:
‐ Total body length (L) distance between mouth point and the caudal fin
extremity.
‐ Standard length (l) distance between mouth point and the last row off
scale.
‐ Head length (lc) distance between mouth point and the operculum
posterior extremity.
‐ Caudal peduncle length (lp) distance between perpendicular posterior off
anal fin base and the posterior body limit to the last row off scale.
‐ Maxim hight off body (H) measured in the most developed part off the
body.
‐ Minimal height off body (h) the most narrow part of the caudal peduncle
‐ The body breadth (G) represent the perimeter in the most developed point,
‐ The body weight (g) established with the help of balance.
The tools used for biometry and gravimetry a centimetric ruler , compass ,
scales and ribbon for the perimeter.
- 794 -
Tabelul 1
Somatic measurements Ctenopharzngodon idella 2005
Date Species Age Somatic measurements
(years) L l l.c. l.p. H G g
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (grams)
18.07.2005 Ctenopharyngodon 2 30,7 26,9 5,6 3,8 11 21,8 450
idella
31.07.2005 Ctenoharyngodon 2 32,0 27,9 5,8 4,1 12 24,8 492
idella
17.08.2005 Ctenopharyngodon 2 33,3 29,0 5,9 4,3 12,5 24,9 548,1
idella
05.09.2005 Ctenopharyngodon 2 34,5 30,2 6,3 4,5 13,1 26,4 634
idella
Tabelul 2
Somatic measurements Ctenopharyngodon idella 2006
Date Species age Somatic measurements
(years) L l l.c. l.p. H G g
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (grams)
idella
31.07.2006 Ctenopharyngodon 3 40,7 35,2 6,3 5,5 10 10 1004
idella
idella
idella
- 795 -
On the base of the measurement and weighting was made establishment

for a series off selection index like: quality index, thickness index, profile index
and meat index.

The somatic measurement at Ctenopharyngodon idella are characterized
from the morphological point off view fish’s used in the experiments.
The profile index – puts in evidence the form of body. To calculate this
index It’s used the formula:
Ip=L/H
Ip= profile index
L=standard length off body (cm)
H=maxim height off body (cm)
In our country the profile index determines the next carp populations:
‐ When Ip= 2.6-3 the carp has a elongated body and right back.
‐ When Ip= 2-2.6 the carp has hunchbacked form and elevated back
The thickness index – expresses the width off musculature frame in the
region of backbone in account with the maximum height of body.
Ig=G x 100/H
‐ Ig= thickness index ,%
‐ G= maximum breadth off body, cm
‐ H= the height of body, cm
The quality index – it’s establishment on the base off relation of Kiselev
and offers information’s about the quality of fish.
Ica=I/G
‐ Ica= qualite index
‐ l= standard body length
‐ G= boy breadth
The flesh index – express the well-balanced percentage off head or off
caudal peduncle.
Ic=1c x 100/l
‐ Ic=flesh index
‐ Lc=head length
‐ Lp=caudal peduncle length
‐ l=standard body length
Tabelul 3
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BACK
Selection index Ctenopharyngodon idella 2005

Species Date Age Profile Thicknes Quality Fles
index Index Index Index
(%) (%) (%)
Ctenopharyngodon 05.09.2005 2 2,3 2,0 1,14 20,86
idella
Tabelul 4
Selection index Ctenopharyngodon idellaîn 2006
Species Date Age Profile Thicknes Quality Fles
index Index Index Index
(%) (%) (%)
Ctenopharyngodon
07.09.2006 3 3,7 2,1 1,5 18,15
idella
CONCLUSIONS
The value of selections index varies with the age, such like the value of
profile index is 3.7 to Ctenopharyngodon idella endives three years old, shows
that these have correct selection index, the body got a lengthen form and right
back.
The value of thickness index is 2.0 and respectively 2.1 this indicate a
good situation inclusively the endives that have two and three years old.
At endives that have three years, the value of flesh index is 18.15 than
20.86 at endives that have two years old, this certify the fact that flesh index
grows up at the same time with the edge.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Billard R., 1995, Les carpes, biologie et elevage, INRA, Paris;
2. Battes K., Măzăreanu C., Pricope F., Cărăuş I., Marinescu Virginia, Rodica Rujinschi, 2003,
Producţia şi productivitatea ecosistemelo acvatice, Editura „Ioan Borcea, Bacău;
3. Bura L. , 2002, Crapul, Editura Univ. Agronomice Timişoara;
4. Stan Tr., Păsărin B., 1999, Acvacultură, curs, Editura Univ. de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină
veterinară, Iaşi;
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THE INTERDEPENDENCE OF SOME MORPHOLOGICAL

TRAITS IN FRĂSINET CARP BREED ONE YEAR AND A
SUMMER AGED
Carmen NICOLAE, R. POPA, Laura URDEŞ, Nicoleta IŞTFAN
Genetic progress per generation depends on heritability, number of

considered traits and also the correlations among them, especially the genetic ones.
Concerning fish breeding programmers, one of the major problems is the selection
for the body shape and weight, which affect the meat production. This study
established the phenotypical, genotypical and environmental correlations between
some morphological traits and bodily weight, the length of the body and the maximum
height in an Frăsinet carp group one year and a summer aged. The obtained results
could represent the basis of selection for the main fish production, meat.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Having in view the proposed objectives, the biologic material used in this
experiment comes from the Nucet “Fish Researches Institute”, Dâmboviţa district.
It is formed by a lot of Frăsinet carp individuals, one year and a summer aged,
placed into the genetic stock of the Institute. The individuals were weighed and
measured, establishing the size of the morphologic traits.
In order to determinate the correlation coefficient between two traits, it
has been used the classical formula of correlation: the ratio between covariation of
the two traits and the geometric average of the two traits' variants. The
fenotypical, genotypical or environmental correlations, have been estimated using
the variance and covariance compounds. Each correlation is considered to be the
relation between covariance and the geometric average of variances.

Regarding the group of Frăsinet carps, in the data of table 1, it could
notice that, generally, all the correlation between the bodily weight and other
morphologic traits are positive, thus, the external features could be used for the
indirect breeding of the production performances (bodily weight).
Genotipically, the closest are related the bodily weight and the head
length (+0, 961), being noticed a very little sample error (0,077), thus, there is a
significant precision of this correlation.
But, contrarily, the value of the genotypical correlation between the
bodily weight and the maximum width of the head very closed negatively
(-0,621), so this shows that at a small width of the body corresponds to a large
weight, that it couldn’t be accepted. Adding the fact that this correlation has an
error of almost the same value, it results that probably it is non-significant.
- 798 -
Table 1
Phenotipycal, genotypical and environmental correlations between the bodily weight
and other traits in Frăsinet breed one year and a summer aged
Couple of characters rF ± SrF rG ± SrG rM
Bodily weight x
- head length 0,908±0,148 0,961±0,077 0,903
- head height 0,937±0,123 0,920±0,179 0,942
- tail length 0,708±0,250 0,425±0,841 0,763
- minimum bodily height 0,759±0,230 0,520±0,603 0,818
- bodily perimeter 0,875±0,171 0,641±0,601 0,927
- bodily width 0,708±0,250 -0,621±0,655 0,987
- no. of scale on the lateral side 0,015±0,354 0,445±0,783 -0,109
- no. of cartilaginous rays in the -0,154±0,349 0,256±0,924 -0,297
dorsal fin
Between the bodily weight and the number of cartilaginous rays in the
dorsal fin, the phenotipical an environmental correlation are negative, while the
genotypical correlation is strongly positive (+0,256). That is why, while the genes
with polytrophic effect affect both of the characters into the same direction, the
same environmental conditions influence them to the contrary directions.
The second trait, the maximum height of the body, is positive phenotypic
correlated features (table 2), the highest with the body perimeter (+0,940) and the
lowest with the number of scales on the lateral side (+0,035).
Table 2
Phenotipycal, genotypical and environmental correlations between the bodily
maximum height and other traits in Frăsinet breed one year and a summer aged
Maximum height of the body x
- head length 0,808±0,208 0,693±0,665 0,866
- head height 0,882±0,166 0,692±0,758 0,923
- tail length 0,509±0,304 -0,484±0,984 0,645
- minimum bodily height 0,646±0,270 -0,303±0,941 0,819
- bodily width 0,716±0,247 -0,695±0,691 0,931
- no. of scale on the lateral side 0,035±0,353 0,936±0,152 -0,148
- no. of cartilaginous rays in the 0,053±0,353 0,936±0,154 -0,159
dorsal fin
From the genotypical point of view, the strongest link was the one
between the maximum heights of body with the bodily perimeter, too, while the
relation to the weight of the body is a very strong negative (-0,695).
An important aspect is represented by the strong negative genotypical
correlation between the maximum height of the body and the length of the tail
- 799 -
(-0,484). Conformingly this, if the maximum height increases, the tail decreases
and thickens eventually.
Environmental correlations affect the evolution of the pairs of characters
in the same way, excepting the couples of maximum height of the body x number
of scales on the lateral side (-0,148) and maximum height of the body x number
of cartilaginous rays on the dorsal fin (-0,159).
The bodily length is very strong positive correlated from all points of
view with the length and height of the body, the length of the tail and the
minimum height of the body, having values over +0,746 (table 3). From the
genotypical point of view, they are very strong correlated with the length of the
head, so it results that practically, the two traits are coordinated by the same genes
(+0,999).
Table 3
Phenotipycal, genotypical and environmental correlations between the length of the
body and other traits in Frăsinet breed one year and a summer aged
The length of the body x
- head length 0,845±0,189 0,999±0,002 0,814
- head height 0,820±0,203 0,991±0,019 0,783
- tail length 0,823±0,201 0,904±0,170 0,809
- minimum bodily height 0,785±0,219 0,961±0,057 0,746
- bodily width 0,676±0,261 -0,242±0,908 0,860
- no. of scale on the lateral side -0,156±0,349 0,780±0,345 -0,415
- no. of cartilaginous rays in the -0,295±0,338 -0,017±0,894 -0,394
dorsal fin
The negative value of the genotypical correlation with the bodily width
(-0,242), means that the individuals with a higher length record a lower tickles of
the body than the average.
As in the previous case, the environment influences the phenotypical
manifestation of the pair of traits into contrary ways: bodily length x number of
scales on the lateral side (-0,415) and bodily weight x number rays in the dorsal
fin (-0,394).
CONCLUSIONS
The outcome of the interdependence study in some morphological traits at
Frăsinet breed was:
1. The bodily weight, maximum height and the bodily length were
strongly genotypical correlated with the head length and height. Thus, it resulted
that the external features could be used for the indirect breeding of the productive
performance.
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BACK
2. Between the bodily width and the bodily weight, maximum height and
the bodily length there are negative genotypical correlations.
3. For the same population, we can expect -in its ontogenesis- to appear
some differences regarding the genetic parameters of considered traits, because of
the different pairs of genes, which act in different ways at some ages.
4. A possible explanation about the differences obtained by us could be
the outcome of “sample” effect, associated to the samples which on the
experiment have been made.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Kirpitchnikov, V. S. – Genetics and breeding of common carp, revised by R. Billard, J. Reperant,
J. P. Rio and R. Ward, Institut National de la Recherche Agronimique, Paris, 1999.
2. Nicolae, Carmen – Studiul determinismului genetic al procesului de creştere la peşti. Teză de
Doctorat, Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agronomice şi Medicină Veterinară, Bucureşti, 2004.
3. Popescu-Vifor, Şt. – Genetica procesului de dezvoltare la animale, Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti, 1985.
- 801 -
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THE METHODOLOGY OF BLOOD EXAMS AT THE

CYPRINIDES FROM FISH FARMS
M. LAZĂR, Roxana LAZĂR, Cristina-Alice VULPE,
V. VULPE, P.C. BOIŞTEANU
The clinical exam of the pathological estates of the fish effectives may be
completed with laboratory exams out of which the blood exam can reveal
important data in establishing the diagnosis.
The methods of examination of the blood consist in haematological and
biochemical exams. The hematological examination in fish follows the
determination of haemoglobin, haematocrit, of the number of red cells and white
cells, as well as the the formula of leucocites.
The present work describes the methodology of examination of blood in
cyprinides with the specification of particular data, frequently come accross in
parasitory affections.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The haematological studies have been made on lots of cyprinides grown

in semi-intensive system in the farms from X and Y, Iasi district.
The species of cyprinides grown in these farms are represented by
common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and asian carp, precisely the silver carp
(Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) and the big head (Aristichtys nobilis).
The common carp specimens had the age between 1 and 3 years, while
the asian cyprinides had ages between 2 and 3 years. In the case of the
physiological verifications, the blood probes have been recolted from at least 7
specimens, while in necessity cases (the evolution of a disease), probes have been
recolted from 5-13 specimens of every species.
The blood prelevation was made through the punction of the caudal vein
and more rarely through the punction of the heart, in vials Vacuette with EDTA.
The determination of the main haematological parameters: haemoglobin,
haematocrit, the red and white cells number, has been made with the help of
ABX MicrosVet ABC apparatus; for the verification of the data, there were used
classical methods, such as: the Sahli method for the dosation of the haemoglobin
and the macrohaematocrit method of the respective parameter. The leucocitary
formula has been determined through the examination of the smear, colored by
May-Grundwald-Giemsa. In paralel, there was used approximative data of the
leucocitary formula, obtained from the using of the ABX MicrosVet ABC
apparatus. (5, 7)
802
The studies made on the fish effectives remembered have lead to the
obtaining of haematological data releaved down further.
In the conformity with the data from the speciality literature, the
haematological exams made on the common and asian carp have begun with the
direct examination of the blood. (3, 5)
The results of the studies are showed in the table 1.
Tabel 1
Values of the haematologic parameters at the study species of ciprinids
Haematological Carp Silver carp Big head

parameters
Haemoglobin 8 10,5 11
(g/100ml)
Haematocrit (%) 26 29 28
Erytrocyts number 0.85 1.5 1.7
(mil./mm3)
Leucocytes number 32 55 47
(mii/mm3)
Leucocitary formula was efectuated only to the carp species afected by

lerneosis and the results were: lymfocites 83%, neutrofils 6%, eozinofils 8%,
monocits 2%, basofils 1%.
A. The direct examination of the blood
The direct exam of the blood offers the possibility of a fast diagnosis in
the case of blood parasitosis from the group of flagelled protosoars. It is
recommended to examine the peripherical blood, through the recoltation from the
caudal vein, by the sectioning of the caudal peduncle or of the branchial arch
(4, 5).
The red blood cells of the teleostens are very similar in dimension,
tinctorial characteristics and ultrastructure with those of other vertebrates, but,
like birds and reptiles, they have a nucleus. The number varies with the species
and is strongly affect by stress and environmental temperature, but, usually, it is
about 1,05x106/mm3. The immature erythrocites, named policromathocites
represent approximately 1% of the total number and are rounder and less gray in a
Giemsa staining. Haeomoglobin is, as well as other vertebrates, the mail vehicle
of transport of the oxigen and the carbon dioxide, but, unlike the interocites of
mammals, on which the anaerobe metabolism is predominant, on the erythrocites
of the teleostens, the cellular metabolism is made basically through oxidative
phosphorilation, result of the production of ATP.
803
The direct exam of the blood at the common carp showed the presence of
flagellates of Trypanosoma spp. and Trypanoplasma spp., producing the anaemia
syndrome.
B. The quantitative evaluation of the haemoglobin
The quantitative evaluation of the haemoglobin has been made through
the usage of the ABX MicrosVet ABC apparatus. In conditions of farm, for the
obtaining of fast results, the method Sahli was applied, with the mention that this
technique may present errors in the case of fish.
This parameter offers an objective image on anaemia unlike the technique
of numbering the red blood cells (these can be numerically found but can be
weaker charged with haemoglobin, especially in chronic anaemia).
In the case of the presence of flagellates of Trypanosoma spp. and
Trypanoplasma spp., the quantitative of the haemoglobin was reduced at the
lowest limits of the species (Cyprinus carpio) – this showing the anaemia
syndrome.
C. The determination of the haematocrit
The haematocrit was determined from the recolted blood on environment
with EDTA, using the Wintrobe method. The haematocrit tubes have been
introduced into the rotary pump at 3000 rotations per minute for 30 minutes and
then the reading of the gradated tube was made. Generally, the pathological
modifications of the haematocrit are determined on variations of the plasmatic
volume and of the volume and number of erythrocites. (1, 2, 6)
In the same parasitoses of blood we recorded a minimal values of the
haematocrit.
D. The numeration of the blood cellular elements
The evaluation of the number of blood cellular elements has been made
with the help of the ABX MicrosVet ABC apparatus (used in the Physiology
laboratory). Also, in a comparative manner, there was applied the haematocritic
method, with the help of the Burker-Turk camera and the Potain dropper for the
red cells. We mention that for the counting of the white cells there were made the
solutions I and II. Blood is aspired until the 0,5 or 1 division and then the first
solution (neutral red, NaCl, distilled water) until the middle of the dropper and in
the other half the second solution is poured (crystal violet, sodium cytrate,
formaline, distilled water). After omogenisation and the microscopical
examination with the Motic Image Microscope, the white cells appear to be violet
in the microscopical field.
In the case of the presence of flagellates of Trypanosoma spp. and
Trypanoplasma spp., the number of red blood cells were decrease.
E. The determination of the leucocitary formula
It has been done through the examining of the smear, colored through the
May-Grundwald-Giemsa method. The obtained results prove the fact that the
leucocitary forms in fish are domined by populations of lymphocites, followed by
neutrophils and eosinophils. (Plate 1)
804
1. Lymphocites
The lymphocit is the cell responsible with the immunitary response, being
grouped in fish in big and small lymphocites. The nucleus occupies almost the
entire surface of the cell, leaving a small space for the basophilical space.
The number of lymphocites in the blood is considerably larger in fish than
in mammals.
2. Neutrophils
They are also named heterophils and they are found approximately in the
same number as on mammals (3-6x103mm3) but they comprise a smaller
proportion of the leucocitary blood population (about 6-8% in fish, in
comparation with 60-70% in mammals).
From a morphological point of view, the neutrophils of fish are closely
alike with their homologues in mammals, although the degree of nuclear
polymorphism in teleosten fish varies considerably. The origin of neutrophils is,
most probably, the haemopoetic tissue from the kidneys, although the spleen also
has a minor part. (3, 6)
3. Eosinophils
Eosinophils play an important part in the defense of the organism in
mammals, through the fagocitation of the antigen-antibody complexes. So, they
might have the function of maintaining the homeostasis during infections and are
in a larger number when antibodies are being continually released, like in
parasitic diseases.
Eosinophils are filled, characteristically with large, refractive grains that
have a high isoelectric point, so that they stain with acidic substances such as
eosin in an alkaline environment.
British reasearchers claim that these cells are rarely found in fish blood,
and the majority of the descriptions of eosinophils speak about the existence of
granular eosinophilic cells in the structure of skin, haemopoetic and digestive
tissue, which are different from the real blood eosinophil. The eosinophils of fish
are implied in inflammations and there are raports concerning their phagocitic
activity. (6)
In lerneosis at common carp, we observed a certain eosinophilosis,
especially at the increased grades of infestation.
4. Monocites
The monocites of fish form about 1% of the entire leucocitary population,
and morphologically, they are very alike to mammal monocites, having
histochemical characters in common carp with these and containing a couple of
fine grains, stained positively with PAS and acid phosphatase.
Ultrastructurally, the cell membrane is transformed into pseudopodes and
the chromatin of the eccentric nucleus is dispersed marginally. The lysosomes
vary in dimension and are usually very electrodense. The Golgi apparatus is
especially prominent.
805
5. Thrombocites
They are very important in preventing the exit of fluid tissues at the
surface of an injury. The ultrastructure of the cytoplasm of the teleosten
thrombocite presents a high similitude with the thrombocitary forms in mammals.
The difficulty in making the difference between the mature thrombocites from the
lymphocites has lead to much confusion concerning the number of these cells. If
the thrombocites don’t keep their intact form, then the differential numbering will
not be correct.
6. Basophils and mastocites
The presence of basophils in fish is, as in the case of eosinophils,
sustained by some researchers and disputed by others. The affirmative rapports of
their presence makes them alike to the basophils of mammals, as morphology and
as staining reactions. This cell has not, however, yet been implicated in any
defense mechanism in fish.
A property of mastocites in fish, observed by many researchers is the
lability of the of citoplasmic grains. In conclusion, although the presence of
eosinophils and mastocites in fish is disputed, they seem to be present in some
species and they probably exist in all species.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The studies made on the fish effectives have diagnosed the anemic
syndrome on the common carp, with the decrease of the quantity of
haemoglobin and of the number of red blood cells.
2. It has been proven that the classical technique of examination of the blood
can be successfully replaced with the computerized method.
3. The establishment of the leucocitary formula continues to be realized
through the classical method, proving the high percentage of lymphocites
in carp (80-90%), as an important segment of the immunitary non-
specific system.
4. Our studies have proved that in the case of parasitic infestations, there
appears eosinophilia, the proportion of the concerning cells growing with
8%.
806
Plate 1
Lerneosis at common carp Erythrocytes from the blood of

common carp, MGG, x 1000
Neutrophil at common carp, Erytrocytes and another leukocytary

MGG, x 1000 cells – neutrophils and
pseudoeosinophyls, MGG, x1000
Large lymphocytes and Small lymphocytes at

erythrocytes, MGG, x1000 common carp, MGG, x1000
807
BACK
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Chelaru Ana, Pavel Geta, Condrea M., Popa Viorica – Caracterizarea morfofuncţională a
celulelor sanguine la peşte, Lucr. Şt., Vol. 47, Iaşi, 2004.
2. Falca C. – Semiologie medicală veterinară, vol. II, Ed. Cosmopolitan-Art, Timişoara, 2004.
3. Manolescu N. – Tratat de hematologie animală, Ed. Fundaţia Romania Mare, Bucureşti, 1999.
4. Munteanu Gabriela, Bogatu D. – Tratat de ihtiopatologie, Ed. Excelsior Art, Timişoara, 2003.
5. Oţel V., Constantin Gh. – Ghid ihtiopatologic pentru piscicultura din Delta Dunării, Buletin de
Cercetări Piscicole, Supliment II, Ed. Bucureştii Noi, 1989.
6. Roberts R. J. – Fish pathology, Bailliere Tindall, 2nd edition, London, 2003.
7. Vulpe V. – Investigaţii privind epidemiologia, etiologia şi morfologia afecţiunilor parazitare la
peştii din amenajările sistematice, Teză de doctorat, Fac. de Med. Veterinara Iasi, 2002.
808

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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 50 seria Zootehnie

CUPRINS ½ TABLE OF CONTENTS ¾

Z0011. A.T. BOGDAN, I.M. POP - Biodiversity of the zootechnical

Z0022. V. POP, Cecilia POP - Lasting development – a contemporary world

Z0033. E. ŢICĂU, T. ROBU, I. GÎLCĂ, C-TIN DUBIT - Developing

Z0044. T. ROBU, E. ŢICĂU, I. GÎLCĂ - Perspective of rural area

Z0055. L.E. POPOVICI - Kosarom Companies Group investments for products

Z0066. GH. HRINCĂ, M. GROZA, Elena FECIORU, I. CHIORESCU -

Z0077. P.C. BOIŞTEANU, Iolanda MĂRGĂRINT, Cristina G. RADU-

Z0088. Monica BODEA, D. PAMFIL, R. SESTRAŞ, Bianca PĂTRAŞCU,

23. L. BLENDEA, ŞT. BREZULEANU - Animal production in the

33. Daniela LADOSI, I. LADOSI, S.N. POP, Z. MARCHIS - Histology

34. G. NACU, D. TĂNASE, Mihaela IVANCIA - Researches regarding

58. IL. VOICU, Dorica VOICU - Efficiency of using dietary alfalfa

59. Cristina RADU-RUSU, I.M. POP - Effects of probiotic and prebiotic

80. M.G. USTUROI, I. VACARU-OPRIŞ, R.M. RADU-RUSU - Poultry

101. N. DUMBRĂVEANU - Rural development policies in Moldova

124. Aurica GRIGORE - The economic efficiency aspects in meat

Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi

133. Carmen NICOLAE, R. POPA, Laura URDEŞ, Nicoleta IŞTFAN -

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 50 seria Zootehnie

BIODIVERSITY OF THE ZOOTECHNICAL

A.T. BOGDAN, I.M. POP, Amalia STRĂTEANU

Creşterea gradului şi ritmului de ameliorare genetică a efectivelor de

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 50 seria Zootehnie

LASTING DEVELOPMENT – A CONTEMPORARY WORLD

V. POP, Cecilia POP

Dezvoltarea economicã şi mediul

planetei, este în pericol de a fi grav, dacã nu iremediabil perturbat, punând in

mondial a intrat în vigoare la 16 februarie 2005, fiind atins pragul de aplicare în

Pentru pãstrarea fertilitãţii solurilor, Fondul mondial pentru mediu finanţeazã

Risipă de Incălzirea Extinderea Deşeuri solide

Guverne Societăţi comerciale Consumatori

Figura 1 - Principalele „probleme globale” actuale

Dimensiunile consumurilor la care s-a ajuns în zilele noastre, au

Conceptul de dezvoltare durabilă

priveşte conceptul de “dezvoltare durabilã” vorbindu-se despre un “viitor

În ceea ce priveşte crizele economice mondiale din ultimele decenii, şi

Componentele esenţiale ale unei strategii pentru o dezvoltare durabilã,

- stabilizarea populaţiei şi asigurarea unui trai decent tuturor

Dezvoltarea durabilă în contextul dezvoltării economice.

Cel de-al patrulea raport al Clubului de la Roma, coordonat de către

Economiştii şi inginerii Ecologiştii

Un exemplu edificator, este cel dat de preşedintele Franţei, Jack Chirac, la

Oportunităţi şi limite ale dezvoltării durabile

global, ca rezultat al exploziei demografice şi al dezvoltării economice din

Explozia Dezvoltarea Consum exage- Deşeuri şi Ed. materialist

DEGRADAREA CONDIŢIILOR DE MEDIU

STOPAREA DEGRADĂRII CONDITIILOR DE MEDIU

Controlul Consum Resurse Tehno- Reciclare Educaţie

Organisme internaţionale Organisme

SPRIJINIREA PLANETEI ÎN RECĂPĂTAREA ECHILIBRULUI

Conceptul de „tehnologii curate” se referă atât la aspecte ale activităţii

- diminuarea cantităţii şi a toxicităţii deşeurilor, cu efecte în reducerea

Limite în procesul dezvoltării durabile

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 50 seria Zootehnie

Interesele economice diferite ale statelor, vor face să avem în continuare

DEVELOPING EXPECTATIONS A RURAL AREA OF

E. ŢICĂU, T. ROBU, I. GÎLCA, C-tin DUBIT

MATERIAL AND METHODE

RESULTS AND DISSCUSION

MEASURE 111. TRAINING, INFORMATION AND DIFFUSION OF