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TERTIARY
BY: Kamal Haji Karim
Published in: Petroleum Geology of Iraq (First Symposium, 21-22, April 2010,
Baghdad, Abstract book, p.4.
Abstract
The time expanded stratigraphic (time-stratigraphic or chronostratigraphic) column of Iraq was established in the fifties of the last
century by Oil Companies that were working in Iraq. During this long time the column remained without important changes. Therefore,
the present study tries to update and modify the column according to recent sedimentoggical and stratigraphic studies of the
northeastern Iraq. The main modifications include removing of all previous unconformity between the following formations: Qamchuqa
with Dokan and Kometan, the later formation with both Dokan Golneri, Kometan with Shiranish, Qamchuqa with Bekhme, Tanjero with
Kolosh formations. The contacts between the above formations are changed to conformable and their boundary assigned as gradational
in the new chronostratigraphic column. The modifications also include lateral combining of the lower and upper parts of Red Bed Series
with Kolosh and Gercus Formations respectively which are deposits of one large foreland basin. Moreover, during Eocene, the tectonic
and geographic location of the Walash Naoperdan Series is indicated and correlated with Pila Spi Formation which is separated by paleo-
high from the series.
On the new chronostratigraphic column, locations of the stratigraphic units are indicated according to present tectonic zones (Low and
High Folded, Imbricated and Thrust Zones) of Iraq instead of previous general geographic position. Another type of location which is
followed, in the new column, is putting the formations in their historical position of deposition within foreland basin of Late Cretaceous
and Tertiary. In the studied area, the coarse clastic units are put in the costal area near to source areas while the very fine ones (marl
and Shale) put near to basin plain of the foreland basin. Between the two, the medium grain clastics and biogenetic limestones are
deposited in intermediated depth (shelf and slope).
تغير العمود الزمن الطباقي لشمال شرق العراق للعصر الكريتاسي و الثلثي
المخلص
لذلك تحاول.اسست عمود الزمن الطباقي للعراق منذ خمسينيات القرن الماضي من قبل شركات النفط العملة في العراق و خلل هذه المدة الطويلة بقيت بدون تغير كبير
الدراسة الحلية الى تجديد و تغير العمود الزمن الطابقي للشمال الشرق العراق لكي يتضمن جميع التغيرات الحاصلة اعتماد على الدراسات الرسوبية و الطباقة الحديثة
قمجوغة مع: ان تغيرات الرئسيسة عبارة عن ازالة عدم التوافقات السابقة بين التكاوين التالية.بحيث يتفق التغيرات مع تطورات العلمية الحديثة حول الجيولوجية المنطقة
ان حد التماس بين التكاوين السابقة تم تغيرها من. كوميتان مع شيرانش وقمجوقة مع بخمة و تانجرو مع كولوش،دوكان و كوميتان و بين هذا التكوين مع دوكان و كولنيري
ويشمل التغير كذلك دمجا افقيا لجزء السفلي و العلوي للسلسلة الطبقات الحمراء مع.عدم توافق الى توافقي و غيرت حدودهم التباقي الى تدرجيا في العمود الجديد
تكوين كولوش و جركس بالتوالي و اعتبار كلهما ترسبات الحوض المقدمة القارة و باضافة الى ذالك تم تحديد الموقع التكتوني و الجغرافي للسلسلة والش ناوبردان و
حددت موقع الوحدات الطباقية طبقا للنطقة التكتونية الحالية للمنطقة (انطقة الطيات الواطئة والعاليةو التراكب.مضاهاته زمنيا مع تكوين بلسبي حيث يفرق بينهما مرتفعا
نوع اخر متبع هو تحديد موقع حسب موقع تأريخ الترسيب كل وحدة ضمن حوض المقدمة القارة في العصر كريتاسي.والزاحفة( بدل للموقع الجغرافي العام المتبع سابقا
بينما وضع الصخور. وضع الوحدات ذات الصخور الفتاتية الخشنة في النطقة الساحل الحوض الترسيبي لقريبة من الصخور المصدر.المتأخر و الرباعي في العمود الجديد
و يقع الصخور الفتاتية المتوسطة و الصخور الكلسية الحياتية في نطقة متوسطة بين الموقين السابقين )في.الناعمة كالصلصال و المارل قرب وسط الحوض الترسيبي
)الرف و منحدر.
INTRODUCTION
The time expanded stratigraphic column (time-rock or chronostratigraphic column) is that type of stratigraphic column on which many
chronostratigraphic unit and the missing ages (the time is expanded) are shown and very useful for basin analysis and oil exploration.
The missing ages are those age that have not representative lithology in the rock column due to erosion or non-deposition. In this type of
column, the rock body is deformed (mainly expanded or exagurated according to time span of depostion) to fill the age in which it
deposited (wheeler, 1953). In Iraq, most of the missed ages (unconformities) are indicated between the formations by Bellen et al (1959),
Buday (1980) and Jassim and Goff (2006).
According to North American Stratigraphic Code (1983), chronostratigraphic units are bodies of rocks established to serve as the material
reference for all rocks formed during the same span of time. Each of its boundaries is synchronous. The body also serves as the basis for
defining the specific interval of time, or geochronologic unit represented by the referent. In the mentioned Code, it is cited that the
purpose of these units are to be used as a means of establishing the temporally sequential order of rock bodies. The same Code farther
added that the principal purposes are to provide a framework for (1) temporal correlation of the rocks in one area with those in another,
(2) placing the rocks of the Earth's crust in a systematic sequence and indicating their relative position and age with respect to earth
history as a whole, and (3) constructing an internationally recognized Standard Global Chronostrati-graphic Scale.
The present study tries to update and modify the column in order to include all the recent studies (they are indicated in the text and
diagrams as “st”) and agree with new development of the tectonic setting of the area. The study mainly limited to the northeast Iraq
where the most recent studies (that are relevant to the subject) are conducted (Fig.1). Even, in this area each part (Arbil and Sulaimanyia
Governorate) need their specific chronostratigraphic column but now both are represented by one column until the adequate concerned
sedimentologic and stratigraphic projected are conducted.
The time expanded stratigraphic (time-stratigraphic) column of Iraq and Northeastern Iraq was established in the fifties of the last
century by Bellen, et al (1958) (Fig.2 and 3). During this long time, the column remained nearly without main changes which are widely
used for teaching, academic purposes in all Iraqi university and for practical implication by petroleum companies (Oil companies) and
other economic businesses. These columns can be called wheeler diagram in honor to H. E. Wheeler (1953) who showed that these
columns consist of two axes: time as vertical axes and horizontal one as geographic (spatial axis) extend. He clarified that the
disadvantages of these columns are the deformations of rock bodies that deposited in certain time. He added that these deformations
are not occurring in normal stratigraphic (lithologic) column in which erosion and no-deposition are shown as zero thickness.
Fig.1: Tectonic subdivision of North Iraq (Simplified Al-Kadhimi et al., 1996) showing the studied area. The Inner and outer platform terms
are from S. F. Fuad: Personal communication
Fig.2: Tertiary Chronostratigraphic column of Iraq including Northestern Iraq (Bellen et al, 1959).
Fig.3: Cretaceous Chronostratigraphic column of Northeastern Iraq (Bellen et al, 1959)
DISCUSSION
In the recent years many sedimentologic and stratigraphic papers are conducted on the studied area that make the present
modifications are possible. These studies are shown by numbers and letters (st1, st2….) on the modified column and on the area where
the modification are made (Fig.4). The recent relevant studies that are used for modification are:
1-The study of Karim(2004) (St1) and Karim and Surdashy(2006) in which the Wheeler column (diagram) is drawn for northeast Iraq in
which 500m of conglomerate is correlated and combined ,in Chuarta-Mawat area (Imbricate and Thrust zones), with 400 of sandstone
and shale in Dokan areas and South of Sulaimanyia City (High Folded Zones). In the column a gap of about 1million years (at proximal
area near the coastal area) is shown within Tanjero Formation in the Chuarta-Mawat and become conformable in the south of
Sulaimanyia and Dokan Area ( distal area: basin and slope areas). On the column, the gap is widening toward Coastal area and tightens
toward the basin (Fig.5).
Fig.4: New chronostratigraphic column of Northeast Iraq in which the stratigraphy of the Imbricated and Thrust Zones are shown and
most of the previous unconformities in the High and Low Folded Zone are rejected (modified from Bellen et al, 1959 and Omeri and
Sadiq, 1977).
2- The study of Al-Barzinjy (2005) (St2) which is concerned with Paleocene-Eocene and studied the Red Bed Series in Sulaimanyia
governorate in the view of sedimentology, tectonics and sequence stratigraphy. Red Bed Series was remained mysterious units as
concerned to its tectonic and lateral relation to other units. Previously no one has correlated (as concerned to basin and facies changes)
this unit (in the Imbricated Zone) with other units of the same age in the High Folded Zone. But the in the st2 study, it combined basins
of the lower part and upper part of Red Bed Series with Kolosh and Gercus formations respectively. It also put the basin of the Kolosh
Formation and the series in one single basin (Paleocene Foreland Basin) and considered them as lateral facies of each other (Fig.6). It
showed the possible gaps by Diagram of Wheeler (1953) (Fig.7) .In the previous studies such as Lawa (2004) and Jassim and Goff (2006),
the basin of the two units are separated by paleohigh.
3- The study of Karim, et al (2008) (St3) in which the unconformable contact between Kometan and Shiranish Formations is refused and
changed to conformable one. In this study six sections are studied only in one, short sub-marine gap is observed. Later, Taha (2008)
found fossils (nanofossils) of middle Campanian age in a section at northwest of Sulaimanyia city and ascertained the result of the study
of Karim, et al (2008). Previously, this age (Middle Campanian) is assigned as a gap by Buday (1980) and Bellen et al (1959).
4-The study of Ameen and Karim (2008) (St4) in which the unconformity between Qamchuqa and Bekhme formations is changed to
conformable one. Previously this unconformity is estimated to be about 18 million years between the two formations by Bellen et al
(2008) Buday (1980) which extended from Cenomanian to Upper Campanian (Fig.3). The unconformity is previously based on occurrence
of 20m conglomerate but in the all six sections that are studied by Ameen and Karim (op cit) it is not found.
5- The study of Ameen (2008) (St5) in which the unconformity between Qamchuqa and Kometan and Dokan is changed to conformable.
In this study it is shown that the Dokan Formation is a transitional facies between shallow facies (Qamchuqa Formation) and deep one
(Kometan Formation).
6-The study of Sharbazhery (2008) (St6) in which the unconformity between Tanjero and Kolosh formations is changed to conformable on
the basis of the biozonation. In this study many species of planktonic formas (Fig.8) are found in the sediment of Danian that survived
during this age. This age is previously assigned as a gap.
7- The study of Baba Shekh (2006) (St7) and Ameen (2009) in which it is mentioned that the Oligocene rocks are occurring near Draband
Bazian and in the southeast of Sangaw towns. The first study found Oligocene rocks between two conglomerates. These two studies are
indicated on the modified column (Fig.4) by (St7).
8-The study of Karim et al (2007)(St8) in which the possibility of concurrent deposition of the molasse and flysch sediments is discussed
in same basin as lateral facies of each other during Late Cretaceous and Paleocene in Northeastern Iraq. By this work, the present author
is able to modify the relation and distribution of Paleocene and Eocene units in Thrust, Imbicated and High Folded Zones (Fig.4).
9-The study of Taha (2008) and Taha and Karim(2009) (St9) in which it is shown that the unconformable upper and lower contact of
Gulneri formation is changed to conformable one with Dokan and Kometan formations respectively. It is proved that the previously
mentioned conglomerates are nothing except diagenetic ball-and pillow structures. In this two studies, the previous ideas are refused
that the Gulneri and Dokan formations are deposits of small and euxinic basin that are bounded by unconformity from all sides as
assigned by Bellen et al (1959) Fig.(3). Taha (2008) has shown that both formations deposited in large foredeep basin during post
drowning and drowning phase of Arabian Platform (as represented by Qamchuqa and Gulneri formations) respectively.
10-The study of Karim (2007) (St10) in which the relation between Walash Naoperdan Series with both Pila Spi and Sinjar formations are
discussed. It showed that during Middle Eocene the boundary between Imbricated and High Folded Zone was uplifted and divided the
Zagros Foreland basin into two basins. In the northeastern and southwestern basins, Walash Naoperdan Series and Pila Spi Formation are
deposited respectively (Fig.4 and 9).
11-The study of Karim and Baziany (2007) (St11) in which the Qulqula Conglomerate Formation is combined with Red Bed Series and
proposed to remove the formation in the stratigraphy of Iraq. Therefore, the formation is not shown in the modified column while the
Qulqula Radiolarian Formation is shown as equivalent of Sarmord and Balambo formations (Fig.4).
12- The study of Aghwan and Abdul Rahman (2008) (St12) ) in which, succession of Burdigalian stage (represented by Euphrates and
Diban formations in the Northeastern Iraq(Kor Mor Oil Field) are found in the Low Folded Zone in the studied area. Due to this study, the
author is able to insert the above formation in the new chronostratigraphic column of the Northeastern Iraq (Fig.4).
13- The study of Khanaqa et al (2009) (St13) in which, for the first time, the Oligocene rocks (represented by Anah and Ibrahim
formations) are found in the High Folded Zone. In the previous studies the extent of the Oligocene rock not exceeded Low Folded Zone.
Due to this study, the author is able to extend the distribution of the Kirkuk Group further toward northeast in the High Folded Zone in
the chronostratigraphic column (Fig.4).
Fig.5: A) Topographic (geographic) cross section of Tanjero Formation. B) Time expanded (Wheeler) Diagram shows the unconformity at
the lower part of Tanjero Formation which at X1 exists between Tanjero and Shiranish formations. The conglomerate of the lower
sequence is also indicated (modified from Karim, 2004).
Fig.6: Simplified cross section of Chuarta and Sulaimanyia areas showing possible relation between Kolosh Formation and Red Bed Series
during Paleocene (Al-Barzinjy, 2005).
Fig.7: Chronostratigraphic (Wheeler) diagram which shows two unconformities in the lower part of Red Bed Series (Al-Barzinjy, 2005).
METHOD OF MODIFICATION
The modifications are not dependent competently on the aforementioned studies as the modification is aided by field studies of the
author in the studied area for tens of years. This is including checking and evaluation of the result of the above studies (st). The
paleontological results are inspected by the author for their compatibility with the tectonic and Sedimentology of the area. Another
checking is to see if the modifications agree with the stratigraphy of neighboring regions in Iraq. For this, the boundary conditions of the
modified contacts are checked between formations. The study of the boundary condition is aimed to fine equivalents or products of the
previously mentioned unconformities. If an unconformity (erosion or non-deposition) exists in a place, the equivalent (sediments or
paleosoil) of this unconformity must be present in other places around the claimed conglomerate.
When an unconformity is assigned such as the previously mentioned gap between Qamchuqa and Bekhme formations (with 18 million
years gap), the inspection of boundary condition is important for removal of doubt. The inspection includes search for the product of the
18milion years of erosion or non-deposition. The products (as clastic sediments or intense karstification or paleosoil) of this long time
must be enormous and clearly observable in the surrounding areas in outcrop and wells. But if the products are not found, this means
that the unconformity is suspicious. Therefore, many unconformities, preciously assigned, now they are changed to either conformable or
to very short duration of a local submarine erosion which indicated by short zig zag lines with in the modified column (Fig.4).
In the modification, the principles of the sequence stratigraphy are considered in which the deposited rocks “how it is thick or thin” are
inserted between the time lines between which the rocks are deposited. Therefore, the thick and rapidly (during short time) deposited
rocks have thin vertical representation on the column while the thin and slowly (during long time) deposited rocks have shown as thick
interval on the column. Therefore, the thickness of 500m conglomerate of Tanjero Formation may be thinner (on the column in the figure
4) than 6.5m of the Gulneri and Dokan formations.
Previously, the unconformities in Iraq are assumed as regional such as that exist at Cretaceous- Tertiary boundary and that of Middle
Campanian (between Shiranish and Kometan formations). Another example of such unconformities is that of Lower Cenomanian and
Upper Campanian (Between Qamchuqa and Bekhme Formation). These unconformities, if true, they are local because till now no angular
unconformities (which are mostly regional) are found in Iraq.
Now, the sequence stratigraphic models of the marginal basins such as foreland basins of Iraq during Cretaceous and Tertiary can be
applied. In Iraq, the tectonically active coastal areas of these basins are located mainly in the northeast Iraq near the border with Iran
(Karim, 2004 and Barzinjy, 2005). As shown in the modified column (Fig.4), many unconformities elongate from coastal area and they
become conformable toward the basin center. But some of these unconformities are located in the Thrust and Imbricated Zones which
are not included in the column of Bellen et al (1959). Compound unconformities (Potter and Pettijohn, 1977), is characteristics of some of
these unconformities which may spit into several smaller unconformities toward the deeper water. Karim (2004) has observed this
phenomenon in the Tanjero Formation which is represented by spliting of single thick conglomerate succession (in the coastal area in
Chuarta-Mawat-Qandil area) into several relatively thin beds of conglomerates (separated by thick bed of shale or sandstone) in the
deeper water of the formation. In the column, these compound unconformities are not shown but the simplified ones are inserted (Table
1 and fig.10).
In the modification the presence of index fossils for age determination and removal of unconformity is accepted as an undisputable fact.
But the establishment of the unconformities on the basis of absence of index fossils is disputable and even danger. This is because the
absence of index fossils does not mean that the sedimentation is stopped or erosion is happened. The absence of the fossils many be due
to the following:
1-The change of environment is important factor for absence of certain fossils such as those have short time duration. Previously some of
the unconformities are indicated by absence of index fossils in the boundary between formations. Across the boundaries, the lithological
change is due to environment changes. Therefore, disappearance of the certain fossils is attributed to environment changes not to
erosion or non-deposition. The absence of fossils (when used for unconformities) must be aided by either terrigenous conglomerate and
sandstone or karistfication and paleosol in nearby and surrounded areas.
Fig. 8: Planktonic Foramineral species as indicators of the continuous sedimentation at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary (Sharbazery,
2008).
Fig.9: The conclusions of present study as shown by conceptual models of paleogeography and tectonic evolution of the intermontane
basin in Iraq. A: Middle Eocene, B: Lower Eocene, C: Upper Cretaceous and Paleocene.
2- The diagenesis has great role in removal of fossils in certain rock intervals. This is very clear in the Kolosh Formation which in certain
areas such as Sartak Bamo (25 km) to the east of Darbandikhan town) contain abundant well preserved index planktonic forams (Khafoor
and Karim, 2000). But in the south of the Sulaimani City, 600m of the same formation of the same lithology (marl) contain no any index
fossils.
3- The methods of the sampling and cooking may result in losing of the index fossils especially when the certain rocks contain scarce
fossils.
4- The patient of the worker is also important especially when the rocks contain abundant silt and sand-size grains which cause relative
dilution of the number of the fossils in the sample.
5- The wave, current and bioturbation have more or less negative role in the dispersal and mixing of microfossil in certain beds. Now it is
known that even very deep water sediments can be affected by deep marine erosion by deep marine currents.
Table (1) Stratigraphic position and geographic location of the dependent (in modification) conglomerates in the present this study.
Fig.10: Some of the pebble and boulder terriginous conglomerates at different geographic locations and stratigraphic positions. A and B)
At the base of Pila Spi Formation, at 7km to the west of Shaqlawa town and 10km south of Qaradagh town respectively. C) Inside Gercus
Formation 15 km south of Zarayeen town. D) In the lower part of the Red Bed Series 5km south of Chuwarta town.
CONCLUSION
1-A New chronostratigraphic column of Northeast Iraq is drawn
2- In this column the relation between the stratigraphy of Imbricated and Thrust Zones with Low Folded Zone are shown.
3- Most of the previous unconformities in the High and Low Folded Zones are rejected while many unconformity are introduced in the
Imbricated and Thrusted Zones.
4-The modification is compatible with new ideas of sequence stratigraphy, tectonic and sedimentology of the area.
5-The previous unconformities are based on the absence of the index fossils but now it known that there are several factors other than
erosion or non-deposition that cause absence of index fossil.
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STRATIGRAPHY AND BASIN ANALYSIS OF RED BED SERIES AT NORTHEASTERN IRAQ / KURDISTAN REGION
A THESIS
SUBMITTED TO THE COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, UNIVERSITY OF SULAIMANI, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIRMENTS
FOR DEGREE OF DOCTORATE OF PHILOSOPHY IN GEOLOGY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am deeply indebted to Dr. Ali Mahmood Surdashy for his undertaking the task of supervising this thesis and for offering many
suggestions and corrections during all stages of the work. My best thanks to the Dean of the College of Science (Dr. Parykhan Mohamad
Abdulrahman) and also the head of the Department of Geology for their generous help and assistance throughout this work especially
offering the available facilities. I would like to express my gratitude to the university presidency for providing the financial support for
transportation (during fieldwork) and printing the draft and final copy of this work.
My sincere thank to my friends (Dr. Kamal Haji Karim and Khalid Mahmood Ismail) from the Department of Geology, University of
Sulaimani for helping in fieldwork and photographing many features in this thesis. I would like to thank my friends (Yousif Mahmood
Osman), reporter of the Department for providing me with suitable computer software for the program used in this study, and (Mr.
Serwan Hama Ahmed). I also express my gratitude to (Salahaddin Saeed Ali), the Dean Assistant, for reading the original manuscript and
suggesting many corrections. Finally, I would like to express my special appreciation for my wife, Zheyan, for her patience during the
preparation of this work.
Sherzad March,2005
Abstract
The Red Bed Series is a Paleocene- Eocene unit, which crops out mainly within the Imbricated Zone and partially within Thrust Zone in
Northeastern Iraq. It stretches as narrow northwest-southeast belt near and parallel to the Iranian border. The series mainly consists of
alternation of thick beds of clastic rocks of red claystone, sandstone and conglomerate.
On the basis of stratigraphy and lithology the series is divided, in Chwarta-Mawat area, into six units. Unit One is composed of red fine
clastics (red claystone and bluish white marl), while change to sandstone in eastern end of Qandil Mountain toe. Unit two consists of
about 17m of chert and limestone conglomerate with prevalence of red color. Unit three consists of more than 500m of thick-bedded
gray sandstone with interlayers of claystone. This unit contains many sedimentary structures such as cross bedding; ripple mark, flute
cast, plant debris and lamination. Unit four consists of alternation of red layers of claystone, sandstone with lenses of conglomerate. Unit
five is most obvious and thickest unit of the series in all area except the western part of Qandil area, which change to claystone and
sandstone. It consists of chert; limestone, igneous and metamorphic gravel in Chwarta-Mawat area, while in eastern part of Qandil
mountain toes, near Suwais village, it includes only chert and limestone pebbles and boulders. But the western part of the mountain is
similar to that of Chwarta-Mawat area as concerned to the type of gravel. This unit contain obvious imbricate pebbles and large scale
cross bedding. The upper most part (unit six) consists of marl, claystone with some sandstone and a layer of fossiliferous limestone at the
base of the unit. These units are correlated across five different sections, which are representing the available outcrops in Sulaimaniya
and Arbil Governorates. The correlation is based on lithology and stratigraphic position of the units.
In sequence stratigraphy, the rock body of the series is divided into three depostional sequences, (lower, middle and upper depostional
sequences). Each of these is further analyzed into their systems tracts. The systems tracts of the units are lowstand, highstand, and
transgressive systems tract. The most obvious one is lowstand systems tract and consists of Lowstand wedge about 1000m of boulder
and block polymictic conglomerate. During lowstand many incised valleys scoured in the sediment of the previous highstand which is
filled by coarse conglomerate.
Great variations, in different areas, in lithofacies of each systems tract is detected, that is due to the shallowness of the environment.
The correlation of systems tracts of the Red Bed Series at Chwarta, Mawat and Qandil mountain areas, at the Imbricated Zone, with the
equivalent parts of the Kolosh and Gercus Formations at distal area (High Folded Zone) was the important part of sequence stratigraphy
work. This correlation is the first one done for the different sections of the Red Bed Series in one side and with Kolosh, Gercus Formations
in other side. By this correlation, the previous age of the Red Bed Series also changed from Paleocene–Miocene age to Paleocene -
Eocene age only. Another result of the correlation is that the series and the formations sharing the same depostional basin and they
represent lateral facies changes of each other. In this basin, the Red Bed Series is deposited in rapidly subsiding coastal area of the Early
Foreland basin while the Kolosh Formation is deposited in deeper part of the basin.
The environment of the series is highly variable; mainly consist of high gradient braided streams which transfer coarse and fine sediment
to alluvial fan which merge into lowstand fan delta when reaches the main water body of the foreland basin. As concerning with the
depth, it ranges from continental to shallow marine environment while the salinity ranges from dominant fresh river water to brackish
and possible of invading of normal marine water occasionally. Water turbidity changed from highly turbid water in the incised valleys and
in front of alluvial fans to normal marine water.
Petrographic analysis revealed that the source area of each one was different. Even the source area of each section was different in
different times. The clasts were dominantly derived from the Qulqula Radiolarian Formation at the area of eastern part of the Qandil
mountain toe while that of Chwarta-Mawat are derived from the Qulqula Radiolarian and ophiolite source rocks in adition to Walash
Naoperdan group . The source area is consisted of overthrusted sheets of frontal part of Iranian plate. In this study many sedimentary
structures are found in the series such as, cross bedding, ripple marks, imbricated pebbles, laminations, and plant debris. Most of these
structures are found in the unit three (sandstone unit) and few ones found in the upper conglomerate. The paleocurrent analyses, as
revealed by these structures, are presented as rose diagrams show south and southwest directions.
CHAPTER ONE
1.1- Preface
The Red Bed basin, as a part of the Neotethys, was strongly deformed by the Alpine Orogeny and was active from Jurassic till Miocene
where a huge thickness of sediments was accumulated. These sediments now exposed on the surface as different types of stratigraphic
units such as the Balambo, Kometan, Shiranish and Tanjero Formations, in addition to the Red Bed Series and Naoperdan Shaly Group.
The basin has a complicated history of development and tectonics, this history was demonstrated by different characteristics of these
stratigraphic units. Among these units and in the present study, the tectonic framework and sedimentation (basin analysis) of the Red
Bed Series was studied.
Basin analysis involves the interpretation of the growth, evolution, building, and fill of a sedimentary basin by examining different
geologic variables associated with the basin. The geologic variables include all branches of geology, but in the present study, the
emphasis was put on traditional and sequence stratigraphic analysis based on detail study of exposed sections throughout the studied
area. The detailed field and lab studies directed towards paleoenvironmental interpretation to interpret basin fill architecture and
tectonics of the basin, in addition to the correlation and subdivision of the Red Bed Series. Observations during the last few years showed
the probability of achieving more accurate study than that was done before.The most important duty is to establish relations between the
Red Bed Series located in the Imbricated Zone (proximal area) with Kolosh and other Formations in the High and Low Folded Zones
(distal area). In the present study there are attempt to answer many of the questions rasied since 1980 by Buday about subdivisions,
age, paleogeographic reconstruction, and correlation of the Red Bed Series.
1.3-Geological Setting
The studied area is located at the southern boundary (in front) of the Zagros Thrust Belt, which is developed from the basin fill of the
Neo-Tethys and colliding of the Iranian and Arabian plates. Structurally, the series is located within two different zones. The outcrops of
Chwarta – Mawat areas and Roste Valley are located in the Imbricated Zone while that of Penjween and Qandil Mountain toe are located
exactly on the boundary between the Imbricated and Thrust Zone of Buday and Jassim (1987) (Fig.1.1 and 1.2). Because of intense
imbrication, the area is characterized by obscured anticlines and synclines which have been stacked together as very thick and tight
packages which was overturned toward southwest. This imbrication includes the Red Bed Series and other units such as Qulqula,
Balambo and Kometan Formations.
Buday (1980), Buday and Jassim (1987) and Lawa et al., (1998) called the two tectonic zones of distribution of the Series, miogeosyncline
and Euogeosyncline respectively. The Tanjero Formation underlies directly the Series; Karim (2004) regarded the basin of latter
formation and Kolosh Formations as Zagros Early Foreland Basin. In the Chwarta and Mawat area the Series is underlain and overlain by
Tanjero Formation and Naoperdan Group respectively. The contact of the series with the group is not clear but previously mentioned to
be tectonic Al-Mehaidi (1975), Buday (1980) Surdashy (2001). While the contact with the Tanjero Formation is gradation (Lawa et al.,
1998), Karim (2004) mentioned to be gradation in some places and unconformable in others.
The tectonic setting of the series during Paleocene and Eocene will be discussed in Chapter Six. The tectonic setting of the present time
as can be seen in the field is extremely complicated by commutative deformations from Eocene till the present. In Chwarta–Mawat area,
now, the ophiolite (Photo1.1) rests on the Red Bed Series. Particularly as in Grdasha Mountain, near Taza De, Barda Zard and Ganka
villages. In other places the Qulqula can be seen in contact and above the Red Bed Series, such as those along Kanarow Valley and along
line connecting Tazade and Sinjale villages. In Qandil area same relation can be seen. In Penjween area the Red Bed Series rests on
Qulqula Formation, especially around Milakawa Mountain at south of Penjween Town.
1- Iran Section; it is located within Iran near the border with Iraq on the right bank of Du Awan (extreme upstream of Dokan Lake) 4 km
west of Iraqi Awa Kurte village (Photo2.6A). 2-Khewata section; is directly located to the east of Khewata Bridge along the right bank of
Khewata stream (Photo 2.4) and (Fig.2.1).
Fig.(1.1) Paleocene-Eocene facies map of the Middle East( Buday,1980) with location map of the studied area (lower left).
3-Tagaran Section at 350 39-48.3= and longitude 45 29-52.5=, the base of the section is directly located to the northwest of Tagaran
village while its top located directly to the east of Chwarta Town at 20 km to the northwest of Sulaimaniya city (Photo2.1)
4-Type Section (Suwais village section) at the intersection of latitude 350 59¬00.2= and longitude 450 35-16=. It is located directly
to the northwest of Suwais village at the toe of Qandil Mountain 20km to the northwest of Qaladiza town, (Photo 2.10A) and (Fig.1.3 and
fig.2.2). 5-Kometan village section in Naudasht valley at the latitude: 36o 24-26= longitude: 44o 57-38=. It is located at the toe of Qandil
Mountain at 1.5 km north of Kometan Village (Photo2.7) and (Fig.2.7) 6-Roste Valley section, located inside Roste valley at the area
between Haji Omaran and Soran Valley (Photo2.9) and (Fig.2.3). It worthy to mention that the Penjween outcrops mostly covered by
alluvium and serpentinite, therefore no section is taken.
Photo (1.1) Kanarw valley at 300m south of Kanarw town in which the Ophiolite and Qulqula Formation and Red Bed Series cropping out
together
Fig.(1.2) geological map of the studied area, modified from Sissakian ( 2000)
This is based on the available and the inferred evidence and the study include the following:
1. New divisions of the series, taken into considerations, all the exposed outcrops by examining the outcrops in the field, to record all the
vertical and lateral changes.
2.Descriptions and analyzing the different lithofacies in order to establish the depostional environment, this includes the study of
sedimentary structures and paleocurrent analysis to interpret different depositional processes.
3.Sequence stratigraphic analysis in order to interpret the effect of sea level changes and subsidence on the development of third and
fourth order cycles and determines the controlling components (eustasy and tectonic subsidence).
4.To interpret the tectonic framework of sedimentation and paleogeography of the Red Bed Series.
5. To establish the relations between the Red Bed Series and contemporaneous formations in the High and Low folded Zones such as
Kolosh and Gercus Formations.
Fig.(1.3) Location of the type section of Red Bed Series around Suwais village
1. 6- Methodology
1-Study of all outcrops in detail as well as petrographic study of more than 100 thin sections. Then point counting to calculate the
percentage of different 2-The conglomerates were studied in the field for constituent minerals of the andstones. lithology, structures, and
directions. The percentage of the conglomerate is calculated by measuring the percentage of clasts by using the charts prepared by Folk
et al., (1970) and Tucker (1989) for visual estimation percentage of the rock constituents by comparison. 3-Correlation between the
different units of the series in the Imbricate Zone and equivalent successions at the High and Low Folded Zones. This is done by using the
geologic map of the area where all lithologic changes in addition to sedimentary structures were recorded. 4- Point counting for
conglomerates in order to determine the percentage of the main components. 5- Cooking of some samples of marl and red claystone for
extraction of fossil content for inferring environment and age determination. 6- Using the Rock Ware program for plotting the directional
sedimentary structures (uni-and bi-directional structures) on stereonet and plotting rose diagrams. The same program is used for plotting
the sandstones and conglomerates on the Ternary compositional diagrams. Then, using the Photoshop program for drawing tetrahedrons
combines the triangles.
1.7-Previous studies
The Series was first described by Bolton (1958d) as a Suwais Red Beds (the name comes from Suwais village) in the Imbricate Zone bout
20km to the North of Sangasar town to the north of the Ranyia Town. It is not clear why did Bolton named the series “Suwais Beds “while
the type section is near Bra De village which is located at about 15 km to the west of the Suwais village (Fig.1.3) even the lithology of the
series near the latter village is exceptionally different from that of the type section. He divided it into four units (parts), they are as
follows from bottom to top of the outcrop section: 1-Unit 1, Consists of different type of limestone beds (fossiliferous, detrital and
conglomeratic limestone)
1. Unit 2, this unit overlying the previous one and consists of fine clastics (ferruginous red shale and blue siltstone) with some interlayers
of limestone conglomerate. The thickness of this unit is about 300m.
2. Unit 3, Polymictic conglomerate containing boulder and blocks of limestones, chert, igneous and metamorphic rock fragments.
3.Unit 4, Composed of marly shale and sandstone with some conglomerate.
At Chwarta area and in the same manner Al-Mehaidi (1975), divided the Series into four parts (Fig.1.4). But his division did not include
the first unit of Bolton (1958d). Instead, he separated the second unit of Bolton into two parts he named them unit one and unit two from
the bottom to the top. The other units of the two authors are nearly coinciding. Karim (1975) studied the Series paleontologically and
clamed that the age of the series is Miocene. Buday (1980) reviews the earlier studies about the series with citation of regional
distribution and interpretation of different lithologies. Al-Ameri et al. (1990) studied the palynology of the Unit one of Suwais Red Beds in
Chwarta Area; they concluded that this unit is deposited during Santonian. Lawa et al. (1998) recorded gradational contact between Red
Bed Series and Tanjero Formation in Chwarta area; While Karim (2004) recorded both gradational and unconformable contact in different
localities in Chwarta and Qandil area. Al-Qayim (2000) studied sedimentation and tectonic environment of the Suwais Red Beds from
northeast margin of the Arabian plate. He concluded that the unit indicates flysch type sequence of variable facies. Lawa
(2004,p.222,224 and 231) showed by sketch that the Red Bed Series is deposited during Paleocene and in an intermountain basin above
the sea level in which the Kolosh formation located to the southwest of that of the series. He separated both basins from each other by
mountain ranges.
Fig.(1.4) Stratigraphic column of Chwarta area (by Mehadi, 1975)
Fig.(1.5) studied sections of the Red Bed Series
CHapter Two, Stratigraphy and lithology, Red Bed Series
CHAPTER TWO
2.1-Preface
In this chapter, a detailed study of the exposed sections of the Red Bed Series and extensive fieldwork at different settings is presented
towards a reasonable and meaningful subdivision of the studied successions as well as correlation with equivalents in other areas.
2.2.1-Bolton division
The first definition and division of the series was made by Bolton (1958d), he divided it to four units as follows: 1-Unit 1, Consists, at the
lowermost beds, of different type of limestone beds (fossiliferous, detrital and conglomeratic limestone) interbedded with red ferruginous
shale at upper part. Their thicknesses range between 50-100m. They contain many indigenous Cretaceous fossils such as rudists; large
forams etc., and were considered to be of Late Maastrichtian age. 2- Unit 2, this unit overlies the previous one and consists of fine
clastics (ferruginous red shale and blue siltstone) with some interlayers of limestone conglomerate. The thickness of this unit is about
300m and according to Buday (1980), the age of this unit is Paleocene – Lower Eocene. He had regarded this unit as flysch type
sediments.
3- Unit 3, Polymictic conglomerates containing boulder and blocks of limestone, chert, and igneous and metamorphic rocks fragments.
The chert clasts were derived from the Qulqula Formation. The thickness of this unit reaches 400m in Chwarta area and 200m at the type
area. This unit represents talus sediments. In the present study this conglomerate is called Chwarta Conglomerate. 4- Unit 4, Composed
of marly shale and sandstone with some conglomerate and layers of reddish or gray nummulitic limestone. The thickness of this unit
reachs 800m in the type area.
2.2.3 -New division of the Red Bed Series in the present study
As generally agreed that the depositional environment of the series is shallow, mainly continental, therefore, a unified division for all
areas might not be suitable. Instead a new division of each area would be more convenient to achieve and finally to correlate the
divisions in different areas together.
Photo (2.1) Unit one, two and three as can be seen in Tagaran section.
Photo (2.2) Unit four of the Tagaran section, composed of mixed fine and coarse clastics
Photo (2.3) A) unit one, Lower clastic unit, at the west of Kani Sard village. It consists of red and bluish white claystone and siltstone. B)
Unit three (sandtone unit) at East of Tagaran village
Bolton (1958) and Al- Mehaidi (1975) called this unit “Unit Three “. Generally the sediments of the unit are subangular and badly sorted
suggesting near source area and steep gradient of the transport surface. We have seen flat large blocks (weighted 50kg) in Chwarta
Mawat area. The flatness of these blocks is such that they transported only by sliding not rolling. The texture reveals that transportation
is not by debris flow because the blocks are found in orthoconglomerate (grain supported conglomerate).
The field point counting by using comparison chart showed that most grains are derived from Qulqula Radiolarian Formation (chert and
limestone) and few ones have the source of Ophiolite and limestones of Walash-Nauperdan Series. The percentage of these grains is
55%, 30 and 15 respectively. At Suwais village the conglomerate has coarser texture and compositionally contains clasts of chert and
limestone derived from Qulqula Formation. Field and laboratory studies showed that stratigraphic position of this unit is uncertain; this is
because of the following:
A)In Chwarta area, this unit contains boulders, blocks (Photo3.6A) and pebbles of gray and milky Nummulite and Alveolina bearing
limestones
Photo(2.4) Khewata section, as shown by composite photo . To complete the panoramic sense, the upper and lower ones must be jointed
at A-B and A- -B-
(Photo4.1 and 4.2). These fossils also reported by Omari and Sadiq (1977) in Chwarta area. The age of these fossils is Lower to Middle
Eocene. These clasts are derived from source area of Walash-Naoperdan Series. This proves that the age of unit five (unit three of Bolton)
is younger than the Walash-Naoperdan Series. This means that this unit has no stratigraphic relation with the units one, two, three, four
and six.
B) Surveying the Sarsir Mountain especially it’s northern and southern side, the absence of any exposure of this unit was noted, while
there is thick succession of this unit on the southern side of the mountain. As the paleocurrent in this unit is towards south, it should be
thicker and coarser at the northern side of the mountain. This observation prove that the unit is deposited as an alluvial fan (or as a
Talus) Buday (1980) on the regional paleoslope of Eocene which now partly represented by Chwarta-Mawat area for more evidence see
section (4.2.1 and 6.5). During Eocene, other units of series (with Walash- Naoperdan Series) are exposed along the regional paleoslope.
The sudden uplift activated erosion of the existed outcrops in relatively arid climate.
C) At the southern side, the dip of the layers of the conglomerate is less than the dip of the other units of Red Bed Series. The dip of the
layers is nearly 20 degrees while the dip of other units reaches 30 degrees. This means that the conglomerate deposited on the slope of
the terrestrial lands, which were surrounding the basin of the Red Bed Series during late Eocene. The deposition occurred in an onlapping
manner, which causes decrease of the slope.
As a result of this fact the stratigraphy and division of the Red Bed Series must change totally and unit five must be separated from other
units and put at the top of the Walash –Nauperdan Series not at the middle of Red Bed Series. Therefore its name and position must be
change, from unit three in previous studies, to new name or even may be designated as a new formation. To simplify and to avoid
repetition of Unit Five, the present study named it Chwarta conglomerate. For more detail see Chapter Five,(Sequence Stratigraphy). One
can see on the outcrop sporadic blocks on surface outcrop of this unit in Chwarta-Mawat and Qandil area some block weighted more than
300kg (Photo2.5). Omari and Sadiq (1977) mentioned that this unit contains fossiliferous pebbles and boulders belong to Naoperdan
Group so he assigned the age to be younger than the Eocene.
Photo(2.5) Surface of the unit five showing blocks of limestone of Qulqula Formation at southwest of Chwarta town
Photo(2.6)A) Iran section showing unit one, two, three and four inside Iran.
B) unit two int the mouth of Siramerg Valley at 2kms west of Qala Chuallan Town. The concave black line is Channel lag deposit
2.2.3.2 -Divisions of Suwais Village section (Southeastern end of Qandil mountain toe)
This section is located at the southeastern end of Qandil Mountain at 30km to the northeast of Ranyia Town directly to the north of
Suwais Village (type locality of the series) near the border of Iran. Field study showed that the description of the series does not belong to
one single section but it has taken from the combinations of two sections at two nearby localities. These localities are Suwais village and
Pshtashan Village to the north (Fig.1.3). Therefor the best outcrop to be taken as type section is the section of Tagaran. The Red Bed
Series around Suwais village is more sandstone and conglomerate rich and its units are not well developed as compares to Tagaran
section (Fig.2.6). The units are as following:
Fig.(2.2) Schematic geological cross section of Shahidan valley near Kometan Village
The problem is that one did not know whether the units are not deposited during their respective time or they are deposited as fine
clastic because of persistence of relatively calm environment. At the base of Red bed series, in this valley, there are 15m thick
alternations of fossiliferous limestone (in situ) and conglomerate beds. Thin section study revealed that limestone beds were deposited in
their original place (not reworked) while the conglomerate bed seems to be intraformational (Fig2.3).
2.3-Origin of red color in the Red Bed Series
Field study in the source area of Red Bed Series at the north and northeast of the studied area showed that Qulqula Formation contain
many thick successions of red color (Photo2.8). These successions consist of red shale, brown siliceous shale, red and brown cherts. They
are seen clearly to the north of Kanarw town ( Chwarta area), especially near Dere , Basine, , Bewre, Mirana, and Kani Showan villages, in
addition to the east of Nalparez Town in Penjween area. In later area and in some place, the red shale changes to highly deformed brown
jasper. The red intervals, in the Qulqula Formation, constitute more than half of the total thickness of the formation. Karim (2003a)
observed similar lithologies in the formation in the area that is located between Chwarta and Said Sadiq Towns.
As mentioned before Qulqula Formation is the main source area of the Red Bed Series. Therefore the origin of the red color is mainly
attributed to the erosion of the observed red and brown successions in the Qulqula Formations. Previously, the red color of the red beds
was attributed to the oxidation of iron in the continental environment during deposition (Blatt et el. 1980 and Potter et al. 1980).
According to Al-Qayim (2000), the red color of the Red Bed Series is most likely originated from thermodynamic alteration due to
thrusting of the Iranian blocks over the flysch trough of Arab plate margin during late phase of Alpine Orogeny. But the homogeneity of
the red colors in the claystones and some conglomerate refuse these ideas, at least for the series in the studied area. This is because the
oxidation, as diagenetic processes, cannot generate homogenous red or brown color in the thick bed. It can generate spotted or
amalgamated color. In this connection( Harmann, 1963, in Turner, 1979) mentioned that diagenetic color of continental red beds is
characterized by the occurrence of grey and green zones or white mottled zones within predominantly red successions that cut across
the depositional boundaries. Eren (2001) mentioned that after reviewing of Turner (1980), Pye (1983), Friedman et al. (1992), Einsele
(1992), there are two hypothesis which show the staining of sediments (the red color). The first hypotheses suggest that hematite is
detritally derived from lateritic soils. The second hypotheses suggest that hematite forms authigenitically after deposition and by
alteration of iron bearing detrital grains.
Another evidence for affecting of the source area on red color is the regular alternation of red and bluish white layers of claystone and
sandstone in some places (Photo2.3A). Among these places we mention, the east of Tagaran and south of Kani Sard villages. Moreover,
the contacts between both layers are sharp and not gradational. The red and white layers are derived from sources
with the respective colors (i.e. Red shale and bluish white marl of Qulqula Formation). Gavrilov (2002) mentioned that in some cases, (Fe)
might penetrate into underlying and overlying sediments as the stage of diagenetic compaction changing primarily white sediments to a
red color. Irregularity in staining caused the spot appearance of deposits. In the Red Bed Series the red color is existed in narrow strip
controlled during deposition by the limit of the costal area where there is no reduction environment, but the red interval of Qulqula may
be 100km wide and 100m thick.
As the bluish white layers are not affected by the red color so the diagenetic or oxidation is excluded for main source of red color of Red
Bed Series. We do not refuse the enhancement of the red color by oxidation but the main color is due to the source area, which is
homogenized during transport by the rivers. The oxidation is happened during exposure of the red intervals of the Qulqula Formation, the
same thing may also happen during transportation of these sediments. The dissolved oxygen may be incorporated with the existed (Fe)
ions in the sediment of the Qulqula Formation. Many other authors argued that red color is attributed to pigmentary hematite which is
derived from either weathering of source area or sediments previously deposited in a parallic oxidizing environments (Lajoie and
Chagnon, 1973, in Turner, 1979). The detritus of Kolosh and Tanjero Formations are believed to be partly derived from Qulqula
Formation, but their colors are green and buff, this is because these formations have deep deposits and with organic matter shows dark
color, but when one sees the shallow facies their color become light or brown which appear in Qallachwalan area.
2.4-Classification of the Red Bed Series sandstone Classification of sandstone and conglomerate have many restrictions which include
wide variations of lithic clasts and mineralogical constituents of the sandstones of the Red Bed Series from one unit to others. Even same
unit show large lithologic change laterally. For example, unit one, in the south of Chwarta town contains no igneous clasts but they
increase laterally toward Mawat area. Another restrictions is that, traditional (common) method of classification of Folk (1974) and
Pettijohn (1975) by equilateral triangle can not be used (Fig. 2.5A and B).
This is because the sandstones of the Red Bed Series is generally contain no feldspars or contain very little amount. So the triangle of the
above author can not be used more successfully. While that of Al-Rawi (1982) is the most suitable than the others but it gives no
convincing result (Fig.2.5C). This is because he did not put an apex for chert, which is common in the sandstone of the Red Bed Series.
Photo (2.8) Thick interval, mainly consisted of red ferrogenous shale of Qulqula Formation, at 10kms to the northeast of Chwarta town. It
possibly responsible for red color of Red Bed Series
Another classification adopted in this study in which the apexes of the equilateral triangle are assigned to represent limestone, chert
+quartz and igneous rock clasts (grains). The igneous rock clasts consist of altered peridotite and gabbros clasts. The chert clasts include
all type of cherts such as red (jasper), black (bituminous), clayey chert, limey chert and others in addition to quartz. This classification
can also be applied to the conglomerate of the Red Bed Series. For this classification the thin sections of the sandstones are studied
under polarizer microscope and point counting is achieved for the calculation of the constituents. The constituents of conglomerates are
estimated by using comparison chart of Folk et al. (1970) and Tucker (1988). The comparison is done visually in the field, and the result
is arranged in the tables (2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, and 2.5) and plotted on the compositional triangle (Fig 2.8 and 2.9). Quartz grains are not
plotted on the triangle, because most of them were grown as secondary grains and derived from Qulqula Formation before erosion
( many large secondary crystals was found in the Qulqula Formation).
Photo (2.9)
Photo (2.10)
Photo (2.11)
Photo(2.12)
Fig.(2.4 )
Fig.(2.5) classification of sandsytone of Red Bed Series according to , A)Pettijohn,1975, B)Folk,1974, C)Al-rawi,1982
Fig.(2.8 ) A) lithologic constituents of the unit five (chwarta conglomerate) at Swais village area.
B) lithologic constituents of the unit five (chwarta conglomerate) at chwarta aera.
Fig.(2.9 ) top) lithologic constituents of the unit three (Sandstone unit) at Swais village area.
Below) lithologic constituents of the unit two (lower conglomerate unit).
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1-Preface
The environment of the Red Bed Series was swinging during the total time span of Paleocene and Eocene in response to the eustatic sea
level changes, tectonic subsidence, uplift, and sediment fill in addition to the possibility of the effect of climate. Accordingly, in the basin,
the environment was changing both in time and space mainly as a result of relative sea level changes. The variations of environment are
demonstrated by lateral and vertical lithological changes, so that the shoreline was shifting continuously, especially during TST and LST.
The depostional environments were mainly continental, ranging from proximal alluvial fan to fan delta environment. During Paleocene
these environments were located in the coastal area of the deep marine basin in which the Kolosh Formation was deposited (Fig.4.8).
During Eocene the deep environment of the Kolosh Formation is changed to shallow one either by sediment fill or by uplift of the area of
coverage.
In the position of Kolosh Formation, shallow environment Sinjar Formation and continental Gercus Formation are deposited while their
counter part (Red Bed Series) was continued in deposition in more contrasted environments ranged between alluvial fan to marine
coastal area. During Paleocene the coastal area was located in the Imbricated Zone (as now a days called), Buday, 1973 in Omari and
Sadiq, 1977, while the deep basin (Kolosh Formation) was located at the present high folded zone which were located to the north -
northeast and were changed to continental one. During Eocene this continental areas extends from Imbricated Zone to the boundary
between Low and High Folded Zone.
Photo (4.1) two species of nummmulite which are found in the Chwarta conglomerate (unit five) at the south of chwarta town. They are
most probably belonging to Walash- Naoperdan Series.
Fig.(4.1) a part of section at Khewata area showing lithofacies A and B.
Photo(4.1a) colony of coral in the base of the unit six .cropped out at 3km to the west of Chwarta Town which proves gradation of alluvial
(fan delta) environment to shelf one. The related bed found by joined group of geologists from Geological survey of Baghdad and
Sulaimanyia
Fig.(4.2) a part of section at Khewata area showing lithofacies C
4.2.2- Massive (or well bedded) cross bedded pebbly sandstone Lithofacies (B)
This facies exist in units three and four. It also exists rarely at the base of unit one in Khewata section. It may represent the middle reach
bar or point bar of braided rivers (Fig.4.1). This facies is clearer in unit two at the Qandil mountain toe near the Kometan Village. At this
locality, it is associated with facies C and A.
Fig.(4.4) Block diagram showing deposition of the Unit three (The sandstone unit) by channel fill and lateral channel migration with some
subsidence.
Fig. (4.7) The most close model ( in literature) to the Red Bed Series and Kolosh Formation . The fan delta-alluvial fun and slope-basin
areas can be representative for Red Bed Series and Kolosh Formations respectively . While the shelf represent the transition between the
two units . Drawn by Link et al., 1976, in : Pettijohn et al.(1987)
Fig.(4.8A) Position of Kolosh Formation and Red Bed Series in the Foreland basin of Paleocene
Fig.(4.8B ) depositional model of Red Bed Series during Paleocene (A) and Eocene
Fig.(4.9) Lithology and environment of the one cycle of the unit three
CHAPTER FIVE
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
5.1-PREFACE
Sequence stratigraphy is a new tool for more accurate basin analysis than the traditional stratigraphy. This is because traditional
stratigraphy divides the outcrop section of certain area in term of similar lithologies while sequence stratigraphy divides the sections
according to equivalent lithologies and equivalent times intervals. Therefore sequence stratigraphy is not concerned so much with the
lithology as do the traditional stratigraphy.
Emery and Myers (1996) defined sequence stratigraphy as “subdivision of sedimentary basin fill into genetic packages (depositional
sequence) bounded by unconformity and their correlative conformities”. Previously no one has studied sequence stratigraphy of the Red
Bed Series. Karim (2004) has studied the sequence stratigraphy of the underlying Tanjero Formation in the same studied area. He cited
that the rock of the most upper part of the Tanjero Formation represent shelf margin system tract (SMST).
For the division of the rock body of the series, into depositional sequences, the method of Vail et al. (1977) is used, the method of
Galloway (1989) (Genetic sequence) is not used because the Red Bed Series is mainly deposited in the continental environments, so no
condensed sections can be found easily and they have very limited outcrops. That’s why Galloway method (1989) could not be used in
this study. Before the study of the sequence stratigraphy of the series the following points should be considered: 1-Only one narrow strip
of outcrop is available for the study. This prevents wide and accurate sequence stratigraphy study of the series. 2- Although the lower
boundary of the series is clear, which is indicated by Karim (2004) as unconformable in some places (as in Qandil mountain toe) and
conformable in others (as in Chwarta area) but the upper boundary with Naoperdan shaly Group is not clear. Previously this contact
mentioned to be tectonic by Al-Mehaidi (1975), Buday (1980) and Surdashy (2001).
3. It is agreed that the series has shallow environment (mainly continental), therefor the lithology and facies change dramatically both
laterally and vertically. This makes study of sequence stratigraphy of the series difficult. Moreover, this environment may cause erosion
of some of the systems tract especially those, which have fine grain lithology such as transgressive systems tracts.
Extensive lateral fieldwork is achieved to find all sedimentary facies deposited in response to relative sea level change. Finally, these
facies are organized in system tracts (LST, TST, and HST) and the associated sequence boundaries are identified. The systems and
boundaries rarely can be seen in one continuous surface section.
5.2-Contact between the Red Bed series and the Tanjero Formation
The contact was cited previously to be gradational by Lawa et al. (1998) while Karim (2004) recorded both gradational and
unconformable contact at Chwarta-Mawat area. Moreover, the latter author mentioned that the contact is totally unconformable at the
Qandil mountain toe. So he concluded that the upper most part of the Tanjero Formation represent shelf margin system tract (SMST) in
Chwarta-Mawat area and underlain by SB2, while in Qandil area the upper part of Tanjero Formation underlain by SB1.
In the present study this conclusion is assigned as a starting point for the discussion of the sequence development of the Red Bed Series.
Photo (5.1)
Photo (5.2)
Photo (5.3)
Fig.( 5.1 )
5.4- Depositional sequences and systems tracts of the Red Bed Series
In this study, the whole rock body of the Red Bed Series except unit five (Chwarta Conglomerate) is divided into three main depositional
sequences. But the latter conglomerate will be discussed separately. Beside the main sequences, this study does not exclude existence
of other minor depostional sequence within the main ones but the study of these minors make the Red Bed Series more complex to be
understandable and to be conclusive. The main sequences are as follows:
Fig.(5.2) possible relation between Gercus Formation and Red Bed Series during deposition of the unit five (Chwarta Conglomerate)
Fig.(5.3) Final Stratigraphic column of the Red Bed Series at Chwarta Area when the result of the present is encountered. The
conglomerate has erosional relation with other units
Fig.(5.6) Correlation of different units of the Red Bed Series in the studied area ( not to scale). The legend is shown in the Stratigraphic
column in the chapter one
Fig.(5.8 ) The 4rth order sea level curve, showing the timing of Red Bed Series units and nature magnitude and amplitude) during the
deposition of each units.
Fig.(5.10) Sequence Stratigraphic subdivisions of the unit three, showing 3rd order BLTC within 4rth order HST of Khewata section
CHAPTER SIX
6.1-Preface
The distribution of the Red Bed Series sediments from Penjween to Haji Omran as a narrow belt infers that the setting of the basin is as
elongate lake that filled with terrestrial (terrigenous) sediments. The model is drawn previously show apparently this type of setting
which shows that basin of Red Bed Series bounded by high paleohighs (Fig.6.1and 6.3). But the actual basin of the Red Bed Series, as
inferred in the present study, was neither lake nor narrow sea, but it was large, wide and deep basin. Therefore one cannot establish
tectonic setting and history of the Red Bed Series if does not consider its basin as single one, in which the known lithologies
(conglomerate, sandstone and red claystone) of the Red Bed Series deposited. This is proved sedimentologically in field and in sequence
stratigraphy (see Chapter Five) in which the basin of Red Bed Series is combined with the basin of the Kolosh and Gercus Formations.
There are some evidences for the joining basin of the series and the formations. The first one is the incompatibility of accumulation of
1000m of conglomerate in front of proposed paleohighs in Chwarta-Mawat area. This paleohigh has put between the Red Bed Series and
Kolosh Formation by the previous studies. This paleohighs is assigned by Buday (1980), Al-Hashimi and Amer (1985). The position of the
paleohigh coincide with Azmir, Goizha, Daban and Sara anticlines. Very recently this paleohigh was also confirmed by Lawa (2004, p.174)
who mentioned that the “”Red Bed Series of Suwais Group separated from the Kolosh foredeep and Early Paleocene deposit of the Kolosh
Formation””.
The observed incompatibility is demonstrated by occurrence of (1000m) of block and boulder conglomerate at short distance behind the
paleohighs (Fig. 6.1B and D). This distance is not more than 6km from the summit of Goizha, Azmir and Daban, anticlines. The
sedimentogical principle does not aid the existence of paleohigh in front of 1000m conglomerates. This is because of the followings: 1-
Huge quantity of sandstones and claystone must be derived from 1000m of conglomerate (Chwarta conglomerate) and from the source
area. Now this huge quantity is not present if we do not connect basin of the Red Bed Series with that of the Kolosh and Gercus
Formations. When this connection is done the shale, sandstone and siltstone of these latter formations can be correlated with the
conglomerate of Red Bed Series. When the complete connection between basin of the Red Bed Series with the Kolosh and Gercus
Formations is done, all the sediments finer than conglomerate were transported to the deep basin of the later formations and deposited
as sandstone, shale and marl (Fig.6.4). Therefore, the tectonic basin reconstruction of the Red Bed Series is based on the absence of the
above anticlines at most times. In this basin, the Red Bed Series was deposited in a coastal area that was covering Chwarta –Mawat area
while the central area of the basin located at Sharazoor – Piramagroon plain in addition to present location of the anticlines. 2- Karim
(2004), in the same area, cited that 500m conglomerate of Tanjero Formation in Chwarta- Mawat area has equivalent of 400m sandstone
in Sharazoor-Piramagroon plain. He correlated both conglomerate and sandstone in the two areas and proved that both were time and
lithologic equivalent. He measured the distance between the conglomerate and sandstone, after the removal of effect of folding, to about
25km. Therefore when the same principle is applied for the Kolosh Formation, it is obvious that the Kolosh and Gercus Formations are
time equivalent to the Red Bed Series (or to some parts of the series).
Fig.( 6.1)
Fig.(6.2 )
3-The extensive fieldwork (in this study) failed to find the sediment of coastal area of Kolosh Formation. According to principle of
sedimentology huge thickness of conglomerate must be deposited in coastal area of these two formations. As the Red Bed Series with
Kolosh and Gercus Formations have nearly same age so the best coastal area, which fit with the basin of the Kolosh and Gercus
Formations, is the depositional area of the Red Bed Series. It is worthy to mention that the previous studies have mentioned nothing
about the coastal area of the Kolosh Formation. 4- The paleocurrent direction of Units Two, Three and Four of sediments of the Red Bed
Series is toward southwest (Fig.3.2) while that of Unit Five (Chwarta conglomerate) point toward the south. The maximum development
of the Kolosh formation exists at the same directions. In other side, the sediment of the Red Bed Series is deposited by rivers and alluvial
fans, therefore, the paleohigh cannot be put in front of the river, which transport sediments south of the Red Bed Series. 5-The measured
paleocurrent of the Kolosh Formation in Dokan area at 500m to the west of Qulka village is same as that of the Red Bed Series at the
100m. West of Diralla Village, at Chwarta area. This paleocurrent is measured by Flute cast and channel in both units (Photo5.1). This
also refuses the presence of paleohigh during deposition of most parts of the Red Bed Series. 6-The lithologic study of both units proved
that both have same source areas. These source areas consisted of Qulqula Radiolarian Group and ophiolite complex. In addition to the
above source areas, the upper part of the Red Bed Series (Chwarta Conglomerate) have a source area consisted of Walash – Naoperdan
Series. 7-No clasts of Kometan, Shiranish and Tanjero Formations are found in the sediment of Red Bed Series; this proves that there was
no prominent paleohigh to a scale shown by Al-Hashimi and Amer (1985), and Surdashy (1998) (Fig.6.1). If the paleohigh existed
between the Red Bed Series and the
Kolosh Formation, the paleohigh must have neen suffered from erosion and supplied sediments to the basin of the Red Bed Series.
According to the above points, the sediments of the Red Bed Series, Kolosh and Gercus Formations are deposited in single basin (in most
time) and nearly under the same tectonic effects and eustatic see level change. In other side, the series is deposited under effect of
tectonic of Paleocene and Eocene only and not extending to Miocene as mentioned before. This is because, there is no evidence to show
that the basin of the Red Bed Series is extended, in age, from Paleocene to Miocene as mentioned by Buday (1980), and Al-Mehaidi
(1975, p. 36). But this does not means that in some time intervals there was no paleohigh. During deposition of Sinjar Formation and
Naoperdan Series, the possibility of a submerged paleohigh must not be excluded. This paleohigh in the basin decreased the
accommodation for clastic sediment to accumulate in high thickness and relatively wide distribution. This is because the paleohigh
generate barrier in front of sediment transport and decreases the kinetic energy of the sediment and turbidity current obtain during free
transport from source area and when the obstacles (paleo-highs) were not grown up. During existence of this paleohigh, only little fine
clastics are deposited which were eroded later during sea level fall or reefal limestone had grown on them because of clastic decrease. 8-
Red Bed Series can be correlated with the Kolosh Formation on the basis of lithology and paleocurrent as follows: A- The red interval of
lithology of the series is located near the base (Unit One and Two). The equivalent of the interval exists also at the base of Kolosh
Formation at Dokan area at right bank of Qashqully stream, which consist of fine brown shale. The brown interval is more obvious at
south Jally Village near the Gorge of Smaqully (North of Koyia town).
B- Karim (2004), found a para-and polymictic conglomerate, that exist at the top of the Tanjero Formation in Chwarta-Mawat area (He
named it “Tagaran Conglomerate”). This conglomerate also exists at Dokan area and has same lithology as that of Chwarta area, and in
both areas composed of rounded pebbles of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. C- The middle part of the Kolosh Formation,
lithologically and stratigraphically is most probably equivalent to the conglomerate of Unit Two. Especially the sandstone of the Kolosh
Formation is similar in their constituent to the conglomerate of Unit Two at Mawat and Qandil Mountain toe (Photo2.11).
Fig.(6.3) different stages of the development of Red Bed Series as related to plate tectonics (Numan,1997).
6.3-One foreland basin for Kolosh Formation and Red Bed Series together
The term foreland basin is introduced by Dickenson (1974) on the principles that, mountain belt is associated with uplift of rock materials
to several kilometers in height. Regions of subsidence, called foreland sedimentary basin, border the uplifted belts. These basins are
“wedge shaped “in cross-section with depth that gradually decrease from the mountain belt towards the adjacent craton. He proposed
two broad types of foreland basins: 1-Peripheral foreland basins, which are related to continent-continent collision. 2-Retro-arc foreland
basins, which are related to the subsidence of oceanic lithosphere.
The basin and provenance of the Red Bed Series belong to type one in the above division. According to Einsele (2000) and Walker (1992),
the thickest alluvial deposit occurs in several tectonic related basins, one of which is foreland basin. The thick accumulation (in some
case reach 2500m) of conglomerate sandstone and red claystone in the basin of Red Bed Series (including basin of Kolosh Formation) is
the evidence for foreland basin. Especially Karim (2004) proved that Tanjero Formation is deposited in an early foreland basin (He called
it Early Zagros Foreland Basin). According to this tectonic setting, both Tanjero Formation and Shiranish Formations are deposited in one
early foreland basin. So according to his suggestion the foreland basin started from upper Campanian. Al-Qayim (2000, p.112) is the first
who showed that Kolosh Formation is deposited in foreland basin. The same type of basin is reported and showed by diagrams by Lawa
(2004) for Kolosh Formation (Fig.6.2).
Dole et al., (2001, p.111) mentioned that the sediments of the foreland basin are characterized by heterogeneous gravels, sands, and
mud derived from orogenic belt. When the relation and correlation of the Red Bed Series and the Kolosh Formation is considered, it is
obvious that both deposited in single foreland basin in coastal areas and off-shore respectively. The relation and correlation of both
formations are discussed in Chapter Two and Three. This foreland basin developed after colliding of Continental part of Arabian and
Iranian Plate at Upper Cretaceous. This is associated with uplift of Qulqula Group and ophiolite complex with shedding huge quantity of
sediments into the foreland basin during tertiary, which are deposited as the Red Bed Series, Kolosh and Gercus Formations. From
Tertiary till now the continuous southwest advance of the frontal part of the plate, most probably, made some units of the Red Bed Series
to be imbricated and the thickness appeared to be doubled. This phenomenon is not so clear in the field to be ascertained. But at least at
one locality (near Suwais village) some sign of the imbrication can be seen in the unit five (Chwarta conglomerate). Buday (1980,p. 217)
mentioned that the basin of the Kolosh Formation, in the unstable shelf, is separated from Red Bed Series in miogeosyncline. This
tectonic separation of the two basins is based on the classic tectonic classification of the basins into many types of geosyncline. Numan
(1997) separated tectonically and topographically Red Bed Series from Kolosh Formation. In the present study, it is proved, in most time
and in the studied area the basins of Red Bed Series and Kolosh Formation were combined during Paleocene and Eocene and cannot be
separated tectonically and physiographically.
Fig.(6.4)
Fig.(6.5) time expanded Stratigraphic column of the late Cretaceous and Tertiary (Jassim et al,1984 in Al-Rawi,1988) obvious that the
position and relation of Red Bed Series with Kolosh Formation and Gercus Formation are not indicated
Fig.(6.5a) time expanded Stratigraphic column of the late Cretaceous and Tertiary (upper one) the position and relation of Red Bed Series
with Kolosh Formation and Gercus Formation are indicated as a result of this study.
6.6- Relation between the Red Bed Series and Walash –Naoperdan Series
The most problematic issue in the tectonic and stratigraphy of the Imbricated and Thrust Zones is the uncertainty of the relationship
between Walash – Naoperdan Series and other units in the two zones. Bellen, (1959) and Buday
(1980) and Buday and Jassim (1987) have not mentioned any things about the relation between the two series. Numan (1997) put each
series in two different basins. He put Red Bed Series and Walash-Naoperdan Series in diverging basin and converging basins respectively
(Fig.6.2). Al-Hashimi (1985) positioned the two series in two different local basin separated by emerged paleohigh (Fig.6.1B). In his model
the former series located in southwestern basin while the latter is located in northeastern one. Al-Mehaidi (1975) and Surdashy (2001)
indicated a tectonic boundary between Walash-Naoperdan and the Red Bed Series.
Previously Walash–Naoperdan Series was thought to be deposited at the extreme northern border of Iraq or even inside Iranian border.
The field and sedimentological study do not aid this assumption and the existence of two different basins, which separated by emerged
paleohigh. This is because type and amount of sediments are such that one can observe the continuous and high supply of coarse
terrigenous clastics from north and northeast during nearly all time spans of Paleocene and Eocene. This huge quantity of sediment does
not aid the existence of small source area or island between the two basins. Another reason is that, the reefal and pure limestone
generally grows in the clear water, away from terrigenous clastic influx and tectonic activity. Therefore, we cannot put Walash –
Naoperdan Series in the extreme northern boundary where is more clastic influx and tectonic activity than the the basin of the Red Bed
Series. It is more convenient to put both series in the same basin. In this model (setting), Walash-Naoperdan Series is deposited during
basin calm, and relative subsidence of the basin and source area). The most previous convenient model is that of Surdashy (1998), which
positioned the two series in two basins, which separated by submerged paleohigh. But even this suggestion does not agree completely
with field and sedimentological observations, which show existence of some stratigraphical relation between the two series.
According to the most previous models (see page 112), several parallel paleohighs extend in northwest-southeast direction, the first one
located near the Iranian border while the second at 5km north to Sulaimaniya. The latter one coincides with Goizha, Sara, Daban and
Kosrat anticlines. The sedimentological and structural evidences do not aid presence of these parallel-emerged paleohighs during
Paleocene and Eocene. The thick accumulation of coarse sediments and southwestern paleocurrent direction refuse existence of the
paleohighs because accommodation cannot be created in narrow basin and to be continuous for long time during Paleocene and Eocene.
As concerned to the structure, the present dip of the strata is not so steep to be accumulative of the dip angles from Paleocene to
present.
In the present study, it is inferred that Unit Five (Chwarta Conglomerate) is not related to the Red Bed Series but it has different
stratigraphic and tectonic setting which are not certain. Field study showed that this unit is younger than the Red Bed Series and the
Naoperdan Series. This is because it contains reworked pebbles and boulders of the latter Series. The position of Chwarta Conglomerate
between Units Four and Six may be attributed to the one of the following tectonic possibilities: A- It is most possible that Chwarta
conglomerate was representing alluvial fan, that were eroded from source area consisted of Qulqula Group, ophiolite and Walash–
Naoperdan Series. The erosion is occurred at middle Eocene after deposition and uplift of the series. The Alluvial Fan is deposited
unconformably on rocks of Paleocene and Lower Eocene (Fig.5.3 and 5.4 after tectonic corrections). The deposition occurred as alluvial
fan at the base of mountain range (on mountain toe) that surrounded the basin of Eocene. More specifically, the Chwarta conglomerate is
deposited on the mountain slope bordering the coastal area of the Gercus Formation and Naopurdan Series, while the Gercus Formation
itself deposited in the deltaic environment.
It is possible that the climate was semi-arid one and during the seasonal storm deep erosion scored deep incised valleys during sea level
fall. The Valleys later filled with boulder and block conglomerate forming alluvial fan. The paleocurrent direction of Unit Five is towards
south while other units have southwest direction. The valleys were descending from north toward south due to the effect of tectonic
stress and stream dissection now unit five appears as a depostional unit of the Red Bed Series.
B- It is possible that the present position of unit five is stratigraphically in the right position (Fig.2.4 and 2.6 before tectonic correction).
According to this, the nummulite in the pebbles and boulders may be belonging to an age (upper Paleocene) younger than Walash-
Naoperdan. During this age, nummulite-bearing layers are deposited and then eroded during early Eocene. For this assumption it is
necessary to conduct precise boistratigraphic study for both Walash-Naoperdan series, and the pebbles and boulders in the Red Bed
Series to prove the exact relation between the two units.
Fig.(6.6) Tectonic development of Red Bed Series during late Maastrichtian and Paleocene.
Fig.(6.7) Tectonic development of Red Bed Series in the foreland basin
A THESIS
SUBMITTED TO THE COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, UNIVERSITY OF SULAIMANI, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR
DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE
IN GEOLOGY
BY
Deeren Mohammad Sadiq
B.Sc. in Geology, Sulaimani University, 1999
Supervision by:
Dr. Sherzad Tofiq Mohamad
Assistant Professor
Supervisor Certification
I certify that this thesis has been prepared under my supervision in the Department of Geology of the University of Sulaimani, in
fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of M.Sc. in Geology.
Signature:
Name: Dr. Sherzad Tofeeq Mohammad
Title: Assistant professor
Address: University of Sulaimani
College of Science
Department of Geology
Date: / /
The Certification of the Chairman of the Committee of Higher Student. According to the recommendation submitted by the supervision, I
nominate this thesis for discussion.
Signature:
Name: Dr. Kamal Haji Karim
Title: Assistant professor
Address: University of Sulaimani
College of Science
Department of Geology
Date: / /
We, the examining committee, her by certify that we have read this thesis and examined the student in its contents and whatever
relevant to it and, in our opinion; it is adequate with " ” standing for the Degree of master of Science in Geology/Sedimentology.
Signature: Signature:
Name: Name:
Title: Title:
Address: Address:
Date: / / Date: / /
(Chairman) (Member)
Signature: Signature:
Name: Dr. Name:
Title: Assistant professor Title:
Address: University of Sulaimani Address:
Date: / / Date: / /
(Supervisor and Member) (Member)
Signature:
Name: Dr. Parekhan M. Abdul-Rahman
Title: Assistant professor
Date: / /
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am deeply indebted to Dr. Sherza Tofiq Mohamad for undertaking the task of supervising this thesis and for offering many suggestions
and corrections during the stages of the work in the field and lab. My best regards to the presidency of university, the dean of the College
of Science and head of the of Department of Geology for their generous support including equipments facilities that offered to this work.
I would like to express my gratitude to the Dr. Kamal Haji Karim and Zardasht Ahmad Taha of Geological Department for their field
support. My sincere thanks to my friends in Geological Department, University of Sulaimani for their laboratory help. The effort of
Dr.Khalid Mahmood Ismail in identifying some of the fossils of this study is highly appreciated.
Finally, I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation for my parents, for their continuous support and encouragement, and I
would like to extend my thanks to all who helped me during my study.
ABSTRACT
The present study is concerned with facies analysis of the Late Cretaceous outcrops of Aqra Formation (Aqra lens) in Chwarta-Mawat
area, Sulaimanyia Governorate, northeastern Iraq. This area is located within Imbricated Zone which includes Chwarta and Mawat towns.
The microfacies and lithofacies of the formation are studied in addition to stratigraphy in three selected outcrop sections. The study also
includes the inspection of its boundary conditions in the surrounding areas.
Aqra Formation (Late Maastrichtian) area mainly consists, in Chwarta-Mawat, of biogenic and detrital limestones. These rocks appear as
thick succession of light grey and well bedded or massive beds which can be seen along both sides of the existed streams and gorges.
The boundaries with both underlying Tanjero Formation and overlying Red Bed Series are gradational and the contact is conformable.
The fossil contents are rich and belongs mainly to foramol association which includes large forams (Loftusia, Omphalocyclus and
Orbitoids) with mollusks (Gastropod and Pelecypods, including Rudist) in addition to echinoderm and rare ammonites and solitary corals.
The main facies are floatstone, mixstone, rudstone, packstone, and Bafflestone. The allochems of these facies consist of the skeletons of
one or more of the above fossils or their bioclasts.
The lithofacies such as terrigeneous conglomerate, marlstone and red clastics of Tanjero Formation and Red Bed Series exist at the
underlying and overlying boundaries the important for tectonic and environment reconstruction of the formation. Most of the litho and
microfacies can be identified by eyes or hand lens due to large size of the fossils the matrix is consist mainly of sand or silt sized
bioclasts with more or less micrite.
These facies are deposited in shallow and high energy platform (basin) of mid-latitude temperate climate with high rate of sedimentation.
The basin is supplied by terrigenous clastics from source area and appeared in some place as bed or lens of sandstone interbedded with
the biogenic limestones.
The initial growth of the reefal and biogenic limestones were depended on the low stand fan sediments (accumulation of graves and
boulders) which acted as hard substrate for stabilization reefal growth (biostromes and bioherms) and decreasing turbidly. This does not
mean that there was no turbidity as there were many streams in Chwarta-Mawat area during late Maastrichtian. These streams were
small and low energy which were reaching the foreland basin and supplying the sediments and nutrients to the basin. The roles of the
coarse sediments are very clear from two field observations. The first is that the thickness of the conglomerate is high the thickness of
the Aqra Formation is high too as can be seen in the Kato and Kele sections with 100 and 80metter thickness. The second is that at the
base of the both sections the conglomerate alternate with biogenic limestone as discussed in the conglomerate lithofacies.
Facies analysis appears that the energy was high during the deposition of the formation and during Late Maastrichtian. But it was higher
in the lower part than upper part this is clear from reworked Loftusia and broken skeleton debris that can be seen more frequently in the
lower part. Because of this, even the floatstone of rudist and large pelecypod contain bioclasts and lithoclasts. The low occurrence of the
grainstone is attributed to high rate of deposition and influx of terrigenous clay from outside of the basin. .
1.1- Introduction:
Aqra Formation is a reefal limestone; which was first studied from Aqra area, Kurdistan Region- Iraq. Aqra formation was defined by
Bennett (in1945) from the Aqra anticline of the High Folded Zone (Bellen et al., 1959). According to same author, at the type section, it is
consisting of massive detrital bituminous partially siliceous reefal limestone.
The limestone is reefal and progressed to fore reef and withdraws to shoal limestone. The equivalent formation of Aqra Formation is
Bekhme Formation. Some time it is not easy to make distinguishing between both Formations. On the base of the available index fossils,
it confirmed that age of the Aqra Formation is Maastrichtian. The overlying Formation in the type area is Kolosh-Khurmala Formations;
the contact is unconformable since there is conglomeratic bed at the base of Aqra Limestone (Buday, 1980).
In the studied area the formation is regarded as lens inside the Tanjero Formation by Karim (2004), as there are a grey clastic intervals
above the Aqra lens and between former formation and Red Bed Series, but it is assigned as interfinguring with Tanjero Formation by
Lawa, et al 1998.
According to Buday, (1980) the underlying formation (lower boundary) is probably not seen in the type section, while in the studied area
it is considered to be Tanjero Formation and the citation of (Karim, 2004) is ascertained (being it appears as a lens in the Tanjero
Formation). Field study showed that Tanjero formation, in the studied area, is not connected with the Aqra Formation. This means that in
this area Aqra Formation surrounded by Tanjero Formation from all sides.
Aqra Formation was deposited in a reef environment ranges from back reef to fore reef, it known from the relatively shallow-water
paleoenvironment located in the outer parts of the Late Cretaceous Tethyan platforms. This Formation is cropping out around Aqra Town,
Gali sheikh Abdul Aziz, Gara Mountain, Zinta Gorge, Bekhme, Dar-e- Tesu, Diza, Gundi-i- Shikavt, Zibar, Chalki, Ser Amadia, Hadiena,
Rowanduz and Chwarta-Mawat area. The equivalents of Aqra Formation are Bekhme Formation from Kurdistan, but its equivalents from
southern Iraq are called Hartha and Tayarat Formations.
Fig.(1.1) Tectonic classification of the north Iraq (Jassim and Goff, 2006) showing the studied area.
Fig. (1.2) Boundaries of the tectonic subdivision of the Western Zagros in Iraq (modified from Buday and Jassim, 1987).
Fig (1.3) Northeastern Iraq map (from site of Iraq Map) shows the location of the studied area.
Fig (1.4) Location and geological map of the studied area (modified from Sissakian, 2000)
Fig.(1.5) Geologic cross section passing through Piramagroon and Gimo mountain in addition to Mokaba stream showing the stratigraphic
and geomorphologic position of the Aqra lens.(Karim et. al., 2007)
Fig.(1.6) Geologic cross section passing through Kato, Goizha and Baranan mountains showing the stratigraphic and geomorphologic
position of the Aqra lens.(Karim, 2004)
Fig.(1.7) geologic longitudinal section of the Chwarta-Mawat area showing the two normal fault and the Aqra lens( Karim,2006).
Fig (1.9): Location map of the Kele and Sura Qalat section, as viewed from west, Satellite Image (from Google, 2007).
Fig.(1.10) Part of Kele section as exposed along the Dolbesk Gorge (lower and upper contact are not appeared).
Fig (1.11) Representation of the Kele section, as viewed from western side of Dolbeshk stream which flow across Dolbeshk Gorge (Karim
et al, 2007)
Fig.(1.12) Kele section in which Aqra Formation is underlain by conglomerate of Tanjero Formation with about 300m. high.
Abid and Al-Kubaysi (2009) studied microfacies and depositional environment of the Aqra Formation in Chwarta area. They recorded four
microfacies as follows:
Depending on the high diversity in the species of different groups of foraminiferal assemblage, they concluded that the depositional
environment of Aqra Formation which suggested by application of the environment triangle, showed that the depositional environment
extends from near pelagic area to the toe of slope area and its continuation to the shallow water area, and the rudist reef body, although
the counting of the fossils content of the foraminiferal species showed that Aqra Formation (in Zarda Bee section) was deposited in
deeper environment.
Chapter Two: ( Lithology and Stratigraphy) Dereen Mohamad Sadiq, MSc thesis
2.1-P reface
This chapter deals with the detailed study of lithology and stratigraphy of the Aqra Formation which mainly consists of biogenic and
detrital limestones. The lithology and stratigraphy is necessary for facies analysis of Aqra Formation to indicate constituents of each
interval and their stratigraphic position.
According to Westphal and Munnecke (2003), the distribution of carbonate deposits is dependent on paleoenvironmental conditions such
as temperature, salinity, and nutrient levels. The vertical (time) and lateral (geographic) relationships between different parts of the
formation in one side and with underlying and overlying formations are deciphered by field and laboratory studies.
These relations as the boundary condition are extremely necessary for tectonic, environmental and paleogeographic modeling. The study
of the contacts let the geologist to put the formation and neighboring units either in a one basin or in several basins by applying Walther
Law as cited in Blatt et al., (1980).This is also useful for tectonic consideration of the formation, and it’s depositional basin during Late
Cretaceous.
.
2.2-Carbonate constituents (allochems)
Carbonates, unlike siliciclastics, are "born, not made" in the depositional setting (Goldhammer et al., 1990) which means considerable
information can be obtained about their generation from the sediment character (allochems). This is because specific carbonates
accumulate in specific settings which means that carbonate production, in a certain conditions, must have been met and maintained
certain condition in order to sustain a particular character. Thus the depositional environment must have been just in proper condition for
the production of particular carbonate, meaning that the sea may not have been too warm, or not been too cold; not been too shallow, or
not been too deep; not been too fresh, nor been too saline; had not too many nutrients; while the sea floor had not too fast a subsidence,
was not too stable; and there was not too rapid sea rise or fall; (Goldhammer et al. 1990).
In Aqra Formation, the allochems are mainly consisting of either fossils skeletons or their bioclasts and lithoclasts with lesser amount of
terrigenus (extraclasts)ones. The fossil shells are large which range between 0.1-150 mm and extraclast and intraclasts are range from
clay to gravel size. The most abundant skeletons are those of benthonic large forams such as Loftusia, Omphalocyclus and Orbitoids. The
next one in abundancy is mollusk of which the extinct genus Rudist is the most common and next comes Pelecypods and Gastropods.
The shells of Echinoderms can be observed frequently while the Ammonites are very rare and can be observed in the deeper part of the
basin. The main facies are floatstone, mixstone, rudstone, grainstone, packstone and bufflestone (Pillarstone). Each of these facies
consists of the skeleton of one or more than one of the above fossils or their bioclasts.
These fossils are useful for environment and age determination such as foraminiferas, which is used as index fossils for the age
determination because of short age. In this connection, Al-Kubaisy (2008) studied biostratigraphy of Aqra Formation in Chwarta area and
found three zones of large foraminiferas and proved that the age of the formation is Late Maastrichtian. The recorded zones are:
1-Lepidorbitoides Range Zone
2-Omphalocyclus-Orbitoides medius-Siderolite Calcitrapoides Assemblage Zone
3-Loftusia morgani Range Zone.
Rudist is very sensitive for the environment depth and it lives above 50m depth.
Bellen et al (1959) recorded the following fossils from Aqra Formation in the type area (From the top to the bottom). They are:
(Top): plagioptychus sp, cf. Biradiolites sp.; arcopegia cf. numismalis (d,Orbigny); Bournonia aff. Judacia var. Lavies Blankenhorni;
Praerdiolites saemmani Bayle; Rhyncopygus cf. thebensis de Loriol; R. sp.; Ampullosprira incerta Forbes; Solarium; cardita sp; Cyclolites
sp., Elphidella multiscissurata Smout; Loftusia persica Brady; Omphalocyclus macropora (La Marck); ? Chrysalidina sp.; Cymopolia
tibetica Morellet; Cymopolia sp. Nov. Elliot MS…
(Base): plagioptychus sp Bournoni cf. excavata (d,Orbigny); Sauvagesia sp.; cf. Radiolites sp.; Sphaerulites sp.; Acteonella sp.,
Praerdiolites haydeni (Douville); Vanikora cf. asiatica (Blankenhorn); Tylostoma cf. rachaiti (d,Orbigny); Omphalocyclus macropora (La
Marck); Monolepidorbis sp.; Orbitoides media (d, Archiac); Discocylina Schlumbergeri Munier-Chalmas; Cunneolina cylindrica Henson;
Dicycloconella complanata Henson; Elphidiella truncana stuarti (de Lappaarent); Cymopolia tibetica Morellet; cymopolia sp. Nov. Elliot
MS.
2.2.1-Loftusia
Loftusia is benthic foraminifera of Maastrichtian age and it known from outer platform facies of the Tethys Ocean. The genus Loftusia is
characterized by planispiral fusiform test which has non-lammilar agglutinated with calcareous cement, calcitic wall structure. The shell
has labyrinthic wall with Irregular septa and chamberlets (Fig.2.1 and 2.3).
Fig.(2.1) General view of fusiform test of loftusia (a), equatorial section(b) and cross section of wall(c) (Bracier,1980)
The genus is abundant in Arabo Iranian platforms and rare in eastern Mediterranean and totally absent in western Mediterranean
(Zambetakis et al, 2004).This genus with larger benthonic genera with complex chamber wall that are represented by several species
confining mostly to Maastrichitian and are reported from Middle East, Eastern Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Qatar and Oman in the Tethys and no
record further in the east (Meric and Mojob, 1977). The restricted distribution of this Late Cretaceous taxon is suggesting small dispersal
potential possibly due to ecological constraints (Govindan, 2008).
Al-Omari and Sadek (1976) investigated microscopically and statistically specimens of Loftusia from the Maastrichtian of Northern Iraq
(Aqra Formation). They noticed that during this period the genus exhibited a gradual increase in size (length and diameter).
Thus, they recognized an evolutionary line for the development of Loftusia considering the forms of the early stages of the genus’
development. In addition they recorded a tendency for tighter forms during the transition from Mid to Late Maastrichtian (Zambetakis et
al, 2004).
Systematic classification of Loftusia:
Order: Foraminiferida EICHWALD 1830
Suborder: Textulariina DELAGE & HEROUARD 1896
Super family: Loftusiacea BRADY 1884
Family: Loftusiidae BRADY 1884
Genus: Loftusia BRADY (in Carpenter & Brady 1870).
Sartorio and Venturini (1988) during their study of Southern Tethys Biofacies recorded these fossils from Maastrichtian time such as:
Loftusia, Omphalocyclus macroporus, Rotaliidae and Miliolidae from Maastrichtian age of parnezam, Zagros, Iran. In addition to that they
also recorded Rotalia skourensis, Orbitoididae and Loftusia from Maastrichtian age of Ras Shrawayn of Yemen.
They also claimed Orbitoides from Maastrichtian age of Gianna 2 well, Adriatic Sea. And Orbitoides, Siderolites calcitrapoides and
Omphalocyclus macroporus from (LAMARCK) and rudist fragments from Maastrichtian of Emilio 5 well, Adriatic Sea also figured out by
them.
They recorded Lepidorbitoides, Orbitoides, Siderolites calcitrapoides (LAMARCK) Pseudedomia and Rotaliidae from Maastrichtian age of
Fartaq of Yemen and Rhapydionina Iiburnica (STACHE), Miliolidae and Montcharmontia from Maastrichtian age of Vremski Brilot,
Yugoslavia.
They concluded that Loftusia is very common in the Middle East, the genus Rotalia already present in the Early Cenomanian shows a
marked differentiation during the Maastrichtian and Orbitoides is very common during and at the end of the Maastrichtian. Zambetakis et
al (2004) claimed that in Greece it has so far been reported from two sites:
1. On Kassidiaris mount as debris in bioclastic upper Cretaceous limestones of the internal zones (Ferrière, 1982), and on mounts Valtou
in an occasionally bioclastic conglomerate which is limited by faults that prohibit us from observing its relation with the surrounding
formations (Fleury et al., 1990).
2.In the area of Boeotia, on mount Ptoon, a horizon rich in Loftusia cf. anatolica has been found in an undisturbed sequence of Upper
Cretaceous limestones up to Paleocene flysch of the Eastern Greece zone. This recovery is considered very important for the
paleogeography of the Tethys Ocean during late Cretaceous.
Őzcan (2008) studied the Latest Cretaceous benthic foraminiferal on the Arabian platform, Southern Turkey, he suggested that
diversified foraminiferal assemblages including genera such as Orbitoides, Siderolites, Omphalocyclus, Loftusia, Lepidorbitoides, Sirtina
and other benthic taxa suggesting a Maastrichtian age.
Akyazi and Ardem (2003) studied Ődemis Formation–Turkey. He showed that the formation was deposited in neritic environments, and it
consists of conglomerate, nodular limestone, sandy limestone and claystone, interbedded with volcanic. The sandy limestone contains
the benthic foraminifera Orbitoides aff. medius (d,Archiac), O. aff. Apiculatus Schlumberger, Sirelina orduensis Meriç and Inan,
Omphalocyclus macroporous (Lamarck), Sirtina orbitoidiformis Brönnimann and Wirtz, Praestorrsella roestae (Visser), Laffitteina bibensis
Maria, Laffitteina boluensis Dizer, Laffitteina aff. Marsicana Farinacci, Smoutina aff. Cruysi Drooger, Siderolites Calcitrapoides Lamarck,
and Selimina spinalis Inan, Praestorsella roestae (Visser) was abundant. This foraminiferal assemblage indicates an upper Maastrichtian
age.
2.2.2-Omphalocyclus
Omphalocyclus is orbitoidal benthic foraminifera, known from the relatively shallow-water paleoenvironment located in the outer parts of
the Late Cretaceous Tethyan platforms. The mineralogy of this type of the forams is calcitic by which the shell microstructure is well
preserved which similar to orbitoid but with larger and discoidal shape (Fig.2.2 ana 2.3) Instead of fusiform. It is a relatively common
taxon with a geographic distribution from Europe to North Africa, India and as far as Indonesia in the east, and to Caribbean in the west.
Apart from its debatable diagnosis only in the (late) Maastrichtian of western Tethys, the genus has been discovered in Turkey in further
much older beds in association with Orbitoides and Lepidorbitoides having rather primitive developmental stages (Özcan, 2006). He also
suggested that the morphometric analysis of A-forms in successive assemblages (based on seventeen populations in seven sections
located in Sakarya, Eurasian and Arabian plates), ranging in age from (late) Campanian to terminal Maastrichtian, enables the
documentation of phylogenetic changes for the first time. Since these horizons contain a rather rich assemblage of accompanying
specimens of Orbitoides and Lepidorbitoides, a correlation of the phylogenetic changes of the genus to that of Orbitoides and
Lepidorbitoides, rather well-known in Europe, can also be made.
The systematic classification of Omphalocyclus is as follows:
Suborder: ROTALINA Delage and Herouard, 1896
Super family: ORBITOIDACEA Schwager, 1876
Family: ORBITOIDiDAE Schwager, 1876
Subfamily: OMPHALOCYCLUS Vaughan, 1928
Genus: OMPHALOCYCLUS Bronn, 1853
The most conspicuous phylogenetic change in the equatorial layer of Omphalocyclus is found to be the general increase in the size of
embryon, which on average doubles by the end of the Maastrichtian. This trend is followed by the increase in the number of epi-
embryonic chamber lets, which is however not as significant as the former parameter.
Omphalocyclus in the stratigraphically lowermost populations has mainly three to four primary epiembryonic and no accessory epi-
embryonic chamber lets. With the introduction of radial stolons which seems to have taken place in horizons referable to the Gansserina
Gansseri Zone, only several accessory epi-embryonic chamberlets arise from the tritoconch. Instead, epi-embryonic chamberlets become
rather larger in size and also they cover a wider portion of embryon along its thick outer wall. Considering the suitable changes in
embryon size, and also some other morphologic features in successive populations, two new species, O.anatoliensis sp. nov. and O.
cideensis sp. nov. have been erected in late Campanian and late Campanian-early Maastrichtian populations, respectively.
Fig. (2.2). Left) Cross section of Omphalocyclus macropora, Aqra Fn., Kato section, 20X slide No.KA3.
Right) Longitudinal section of Omphalocyclus minor, the central area is white due to thinner shell at center which not cut by the section,
Aqra Fn., Kato section, 20X slide No.KA10.
Fig.(2.3) current accumulated shells of Omphalocyclus and Loftusias of a bed 30cm thick (near Homaragh village) .
2.2.3-Rudist
According to their life habit, rudist morphotypes are classified as 'elevators', 'clingers' or 'recumbents', each morphotype being adapted
to specific environmental conditions (type of sediment, sedimentation rate, current regime) (Skelton 1991, and Steuber and Loser,2000).
According to Flugel (2004), the rudists are sessile gregarious bivalves characterized by lower attached and an upper opercular valves of
different sizes. The group appeared in the late Jurassic and disappeared at the end of the Cretaceous. Rudists were common throughout
the Cretaceous and diversity dropped during the Early Aptian and the Latest Cenomanian and increased significantly in the Early
Maastrichtian.
He added those major subgroups are differentiated by shell morphology, the number and position of the teeth, accessory cavities, canal,
pores and pillars. Thin sections exhibit characteristic microstrucutre patterns. The shells consist of an inner and middle aragonitic layer
(nearly always recrystalized and replaced by blocky calcite) and an outer Low-Mg calcite layer with compact and \or cellular
microstructures. The shells of the hippuritid rudists exist as densely packed biostromes which are characterized by pillars with in shell
wall (Fig. 2.4 and 2.5B). The radiolitids rudist shells exhibit reticulate pattern cased by the calcitic cellular prismatic outer layer, and a
compact inner layer (Fig2.5A 2.6b and 2.7).
Fig.(2.4) Outer and inner layers of the hippuritid rudist shell. The inner layer is replaced by secondary calcite.
Fig. (2.5 ). A) longitudinal section of the shell of radiolitid rudist in life position showing outer reticulate layer( o) cased (covered from
inside) by the calcitic cellular prismatic, and a compact inner layer(i) s.n.14, Kele section. B) Cross sections of hippuritid rudists
characterized by pillars within shell wall (small black spots indicated by letter p and teeth (t). s.n.24, Kele section.
Fig.(2.6 ) A) Fragment of pelecypod, Aqra Fn., Kato section, 20X slide No.KA1
B) Reticulate shell of radiolitid rudist Aqra Fn., Kato section, and 20 X slide No.KA4.
Rudists are anomalous bivalves which developed massive sessile shells, often with two valves showing strong asymmetry (Dechaseeaux
et al, 1969) and were adapted to filter feeding. Many forms show the strong development of the attached valve and the subsequent
reduction of the free valve. In general forms, rudists resemble corals and it has been suggested that rudists displaced corals from reefs
during Cretaceous (Kauffman and Shol, 1974: Johnson and Kauffman, 1996) in Mitchell, 1999).
Gilbert et al, (2008) claimed that Maastrichtian strata from the Pachino area (SE Sicily) provide a model of association between rudist-
coral framework and submarine volcanic activity. Rudist buildups are probably the result of two interrelated factors: the
contemporaneous growth of major structures in the Mesopotamian Basin due to the upward migration of the Infracambrian Hormuz salt,
and the geometry of the shelf at that particular time. The effect of salt penetration structures on the nature of the carbonate sediments,
particularly during the Cretaceous Period, has been discussed by Sadooni (1993) and Sadooni and Aqrawi (2000). Gaddo (1971) noticed
that rudist buildups were formed where the developing structures were accompanied by regional uplift. Videtich et al. (1988) found an
association between the movement of the Infracambrian Hormuz salt and the buildups within the Mishrif Formation in the Fateh Field,
Dubai.
They suggested that the rising salt led to the doming of the Fateh structure and at the same time triggered subsidence in the
surrounding area of salt withdrawal.
The rudist buildups developed on the flanks of these subsided areas, which were then filled with fore-reef debris.
The common occurrence of these buildups in the crestal wells of southern Iraq (Fuloria, 1976; Sadooni, 1993; Sadooni and Aqrawi, 2000),
however, contradicts this model. If rudist buildups commenced on the flanks of the intervening basins between structures, we would
expect the opposite result, viz. rudist buildups in the flanking wells.
Schafhauser et al (2003) studied the upper Cretaceous Cardenas Formation (Central Mexico), they showed that swallowing- upward
sequences defined by a Hippuritid- acteonellid- coral/rudist facies transition. This cyclic sedimentation pattern is obscured by an episodic
input of classic sediments derived from the uplifting Sierra Madre Oriental, which in turn triggered either the development or decline of
reefs.
Sadooni, 2005 during his study of the nature and origin of Upper Cretaceous basin-margin rudist buildups of the Mesopotamian Basin,
southern Iraq suggested that in the absence of seismic sections it is difficult to comment on details of the geometry and distribution of
the rudist buildups within the Cretaceous subsurface carbonates of the Mesopotamian Basin, including those of the Mishrif Formation.
However, examination of the geological data collected from the limited scattered outcrops of the M’sad facies (of the Mishrif Formation)
in the Western Desert, and the nature of the rock materials (cores and cuttings) from some subsurface wells in the Mesopotamian Basin,
yield some insights on the nature and distribution of these buildups. In the Western Desert, outcrops of the M’sad facies of the Mishrif
Formation are composed of shelf limestones, reef limestones, shell breccias, micro detrital limestones, chalky limestones of whitish color
with pinkish marls and sands, and a thin sandstone tongue near the base (Bellen et al., 1959). The rudist Eoradiolites liratus Conrad and
Caprinula sp. were recovered from these outcrops. It has been predicted that the same species will occur in the subsurface of the
equivalent strata of the Mishrif Formation to the west (Bellen et al., 1959; Buday, 1980; Sadooni and Aqrawi, 2000).
Fig. (2.7) top view of the lower valve of the radiolitid rudist with an echinoderm shell. S.n.1, upper part of the Kele section. The white
piece of paper is 25cm long.
Fig.( 2.8) Structure of different types of rudist shells in cross sections (Flugel, 2004).
1-Caprinid rudist showing polygonal canal (c)
2-Hippuritid rudist showing outer (CL) and inner (AL) layers in addition to two pillars (teeth).
3-Radiolitid rudist showing outer folded cellular network cased by the calcitic layer
4-Radiolitid rudist showing outer cased by the calcitic layer.
Steuber at al., (2002) studied the limestone beds of Jamaica and they proposed that species- rich rudist- coral associations persisted into
the Latest Maastrichtian (66-65 Ma).
Abdelghany (2003) studied Campanian- Maastrichtian rock strata in the jabal El Aqabah, Jabal El Rawadh and Jabal Malaqet sections,
Oman, Emirate, the rock beds (openmarine environment passed laterally into shallower marine conditions) are characterized by larger
foraminiferal species including Loftusia morgani, Orbitoides Media, O. apiculata, Omphalocyclus macropora, Lepiorbitoides minor,
Sulcoperculina dickersoni, and Sedirolites calcitrapoides.
2.2.4-Orbitoide
The genus Orbitoides was established by d.Orbigny (1848). The test of Orbitoides is lenticular with a circular outline, and can reach a
diameter of up to 5 cm (Loeblich and Tappan, 1988). The test is biconvex, often with one side more elevated. The surface is ornamented
with small knobs. The juvenarium consists of three or four chambers and is usually embraced by a thick wall. An equatorial layer is
distinct. The mineralogy of the shell of this type of forams is calcite by which the ornamentation of shell preserved and clears under
microscopes (Fig. 2.9).
The systematic classification of Orbitoides is as follow:
Suborder: ROTALIINA Delage and Herouard, 1896
Super family: ORBITOIDACEA Schwager, 1876
Family: ORBITOIDiDAE Schwager, 1876
Subfamily: ORBITOIDIINAE Schwager, 1876
Genus: ORBITOIDES d.Orbigny 1848
The genus Orbitoides displays some of the widest latitudinal and longitudinal extensions among the larger Upper Cretaceous
foraminifera. The particularly wide distribution over the circumtropical warm water belt of the Cretaceous ocean is comparable to the
distribution of modern amphisteginids (Langer and Hottinger, 2000) and thus particularly valuable tracer in indicating of circumglobal
warm water surface currents and the heat transfer towards higher latitude.
Fig.(2.9 ) A) Orbitoides, Aqra Fn., Kato section, 20X slide No.KA3
B) Orbitoides, Aqra Fn., Kato section, 20X slide No.KA6.
2.2.5-Actaeonellid gastropods
Actaeonellids and other gastropods commonly have aragonitic shell which may suffer from two processes. The first one is removal of
shell by solution and filling by micrite or secondary calcite. In this case only the mold (general form) remained and microstructure is
obscured. The second is replacement by calcite through volume per volume dissolution of aragonite and precipitation of calcite and it is
possible that some microstructure is preserved espiciaaly the outer organic rich layer. (Tucker, 1991 and Flugel, 2004). The observed
gastropods in the selected samples are suffered from the first process (Fig.2.10 and 2.11).
Fig. (2.10) Cross section of Actaeonellid gastropods which consist of one aragonitic layer, middle of the Kele section, s.n.17.
Fig.(2.11 ) Actaeonella shells in the lower part of Kele section, S.N.32
2.2.6-Echinoderm
Echinoderms are marine invertebrates with a multi-plate calcareous internal skeleton embedded in the skin, a marked five-rayed
symmetry and a water vascular system through which the water is circulated in the body. Echinderm fragment are present in limestones
formed in shallow –marine as well as in deep-marine environment (Flugel, 2004).
The Echinoid and crinoids skeletons are calcitic and their fragment is easily identified since they are composed of large single calcite
crystals and each grain shows straight extinction and the spary calcite grow around the grain syntaxially. But the echinoderm grain is
distinguished from the sparite by its dusty appearance (Tuker, 1991).
In the study area, many intervals of Aqra Formation contains frequent echinoderm which have good preserved with micro and
macrostructures( Fig2.12 ). But the echinoderm grains (fragments) are rare due widespread of forams and other fragments such as
rudist.
Fig.(2.12 ) Echinoderm shell showing the arms, lower part of Kato section, S.N.4
2.3-Stratigraphy
According to Bellen et al (1959) the Aqra Formation is defined by Bennet in 1945 as Aqra Formation in the Aqra area and the section runs
along Gali Sheikh Abdul Aziz. According to Bellen et al (op cit) the thickness of Aqra Formation in the area is about 793 meters and the
overlying formation is Kolosh Formation which is very thin in the area. The underlying formation is not seen in the type section but they
mentioned that it may be continuous with the Bekhme Limestone. They added that the contact with the Kolosh formation is
unconformable which is transgressive over eroded Aqra Formation. According to Jassim and Goff (2006), the Upper contact of the Aqra
Limestone, in some areas, are marked by an erosional break at the Cretaceous- Tertiary boundary while in other areas trangressively
overlies the Tanjero Formation.
At Dar-e- Tesu, and other locations, the Aqra Limestone is developed as isolated tongues and lentils of neritic rudist bearing Limestone,
at the top of or within the Tanjero clastic Formation, a variable thickness of Tanjero clastic Formation and or Shiranish Formation
intervening between the base of the Aqra Formation and the top of the Bekhme Limestone. Where the Aqra Limestone is superimposed
directly up on the Bekhme Limestone, without intervention of Shiranish or Tanjero Formations, the composite name Aqra/ Bekhme
Limestone may be used (Bellen et al, 1959).
From the above discussion and according to the field description it appears that Aqra Formation exist as lenses either inside Shiranish
Formation (at Aqra area) or inside Tanjero Formation (at Chwarta-Mawat area) (Fig.2.17) .
Fig. (2.13) shows the lower boundary of the Aqra Formation at the northwestern side of Kato mountain which appears gradational.
Fig.(2.14) Lower boundary of Aqra Formation with Tanjero Formation at Kele section showing sharp contact between limestone and
conglomerate..
Fig.(2.15 ) Lower boundary of Aqra Formation with Tanjero Formation at distal area to the northwest of Habasa Gulla village showing
gradational boundary and conformable contact..
Fig.(2.16 ) Lower boundary of Aqra Formation with Tanjero Formation at distal area, Sura Qalat section showing gradational boundary
and conformable contact
Fig.(2.17) Time expanded stratigraphic column of the Late Cretaceous (Bellen, et al., 1959) showing Aqra Formation as lenses either
inside Shiranish Formation (at Aqra area) or inside Tanjero Formation ( at Chwarta-Mawat area).
Fig.(2.18 ) legend of the symbols used in the stratigraphic columns
Fig. (2.19) Stratigraphic column of the sampled Kato section (not to scale)
Fig.(2.20 ) Stratigraphic column of Upper part of Kele section,( not to scale) (continued in the next page)
Fig.( 2.21) Stratigraphic column of Lower part of Kele section (not to scale)
Fig.( 2.22) Stratigraphic column of Upper part of Sura Qalat section (not to scale) (continued in the next page)
Fig.( 2.23) Stratigraphic column of Lower part of Sura Qalat section (not to scale)
CHAPTER FOUR (DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT AND TECTONICS)
4.1- Preface
There are two facts that make the present study important for the formation in the studied area. The first is that, it is the first detailed
one for the formation in the Chwarta-Mawat area. The second one is that all previous ones are conducted on the distal area of the basin
(outer shelf). Among the new papers that dealt with this formation in the distal areas are that of Lawa et el (1998) and Kubaysi (2008)
which treated the lithology and fossil content in addition to age determination in the Mokaba and Zarda Bee sections.
The present study has taken three different sections which are previously not studied. Two of these sections are located in the proximal
area of the basin (mid-shelf) where the thickness of the formation is maximum. Due to these facts, the present study have conducted
detailed facies analysis and reconstructed both paleogeography and paleo-environment in manner to be realistic.
Fig.(4.1) stratigraphic relation between Qahlan(conglomerate) and Simsima Formations (biogenic limestone: packstone) of Jabal El
Rawdah, Cameil, (2005). This relation is similar to relation between Tanjero and Aqra Formation in the studied area.
Although rudists are sometimes considered as characteristic 'reef-builders' of the Cretaceous, several important differences exist
between typical coral-algal-hydrozoan reefs and rudist formations. Rudist formations are typically of low relief and form more or less
tabular bodies. Bound, wave-resistant fabrics were uncommon, and elevator morphotypes were supported by sediment which
accumulated during their vertical shell growth. Consequently, growth fabrics of rudist associations were constratal, in contrast to
superstratal fabrics of modern coral reefs (Steuber and Loser,2000).
Alsharan et al. (2000) described these beds as representing a transgressive phase during the deposition of the formation. They attributed
their deposition to an open shallow shelf environment, below wave base without or with very rare terrigenous influx. Their interpretation
is based on the gradual upward decrease of algae and the gradual upward increase of planktonic forams. The hippuritid thickets, at the
top together with the shallow water echinoid Codiopsis, indicate near shore conditions. Shallow water carbonate shoals form the
remainder of the succession (Smith et al., 1995).
Orbitoides usually occurs together with specimens of the genera Omphalocyclus, Siderolites, Lepiorbitoides and Sulcoperculina. Late
Cretaceous Orbitoides is interpreted to be lived in deeper environments (Hohenegger, 1999) and in the Upper photic zone at the depths
of about 40-80m. (Hottinger, 1997). The environment is mostly interpreted as being open marine with some terrigenous input (Caus,
1988; Caus et al, 2002). The morphology (thick lenticular test, presence of lateral chambers) indicates a habitat in high energetic
environments, which is supported by the presence of siderolites. The model of Al-Ameri and Lawa, (1986) in the type locality shows the
Aqra Formation as isolated platform in the deep basin. This is appear from their model (fig.1-13) and Aqra Formation is surrounded from
all sides by deep basin as indicated by deposition of marl.
The above ideas are very important for new environmental and paleogeographic reconstruction of the Aqra Formation in the studied
area. This is because these ideas give us pre- Aqra environment and the base (substrate) on which the Aqra reef or biogenic carbonates
are began to grow. According to Facies analysis and above ideas, the pre- Aqra environment was coastal area which was covered by
gravels and boulders (Conglomerate lithofacies). The pre-Aqra topography that is formed by these sediments was hilly-like coastal area
that was shaped by fan delta (alluvial fan discharged into the sea) (Fig.4.2).
Fig.(4.2) A model for the basin of the Tanjero Formation (slightly before deposition Aqra Formation) shows the conglomerate is acted as
substrate for deposition of carbonate of the formation (Modified from Karim, 2004).
The coastal area of the Lower Maastrichtian was subsided and more or less deepened (depend on the nearness to the coast). After this
deepening, the deposition of the transgression system tract began and then followed by high stand system tracts (Karim and Surdashy,
2005c).
The sediments of the transgression system tract were marl (marl lithofacies at the base of Suraqalat section) in the distal area and red
claystone at the proximal area. These sediments are not deposited or eroded during progradation of sea and the conglomerate remained
clean for growth of biogenetic limestone.
Another effect of the Deepening (TST and HST) was ceases or decreased of the influx of the turbidity due to retreat of the coastal area
toward source area (toward NE). This is forced the existed streams to lose their gradient and their power to transport the sediments.
When the alluvial fan is shaped due to very large flood, it deposits coarsest and most resistive sediments. This nature of sediments is
other factor that stopped the turbidity from the source area due to resistance of the sediments of the alluvial fan (gravel and boulder).
These coarse sediments has positive role in the diverting of the streams and putting turbidity away from previous routes. Therefore the
next smaller flood takes other routes away from the previous place.
Therefore, the growth of the reefal and biogenic limestones was depended on the low stand fan sediments (accumulation of gravels and
boulders) for substrate and for decreasing turbidly. This don’t means that there was no stream in the area of Chwarta-Mawat area. In the
area many small and low energy streams were reaching the foreland basin and supplying the nutrients to the basin as evident from
prolific growth of organisms and from sporadic quartz, igneous and chert grains that can be seen in several beds (in the rudstone facies).
Near Zarda Bee village terrigenous sandstone beds and lenses are alternating with biogenic or reworked limestone ones.
The high rate of the sedimentation is clear from the morphology of the rudest (shape of the body on the substrate). Most of the rudists
have the elevator shape which stands vertical to the substrate and the growth is normal to the bedding plains (Fig. 4.3 and 4.4).
According to Steuber and Loser (2000) elevator rudist requires a certain amount of background sedimentation to stabilize vertical growth
shell. They added that all hippuritids and most radiolitids rudist lived as elevator while clinger cannot survive in high sedimentation rate.
The growth of the biogenetic limestone on hard substrate like conglomerate (Fig.4.1 ) is similar to the lower sequence of the Qahlah
Formation at Jabal Huwayyah, Unite Arab Emerate as appear from the below paragraph by Cameil (2005).
According to Flugel (2004, p.530) the Actaeonellid gastropod are common in brackish-influenced Cretaceous sediments. Therefore, it is
possible that the basin was influenced by fresh water influx. In the studied area several bed at the lower and upper part of the section
contain terrigenous clastic sediment that are supplied to the basin by fresh water influx.
The roles of the coarse sediments are very clear from two field observations. The first is that where the thickness of the conglomerate is
high the thickness of the Aqra Formation is high too as can be seen in the Kato and Kele sections with 100 and 80metter thickness . The
second is that at the base of the both sections the conglomerate alternate with biogenic limestone as discussed in the conglomerate
lithofacies (see chapter two).
From discussion of all facies, it appears that the energy was high during the deposition and during whole span of the deposition of the
formation, during upper Maastrichtian as evidence from mixstone. But it was higher in the lower part than upper part, which is clear from
reworked loftusia and broken skeleton debris that can be seen in the lower part. Because of this, even the floatstone of rudist and large
pelecypod contain bioclast and lithoclasts. The low occurrence of the grainstone is attributed to high rate of deposition.
The temperature can be known crudely from the grain association which is defined by Flugel (2004), as assemblage of dominating
skeletal and non-skeletal grains that are coexist in certain basin or formation. When the classification of Ensiele (2000) about grain
association and their environments are applied for the formation, in the studied area, the foramol is only association that fit the
formation (Fig.4.5).
According to Flugel (2004) the framol (fra: Foraminifera and mol: mollusk) association is introduced for non-tropical carbonates that are
consisting predominating of foraminifera and mollusks. This association is applicable because contain only foraminifera (loftusia,
omphalocyclus and orbitoids) and mollusks (pelecypod (including rudists and gastropods). In the formation, no coral (except very rare
solitary corals), algae and bryozoans are found. Therefore, the environment is deposited in temperate of mid-latitude (30-34degres of
latitude) (fig. 4.5).
According to Al-Ameri and Lawa (1986), the depositional location (paleogeographic location) of the Aqra Formation, at type locality, is
situated at 0-10 degrees of latitude. This means that the formation was deposited in the equatorial environment and transported
tectonically for about 3600km to the present position from Maastrichtian to present. But in present study Aqra Formation is deposited in
30-34degres of north latitude and not transported more than 1400km from Maastrichtian to present. This is because, today the Arabian
Plate is moving north-east at rates now estimated from GPS measurements to be 25 mm/year for Oman or 15.7 mm/year for the
southern Red Sea (Edgell, 2006).
Fig.(4.5) A) Grain associations and their latitude in addition to temperature (Ensiele, 2000) on which the latitude of the Aqra Formation is
indicated by solid black line. B) Paleogeographic section showing environment of Aqra and Tanjero Formations in the studied area
1-No signs of lagoon are found such as pelletal limestone, mudstone, dolomite, stromatolite and miliolids.
2-The buildup facies such as algal framestone is not fond and bafflestone constitute only less than 10 percent of the total thickness of the
sections.
3-the presence of lenses or beds of terrigenous clastic sediments is the indicative of attached platfom model (Fig.4.6) (depositional and
paleogeographic model).
4-the deposition of about more than 400m of sandstone and conglomerate of Tanjero Formation in the basin may decreased sudden
brake in paleo-slope and changed the shelf-slope profile to ramp.
5- The high tectonic during Tanjero Formation (as evidence from deposition of 500m of conglomerate or conglomerate lithofacies) is
more suitable for shelf-slope profile than ramp. This is because the huge thickness of sandstone and conglomerate is evidence of high
gradient for shelf-slope profile not low gradient as required for ramp (according to Ahr, 1973, slope less than 1 degrees).
6- In literature, the best case that can be compatible with Tanjero Formation and Aqra Formation is that mentioned by Read (1980). He
cited that distally steeped ramps develop where earlier rimmed shelves undergo widespread drowning (transgressive and high stand
system tract of Karim and Surdashy, 2005c, prior to deposition of Aqra Formation).He added that ramp also develop on rimmed shelves
that are prograded by clastics (Tanjero Formation) prior to renewed carbonate deposition.
7-Abdelghany (2003) found Loftusia morgani near the base of the Simsima Formation in shallow-water facies. From this specimen,
ophiolite particles have recovered within its agglutinated test. He mentioned that these particles were probably derived from the
underlying ophiolite that supplied shallow-water clastics of the Qahlah Formation with grains. A similar conclusion was reached by Meric¸
et al. (2001), who found Middle–Upper Maastrichtian Loftusia species in Turkey with tiny ophiolitic rock particles adhering to their tests.
They concluded that the shallow-water ophiolite platforms formed during Late Maastrichtian movements, which culminated in the closure
of the Tethyan Ocean.
In the studied area and in all thin sections no ophiolite particles were observed in the shells of the Loftusia, but the tectonic setting of the
studied area is slightly similar to that of Qahlah Formation (Oman). Carbonate ramps dominate much of today's modern carbonate
shelves and were equally widespread in ancient systems. Models for carbonate ramp shelves have come from tropical settings in the
Yucatan, Persian Gulf, west Florida Shelf, and subtropical to cool-water shelves surrounding the south and northwestern margins of
Australia (Read, 1985).
Fig. (4.6) A depositional and paleogeographic model (distally steepened ramp) for the basin of the Aqra Formation which shows that the
maximum thickness of the Aqra Formation was deposited on the conglomerate of the Tanjero Formation (see fig. 4-2).
Fig.(4.7 ) Tectonic relation between source area and the depositional basin (Catunenue, 2006)
Fig (4.8) rimmed shelf topography and environment (After Tucker and Wright 1990) on which the environment of the Aqra Formation are
indicated by the arrow. The dotted line is represent the paleogeographic cross section of the Aqra Formation in the studied area.
Fig.(4.9) The four tectonic phases of uplift and relaxation of Zagros Fold–Thrust belt during Maastrichtian and Paleocene with lithological
representation as shown by stratigraphic column the two ages of each phase (Ameen, 2009).
Fig. (4.10) The tectonic model of Numan (1997) in which the position of Tanjero Formation is indicated in a trench sloping toward
northwest.
Fig.(4.11) Combination of tectonic, depositional history of Early and Late Cretaceous basin as considered in this study. A) From Karim and
Surdashy (2005b), B) Taha (2009).
Fig.(4.12) Three models of Bosence (2005) about genetic classification of carbonate platforms based on their basinal and tectonic
settings in the Cenozoic. From these models, a tectonical and depositional model of Aqra formation (in the studied areas) can be
constructed.
Fig. (4.13) ophiolite obduction on Arabian platform (colliding of Oceanic floor of Iranian plate with continental part of Arabian plate (Alavi,
2004).
4.6-CONCLUSIONS
This study concluded the following:
1- Aqra Formation (Late Maastrichtian) in Chwarta-Mawat area mainly consists of Biogenic and detrital limestones which appear as thick
well bedded or massive succession along both sides of the existed streams and gorges. The boundary with both underlying Tanjero
Formation and overlying Red Bed Series are gradational and the contact is conformable.
2- The field study showed that the formation, in the studied area, is not connected with the Aqra Formation at type section and
surrounded by Tanjero Formation from all sides.
3- The fossil content is rich, but with low diversity and belongs mainly to Foramol association which includes large forams (Loftusia,
Omphalocyclus and Orbitoids) with mollusks (Gastropod and Pelecypods (including rudist) in addition to echinoderm and rare ammonites.
4-The lithology is mainly consisting of biogeneic and detrital limetones.
5- The main facies are floatstone, mixstone, Rudstone, grainstone, and bafflestone of the skeleton of one or more than one of the above
fossils or their bioclasts.
6-The lithofacies such as terrigeneous conglomerate, marlstone and red clastic of Tanjero Formation and Red Bed Series are appeared
very important for tectonic and environment reconstruction of the formation.
7-It is inferred that the highest thickness exists where the substrate is consisted of the thick conglomerate of the Tanjero Formation.
8-Most of these facies can be identified by eyes or hand lens due to large size of the fossils the matrix is consist mainly of sand or silt
sized bioclasts with more or less micrite.
9- These facies are deposited in shallow and high energy platform (basin) of mid-latitude temperate climate with high rate of
sedimentation. The basin was supplied intermittently by terrigenous clastics from source area which appear in some place as bed or lens
of sandstone interbedded with the biogenic limestones. These clastics are supplied by many small and low energy streams which were
reaching the foreland basin and supplying the nutrients to the basin.
10-The energy was higher in the lower part than upper part this is clear from reworked loftusia and broken skeleton debris that can be
seen in the lower part.
11-The low occurrence of the grainstone is attributed to high rate of deposition in influx of terrigenous fine sediments.
12-The growth of the reefal and biogenic limestones were depended on the low stand fan sediments (accumulation of gravels and
boulders) for substrate and for decreasing turbidly.
13-In the present study, the tectonic model is totally changed depending on the facies analysis. It assumed that it deposited on the
southwestern sloping foreland basin. This foreland basin is bordered from northeast by source area which was supplying the basin with
terrigenous sediment.
14-The Aqra Formation in the Chwarta-Mawat area cannot be correlated with type area in Dohuk Governorate due to high difference
geological and stratigraphic setting of the both localities.
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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRESENT DAY LINEAMENTS OF THE WESTERN ZAGROS FOLD-THRUST BELT: A CASE
STUDY FROM NORTHEASTERN IRAQ, KURDISTAN REGION
Kamal H. Karim, Amanj Ibrahim Fatagh, Azad Ibrahim and Hemin Koyi
Published in: Iraqi journal of Earth Sciences, Vol.9, No.1, pp.55-70, 2009
ABSTRACT
The part of the Zagros within the Iraqi border occupies an area less than quarter of the country. It includes three tectonic zones which
can be clearly identified in the field. These are the Low and High Folded, Imbricated and Thrusted Zones. The main lineaments are the
axes of the anticlines; transverse and longitudinal faults; lines of distribution of ophiolite and metamorphic rocks; drainage direction
discharge and line of distribution of conglomerates. The direction of axes of the anticlines , as main structures of Kurdistan, are trending
nearly N38W which normal to the direction of the imposed stress by the Iranian plate front. Due to differences in thicknesses and
physical properties of the sedimentary rocks, the axes of these anticlines are not continuous they plunge more or less in an echelon
pattern and in some cases are bend. The lengths of most of these anticlines are around 10-30km. The first appearance of the anticlines
in the High Folded Zone possibly started at the Eocene while those of the Thrust Zone initiated at Maastrichtian. Some of these anticlines
are cut by transverse faults whose ages are not known. These faults are trending nearly normal to the axis of anticlines. Other kinds of
lineaments are the distribution of ophiolites and metamorphic rocks. Historically the first appearance of trace of ophiolites (as pebbles in
sedimentary rocks) has an age of Lower Maastrichtian.
The direction of drainage discharge is nearly towards the south and southwest, which is inherited from that of the Upper Cretaceous and
Tertiary paleocurrent directions (sediment transport direction). This direction is related to uplift of the extreme northwestern part of the
studied area during Maastrichtian. Evidence for these suggestions is the occurrence of thicknesses of 500m of conglomerates as valley
fillings during Late Cretaceous. The depositional axes of the successions was migrated for about 40kms during Cretaceous and Tertiary
and becomes younger from northeast towards the southwest as recorded by four narrow belts. The line of migration is nearly coinciding
with both direction of present regional slope and the Cretaceous sediment transport.
Keywords: structures of Kurdistan, lineament of Kurdistan, faults in Kurdistan, Lineaments of Kurdistan, tectonics of Kurdistan
INTRODUCTION
The present study deals with the Western Zagros Mountain Belt that is located in Iraq and is elongated parallel to Iran-Iraq border (Fig.1
and 2). On the regional scale the Western Zagros mountain belt consists of relatively straight and continuous series of high mountains
that runs from southeast of Arabian Gulf to the eastern part of Anatolia at the northwest. The series has the elongation trend of
northwest-southeast. The tectonic zones (Thrust, Imbricated, High and Low Folded Zones, fig.2) of Buday (1980) and Buday and Jassim
(1987) have more or less local disturbances in the directions of elongation. When the ideas of Turrini, et al. (2001), Schreuer, et al.
(2001) and Marshak (2004) are considered, these disturbances could be attributed to the difference of mechanical properties of
stratigraphic units. According to the same authors, the local difference of the compressional stress in the orogenic wedge (the southwest
thrusting of Iranian plate front) and local structures have affected on these disturbances (Fig.1 and 2). The field study showed that the
belt contains clear large lineaments which have great importance in the studying of the depositional and tectonic history of the area
where the sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks and deformational lineaments are all combined mutually with the paleocurrent
directions. Therefore the present study deals with the location, types and historical development of these lineaments. In literature, many
studies, as a part of a structural geology, have been conducted for lineament analyses (without their historical developments) of the
northeastern and northern Iraq such as Omer (2006) and Al-Brifkani(2008).
LINEAMENTS
Northeastern Iraq which is part of Western Zagros Mountain series shows well developed large lineaments which could be seen in the
field and by aerial photography and satellite images. These lineaments generally reflect the effect and direction of the thrusting front of
Iranian plate which has the general direction of S38W and may have local variations of plus or minus 10 degrees. These lineaments are
as follows:
The historical development of these anticlines is still controversial and is related to the collision of the Iranian and Arabian Plates, and the
migration of the tectonic deformation towards the southwest inside Iraq. According to, Buday (1980), Buday and Jassim (1987), Numan
(1997, 2000, and 2002) and Al-Qayim (2000) the collision of the continental parts occurred in the Eocene. Recently, Karim, (2004) Karim
and Surdashy (2005a and 2005b) inferred from sedimentologically evidences that, the collision of the continental parts occurred in the
Campanian. According to these the main thrust fault developed at the Campanian and a foreland basin was generated directly to the
southwest (Fig.3A and B).
Fig. (2) Boundaries of the tectonic subdivision of the Western Zagros in Iraq (modified from Buday and Jassim, 1987.
Fig.3: A) Tectonic model of the studied area during early Cretaceous showing accumulation of the radiolarites as accretionary prism and
forming foreland forebulge. B) Development of foreland basin and southwestern drainage discharge (sediment transport) by uplift of
radiolarite due to collision of Arabian and Iranian plates. C) Shelair phyllite formed by the stress of the two plates.
Therefore, the first folding, in Iraq, in the present Thrust Zone occurred during the Campanian. Among the anticlines that most possibly
related to that time is Avroman Anticline in the Thrust Zone. Later on, the tectonic front migrated towards the foreland interior (towards
the southwest) and reached the High Folded Zone during Middle Eocene. A positive land was generated during this age in the present
position of the Shinarwe, Goizha, Kewa Rash Mountains in the high Folded Zones (Karim et al, 2008). This positive land, as possible
anticlines, separated the early Foreland basin into two minor basins. Towards Late Miocene the tectonic deformation (folding) migrated
southwestward and reached the Low Folded Zone (Karim et al, (Karim et al, 2008).
Fig.4:A) Conglomerate bed of Tanjero Formation that contain first appearance of boulders and gavels of Gabbro in history of Iraq, West of
Shekhan village, Qandil mountain towards the at east of Kometan village. B) Four ancient valleys (Maastrichtian) that drain the surface
runoff of the hinterland into the foreland basin (Modified from Karim and Surdashy, 2006).
Fig.5: (A) Division of the studied area (thrust and imbricate zones) into several blocks transversally by normal faults. (B) Position of the
two normal faults that bound Mawat graben.
4- Transverse faults
In addition to the main thrust faults, there are many transverse normal faults that cut across (nearly normal to) the axes of the anticlines
and main Zagros Thrust Fault. These faults divide the area into many uplifted and subsided blocks (Fig.5A).These blocks make horsts and
grabens which are bounded by normal faults and their traces, on the surface, die out towards the southwest and obscured towards
northeast by the southeast thrusting of the front of Iranian plate. The erosion is highly modified the topography of these faults but they
could be identified in the field. They are difficult to be identified from satellite images and could be indirectly inferred from the large
elevation and depressions that bound these faults (Fig.5A).
The most important feature that is associated with blocks is, the Zagros Thrust Fault which makes a reverse faults with horst (light grey
blocks of the fig. 5A) and low angle with the grabens (dark blocks of the same figure 5A). The thrust can be seen in several areas such as
the Chuwarta-Mawat and Said Sadiq areas, while the reverse fault could be seen in the two areas between Chuwarta-Sadiq and Halabja
areas. In these areas the Qulqula Radiolarian Formation (as a thrust front) climbs over Balambo Formation (or Jurassic Rocks) with an
angle nearly equal to about 40 degrees. The age of these transverse faults is not known but they appear, from stratigraphy, that most of
them are younger than Eocene. The evidence of the two of these faults is discussed in detail by Karim (2005a) (Fig.5B).
Fig. 9: A)Under side of a thick pebbly sandstone bed (1.5m wide) of the unit one of Red Bed Series showing paleocurrent direction toward
southwest during the Paleocene. Flute casts (1, 2, and 3), small and large groove casts (4, 5) and striation casts (6, 7). B) Small eroded
channel (30cm wide) showing groove cast in the red claystone of the same unit in the same bed (Al-Barzinjy, 2005).
Fig.10: (A) Eocene (Gercus Formation) conglomerate about 60m thick forming a mountain clalled “Barda Asin” at northwest of
Darbandikhan town, southwest of Zarayen town. B) Upper Bakhtiary Formation (Pliocene) conglomerate shows southwest paleocurrent
direction. The arrows indicate paleocurrent direction and bedding surfaces while small inclined lines indicate directions of pebble
imbrications.
Table1: Direction of the imbrication of gravels and boulders in the conglomerate of Formation and Upper Bakhtiary Formations.
LINEAMENT OF THE NORTHERN IRAQ
It is possible that the same or most of the lineaments occurring in the northern Iraq, including North Thrust Zone, have nearly same the
historical development but with different direction and all are diverted anticlockwise by about 40 degrees as compared to the
northeastern Iraq (Zagros Fold-Thrust belt). The anticlines and thrust front are trending nearly east-west. It is possible that the drainage,
facies migration direction was towards south instead of the southwest. The main factor for diversion of the trend of the lineament is the
collision of Arabian and Turkish plate which generated the Tauros mountain belt. Al-Brifkani (2008) has mentioned that most lineaments,
in this area, are trending towards north–south and east-west.
Fig.11: Rose diagrams show paleocurrent direction (sediment transport direction) as indicated by imbricated pebbles of conglomerate of
Eocene and Pliocene.
CONCLUSION
This paper has the following conclusions:
1-The most important main lineaments are axes of anticlines; transverse faults; line of distribution of ophiolites; drainage discharge
direction and maximum thickness of conglomerates.
2- It is found that the trends and history of these lineaments are closely related to the development of the Zagros Fold -Thrust Belt.
3- The first appearance of ophiolites (as gravel and boulder in clastic sediment) was at Lower Maastrichtian.
4- The first appearance of anticlines is Campanian age, but it is Eocene and Upper Miocene in the Thrust, High and Low Folded Zones
respectively.
5- The first appearance of southwest direction of drainage (sediment transport) is aged Upper Cretaceous as indicated by incised valleys
and imbricated pebbles.
6-The trends and positions of conglomerates could be considered as a lineament with a southwest trend of migration for about 50km
from Upper Cretaceous till the Pliocene.
Acknowledgments
The authors express their best thanks to the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (sida) for their financial supports
covering the fieldworks of this paper.
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HISTORY AND GEOLOGICAL SETTING OF INTERMONTANE BASIN IN THE ZAGROS FOLD-THRUST BELT, KURDISTAN REGION,
NE-IRA
Published in: Iraqi Bulletin of Geology and Mining, Vo.4, No.1, 2008, p21-33
ABSTRACT
It is mentioned previously that the intermontane basins, in northeastern Iraq, are developed in the Early Paleocene. In present study, the
timing, geographic location and geological setting of these intermontane basins are studied from Iraqi Zagros Fold-Thrust Belt during
Tertiary. The study achieved in view of literature and recent sedimentological studies. The terrigenous clastic cutoff and facies
comparison with their distribution is used as evidence for spatial and temporal development of intermontane basin. The study concluded
that the first intermontane basin is developed during the Middle Eocene.
It is observed that the present position of Thrust and Imbricated Zones of Iraq was area of subsidence and generation of the
intermontane basin during Middle Eocene. Concurrently with this subsidence and directly to the southwest of the latter zone a narrow
paleohigh is developed which separated subsidence from the main basin. The present position of the paleohigh coincides with of the
boundary High and Imbricated Zones. In these intermountain basin the flysch facies (sandstone and shale of Walash Nauperdan Group)
are deposited at the beginning while later molasses facies (conglomerate of upper part of the Red Bed Series) are dominated.
Concurrently, in the area of present Low Folded and Mesopotamian Zones (main water body of the main foreland basin) thick succession
of pure carbonate (Pila Spi Formation) was deposited signalize the total cutoff of clastic sediments from the latter zones In contrary,
during the Early Paleocene till Middle Eocene clastic (conglomerate and sandstone) influx was continued from source area into Early
Zagros foreland basin and mixed (occasionally) with carbonate of Sinjar Formation in many places. During these latter ages,
intermontane basin is not generated as cited in previous studies to trap transferred sediments from source area except some basin
irregularities on which reefal limestones of Sinjar Formation are deposited. The separation of Early Zagros Foreland basin into two smaller
basins (Main foreland basin and intermontane basin) decreased the current circulation and wave activity therefore lagoonal dolomitic
limestone of Pila Spi Formation was deposited.
INTRODUCTION
The studied area is located in the Kurdistan Region, Northeast Iraq near the with Irani− Iranian border (Fig.1). This area forms the three
main (present days) tectonic zones of Iraq (High, Imbricated and Thrust Zones) of Buday and Jassim (1987) ( Fig.2).The area is part of the
Western Zagros Fold-thrust Belt, which is developed from colliding of Arabian and Iranian Plates and sedimentary fills of Neotethys basin
(Alavi, 2004). The aim of this study is to record a new historical development and geological setting of intermontane basin in the Iraqi
part of the Zagros Fold-thrust Belt. The study achieved in the through re-interpretation of the sedimentologic (sedimentary facies) and
stratigraphic works of Bellen, et al (1959), Buday, (1980) and Al-Barzinjy, (2005) about the area during Tertiary.
Intermontane basins are commonly elongate, narrow and evolved during late orogenesis and are associated within volcanism (Einsele,
2000). Small superficial, extensional intermontane basin exists in the present Andes Mountain is due to warping during subduction (Mail,
1990). Clevis et al (2004) has mentioned basins on the thrust- sheets under the name of “top thrust-sheet basin” , which are formed due
to detachment faults. They assumed them as common features in foreland basin. Allen and Allen (1990) referred to generation of
intermontane basins on the megasuture blow thrust sheets. These basins resemble the intermontane basin of Iraq where the oldest
intermontane basins are those mentioned by Buday and Jassim (1987) in which molasses are deposited during Paleogene and located in
the Tanjero-Balambo Zone. However, , maps are published maps by Buday (1980); Jassim and Goff (2006) (Fig.3) showed that these
basins have started from Paleocene and continued till Middle Miocene and located in the present position of Thrust and Imbricates Zones.
Al-Hashmi and Amer (1985) separated Red Bed Series from Khurmal Formation (time equivalent of Sinjar Formation) by positive land
(Fig. 4A, B, C). Surdashy (1989) has also separated the Red Bed Series as intermontane basin from the basin of Kolosh Formation during
Paleocene and Eocene (Fig.4D). In the Tectonic Scenario of Iraq, Numan (1997) separated the Red Bed Series from the main basin of Iraq
during Paleocene. He indicated the Red Bed Series in a basin between Kata Rash and Walash volcanic arcs, which resembles more or less
the intermontane basin, since it is separated by positive land (Fig.5A). Lawa (2004) mentioned and showed (by sketch) that piggyback
(intermontane basin) started in the early Paleocene which was filled with molasse deposit (Fig.5 B, C). According to the above studies, at
the Early Paleocene, the narrow strip of Halabja, Said Sadiq, Sulaimanyia City, Ranyia and Rawandoz waslocation of a paleohigh (positive
land), which separated the area that are located to the north and south of these towns. The southern and northern areas are called
(previously) Mio and Eu-geosynclines, respectively, while in the present study they are called Main and Sub-Foreland Basins. The Main
Foreland Basin occupies (as assumed in this study) the Low and High Folded Zones while the Sub-Foreland Basin occupies a southern
part of the Thrust Zone and whole Imbricated Zones. But, during Campanian till Middle Eocene one large basin existed, which is called
Early (proto) Zagros Foreland Basin (Fig. 6C and 7C).
Fig.1: Simplified geological map of the studied area (modified from Sissakian, 2000) showing location of intermontane basin during
Middle Eocene.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The recent sedimentological and stratigraphical studies amended the geology of the studied area through simplifications of the tectonics.
Due to this geographic position and history of the development of the intermontane basins can be realized with the type of separation
from main water body. Among the studies that are indirectly related to this idea are the study of Karim and Surdashy (2005a and 2005b)
which changed the tectonic setting of Tanjero Formation from subduction trench to early Zagros Foreland basin during Maastrichtian.
They combined both Mio and Eogeosyncline in one single basin. Another study is that of Al-Barzinjy (2005), which concerned mainly with
relation between Red Bed Series and Kolosh Formation. He concluded that both them (Red Bed Series and Kolosh Formation) are
deposited in a single basin and there was no any paleohigh between the two units during Paleocene and Early Eocene. According to the
Al-Barzinjy (2005), the Red Bed Series was deposited in the present position of the Imbricated Zone as coastal facies, while at the same
time; Kolosh Formation is deposited in the basin plain, in the location of the present day High Folded Zone.
Fig.4: Different ideas about timing, tectonic setting and geographic location of the intermontane basin by different authors. A, B and C:
By Al-Hashmi and Amer (1985). D: By Surdashy (1989).
Fig.5: A): Tectonic position of Red Bed Series between Kata Rash and Walash Volcanics, by Numam (1997). (B, C) Model and cross section
of Early and Middle Paleocene paleogeography and tectonic setting of piggy back (intermontane) basin (Lawa, 2004).
Fig.6: The conclusions of present study as shown by conceptual models of paleogeography and tectonic evolution of the intermontane
basin in Iraq. A: Middle Eocene, B: Lower Eocene, C: Upper Cretaceous and Paleocene.
Fig.7: Cross sections of the same ages and models that are shown in the fig. (6) showing generation of intermontine basin during Middle
Eocene as inferred from present work.
Fig.8:Isopach facies map of Middle–Upper Eocene showing extensive carbonate deposition (After Dunnington, 1958).
Fig. 9: A) Sections of western side of Sartaq Bamo valley ( east of Darbandikhan dam) showing main exposed units, the pure carbonate of
Pila Spi Formation( 200m thick) can seen at top of a section is 450m thick. In many places Sinjar Formation contain conglomerate and
terrigenous clasts.B) The photo shows pebbly limestone of Sinjar Formation at Baranan (Glazarda Homocline) mountain south of
Sulaimanyia city.
Fig. 10: A) Outcrop section of Pila Spi, Gercus and Sinjar formations in the main Foreland Basin
(previous Miogeosyncline). Sinjar Formation contains interbed of conglomerate and sandstone, while Pila Spi Formation is exclusively
limestone. B) Polished slab (4cm wide) of the latter formation contains algae.
Fig.11: Eastern part of Dohuk dam valley showing thick outcrop of Pila Spi Formation and clastics of pre –Middle Eocene. The Khurmala
Formation is less than 10m thick. The clastic influx cutoff is very clear with deposition onset of Pila Spi Formation.
Fig.12: Lithofacies map during Middle Eocene and geologic block diagram of the same age showing intermontane basin as inferred from
the present work.
CONCLUSION
•The previous Early Paleocene as starting point fore evolving of the intermontane basins is changed to Middle Eocene.
•The Pila Spi Formation and Walash Naoperdan group are connected with this development as sediments of the main basin and
intermontane basin respectively.
•The reason for this new age is total terrigenous clastic cutoff influx from source areas to the previous clastic dominated basin.
•The study solved the problem of great uncertainty that associated with history and tectonic of Walash-Naoperdan Group.
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Jassim, S.Z. and Goff, J.C., 2006. Geology of Iraq. Dolin, Prague Museun, Berno. 341pp.
Karim, K.H. and Surdashy, A. M., 2005a. Paleocurrent analysis of Upper Cretaceous Foreland basin: a case study for Tanjero Formation,
NE-Iraq, Journal of Iraqi Science, Vol. 5, No.1, pp.30-44.
Karim, K.H. and Surdashy, A. M., 2005b. Tectonic and depositional history of Upper Cretaceous Tanjero Formation, NE-Iraq. JZS (Journal
Sulaimaniya University), Vol. 8, No.1, p.47-62.
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Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Sulaimani.
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Tectonic and depositional history ofUpper Cretaceous Tanjero Formation in Sulaimaniya Area, NE-Iraq
Kamal Haji Karim*1 and Ali Mahmood Surdashy*2
Published in: (JZS) Journal of Zankoy Sulaimani, 2005, Vol.8. No.1 Part A , p.47-61.
Abstract
The basin of (Upper Cretaceous) Tanjero Formation is combined (tectonically) with that of the underlying Shiranish Formation and named
Upper Cretaceous Zagros Early Foreland Basin instead of previous miogeosyncline and trench. In this basin Tanjero Formation is
deposited in the near shore area in front of southwest advancing positive land of Iranian plate. This near shore area is called Upper
Cretaceous Depocenter, whereas, the underlying Shiranish Formation a summed to be deposited in the deeper central part of the basin,
which is called Upper Cretaceous Basin Center. The advancing of the hinterland (Iranian plate front) is very clear from southwest position
changing of the shelf for about 20km. The shelf of lower sequence was near the Iranian border during Upper Campanian while it migrated
to the area around Chuarta and Mawat Towns during middle Maastrichtian. It was inferred that most part of the formation is deposited by
forced regression during collision of Iranian and Arabian plate. During this regression both flysch and molasses facies are deposited.
Introduction
Tanjero Formation is an Upper Cretaceous (Campanian-Maastrichtian) unit, which crops out within the Imbricated and High Folded Zones
in Northeastern Iraq Buday (1980) [1] and Buday and Jassim (1987)[2]. It stretches as narrow northwest-southeast belt near and parallel
to the Iranian border (Fig. 1). The formation mainly consists of alternation of sandstone, marl and calcareous shale with occurrence of
very thick conglomerate and biogenic limestones (Bellen et al. 1959)[3].
On the basis of main lithological distribution, it is divided the formation into three parts (lower, middle and upper parts Karim (2004)[4]).
These parts are correlated across eight different sections (Fig. 2). The correlation is based on lithology and stratigraphic position of
distinctive conglomerate and its derivative Sandstones, which are discussed in detail n different geo graphical localities in the paper. The
lower part (lower regressive part) is mainly composed, on the lower slope and basin, of thick succession of sandstone (100-400m),
whereas on the shelf it is dominated by 500m thick succession of conglomerate (in this study, called Kato conglomerate). The middle part
is composed of 100-300m of bluish white marl and marly limestone on the slope and basin whereas it changes to calcareous shale on the
shelf and to 20-50m thick of red claystone inside incised valleys. The upper regressive part consists chiefly of 50-200m thick mixed
carbonate-siliciclastic successions (in this study, named Kato Mixed Carbonate-Siliciclastic Successions).The constituents of this
succession are alternation of biogenic limestone and calcareous shale with miner amount of sandstone and conglomerate. He also found
both flysch and molasse facies in the lower part of the formation in the distal and proximal area of the basin respectively.
Tectonic history
It can be inferred from the facies distribution maps given by Buday, (1980) [1] that the basins paleoslope direction (depositional dip) was
toward northeast during Lower Cretaceous till Middle Turonian. During later ages (Coniacian and Santonian) the general basin paleoslope
direction was reversed 180 degree toward southwest during Upper Cretaceous. This reversal case is associated with colliding of
continental parts of Arabian and Iranian Plate after deposition of Qamchuqa and Balambo Formation in the studied area. This colliding
occurred after the oceanic crust is exhausted and then the two related continents are collided. Before this, the studied area was passive
continental margin (carbonate platform) and bordered from the north by subduction trench (active continental margin). The collision
finally changed the area of subduction to positive land and studied area to foreland basin (Fig 5B and 7). According to Karim (2003a)
[5],during this process, the previously deposited Qulqula Formation compressed, as accretionary prism, between two plates and uplifted
forming positive land and source area.
According to Buday (1980, p.402) [1] the miogeosyncline was separated from unstable shelf by a ridge. He mentioned that the
continuation of this ridge is not clear enough in the area southeast of Ranyia Town (part of the studied area). In the present study, the
absence of this ridge is proved in the Sulaimaniya Governorate. It is observed that the present position of Azmir, Goizha, Piramagroon,
Sara, Qarasard and Kosrat anticlines (Fig. 1 and 3) was part of the slope of the Tanjero basin, while the present position of Haibat Sultan,
Tasluja and Baranan homocline most possibly comprised part of the basin plain of the formation. The deposition, bypassing and erosion
of sediment occurred extensively during deposition of Tanjero Formation on the position of former anticlines (Azmir, Goizha, Sara and
Kosrat). So there were not any major irregularities (submerged paleohigh or geoflexture) in the basin of Tanjero Formation, in the studied
area, during deposition.
Miogeosyncline idea
According to these ideas, the formation is deposited in miogeosyncline realms (deep marine trough) in which flysch sediments are
deposited by turbidity currents (Buday, 1980[1]; Buday and Jassim 1987[2], Kettaneh and Sadik, 1989[7] and Lawa et al., 1998) [8]. But
in the present study, both Tanjero and Shiranish Formations are considered as lateral and vertical facies change of each other and the
differences between the two formations are only attributed to nearness to the shore and source rocks not to tectonism. Now these types
of facies can be clearly explained by relative sea level change in sequence stratigraphy. In the present study both Shiranish (and
Shiranish-like lithology) and Tanjero Formation are combined in single depositional sequence and even in single system tract (when distal
and proximal lithologies of HST and TST is considered). In all ancient and recent basins, it is normal to see the near shore (proximal area)
to more uplifting and sedimentological activities than the central part of the basin. This fact is interpreted previously, as regarded to
Tanjero Formation, deposited during abnormal tectonic activity.
Present ideas
The following ideas of the present study are based on fieldwork, recent new sedimentological and stratigraphic principles which are
applied on the studied area.
Migration of depocenter
During fieldwork at the studied area, two depocenter of Tanjero deposits were found. These depocenters belong to two different
successive depostional sequences. The distance of migration is about 25km, which measures the distance between two identical
lithologies in the two sequences. These two sequences are as follows:
are easily weathered and eroded during Upper Cretaceous stormy climate.
The source area, hinterland and foreland, was steep sloping and highly deformed during the collision of the Arabian and Iranian plates
(continental –continental colliding phase). It is likely that at that time the brittle bedded chert and soft marls are so intensely jointed and
fractured that helped rapid weathering, the erosion and creation of deep valleys.
The bedded cherts, although brittle, they shaped into hard and sharp edged boulder and gravel (with some blocks) by jointing. During
transport in streams, these act as millstone for grinding and breaking up the clasts and the underlying rock too. All these helped
enormous amount of material to be available for transporting andarea, which is indicated by Abdul-Kireem (1986b) [16].
Normal Regression
In contrast to forced regression at lower part of the formation, the upper part suffered from normal regression, which happened during
the end of highstand system tract. According to Einsele (2000) [13] this type of regression also occurs during stable sea level and occurs
as a result of sediment fill of the basin and not as a result of relative sea level fall. The arrangement of sediments is coarsening upward
which shows no omission of any member of gradation facies succession. In Tanjero Formation, this type of regression is occurred during
deposition of the upper part in which the sediment supply exceeded the available accommo-dation space so that shallow bioclast and
biogenic limestone, as a part of upper part, is deposited. These limestones contain abundant large forams and pepecypod bioclast. In
some places, the high stand Kato mixed carbonate-siliciclastic succession is overlain by Tagaran conglomerate, which may be the deposit
of shelf margin system tract (SB2).
Conclusion
1-The previously the basin of Tanjero Formation is considered as trench or miogeosyncline but in this study changed to early foreland
basin.
2-In contrary to previous studies, all parts of the formation have given same degree of tectonics. Moreover, the basin of formation
combined tectonically with that of underlying Shiranish Formation in a single basin, which is called initial Zagros Foreland Basin.
3-In this basin Tanjero Formation is deposited in near shore area, while Shiranish Formation is deposited in the central part of the basin.
4. Most parts of the formation is deposited by forced regression (sea level fall enhanced by tectonic uplift.
5. The whole basin was deposited in front southwest advancing of Iranian plate causing continuous migration of depocenter.
References
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32 (3), pp.215-231. 1986b.
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Sequence Stratigraphy of Late Cretaceous Tanjero Formation in Sulaimaniya Area
b>Sequence Stratigraphy of Late Cretaceous Tanjero Formation in Sulaimaniya Area, NE-Iraq
Introduction
Tanjero Formation is an Upper Cretaceous (Campanian-Maastrichtian) unit, which crops out within the Imbricated and High Folded Zones
in Northeastern Iraq (Buday, 1980)[1] and (Buday and Jassim, 1987) [2]. It stretches as narrow northwest-southeast belt near and parallel
to the Iranian border (Fig. 1). The formation mainly consists of alternation of clastic rocks of sandstone, marl and calcareous shale with
occurrence of very thick conglomerate and biogenic limestone (Bellen et al. 1959) [3]. Karim (2004) [4] studied sedimentary structures,
lithology, and environment of the formation. On the basis of main lithological distribution, he divided the formation into three parts
(lower, middle and upper parts).These parts are correlated across eight different sections, which represent the available outcrops in
Sulaimaniya Governorate in addition to one section inside Iranian land (Fig.2 and photo1). His correlation is based on lithology and
stratigraphic position of distinctive conglomerate and its derivative sandstones, which are discussed in detail in different localities. The
lower part (lower regressive part) is mainly composed, on the lower slope and basin, of thick aggradation of sandstone (100-400m),
whereas on the shelf it is dominated by 500m thick succession of conglomerate (in this study, it called Kato conglomerate). The middle
part (middle transgressive part) is composed of 100-300m of bluish white marl and marly limestone on the slope and basin plain whereas
it changes to calcareous shale on the shelf and to 20-50m thick of red claystone inside incised valleys at the area of coastal area.
The upper part (upper regressive part) is chiefly consisting of 50-200m thick mixed carbonate-siliciclastic successions (in this study, it is
named Kat mixed carbonate-siliciclastic successions). The constituents of this succession are alternation of thick biogenic limestone beds
and calcareous shale with miner amount of sandstone and conglomerate. In literature, only Minas (1997) [5] referred briefly to the
sequence stratigraphy of Tanjero Formation.
Sequence stratigraphy Sequence stratigraphy is defined as subdivision of sedimentary basin fill into genetic packages (depositional
sequence) bounded by unconformity and their correlative conformities (Emery and Myers, 1996) [6]. In the present study, the method of
Vail et al. (1977) [7] is used for division of the rock body of the formation into depostional sequences, this is because the unconformities
and correlative conformities can be identified in studied succession. While the method of Galloway, (1989) [8] is not used because it is
difficult to be applied on Tanjero formation. In order to indicate the sequence sequence stratigraphic position of the Tanjero Formation,
the authors have tried to:
Study at least a part of the basin fill succession, which extend beyond Shiranish Formation. The time span and the related outcrops
thickness which is treated in this paper, depends on the position of the closest overlying and underlying unconformities. When the
unconformities are found the correlative conformities also encountered by us in the Tanjero Formation. It was found that one of the
biggest sequence boundaries (SB1) is located within the Tanjero Formation. This means that the formation should be subdivided to two
depostional sequences. This forced us to study and find the boundaries of both sequences wherever they are located. Therefore, for
finding the type one or two sequence boundary (SB1 or SB2), the extent of this study, has gone vertically beyond underlying Shiranish
and Kometan Formations and overlying Red Bed Series.
Although the boundaries of the above formations are studied previously, no correlation is done as concerned with traditional and
sequence stratigraphy. For this, extensive lateral fieldwork is conducted to find all sedimentary facies deposited in response to relative
sea level change. Finally, these facies are organized in system tracts (LST, TST, HST and SMST) and the associated sequence boundaries
are identified. The systems and boundaries rarely can be seen in one continuous surface section. As the seismic sequence stratigraphy is
not used in this study, therefore different surface sections are studied and combined to compensate to the seismic lack.
The first one who classified the formation in viewpoint of sequence stratigraphy is Minas, (1997) [5]. His study depended on the previous
traditional stratigraphic studies. He included the lower part and middle parts as sediment of TST and HST respectively. As will be
discussed later in this study the result is changed. Before discussion of the system tracts, it is better to see the boundaries between
Tanjero and adjacent formations. This is to find the certain starting point of sea level curve (relative sea level change) that enclosing
Tanjero Formation in one or more of its cycles.
Boundary between Shiranish and Tanjero Formation
In all previous studies concerned with the two formations such as Bellen, et al. (1959) [3] and Buday (1980) [1], it was recoded that the
contact between the two formations is gradational. But in the present study, at least in one locality, it was found that the contact is
unconformable, as shown below:
Iran Section
This section is located inside Iran near the border with Iraq (Fig.1 and 2) on the left bank of the Do Awan River (upstream of Little Zab
River) about 4km to the west of Awa Kurte village and about 20 km to the northwest of Mawat Town at the intersection of N 350 37-
20.6= and E 450 35- 16.4= . At this locality the Shiranish Formation (Bluish white marl and marly limestone) is overlain directly by 13 to
150m of conglomerate then comes Red Bed Series exist at the top of the conglomerate. Field study showed that the conglomerate
belongs to Tanjero Formation because which is correlated and traced laterally with Kato conglomerate (Fig.4). Moreover, both have
similar lithological constituents. The contact between Shiranish and the conglomerate is sharp and erosional. This is also true for one
location at the toe of Qandil Mountain (Photo 3). In spite of these two localities, in this study, yet the boundary between the two
formations is not regarded as unconformable. This is because the erosional contacts are attributed to position of section where all
sediments finer than conglomerate are removed due to elevation of the area in the coastal area and incision by rejuvenated streams. The
conglomerate represents onlap on the steep head of the incised valleys. The boundary between the two Formations is conformable in all
other localities in side the basin. The conglomerate represents sequence boundary. Emery and Myers (1996, p.98) [6] mentioned that the
type one sequence boundary is associated with superimposition of shallow or non-marine deposit on deeper one (when the conglomerate
regarded as non-marine or shallow marine deposits and the marl as deep one).
Contact between Shiranish and Kometan Formations. All the sections inspected in the studied area (Sulaimaniya Governorate) have
gradational contact. So, primarily appear that there is no major break in the sedimentation of Upper Cretaceous except the one inside the
Tanjero Formation which represented by Kato conglomerate and its equivalent lithologies.
It also stands for a type one-sequence boundary (SB1) on which the huge quantity of sediments are bypassed from the coastal area of
prograding fan delta to prodelta slope and basin plain during relative sea level fall. This surface can be identified from Kato Mountain to
south of Sulaimaniya city at distance of 25km. This distance is equal to about 30km if folding shortening is eliminated. Near Tanjero
stream it changes to correlative conformity, which changes to coarse and fine sandstone. In the toe of northeastern limb of the Goizha
and Azmir and Daban anticlines also can be seen in certain places, such as Azimra Bichkola valley, north of Bnawella village in addition to
Mararash village. The sediments above the erosional surface show that the shoreline and facies belt is probably shifted basin ward from
the mountain to the north of Sulaimaniya city during Upper Cretaceous sea fall. The sea level fall most probably supported by tectonic
and eustatic sea level changes.
All mentioned for the area between Kato Mountain and Sulaimaniya city is also true for the following areas:
A. The area between Mawat Town and Kizlar Village in the Chaqchaq valley.
B. The area at Qandil mountain toe and Dokan area.
C. Type section at Sirwan valley and Khurmal town. The proximal area inferred indirectly to be near Khurmal town by applying the
distance of the two areas of A and B.
The proximal sediments (conglomerate) do not exist in the Khurmal area due to later erosion. But their positions are inferred for the
sediments of distal area in Sirwan valley and Dokan area. At the distal area such as Dokan, Sharazoor and Piramagroon plains, when one
crosses the boundary between the two formations, bluish white marl changes to sandstone and calcareous shale. Emery and Myers
(1996) [6] regarded this type of change is regarded as indication of lowstand system tract in deep marine environment.
In the present study, the environment of boundary between Shiranish and Tanjero Formations can be regarded as deep environment. The
further advance into Tanjero Formation, the sandstone increases and changes to a thick succession (100-400m) sandstone wedge, the
base of which consists of clean succession 4-20m thick of sandstone with cross lamination and skolithos escape structures. This
succession is equivalent to the erosional surface under the Kato conglomerate (for simplicity it can be assumed as time equivalent of
lower part of Kato conglomerate and represent the deposit of the extreme shallowing during lowstand system tract. The whole sandstone
wedge is equivalent or derived from Kato conglomerate (Fig.2 and 5).
A. Lowstand fan
The lowstand system tract consists of two parts; lowstand wedge and lowstand fan. Low stand fan in turn is divided into slope fan and
basin floor fan Emery and Myers (1996) [6]. Tanjero Formation, as has limited outcrops, so the lowstand fans are not clear. But some
dirty sandstone beds exist which may represent basin floor fan. These beds exist at Sirwan, Chaqchaq valleys and Dokan area. In these
areas, there are two beds of either coarse dirty sandstone or paraconglomerate near the transition zone between Shiranish and Tanjero
Formations. These beds are isolated in the marls or calcareous shale. The position of these beds in the succession of the formation and
relative sea level change suppose that they deposited during early phase of low stand time when the relative seal level fall was at its
maximum rate. These beds are generally massive and dirty (matrix supported) so they, most probably, deposited by debris flow and
slumping of the shelf edge (shelf break).
Above these two beds comes very clear lowstand wedge. The base of this wedge consists of 4-20m thick package of coarse and clean
sandstone. This package is in most case associated with thin bed of conglomerate. The position of this package between basin floor fan
and lowstand wedge possibly comprises the slope fan. The beds of this fan contain such sedimentary structures that indicate the
shallowest environment of the formation during deposition of the lower part (LST) of formation. Karim (2004, p.38-57)(4) discussed in
detail these sedimentary structures (large scale cross bedding, hummocky cross stratification plant debris, cruziana and skolithos trace
fossils.
B. Lowstand wedges
In contrast to lowstand fans, lowstand wedges are very clear as these wedges make up 70% of the whole succession of the lower part of
the formation (Photo2). The typical lithology of Tanjero formation (alternation sandstone and shale) consists of these wedges and the
slope fans. The wedge is conglomerate-rich in the proximal area, which is represented by 500m of Kato conglomerate. But they are
sandstone-rich in the distal area (at Chaqchaq and Shadalla valleys and along foothill area of Azmir and Goizha mountains). The distal
sandstone wedge is correlative to the Kato conglomerate.
Einsele (1998, p.338 and 339) [10] mentioned that during late lowstand the lowermost portion of incised valley is filled with coarse fluvial
sediment (gravel in case of Tanjero Formation) of braided stream. Therefore all thickness of Kato conglomerate (conglomerate wedge)
and most of distal sandstone wedges are mainly deposited during late lowstand time when the sea level fall stabilized for considerable
time and subsequent slow rise. The thickness and grain size of the wedges are depending on the distance from the shoreline and limit of
downward shift of coastal onlap. The wedges show aggradation to progradation stacking patterns with nearly same thickness of the
layers.
The most important characteristics of sandstone wedge are their abundant content of plant debris on surface of sandstone beds. These
plant fragments are derived from plants grown inside incised valleys and on the surface of the sediments of the alluvial fans during
middle Maastrichtian. They were then, eroded by severe current of sediment influx from hinterland by river. The incised valleys of the
shelf and upper slope are flooded during early slow rise of sea level and during late lowstand forming some swamp and estuaries with
possible plant growth.
kilometers (Photo 2). In some cases the thickness change, along the depositional strike, from 500 to 10m in distance of two kilometers
and grain size change to sandstone in the same distances. This sedimentological phenomena also observed by Karim (1997) [14] in
Gercus Formation in Sartaq-Bamo area. The hard and well lithified conglomerate of these valleys, now, forms high mountains such as
Kato, Gaza and Talishk Mountains. These mountains are formed by reciprocal of topography. The conglomerate of Tanjero formation is
deposited during late lowstand system tract. In this connection Haq (1991)[15] mentioned that during low stand system tract when the
relative sea level begins to rise slowly the stream incision is stopped and the existed incised valley may begin to be filled with coarser
braided stream sediments (coarse conglomerate in case of Tanjero Formation). The evidence, which proves that Kato conglomerate is
deposited subaerially in the proximal area, is that red layers that overlie it. These layers represent deltaic deposits during TST. At Iranian
section this conglomerate (13-150m thick) which is rested directly on Shiranish Formation. This condition reflects the most landward
occurrence of the incised valleys deposits where the conglomerate terminated (on-lapped) against the steep slope of the source area.
The shape of the valleys and their sediment fills can be reconstructed from some outcrop sections exist in the studied area. One of these
sections (Photo 2) can be seen at the northern part of Kato Mountain directly west of Suerala village. This section is scored by recent
stream perpendicularly on the elongation of Kato conglomerate. The section shows thick beds of the conglomerate, which are tilted at
about 35 degrees toward southwest. Tilt correction shows that the form of the paleo-valley has obtuse v-shaped form (Photo 2). This
latter photo shows only part of the valley, which is not more than 1km wide. The obtuse shape of the valley is most possibly attributed to
the fact that the incised valleys were scoured in soft sediments (partially lithified calcareous shale and marl of the HST deposits of lower
sequence).
The thickest and thinnest part of the conglomerates exists at center and side of valley respectively. Although the original outlook of the
conglomerate layers in the incised valleys are tilted and mostly eroded but the form and wideness of one valley is reconstructed as
shown in the photo 2. In the field the bottom of the valleys (as shown by sediments fills) is convex downward and planner at the top
(Photo 2.1).
The precise position of the Kato and Tagaran conglomerates is shown in sequence stratigraphic model. In the model, the system tracts
are illustrated by the Wheeler diagram (time expanded section) and depth section. These sections are so drawn to pass through the
incised valleys (Fig.6and 7). According to Emery and Myers, (1996, p.140) [6] as a result of river rejuvenation; incised valley commonly
contains the coarsest sediment available locally. They added (p. 137) if the new river course is steeper than equilibrium river profile, the
river would firstly straighten coarse and then incise to form a valley. Furthermore, they mentioned that these valleys are important
because they represent unequivocal evidence of a sequence boundary and they can form stratigraphic traps for hydrocarbon.
Condensed section
Condensed sections as thin marine stratigraphic horizons are composed of pelagic and hemipelagic sediments characterized by very slow
sedimentation rate (Loutit et al. 1988) [20]. Within depositional sequence, the condensed section occurs partly at the top of transgressive
system tract and partly within high stand system tract. They represent the maximum landward extent of marine condition. Marine
condensed sections are created by sediment starvation and thus characterized by apparent hiatus, thin zones of burrowed and
somewhat lithified beds (Haq 1991) [15].
Only few of these characteristics fit some beds within Tanjero Formation, so no typical condensed sections are found. This may be
returned to high sedimentation rate of formation in the relatively active foreland basin and to shallower water than Shiranish Formation.
This latter formation contains at least one typical condensed section, which is located at the top (in Dokan area) of the formation in the
middle of the formation (in Chuarta area). But, in the Tanjero Formation, the beds resembling or related to condensed section are as
following:
In the proximal area (coastal area during LST) there is a biogenic limestone bed about 7m thick (Photo 5.4 and 5.4). These limestones are
located
directly above Kato Red Layers. The position of this bed is directly above TST can be confidently regarded as a kind of condensed section
or proximal equivalent deposit of a condensed section. It is deposited during maximum flooding of the sea (maximum landward extent of
marine condition of Tanjero Formation) when the basin starved as concerned to terrigenous clastic influx from source area. This bed
consists of several horizons of limestones rich in Upper Cretaceous fossils (Photo 5.5) with or without their bioclasts.
On the shelf (toe of northeastern limb of Azmir, Goizha anticlines) very thick TST calcareous shale is capped by biogenic limestone (0.3 –
2m). The fossils content shows densely populated by diverse organisms such as rudist (Photo 6.7) and gastropod (photo 6.2) this
assemblage laterally changes to other ones such as: pelecypods (Gryphaea) (Photo 6.3) large forams, and echinoderm, large ammonite
(Photo 6.) in other places changes to bioclast of these organisms. These types of bed are not unique but repeat several times upward in
the HST.
C. The most well developed condensed section-like bed is a fine grain gray (white weathering) limestone occur nearly at the middle of the
formation at west of Diana town on the left bank of Balakian stream (GPS reading: N: 36o 47- 56.2 =, E: 44o 22- 55.1= ) . This bed is 1.5
m thick and lithologically very similar to Kometan Formation both in color and lithology as it contains Upper Cretaceous planktonic forams
(Photo 5.3).
In the Piramagroon and Sharazoor plain in addition to Dokan area, there are many thin beds and lamina of marly limestone in the middle
part (TST). These may be regarded as relatively a kind of condensed section that represents time of non-deposition.
Shelf margin system tract (SMST) and type two-sequence boundary (SB2)
As mentioned above an alternation of dark color conglomerate (Tagaran type) and shale (with or without sandstone) exist, in some
places, at the top of Kato mixed carbonate –siliciclastic succession. The thickness of this succession is about 50m near Tagaran and
Zarda Bee villages. In the other area (with same tectonic setting) such as area around Mokaba, Homarakh, Konamassi and Harmin
villages these conglomerates are not present. But the succession goes more or less gradationally to Red Bed Series. This type of contact
and lithologic change is evidence of shelf margin system tract at the end of basin fill of Tanjero Formation and the underlying surface is
type two-sequence boundary. This SB2 may be changed to SB1 in other areas such as toe of Qandil Mountain at the north of Kometan
village (Photo 3). This lateral change of sequence boundary may be returned to high tectonic of the source area and part of the basin.
Emery and Myers (1996) [6] mentioned that SB2 and overly shelf margin system tract might be very difficult to recognize in outcrops.
They added that could be differentiated from underlying HST by subtle (minor) unconformity.
Finally it seems that all system tracts of Tanjero formation belonged and deposited during third order eustatic sea level change. In
literature Cunningham and Collins (2001) [21] studied the similar system tract in Morocco during Miocene and concluded that they
belonged to third order sea level change cycles.
Conclusion
The study revealed the following results:
1-The whole rock body of the formation is divided into two main depostional sequences and correlated in eight sections, which are named
lower and upper sequences. About 80% of the formation is deposited in the upper sequence while the rest is deposited in the lower
sequence.
2. In the upper sequence, the LST, TST and HST are identified with a SMST at the top of the formation.
3. The lower sequence can be identified at the Chuarta, Mawat, Qandil area (proximal area) while at Sharazoor- Piramagroon plain, Dokan
area it grade with Shiranish Formation and can not be identified.
4. A type one and two sequence boundary (SB1 and SB2) is identified; they located at lower and middle part of the formation
respectively. Above each 500m and 30m of conglomerate are deposited respectively.
5. The (500m) conglomerate has aggradational stacking pattern, which deposited inside more than four the incised valleys during sea
level fall. This conglomerate changes to thick low stand wedge of sandstone at the distal area.
6. The transgressive surface and condensed sections are identified.
7. All the system tracts in the studied area are as following:
Qamchuqa Formation… LST
Kometan Formation… TST
Tanjero Fn…..late HST, LST, TST and HST
References
[1]-Buday, T. Regional Geology of Iraq: vol. 1, Stratigraphy, I.I.M Kassab and S.Z. Jassim (Eds) D. G. Geol. Surv. Min. Invest. Publ. 445p.
1980.
[2]-Buday, T. and Jassim, S.Z. The Regional geology of Iraq: Tectonism Magmatism, and Metamorphism. I.I. Kassab and M.J. Abbas (Eds),
Baghdad, 445 p. 1987
[3]-Bellen, R. C. Van, Dunnington, H. V., Wetzel, R. and Morton, D. Lexique Stratigraphique, Interntional. Asie, Iraq, 3c (10a) 333 . 1959
[4]-Karim, K.H. Basin analysis of Tanjero Formation in Sulaimaniya area, NE-Iraq. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Sulaimani
University, 135p. 2004.
[5]-Minas, H. A. A. Sequence stratigraphic analysis of the Upper Cretaceous succession of Central and Northern Iraq. Unpubl. Ph. D.
Thesis, Univ. Baghdad. 188p.1997
[6]-Emery, D. and Myers, K. Sequence Stratigraphy. Blackwell Scientific Limited. 297p. 1996.
[7]-Vail, P.R., Mitchum, R.M., Todd, R. G., Widmier, J.M. and Hatleid, W.G. Seismic stratigraphy and global changes in sea level. In: seismic
Stratigraphy –Application to Hyrocarbon Exploration (ed. by C. E. Payton). Memoir of the American Association of the Petroleum
Geologists, Tulsa, 26, pp.49-62. 1977a.
[8]-Gallaway, E. W. Genetic stratigraphic sequences in basin analysis: Architecture and genesis of flooding- surface bounded depositional
units. AAPG,73(2) p.125-142. 1989
[9]-Jassim, S. Z. and Al-Hassan. Petrography and Origin of the Mawat and Penjuin Igneous Complexes. Jour. Geol. Soc. Iraq. Special Issue
on 4th Iraqi Geol. Conf., Baghdad. 1977.
[10]-Einsele, G. Event Stratigraphy: Recognition and interpretation of Sedimentary Even Horizons, in: Doyle, P. and Bennett, M. R.
(editors). Unlocking the Stratigraphical Record, John Wiley & Son, New York, and 532 . 1998.
[11]- Van Wagoner , J.C., Posamentier, H.W., Mitchum, R.M., et al., , , An overview of the fundamentals of sequence stratigraphy and key
definitions, in Wilgus, C.K., et al., eds., Sea level changes: an integrated approach: SEPM Special Publication 42, p. 39-45. 1988.
[12]- Potter, F. J. and Petijohn, F. J. Paleocurrent and Basin analysis. Springer Verlag. 145p.1977.
[13]-Mail, A. D. Architecture and sequence stratigraphy of Pleistocene fluvial system in the Malay Basin, based on seismic time –slice
analysis. AAPG Bulletin. 86(7) pp.1201-1220. 2002.
[14]-Karim, K. H. Stratigraphy of Sartaq-Bamo Area from northeastern Iraq. Iraqi Geological Journal, 31(1 ) 1997.
[15]- Haq, B. U. Sequence stratigraphy, sea level change and significance for deep sea. Special. Publs. int. Ass. Sediment, 12. pp.12-39.
1991.
[16]-Bates, R. L., and Jackson, J.A.(ed.). Glossary of Geology, 2ed, American Geological Institute, 749 p. 1980.
[17]- Kottke, b., Schwenk, T., Breitzke, M., Wiedicke, M., Kurdrass, H. R. and Spiess, V. Acoustic facies and depostional processes in the
upper submarine canyon swatch of No Ground (bay of Bengal), Deep-Sea Research, 11(50), pp.979-1001. 2003.
[18]-Smith, G. J. and Jacobi, R. D. ,Tectonic and eustatic signal in the sequence stratigraphy of the Upper Devonian CanadaWay Group,
New York State, AAPG,. 85 (2), Pp. 325-360. 2001.
[19]- Lawa, F.A., Al-Karadakhi, A. I, and Ismail, K. M. An interfingering of the Upper Cretaceous rocks in Chwarta-Mawat Region (NE-Iraq).
Iraqi Geolo. Journal. 31(2), 1998.
[20]-Loutit, T. S., Hardenbol, J., Vail, P. R., and Baum, G.R. Condensed section: The key to the age dating and correlation of continental
margin sequences. In: sea level change: an integrated approach (Eds Wilgus. C. K., Hastings, B.S., Kendall, C. G. St. C., Posamentier, H.,
Ross, C. A. and Van Wagner , J.) Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral., Spec., Publ. 42 . Pp.183-215. 1988.
[21]- Cunningham, K. J. and Collins, L. S. Control on facies and sequence stratigraphy of an upper Miocene carbonate ramp and platform,
Melilla basin, NE- Moracoo. Journal of Sedimentary Geology, 146 (2), pp.75-89.2002.
[22]-Haq, B. U., Hardenbol J. and Vail P.R. Chronology of fluctuating sea levels since the Triassic. Science, 235(3) , 1156-1167.1987.
[23]-Abdel-Kireem, M. R. Planktonic Foraminifera and stratigraphy of the Tanjero Formation (Maastrichtian), northeastern Iraq.
Micropaleontology, 32 (3), pp.215-231. 1986b.
Sequence Stratigraphy of Gercus Formation (Middle Eocene) in Sulaimaniya area, NE-Iraq
Bakhtiar M. Ameen
Bakhtiar65@yahoo.com
Department of Geology, College of Science, University of Sulaimani
ABSTRACT
The Middle Eocene Red Beds known as typical facies of Gercus Formation in north and northeastern Iraq.In the field they cropout as red
succession of claystone, lensoidal sandstones and conglomerates. Tectonically the beds are exposed in the folded area of the Zagros
Fold-Thrust belt of northeastern Iraq. The whole formation consists of major low stands system tract within stratigraphic record of
Tertiary which belongs to 2nd order sea level change. This major lowstand system tract is divided into two depositional sequences named
upper and lower sequences which are modulated within 3rd order sea level change. About 90% of its thickness is deposited in the lower
sequence, and 10% in the upper one. The lower sequence bounded by SB1 and SB2 from the bottom to the top respectively. It is
comprised of SMST, TST and HST. Only the LST of the upper sequence is represented in the Gercus Formation, while the other systems
tracts are possibly included in the carbonate of PilaSpi Formation. The SMST consists of alternation of red claystone and marl which are
locate at the top of Khurmala Formation. The TST (middle part of Gercus Formation) is composed of grey marl and laminated marly
limestone. The HST consists of alternation of red claystone, laminated sandstone and calcareous shale.
The LST consists of 1-4m of rounded and sorted conglomerate located at the upper part of Gercus Formation. This system tract is
underlain by an erosional unconformity. The inferred depositional environment is most possibly braided delta plain which is prevailed by
fresh water influx and flooding by marine water. This is shown in the field by mud cracks, marl marine sediments and laminated
sandstone which deposited in upper flow regime.
Keywords: Gercus Formation, sequence stratigraphy, molasse facies, systems tract, Khurmala formation, Pila Spi Formation.
الملخص
حيث تظهر الطبقات الحمراء. ان التتابعات الفتاتيةالحمراء لتكوين جركس العائد لفترة اليوسين الوسط تمثل سحنات نمودجية للمولس في شمال وشمال شرق العراق
تكتونيا تظهر الطبقات في منطقة حزام الطيات العالية ومنطقة الزحف لسلسلة الزاكروس في شمال. الحجر الرملي والكونكلومريت، في الحقل عتى شكل الحجر الطيني
من السمك الكلي للتكوين قد ترسب فى التتابع السفل والمتبقي90% ان، لقد امكن تميز تتابعين طباقيين في هدا التكوين سميتا بالتتابع السفل والعلى. شرق العراق
يكون الحد السفل للتتابع السفل ب.(منه قد ترسب في التتابع العلىSB2) )بينما الحد العلى بSB1 (. (يحتوي التتابع السفلي كل من النظمة المساريةSMS, TST ,
HST) بينما تظهرLST) ( ان. اما النظمة الخرى فتتواجد في تكوين البلسبي, العائدة للتتابع العلى في الجزء العلوي من تكوين الجركسSMST) ( يتكون من تعاقب
تمثل. الحجر الطيني الحمر مع المارل فوق الجزء العلوي لتكوين خورمالةTST) (الجزء الوسط من التكوين وتحتوي على المارل الرصاصي مع طبقات رقيقة من الحجر
اما ال، الجيري المارليHST ) (ان. الحجر الرملي المترقرق والحجر الجيري الطيني، ) فهو مكون من تعاقب الحجر الطيني الحمرLST ( يتكون من طبقة كونكلوميريت
ان البيئة الترسيبية افترضت بان تكون سهول دلتاوية ضفائرية غمرت بمياه. ( م والذي يقع في اعلىتكوين جركس تحت الحد الفاصل مع تكوين بلسبي4 الى1 )ذات سمك
( والترسبات البحرية) المارل, وقد تم الستدلل على تلك البيئة في الحقل من خلل ملحظة وجود الشقوق الطينية.عذبة مع احتمالية طغيانه بمياه البحرفي بعض الحيان
وطبقات رقيقة من الحجر الرملي والتي ترسبت خلل التدفق العالي للجريان.
INTRODUCTION
Gercus Formation is a Middle Eocene unit, which crops out within the boundary between High and Low Folded Zones in Northeastern Iraq
(Budy, 1980, Budy and Jassim, 1987). It stretches as narrow northwest-southeast belt near and parallel to this boundary (Fig. 1). The
sections are exposed across the scarp slope of elongate homocline which extends from Koya town to the Derbendekhan area. This
homocline has many local names like Haibat Sultan, Baranan and Berke Mountain. At the northeastern of this homocline three sections
are selected for the study. These sections are: Haibat Sultan, Kalka Smaq and Dara Rash sections which are correlated on the basis of
lithology and stratigraphic position (Fig1). The formation mainly consists of alternation of clastic rocks of claystone, sandstone, marl and
calcareous shale with occurrence of conglomerate (Bellen et al. 1959).
Al-Rawi, (1980) studied the petrology and sedimentology of Gercus Formation in Shaqlawa and Darbandekhan area. Al-Rawi (1983)
studied the origin of red pigment and mentioned that the Gercus Formation in northeastern Iraq consist of a fluvial sequence of
associated red and drab beds deposited under an arid to semi-arid climate. Dhannoun H.Y.et.al., (1988) studied the geochemistry of
Gercus red beds Formation of northeast Iraq. Dhannoun, (1989) studied the geochemical significance of the distribution of Ni and Co in
clayey-siltstone associated with the Gercus Formation of northern Iraq. Al-Qayim and Al-Shaibani 1991, suggested that sediments in
Gercus Formation are deposited in a clastic dominated tidal flat. On the basis of main lithological distribution the formation was divided
by Ameen (1998) into three parts (lower, middle and upper parts).The aim of this study is to investigate the position and amplitude of
sea level change as represented by the lithology and the boundary with other formations.
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
Sequence stratigraphy is defined as subdivision of sedimentary basin fill into depositional packages bounded by unconformity and their
correlative conformities, (Emery and Myers, 1996). In this study the method of Vail et al., 1977 is used for division the rock body of the
formation into depostional sequences, this is because the unconformities and correlative conformities can be identified.
The time span and thickness of the part treated in this paper depends on the position of the closest overlying and underlying
unconformities and correlative conformities that bound the Gercus Formation in addition to systems tracts (LST, TST, and HST) and the
associated sequence boundaries. For clear sequence stratigraphic study of the Gercus Formation it is necessary to study the underlying
Sinjar (or Khurmala) and overlaying Pila Spi Formations. Although the boundaries of the above formations are studied previously, no
correlation is done as concerned with traditional and sequence stratigraphy.
Fig. (1) Geological map of northern Iraq (Buday and Jassim, 1987) showing location of the studied section.
Photo(3):Scarp slop showing lithology and sequence stratigraphy of Haibat Sultan homoclne.
Photo. (4)Lithology and sequence stratigraphy of Gercus Formation at south east of Kalka Smaq village,Dokan area.
Photo. (7) A: Parallel laminated sandstone in the middle part of the formation (HST). B: Alternation of calcareous laminated claystone and
marly limestone in TST (middle part).
CONCLUSION
The study revealed the following results:
1-The whole rock body of the formation is divided into four systems tract SMST, TST, HST and LST. These systems tracts are deposited
during two depositional sequences. The first three systems tract are belongs to Gercus Formation. They called lower depositional
sequence while the last one belongs to another depositional sequence which is including Pila Spi Formation.
2- The formation, bounded by SB2 and SB1 from below and the top respectively.
3- The depositional environment is mainly braided delta plain with intermittent influx of marine water.
4- The systems tracts are relatively lithologically similar to each other which attributed to closely related transitional environments of
deposition.
REFERENCES
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fossils in the Khurmala Formation, Shaqlawa area .Un.Pub.Ms.C.thesis Unv.
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(Eocene) NE Iraq. Iraqi J.sci.21 ,1, 1980.
Al-Rawi, Y., 1983: Origin of red color in the Gercus formation (Eocene) NE
Iraq,J.Sedi.Geol. 35,P 177-192.
Al- Surdashy,A.M, 1988, Lithological, facies and environmental study of Sinjar Formation
in selected sections from Sulaimanyia area, Northeast of Iraq; Unpubl., M. Sc.
Thesis, University of Salahaddin.
Al-Shaikh, Z. D., Saleh, S. A., and Abdo, H.F.1975: Contribution to the Geology of
Shqlawa-Harir Area Iraq.jour.Geol.Soc.Sepecial Issue.
Al-Qayim, B. and Salman, L. 1986 : Lithofacies analysis of Paleogene mixed carbonate
area north Iraq.jour.Geol. Soc. vol.19.,No.3.
Al-Qayim, B., and Nisan B. 1989 :Sedimentary facies analysis of A Paleogene mixed
Carbonate-Clastic Sequence,haibat-Sultan ridge, northeast Iraq.jour.Sci. 30, 4.
Al-Qayim, B., and Al-Shaibani S.,. 1991 :A bimodal tidal depositional system of the
Gercus Formation ,Shqlawa area Northeastern Iraq. Salahadin University jour.Sci.
1991.
Ameen, B.M .1998 : Sedimentological Study of Gercus Formation in NE –iraq
Un.Pub.Ms.C.thesis Unv. Baghdad, 103p.
Buday, T. C ,1980: Regional Geology of Iraq: vol. 1, Stratigraphy, I.I.M Kassab and S
.Z. Jassim (Eds) D. G. Geol. Surv. Min. Invest. Publ. 445p.
Buday, T. and Jassim, S.Z. 1987. The Regional geology of Iraq: Tectonism
Magmatism, and Metamorphism. I.I. Kassab and M.J. Abbas (Eds), Baghdad,
445 p.
Bellen, R. C. Van, Dunnington, H. V., Wetzel, R. and Morton, D. 1959.Lexique
Stratigraphique, Interntional. Asie, Iraq, 3c. 10a, 333 p.
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Northeastern Iraq Chemical Geology, Elsevier Science Publishes B.V., Amsterdam-
prited in theNetherlands 69,1988 P 87-93.
Dhanoun H.Y.,1989: The geochemical significance of the distribution of Ni and Co in
clayey-siltstone associated with the Gercus Formation (Middle Eocene)of northern
Iraq.Jorn.Geol.Soc.Iraq.1989, 22, 1,PP.140-145.
Doyle P., Bennet M.R., 1998: Unlocking the Stratigraphical record, Advance in modern
stratigraphy ,.Fluvial sedimentation within a sequence stratigraphical frame work, p
336-345.
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Hyrocarbon Exploration (ed. by C. E. Payton). Memoir of the American Association
of the Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa, 26, pp49-62.
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Vial,r.r.,Sarg.J.F.,Loutit,T.S.,Hardenbol, the fundamentals of sequence Stratigraphy
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Petroleum Geologists (AAPG) Bulletin. 86. 7.pp1201-1220
UPPER BOUNDARY OF QAMCHUQA FORMATION (EARLY CRETACEOUS)
NEW SEDIMENTOLOGIC AND STRATIGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE UPPER BOUNDARY OF QAMCHUQA FORMATION
(EARLY CRETACEOUS) AT NORTHWEST OF ERBIL, KURDISTAN REGION, NE/IRAQ
Published in: Iraqi Bulletin of Geology and Mining, Vol.4, No.2, 2008, p.1 -13
ABSTRACT
The contact between Qamchuqa (Early Cretaceous) and Bekhme (Late Cretaceous) formations is studied in the field and laboratory. On
the basis of lithology, the contact is described and analyzed in four different sections. In all four sections the result of the study showed
gradational boundary, two of four sections (Zante gorge and Perse Mountain) are barren of conglomerate, breccias or erosional surfaces,
so the contact seems to be conformable in the field. The other two sections (outlet and inlet of Bekhme gorge) contain beds of apparent
conglomerate (or conglomerate–like masses), which in the present study are inferred to be not depositional, but diagenetic in origin.
They are secondary ball and pillow structures, which formed during burial by tectonic or lithostatic stress. In the inlet of the Bekhme
gorge section, there is a mass of breccias (about 1.5m thick), which is located 10m above the ball and pillow beds. This breccia is not
depositional as it consists of extremely angular clasts of limestone. These clasts are believed to be tectonic in origin and derived from
younger beds above the contact, which is not more than 20m higher from their location. The clasts are transferred to this location
possibly reverse fault across Great Zab River. In contrast to previous studies, the contact suffered from deepening relative to the
overlying and underlying Bekhme and Qamchuqa formations, respectively. This is manifested by green marl, marly limestone, limestone
bearing planktonic forams and breccias. The soft succession at the boundary (about 30m thick) is most possibly deposited during the
previously suggested gap or unconformity.
INTRODUCTION
According to Bellen et al. (1959) the type section of Bekhme Formation is located in the Bekhme Gorge in the High Folded Zone (Fig.1). It
consists of nearly same lithology as of Qamchuqa Formation According to the all previous studies, the Qamchuqa Formation is overlain
by Bekhme Formation unconformably. Bellen et al (1959) mentioned the occurrence of polygenetic and basal conglomerate and breccias
(about 10m thick) between the two formations. He mentioned that the conglomerate represents a gap, which extends from Late Albian to
Early Campanian. Buday (1980) mentioned that the contact is as a rule unconformable due to occurrence of conglomerate at base of
Aqra-Bekhme Formation. Recently Al-Qaradaghy (1989), Al-Qayim and Shaibani (1995), Omar (2006), and Jassim and Golf (2006) have
mentioned unconformable contact too.
Fig.1: Location map and simplified geological map of the studied area (Modified from Sissakian, 2000). X1, X2, X3, X4, are studied
sections of Bekhme gorge inlet and outlet, Zanta and Perse sections respectively.
Fig.2: Conformable boundary between Qamchuqa and Aqra-Bekhme formations at three different sections in Bekhme and Zante gorges
and Perse anticline.
Fig.3: Boundary between Qamchuqa and Aqra–Bekhme formations at two different sections which are showing secondary ball and pillow-
like structures that previously might be assigned as depositional conglomerate. A) Bekhme outlet and B) inlet (according to stream flow
direction).
Fig.4: A) Boundary between Qamchuqa and Aqra–Bekhme formations at Bekhme inlet (according to stream flow direction) showing
location of Ball and pillow-like structures(C), breccias (D). The trace of possible reverse fault is indicated across the valley surface by
white line. B) The close up photo of laminated limestone beds (L).
Fig.5: Extremely angular fault breccia between Qamchuqa and Aqra–Bekhme formations at the left side of inlet of Bekhme Gorge. A) The
clasts are all derived from nearby laminated beds. B) All clasts are white thin beds of limestone that are located at the higher
stratigraphically level.
Fig.6: Four stages of development of ball and pillow structure by tectonic stresses when competent and incompetent beds are associated
(Karim, 2006).
Bellen et al. (1959) have mentioned variable character and thickness of the conglomerate even over very small exposed area of the
gorge section. They added that the conglomerate change laterally to marl and in other place, it is 3 meters thick and laterally changes to
massive bed of about 20m thick. These conglomerate-like masses, in the present study, are found (as beds) in three localities of the inlet
and outlet of the Bekhme Gorge. At these localities, the white and rounded ball and pillows are concentrated in marly matrix as beds of
limestone about (0.2 -1)m thick (Figs. 4 and 7). These balls and pillows are very similar to the sedimentary conglomerate in appearance
but in close looks and under microscope they are all consisting of same lithologies (fine grain limestone with same type of planktonic
forams). Tucker (1990, p.163) described deep water limestones (pelagic limestones) and mentioned that they contain nodular limestone
which are surrounded by clay seems due to pressure solution.
Fig.7: Conglomeritic-like ball and pillow formed in marly limestone bed near the boundary of the two formations.
The third point is that the claimed or assumed conglomerate (present ball and pillow) is located inside the bluish green marl, which
contains planktonic forams. Moreover, it is not associated with sandstone or sand size clasts, this give an other evidence of non-
sedimentary origin of the conglomerate that mentioned by Bellen et al (1959) and other authors. The matrix of the previously supposed
conglomerate is marl. The deposition of marl and conglomerate (gravels and boulders without sand) is abnormal in the view of
hydrodynamic (hydraulics grain equivalent) and sedimentologic principles, if not associated with more or less sand size grains Blatt et al.
(1980).
The fourth point is that, in the 10m thick lower division of Aqra–Bekhme formations, Bellen et al. (1959) mentioned the occurrence of
marl and Globigerina forams. It is clear that, the environment, across the boundary, is deepened instead of shallowing. Most possibly the
environment changed from reef to fore reef environment at the boundary. In sequence stratigraphy literatures by Vail et al. (1977), Loutit
et al. (1988), Haq (1991), Emery and Myers (1996), the conglomerate is deposited during regression (lowstand systems tract). However,
the coexistence of marl and planktonic formas in the boundary is evidence of transgression (high stand system tract) and deepening. But
the submarine erosions must not be excluded which occur in many formations.
The fifth point is that at the Zanta gorge 35km to the west of Bekhme gorge, the contact contains neither erosional surface nor breccias
(or ball and pillows). At these localities, the massive Aqra–Bekhme Formation changes, across the boundary, to well-bedded limestone
and marly limestone then changes downwards to massive Qamchuqa Formation. Therefore it seems that the contact is gradational in this
locality (Fig.8).
The sixth point is that no previous studies have shown any clear photos for the occurrence of conglomerates between the two formations.
Omer (2006) showed two color photos (Fig.9) for the unconformity nature of the contact between the two formations. However, none of
them shows clear conglomerate, as the first one which more likely appears to be solution cavity that is covered internally by white
coating (Fig.9A). The second photo (Fig.9B) shows saccaroidal dolomite. This type of dolomite could be generated by groundwater
erosion. Karim, et al (2000) found same type of dolomite (they called it friable dolomite) in the Qamchuqa Formation in the southwestern
limb of Piramagroon anticline. They attributed the generation of these friable dolomites to be due to the percolation of groundwater.
Fig.8: Boundary between Qamchuqa and Bekhme Formations at southwestern and northeastern upper limb of Perse anticline at
northeast of Dinarta town. The boundary consists of intercalation of marl and bioturbated dolomitic limestone, which is possibly
gradational.
Fig.9: Two photos with their title and plate numbers as prepared by Omer (2006) for unconformity between Qamchuqa and Bekhme
Formations.
The seventh point is that Sissakian and Youkhana (1984) have surveyed and mapped the area around Shaqlawa town including Safeen,
Harir and Shakrook anticlines. In their survey, they are found neither conglomerate nor erosional surface between the two formations.
Moreover, they have found a succession of 65 m of soft rock (green marl and marly limestone) that is located at the top Qamchuqa
Formation. They claimed Albian age to this succession depending on the recorder following fossils: Orbitulina spp. Valvulammina sp.,
Pseudolituonella sp., pseudocrysalidea sp. Orbitolina cf. discoidea(GRAS) Guneolina sp., Iraqia sp., Orbitolina cf. concava
( LMARK).Moreover, they claimed unconformable contact between the two formations. But, the authors believe that some of the
identified fossils indicate Cenomanian age and the soft rock successions could be correlated with Kometan Formation, age wise
The eighth point is that Al-Jassim et al.(1989) studied biostratigraphy of Kometan Formation in the Qarachuq well No.1, Kirkuk and Well
No. 166. In these wells they concluded and mentioned the following:
• The age of Kometan Formation Late Turonian–Early Campanian
• In two of the three wells, the Kometan Formation consists of shale and marly limestone.
•In the two wells, they did not observe any unconformity or missed ages from Turonian till Middle Campanian.
The result of the above study supports the result of the present study according to the following points:
•Kometan Formation was continuous in deposition in all northeastern Iraq, but as different facies. The well bedded limestone of type
section is changed, in some place, to shale, marl and marly limestone as in the wells studied by Al-Jassim et al. (1989) and in the
Qamchuqa Gorge as mentioned in the present study.
•If there are no unconformities, in Kirkuk–Qara Chuq vicinity areas (as mentioned by Al-Jassim, et al. (1989) respectively, why must be
unconformity in the Bekhme Gorge and extend from Late Albian to Early Campanian as suggested by Bellen et al.(1959)?. This gorge is
only about 50 and 100kms far from Safeen and Qarachuq anticlines respectively.