AP BIOLOGY – Exploring the Diversity of Life

(Kingdom Plantae excluded… for now!)

Complete the questions using the chapters of your textbook Campbell’s Biology.
Adapted from assignments prepared by Dave Knuffle and by Kim Foglia, modified by Lisa Marcos.

CHAPTER 25: The History of Life on Earth

1. What is the earliest date for which we have clear evidence of life on Earth?
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2. In your own words, how did eukaryotes arise from prokaryotes? Include the term
serial endosymbiosis in your answer.
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3. What happened in the “Cambrian explosion”?

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Chapter 26: Phylogeny and the tree of life

1. Why do we want our taxonomy to reflect phylogeny?
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2. How is phylogenetic relatedness determined?

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3. What does cladistics focus on?

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4. Use of molecular clocks relies on what assumption? Is that a reasonable assumption?

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5. Some have argued that it’s misleading to divide all life into two groups, prokaryotes
and eukaryotes because it implies a close relationship between Archae and Bacteria.
Does such a relationship seem to exist, based on the history of the groups?
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CHAPTER 27 – Bacteria and Archaea – Part 1

1. How common are prokaryotes on earth?

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2. How do bacterial cell walls differ from plant cell walls?

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3. How does the cell wall aid in classifying the bacteria?

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4. List the methods bacteria use to locomote.

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5. Give an example if a stimulus and describe how bacteria react to that stimulus (taxis).

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6. How do bacteria typically reproduce?

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7. List three methods that can modify bacteria genetically.

a. _______________________________________________________________________

b. _______________________________________________________________________

c. _______________________________________________________________________

8. Identify and briefly define the four nutritional categories of bacteria.

d. _______________________________________________________________________

e. _______________________________________________________________________

f. _______________________________________________________________________

g. _______________________________________________________________________

9. How has molecular systematics lead to classifying prokaryotes into two domains?

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10. What is the ecological significance of prokaryotes?

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Bacteria and Archaea – Part 2. Directions:
Using Table 27.2 on page 567
and the information in the text, outline the key
characteristics that distinguish the
three domains. Include examples of
organisms in each domain.

DOMAIN CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE

DOMAIN CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE

Bacteria

Archaea

Eukarya

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CHAPTER 28 – Protists – Part 1

1. Why are Protists said to be the most diverse of all eukaryotes?

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2. What process is thought to be involved in the genesis of eukaryotes from

prokaryotes?

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3. Why do most systematists currently working on eukaryotic relationships consider

Kingdom
Protista and the five kingdom system obsolete?
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Protists - Part 2. Directions: Using the diagram below and information in the text,
outline the
key characteristics that distinguish the major branches of the Domain Eukarya
identified on
the diagram.

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BRANCH POINT - CHARACTERISTICS
- Autotroph: organisms that can make their own food using different sources of
energy
1. Autotroph / - Alveolata, Stramenopila, Euglenozoans, Chlorophyta, Plantae, and
Heterotroph & Rhodophyta
Decomposers - Heterotroph: organisms that obtain food molecules by eating other organisms
- Animalia: Euglenozoans, Choanoflagellates and Metazoa
- Decomposers: organisms that take up nutrients from non-living organic material
- Fungi

- Flagella: long cellular appendage for various functions such as

2. Flagella / No locomotion
Flagella - Excavates (the euglenozoans) include protists with unique flagella
- Chromalveolates (may have originated by secondary
endosymbiosis): hairy and smooth flagella

3. Crystal rods in - Excavates have crystal rods inside their flagella, while other
flagella / No
rods
protist groups such as Alveolata and Stramenopila do not

4. Symbiosis with - Some species from Chlorophyta, a division of green algae have
fungi symbiotic relationships with fungi (e.g. some lichens)

5. Live in shallow - Charophycean algae inhabit shallow waters, but it needs to

water / live on survive when water levels drop led to increasing ability to
land survive on land
- Many plants developed vascular tissues so to survive on land

- Decomposer: an organism that feeds on and breaks down dead

plant or animal matter, thus making organic nutrients available to
6. Decomposer /
the ecosystem Fungi
Heterotrophic
consumer - Heterotrophic consumer: an organism that eats other organisms
or organic matter in a food chain

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CHAPTER 31 – Fungi– Part 1

PART 1. Directions: All answers are to be completed on your own and neatly written.

1. How do fungi acquire nutrients?

By secreting powerful hydrolytic enzymes into their surroundings; enzymes break down

complex molecules to smaller organic compounds that the fungi can absorb into their

bodies and use.

2. Because of this mode of nutrition, fungi have evolved what structure to provide for
both
extensive surface area and rapid growth?

Bodies typically form a network of small filaments called hyphae: consist of tubular cell

walls surrounding the plasma membrane and cytoplasm of the cells.

3. How do the cell walls of fungi differ from the cell walls of plants?

_Cell walls of fungi are called septa, which generally have pores large enough to allow

ribosomes, mitochondria, and even nuclei to flow from cell to cell.

4. How do fungi contribute to an ecosystem?

Mycorrhizal fungi can improve delivery of phosphate ions and other minerals to plants; free elements

essential to life like carbon and nitrogen; almost all vascular plants have mycorrhizae and rely on

them for essential nutrients.

5. Give some examples of how fungi are important to humans.

Fungi are food for humans. Many mushrooms are edible and different species are cultivated for sale

worldwide. Many other fungi also produce antibiotic substances, which are now widely used to control

diseases in human and animal populations. Penicillin, for instance, is derived from a fungus called

Penicillium. Also, Foresters commonly inoculate pine seedlings with fungi to promote growth.
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Fungi - Part 2. Directions: Label the figure below using Figure 31.11 on page 642. Then
use the information in Figure 31.11 and in the text to fill in the following table. Outline
the key characteristics of each branch of the Kingdom Fungi and include several
examples of organisms in each group.

Branch Characteristics Examples

Chytrids (1,000 species)
Zygomycetes (1,000 species)
Glomeromycetes (160 species)
Ascomycetes (65,000 species)
- globular fruiting body forms Chytridium
multiceullar, branched hyphae
- others are single-celled
- one of the earliest groups to
diverge from other fungi
- hyphae of some grow rapidly Rhizopus stolonifer, Mucor,
Into foods such as fruits and Pilobolus
bread
- live as decomposers,
parasites, or as commensal
symbionts of animals
- have mycorrhizal associations Glomus mosseae, A.
with plants gerdemannii, A. leptoticha
- the tips of the hyphae push
Into plant root cells branch into
tiny arbuscules
- also called sac fungi: saclike Neurospora crassa, Aleuria
asci produce sexual spores aurantia
- common to many marine,
freshwater, and terrestrial
habitats
- many are decomposers

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 Basidiomycetes (30,000 - often decomposers and Mushrooms, puffballs, and shelf
species) ectomycorrhizal fungi fungi
- have a long-lived, dikaryotic Amanita muscaria
mycelium
- fruiting bodies: basidiocarps

CHAPTER 32 – Introduction to Animal Diversity – Part 1

1. Outline the major characteristics Campbell uses to define an animal.

Nutritional Mode, cell structure and specialization, reproduction and development

2. List an hypothesis for the origin of animals.

All animal lineages are monophyletic; diverged from the ancestors of fungi about a billion

years ago; evidence indicate that choanoflagellates are among the closest living

relatives of animals; hypothesize that the common ancestor may have been a stationary

suspension feeder similar to choanoflagellates.

3. Describe the two forms of symmetry in animal body plans.

Radial symmetry: does not have a left side and a right side; bilateral symmetry: one

imaginary cut divides the body into two equal but opposite

halves.________________________

4. What is the significance of cephalization as an evolutionary trend?

A trend in which the sensory equipment concentrates on the anterior end; development of the central
nervous system; Adaptation for movement on land.
5. What are the three germ layers of an embryo? What’s the difference between being

diploblastic and being triploblastic, and what kinds of animals are in each group?

Ectoderm (surface), endoderm (innermost layer), mesoderm (middle layer); diploblastic

means only two germ layers (cnidarians and comb jellies); triploblastic means having

three germ layers

6. Define the following terms and describe their significance in classifying animals.

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a. Acoelomates : lack a body cavity altogether; some triplobastic animals can be

classified as this

b. Pseudocoelomates _animals that have a body cavity that is formed from mesoderm

and endoderm ; e.g. roundworms

c. Coelomates animals that have a true coelom, a body cavity completely lined by tissue

derived from mesoderm ; e.g.

earthworms_______________________________________________________

d. Protostomes ____________________________________________________________

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e. Deuterostomes __________________________________________________________

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f. spiral, determinate cleavage _______________________________________________

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g. radial, indeterminate cleavage ______________________________________________

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h. blastopore ______________________________________________________________

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7. List a number of the major differences between the Protostomes and Deuterostomes.

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8. Label the stages of early embryonic development of animal.

Animal Diveristy - Part 2. Directions: Using Figure 33.3 on pages 667-669 and the
information in the text, list the relative diversity, distinguishing characteristics and
examples of the major invertebrate phyla for each branch of the Kingdom Animalia
identified on the diagram. Use definitions from question 6 to help you. Include examples
of organisms in each division.

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 DIVISION CHARACTERISITICS EXAMPLE

- Informally called “sponges:” lack true tissues

1. Porifera - Live as suspension feeders, trapping particles that Azure vase sponge
(Calcarea and pass through the internal channels of their bodies (Callyspongia plicifera)
Silicea) - Consists of 2 layers of cells separated by the mesohyl
- Most are hermaphrodites

- Have a diplobastic, radially symmetrical body plan that

includes a gastrovascular cavity with a single opening
2. Cnidaria that serves as both mouth and anus - corals, jellies, and hydras
- Carnivores that often use tentacles arranged in a ring
around their mouth to capture prey
- Mostly marine, some freshwater

- Comb jellies - cydippids with egg-shaped

- Diplobastic and radially symmetrical bodies and a pair of
3. Ctenophora - Make up much of the ocean’s plankton retractable tentacles fringed
- Eight “combs” of cilia that propel the animals through with tentilla
the water - Mnemiopsis

- Have bilateral symmetry and a central nervous system

that processes information from sensory structures
- No body cavity or organs for circulation - Tapeworms,
4. Platyhelminthes - Live in marine, freshwater, and damp terrestrial planarians, and
habitats flukes
- Gas exchange occurs by diffusion across the body
surface
- microscopic size
- inhibit freshwater, marine, and damp oil habitats
- have specialized organ systems including an Sinantherina semibullata
5. Rotifers
alimentary canal and Cephalodella vittata
- feed on microorganisms suspended in water

- Found in most aquatic habitats, in the soil, in the moist

tissues of plants, and in body fluids of animals
- Do not have segmented bodies
Caenorhabditis elegans,
6. Nematoda - Covered by a tough cuticle
Trichinella spiralis
- Have an alimentary canal, though lack a circulatory
system
- Longitudinal body wall muscles

- Have an alimentary canal and a closed circulatory

- Proboscis worms,
7. Nemertea system in which the blood is contained in vessels and
or ribbon worms
hence is distinct from fluid in the body

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DIVISION CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE
- Soft body protected by a hard, calcified shell secreted
by the mantle
8. Mollusca
- A muscular foot; a visceral mass containing most of the Snails, clams, squids,
internal organs; and a mantle, a fold of tissue that octopuses, slugs
drapes over the visceral mass and secrets a shell
- Most have separate sexes
- Body composed of separated segments
- Live in the sea, in most freshwater habitats, and in
Earthworms, sandworms,
9. Annelida damp soil
leeches
- Digestive system: two openings; coelomate; closed
circulatory system
- Segmented bodies exoskeleton of chitin; jointed
appendages
- Two unusual Hox genes affect segmentation Spiders, lobster, centipedes,
10. Arthropoda
- Largest, most successful animal phylum insects, crab, pill bug
- Many undergo metamorphosis during development;
open circulatory system;
- A thin epidermis covers an endoskeleton of hard plates
- Live in salt water; larvae have bilateral symmetry
Sand dollars, sea stars, sea
11. Echinodermata - Water vascular system used in excretion, feeding and cucumbers and sea urchins
locomotion
- Tube feet
- Bilaterally symmetrical coelomates with segmented
bodies Lancelets, tunicates, hagfish,
12. Chordata - Notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits or fish, amphibians, reptiles,
clefts, and a muscular post-anal tail during embryonic birds, and mammals
development

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CHAPTER 33 – Invertebrates

1. How does the structure of a sponge relate to its method of nutrition?

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2. What is a unique characteristic common to the Cnidarians?

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3. What are the two forms of shape within the Cnidarians?

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4. What are some evolutionary advancements we see in the Platyhelminthes?

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5. In what way are Platyhelminthes significant to humans?

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6. Define parthenogenesis. (We see this in the rotifers, but it will come up in other groups

as well…)

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7. What is unique in the structure and function of the Pseudocoelomates?

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8. List ways in which Nematodes impact humans.

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9. List common examples that could be classified as Coelomate Protostomes.

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10. What are the three major body regions of a Mollusk?

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11. Why do zoologists debate the relationship of Mollusks and Annelids?

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12. What is the evolutionary significance of the coelom as seen in the Annelids?

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13. What is the importance of segmentation?

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14. Why are the Arthropoda regarded as the most successful of all animal phyla?

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15. Identify a characteristic that was most significant to Arthropod success.

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16. List common examples that could be classified as Coelomate Deuterostomes.

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17. What traits are particularly unique to the Echinoderms?

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CHAPTER 34 – VERTEBRATE EVOLUTION & DIVERSITY – Part 1

1. What are the four characteristics of the Chordates?

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2. List and describe an example of an invertebrate chordate.

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3. What characterizes the subphylum Vertebrata?

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4. In the evolution of vertebrates, identify the significance of being tetrapod.

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5. Identify the significance of the amniotic egg and the amniote.

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6. What are the three main groups of mammals, and how do they differ?
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Vertebrate Diversity - Part 2 - Fill in the figure below using Figure 34.2 on page 698
as your template. Then, using the figure and the information in the text, outline the key
characteristics that distinguish the major branches of the subphylum Vertebrata
identified on the diagram. Include examples of organisms in each class (except
Urochordata and Cephalocordata).

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 Division Characteristics Examples
- The least derived craniate lineage; all are Hagfishes and
marine relatives
- Cartilage skull, but lack jaws and
vertebrae
- Swim in snakelike fashion by using
Myxini segmental muscles to exert force against
their notochord
- Small brain, eyes, ears, and a nasal
opening
- Can produce slime in face of predator
attack
- The oldest living lineage of vertebrates Lampreys
- About 35 species inhabiting various
marine and freshwater habitats; most are
parasites
Petromyzontida
- As larvae, lampreys live in freshwater
streams
- Most lampreys migrate to the sea as they
mature into adults
- Cartilage skeleton contains no collagen,
but protein matrix
- A skeleton composed predominately of Sharks, rays, skates,
cartilage ratfishes
- About 750 species; internal fertilization
Chondrichthyes - Tough skin is covered with dermal teeth
also called placoid scales, making it feel
like sandpaper
- An ossified endoskeleton with a hard eels, carp, catfishes,
matrix of calcium phosphate goldfishes, piranhas,
- Possess fin rays, their fins being webs of skin seahorses, bass,
supported by bony or horny spines ("rays") salmon, and trout.
Actinopterygii
- Many, but not all, of the Actinopterygians, have
scales
- Ancient lineage of aquatic lobe-fins still Coelacanths
Actinista surviving In Indian Ocean

- Freshwater lobe-fins with both lungs and Lungfishes

gills; sister group of tetrapods
Dipnoi - Surface to gulp air into lungs connected
to their pharynx

- Have four limbs descended from modified Salamanders, frogs,

fins; most have moist skin for efficient caecilians
gas exchange; many live both in water
and on land
Amphibia - External fertilization; typically lay their
eggs in water or in moist areas on land
- Exhibit complex and diverse social
behaviours

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 - One of two groups of living amniotes; Tuataras, lizards,
have amniotic eggs and rib-cage turtles, crocodilians,
ventilation birds
- have scales that contain protein keratin--
Reptilia >protect skin from desiccation and
abrasion
- ectothermic: absorb external heat as
their main source of body heat
- Mammary glands that produce milk for Human, mice,
offspring primates, rabbits,
- hair; a fat layer under skin to retain body horses, bats, sheep,
heat pigs, whales, dolphins
- endothermic; high metabolic ratel
Mammalia efficient respiratory and circulatory
systems
- differentiated teeth adapted for chewing
different kinds of food

Notes / Page references:

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