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OSI Reference Model
OSI Reference Model
The OSI model is a layered model to define the
standards for network communications. The control
is passed from one layer to the next, starting at the
application layer in one station, and proceeding to
the bottom layer over the media to the next station.
This model contains 7 layers:
-Application Layer: Provides network access for
applications. Defines processes for user
authentication.
Devices: Gateways
Data Unit: Data
Protocols: HTTP, POP3, SMTP, FTP, SNMP,
Telnet.
-Presentation Layer: Determines the form used to
exchange data between networked computers
(ASCII or EBCDIC). Performs protocol conversion,
encryption and data compression. Ensures that
data from one system is compatible with another
system.
Devices: Gateways and Redirectors
Data Unit: Data
-Session Layer: Allows applications to
communicate with each other over a network by
establishing a communication session,
synchronizing the involved computers, and
terminating the session.
Devices: Gateway
Data Unit: Data
-Transport Layer: Manages and optimizes the
transfer of data from the source to the destination,
transforms messages into smaller formats, provides
error free delivery and error handling functions.
Device: Gateway
Data Unit: Segment
Protocols: NetBEUI, TCP, UDP, SPX, and NWLink
-Network Layer: Provides connectivity and path
selection between two end systems. Handles
addressing, translates logical addresses and names
to physical addresses, performs routing and traffic
sequencing and congestion control.
Devices: Router and Brouter
Data Unit: Packet
Protocols: IP, IPX, NWLink, and NetBEUI.
-Data Link Layer: Broken down into two sublayers.
The Logical Link Control (LLC) frames messages for
transmission, performs error detection and
correction, checks the integrity of received
messages, and ensures proper sequencing of
transmitted data. Defines a sub layer, the Media
Access Control (MAC) that appends the MAC
address of the next hop to the frame header and
controls protocol access to the physical layer.
Devices: Switch, Bridge, and Brouter
Data Unit: Frame
-Physical Layer: Provides electrical, mechanical,
procedural, and functional specifications for
activating, maintaining, and deactivating the physical
link between end systems. Consists of the cables,
connectors and associated hardware to implement a
network.
Devices: Multiplexer and Repeater, Physical Media
Data Unit: Bit
Network Design
Ethernet-
Ethernet is typically a Local Area Network (LAN)
technology covered by the IEEE 802.3 standards
providing transmission speeds of 10 megabits to
1000 megabits per second. The standards also
differ as far as the type of cabling and the allowed
length of the cabling.
Ethernet Network Elements: The network nodes
are of two types:
-Data Terminal Equipment (DTE): Define either the
source or the destination of data frames. Defines
devices such as PCs, workstations, file servers, or
print servers.
-Data Communication Equipment (DCE): Defines
intermediate network devices that receive and
forward frames across the network, such as
repeaters, and routers, or communications interface
units such as network interface cards and modems.
-The Ethernet MAC Sublayer:
The MAC sublayer communicates with the Logical
Link Control sub-layer above it allowing it to access
and speak to the upper layer network protocols.
-Ethernet Frame Format: Ethernet defines following
basic data frame format required for all MAC
implementations:
Preamble (PRE)- 7 bytes, informs stations about
arrival of frames.
State-of-frame Delimiter (SOF)- 1 byte, indicates that
the next bit is the left-most bit in the left-most byte of
the destination address.
Destination Address- 6 bytes, defines the
identification of the stations that should receive the
frame.
Source Address- 6 bytes, identifies the sending
station. The left-most bit is always 0.
Length/Type- 4 bytes, indicates the number of MAC-
client data bytes.
Data- Defines sequence of n-bytes of data where n
is less than or equal to 1500. If it is too small (< 46,
the field must be padded to equal 46.
Frame Check Sequence (FCS)- 4bytes, contains a
32-bit Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) value to
check the accuracy of data.
-Frame Transmission:
Half Duplex Transmission (CSMA/CD access Mode):
Defines a method for stations to share a common
media over the network. The CSMA/CD access rules
are governed by following protocol’s acronym:
Carrier sense: Stations continuously check the
availability of the carrier.
Multiple access: Stations begin transmission any
time when the carrier is free.
Collision detection: Stations may begin transmission
at any time. But they should be able to detect
collision, if any, and retransmit the data.
Full Duplex Transmission: Allows simultaneous both-
ways transmission over point-to-point links. Contains
no media issues, no collisions, and no
retransmissions.
-Frame Reception: Reception is same for Full-duplex
and Half-duplex transmissions.
CSMA/CD Algorithm
If two or more electrical signals were sent at the
same time, they would overlap and collide, making
both signals meaningless. To handle this situation
Ethernet defined a specification known as carrier
sense multiple access with collision detection
(CSMA/CD). CSMA/CD ensures that only one
device sends traffic on the network at a time. This is
accomplished via the asymmetric sending of
information at random times and detection of
collions.
Fast Ethernet
Fast Ethernet, also known as 100BASE-TX, is a
networking standard that supports 100 Mbps Data
transfer rate. It is based on the Ethernet standard.
Fast Ethernet is covered by the IEEE 802.3u
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standards. Fast Ethernet is based on CSMA/CD
LAN ACCESS methods.
Cable Type: Copper with maximum length 100 m
Gigabit Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet, also known as 1000BASE-LX or
1000BASE-SX, defines a networking standard that
supports 1Gbps Data transfer rate. It retains the
CSMA/CD access methods same as original
Ethernet. It supports both full-duplex and half-
duplex operations.
Cable Type: Fiber with maximum length 550m
(SX) 5 km (LX)
-Physical Layer: Uses the combination of original
Ethernet technologies and ANSIX3T11 Fiber
channel specifications. Supports following media:
-1000Base: SX850 nm laser on multi mode fiber
-1000Base: LX1300 nm laser on both single and
multi mode fiber
-1000Base: CX Short haul copper “twinax” STP
cable
-MAC Layer: The MAC layer uses CSMA/CD
protocol. The length of the cable is limited by the
CSMA/CD protocol.
-Carrier Extension: Defines a means of supporting
802.3 minimum and maximum frame sizes.
-Packet Bursting: Defines an extension of Carrier
Extension. Adds a burst of packets to the Carrier
Extension.
Wireless Basics: Wireless works through radio
signals to transmit data from one point to another.
-An ad-hoc or peer-to-peer wireless network
consists of a number of computers each equipped
with a wireless networking interface card.
-IEEE 802.11: A standard defining all aspects of
Radio Frequency Wireless networking.
-Makes provisions for data rates of 1,2,5,and 11
Mbps.
-Calls for operation in the 2.4 - 2.4835 and the 5
GHz range.
-Specifies a carrier sense multiple access with
collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) protocol.
IEEE Max Speed Frequency
Standard
802.11a 54 Mbps 5 GHZ
802.11b 11 Mbps 2.4 GHZ
802.11g 54 Mbps 2.4 GHZ
Cabling: The types of cables used in networks are
Twisted Pair Cable, Coaxial Cable, Fiber Optic
Cable, Wireless LANs, Cable Installation Guides
-EIA/TIA-568 STANDARD: The EIA/TIA-568
Standard specifies generic telecommunication
cabling system. It provides standard for the
following:
-Building Entrance: Provide the point at which
outside cabling interfaces with the intra-building
backbone cabling often called Point of Presence.
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-Equipment Room: The specifications are in the
EIA/TIA 569 standard.
-Backbone Cabling: The available options for
backbone cabling with maximum distances are:
>100 ohm UTP cable (800 meters maximum) -24
AWG solid conductors -25 pair binder groups
>150 ohm STP cable (700 meters maximum)
>62.5/125 um multimode optical fiber cable (200
meters maximum)
>Single mode optical fiber cable (3000 meters
maximum)
-Horizontal Cabling: Three media types are
recognized as options for horizontal cabling:
1. Four-pair 100 ohm UTP cable
2. Two-pair 150 ohm STP cables
3. Two fiber 62.5/125 um optical fiber cable
Network Devices
Hub-
A hub is a hardware device that connects multiple
nodes of a network and internetworking equipment.
It repeats (broadcasts) signals received on each port
to all the other connected ports. A Hub is defined by
the following points:
-Works on Physical layer of OSI model.
-Defines number of UTP ports.
-Defines cascading to create desired layout.
-Can cause problems with network congestion
Repeaters-
Repeaters connect two or more segments of the
network. It receives, amplifies, and retransmits
signals in both directions.
-Works on physical layer of OSI model.
-Two network segments with a single repeater will
allow a connection up to 370 meters with 58
devices.
-Work on 5-4-3 rule: Defines that not more than 5
segments using not more than 4 repeaters with not
more than 3 occupied segments.
Bridge-
A bridge connects different network types or
networks of the same type. It maps the Ethernet
addresses of the nodes and allows only the required
traffic to pass through the bridge. Bridges are often
being replaced by switches due to better
performance.
-Works on Data-link layer of OSI model.
-Can be programmed to reject packets from
particular networks.
-Cannot read IP addresses, but only the outermost
MAC address of the packet.
-Can read the Ethernet data, which gives the
hardware address of the destination.
-Forwards all broadcast messages.
To resolve the network segment that the MAC
address belongs to, bridges use one of the
following:
-Transparent Bridging: Builds a table of addresses
each time they receive packets. If the address does
not appear in the bridging table, the packet is
forwarded to all segments other than source
segment. Ethernet networks use this type of
bridging.
-Source route bridging: The source computer
provides path information inside the packet. Token
Ring networks use this bridging.
Switch-
Switches are used to connect networks together.
Switches allow segmentation and segregation of
data. Switches allow heavily loaded networks to
isolate data flow and improve performance. The key
difference between hubs and switches is the fact
that switches direct traffic by MAC address whereas
hubs do not.
-Works on the Data link layer of the OSI model.
-Cut-through switching runs faster because when a
packet arrives, it forwards the packet to the
destination address after reading the destination
frame instead of waiting for the entire packet to
arrive.
-Store-and-forward switch examines the entire
packet before forwarding. Switches are dedicated
devices as they utilize close to 100% of the
bandwidth for each given connection. Switches use
a hardware switch fabric and software to handle its
functions.
Routers-
Routers are used to segment LANs. Routers also
connect remote LANs together using different WAN
technologies. The Router forwards data packets
along networks. The Routers use headers and
forwarding table information to calculate the shortest
path for forwarding the packets.
-Works on the Network layer of OSI model.
-Divides LAN into Subnets.
-Uses routing protocols to communicate with each
other and calculate the best route between any two
hosts.
-Divides network using a logical addressing scheme.
-Forwards data that is meant only for particular
subnets.
Brouter-
A Brouter is a combination of bridge and router
providing the functionality of both devices
Sometimes referred to as a Layer-3 Switch. A
brouter routes specific types of packets, such as
TCP/IP packets. Any other in coming packets are
simply forwarded to other networks connected to the
device, which is the function of a bridge.
-Works on Data link and Network layer of OSI
model.
-Offers routing of a restricted number of protocols,
operating by routing where possible and bridging the
remaining protocols.
-Bridges some packets (based on data link layer
information) and routes other packets (based on
network layer information).
-The bridge/route decision is based on configuration
information.
Gateways-
A Gateway is an internetworking system that joins
two dissimilar networks together. A Gateway can be
implemented completely in software, completely in
hardware, or as a combination of both.
-Operates at any level of the OSI model from
application protocols to low-level signaling
depending on the implementation.
-Uses a router that use headers and forwarding
tables to determine destination address, and a
switch that to find actual path for the packet in and
out of the gateway.
-Compatible with AUI, BNC, IEEE 1394, GBIC,
MIC, RJ-45, SC, serial, ST, ISDN BR S/T, ISDN
BRI U, and USB ports.
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-Provides functionalities for integrated firewalls,
and Virtual Private Networks.
-Allows IPX/SPX clients to use a TCP/IP uplink to
an internet connection. Converts TCP/IP to
IPX/SPX.
Virtual LAN (VLAN)
Virtual Local Area Network is a logical group of
user stations, servers, and network devices that
appear to be on the same LAN, irrespective of their
physical location. In VLAN, switches need to use
trunking on network segments between the
switches. In VLAN trunking, sending switches add
another header to the frame before sending it over
the trunk. This extra header includes a VLAN
identifier field so that the sending switch can list
the VLAN ID. The receiving switch also knows in
what VLAN each frame belongs. This process is
known as VLAN tagging.
The reasons for separating hosts into
different VLANS are:
• To create flexible network designs
• To fragment the network devices into smaller
LANS
• To increase the security
• To reduce the workload for the Spanning
Tree Protocol
• To segregate network traffic by an IP phone
from network traffic sent by PCs
A created VLAN is unused until it is assigned to a
switch port.
Inter Switch Link (ISL): It is defined by Cisco. It
supports normal range (1-1005) and extended
range (1006 -4094) VLANS and allows multiple
spanning trees. It can be used only between Cisco
switches which supports ISL .ISL encapsulates
each data in a header and trailer. The header has
several fields including a VLAN field. ISL uses
MAC address of the sending and receiving switch
as the source and destination address in the
header frame.
IEEE 802.1Q: It is defined by IEEE. It has all the
features of ISL. It is most popular trunking protocol
as some of the new Cisco switches is not
supporting ISL. ISL encapsulates each data in a
header and trailer. It inserts another 4-byte header
instead of completely encapsulating the original
frame. It uses a native VLAN. It uses MAC address
of the sending and receiving switch as the source
and destination address in the header frame.
VLAN Trunking Protocol (VTP): It helps the
switches to exchange VLAN configuration
information. It defines a layer 2 messaging
protocol. When a VLAN os modified or added or
deleted then VTP helps all the switches to
synchronize their VLAN configuration information
Command Description
vlan vlan_id Is a global configuration
command that creates the
VLAN and also puts the CLI
into VLAN configuration mode
vtp domain Is a global configuration
domain_name command which defines the
VTP domain name
vtp password Is a global configuration
password command which defines the
vtp password
Shutdown vlan Is a global configuration
vlan_id command which disables a
VLAN
Vtp {server| Is a global configuration
client| command that defines the
transparent} VTP mode
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Command Description interface and forwards the frame to proceed to its set port disable: Disables a port
vtp pruning Is a global configuration destination. set port enable: Enables a port
command that informs the -Switches allow high-speed data exchange, low set port name: Sets the port name
VTP server to inform all latency & high frame forwarding rates, full-duplex, set prompt: Sets a prompt you designate
switches to use VTP pruning media rate adaptation (10/100 Mbps). The figure set snmp community: Sets a SNMP string
shutdown Is a VLAN subcommand which shows an example of switching: set snmp help: Shows the SNMP help screen
prevents a switch from set snmp rmon: Sets an SNMP RMON
forwarding traffic in the VLAN enable/disable
show vlan Displays information about the set snmp trap: Sets a SNMP trap receiver address
vlan_id VLAN set span: Sets switch port analyzer
show vtp status Displays configuration and set spantree disable: Disables a spanning tree
status information about VTP set spantree enable: Enables a spanning tree
vtp password Is a global configuration set trunk: Configures ports to perform as links
password command which defines the show commands:
vtp password show arp: Displays the ARP table
Show interfaces Displays administrative The two types of switching are: show bridge: Displays bridge information
interface_id settings abd operational state Port Switching: port assigned to a physical network show cdp: Displays CDP2 configuration
switchport information for the interface by software. slip: Attaches or detach a SLIP interface.
Show interfaces Displays all operational trunks Frame Switching: increases bandwidth on the test Command:
network. Allows multiple transactions in parallel. test online: Runs a diagnostic test on the system
interface_id information
Common commands for the Catalyst series test snmp: Tests the SNMP
trunk
Switches(Top-level commands): upload: Uploads the Flash memory image file
VLSM: Variable-Length Subnet Masks (VLSM) allows
clear Commands: from the catalyst to a network host to
an administrator to use more than one subnet mask
clear alias: Clears aliases of commands. create a backup file.
within the same network address space. It also helps
clear arp: Clears ARP table entries. wait: Pauses the console output for the number of
to reduce the wastage of IP address in each subnet.
clear cam: Clears CAM table entries. seconds indicated.
The following example shows the commands needed
clear config: Clears the configuration and resets write: Writes the Catalyst 1200 series switch
to configure a router, named ROUTER1, with a 28-bit
system. configuration either to an existing file in a network
mask on its Ethernet port and a 26-bit mask on its
clear counters: Clears MAC and port counters. host tftpboot directory or to the terminal screen
serial port:
ROUTER1(config)#interface e0 clear filter: Clears custom filtering configuration. display Spanning Tree Protocol:
ROUTER1 (config-if)#ip address configure: Downloads a configuration batch file Spanning-Tree Protocol (STP) defined in the IEEE
201.21.24.30 255.255.255.240 from a TFTP server and then execute the 802.1D is a link management protocol that
ROUTER1 (config-if)#interface s0 commands in the file. provides path redundancy while preventing
ROUTER1 (config-if)#ip address copy: copies data movement processor (DMP) or undesirable loops. STP is a technology that:
207.21.20.193 255.255.255.192 network management processor (NMP) image files -Uses the Spanning Tree Algorithm (STA) to
Route summarization: It helps to reduce the size of between the network host and Flash memory using ensure that only one path exists between any two
the routing tables but it maintains all the destination the TFTP protocol. stations.
routes in the network. With route summarization you disable: Turns off enable mode. -Allows bridges to communicate with each other to
can disconnect: Temporarily disconnects the FDDI port discover physical loops in the network.
from the FDDI ring temporarily without disconnecting -Specifies an algorithm that bridges use to create a
• Improve the routing performance
the FDDI cables. loop-free logical topology.
• Save memory
download: Downloads code to the network -Creates a tree structure of loop-free leaves and
• Improve convergence time
management processor (the default) or the data branches that spans the entire Layer 2 network.
There are two ways of route summarization, manual -5 states of switches in STP: Listening, Learning,
summarization and autosummarization. Manual movement processor.
enable: Turns on privileged mode. Certain Forwarding, Blocking, Disabled.
summarization occurs when an administrator
configures it manually using one or more command. commands are available, and certain displays have
Autosummarization occurs automatically without any extra information in privileged mode.
specific configuration command. The following routing help: Displays the help information in normal mode.
protocols supports autosummarization: ping: Send Internet Control Message Protocol
• RIP-1 (ICMP) echo packets to another node on the
network.
• RIP-2
quit: Quits the current admin.
• EIGRP
reset: Resets the system. -Root Switch Variables Affecting STP:
OSPF do not supports autosummarization.
set Commands: -Maximum Age Timer: Measures and discards the
Difference between VLAN and subnetting:
set alias: Sets an alias for a command. received protocol information for a port when its
VLAN is a layer 2 concept and a subnet is Layer 3
set arp: Sets an ARP table entry. age limit exceeds the value to the maximum age
concept. The devices in a VLAN need to be in the
set bridge help: Shows the set bridge help screen. parameter.
same subnet.
set bridge ipx: Sets the default mode for translating -Forward Delay Timer: Examines the time spent by
Bridging/Switching IPX packets. set bridge vlan: Groups ports into a port in the learning and listening states.
Switch Concepts bridge VLANs. -Bridge Protocol Data Units(BPDU):The active
Switching refers to the process of connecting LAN set fddi cam: Sets FDDI CAM mode topology of a switched network is determined by
segments using a table of MAC addresses to resolve set filter: Sets custom filtering the following:
the segment to transmit datagrams. Bridges are no set interface: Sets the network interface -The unique switch identifier, port identifier (MAC
longer manufactured and can be characterized as configuration address) associated with each switch.
LAN switches that used software instead of hardware set ip alias: Sets an alias for an IP address -The path cost to the root associated with each
LAN Switching set ip forwarding: Sets the router IP forwarding switch port.
-A Switch is similar to a bridge with more than two enable/disable Each configuration BPDU contains the following
ports. set ip fragmentation: Sets the bridge IP information:
-Switching is done by examining the contents of a fragmentation enable/disable -The unique identifier of the switch that the
frame to resolve the MAC address to the destination set ip vlan: Sets the IP VLAN transmitting switch takes as root switch.
port. set length: Sets terminal display line, 0 to disable -The cost of the path to the root from the
-A Switch determines the interface for the destination set mac: Sets the MAC address transmitting port.
address and establishes a hardware connection to it set password: Sets the console password -The identifier of the transmitting port.
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EtherChannel -Provides flow control mechanisms to slow data The decimal numbers in a subnet mask are as
EtherChannel allow you to group multiple Ethernet transfer. TCP can also communicate delivery follows:
ports into a single logical transmission path between information to the upper-layer protocols and Subnet Masks’s Binary Binary 1s /
the switch and a router, host, or another switch. applications it supports. Decimal Octet Equivalent Binary 0s
-Port Aggregation Protocol: Exchanges packets IP: Defines a primary layer 3 protocol in the Internet
0 00000000 0/8
between channel-capable ports. suite. IP is a connectionless protocol used for best-
-Channel Modes: effort delivery of information over the network. IP 128 10000000 1/7
-on: Forces the port to channel without negotiation. provides error reporting and fragmentation and 192 11000000 2/6
-of: Prevents the port from channeling. reassembly of information units called datagrams for 224 11100000 3/5
-auto: Places a port into a passive negotiating state. transmission over networks with different maximum
240 11110000 4/4
-desirable: Places a port into an active negotiating data unit sizes along with network routing
state. information. 248 11111000 5/3
-silent: When you are connecting to a "silent partner" -Defines a unique 32-bit number for the node on the 252 11111100 6/2
-non silent: When you are connecting to a device that network recognizable by all devices on the network 254 11111110 7/1
will transmit BPDUs or other traffic for forwarding information between stations and the
Portfast: Internet. 255 11111111 8/0
The Portfast setting allows you to immediately convert -An IP address is divided into three parts. The first TCP/IP Ports: Ports are what an application uses
a port to the forwarding state from a blocking state, part designates the network address, the second while communicating between a client and the
bypassing the listening and learning states. part designates the subnet address, and the third server. Following are a sample of some common
Portfast is used on ports connected to a single part designates the host address. TCP/IP ports:
workstation or server to allow those devices to IP Configuration: Every IP address consists of 2 FTP - 21
immediately connect to the network, instead of waiting portions, the Network ID (netid) and the Host ID TELNET - 23
for the spanning tree to converge. (hostid). Each host on the same network must have SMTP - 25
-Prevents the ports connected to a single workstation the same netid. Each of these hosts contains a TFTP - 69
or server from receiving BPDUs. hostid that is unique with combination of the netid. HTTP - 80
-Minimizes the time taken by ports to wait for the IP addresses are divided into 4 octets with each POP3 - 110
spanning tree protocol to converge. having a maximum value of 255. We analyze IP NetBIOS - 139
The commands to set port fast from privileged mode addresses in decimal notation such as SNMP - 161
on a Cisco 2950 switch are: 124.35.62.183, but it is actually in the form of binary ICMP:
config t data. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is an
interface fastethernet0/1 IP addresses are divided into following classes: extension to the Internet Protocol (IP) defined by
spanning-tree portfast Total Total RFC 792. Some of ICMP's functions are:
end Class Range number of number of -Announce network errors: Announces network
IEEE 802.1w: Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol Network Host errors if a host or entire portion of the network face
This defines a supplementary to ISO/IEC 15802- 7 24 an error.
2 – 2 =126 2 -2 =
3:1998 (IEEE Std 802.1D-1998) that defines the A 1-126 -Announce network congestion: Generates
16,777,214 ICMP Source Quench messages. The message
changes required for the operation of a MAC Bridge in 14 16
order to provide rapid reconfiguration capability. B 128-191 2 =16384 2 -2=65534 causes the rate of packet transmission to be
21 8
- Defines required improvements in Spanning Tree C 192-223 2 =2097152 2 -2=254 slowed.
performance through manipulation of the existing 224-239 NA NA -Assist Troubleshooting: Supports an Echo
default parameter values. D function (ping) to send a packet on a round--trip
Multicasting
-Changed semantics for RFC 1493 Bridge MIB: between two hosts using.
240-255 NA NA
1. Bridge Id / Priority, Port Id / Priority, E -Announce Timeouts: Makes announcement if a
Experimental router discards a packet.
2. Time since topology change, Topology Changes
3. Hold Time not applicable to RSTP Class A defines addresses for networks with a large CIDR:
-Included in RSTP-MIB: number of hosts. The first octet defines the netid and CIDR is an addressing scheme for the Internet
1. Force Version the 3 remaining octets define the hostid. Class B which allows for more efficient allocation of IP
2. Protocol Migration check addresses are used in medium to large networks addresses than the old Class A, B, and C address
3. Point-to-point link with the first 2 octets defining the netid and the scheme. You need CIDR if you are:
-Not included in new MIBs: remaining 2 are the hostid. A class C is for relatively 1. Running out of IP addresses
1. Transmission Limit smaller networks with the first 3 octets making up 2. Running out of capacity in the global routing
txHoldCount constant, not configurable the netid and the last octet comprising the hostid. tables
2. MAC Enabled, MAC Operational Subnetting: Subnetting is the process of subdivision >A CIDR network address looks like:
uses ifAdminStatus and ifOperStatus of a CIDR block into smaller CIDR blocks. A subnet 192.30.250.00/18
mask is a 32-bit number that determines how an IP >In CIDR, each IP address contains a network
LAN Protocols address is split into network and host portions, on a prefix to identify an individual gateway.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite bitwise basis. A subnet mask blocks out a portion of >The length of the network prefix is given as part
The TCP/IP suite is the set of communications an IP address and is used to differentiate between of the IP address.
protocols that implement the protocol stack on which the hostid and netid. >A destination IP address, which describes various
the Internet runs. It is a combination of Transmission The default (classified)subnet masks are as follows: possible destinations, has a shorter prefix and is
Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP). Default # of # of Hosts Per said to be less specific.
TCP: Defines a connection-oriented transport protocol Subnet Subnets Subnet >A longer prefix describes a destination gateway
that transmits data with error correction and 255.0.0.0 126 16,777,214 more efficiently.
guaranteed delivery to a stream of bytes. It uses >Routers use the most specific or longest network
255.255.0.0 16,384 65,534 prefix in the routing table while forwarding packets.
sequence numbers and acknowledgment messages
to provide a sending node with delivery information 255.255.255.0 2,097,152 254 NAT (Supernetting):
about packets transmitted to a destination node. If the To determine number of hosts or subnets, use the Network Address Translation (NAT) defines an
data is lost in transit from source to destination, TCP formula 2^n – 2. n is the number of bits being used Internet standard that allows a LAN to use one set
retransmits the data until either a timeout condition is for either the host portion or network portion of the of IP addresses for internal traffic and a second set
reached or until successful delivery has been address. In these cases, the part of the IP address of addresses for external traffic. NAT box is
achieved. blocked out by 255 is the netid. located at the place where the LAN meets the
-Can also recognize duplicate messages and will Internet. NAT makes all necessary IP address
discard them appropriately. translations. NAT serves the following purposes:
>Hides internal IP addresses. 10.0.0.0, 172.16.0.0
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>Allows more internal IP addresses usages that avoid IP version 6: -Creates virtual circuits between hosts, and that
possibility of conflict with IP addresses used by other IP Version 6 (IPv6) is version 6 of IP, initially each host is given a connection ID in the SPX
companies and organizations. known as IP Next Generation (IPng). header for identifying the connection.
>Allows combining multiple ISDN connections into a -IPv6 is supposed to replace the IPv4 standard. -Service Advertisement Protocol (SAP) is used by
single Internet connection. -IPv6 supports up to about 3.4 × 1038 (3.4 NetWare servers to advertise network services via
NAT Address Terms duodecillion) addresses. Equivalent of 4.3 × 1020 broadcast at an interval of every 60 minutes by
Terms Meaning (4.3 quintillion) addresses per inch² (6.7 × 1017 default.
Name of inside source host
(6.7 quadrillion) addresses/mm²) of the Earth's
surface. Wide Area Network
Inside Local address before translation. A more Wide Area Network (WAN) defines a computer
-Address Notation: IPv6 addresses are 128 bits
descriptive term is inside private. network that spans over large geographical area.
long but are written in eight groups of 4
Name of destination host before hexadecimal digits. -Consists of two or more LANs.
Outside Local translation. A more descriptive > An example: -Connected through public networks, such as PSTN.
term is outside private. 2001:0db8:85a3:08d3:1319:8a2e:0370:7344 -Can also be joined using leased lines or satellites.
Name of the inside host after Categories of IPV6 The largest WAN is Internet.
Inside Global translation. A more descriptive Unicast:Sending of data packets to a single PPP configuration & concepts: Point-to-Point
term is inside public.. destination. Protocol (PPP) defines a method of connecting a
Name of outside destination host Multicast: Delivery of data packets simultaneously computer to the Internet.
Outside Global after translation. A more to a group of destinations -Provides a single, pre-established two-way
descriptive term is outside public. Anycast: Forwarding data packets to the nearest transmission path from a local location through a
server carrier network, such as PSTN to a remote network.
Static NAT: In static NAT a private IP address is -Works as an encapsulation protocol for transmitting
mapped to a public IP address, where the public Command Description
ipv6 unicast- Is a global command IP traffic over point-to-point communication paths.
address is always the same IP address. -Defines standards for assignment and management
Dynamic NAT: In Dynamic NAT a private IP address routing which enables IPv6
routing on the router of IP addresses, network protocol multiplexing, link
is mapped to a public IP address drawing from a pool designing, link quality testing, and error recognition.
of registered public IP addresses. ipv6 router rip tag Is a global command
which enables RIPng -Provides an extensible Link Control Protocol (LCP)
Command Description and Network Control Protocols (NCPs) to maintain
ip nat {inside | Is an interface subcommand ipv6 rip name Is a interface command
enable which enables RIPng on optional configuration parameters and facilities.
outside} which enables NAT and -Supports other protocols, such as Novell's
identify whether the interface the interface
ipv6 address {ipv6 Is a global command to Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) and DECnet.
is in the inside or outside of
the network address/prefix create a static host
ip nat inside Is a global command which length| prefix name name definition
source {list enables NAT globally, sub bits/prefix
{access-list- referencing the ACL that length} eui-64
number | access- defines which source show ipv6 route Is a EXEC command
list-name}} addresses to NAT and which displays ipv6 Physical Layer Requirements: PPP requires
(interface type interface or pool from which routes existence of a duplex circuit, dedicated or switched,
number | pool to find global addresses show ipv6 route ip Is a EXEC command which can operate in asynchronous or synchronous
pool-name} address which displays the bit-serial mode, and transparent to PPP link layer
[overload] routes this router would frames. It operates across any DTE/DCE interface,
ip nat pool name Is a global command which match for packets sent such as EIA/TIA-232-C, EIA/TIA-422, EIA/TIA-423,
start-ip end-ip defines a pool of NAT to the given ip address and ITU-T V.35.
{netmask address show ipv6 Is a EXEC command PPP Link Layer: PPP follows the standards,
netmask | prefix- interface brief which displays interface terminology, and frame structure of ISO HDLC
length prefix- status and IPv6 procedures
length} addresses for each -PPP control procedures use the definitions and
show ip nat Is a EXE command which interface control field encodings standardized of ISO 4335-
statistics lists counters for packets, show ipv6 Is a EXEC command 1979 and ISO 4335-1979/Addendum 1-1979. The
NAT table entries and interface [type which displays IPv6 PPP frame format :
configuration information number] settings on an interface, 1 1 1 2 Variable 2 or 4
show ip nat Is a EXE command which including link local and
other unicast Ip Flag Address Control Protocol Data FCS
translations displays the NAT table
addresses -Flag: 1 byte, Defines the start or end of a frame.
[verbose]
show ipv6 route Is a EXEC command -Address: 1byte, Defines the binary sequence
Debug ip nat Is a EXE command which
[prefix/prefix- which displays the route 11111111 for standard broadcast address. It does
issues a log message
length] for the given prefix not assign address to individual station.
describing each data packet
IPX: Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) defines -Control: 1byte, Defines the binary sequence
whose IP address is
a networking protocol used by the Novell NetWare 00000011 that triggers the transmission of user data
translated with NAT
operating system. Similar to UDP/IP, IPX is a in a no sequenced frame.
IP version 4: IP Version 4 (IPv4) is version 4 of the
datagram protocol for connectionless -Protocol: 2 bytes, Identifies the protocol
Internet Protocol. It is described in IETF RFC 791.
communications. The IPX Network address summarized in the information field.
IPv4 provides the basic datagram delivery capabilities
contains two parts: the Network ID and the Host -Data: Zero or more bytes of information enclosed in
for TCP/IP. IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses, limiting it to
ID. The first 8 hex digits represent the network ID, the datagram for the protocol defined in the protocol
4,294,967,296 unique addresses.
and the remaining hex digits represent the host ID, field.
-Address Notation: IPv4 addresses are written in
-Uses services of a dynamic distance vector -Frame check sequence (FCS)—16 bits (2 bytes).
dot-decimal notation, like: 207.142.131.235. Other Components of PPP: HDLC(High-level Data Link
formats are: routing protocol called Routing Information
Protocol (RIP). Control): Defines a data link layer protocol. The
>Dotted Decimal (normal) 207.142.131.235
SPX: Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX) protocol Cisco implementation of HDLC includes a Protocol
>Dotted Hexadecimal 0xCF.0x8E.0x83.0xEB
operates at the transport layer providing type field that identifies the type of packet inside the
>Dotted Octal 0317.0216.0203.0353
connection oriented communication on top of IPX. frame. Cisco uses the same values in its 2-byte
>Decimal 3482223595
HDLC Protocol Type field.
>Hexadecimal 0xCF8E83EB
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LCP(Link Control Protocol): Creates, tests and connection-oriented switching technology that -Copy images within local Flash memory devices.
configures the data link connection. arranges digital data into 53-byte cell units. IP Access control list security: Access Control
NCPs(Network Control Protocols: Configures various Lists (ACLs) defines a security feature. ACLs
protocols, allowing them to operate on the same line increases security on Cisco routers by protecting
simultaneously. the router from unwanted and potentially harmful
Frame Relay: Frame Relay is a WAN protocol that traffic.
operates at the physical layer and data link layer of -Allows us to apply some level of security on the
the OSI model. Frame Relay operates on packet- network by examining and filtering traffic when it
switched technology. enters or exits an interface.
Frame Relay switch transfer data in Committed ATM Reference Model: -Every router may contain several access lists of
Information Rate (CIR), bits per second. Physical layer: Manages the medium-dependent the same or different types.
If a Cisco router and a non-Cisco router are connected transmission. -Access Lists come in three types: Standard that
with a serial connection, one must configure PPP or ATM layer: Allows simultaneous sharing of virtual filers based on IP address, Extended that can
any encapsulation method, such as Frame Relay. circuits over a physical link. filter based on application or port and named
Frame Relay Assembler/Disassembler (FRAD): A adaptation layer (AAL): Isolates higher-layer which is the same as standard or extended but
FRAD is networking equipment that assembles and protocols from the details of the ATM processes. use plain English for labeling.
disassembles data frames. Example: DCB SR and Command Description -Access Lists should be applied nearest the
SRX series of multiplexers assemble asynchronous show ip nat Displays the NAT/PAT interface where the traffic is to be filtered.
data into frame relay frames. FRAD encapsulates translations translation table entries -Access Lists can be used on both LAN and WAN
Ethernet MAC layer protocol, TCP/IP protocol, IPX show dhcp Displays information learned interfaces
protocol, IBM SDLC protocol, bisync protocol, and server from a DHCP server - Access Lists are bi-directional and can be used
Poll/Select polling protocols. on any router after the 11.0 IOS release.
clear ip nat Clear the NAT table by
Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVC): PVC defines a IP Access Lists:
translation * removing the dynamic
software-based logical connection in the network. You 1-99: IP standard lists (use source IP)
entries
can customize logical connections and desired 100-199: IP extended (Use src, dest IP, protocol
Show Displays the status of cable
bandwidth between end points. and port no. )
controllers connectivity and also states
Data Link Connection Identifier (DLCI): Defines a Command Description
serial number whether it is DTE or DCE
number that identifies a virtual circuit. access-list Is a global command used
cable
Frame Relay has following features: access-lst-number for standard numbered
-Speed ranges between 56 Kbps to 45. Mbps.
-Uses Data Link Connection Identifiers (DLCI) to
Network Management {deny|permit} access lists. It uses a
CDP: Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP) obtains source [source- number between 1 & 99 or
identify the virtual circuit protocol addresses of neighboring devices and wildcard][log] 1300 & 1999, inclusive.
-Uses Local Management Interfaces (LMI) to provide discovers the platform of those devices. CDP also access-list Is a global command used
information on the DLCI values. Cisco routers support informs about the interfaces your router uses. access-lst-number for extended numbered
Cisco (Default), ANSI and Q933a formats. -CDP is media and protocol independent and runs on {deny|permit} access lists. It uses a
Inverse ARP (IARP) is used to map a known DLCI to all Cisco based equipments, such as routers, bridges, protocol source number between 100 and
an IP address. access servers, and switches. [source-wildcard 199 or 2000 and 2699,
Remote Access concepts: -Configuring CDP: Use following commands to destination inclusive.
Remote Access defines a method logoff logging onto configure CDP: destination-
a network from a remote location. This requires a no cdp run: Disables CDP. wildcard][log]
computer, a modem and remote-access software to no cdp enable: Disables CDP on an interface. access-list Is a global command used
allow the computer to dial into the network over a cdp timer seconds: Defines interval between CDP access-lst-number with specific TCP-IP
telephone line and connect remotely. advertisements {deny|permit} tcp
-Remote access defines that the remote computer cdp holdtime seconds: Defines hold time before source source-
works as a full-fledged host on the network. information should be discarded. wildcard [operator
-The access software at the remote location dials in clear cdp counters: Resets traffic counters. [port]] destination
directly to the network server. clear cdp table: Purges the table. destination-
-Remote Access Server: A remote access server is Managing configuration files: wildcard [operator
the combination of computer and software that -Configuring a Static IP Route: Commands to [port]] [log]
handles users seeking access to network remotely.
The remote access server work in combination with a
configure a Static IP route:ip route prefix1 mask2
[ethernet0 | atm0][.subinterface]: Configures a static Routing IP
firewall to provide security and a router that can IP route on the Ethernet interface or ATM Static Routing:
forward the remote access request to another part of subinterface of the processor. In static routing, the route is explicitly configured
the network. end: go back to privileged EXEC mode. and fed into the routing table. Static routes are
ISDN: The Integrated Services Digital Network defines copy system:running-config nvram:startup-config: given priority over the routes defined by dynamic
an international communications standard for Saves the configuration to NVRAM. routing protocols.
transmission of voice, video, and data over digital - Maintaining Configuration Files: The following -Uses a pre-configured route developed by
telephone lines or normal telephone wires. ISDN are the tasks performed to maintain configuration network administrator.
supports data transfer rates of 64 Kbps. ISDN files: -Provides a means for controlling security and
provides two levels of services: - Copy configuration files from the router/switch to a reducing traffic.
-Basic Rate Interface (BRI) -- Contains two 64-Kbps -Has lowest administrative distance (cost/metric)
network server.
B-channels and one 16kbps D-channel for transmitting -Copy configuration files from the network server to Dynamic Routing:
control information. the router/switch. In dynamic routing, the route is automatically
Primary Rate Interface (PRI) -- Contains 23 B- adjusted to the changes in network topology and
-Maintain configuration files that are bigger than
channels and one D-channel or 30 B-channels and NVRAM. traffic.
one D-channel -Copy configuration files between different locations. -Also known as adaptive routing.
Following are the protocols used in various layers: -Again execute the configuration commands in -Uses a route that a network routing protocol
2B1Q(Two Binary, One Quaternary Line startup configuration. dynamically defines automatically for topology or
Encoding): Used in the physical layer. - Maintaining System Images: Following are the traffic changes.
Link Access Protocol: Used in data link layer. tasks performed to maintain system image files: -More successful than static routing because:
SPIDs (Service Profile Identifier): Used in the -Copy images from flash memory to a network >Auto maintenance of a routing table.
network layer. server. >Distributes knowledge as routing updates to
-Copy images from a network server to Flash other routers for end to end connectivity.
memory. >A disadvantage is the increased traffic on the
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ATM:
The Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a
distance-vector protocol based on a 1970s Xerox
design. Features of RIP are:
Width restriction: A RIP network contains less than 15
hops. If number of hop is elevated on slow or less
reliable links, this can become a problem.
Subnet support: Was introduced previous to
subnetting and doesn’t directly support it. It can be
used in subnetted environments but with restrictions.
Bandwidth consumptive: After every 30 seconds, the
RIP protocol transmits the lists of networks and
subnets. Depending on the size of the network,
bandwidth usage can become unaffordable on slow
links.
Difficult diagnosis: Like any distance-vector protocol,
RIP sometimes is difficult to debug because the
routing algorithm is distributed over various routers.
Weak security: Version 1 Contains no security
features, but Version 2 RIP implementations have
been introduced that will only recognize updates from
configured hosts.
Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP):
IGRP is a network protocol that is designed to work on
autonomous systems and developed by Cisco
Systems. IGRP is a distance-vector routing protocol.
- Each router sends information of its routing table in a
routing message update at regular intervals to each of
its neighboring routers.
- A router calculates the best path between the source
and destination. As each path can contain several
links, the system needs a method to compare the links
to find the best path. A system such as RIP uses sole
criteria i.e. the number of hops to calculate the best
path. This gives IGRP a unique advantage over RIP
as a protocol that can develop and identify better
routes.
- IGRP uses five criteria to resolve the best path i.e.
the speed of the link, delay, packet size, loading and
reliability. Network administrators may set the
weighting factors for each of these metrics.
The features of IGRP are:
Stability:
>Holddowns: Prevents regular update messages from
inappropriately reinstating a route that might have
faced some errors.
>Split horizons: Doesn’t send information about a
route back in the direction from which it has arrived.
Timers:
Specifies the frequency for sending routing update
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF): OSPF is a routing
protocol developed for IP networks that works on
basis of the shortest path first or link-state algorithm.
-Operates on the basis of link-state algorithms to
transmit routing information to all nodes in the network
-Calculates the shortest path for each node based on
topography.
-Each router sends that portion of the routing table
describing the status of its own links, and it also sends
the complete routing structure.
-When changes are detected, only the changed
portion of the routing table is sent, rather than the
entire routing table.
Enabling OSPF: To configure OSPF on the router:
-Enable an OSPF process using the router ospf
<process-id> command.
-Assign areas to the interfaces using the network
<network or IP address> <mask> <area-id>
command.
Administrative Distance: A number (0 -
255)indicating route trust level of route/routing
protocol (255 = lowest trust , 0 = highest trust)
Enhanced IGRP (EIGRP): EIGRP is a network
protocol that allows routers to exchange information
more efficiently than with earlier network protocols.
-Doesn’t make periodic updates. Sends partial
updates only when the metric for a route changes.
-Supports AppleTalk, IP, and Novell NetWare.
-Underlying Processes and Technologies:
>Neighbor discovery/recovery mechanism: enables
routers to dynamically learn about other routers on
the network.
>Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP): responsible for
guaranteed, ordered delivery of Enhanced IGRP
packets to all neighbors.
>DUAL(Diffusing-Update Algorithm) finite-state
machine: incorporates the decision process for all
route calculations by tracking all routes advertised by
all neighbors.
Comparision between OSPF and EIGRP: Both the
protocols:
• Unite quickly
• Has built-in loop prevention
• Sends routing updates when it is changed
or new
• Supports VLSM and manual
summarization
• Uses IP multicast on LANs to send routing
information
Features of EIGRP but not OSPF:
• Manual Summarization at any router
• Supports flexible network design without
areas
• Supports equal-metric and unequal-metric
load balancing
• Can advertise IP, IPX, and AppleTalk
routes
Features of OSPF but not EIGRP:
• Uses the concept of a designated router on
LAN
• Public standard
Command Description
show ip eigrp Displays the EIGRP-enabled
interfaces interfaces excluding the
passive interfaces
show ip ospf Displays the OSPF-enabled
interface brief interfaces including the
passive interfaces
Show ip Displays the contents of the
protocols network configuration
commands for each routing
protocol.
Classful Routing protocols: Routing protocols do
not advertise mask. They do not support VLSM and
route summarization. Example: RIP-1 and IGRP.
Classless Routing protocols: Routing protocols do
advertise mask. They also support VLSM and route
summarization. Example: RIP-2, OSPF and EIGRP
Classless routing: The packet is forwarded through
default route only when it’s destination matches a
router’s default route and do not match with any other
route.
Classful routing: The packet is forwarded through
default route only when it’s destination matches a
router’s default route and do not match with any other
route and of this router do not know any other routes
in the classful network in which the destination IP
address resides.
Command Description
show ip route Displays the router’s entire
routing table
show ip route Displays detailed information
ip-address about the route that a router
matches for the given IP address
ping {host- Tests IP routes by sending an
name| ip- ICMP packet to the given ip-
address} address
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network due to the routing updates.
Routing Information Protocol (RIP): RIP is a
Command Description
traceroute Used to determine the route
{host-name| taken by packets across an IP
ip-address} network
Cisco IOS
Cisco routers use the Internetworking Operating
System (IOS) that stores the configuration
information in Non-Volatile RAM (NVRAM). The
IOS itself is stored in flash. The IOS can be
accessed through Telnet, console connection or
dial-up connection. You can also configure the
router in the form of a web server and then
access a web-based configuration panel using
http. You need to inform the router to boot from
the specified configuration source
(file/network).Basic configuration for CISCO
devices:
You can perform booting using Flash memory,
TFTP and ROM.
-Load new image of IOS on a TFTP server first;
and copy the image from the TFTP server to the
flash
memory in the form of a backup mechanism.
-You can use copy command such as "copy tftp
flash" to copy the IOS image from TFTP. Specify
the following to boot from flash:
> boot system flash {filename}
> boot system tftp {filename} {tftp server IP
address}
> boot system rom
To login:
>The User EXEC is the first mode. It provides us
a prompt of "Router>". To exit this mode makes
you log out completely, you can use logout
command.
>If you want to proceed to the Privileged EXEC,
you need to enable (type ENABLE) EXEC
command. After enabling it, the prompt will be
changed to ‘Router#".
>To go back to user EXEC mode, use the disable
command.
Some of the editing commands are:
Crtl-P: Recalls commands in the history buffer
starting with the most recent command.
Crtl-N: Returns to more recent commands in the
history buffer.
Crtl-B: Moves the cursor back one character
Crtl-F: Moves the cursor forward one character
Crtl-A: Moves the cursor to the beginning of the
command line
Crtl-E: Moves the cursor to the end of the
command
Esc B: Moves the cursor back one word
Esc F: Moves the cursor forward one word
Crtl-R: Redisplays the current command line
Router components:
ROM: Stores the router's bootstrap startup
program, operating system software, and power-
on diagnostic tests programs.
Flash Memory: Contains operating system
image(s). Flash memory is erasable,
reprogrammable ROM.
-Flash content is preserved when you switch off or
restart the router.
RAM: Store operational information such as
routing tables, router's running configuration file.
Also provides caching and packet buffering
capabilities. Contents are retainable when you
switch off or restart the router.
Nonvolatile RAM (NVRAM): Store the router's
startup configuration file. The contents of the
startup configuration file are preserved even if you
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- Router running EIGRP stores all its neighbors' Dynamic allocation: In dynamic allocation, DHCP switch off or restart the router.
routing tables to quickly adapt to alternate routes server assigns a network address to a client for a Router Architecture:
LAN Concepts for CISCO IOS: limited period of time. It is the only method which
-Broadband: Cisco delivers Broadband Aggregation provides dynamic re-use of IP addresses.
capabilities on a comprehensive set of routers. • Automatic allocation: In automatic allocation,
-High Availability: Defines a technology, delivered in DHCP server assigns a permanent IP address to
Cisco IOS Software that enables network-wide a requesting client.
resilience to increase IP network availability. • Manual allocation: In manual allocation, the
-IP Routing: Defines Cisco IOS Software that Difference between stateful mode and
DHCP server provides the IP address to a
supplies IP intelligence to the Cisco product-based Stateless mode:
requesting client based on a table with MAC
networks. address. • DHCP servers have two operational modes,
-IP Services: Defines Cisco IOS Software that stateful and stateless. In stateful mode the
How DHCP works: The following steps describe the
contains number of critical network services to solve process of acquiring an IP address by a DHCP client server tracks the information, such as leased
the most difficult network related problems. from a DHCP server: IP address and leased time period. In
-IPv6: Cisco IOS uses IPv6 that is a new IP protocol stateless mode the server does not tracks
1. A DHCP client sends DHCPDISCOVER broadcast
intended to replace IPv4. message to locate a DHCP server. state information.
-MPLS: Cisco IOS MPLS allows various enterprises 2. A DHCP server receives the DHCPDISCOVER • In stateful mode the server retain information
service providers to construct next-generation broadcast message and sends a DHCPOFFER of clients, assigns IP address to a client, and
intelligent networks packet to a client. supplies useful information like DNS server IP
-IP Multicast: Defines is a bandwidth-conserving 3. The DHCP client receives the DHCPOFFER address.
technology used by Cisco IOS that minimizes traffic packet and a DHCPREQUEST packet to the • In stateless mode the server do not retain
and simultaneously transmitting a single stream of server. information of clients, do not assign IP
information to various recipients. 4. The DHCP server receives the DHCPREQUEST address to a client.
It supplies useful information like DNS server
Dynamic Host packet and sends a DHCPACK packet to the client
to assign a lease of IP address. IP address and is useful in combination with
stateless auto configuration.
Configuration Protocol 5. The DHCP client requests to extend the lease by
sending a DHCPREQUEST packet to the server. DNS Record:
DHCP: DHCP stands for 'Dynamic Host Configuration DNS Description
6. The server sends a DHCPACK packet to update
Protocol'. It is an IP standard used to automatically Record
and extends the lease time.
allocate reusable network addresses and 7. The DHCP server sends a DHCPACK packet to Start of Stores information about DNS
configuration options to hosts on a TCP/IP network. It extend the lease on the IP address Authority itself for the domain. It is
is based on the Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP). DHCP (SOA) mandatory for every record.
is built on a client/server model, where the DHCP Domain Name Service Name
Stores information used to
server allocates IP addresses and other parameters DNS: DNS stands for ‘Domain Name System’. It is identify the name servers in
such as the default gateway, subnet mask, DNS Server
used to translate hostnames to IP addresses and the domain that store
Server, NIS Server and NTP Server to the dynamically (NS)
vice versa. It is a hierarchical database where the. information for that domain.
configured host computers. root domain, ".", is at the top, and various sub Stores the host name and IP
• Benefits of DHCP Server: Implementing DHCP Address
domains are under. address of individual hosts in
can provide the following benefits: Reliable (A)
.(root domain) the domain.
network configuration: Minimizes configuration Canonica Stores additional host names,
errors caused by manual IP address configuration. .org l Name or aliases, for hosts in the
• Reduced cost: Using automatic IP address (CNAME) domain.
.edu
assignment at each remote site substantially Mail Stores information about
reduces Internet access costs. Static IP addresses .gov .net
.ca .com Exchang where mail for the domain
are more costly compared to automatically e (MX) should be delivered.
allocated IP addresses. Since DHCP is easy to Stores the IP address and host
configure, it minimizes operational costs Pointer
name of individual hosts in the
associated with device configuration tasks. (PTR)
domain.
• Reduced administration: Since DHCP server Host Stores information about the
automatically dispenses IP addresses and other semsim.com semsim.co.uk
Informati hardware for specific hosts.
configuration information to the client, the process on
of connecting a new client to the network is easy DNS Domains: (HINFO)
and simpler. DHCP is very flexible and allows the • Root Domain: Represented by period (.). It is Well Stores information about the
network administrator to centrally define global and the top of the DNS structure Known various network services
subnet-specific TCP/IP configurations to serve • Top Level Domain: Indicates a country/region Services available from hosts in the
thousands of clients. or the type of organization using a name. For (WKS) domain.
DHCP Server: DHCP Server manages a pool of IP example, .com Text Stores up to 256 characters of
addresses and information about client configuration • Second Level Domain: Indicates an individual Informati text per line.
parameters such as the subnet mask, default or organization using a name. For example, on (TXT)
gateway, DNS servers and other servers. It ensures cisco.com Responsi Stores information about the
that all IP addresses that are distributed to the clients • Sub Domain: Indicates additional names that ble person responsible for the
are unique. It assigns IP addresses to clients that are an organization can create. For example, Person domain.
connecting to the network for the first time. tools.cisco.com (RP)
DHCP Client: DHCP Client receives network • Host or resource name: Indicates a specific
address dynamically from the DHCP server to access Starting, Stopping, and Restarting the DNS
computer on the network. For example, Server:
the network resources. A DHCP client can receive hosta.tools.cisco.com.
offers from multiple DHCP servers at a time but it can To start the DNS server: Start the Cisco Service
Difference of DHCP for IPv4 and IPv6: Manager (CSM). The CSM is a graphical utility
accept only one of the offers. It generally accepts the In IPv6
first offer it receives. that allows a user to start, stop, configure, and
• A host sends multicast to search a DHCP Server. monitor services. Select DNS from the Available
DHCP Relay Agent: DHCP Relay Agent forwards the
IPv6 multicast addresses have a prefix of Services list. Click Start.
packets between the DHCP client and server.
FF00::/8.. To stop the DNS server: Start the CSM. Select
IP address allocation: DHCP supports three
mechanisms for IP address allocation depending on DNS from the Available Services list. Click Stop.
implementation: To restart the DNS server: Start the CSM.
Select DNS from the Available Services list. Click
Restart.
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