IDEA Advance Open Water Diver

IDEA Advanced Open Water
1
Advanced Open Water IDEA
INDEX
Introduction page 3
Equipment page 7
Physics page 25
The tables page 35
Diving limits page 45
The mixtures page 51
Search and recovery page 55
Underwater navigation page 63
Night dive or limited visibility dive page 75
Deep dive page 81
Rescue Diver page 87
Dive tables (images) page 93
Advanced Open Water Diver Manual

December 2000
© IDEA Europe
Via Mulino di Pile 3 - 67100 L’Aquila (Italy)
Phone +39 0862 318499 - Fax +39 0862 318542
www.idea-europe.com - www.idea-europe.org
Written by Gaetano Occhiuzzi, President of IDEA Europe.

Translated by Angela Lee.
Photo by Fabio Bontempi, Walter Nicolini, Antonio Trogu.
Pictures by Lorella Rossi.
Special thanks to Francesca Ottolenghi and Sarah Lovari.
Duplication and reproduction, even partially, of this manual is prohibited

unless with written authorization.
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3
4
INTRODUCTION
The IDEA Advanced Open Water Course is aimed at introducing
the student to a new diving experience different from those of the
basic Open Water Diver Course. In fact, the basic course as-
sumes the person is a new diver and, as such, has never had div-
ing experience; therefore he is introduced to this new sport so that
he may operate in simple and safe environmental conditions.
The Advanced Open Water Course, on the other hand, is aimed
at students already in possession of the basic certificate, who
have already been diving, on the whole people who have a degree
of familiarity with the sea. These divers want to, and indeed, must
therefore, know and experience different situations from those un-
dertaken in the simple Open Water Diver Certificate Course, thus
enriching their personal knowledge and experience.
This in fact is the case of the IDEA Advanced Open Water Diver
Course: a series of dives, of different exercises together with a
furthering of theoretical knowledge, without the excessive commit-
ment required for specialised courses. The scheduled exercises
are, in particular, based on search and recovery, techniques used
in limited visibility or night dives, natural navigation and compass
navigation technique, deep dives and rescue.
Obviously the aim of this manual is to give introductory notes to
these types of exercises, emphasising that they are not special-
ised course manuals, but that they simply illustrate experience,
and that clearly everything should be integrated with an explana-
tion by a trained instructor.
At the end of the course you will have tried to dive in conditions
different from those experienced in the Open Water Diver Course,
you will be able to carry out your underwater activity even in these
conditions although always accompanied by an instructor, you will
have had an introduction to the various specific areas, so that you
may understand if one of these areas is of particular interest to
you and you may therefore attend the specialised course. Your
knowledge of theory will be furthered, o the whole you will be a
more complete diver, more “advanced”.
Gaetano Occhiuzzi
President of IDEA Europe
5
MT DIVE TIME
12 5 15 25 30 40 50 70 80 100 110 130
15 10 15 25 30 40 50 60 70
18 10 15 20 25 30 40 50
21 5 10 15 20 30 35 40
24 5 10 15 20 25 30
27 5 10 12 15 20 25
30 5 7 10 15 20
33 5 10 13 15
36 5 10
39 5
GR A B C D E F G H I J K GR
0:10
K 0:28
0:10 0:29
J 0:31 0:49
0:10 0:32 0:50
I 0:33 0:54 1:11
0:10 0:34 0:55 1:12
H 0:36 0:59 1:19 1:35
0:10 0:37 1:00 1:20 1:36
G 0:40 1:06 1:29 1:47 2:03
0:10 0:41 1:07 1:30 1:48 2:04
F 0:45 1:15 1:41 2:02 2:20 2:38
0:10 0:46 1:16 1:42 2:03 2:21 2:39
E 0:54 1:29 1:59 2:23 2:44 3:04 3:21
0:10 0:55 1:30 2:00 2:24 2:45 3:05 3:22
D 1:09 1:57 2:28 2:58 3:20 3:43 4:02 4:19
0:10 1:10 1:58 2:29 2:59 3:21 3:44 4:03 4:20
C 1:39 2:38 3:22 3:57 4:25 4:49 5:12 5:40 5:48
0:10 1:40 2:39 3:23 3:58 4:26 4:50 5:13 5:41 5:49
B 2:10 2:49 5:48 6:32 7:05 7:35 7:59 8:21 8:40 8:58
0:10 2:11 2:50 5:49 6:33 7:06 7:36 8:00 8:22 8:41 8:59
A 12:0 12:0 12:0 12:0 12:0 12:0 12.0 12:0 12:0 12:0 12:0
MT A B C D E F G H I J K GR
12 7 17 25 37 49 61 73 87 101 116 138
15 6 13 21 29 38 47 56 66 76 87 99
18 5 11 17 24 30 36 44 52 61 70 79
21 4 9 15 20 26 31 37 43 50 57 64
24 4 8 13 18 23 28 32 38 43 48 54
27 3 7 11 16 20 24 29 33 38 43 47
30 3 7 10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38 43
33 3 6 10 13 16 20 24 27 31 34 38
36 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 25 28 32 35
39 3 6 8 11 13 16 19 22 25 28 31
6
7
8
EQUIPMENT
In the theory lessons of the basic course you learned that in order
to dive, some specific equipment is necessary. Some of this is
also used in skin diving, other pieces are completely different and
are only used for scuba diving. Let’s go over the most important
points again.
MASK AND SNORKEL

The first piece of equipment we need when diving is the mask,
since, as you well remember, due to the different refraction values
between air and water, on direct contact with water our eyes can-
not focus the light rays onto the retina exactly, so our vision is
blurred. Therefore, the importance of the mask is not to be under-
estimated; without it we would not have perfect vision during dives
and so we would not be able to see the beauties of the underwater
world.
Taking a look at this piece of equipment from a technical point of
view, we can see that the mask is made of a rubber part
(generally silicon rubber) acting
as a grip when worn, and a rigid
plastic part which contains one
or two glass pieces which allow
vision but avoid water penetra-
tion. Adding the strap and the
buckles we have mentioned all
the parts of the mask, which
though having made progress in
terms of the materials used , it
has made no progress from the basic principle on which it is
based, that is to create an air cushion in front of our eyes.
Some may object to this statement saying that recreational scuba
diving has witnessed progress in the form of the full face mask
which marked a step forwards. We reply that this is true as far as
cost is concerned, but not as regards its validity since it is both
complicated and awkward to use. At least for now.
Continuing our examination, we must remember that the glass
must be tempered, this is easy to deduce due to the presence of
the letter T or the word ‘tempered’ written on the glass; were this
not the case then apart from the obvious problem of misting, there
9
could also be the problem of breakage due to pressure when div-

ing. Another point to remember should the glass need to be re-
placed, for example by prescription lenses, it is necessary to
choose the two-lens model since it is practically impossible to sub-
stitute the single-glass model with prescription lenses.
Before buying a mask you must be absolutely certain of the grip,
this is ascertained by placing the mask on your face and then
breathing in through the nose; if air leaks in, then the mask will not
press against the face and therefore is not suited to the shape of
your face. Once the correct mask has been found other secondary
factors, such as colour and shape, may be considered. A nice col-
ourful mask which does not grip is of no use at all. A snorkel is al-
ways with the mask, even if we have a regulator this precious
piece should not be forgotten
since it allows us to swim on the
surface with our head under wa-
ter without using up air from the
tanks. The snorkel must be
about 30 cm in length with an
easy attachment to the strap; it
is best to use models which are
not fanciful (release valves etc) because the more complex it is
the greater the possibilities are of getting caught up in something
or it becoming annoying .
FINS AND DIVE BOOTS

Fins are essential to give us the necessary propulsion when in wa-
ter. With an air tank, BCD, regulators, pressure gauges, we obvi-
ously cannot dream of moving
forwards using only our hands
and feet. Our penetration coeffi-
cient in water is comparable to a
train in the air, therefore only by
using a motor is it possible to
move without using excessive
effort. This is exactly what fins
are used for: they increase the
amount of water moved and
consequently the speed and
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power of our movement. Due to the mass they have to propel for-
ward they have to be pretty resistant, therefore of average length
and rigid enough, otherwise they would flex too much and not be
able to propel the diver. So, long, flexible fins used by skin divers
who do not carry air tanks, BCD etc are unadvisable since the ski
diver has an optimum hydrodynamic coefficient, moving only a lit-
tle water, but these fins are useless to
a scuba diver weighed down with all
his equipment.
Also to be remembered is the use of
open heel fins and not the closed type,
because they are easier to put on and
take off, and the use of dive socks
make it easier to walk when wearing
equipment since they are almost like
shoes. It is enough to think of entering
the water barefoot from a stony each wearing all the necessary
equipment or even wearing the soft neoprene socks to understand
the necessity of such socks with a reinforced sole.
SUIT
The suit, whose main purpose is to prevent our body from getting
cold, due to thermal heat dispersion (cooling by conduction), is
perhaps one of the pieces of equipment which has enjoyed a
greater progress in recent years. Having started off based on the
concept of avoiding contact with water, (in fact the first suits were
air-/water tight) it has improved in time, thanks to the invention of
neoprene which, guaranteeing direct heat, is developing and
branching out comprising even more models.
One-piece, two-piece, wet suit, padded with heat conserving wa-
ter-tight materials, the suit comes in such a variety that beginners
become confused! Obviously, having a 3 mm suit for warm seas,
a 5 mm one-piece for average temperature seas and a nice 7 mm
wet suit or better still a dry suit for the winter would be the ideal
solution, also for retailers! Not being able to have all of these, you
must consider the use you are going to make of the suit and in
particular what kind of diving you are most likely going to do. For
those who waive aside the idea of winter diving or diving in cold
waters like lakes for example, they could choose a 5 mm, one or
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two-piece, leaving the 7 mm fleeced wet suit to those who prefer

winter diving. It is better not to be tempted by the heat offered by
these types of suits if they subsequently will not be used in the
conditions for which they have been specifically designed. Con-
cerning the awkwardness, the in-
crease in positive buoyancy, stress
deriving from excessive heat in the
summer, will offset the pros with the
cons. It is better to be sure and
choose the suit based on the use for
which it was designed. The same
goes for the 3 mm suit. Sometimes
on the basis of experience gained
while skin diving, in which a 3 mm is
more appropriate, beginners tend to
buy a 3 mm suit. On the first dive,
when they begin to feel cold after
about a quarter of an hour, they then
realise that the advice given against
using a 3 mm in our seas was cor-
rect after all. If all the dives occur in
warm seas (not the Mediterranean,
which is tempered and not warm)
then a 3 mm is sufficient, but if the dives in warm seas is secon-
dary compared to the Mediterranean, then a 5 mm is the preferred
choice, given that even in the Red Sea which is a popular destina-
tion for Italian and other European scuba divers, in the colder
months this type of suit is necessary.
At this point the question arises: what about the wet suits which
enjoy such popularity and do not permit water penetration but con-
serve heat? The answer is simple: they are excellent suits, but it
is not true that they don not let water in, if anything they limit water
penetration but not completely, otherwise they would be dry suits.
Indeed they conserve more heat, particularly the 7mm suits, since
the 5mm if not made of a particular type of neoprene (titanium,
fleeced etc) does not conserve much more heat than an ordinary
suit. However, the 7mm has the drawback of being more compli-
cated to use, because it is more difficult to put on and requires
heavier weights than the 5mm.
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In conclusion then, it is better to choose the wet suit if using it the

advantages outweigh the disadvantages, and if it is used many
times as permitted by the temperature, that is in winter or when
diving in lakes. Evaluate well if the addition of extra weights
causes you problems, since some people need more than 10 kilos
to obtain negative balance. Heavy weights cause stress and too
much weight on the back so this aspect should be taken into ac-
count.
Let’s talk about the dry suits, which thanks to the drop in price and
the distinct improvement in the material used are more readily
available to the recreational diver, that is the person who dives as
a hobby and not only available to the professional diver who dives
in cold or polluted waters. Now the price of
this type of suit is only a little higher than
that of a good wet suit, but in effect the
advantages of the dry suits are numerous
and not to be underestimated by those
who often dive in winter or in cold waters.
There are numerous points in favour of a
dry suit: you do not get wet (apart from
your head); the special underwear suit
(especially if good quality, like thinsulate)
stops any possible small leakages and
perspiration from wetting the diver and
keeps the heat both before and after the
dive; in the case of harsh temperatures
you can walk about in the underwear suit
rather than having to change clothes
(maybe when it is windy) putting on track-
suits, sweatshirts or sweaters.
The negative aspect of the dry suit is the greater complexity of
control when diving, because apart from the BCD, it is necessary
to fill and empty the suit with air, in order that it does not squeeze
against you on descent and does not expand too quickly on as-
cent. Moreover, the greater stiffness of the material and the limited
elasticity compared to a neoprene suit make movements more dif-
ficult. It requires a more specialised training, given by the IDEA
Dry Suit Course in addition to a certain period of practise in order
to perfect its use.
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Once again, it is necessary to see if the advantages of the dry suit

outweigh the disadvantages and if it is used often enough for the
type of dives for which it was designed. Buying a suit and attend-
ing a specialised course only to carry out two or three dives a year
in winter or in lakes, is perhaps not the wisest way to spend money.
To conclude, only if you have no financial restrictions and you
want to have a different suit for every occasion (summer, winter,
warm seas, lakes) buying everything available, it is necessary to
evaluate what kind of dives you are most likely to do and then de-
cide how to spend your money wisely. It must be remembered that
together with the suit it is necessary to buy socks, which we have
already mentioned when discussing the use of fins, gloves, be-
cause it is from the extremities that great heat loss occurs and
therefore they should be adequately protected.
TANKS
The air tank is essential when diving, since without the air it con-
tains our permanence under water would be limited to our lung ca-
pacity. Instead, with the air tank, which is filled with air by means
of a compressor, generally at a pressure of around 220 bar, our
stay under water is lengthened because we have an air reserve
with us. The air tank is a container for compressed air which is
then inhaled by means of a regulator; remembering what we have
already studied in the basic course, the amount of air it contains
can be determined by multiplying tank capacity (in litres) by the
loading pressure (in bars). If we want we can also calculate the
dive time available in an air tank at a given depth, even if purely
theoretical, by multiplying the average consumption of air of a man
who is carrying out moderate physical activity, that is 20 litres of
air a minute, by the pressure present at the
desired depth, then dividing the amount of air
contained in the tank by the consumption at
that depth. This formula should be applied to
the letter because the consumption of 20 li-
tres a minute increases to 120/170 litres a
minute in conditions of notable physical effort
or lack of breath, these being situations in
which we can easily come upon if calcula-
tions are wrong.
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Getting back to the air tank, whose aim is to contain air at high
pressure, this makes its construction more difficult. For example, it
must be remembered that at the standard pressure load of 220
bar, the tank walls must bear a pressure of 220 kg on each square
centimetre; it is not a pressure to be underestimated, so much so
that when a tank explodes whoever is near usually loses his life.
The construction materials are steel or
aluminium. The advantages and disad-
vantages of both types are well known:
steel tanks are smaller, have better buoy-
ancy in water, but rust easily if not main-
tained well; aluminium tanks are larger, do
not have such good buoyancy in water,
but are free from corrosion of any kind so
much so that in some countries their use
is obligatory for professional use. In prac-
tice, even if slightly larger and with more
positive buoyancy, aluminium tanks are
the best solution; however the necessity
to have them checked with the same
regularity as the steel tanks, excessive size and weight which limit
maximum capacity to 12 litres if worn without causing problems,
makes their use more infrequent in our country. In fact, the most
widespread tank used in Italy is the 15 litre, which if it were in alu-
minium would be too big and heavy for the diver who wants to
have fun and not lift weights.
The tank has a valve system, which apart from opening and clos-
ing the air flow, is also for attaching the regulator making this eas-
ier due to the two most common types:
INT in Italy and in many other nations,
DIN in Germany and in other north
European countries. This valve system
can be a one-attachment, that is which
allows the attachment of only one regu-
lator, or it can be a two-valve attach-
ment, allowing for the attachment of
two completely autonomous regulators.
Let’s look into this more in detail talking
about the alternative air source.
15
When talking about tank maintenance we must say that this is of

extreme importance since the pressure which the cylinder walls
must bear makes maintenance essential in order not to have
problems. Concerning the outside of the cylinder, each little pitting
of the protective surface must immediately be sanded and then re-
varnished to avoid rusting or any type of corrosion; regarding the
inside it is absolutely necessary to have the cylinder visually in-
spected yearly to check for corrosion.
Even if this may be carried out by the scuba diver certified in
Equipment Specialist, it is more opportune to entrust this test to a
specialised facility. In fact the presence of rust inside the cylinder
requires sanding since corrosion could lead to a decrease in the
thickness of the cylinder walls with consequent decrease in the
capacity of the cylinder walls to withstand the necessary pressure.
Sanding is carried out with extreme care, especially at the top
where there is the valve system and it is a tricky part to clean. The
action of 220kg of pressure against the cylinder walls should
really make us reflect and lead us to the conclusion that the ut-
most care should be taken when dealing with this particular piece
of equipment.
Great attention should be paid to purchase rather than choice of
the cylinder. Nowadays, almost all diving centres include a full
tank and weight belts in the cost of a dive, therefore the purchase
of a cylinder is only useful if dives are carried out independent of
diving centres. Should you decide to buy one, for our dives the
choice of a 15 litre cylinder is practically obligatory, with a two
valve attachment if you have two autonomous regulators.
REGULATOR
If the tank carries air under water to enable breathing then the
regulator is the piece of equipment which enables us to breathe
that air. It has a dual function: it lowers the pressure of the air in
the tank making it breathable and it limits the release of this air to
the inhaling phase, avoiding unnecessary air loss which would
only compromise the duration of the dive.
It is made up of two elements: the first stage which may be a flow
through piston or a diaphragm and this is the part which is at-
tached to the tank valves; the second stage, which is placed in the
mouth in order to breathe. The first stage, apart from being neces-
16
sary to attach the regulator to the tank, carries out the reduction in
air pressure in the tank, decreasing it to an intermediate pressure,
variable depending on the
design specifics of the
tank, usually ranging from
7 to 10 bar. If it is a bal-
anced regulator, this in-
termediate pressure will
not be effected by the de-
crease in filling pressure,
therefore it will remain
unchanged and air supply
released from the first
stage will remain constant; instead if it is an unbalanced regulator
the intermediate pressure will decrease as the loading pressure
decreases therefore the air flow released from the first stage will
be slightly decreased.
In modern regulators this decrease in flow is so limited that it is
only perceptible when the tank is almost empty and at depths of
30m. In fact, the materials of which the first stages are made and
the strict EEC norms to which the regulators must adhere in order
to be sold, really do demand perfection. For this reason the differ-
ence between the two types of construction, that is piston or dia-
phragm, the diaphragm type being associated with a balanced
regulator and the piston with an unbalanced one, has been over-
come by modern technology which has achieved perfection in
both systems so that the finals results are practically the same.
Analysing the regulator again, we come to the second stage,
which provides air at environment pressure, that is, its release
pressure varies according to the depth the diver is at, allowing him
to breathe easily. Air supply is released on demand, that is only
when the diver inhales, since inside the second stage there is a
membrane which during this phase flexes back, lowering a lever
which opens the release valve. As soon as inhaling stops, the
lever is pushed back to its initial position by a spring thus returning
the membrane to its initial position too. From this second stage, by
means of one-way valve openings called ‘moustaches’ in scuba
jargon, the air inhaled is expelled thus completing the breathing
cycle.
17
As may be un- PURGE BUTTON

derstood from LEVER WATER AT
above, all the SPRING
AMBIENT PRESSURE
regulating of the
regulator takes DOWN STREAM
VALVE DIAPHRAGH
place in the first INTERMEDIARE

PRESSURE
stage, which is FROM FIRST AIR AT AMBIENT
PRESSURE
the one that STAGE
carries out the

first reduction in
pressure, and in
this way deter-
mining the ca- MOUTH PIECE
pacity of the
regulator. In some models, there is also a command in the second
stage which regulates air flow release but a point should be made
about this. This function does not regulate pressure but rather the
push of the spring which acts on the release valves varies, making
it lighter or stiffer. In practice at the second stage the air flow is
not regulated but rather the inhaling force.
Another element which as nothing to do with regulating pressure,
is the nut which is located in the inner space of the second stage
near the entrance point of the whip. This only varies the raising of
the lever which lowers during the inhaling phase due to the action
of the membrane, opening the release valve; this lever should nor-
mal only slightly touch the membrane in order not to have continu-
ous air release.
Having gone over the basic concepts of the regulator, it is neces-
sary to remember some essential points in order to make the cor-
rect choice. Currently, one of the most important is that it must
conform to EC norms; this may be seen by the markings E and C
on the tank. Since there is the sale of regulators which are not
EC approved, we should remember that this is the piece of equip-
ment which lets us breathe, therefore live, and as such it is not ad-
visable trying to save money on this piece.
Another determining factor in the purchase of a regulator is the
availability of spare parts and the number of technical assistance
centres, since the regulator is a delicate instrument and needs
maintenance at least once a year, that is at the end of the season.
18
So finding oneself without a spare part or some specialised centre

to fix it means that you have not spent your money well.
To conclude, all the features mentioned are generally present in
the more famous makes of regulators which should be preferred
to the special price unknown makes, even worse if it is a foreign
make.
ALTERNATIVE AIR SOURCE

Since the scuba diver is trained and conscientious he must never
dive without an alternative air source, not only necessary to make
up for blocks in his regulator which is a rather remote possibility,
but rather to assist a buddy in case of difficulty. The simplest solu-
tion is to have two second
stages attached to a first
stage, and this is called an
octopus. It is the most eco-
nomic and often, especially
in diving centres abroad, it
is obligatory since these
centres usually use only
on e - a ttachm ent tanks
which do not allow for the
use of two autonomous
regulators.
In any case, even if theo-
retically the use of two com-
plete regulators is the best
solution, since it would per-
mit assistance to another person without air and to make up for
some malfunction of the regulator, it really should be considered
excessive since it is practically impossible for a modern day regu-
lator to malfunction. The solution of an octopus is therefore the
best, it lessens the weight to be carried eliminating one of the two
stages, notably the heaviest piece of the regulator , and also per-
mits saving on the purchase. It is important to join two compatible
stages with intermediate pressure from the first stage, this is really
simple since the same manufacturers produce an extra second
stage which is yellow and has a longer hose to be used when as-
sembling the octopus.
19
Apart from this solution there are also second stages which are
part of the command part of the BCD; however they are usually
very small to avoid being bulky, consequently they have a second
stage diaphragm limited in size, and breathing is not so effortless
since they are rather stiff. Another alternative solution are the
small tanks which have the regulator incorporated, which although
valid on the USA market given the limited depths of the dives by
local divers, they are not very useful in our area since the extra air
they contain is limited.
In conclusion, the choice of the octopus is currently the only advis-
able one, both from the point of view of comfort and expense.
BCD
This is an essential piece of equipment since it gives perfect buoy-
ancy in water, avoiding a con-
tinuous effort by the diver to
remain under water and
avoids tiring fin movements in
order not to sink. This piece of
equipment based on the sim-
ple concept of varying buoy-
ancy using a closed pocket
into which air is breathed or it
can be emptied by pulling the
release tube upwards, is en-
joying a period of fast devel-
opment it is more comfort-
able, easier to use and even
more suited to its function.
Initially the BCD used was a
horse collar style which was
inflated “by mouth” then im-
proved by the use of an inflating system using a little tank and
then the attachment to the first stage of the regulator. The next
development was the transformation to a more comfortable jacket
style, indeed called “jacket” which also has the function of holding
the tank, making up together with the regulator and the pressure
gauge what is known as ARA (Auto Respiratore Aria) or in English
SCUBA (Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus).
20
For a given time the BCD remained unchanged in its jacket form,
improving the load and release of the air while only improving
marginally on other aspects such as shape, material, straps, until
new ones arrived from the USA. These were initially defined as
very technical but they were soon available to everyone. In these
types the air chamber had been modified taking the shape of a
horseshoe and moved to the back of the diver to reduce frontal
impact on the water. At the same time the weights had been in-
serted, all of them or some, in special weight pockets with a quick
release device in order to drop weights in case of emergency.
Therefore there was a decisive
change that improved the BCD
and partially solved the problem
of the position of the weights
which was one of the annoying
aspects for the diver.
It must however be said that the
idea of moving the air pocket to
the rear of the jacket had previ-
ously been thought of by some
Italian manufacturers, but did
not receive the merit it de-
served, probably only because
keeping the size limited the
positive push was limited too.
Perhaps the best intuition of the
designers was to go back to the old system of the double pocket ,
but creating the pocket containing the air chamber on the outside,
with elastic material (or applying suitable elastics) to reduce the
size of the air chamber when deflated, while at the same time the
elastics stretch when it is inflated allowing for great quantities of
air to be introduced and therefore have a positive push. Even
more interesting is the integrated weight system, which apart from
facilitating weight distribution which no longer presses against the
hips or below the tank, it really is a godsend for the “older” divers
who have some back problems. However, it should be taken into
account that it is not necessary to have all the weights in the pock-
ets of the BCD; our situation is different from the American one
since they go diving in warm water with limited weights. Rather
21
than putting 10 kilos in your pockets and then risking not being
able to put on your SCUBA jacket or that it sinks under water it is
better to divide the weights between the BCD and the traditional
weight-belt so as to take advantage of the integrated weights with-
out going into exceeding weight and then cancelling the advan-
tages this system can offer.
Well then, a technical BCD for everyone? If by technical BCD we
mean an improved version of the traditional one, without exces-
sive accessories (clips, springs, elastics etc.) which “crowd” the
technical BCD, then okay; however we must also weigh up the
generally high cost and some little problem of floating on the sur-
face given that if the weights are not well distributed then you tend
to lean forward. Highly technical BCDs are not advisable, full of
accessories which are useless on standard dives since they are
designed for specific types of dives such as speleology or dives
using gas mixtures.
Having said this the traditional BCD is not finished, on the con-
trary. These models have also drawn advantages from the more
technical ones, such as the integrated weight system, keeping for
the most part their jacket shape, even if a little bulky allows for
easier positions on the surface for example in a moment of fatigue
you can let yourself float to recuperate some energy without prob-
lems.
Also for the BCD you must look for the EEC marking and consider
the availability of spare parts. You should plan a yearly test at the
specialised assistance centres since there are many valves and
the salt water can cause problems.
INSTRUMENTS
Instruments are essential to a correct dive, measuring some pa-
rameters which are absolutely necessary to be able to carry out
our activity. The first instrument is the pressure gauge which
measures the air available in the tanks; without it we would not
know how much is left, and we would not be able to plan the dive
and therefore risk meeting up with difficulties.
The second instrument not to be forgotten is the depth gauge,
which indicates the time elapsed during the dive, since as learned
in the first course it is essential to know how much time has
passed during the dive in order to remain within the safety curves.
22
Concerning the choice of these instruments, if

digital models are available and are to be pre-
ferred to the analogic models due to their better
precision and performance (for example, the digi-
tal depth gauges mark excessive velocity on as-
cent); there is also the possibility, given the nota-
ble drop in price, to substitute it with a modern
computer which also has the function of control-
ling air within the tank. Given that the purchase of
the three separate instruments, if chosen (as they
should be) from among the bettermakes has an
inclusive cost equal to, if not higher than, the com-
puter, it must be added that the performance of a
computer is much better.
In fact the computer carries out the functions of
the various instruments, it indicates depth and
dive time, and air pressure within the tank if it also
has the pressure gauge. However it is decidedly
superior to the traditional instruments, since it can calculate the
residual time in the safety curve based on the various depths
reached and permanence there; that is, it calculates multi-level
dives which tend to be the majority of dives. In fact, rarely do you
reach the bottom and remain all that time at maximum depth, but
using the tables even a minute over, for example, at 30m obliges
us to consider the dive as having been carried out at that depth.
If the pressure gauge is also included in the final calculations, the
computer can cal-
culate the air
used, eventual ef-
fort or situations of
breat h les s nes s,
immediately re-
elaborating the
maximum dive
time on the basis
of this data.
In conclusion the
performance of-
fered by this pre-
23
cious instrument greatly facilitate the diver making the dive safer,
therefore it is best to buy it, avoiding old models or those fed on
old batteries for which replacements are almost impossible to find,
or even poor technical assistance once the purchase has been
made.
ACCESSORIES
There are many accessories for the diver and
they are often used in particular situations. Leav-
ing out the more specific which are useless in
most dives, we must mention the knife or other
cutting instruments used to free ourselves from
ropes or nets (so make sure they are sharp!); the
writing slate to communicate with your buddy; a
whistle to attract attention on the surface; the
buoy or flag to indicate the diver’s presence; the
torch and chemical lights use particularly on
night dives.
All these should, together with the
standard equipment, fit into a large,
resistant bag in which it would be
wise to put an emergency kit con-
taining some tools (screwdriver,
scissors multi-purpose instruments
are advisable. etc) extra o-rings,
straps for masks and fns, glue and
finally some grease or vaseline.
Sometimes a little thing like a miss-
ing o-ring or a broken fin strap can
prevent a dive taking place; but the
organised diver will never be caught
unprepared and risk ruining his day.
If you want to improve your knowl-
edge of equipment, not only learn-
ing how it functions but also how to do some maintenance and
carry out simple repairs, participate in the Equipment Specialist
course which is really interesting and useful.
24
25
26
PHYSICS
There are many laws of physics which affect man’s activity in wa-
ter and their effects are different from those experienced out of
water. It is necessary to remember these principles, even further-
ing our knowledge of them, because knowledge forms the basis of
a proper execution of our activity.
BUOYANCY
The principle of Archimedes is very important since it determines
the three situations which are the basis of immersion of the hu-
man body in water, which in scuba jargon is identified as neutral
buoyancy.
The first is a situation of
floating, or better, positive
neutral buoyancy, which oc-
curs when the weight of wa-
ter moved is greater than the
weight of the immerged
body. This occurs when the
result of the equation “water
weight minus immerged body
weight” is positive, therefore
the upward thrust prevails
and the object floats. The
second situation occurs when the result of the above mentioned
equation is zero, or rather, the weight of water moved equals the
immerged body weight, there-
fore none of the forces prevail
and the immerged body remains
mid-water as if weightless. The
third situation, defined as nega-
tive neutral buoyancy, occurs
when the result of the equation
is negative, that is, when im-
merged body weight is greater
than the weight of water moved,
therefore the upward thrust can-
not sustain the immerged body,
which will then sink.
27
These three situations, put into practice when diving, indicate that
the diver should be slightly negative at the beginning of the dive in
order to sink, afterwards he should assume neutral buoyancy in
order to circulate weightless under water, finally he should be
slightly positive to ascend effortlessly.
All this cannot be achieved without a mechanical device which, in-
creasing or decreasing the volume of liquid moved, places us in
the various buoyancy situations at the right time. This device is the
BCD, which attached to our body, allows us, by inflating or deflat-
ing, to vary the volume of the liquid moved; since air has a very
low specific weight, our weight will remain practically unchanged
and so we can manage the neutral buoyancy as we require.
An important point to consider is the variation in air volume on as-
cent and descent, since due to the increase or decrease of water
pressure on the BCD (and consequently on the air contained
therein) there will be a decrease or an expansion of the volume of
this air with the relevant variations in buoyancy. Both situations
can be easily managed by adding more air when descending and
releasing excess air when ascending, to always have the situa-
tion under control.
VISION, HEARING, HEAT LOSS.

Our senses, essential to perceive our environment, are notably af-
fected by the different existing situations when in air, our normal
life conditions, and when we are in water, in a situation different
from the one we are used to.
Let’s begin with vision, remembering that when speaking about
the mask in water, it has been said that its function is to allow us
perfect vision in water, since our eye on direct contact with water,
and due to the different refraction coefficient compared to air can-
not focus perfectly. The difference of the refraction value is deter-
mined by the greater molecular consistence of water compared to
air; in fact, air has a lesser mass than water, therefore there is
much more distance between the molecules compared to those
in water.
The consequence of the light rays, when penetrating the water,
are deviated (refracted) since they have to pass through water
which is much denser than air. In a normal situation, the human
eye has contact with air; since inside the eye there is a perfectly
28
transparent liquid (aqueous hu-

mour), the light rays when pass-
ing from air to the eye encounter
this liquid which slightly deviates
them. Thereafter, they meet up
with the lense, which functioning
as a converging variable lense,
focuses them exactly onto the
retina.
In the case of the eye in contact
with water, we have one liquid
(water) practically in contact with
another (aqueous humour). In
this situation the first refraction,
passing from air to aqueous hu-
mour, no longer occurs, and con-
sequently the light ray carries
straight on and the lense al-
though trying its utmost to con-
verge the light rays on to the retina, does not succeed and so we
have blurred vision. Wearing a mask we create the normal situa-
tion in which our eye functions in contact with air therefore we fo-
cus perfectly.
However all these phases of refraction among liquids, glass, air,
eye produce a magnifying effect, this being why our vision is en-
larged and closer when using the mask. To be precise we see
things about 25% (1/4) closer and approximately 33% (1/3)
larger.
Another problem connected to vision in diving is the different lev-
els of penetration in water of colours which make up the light
spectrum; again this is due to the greater consistence of mole-
cules of water compared to air. Starting from the basic concept,
that tells us that light is composed of primary colours, which when
mixed give white light ( think of the rainbow). These primary col-
ours are light radiation and have different wave lengths; warm col-
ours (red, orange, yellow) have a wave length which does not per-
mit a high level of water penetration, so they cannot reach beyond
a certain depth. For example, red radiation hardly reaches 6/8m,
orange a little deeper, yellow reaches more than 20m and so on,
29
until reaching 40m where everything assumes a single colour

which is a shade between blue and greenish. The concept may
seem complicated, but if we compare colour to sound, which is
also a wave, and we think of listening to music at a distance we
can only make out the base sounds, while as we approach the
sound source we can hear the complete sound, this should make
it easier to understand.
Returning to our discus-
sion on vision, the re-
sulting lack of a chro-
0 matic component when
perceived by the human
- 10 eye produces the sight
of a certain colour, and
- 20 that the object or the
body of that colour
- 30 seems dark or black.
This may also seem a
- 40 strange concept, but if
we think that the same
- 50 thing happens at dusk,
even more so when
darkness descends, when for example a red object appears dark
brown, if not black, and only by turning on a light its true colour re-
turns; it can be understood what happens during diving and why
you need to carry a torch to see the splendid colours of the under-
water world.
Another factor which decreases visibility when diving is reflection;
in fact the water surface, acting as a large mirror, reflects a part of
the sun rays upwards, particularly so in early morning and late af-
ternoon, that is when the sun is low in the sky and the rays shine
obliquely.
Clearly, the more rays reflected the lesser the visibility, because
equally the light rays able to penetrate the water are less. This is
the reason why it is said that the best hours of light are those dur-
ing the central part of the day.
Still to be considered is the problem connected with scarce visibil-
ity due to turbid water, which further limits vision because of the
particles suspended in the water causing an effect similar to fog
30
and this cannot be solved using a torch. This situation of scarce

visibility is certainly not the best way to enjoy to a dive to the full
and observe the underwater world so similar conditions should be
avoided, this is not the case on night dives on which the use of the
torch or lights solves the problem allowing the diving activity even
in this particular condition.
Now let’s examine hear-
ing, the sense which per-
mits us to communicate,
listen to sounds, noises of
the surrounding world but
it also permits us to iden-
tify the direction these
sounds are coming from
and their source. This abil-
ity derives from the fact
that sound, though travel-
ling quickly, does have a
speed therefore when the
sound wave reaches us it
reaches one ear and a fraction of a second later the other one. It
seems almost impossible and yet our brain perceives this very
slight delay and thus understanding which ear has been reached
first and consequently from which direction the sound came.
Since water molecules are closer to each other than those of air,
sound is transmitted much more quickly and reaches further. The
consequence is that the time lapse from the moment the sound
wave reaches one ear and then passes to the next , is much more
limited compared to that in air, therefore our brain is forced to
work in a situation different from the one to which it is accus-
tomed; it no longer distinguishes which ear has been the first to
perceive the sound and cannot identify the direction the sound is
coming from. Moreover, since sound waves travel much further
under water than in air, sounds coming from a notable distance
can be perceived, for example the noise of a boat which is not yet
visible.
A problem which is created when diving is the impossibility to
communicate as we normally would, that is speaking, because the
vocal chords are designed to vibrate in air and not in water. Con-
31
sequently, you need to use a

sign system, the white board or
the international hand signals in
order to make yourself under-
stood.
Finally, talking about heat loss,
which has been mentioned in
the part relative to exposure
suits, it must be remembered
that also the ability of our body
to react to heat and cold is al-
tered when diving. In fact, due
to the different temperatures of air and water, when diving our
body loses heat much more quickly through conduction; only by
protecting ourselves with a suitable suit will we be able to limit
heat loss and so increase the duration of our dive.
PRESSURE INCREASE
Since water is heavier than air, on descending we find ourselves
in a condition of absolute pressure, that is we experience a pres-
sure measured in bars (measures in atmosphere is by now aban-
doned, the more up-to-date is Pascal, but we continue to use bars
since it is more convenient) which is notably greater than the one
accustomed to.
In fact, every 10 metres the pressure in-
creases by 1 bar; this fact should be taken
into account when trying to adapt oneself to
the increase in pressure. The first effect is
compression produced by the decrease of
air volume, which being a gas may be com-
pressed and the volume halved each time
pressure doubles, as well prove by the Boyle
and Mariotte law.
Consequently we have compression of the
ears and the mask, which may be solved us-
ing the compensating manoeuvre; compres-
sion of the sinus if they are closed due to a
cold or inflammation would cause pain and
would ruin the dive; compression of the
32
stomach and intestinal gases; the compression of air trapped in

dental holes and badly treated will prevent the diver from de-
scending beyond a certain depth; the compression of equipment
(in particular the BCD and the suit) will cause notable variations in
buoyancy when diving.
The opposite process occurs on ascent, when the air introduced
in the lungs or BCD decreases in pressure as it increases in vol-
ume, the reason for which you must never hold in breath when
diving to avoid pulmonary overextension nor should you release
air from the BCD to avoid a too rapid ascent.
NITROGEN ABSORPTION
As you will remember the air
we breathe is composed of ,
approximating to excess and
eliminating secondary gases,
20% oxygen and 80% nitro-
gen. Nitrogen is an inert gas ,
that is, it does not enter the
metabolic processes, there-
fore the amount inhaled is the
same as the amount exhaled.
When we are in a normal
pressure condition we have a
stable amount of nitrogen ab-
sorbed in our tissues and so
we are in a balanced condi-
tion, defined as saturation.
This state is produced by the
effect of a law of physics, Henry’s law, which says that a gas on
contact with a liquid (and our body is mainly made up of liquid)
and if under pressure, dissolves into the liquid when the saturation
stage is reached. Decreasing the pressure will have the opposite
effect, that is the gas in its liquid state will become gas again.
Applying this law to the case of the diver, who experiences an in-
crease in pressure on descent, we find that the nitrogen not used
in breathing and undergoing an increase in pressure begins to dis-
solve into the body tissues trying to reach a new stage of satura-
tion. The higher the pressure the longer the squeezing action will
33
last, the greater the quantity of nitrogen which dissolves. The op-
posite process will occur when pressure is decreased, that is
forming bubbles and, the faster the decrease in pressure the
larger they will be.
If the correct speed on ascent is carried out (10/12 metres a min-
ute) a part of the bubble will be immediately eliminated through
normal respiration, while those in the slow tissues will be elimi-
nated without problems during the hours following the dive. Nor-
mally 12 hours are necessary to totally eliminate nitrogen but
some tissue still release nitrogen even 24 hours after diving.
Should the correct ascending speed not be respected, or worse if
you go beyond the safety curve limit omitting the stop stages for
decompression, you run the risk of decompression diseases,
since the nitrogen bubbles, which are too large, cannot be easily
eliminated thus causing even serious consequences.
34
35
36
THE TABLES
To calculate time/depth limits and therefore to avoid absorbing too
much nitrogen, a factor which could take us beyond the safety
curve, preventing direct ascent at the end of the dive, there are
diving tables. They are divided into two types: diving tables which
indicate time and depth limits and decompression tables which
also indicate the obligatory stops should the diver go beyond the
safety curve limit.
ADVICE
IDEA vehemently warns against going beyond the safety curve
limits, and moreover we emphasise the importance of a using a
good quality underwater computer, which, if used with care, surely
offers greater possibility of permanence and greater safety com-
pared to diving tables, depth gauges or watches. Nevertheless,
the tables should be studied, both to learn the theory on which
computers are based and to know how to manage a dive then a
computer is not available.
MT DIVE TIME
IDEA AND US NAVY TABLES 12 5 15 25 30 40 50 70 80 100 110 130

15 10 15 25 30 40 50 60 70
There are two kinds of diving tables: 18

21
10 15 20 25 30 40 50
5 10 15 20 30 35 40
US Navy and IDEA Doppler. The 24
27
5 10 15 20 25 30
5 10 12 15 20 25
former are decompression tables, 30
33
5 7 10 15 20
5 10 13 15
that s, apart from showing the vari- 36
39
5 10
5
ous curve limits at various levels GR A B C D E F G H I J K GR
0:10
K
they indicate the stops at various
RESIDUAL NITROGEN GROUP
0:28
0:10 0:29
J 0:31 0:49
stages and permanence times, in

0:10 0:32 0:50
I 0:33 0:54 1:11
0:10 0:34 0:55 1:12
H 0:36 0:59 1:19 1:35
case you go over the safety curve G

F 0:10
0:10
0:40
0:41
0:37
1:06
1:07
1:00
1:29
1:30
1:20
1:47
1:48
1:36
2:03
2:04
limit. The latter also indicate safety

0:45 1:15 1:41 2:02 2:20 2:38
0:10 0:46 1:16 1:42 2:03 2:21 2:39
E 0:54 1:29 1:59 2:23 2:44 3:04 3:21
0:10 0:55 1:30 2:00 2:24 2:45 3:05 3:22
curve limits and not decompression D

C 0:10
1:39
1:09
1:10
2:38
1:57
1:58
3:22
2:28
2:29
3:57
2:58
2:59
4:25
3:20
3:21
4:49
3:43
3:44
5:12
4:02
4:03
5:40
4:19
4:20
5:48
stages and times, this is because B

A
0:10
2:10
0:10 2:11
1:40
2:49
2:50
2:39
5:48
5:49
3:23
6:32
6:33
3:58
7:05
7:06
4:26
7:35
7:36
4:50
7:59
8:00
5:13
8:21
8:22
5:41
8:40
8:41
5:49
8:58
8:59
12:0 12:0 12:0 12:0 12:0 12:0 12:0 12:0 12:0 12:0
the Doppler are conservative tables

12.0
MT A B C D E F G H I J K GR
12 7 17 25 37 49 61 73 87 101 116 138
normally used for recreational dives 15 6 13 21 29 38 47 56 66 76 87 99
18 5 11 17 24 30 36 44 52 61 70 79
and the recreational diver does not 21 4 9 15 20 26 31 37 43 50 57 64
24 4 8 13 18 23 28 32 38 43 48 54
have to carry out dives requiring de- 27 3 7 11 16 20 24 29 33 38 43 47
30 3 7 10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38 43
compression. 33 3 6 10 13 16 20 24 27 31 34 38
36 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 25 28 32 35
The IDEA Doppler tables also indi- 39 3 6 8 11 13 16 19 22 25 28 31
cate the groups of residual nitrogen

ad the surface intervals necessary when having to plan several dives
in a 12 hour period.
37
USE OF THE IDEA DIVE TABLES

A) General guidelines
The tables should always be used conservatively. If the time or
depth corresponding to the planned dive cannot be found, the
time or depth slightly higher should be considered. In the case of
repeated dives, the first dive should always be the deeper than the
second. Repeated dives with a surface interval of less than 10
minutes is considered a single dive. Ascend at a speed of 10 to 12
metres per minute and always carry out the 3 minute safety stop
at a depth of - 4.5 and -3 metres.
B) Calculation of no decompression limit (NDL)
Go to the beginning of the table (at the top); identify the maximum
depth you intend to
MT DIVE TIME
reach, continue
12 5 15 25 30 40 50 70 80 100 110 130
along the line to- 15 10 15 25 30 40 50 60 70
wards the right until 18 10 15 20 25 30 40 50
you find the last 21 5 10 15 20 30 35 40
number. This num- 24 5 10 15 20 25 30
27 5 10 12 15 20 25
ber is the maximum
30 5 7 10 15 20
n decompression 33 5 10 13 15
limit (NDL) shown in 36 5 10
minutes. In the illus- 39 5
trated example, the GR A B C D E F G H I J K GR
0:10
NDL value at 21 me- 0:28
tres is 40 minutes.
C) Identifying the Residual Nitrogen Group
Go to the beginning of the table; fid the maximum depth reached,
carry on along the line to the right until you find the time spent on
the dive, then go down the table until you reach the letter relevant
to the nitrogen group. Following the illustrated example, after a
dive of 40 minutes at 21 metres the residual nitrogen group is H.
D) Calculating time limit of a second dive.
Having established the residual nitrogen group, go down the table
until you find the surface interval time, or the time you intend to
spend on the surface between the two dives. Then move along to
the left until you reach the letter indicating residual nitrogen
reached at the end of the surface interval. In the illustrated exam-
ple the group has changed from H initially to C.
Go to the bottom of half of the table. Find the letter relevant to the
38
39 5
residual nitrogen and con- GR A B C D E F G H I J K GR
tinue downwards until you K 0:10
0:28
intersect the line which cor- J 0:10 0:29

0:31 0:49
0:10 0:32 0:50
responds to maximum I 0:33 0:54 1:11
0:10 0:34 0:55 1:12
H
depth you intend to reach G
0:36 0:59 1:19 1:35
0:10 0:37 1:00 1:20 1:36
0:40 1:06 1:29 1:47 2:03
on the second dive, for ex- F 0:10 0:41 1:07 1:30 1:48 2:04
0:45 1:15 1:41 2:02 2:20 2:38
ample 18 metres. E 0:10 0:46 1:16 1:42 2:03 2:21 2:39
0:54 1:29 1:59 2:23 2:44 3:04 3:21
In this intersected box, D 0:10 0:55 1:30 2:00 2:24 2:45 3:05 3:22
1:09 1:57 2:28 2:58 3:20 3:43 4:02 4:19
0:10 1:10 1:58 2:29 2:59 3:21 3:44 4:03 4:20
C
there will be a number, the 1:39 2:38 3:22 3:57 4:25 4:49 5:12 5:40 5:48
0:10 1:40 2:39 3:23 3:58 4:26 4:50 5:13 5:41 5:49
B
number is residual nitrogen A 0:10
2:10 2:49 5:48 6:32 7:05 7:35 7:59 8:21 8:40 8:58
2:11 2:50 5:49 6:33 7:06 7:36 8:00 8:22 8:41 8:59
12:0 12:0 12:0 12:0 12:0 12:0 12.0 12:0 12:0 12:0 12:0
time (RNT, in the illustrated MT A B C D E F G H I J K GR
example the equivalent of 12 7 17 25 37 49 61 73 87 101 116 138
15 6 13 21 29 38 47 56 66 76 87 99
17 minutes) which shall be 18 5 11 17 24 30 36 44 52 61 70 79
subtracted from the curve 21 4 9 15 20 26 31 37 43 50 57 64
24 4 8 13 18 23 28 32 38 43 48 54
limit time for this depth 27 3 7 11 16 20 24 29 33 38 43 47
(NDL at 18 metres equal to 30 3 7 10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38 43
50 minutes) indicated in 33 3 6 10 13 16 20 24 27 31 34 38
36 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 25 28 32 35
the top part of the table, so 39 3 6 8 11 13 16 19 22 25 28 31
as to get the time limit
suited to no decompression. This example is therefore the result
of the subtraction NDL-RNT which in the illustrated example corre-
sponds to 50 (NDL) – 17 (RNT), that is 33 minutes.
E) Calculating multiple dives.
If more than two dives are to be planned over a 12 hour period t is
not possible only to calculate NDL – RNT, so it is necessary to
sum the effective time spent on the repeated dive (ABT=Actual
Bottom Time), the Residual Nitrogen Time (RNT), so as to have a
total dive time (TBT=Total Bottom Time) which takes into account
the residual nitrogen of the previous dives as yet not completely
eliminated. Therefore, the TBT will be the value based on which
we must identify the residual nitrogen group, and not the ABT.
Going back t the illustrated example, if the second dive, as pro-
grammed above, were indeed carried out with a total permanence
time of 30 minutes at 18 metres, it would be necessary to sum to
this time the 17 minutes of RNT, thus obtaining 47 minutes,
which will be the figure we will have to consider to identify the re-
sidual nitrogen group at the end of the repeated dive.
In practice, it is as if the duration of our dive had been 47 minutes,
starting calculations from 17 minutes and not from zero. As said I
39
the previous chapter, if at least 12 hours have not passed be-

tween the two dives the nitrogen absorbed in our tissue will not be
completely eliminated, therefore it will be necessary to keep this in
mind, calculating the minutes this nitrogen corresponds to as a
“penalty time”.
In order not to miscalculate, it is best to use a simple scheme rep-
resenting the various dives, such as the illustrated example give
below, which graphically indicates the situation in which a diver
carries out his first dive at 15 metres for 60 minutes, the second 3
hours later at 12 metres for 30 minutes and finally a third dive 3
hours later at 10 metres for 20 minutes, with all the relevant calcu-
lations.
NDL adapted NDL adapted
H - 3 hours - D 130-37=93 G - 3 hours - C 160-25=135
Surface Time and Surface Time and
First Dive interval. depth interval. depth
Nitrogen second dive Nitrogen third dive
15 m. - 60 min. groups 12 m. - 30 min. groups 10 m. - 20 min.
NDL = 70 min. ABT (30 min.)+ ABT (20 min.)+
RNT (37 min.)= RNT (25 min.)=
TBT (67 min.) TBT (45 min.)
If, when making these calculation the exact depth is not found
IDEA always advises considering the depth immediately above.
This system, also advised by other teaching organisations, has
created a longstanding diatribe with other schools which think oth-
erwise. Infact there are those who maintain that in the case of
multiple dives the depth immediately below should be considered
since it has a greater RNT.
Who is wrong? Probably neither school of thought, since it is true
that considering he depth just below there is a greater RNT, but it
is also true that calculating the depth just above there is a lesser
NDL and so in both cases you have a safe calculation.
Here is a simple example to understand better. If we are in group
C and we want to do a second dive at 16 metres, there is no 16
metres indicated in the table, then we have to calculate the depth
immediately after, (18 metres) we will have a RNT of 17 minutes;
at 18 metres the curve limit (NDL) is 50 minutes, therefore the
NDL adapted is 33 minutes. If, instead, we calculate the depth just
above (15 metres) we will have a RNT of 21 minutes but a NDL of
40
70 minutes, consequently the time limit (NDL adapted) will be 49

minutes which is a greater result compared to that obtained using
the other system of calculation.
I these cases there is also the possibility of calculating the depth
just above to identify the NDL and the depth just below to identify
the RNT, obtaining, in the case in question, a NDL of 18 metres
equal to 50 minutes, a NT of group C at 15 metres equal to 21
minutes, therefore a time limit of 29 minutes for the second dive.
However at this point we risk total confusion, because if someone
is not mentally trained he may have difficulty in remembering
when to calculate the level just above and when to calculate the
one just below. Considering that the IDEA tables are very conser-
vative, we prefer to leave the standard system, that is always cal-
culate the depth or time just above when the exact time or depth
is not indicated in the tables. Not reaching dive limits will be an
added safety factor which will avoid the questions relative to one
theory or the other.
US NAVY TABLES
The use of the US Navy Tables is similar that of IDEA , the only
difference being the graphics since these tables also indicate the
various obligatory stops to be carried out should the safety curve
limit be exceeded (remember: the US Navy table is a decompres-
sion table) and so t is arranged differently. In fact the times are
shown in different sections and to the right of each time there are
various squares; if the first square to the right is empty or shows
zero, the time is within the safety curve, while if a number is indi-
cated then we are over the curve since that time shown corre-
sponds to the first decompression obligatory stop to be carried out
on ascent.
Also using the S Navy table the opposite calculation is possible,
that is checking to see if dive time at a give depth is in or over the
curve limit by identifying I the specific section if the square imme-
diately to the right for that time shows zero or an obligatory de-
compression stop.
Now remembering that the US Navy table should not be used for
recreational diving and that the dives requiring decompression
stages should be avoided, let’s see how we calculate these de-
compression stops. Taking as an example a dive of 15 metres,
41
where the curve limit is

30 D 100 minutes, the step
40 E after (120 minutes) we
50 F
70 G find that the square to
80
12 100
H
I
the right indicates the
110 J number 5; going up-
130
150
K
L
wards we find the num-
170 M ber –3; this means that
200
210 2
N
N
having reached 120
minutes of diving time
at 15 metres, before
surfacing you must stop
for 5 minutes at –3 me-
tres.
At depths greater than
18 metres the squares
with the stops shown
are two, since perma-
nence under water over
certain limits requires
two decompression
stops, one at –3 metres
and the other at –6 me-
tres. Over 39 metres,
IDEA IDEA depth not indicated in
International Diving
Educators Association © IDEA Europe the IDEA tables, there
are three obligatory
stops, apart from the ones at –3 and –6 there is one at –9 metres.
Another example: 110 minutes of diving reaching 21 metres; two
stops, the first at –6 for two minutes and the second at –3 for 41
minutes! Certainly 110 minutes of diving is difficult to achieve with
only one 15 litre tank, therefore it is not easy to go over the curve
at limited depth, but increasing depth the times shorten notably,
so much so that reaching 33 metres in a 40 minute dive (normal
time for a trained diver) two more stops would be necessary: the
first for 2 minutes a –6 and the second for 21 minutes at –3 me-
tres, for a total time of 63 minutes, which is difficult to achieve af-
ter having gone around at a depth of more than 4 bars, when at
each breath a quantity of air four times normal is consumed. As
42
you have noticed it is easy to get confused, since with a 15 litre

tank you can carry out a 40 minute dive reaching 33 metres but
the same tank will not contain enough to allow you the 23 minute
for decompression stops.
OTHER TYPES OF TABLES

Obviously other tables exist apart from those of the US Navy and
IDEA.
Many experts have dedicated their time to studying the problems
connected to the body’s exposure to hyper-baric pressures, often
coming up with different solutions but all aimed at avoiding diving
accidents.
The first studies were carried out at the beginning of the century
by Haldane who witnessed the problems suffered by those who
worked in pressurized environments these generally being great
containers used at that time to carry out underwater digging and
bridge and tunnel construction.
These workers breathed air under pressure (thereby finding them-
selves in the same situation as a diver) and they were often af-
fected by decompression disease (MDD) when they resurfaced
rapidly.
From their particular way of walking, that is bent over by pain, the
term ”bends” was coined and it is still used to this day.
Haldane started to elaborate an initial decompression table which
proposed ascending stops every 3 metres. The algorithm (the for-
mula used) for the calculation was certainly excellent but at that
time there were no other studies available and since the system
assured a drop in the number of accidents, the table was adopted
by the British and American Navy.
Only several years later the US navy, based on new (for that time)
studies based on those of Haldane but integrated with practical
data from observing the effects of the various types pf dives car-
ried out by military divers, the US Navy tables in use today were
drawn up. The limit of these tables however apart from the back-
wardness of some concepts on which the algorithm calculations
are based, lies in the fact that they are based on dives by male
military divers, perfectly trained and physically fit, this sis not the
case of the typical recreational diver who wants t explore the un-
derwater world for his own enjoyment.
43
In fact, based on other studies, aimed at recreational diving, it was

discovered that many decompression illnesses came about for in-
explicable reasons since they occurred even when respecting the
US Navy tables. The obvious conclusion was that these tables did
not guarantee safety margins for the recreational diver.
As a result, the BSAC tables were created followed by those of
Rogers and Powell, then Buhlmann, the Canadian DCIEM tables,
then the Doppler tables used by IDEA which consider the studies
carried out using the equipment of the same name, hence the
term Doppler.
This instrument allowed the observation of the gas micro-bubbles
which are not normally perceivable but which could cause prob-
lems for some divers unless the curve limits of this tables are not
followed and there is a rapid ascent of 10 – 12 metres per minute.
In conclusion, the only certain thing is that the studies are based
on mathematical models, which even if at the basis of modern
equipment such as the underwater computer, always refer to stan-
dard situations often not really pertinent to the real situations of di-
vers or to particular conditions such as tiredness, lack of breath.
Anyway, you can never be careful enough, therefore the only solu-
tion is to keep well within the safety curve and resurface if some-
thing is not going to plan.
44
45
46
DIVING LIMITS
As you will remember from the Open Water Diver Course, to go
over the safety curve limits, or to dive to great depths, can cause
accidents. Let’s go over these points again because only by fully
understanding certain problems can they be avoided.
POSSIBLE ACCIDENTS
The sneakiest of diving dangers
is nitrogen narcosis, which over
the 30m limit, begins to come
to the fore, the onset is sudden
with the most varied symptoms,
in general similar to those asso-
ciated with drunkenness: irra-
tional behaviour, such as re-
moving the mask or trying to
give the regulator to passing
fish, laughter or nervousness
for no apparent reason, diffi-
culty with co-ordination or in
carrying out simple tasks, in-
ability to distinguish directions.
I these situations the problem
may be easily solved by bring-
ing your buddy up immediately
or taking him to a lesser depth.
It is difficult to set a precise time to the probable onset of nitrogen
narcosis, or indeed recognise in time the tell-tale signs which are
common to all. Statistics show that some divers already experi-
ence problems at 30 metres, others at 40 metres; over 40 metres
almost everyone has a slowing down of normal activity, which
could be a setback should an emergency situation arise. Be care-
ful not to disregard nitrogen narcosis, because eve if you do not
feel it at a certain depth it is already working on you. Comparing
the symptoms to those of drunkenness caused by alcohol is quite
true, at some point you must have witnessed a person staggering
or incoherent after having had a couple of drinks! Surely if you ask
him if he is drunk r even tipsy, he will undoubtedly say no, the fact
is that he does not realise.
47
Another problem con-

nected with deep dives
is embolism or other-
wise known as decom-
pression d i s e as e
(MDD). In the Open
Water Course you will
most certainly have
studied embolism, but
arterial gaseous embolism mediastinal emphysema
mainly in its gaseous
or traumatic form, a
phenomenon due to
holding your breath on
ascent and thereby
causing lacerations to
the pulmonary alveo-
lae, given the expan-
sion of air volume con-
tained in the lungs. In
subcutaneous emphysema pneumo-thoracic this case bubbles
form (embolisms)
which may cause arterial embolism if they enter the bloodstream;
mediastinal emphysema if they locate within the heart cavity; sub-
cutaneous emphysema if they gather under the skin; pneumo-
thoracic if they concentrate in the pleura thus leading to collapsing
of the lung. In all these cases the embolisms are due to air which
has escaped, as said before, from the pulmonary alveolae.
I the case of decompression disease the embolism (or rather the
embolisms since there will surely be more than one) are due to
the sudden emission of nitrogen absorbed by the tissues caused
by ascending far too quickly or not carrying out the decompression
stops which are necessary if you have gone outwith the safety
curve limits. As you no doubt remember, the deeper you go, the
longer the dive, the more nitrogen absorbs into the tissues accord-
ing to Henry’s law; the same principle applies when ascending,
due to the fall in pressure, the nitrogen changes from liquid to
gaseous form and if the correct speed is not carried out, or if the
obligatory decompression stages are omitted, the bubbles grow to
such a size that our organism cannot expel them and so they
48
damage the area in which they locate. For example, if the bubble if
located in the spine where many muscle receptors originate or pass
through, paralysis or renal failure may occur.
Symptoms of MDD may occur after leaving the water or indeed many
hours after a dive, depending on the type of tissue (slow or fast) in
which the bubbles located, this is not the case for gaseous embolism.
Summarizing, both gaseous embolism and MDD are considered
embolic in nature, that is caused by the formation of a bubble within
our organism,; in the first case the bubble will be of air and caused
by the expansion of the air on ascending, regardless of depth or
permanence; in the second case they will be of nitrogen due to an
all too quick leakage of gas from our tissues, which were previously
saturated (totally or partially depending on the tissue in question)
during the deep dive.
Another problem is the amount of air inhaled, because the further
down you go the more air is consumed, therefore it is necessary to
take this into account when planning the dive. Considering that the
average man during light physical activity uses, at sea level, 20 li-
tres of air per minute, due to decompression effect (Boyle and Mari-
otte law ) this increases to 40 litres per minute at a depth of 10 me-
tres, to 60 litres per minute at a depth of 30 metres and to 100 litres
per minute at a depth of 40 metres (5 bars of absolute pressure).
Therefore air consumption increases notably and for example a 30
metre dive cannot be carried out using a 10 litre tank, unless the
diver is an expert and well trained, it is extremely important to use a
15 litre tank for such dives, although they should be avoided if you
are not psychologically or physically prepared.
PREVENTION
It is also necessary to underline that everything said so far is not
aimed at frightening you in any way from diving to more than 18
metres but rather to point out that certain types of activities should
be carried out with the utmost preparation, knowledge and training.
Moreover, it is wise not to go over 30 metres, particularly for those
who have Advanced Open Water Diver certificate, which enables
you to carry out dives similar to those done during training, but only
if accompanied by experts, such as a Divemaster or an Instructor.
This is not a limit but a choice, because normally the Divemaster or
the Instructors dive with the group in all the diving centers.
49
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the advice for a safe, quiet and pleasant dive are al-
ways the same, by now repeated to the point of boredom. Respect
for time and depth limits, respect for your own level of certification,
preparation, good quality equipment, a reliable buddy, a well pro-
grammed dive. If you memorize these simple rules, when under
water you will only need to worry about appreciating the world
around you, relaxing and achieving that beautiful sensation of
“flying” weightlessly in the water.
50
51
52
THE MIXTURES
Very often we hear of technical, specialised dives using a mixture.
This topic was not in the basic course you attended but now as an
“advanced” scuba diver you must begin to learn this too to avoid
misinterpretation.
NITROX
For a certain number of years, this mixture, also defined as EAN
in Italy, enriched air, has become part of the scuba divers lan-
guage. It almost seemed a revolution, instead it is only air in
which the percentage of nitrogen, normally around 80% has been
reduced and the percentage of oxygen, usually around 20%, in-
creased. This mixture, the ratio of the gases may vary, has been
used for military purposes for decades.
Introducing this mixture to recreational diving was an initiative aim-
ing at reducing the risk of MDD while at the same time increasing
the duration f the dive, given that the percentage of nitrogen is de-
creased and that of oxygen increased.
It would seem to be the perfect solution, but as
everything, it has its pros and cons. The advan-
tage is longer dive time at a given depth com-
pared to using air, the disadvantage is the maxi-
mum depth limit which decreases in proportion
to the increase of oxygen in the mixture, since it
comes close to the point where oxygen reaches
the partial pressure of 1.6 bars, which as we
well know, is the limit beyond which there is an
almost certain risk of hyper-oxygen.
Let’s make this point clearer. Thinking of the air
we breathe, which has an approximately 20%
Oxygen the limit is around 70 metres, that is bar
8 of absolute pressure since it is at this point
partial pressure of oxygen is by now 1.6 bars (8
bars x 0.20). Using Nitrox EAN 32, the number
after the initials corresponds to the percentage
of oxygen, that is 32%) we have 5 absolute
bars, that is 40 metres. Using Nitrox EAN36,
the limit comes even closer, since 1.6 divided
by 3.6 gives 4.44, that is around 33 metres.
53
In our areas this depth is often exceeded, besides the dive is often
limited due to cold which is felt after a certain permanence. It is
therefore obvious that the use of Nitrox in recreational diving may
be useful at limited depths and in warm seas where temperature
factor is irrelevant. If we add to this, the opportunity, at least for Ni-
trox EAN 36, of specific equipment, oil-free compressors, the cost
of it all, the difficulty in managing a diving accident in which the
diver has not inhaled air, the conclusion is that this is not a experi-
ence to be avoided, but neither is it a solution to al the problems
related to nitrogen absorption, since it involves other problems.
Recently it has become fashionable to propose specialised
courses on Nitrox EAN 32, but the IDEA view is that Nitrox is a
specialised course; it is a serious course and to do it you should at
the very least be an Advanced Open Water Diver or the equivalent
of other agencies.
MIXTURES
There are other mixtures used in diving, such as ELIOX, in which
nitrogen is replaced by helium; TRIMIX, a mixture of oxygen, he-
lium and nitrogen, but they are completely out with the realms of
recreational diving. Due to the expense and the need for ex-
tremely complex re-fill equipment, they are exclusive to profes-
sional diving, such as deep sea divers, since recreational divers
rarely reach such depths as to merit their use.
Specialised courses are also held in these mixtures, not by IDEA,
but by organisations which deal with diving beyond the limits of
recreational training. Our only consideration is that we prefer to
have fun under water, not complicate things with deep sea diving
equipment. Is it really worth it ?
54
55
56
SEARCH AND RECOVERY

The general concept of search and recovery, at an amateur level,
is very simple. To know how to search for, carry to the surface,
then transport to shore small objects which have been lost (or in
some cases found) in the sea.
PURPOSE OF SEARCH AND RECOVERY

As mentioned above: to search for small objects in simple recov-
ery areas. Obviously the indications herein contained constitute a
broad outline of what will be practised at sea in the Advanced
Open Water Diver Course, since there are other specialised
courses available to further your knowledge in this particular field
for example, basic Search & Recovery and Advanced Search and
Recovery.
LIMITS OF SEARCH AD RECOVERY

Always remember that we are recreational divers, people who
dive for pleasure and not as a profession. Besides the necessity
to complete knowledge on techniques of search and recovery by
attending the specialised courses mentioned above, the main ob-
jective is your safety.
Whenever this activity may endanger your safety, not only per-
sonal safety but psychological well-being too, do not continue. It is
better to lose a anchor ad buy another one than attempt a search
in deep water and incur the relevant risks.
SEARCH TECHNIQUES
Again bearing in mind that the notions set out in this manual are a
simple introduction to the subject matter, let us examine the two
easiest and readily available techniques: spiral search and cross
search: In both cases minimum equipment s required and may be
easily found or already resent in the diver’s existing equipment:
some rope, one or more buoys (even the standard diver identifica-
tion buoy), possibly a compass and for the recovery part, inflat-
able lifting balloons.
Since recovery techniques will be dealt with later on, let’s leave
them aside and begin by examining those problems connected to
the search. It should be quite clear what s meant by search: that
s, looking for a lost object on the sea-bed, whose position is un-
57
known; if, on the other hand, the position is known and the object
has been located, the position s then marked using a buoy and re-
covery procedures begin.
To begin the search you should know approximately where the ob-
ject may be, thus you cordon off the area using buoys in order to
have precise reference points of where to start looking and where
to stop, otherwise you risk operating in an undefined area and
wandering aimlessly without achieving any measure of success.
Remember it is easy to get confused, especially if the sea-bed is
flat and consequently lacking in any natural reference points, n this
way you risk carrying out the search repeatedly in the same area
without realising and so obtaining poor results. Once the approxi-
mate area has been identified and cordoned off, it is now time to
consider which of the simpler techniques available would be the
best to adopt, as already mentioned, spiral or cross search.
A) Circular or spiral search
This is quite a simple search system which may be applies in quite
limited areas, with practically hardly any equipment: a piece of
rope, approximately 10 metres in length and a buoy.
Anchor the buoy to the sea-bed (with a weight, an anchor etc) at
the approximate point
where the object could be
situated, a second rope
should be tied to the an-
chored buoy which will be
used by the diver carrying
out the search .The system
is extremely easy: holding
the free end of the rope,
start to move away from the
anchored point until the
rope is taut to about ten centimetres above the sea-bed. Then
start to swim around the anchored point always keeping the taut
rope as a guide. If the object to be found is quite big it should stick
out from the sea-bed and f the search area is correct, the rope
should become entangled in the object, thus locating it. If it is not
the correct search area, the anchored point should be moved be-
yond the explored area and the operation repeated until the object
is (hopefully) found.
58
If the object to be located s small,

or does not stick out from the sea-
bed, or the sea-bed s uneven and
the rope become entangled in
rocks you must apply the system
and look for the object using vision.
To do this always complete the
first round with the taut rope, and
shorten it on each subsequent
round so as to visually scan the
area around the anchored point.
If the search has not been suc-
cessful, the anchor point is moved beyond the explored area and
the operation is recommenced until the object is found.
b) Cross Search
This is a slightly more complicated system in that t requires more
equipment. At least four buoys are needed, other ropes to tie
them to the sea-bed and to then tie them together in pairs, and a
free rope equipped with spring clips at both ends.
To carry out this type of search the four buoys are anchored in the
search area so as to form a rectangle (or a square) and then the
pairs of buoys are in turn tied to the sea-bed using two ropes
called longerons.
The diver starts his search from one of the buoys, hooks the free
rope (called crossing-rope) to the top of one of the two longerons
and then swims to the other buoy where the other longeron is situ-
ated. He then clips the hook attached to the end of the free rope
to the longeron to render it taut, thus cordoning off the area he will
explore visually by mak-
ing his way back along
the free rope. Upon
reaching the other end
he will then move the
clip forwards going be-
yond the area he has
just explored, thus start-
ing visual exploration
again while making for
the opposite end, so
59
proceeding in a zig-zag motion between the two longerons. In this

way he will explore the complete cordoned off area until he
reaches the final buoys. If it is the correct area the lost object
should be identified, if not he will move one longeron forwards,
leaving the other fixed so as to slowly sift the area where the ob-
ject should be, and so successfully completing the search.
RECOVERY TECHNIQUES
Once the object has been located the first thing to do is to tie it
with a rope and mark it with a buoy on the surface; it is extremely
easy to lose one’s way or reference points, not be able to find
them again and so have to start all over.
If you do not have an inflatable buoy, you can use one of the ones
already in use moving it onto the object, firstly making sure to tie
this to the rope used during the search and then go and get the
buoy holding the end of the rope in your hand, so that you have a
guiding rope on the way back. These should not seem excessive
precautions; if the object is small, or the sea is not limpid it is sur-
prisingly easy to lose again.
Once the exact recovery location has been marked you should
proceed to recovery if possible wit the usual means and if there is
no danger. If you are not sure you are going to make it, because
the object is large or because you do
not have the correct means, then do
not try it!! On the whole, search is
within everyone’s capabilities while re-
covery often needs to be carried out us-
ing the appropriate means and by suffi-
ciently trained experts.
However, if the object is not too large
(nor particularly small, because if it is
a ring it may be slipped into a pocket)
lifting balloons are necessary to carry
it up to the surface, they are, plastic
sacks open at one end which need to
be inflated using the regulator and
pushing the continual flow button.
Do not get strange ideas, for example
holding on the object and inflating the
60
jacket, this is extremely dangerous. Nor is it advisable to use the

first regulator to inflate the balloon, there are many cables and
consequently as many chances of getting entangled in them,
therefore always keep this regulator in your mouth.
The lifting balloons come in various sizes and are of various ca-
pacity; the larger they are the more air they contain and so lift
heavier objects, although these are more difficult to use. Keep
within the correct limits and if this subject interests you, attend the
appropriate specialised course. The better types of lifting balloons
are equipped with an automatic release valve since it allows the
air inside, which expands due to diminishing pressure on ascent,
to be released from above and not laterally. Should the air be re-
leased laterally then the balloon will turn over, allowing all the air
to escape from the top and the object would sink back down to the
sea-bed.
In case of emergency and lack of equipment the “homemade sub-
stitutes” may be used: plastic shopping bags may be secured by
their handles to the object. It may not be the maximum but it
works!
The balloon should be attached to a centrally balanced point on
the object, two being used if the object is large or not of even di-
mensions. Be careful to use good quality knots when tying, be-
cause the force exerted on the ropes is strong even for moder-
ately sized objects. Therefore, if the knot loosens the balloon will
rush to the surface and the object will drop to the sea-bed endan-
gering the operators.
Once the balloon has been tied, it should then be inflated until it
begins to lift just off the sea-bed; be careful when using two bal-
loons, they should both be inflated simultaneously to avoid one
balloon ascending before the other. Always use your spare regula-
tor to inflate the balloon, position it just to the side of the opening
(not directly inside) and slowly inflate until the object begins to
come up off the sea-bed. At this point everything has been done,
move off to one side and let the balloon go, the expansion of the
air will do the rest. Do not follow behind the object because it will
ascend too quickly and do not remain directly underneath it either,
in case something unfortunate occurs; for example the balloons
could become detached and you could have problems if you are
positioned too near or even directly below the sea-bed. Move off
61
to one side and ascend slowly, maintaining a safe distance. It will

now be up to whoever is assisting you above water to hook up
and recover the object when it surfaces.
TRANSPORT TO SHORE
This is a task for others, since the diver will need more time to
surface (unless the water is shallow) and really should not exert
himself after the dive. The best transport system, if the object
cannot be hoisted onto the boat, is to keep it floating on the sur-
face using buoys, hook it to the boat and take it to shore rowing or
using the engine. Avoid dragging the object along while still on the
sea-bed or mid-water since this is both dangerous for the object
and for the divers. Pay attention, when towing with engine pow-
ered boats, and proceed slowly, otherwise the pull of the water
could break the tow rope and the object be lost.
Remember never to work alone or do anything which could en-
danger your safety. These notions f the Advanced open Water
Course only provide an introduction to the subject which should be
further developed in specialised courses.
62
63
64
UNDERWATER NAVIGATION
Under water it is really difficult to swim in the correct direction or
identify an exact route, because often our sense of orientation
cannot find fixed and sure reference points. The ability to navigate
and orientate oneself underwater are also natural gifts, they can
however be perfected and strengthened with practice.
NAVIGATION
Often the concept of navigation only refers to the movement of a
boat, defining the path it takes as a “route”. It is not exactly like
this, navigation regards all types of movement any type of means
carries out: Have you ever thought why the rally pilot’s assistant is
called a navigator?
Divers and swimmers navigate too, since they move in a certain
direction in water towards a given point. Navigation is necessary
both on the surface and under water, so instead of wandering aim-
lessly you want to reach one or two fixed points or when at the end
of a dive you look for the shortest route back to the boat.
Therefore navigation is an extremely important element to the suc-
cess of a dive.
ORIENTATION
Orienting oneself (literally turning towards the East) means pick-
ing out reference points given b what the ancient civilisations
called the four cornerstones of the world (cardinal points) to deter-
mine our position in relation to our surroundings and to establish
the correct direction to take.
Besides the four cardinal points, the ancient Greeks established a
further four intermediate points corresponding to the winds blow-
ing from the Mediterranean. The winds
were then named by the Venetians, who,
taking the Ionian Sea as a central point,
called the north-easterly wind blowing in
from Greece the “Grecale”; “Mistral” the
name given to the north-westerly wind
blowing in from Venice (known as the Mis-
tress); “Scirocco” the south-easterly wind
blowing in from Syria and “Libeccio” the
south-westerly one blowing in from Libya.
65
Also those winds blowing from north to south were given particular
names: “Tramontana” is the north wind blowing in over the moun-
tains, “Auster” or “Mezzogiorno” is the wind blowing in from the
South, that is from austral countries.
All directions indicating the four cardinal points together with the
main winds is called the Compass Rose. Internationally, North,
South, East and West are identified by their initial letters, N, S, E,
and W. Sixteen other bearings were added, thus bringing the total
number of bearings to date, to thirty-two.
North, South, East and West are all 90° equidistant and are
marked by two perpendicular lines which form four squares: the
first square is the one between North and East, the second is be-
tween East and South, the third between South and West and the
fourth between West and North. Reference is not made to the
cardinal points or to the intermediate ones, since, apart from their
names being too complicated, they would not be enough to deter-
mine the exact position of a point o the Equator. Therefore, try to
imagine the horizon as a circle divided into 360° and calculate the
topographical coordinates, bearing (azimuth) and its distance.
The Azimuth is the angle formed by the northward facing observer
and the direction of the object being observed measured in de-
grees and fractions of degrees commencing in a clockwise direc-
tion from the North. The distance is the linear measure between
the northward facing observer who is always at the centre of the
visible horizon and the object being observed.
It is useful to learn early on in this study that 90° correspond to East,
180° to South, 270° to West and 0° is North, and that 45° correspond
to the bearing North-East, 135° to South-East and so on.
CALCULATING DISTANCES
The ability to calculate distances underwater is very useful when look-
ing for a particular site and in measuring dimensions and areas.
A common way of doing this is calculating air-tank pressure. The
quantity of air is subdivided by the number of stages along the
route and you change direction when a certain pressure is
reached, this is displayed on the pressure gauge. It is not the
most reliable of methods since it is based on the amount of air
used which is varies from diver to diver, and depends on the level
of training, agitation and temperature.
66
Another way of
calculating dis-
tance is to count
the number of fin
movements. One
complete fin
movement corre-
sponds to two full
leg movements.
Divers usually travel one metre per fin movement; this means that
after having carried out one vertical fin movement (that is, one up-
ward movement followed by one downward movement) first with
one leg then with the other, a distance of approximately one metre
will have been covered. Therefore it is possible to measure the
distance covered.
During dives when visibility is reduced or when exact measure-
ments are required, the arms may also be used to calculate dis-
tance; the distance between one outstretched arm and the other
is for men, just under two metres and for women about one and a
half metres (depending on the height of the individual).
The procedure consists in stretching one arm out in front and the
other behind, then moving the body forwards while shifting the
arm, initially positioned behind, forwards and at the same time
taking the forward positioned arm back behind the body. By re-
peating this movement the distance may be calculated with rela-
tive precision. Given that it is rather uncomfortable this system is
best used for short distances.
NATURAL NAVIGATION
Poor visibility under water, few reference points, dulled senses all
contribute to making orientation difficult, however you can navi-
gate with a certain amount of precision, eve without instruments,
by using these simple observations. For the moment let’s look at
the diving techniques which will help us identify our position un-
der water with regard to a specific point ( departure or arrival
point). Later we will study the use of the compass: the procedures
for natural navigation and compass navigation are very similar. If
a diver, swims aimlessly, moving from one part to the next without
reference points, he cannot have a precise idea of his position.
67
Only if the diver follows a straight line and comes back the same
way would he be able to identify his position, but this is only theo-
retical since such a dive would not be very interesting.
The principle is quite simple, but the correct application of it re-
quires a little practice. The only thing the diver has to do is follow a
general line, change direction making decided turns (preferably
90°) and keep in mind where these turns lead him with regard to
his arrival point. The best way to make these 90° turns, once hav-
ing reached the point where we want to make a turn, is to lie on
the sea-bed, stretch the arms out in front, then open an arm to-
wards the direction you wish to turn until it is at a 90° angle com-
pared to the other arm; now pivot on the hand of the arm you
moved, turn the body the straight arm comes around and then set
off in this new direction. It seems a difficult manoeuvre but it is
more difficult to explain than to carry out.
NATURAL REFERENCE POINTS

By following an underwater route and calculating distances you
can navigate fairly precisely when using reference points. Having
kept in mind many reference points concerning underwater navi-
gation, it becomes easier to follow a direction or complete a route.
Before diving it is wise to study the diving-off area well, the idea
being to familiarize yourself with the area, looking out for all the
reference points which could prove useful during the dive. The
shape of the sea-bed or sea-wall is usually just a underwater ex-
tension of what is visible above water. If the formations are strati-
fied then they will be so underwater too, and so on. It is important
to begin a dive knowing your exact position. This does seem
rather obvious, but if, in a unfamiliar location, a diver should turn
around during descent he may not remember which direction to
take before setting off. To begin descending, both divers should
position themselves face to face on the surface, descend into the
water and arrive on the sea-bed in the same position without hav-
ing turned around. His help initial orientation. Once on the sea-
bed it is usual to wait a few moments to take note of the depth and
the surrounding area before setting off.
The key to the use of natural reference points is an eye for detail.
The more attentive you are to the surrounding area the better you
succeed in navigation. It is necessary to pay attention to all infor-
68
mation that can be easily memorized during a dive. Light and

shadow are reference points; changes in water movement are an-
other reference point. Underwater currents may be used to deter-
mine relative direction. Always begin against the current and keep
this in mind to avoid emerging beyond the desired point. Waves in
shallow water cause what is called the ebb. This flows perpendicu-
lar to the shore and is a reliable reference point. Any kind of de-
sign or odd conformation on a sandy sea-bed or peculiar rock for-
mations are useful guides too.
After having completed an on-the-spot investigation of the area,
which does not take too long, you can set off on the underwater
route. It is always useful to look ahead, choose an object as a fo-
cal point and move in that direction. Repeating this procedure sev-
eral times makes it possible to keep to the correct route.
THE COMPASS
The earth acts as an enormous magnet, just like an iron bar at-
tracting ferrous metals. This characteristic had already been dis-
covered by the Chinese in 2,5000 BC. In fact, they were the first to
create such an instrument, basically made up of a magnetized
needle positioned in such a way as to move freely and to direct it-
self, thanks to terrestrial magnetism,
in a North to South direction. This in-
strument is called a compass. Just as
extra information, we may say that the
magnetic North Pole does not corre-
spond to its geographical counterpart,
in fact, its position differs by 2240 km
and lies in the Canadian Arctic archi-
pelago at 74° latitude north and 100°
longitude west. This difference is im-
portant and is corrected when you
have to follow long routes; since we
follow shorter routes of only a couple of hundred metres, we shall
only take note of this out of curiosity.
The principle of a compass is quite simple. It is a magnet which is
suspended thus allowing it to move freely and indicate the mag-
netic North Pole of the Earth. There are various types of compass,
but the main features of a good compass are the following:
69
1) It must contain liquid (usually a mixture of water, alcohol

and glycerine); the presence of the liquid stops the pres-
sure from destroying the compass and it slows down the
movement of the needle. It is difficult to follow a certain
bearing if the needle is continually moving.
2) The needle has to turn freely and be precise even when
the compass is not in a horizontal position under water; if
the needle becomes stuck because the compass is not in
a horizontal position then it is easy to take the wrong direc-
tion.
3) A reference line which passes through the centre of the
compass is essential. This is called the guiding line and is
used to take the bearing and follow directions.
4) It is best to have the guiding line to the side of the com-
pass because if the diver looks at the compass directly
from above, he could lose his focal point.
5) It is important that the compass has a rotating outer ring
upon which two parallel lines are etched which allow the
diver to memorize a given direction.
6) The outer part of the compass should display bearings in
degrees and not in cardinal points (N, S, NE, etc).
Care and maintenance of an underwater compass is not compli-
cated, but should be carried out efficiently to keep the compass in
prime condition. Care should be taken to avoid damaging or drop-
ping it since it is a delicate instrument. The compass should not
be placed near any heat source since this would cause the liquid
inside to expand and leak out. As with all diving equipment, it is
best to rinse the compass carefully in fresh water after use.
USE OF THE COMPASS

1) The needle of the compass always indicates the magnetic
North, the guiding line indicates the direction to follow rela-
tive to the North (azimuth).
2) When the needle is aligned with the guiding line, the diver
is proceeding due North.
3) When the diver is moving eastwards, the guiding line will
indicate 90°.
4) When one bearing is opposite the one previously taken, it
is called the opposite direction. South is opposite North.
70
It is important to set off in the direction relative to the starting point

of the dive. This means taking into account the actual direction
compared to a given point, for example, the shore or the position
of the boat. Having this as a reference point, you can then vary di-
rections relative to the initial one and still know your own position.
The reference direction must be known before descending.
The most common method is pointing the guiding line in the de-
sired direction and turning the rotating outer ting until the magnetic
arrow is positioned over the directional arrow, or it until it lies be-
t w e e n
these two
Align the
notches. Point the
needle
At this compass
in the
stage we guiding line
reference
will have
memorized
our direc-
tion on the Trip direction
outer ring
and this will act as a memo on returning. If the compass does not
have the appropriate notches or the directional line, you should
position the guiding line in the desired direction and then memo-
rize your route. Here are various ways to hold the compass prop-
erly; the most common method is to stretch one arm out I front,
fold the other arm across to grip the extended arm just above the
elbow, thus
creating aright
angle and hav-
ing the com-
pass on the
wrist of the
folded arm
and directly at
eye level.
A n o t h e r
method is
used when a
more precise
navigation is
71
required. Both arms are extended forwards and the

compass is held between the hands, allowing the
diver to clearly see where he is heading and the route
will surely be more precise.
When the compass is installed on a console, it is posi-
tioned in front of the diver as in the abovementioned
method.
Remember to look directly down on to the compass,
not at an angle, and also remember to take reference
points from your surroundings while you are checking
the direction. You should choose a focal point to fix
and navigate towards it, and upon reaching that fixed
point, repeat the exercise. This will allow you to keep
to your route without constantly having to check the
compass. Given that the needle is magnetic, it is at-
tracted to metallic objects which may be present in the
surrounding area. A distance of at least 30cm should
be kept between the compass and the equipment to
avoid interference, the main culprits of which are air-
tanks, regulators, cameras etc.
INSTRUMENT NAVIGATION
Navigation using instruments is surely different from using natural
reference points. Always trust the direction indicated on the com-
pass even if instinct sometimes dictates otherwise; instinct is
more likely to be wrong.
120° Sometimes, when following
the compass to the letter it
may happen that it is not clear
60° whether if you are to the right
or to the left of a given point.
In this situation the use of
natural navigational tech-
niques explained earlier is
helpful. To summarize: firstly
use the compass to determine
the direction then use the
60° 60° natural navigation reference
points to keep to the route. A
72
triangular route can lead to serious mistakes. Sometimes you think

that a 60° turn would be enough to complete the route, this is
wrong. 120° turns should be carried out to close off the triangle. I
is advisable to practise on land before attempting this underwater.
During instrument navigation divers worry about possible diversion
of the route caused by currents. For precise navigation, complex
techniques and mathematical calculations may be used but they
are not necessary for recreational dives. As far as we are con-
cerned, it is enough to bear in mind the direction and intensity of
the currents and then make the necessary modifications. This
method satisfies the majority of situations underwater and is per-
fected with practice.
There are two ways to overcome an obstacle: the first is to pass
over it, if this s not possible, go around it. In this last case, the
diver’s behaviour is dictated by the necessity to keep to a more or
less exact route.
You can go round
an obstacle and
proceed in the
same direction as
before, making
do with the gen-
eral route ; if you
want to keep to
the same direc-
tion, you should
be more precise:
90° turns should be carried out using the techniques already
learned, the length of the diversion should be measured. This ma-
noeuvre, if carried out correctly, allows you to get around the ob-
stacle while keeping to exactly the same route. Moreover, if you
are intent on a given route, apart from the usual compass, an un-
derwater writing slate is also necessary in order to record the vari-
ous reference points and the variations in the route.
In conclusion, a compass is a precision instrument which in-
creases safety limits and enjoyment; you must learn how to use it
correctly and the diver must fully understand all the natural and in-
strument aid relevant to navigation.
73
74
75
76
NIGHT DIVE OR LIMITED VISIBILITY DIVE (POOR VISIBILITY)

Night dives and diving in conditions of poor visibility both resent dif-
ficulties of limited visibility and lack f precise reference points and,
as a rule, are not familiar situations for divers. However, both pro-
vide valuable experience since they complement the diver’s experi-
ence and constitute what could be considered a completely new
diving environment for him.
EQUIPMENT
All divers need to be completely equipped when diving at night or
in conditions of poor visibility. Equipment should be easily accessi-
ble and location should also be familiar to the diving partner, since
he may have to intervene in case of emergency while already be-
ing hindered by limited visibility.
Apart from the usual equipment, ac compass and a torch are nec-
essary for these types of dives. The latter may be completely use-
less in conditions of limited visibility, that is when the water is tur-
bid, since it may cause a blinding effect similar to that caused by
car headlights in fog. A sharp knife may be useful since the diver
may easily become entangled in nets r tackle, this is frequently the
case during night dives since fishermen cast nets and lines at
night. A good knife, a reliable partner and a good dose of calm will
help in the event of any such unpleasant circumstances.
Another important accessory on a night dive
is a whistle, since it may be used to attract
the attention of the crews or other compan-
ions, should the diver re-emerge far from the
boat or the rest of the group. Sometimes
conditions are windy and shouting s not
enough, therefore it is better to have this
small and extremely cheap accessory
The compass, particularly useful when visi-
bility is poor, has been discussed in the
chapter on navigation, while the man acces-
sory on a night dive is a torch. This creates
light and lets us see just how different the
marine world appears at night. There are
various types of torches, wide beam and
narrow beam, operating on normal or re-
77
chargeable batteries, big or small. The most indicated for night

diving are wide beam torches since they illuminate a large portion
of the sea-bed. Narrow beam torches are useful during daytime
dives since they help illuminate fish dens but at night offer limited
illumination and consequently limit vision and possibility to explore
the area. Concerning the choice of normal or rechargeable batter-
ies, technically there is no great difference for a diver the only dif-
ference being initial cost: rechargeable batteries cost more but the
initial expense is quickly recovered since there is no further need
to buy batteries. The size of a torch should not be the main con-
sideration when purchasing one, but rather the width of the beam
emitted; a large torch is not synonymous with wide beam emission
or vice versa. Always check before buying.
There are chemical lights on the market, called Star Lights, which
produce a certain luminescence on bending the plastic tube; this
plastic tube contains a liquid which , on contact with a chemical re-
actant contained in a small glass tube located within it, gives off
light; contact between the two elements made on bending the
plastic tube and consequently breaking the inner glass tube creat-
ing a luminescence which lasts for several hours.
Obviously these lights cannot replace torches, however, attaching
them to air tanks creates a glow and makes it easier to follow the
rest of the group or be identified should you drift from the main
group or should the torch go out.
PREPARING TO DIVE
Diving at night or in conditions of limited visibility requires preven-
tative and detailed planning since diving conditions are so different
from the usual ones. Drifting from one group or partner may easily
happen unless various plans of action have been agreed upon be-
forehand. A proper dive begins with proper dressing and a prepa-
ration of the relative area, especially if it is dark. Avoid confusion,
arrange all equipment in an orderly fashion and position it within
easy reach, in collaboration with the others procure a powerful
light source (for example, a large neon torch or gas lamp) to illumi-
nate the area where the divers dress and also to facilitate location
of the exit point upon surfacing. Proper planning and clear agree-
ments lead to a successful dive in terms of desired depth, area to
explore, what to do, action to be taken in case of separation both
78
below and on the surface.

When in the water, it is
necessary to be close to
your partner or the rest of
the group to avoid getting
lost or drifting off com-
pletely. If necessary it is
best to hold hands or hold
a piece of connecting
rope when visibility is al-
most zero.
Despite having taken the
necessary precautions,
should someone drift off, the arrangements made before diving
should be put into action. As a general guide you should look for
your partner or the rest of the group for at least one minute and if
unsuccessful, surface. If your partner or the rest of the group
have respected the previous arrangements then they should sur-
face after a short time, attracting attention by using the whistle; if
your partner or group has not surfaced after ten or fifteen minutes,
give the alarm immediately. Do not try to be a hero by continuing
the search nor be offensive to your diving partner because you
were forced to surface.
Anyone can get lost underwater at night or when conditions are
less than favourable, even you.
THE DIVE
Apart from respecting all previously made arrangements and cor-
rect planning, a night dive or a dive in conditions of limited visibility
also require good coordination on entering the water together and
carrying out the activity of the dive. This means possibly entering
the water together, staying close together on the surface, de-
scending down a guide rope, balancing oneself without touching
the sea-bed, especially f it is muddy, following the person leading
the dive and not becoming distracted or going off on your own.
On a night dive use the torch correctly, do not point it in the face
of the others but on the body, moving it according to what is to be
communicated. Generally speaking, circling the torch means
okay, everything is fine, moving the torch up and down means
79
calling for attention also

when asking for help. Re-
member that marine life
also continues at night,
many large predators hunt
and live mostly at this time
and many other species
are sleepy or stunned by
light from the torch. Dur-
ing these dives be espe-
cially careful where you
lean, not looking where
you rest your hands is al-
ways dangerous espe-
cially if not wearing
gloves. Always surface
with the group and try to be as orderly as possible when undress-
ing, dressing and gathering up equipment.
PROBLEMS IN DIVING
Although very informative, diving at night or n conditions of limited
visibility is not to everyone’s liking. No precise reference points
and limited field of vision are aspects which may cause divers to
experience stress, fear and at times, a sense of claustrophobia.
In such cases, though fortunately few, report
the problem before it becomes worse and
leads to outright panic, interrupt the dive (or
accompany your partner to the surface if, in-
deed, he is the person in difficulty).
You can calmly try again some other time to
see if you succeed in appreciating the beauty
of a night dive in conditions of limited visibil-
ity. You will no doubt succeed on another at-
tempt, f not, at least you can say: I tried. Re-
member, this is only an introduction to the
Advanced Open Water Course, which, as al-
ways, will be studied in greater detail in the
appropriate specialised Night Diver and Lim-
ited Visibility Dive courses.
80
81
82
DEEP DIVE
The fascination with the deep, the abyss, is perhaps one of the
elements of the dive which excites divers most. Probably it is one
of the experiences which everyone sooner or later decides to carry
out, but it is necessary to know that it cannot be faced with super-
ficiality or bad preparation.
WHAT IS A DEEP DIVE?

People often ask for definitions or limits of depth with a view to un-
derstanding if a dive is a deep one or not. It is almost as if there
were a street sign or something like a speed limit which once ex-
ceeded, would serve as an indication of a deep dive. There is no
such indicator, since the
concept varies from per-
son to person according
to their training, experi-
ence and psychological
capabilities. Generally
speaking, for an Open
Water Diver, a deep
dive could be one at
over 18 metres, maxi-
mum limit for the first
stage and a reasonable
limit beyond which an
emergency surfacing, ei-
ther in pairs or alone,
begins to become com-
plicated. Likewise the
limit for non-specialized
recreational divers is
considered to be 30 me-
tres, a depth beyond
which the limit of perma-
nence within the relative
curve limit is so drasti-
cally shortened that any-
thing may force the diver to exceed it forcing him to carry out de-
compression stages.
83
DIVING EQUIPMENT
Even more so than diving at night or in conditions of limited visibil-
ity, equipment on a deep dive should be complete and in perfectly
working order. All components should be easily accessible and of
good quality, beginning with the regulator which at a depth of 30
metres will begin to take more out of you if of poor quality. A sec-
ond regulator is indispensable especially for greater safety when
having to assist a fellow diver in difficulty due to lack of air. Try to
imagine breathing in pairs at a depth of 30 metres and then hav-
ing to together ascend too, this should give an idea of the impor-
tance of a second regulator!
15 litre air tanks are therefore necessary at this depth since 10 li-
tre tanks cannot guarantee an adequate reserve of air, as is an
emergency tank (complete with regulator) lowered down from a
boat by rope until the safety stop (-4 to –5 metres) to be used by
someone whose air supply has run out.
Another instrument of extreme importance in this type of dive is
the computer, which elaborating the data based on the amount f
time passed at each of the various
levels, offers us problem-free dives
and indeed longer ones compared to
the diving tables which (thankfully)
are purposefully limiting. However,
the computer cannot know us per-
sonally and only knows the standard
diver upon whose model it has been
programmed; therefore, you really need to know its basic func-
tions well in order to use it properly and appreciate its value.
Attend the specialised course in Computer Diving if you are inter-
ested in this subject, it is very interesting because apart from deal-
ing with the functions of the computer it also deals with the ques-
tions related to nitrogen absorption, hemi-saturation times and
multiple dives.
DIVING LIMITS
Even if many of the beautiful marine species are, unfortunately, to
be found at depths of 30 metres or more, you must always re-
spect the limits, in particular those for deep dives. Carefully plan
the dive with your diving partner using the diving tables, preferring
84
Doppler tables to those of the US Navy; comply with surfacing

speed and safety stops, do not carry out two deep dives in the
same day. The first dive should be the deeper and use the diving
tables when repeating dives; on these dives try not to be a hero or
superman. Remember that at 30 metres more air is use up than
at 18 metres, therefore your normal air consumption rate will not
be applicable at this depth. Everything that seems simple on a
shallow dive becomes difficult at 30 metres; the time available be-
comes shorter, problems connected to nitrogen narcosis and de-
compression illnesses loom larger on the horizon.
PROGRAMMING DIVES
More than in other dives programming on deep dives is of ex-
treme importance and must be followed. Before reaching the dive
entry point, with your partner it is necessary to get as much infor-
mation on the diving area as possible either by speaking to other
divers, studying maps of the area, reading articles on the area or
asking the locals. Once all this information has been gathered,
you need to establish how to reach the dive point, since 30 metre
dives are generally far from the coast. Therefore, a boat or dinghy
will be necessary, even better if you are accompanied by mem-
bers of the local diving centre, since they generally have guides
who can give you the necessary information on the area thus
eliminating the need to do the research yourself: everything will be
explained to you during the briefing!
If you decide not to contact the local diving centre, having pro-
cured the boat and the necessary equipment, you can now set off
to the chosen dive point. Once there, after having gone over the
dive plan, that is what type of descent to carry out, maximum
depth to reach, underwater route, maximum permanence time,
ascent procedure, communication, the spare air-tank will be
placed in the water (with the assembled regulator) tied to a rope
of 4 – 5 metres. Then you will dress carefully, and with the help of
your partner you will check the position and function of each piece
of equipment. Having made sure that everything is okay, take the
maximum dial of the depth gauge to zero and position the moveable
outer ring of the underwater watch, if you are using the analogical
equipment, enter the water aiming for the exciting blue depths.
Obviously during the dive the complete plan should be followed to
the letter, otherwise it will have been a complete waste of time.
85
CONCLUSION
After having spoken at length in the relative chapter on the prob-
lems concerning nitrogen absorption, air compression, diving ta-
bles, there is not much left to say about deep dives only that this
is only a token example, an introduction to our seas. If you are in-
terested in this subject and you want to further your knowledge or
carry out more deep dives in order to be well trained and therefore
capable of descending to these depth, talk it over with your in-
structor who will be only too happy to help.
86
87
88
RESCUE DIVER
Diving accidents are very rare if you adhere to the safety norms.
Knowing certain situations, remembering that it is better to fore-
see them rather than have to deal with them, makes you a more
serious and competent diver.
PREVENTION
Given that we are at the Advanced open Water Diver level, is
should already be very clear that it is imperative to respect the
rules, it is not an option. Unfortunately, each time we are faced
with an emergency situation, or worse, an accident, you realise
that the reason is always irresponsible behaviour or complete dis-
regard for the rules.
Remember: prevention before everything. There will rarely be an
accident if all the procedures are followed and use of the follow-
ing techniques will hopefully remain theoretical.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ASSISTANCE AND RESCUE

Underwater rescue consists in a series of actions geared towards
initially assisting and the rescuing a diver in difficulty or who has
been the victim of a accident. He two types of intervention in this
case are different; assistance is aimed at helping a person in diffi-
culty before an accident actually occurs; underwater rescue, on
the other hand, is aimed at taking an injured diver out of the water
and thereafter providing the necessary assistance in the form of
first aid.
ASSISTANCE
This is the first option to be applied when trying to foresee and
avoid an accident. This con-
sists in simple actions to be
carried out to assist a com-
panion in difficulty. For ex-
ample: help him if he has
cramp; keep close if he is
afraid; inflate his jacket on
the surface if he has diffi-
culty in keeping afloat and
cannot operate it himself; in
89
general help him regain control of himself and the situation so that
he may calmly continue with the dive. However, do be careful, for
a person who has encountered difficulty during a dive may be prey
to another accident during the same dive, therefore it would be
better to interrupt the dive before meeting with another accident
which could have more serious consequences than the first.
Assistance is also given to ourselves, that is you should always
make sure that everything is going smoothly and absolutely avoid
continuing if any symptoms of stress, fatigue or anxiety are experi-
enced. To carry on without reporting the problem is to endanger
both your own life and that of the others who, in the event of
emergency, will have to lend assistance. Once again: don’t be a
hero, anyone can feel bad during a dive and admitting this should
be no cause for shame.
RESCUE
Rescue should be given when assistance has not been requested
and the diver is already in crisis, or when assistance has not been
enough (this is rarely the case). There are various situations
which may occur, but these can generally be divided into two main
categories: conscious diver and unconscious diver.
I the first case, you may be at the first stage, that is stress, or my
immediately break into panic. I any case you should identify the
cause and try to eliminate it, if possible. For example, difficulty in
buoyancy and having to use strong kicking movements to avoid
descending a sea wall is a
cause of stress. Slightly in-
flate the jacket to solve the
problem. Fatigue and the
subsequent sensation of lack
of air, is solved by stopping
and taking a rest. Fear gener-
ally ceases on physical con-
tact, for example holding
hands with the diver in dis-
tress. As may be seen, they
are generally quite simple
situations which become
situations of assistance.
90
The situation is differ-

ent when the diver is
already panicking, is
moving wildly and is
not reasoning. These
situations can prove
dangerous, so help is
given considering
yourself too. Handle
the diver from behind,
gripping the air-tank
taps and pull him to
the surface or try to stop him sinking further.
If on the other hand the diver is unconscious, rescue procedures
should be followed and he should be transported to the surface
for first aid treatment. In this case the diver must necessarily be
handled from behind, placing one hand under the chin and point-
ing it upwards to favour opening of respiratory airways and the ex-
pulsion of air accumulated in the lungs which will increase in vol-
ume while ascending. If the diver is breathing the operation will
be easier though the same position should be maintained.
Carefully check the jacket, unhooking the victim’s jacket and let-
ting it drop to the sea-bed if you can use your own, otherwise if
this is not possible, unhook your own and use the victim’s, to per-
mit a quick and controlled ascent. Ascending too quickly or in an
uncontrolled manner should be avoided since proving dangerous
for both victim and rescuer. Upon surfacing, unhook the victim’s
weight belt, inflate his jacket and transport him to shore dragging
him by the air-tank taps while immediately calling for help in order
to give maximum time
to whoever is on land to
intervene, for example,
using the boat or pre-
paring oxygen, medical
kits etc.
We do not want to
seem repetitive, but it is
extremely important to
know these techniques
91
and the notions given here are only and idea and do not constitute
a specialised course. The first course you should attend on this
subject is Open Water Diver and Dive Medic (first aid and cardio-
pulmonary resuscitation), Rescue Diver (underwater rescue) so
that you may capably deal with any emergency situation, whether
in water or on land.
Remember: diving is good, pleasant, fun, but being familiar with
certain techniques helps you to a more complete diver, calm and
serene, since you know the procedure well. Awareness and abil-
ity in underwater diving can only be obtained by attending ad-
vanced courses, collaborating with an instructor and going on
planned dives with groups of friends in complete safety.
This is our credo and it is what we expect from our divers!
92
93
94
95
Advanced Open Water Diver

December 2000
96

IDEA Advance Open Water Diver

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IDEA Advanced Open Water

Advanced Open Water Diver Manual

Written by Gaetano Occhiuzzi, President of IDEA Europe.

Duplication and reproduction, even partially, of this manual is prohibited

MASK AND SNORKEL

could also be the problem of breakage due to pressure when div-

FINS AND DIVE BOOTS

two-piece, leaving the 7 mm fleeced wet suit to those who prefer

In conclusion then, it is better to choose the wet suit if using it the

Once again, it is necessary to see if the advantages of the dry suit

When talking about tank maintenance we must say that this is of

As may be un- PURGE BUTTON

place in the first INTERMEDIARE

carries out the

So finding oneself without a spare part or some specialised centre

ALTERNATIVE AIR SOURCE

Concerning the choice of these instruments, if

VISION, HEARING, HEAT LOSS.

transparent liquid (aqueous hu-

until reaching 40m where everything assumes a single colour

and this cannot be solved using a torch. This situation of scarce

sequently, you need to use a

stomach and intestinal gases; the compression of air trapped in

IDEA AND US NAVY TABLES 12 5 15 25 30 40 50 70 80 100 110 130

There are two kinds of diving tables: 18

stages and permanence times, in

case you go over the safety curve G

limit. The latter also indicate safety

curve limits and not decompression D

stages and times, this is because B

the Doppler are conservative tables

cate the groups of residual nitrogen

USE OF THE IDEA DIVE TABLES

intersect the line which cor- J 0:10 0:29

the previous chapter, if at least 12 hours have not passed be-

70 minutes, consequently the time limit (NDL adapted) will be 49

where the curve limit is

you have noticed it is easy to get confused, since with a 15 litre

OTHER TYPES OF TABLES

In fact, based on other studies, aimed at recreational diving, it was

Another problem con-

SEARCH AND RECOVERY

PURPOSE OF SEARCH AND RECOVERY

LIMITS OF SEARCH AD RECOVERY

If the object to be located s small,

proceeding in a zig-zag motion between the two longerons. In this

jacket, this is extremely dangerous. Nor is it advisable to use the

to one side and ascend slowly, maintaining a safe distance. It will

NATURAL REFERENCE POINTS

mation that can be easily memorized during a dive. Light and

1) It must contain liquid (usually a mixture of water, alcohol

USE OF THE COMPASS

It is important to set off in the direction relative to the starting point

required. Both arms are extended forwards and the

triangular route can lead to serious mistakes. Sometimes you think

NIGHT DIVE OR LIMITED VISIBILITY DIVE (POOR VISIBILITY)

chargeable batteries, big or small. The most indicated for night

below and on the surface.

calling for attention also

WHAT IS A DEEP DIVE?

Doppler tables to those of the US Navy; comply with surfacing

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ASSISTANCE AND RESCUE

The situation is differ-

Advanced Open Water Diver