Chapter No.

1 - General Introduction
Sem. 1, Second Professional

By

Abdul Aleem Awan

Lecturer ,
Pharmacy Department
Hazara University.
 Pharmacognosy
• Pharmacognosy is derived from two Greek words,
Pharmakon & Gnosis
• Pharmakon – means ‘drug’.
• Gnosis – means ‘knowledge’.
• In brief, Pharmacognosy means ‘knowledge of drugs’.
 It is a study of drugs that originate in the plant & animal
kingdoms.

Pharmacognosy is a branch of pharmacy which deals with

the basic resources of medicines from nature (plant &
animal) and their uses as medicaments from ancient time
to present day.
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 Pharmacognosy
Pharmacognosy may be defined as an important branch
of Pharmacy which deals with the study of structural,
physical, chemical, biochemical and sensory characters of
natural drugs of plant and animal origin. It also includes
a study of their history, distribution, cultivation,
collection, identification, preparation, evaluation,
preservation, use and commerce.
• At present pharmacognosy involves not only the crude
drugs but also their natural derivatives (pure compounds
or constituents).
• Digitalis leaf and its isolated glycoside, digitoxin; Rauwolfia
root and its purified alkaloid, reserpine; and thyroid gland
with its extracted hormone, thyroxine, are all part of the
subject matter of pharmacognosy.
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 Pharmacognosy - History
History of pharmacognosy is actually the history of
medicine that is medicinal plants.
Pre-history:
• The first or beginning of pre-history on use of
medicinal plants or herbs or animals, and the place
where and how used were not well known, and those
information were unwritten for a long time. As a
result, the pre-history on herbs was almost lost.

• However, some information was recorded by oral

transmission from generation to generation.
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 Pharmacognosy - History

Written History:
• The written history has originated which was based on
region, religion and culture etc.
The written history was divided into the following:

1. The western medicine

2. The Unani (Islam)
3. The Ayurveda (Indian)
4. The orient
5. The Greek History
6. The African System
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 Pharmacognosy - History

1. The western medicine:

 This is originated in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Mesopotamia is
considered as the first origin of human civilization. The
Sumerians (peoples of ancient Mesopotamia) developed
cuneiform tablet of herbal medicines. Those tablets are
preserved in British museum.

 In Egypt, information had been written on paper – Papyrus

ebers (1600BC). It consisted of 800 prescriptions, mentioning
700 drugs.

 The first pharmacopoeia named London Pharmacopoeia was

published in 1618 and then British Pharmacopoeia was
published in 1864.
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 Pharmacognosy - History

2. The Unani (Islam)

• This herbal system was developed by Arabian Muslim
Ibn Sina (980 – 1037 AD). He was a prince and ruler.
He was a very brilliant pharmacist and physician who
wrote a book – “Kitab-Al-Shifa”, means ‘Book of
Healing’.

• The book was written on Arabic language. This is a

great contribution of Ibn Sina towards medical and
pharmaceutical sciences.
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 Pharmacognosy - History
3. The Ayurveda (Indian, 2500-600 BC):
Ayurveda is the term for traditional medicine of ancient
India.
The word “Ayur” means ‘Life’ and “veda” means ‘The
study of’ that is “Study of Life”.

The Ayurvedic writings were divided into three systems:

1) Charaka Samhita, 2) Sushruta Samhita and 3)

Astanga samhita.

The oldest writing was Charaka Samhita (six to seven

century before Christ).
The book describes uses of many metallic drugs eg.,
iron, mercury, sulphur, copper etc with herbs. 8
 Pharmacognosy - History

4. The orient (2700 BC):

 This is originated from Chinese, Japanese and

Tibetians etc. The orient herbalism was very old
(142 – 220 BC) and called “Kampo”. The written
documents were made by the King ‘Shen Nung’
(2700 BC) and Shang (1766 – 1122 BC) etc.
 Shen Nung investigated medicinal value of several
herbs and written a book – “Pen T-Sao” or native
herbal.

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 Pharmacognosy - History
5. The Greek History:
Some of the early naturalists, scientists and physicians who contributed enormously to
the development of human knowledge about medicinal plants include following:

 Hippocrates (Father of Medicine, 460-370 BC):

He was the first natural doctor who utilized simple remedies such as
vinegar, honey, herbs etc in healing. He is also known to have collected
and identified a number of medicinal plants.
 Aristotle (384-322 BC):
He gave the philosophy of medicine. He listed more than 500 plants of
medicinal importance.
 Theophrastus (371-287 BC):
gave scientific basis of use of plants as medicine.
 Galen (131-200 AD):
a Greek pharmacist-physician. He developed the methods of preparing
and compounding medicines by mechanical means. He was the
originator of the formulae for a cold cream. 10
 Pharmacognosy - History

6. The African System (Tropical Africa, North

and South America):

 They keep information in their groups or tribes.

The information transmitted from one generation
to another.
 These regions are richest sources of medicinal
plants and needs to explore for new drug
discovery.

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 Scope of Pharmacognosy

Pharmacognosy deals primarily with information on

the sources and constituents of natural drugs.

1. Primary source of medicines (from ancient time to

present day), for example – hyoscine, morphine,
ergotamine, ouabain etc.

2. Providing Template/guide for the discovery of new

drugs, for example – Pathidine (analgesic drug)
designed from morphine.
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Terms & Phrase
used in
Pharmacognosy

13
 Terminology
Drug
Standard dictionaries define drug as “an original, simple
medicinal substance, organic or inorganic, used by itself
or as an ingredient in medicine”.

According to WHO’s definition – “any substance used in

a pharmaceutical product that is intended to modify or
explore physiological systems or pathological states for
the benefit of the recipient”.
Pharmaceutical product/Medicine means “a dosage form
(tablet/capsule/syrup/Inj - IV/IM) containing one or more
drugs along with other substances included during the
manufacturing process”. 14
 Application of Drug
• Prevention of a disease : for example, vaccine.
• Fight against an infection: for example, antibiotics.
• Temporary blocking of a normal function: for example,
general & local anesthetics
• Detoxification of the body: for example, antidotes.
• Diagnostic agents: for example, radioisotopes.
• Correction of dysfunction: for example, cardiotonics (eg,
digoxin) for the treatment of congestive heart failure.
• Correction of hyperfuntion: for example, Rauwolfia root
(eg., reserpine) for the treatment of hypertension.

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 Terminology

Crude Drug:

The term “Crude”, as used in relation to natural products.

A crude drug is a natural drug of plant or animal origin
which has undergone no treatment other than collection
and drying, that is, the quality or appearance of the drug
has not been advanced in value or improved in condition
by any physical or chemical treatment.

For example: Digitalis leaf, Rauwolfia root etc.

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 Terminology
Indigenous vs Naturalized

Indigenous :
Plants growing in their native countries are said to be indigenous to
those regions.
For example: Aconite (Aconitum napellus) in the mountainous region
of Europe. It is highly poisonous used as diuretic in Homeopathy
preparation

Naturalized:
Plants are said to be naturalized when they grow in a foreign land or
in a locality other than their native homes.
For example: Datura (Datura stramonium) which was introduced into
the USA from Europe.

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 Official Books
It provides guideline for the manufacturing, quality control,
packaging, storage, dose regimen, indication, contraindication etc
of different pharmaceutical products/medicine for the treatment
of diseases.
• USP – United States Pharmacopoeia
• BP – British Pharmacopoeia
• NF – National Formulary
• BNF – British National Formulary
• BDNF – Bangladesh National Formulary
• BPC – British Pharmaceutical Codex
• Martin Dale Extra Pharmacopoeia
• Materia Medica
• Physician’s Index
• Goodman’s & Gilmann’s: The Pharmacological Basis of
Therapeutics. 18
 Terminology
Official vs Unofficial vs Nonofficial drug
Official drug:
Any drug (crude or prepared) which is included in
pharmacopoea or in national formulary or in recognized books
is called an ‘official drug’.
For example: quinine, morphine, codeine, paracetamol are
included in BP, USP, NF and so on.
Unofficial drug:
A drug which has been recognized earlier in the pharmacopoeia
or in national formulary or in recognized books but not found
in the current issue is designated as an ‘unofficial drug’. Those
substances were excluded from the recognized books due to
their severe toxic effects on humans. For example: Sucralfate
(hyperacidity), mercurial compounds (diuretics), benzoic acid
(preservative) etc. 19
 Terminology

Official vs Unofficial vs Nonofficial drug

Nonofficial drug
Substance that has never been appeared in either of
the official books may be called nonoffical. Such
types of compounds may be published in current
journals having proven clinical value, but we do not
know about their side effects.

For example - Curcumine (sinusitis), etc.

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 Terminology

Extractive
The crude mixtures of chemical constituents that are removed
from plants or animals by various extraction processes are
called extractives or derivatives.

Secondary metabolites
These are substances synthesized or produced as by-products
by plants during their metabolic activities. Apparently they
are of no primary use to plants.

They are therefore also regarded as ‘waste products of

metabolism, which are usually accumulated in some parts of
the plant and are physiologically active on living organisms. 21
 Terminology

Monograph

The descriptive material pertaining to any drug,

therapeutic agent included in the pharmacopoeia is
known as the monograph.

The monograph of a drug includes the following

information on the drug:
official title, synonyms, definition, description,
collection or preparation, identity tests, tests for
adulterants, method of assay, storage, uses and doses. 22
 Monograph of
Trigonella foenum-graecum (Family: Papilionacacae)

Common name: Fenugreek (Eng.), Methi (Bengali)

Cultivation: It is cultivated in different area of Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Middle
East, Africa.
Description: The Latin species name foenum-graecum means ‘Greek hay’, which
is a dried plant's (leaves or seeds) and has a strong hay-like scent. It has a
strong, pleasant and a peculiar odor and grows best in well-drained soils with
a low rainfall into brownish- yellow rhombic shape seeds.
Parts used: Ripe, dried seeds
Chemical constituents: Seeds are rich in mucilage (maily galactomannans),
fixed oil, fatty acids and protein. They also contain alkaloids, saponine,
glycosides etc.
Uses: Seeds are diuretics, astringent. They are popularly used in the treatment
of loss of appetite, weight loss, menstrual disorder. Also used in
hypertension, diabetes, etc. It lowers TG, cholesterol, LDL.
Dose: Daily dose, 18 g. 23
 Fenugreek (Kasuri Methi)

Fenugreek seeds Fenugreek with flowers

Dried Fenugreek Fenugreek Powder

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 Pharmacognosy & Modern Medicine
 Simultaneous advancement in the field of
chemistry, biochemistry, biosynthesis and
pharmacology has developed pharmacognosy.
 Various active compounds have been isolated from
plants which are used in modern medicine.
 With the advancement of synthetic organic
chemistry most of the active constituents of plants
have been synthesized.
 100s of plants are used in modern medicine in
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various parts of the world. 25
 Pharmacognosy & Modern Medicine

Important active constituents of plants used in medicine

Active constituents Plants Pharmacological activity

Morphine, Codeine, Papaver somniferum L. Sedative, smooth muscle
Papaverine relaxant
Quinine, Quinidine Cinchona sp. Antimalarial,
antiarrthythmic
Hyoscine, Atropine Datura sp., Parasympatholytic
Digitoxin, Digoxin Digitalis lanata Cardiotonic
Reserpine, Rescinamine Rauwolfia sp. Hypotensive,
vasodialator
Vincristine, Vinblastin Catharanthus roseus Anticancer

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 Pharmacognosy & Modern Medicine

Important active constituents of plants used in medicine

Active constituents Plants Pharmacological activity

Caffeine Camellia sinenssis CNS stimulant

Cocaine Erythroxylum coca Anaesthetic
Ephedrine Ephedra sp. Sympathomimetic
Pilocarpine Pilocarpus jaborandi Parasympathomimetic
Ergometrine Claviceps purpurea Oxytocic
Ergotamine Vasoconstrictor
Ergotoxine Vasodialator

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 Pharmacognosy & Modern Medicine

Important active constituents of plants used in medicine

Active constituents Plants Pharmacological activity

Psyllium mucilage Plantago ovata Laxative

Sennosides Cassia Laxative
angustifolia
Theophylline Caffea arabica CNS stimulant
Diuretic
Steroid hormones Solanum sp. Anti-inflammatory,
antiarthriytic

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 Application of Pharmacognosy
• Plants always provide novel molecular structure,
which played important role for the molecular design
and development of novel potent, less toxic or
nontoxic drugs e.g. natural morphine has got
analgesic & narcotic effect but meperidine a synthetic
drug originates from morphine basic skeleton is non-
narcotic.

• Plant & animal products give potential biological

effect without any undesirable effects.

• Plant & animal products can be taken with very ease.

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 Limitation of Pharmacognosy
Drugs obtained from natural sources have a variety of
limitations. The majors are;
• A natural compound may be highly active but usually this is
associated with high toxicity problem, ex- the toxic and
therapeutic dose of digitalis are very close which create
serious problem to use this medicine by the patient alone.
• Some compounds are found in nature that give beneficial
pharmacological actions but their potencies are too low to be
employed therapeutically.
• The yield of active natural products may be very low and
thus the production cost of those drugs will be very high
• The source of a natural drug may be very limited with
respect to geography, season and climate etc.
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 Sources of Medicaments
• At present the prime source of modern or allopathic
medicines is synthesis in the laboratory by organic chemist.
• Only a few of compounds are isolated from plants, which
cannot be replaced by synthetic method.
• For example: morphine isolated from Papaver somniferum;
vincristin & vinblastin (anticancer drug) from Vinca rosea,
the most potent anticancer drug taxol from Texus
brevifolia;
the constituents of digitalis cannot be properly replaced by
any synthetic drug like quinidine which is used for the
treatment of arrhythmia.

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 Classification of Drugs

In pharmacognosy, drugs may be classified according to -

1. Their morphology
2. The taxonomy of the plants and animals from
which they are obtained
3. Their therapeutic/ pharmacological application
4. Their chemical constituents or active principles.

Each of these methods of classification has

advantages and disadvantages.

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 Classification of Drugs
1. Morphological classification
• In this system, the drugs are grouped according to the part of the
plants, such as roots, leaves, stems, barks, flowers, seeds etc.
• The drugs obtained from the direct parts of the plants are called as
organized drugs. They are made up of whole plants or any parts
derived from them.
eg., Root – Rauwolfia, aconite, ginger; Bark – Cinnamon, Cinchona
Fruit – Amla, Bahera, Capsicum, Leaf – Digitalis, Senna, Tulsi, coca;
Wood – Sandal wood.
• The drugs which are prepared from plants by some intermediate
physical process such as incision, drying or extraction with a solvent
are called unorganized drugs, eg., Dried juice (Aloe juice), Dried
extract (agar), Dried latex (Opium latex), Honey, Beewax etc.
The main drawback of morphological classification is that there is no co-
relation of chemical constituents with the therapeutic actions. 33
 Classification of Drugs

2. Taxonomical classification

• In this system crude drugs are arranged according to the

natural groups (e.g. Families) of their source.
• For example: all the drugs obtained from Solanaceae are
grouped together as Solanaceous drugs.
• Tropane alkaloids are the main constituents of
Solanaceous drugs.

Family Drugs
Solanaceae Solanaceous drugs.
eg. Tropane alkaloids
Umbelliferae Umbelliferous drugs. eg.,
volatile oils 34
34
 Classification of Drugs
3. Pharmacological classification
• In pharmacological classification the drugs are grouped
according to their therapeutic use.
• For example cardiotonic drug include digitalis, purgative
drugs include castrol oil.
Pharmacological action Drugs
Anticancer Vinca
Analgesic Opium, cannabis
Purgatives Senna, Aloe, Castrol oil, Plantago
husk
Cardiotonic Digitalis, strophanthus
Tranquillizer Rauwolfia root
Anti-inflammatory Tumeric, colchicum
The main drawback of this classification is that a drug can be placed in
various classes according to its therapeutic use. For example: Cinchona
(quinine) can be grouped in antimalarial and antiarrhythmic catagories. 35
 Classification of Drugs

4. Chemical classification

• The biological activity of a drug is due to the

presence of certain chemical constituents in the
drug.

• Plants and animals synthesize chemical

compounds such as carbohydrates, protein, fat,
volatile oils, alkaloids, resin etc.

• The chemical classification of drugs is dependent

upon the grouping of drugs with identical
chemical constituents. 36
 Classification of Drugs
Chemical classification of drugs
Chemical constituents Drugs
1. Carbohydrates
a) Monosaccharidase - Dextrose, fructose, galactose
b) Disaccharide - Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose
c) Polysaccharide - Starch
Gum - Acacia, Tragacanth
Mucilages - Plantago seed
Cellulose - Cotton
2. Glycosides
a) Cardiac - Digitalis, strophanthus
b) Anthraquinone - Aloe, Cascara, senna
c) Saponins - Arjuna
d) Cyanophore - Wild cherry bark
3. Tanins Amla, Bohera, Ashoka bark
4. Volatile oil Clove oil, rose oil, peppermint oil, tulsi etc
5. Lipids
a) Fixed oils & fats - Olive oil, castor oil, coconut oil etc
b) Waxes - Bees wax
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 Classification of Drugs

Chemical classification of drugs

Chemical constituents Drugs
6. Resins ginger, capsicum etc.
7. Alkaloids
a) Pyridine & piperidine a) Nicotiana, areca nut
b) Tropane b) Coca, Belladonna, Datura
c) Quinoline c) Cinchona
d) Isoquinoline d) Opium, Ipecac
e) Indole e) Ergot, Nuxvomica, Rauwolfia, catharanthus, Physostigma
f) Steroidal f) Kurchi
g) Purine g) Tea, Coffee
8. Protein Gelatin, gluten etc
9. Vitamins Thiamine (B1), Riboflavin (B2), Ascorbic acid etc

10. Antibiotics Penicillin, streptomycin, tetracycline etc

11. Hormones Adrenaline, thyroxine etc

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 Evaluation of Drugs
• A natural substance is considered as food if it fills stomach
in every day life without any harmful effect.
• A substance becomes a drug if it changes a pathological or
disease state of human/ animal to normal physiological
condition having no undesirable effect in specific dose.
• A long-term studies (chemical, biological and physical etc)
are required to establish whether a substance will be
considered as drug or food or eliminate for consumption.
Those studies are referred to as evaluation.

Evaluation of drug means –

• Identification
• Determination of quality
• Determination of purity 39
 Identification
 Cultivation
 The identification can be established by careful observational study
of the collected drug, and then compared with authentic specimen
by the collector.
 Therefore, for proper identification of a drug from plant or animal
sources, a collector must be educated about plant taxonomy and
very much experienced with his/her job.
 Therefore, drugs from plants/animals are identified by –
o A qualified, specialized & experienced person
o Comparison with the authentic sample specimen.
 In every country, there is a national herbarium where most of plants
specimen are preserved. A number of specialists are working on
plant identification there.
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 Quality
• The word “quality” refers to the intrinsic value of the drug, i.e.,
the amount of medicinal principles or active constituents
present. These principles are classified as carbohydrate,
alkaloid, glycoside, volatile oil, lipid, antibiotics and steroids etc.
• A high grade of quality in a drug is of primary importance. An
effort should be made to obtain and maintain high quality.
• To maintain high quality products one should do the following:
1. Select proper source (wild or cultivated)
2. Appropriate time of collection
3. Collection of required parts of plants (bark, leaf, stem, rhizome,
root)
4. Preparation of the collected drug by proper cleaning, drying.
5. Proper preservation to avoid contamination by microorganisms
and moisture, heat, air and light.
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 Purity

• The purity of drug can be achieved by –

1. Proper identification
2. Quality assurance.

42
 Evaluation Method

• The evaluation of a drug involves a number of

methods, which may be classified as follows:

1. Organoleptic
2. Microscopic
3. Biological
4. Chemical
5. Physical

43
 1. Organoleptic evaluation of drug
• Organoleptic evaluation means the study of a drug with
the help of organs of sense.
• It includes any drug’s macroscopic or external
appearance, color, odor, taste & sounds of its fracture
etc.
• The macroscopic or external characteristic of a drug may
be divided into 7 headings -
1. Shape
2. Size
3. Color
4. Internal color
5. Fracture
6. Odor
7. Taste 44
 2. Microscopic evaluation of drug

Microscopic evaluation of drug can be done in the

laboratory by the use of microscopes and utilizes
various microscopic characters of the drugs,
such as types and arrangement of various cells and
tissues.

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 3. Chemical evaluation of drug

• Chemical evaluation of drugs involves both

qualitative and quantitative determination of their
active principles.

• In this method characteristic qualitative chemical

tests are employed to identify crude drugs and their
constituents.

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 4. Biological evaluation of drug

• The biological evaluation of crude drugs is very useful

in determining the pharmacological activity of the drug.

• Since living organism or their isolated living tissues are

used, this method is also called the biological method or
bioassay.

• Many drugs, particularly the antibiotics, toxins and

toxoids and also vitamins are assayed by this method.

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 5. Physical evaluation of drug

The physical evaluation of crude drugs is

accomplished by the determination of various physical
characteristics using various physico-chemical
techniques, for example, specific gravity (of fats and
volatile oils), melting points (of alkaloids), optical
rotation (of alkaloid and volatile oils), etc.

48
 Preparation of Drugs for Commercial Market
• Following are different steps performed for preparation of
drugs for market.

– Collection

– Harvesting

– Drying

– Garbling

– Packaging, storage, and preservation

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 1. Collection
Collection of drugs from cultivated plants always insures a
true natural source and a reliable product. This may, or may
not, be the case when drugs are collected from wild plants.
Carelessness or ignorance on the part of the collector can
result in complete or partial substitution. This is especially
true when drugs arc difficult to collect or the natural source is
scarce.
Many drugs are collected from wild plants sometimes on a
fairly extensive scale (tragacanth, senna) when collection is the
vocation of the gatherer, and sometimes on a limited scale
when collection is an avocation (podophyllum, hydrastis).
Because drugs come from all over the world, collection areas
are almost universal, and collectors may vary from
uneducated natives to highly skilled botanists.

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 1. Collection contd..

Time of collecting:

The proper time of collecting is particularly important

because the nature and quantity of constituents vary greatly
in some species according to the season.

The most advantageous collection time is when the part of the

plant that constitutes the drug is highest in its content of
active principles and when the material will dry to give the
maximum quality and appearance.

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 2. Harvesting

The mode of harvesting varies with each drug produced and

with the pharmaceutical requirements of each drug. Some
drugs may be collected by hand labor; however, when the cost
of labor is an important factor, the use of mechanical devices
is often more successful in economic production of the drug.

With some drugs, where the skillful selection of plant parts is

an important factor (digitalis), mechanical devices cannot
replace hand labor.

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 3. Drying

By drying the plant material, one removes sufficient moisture

to ensure good keeping qualities and to prevent molding, the
action of enzymes, the action of bacteria, and chemicals or
other possible changes.
Drying fixes the constituents, facilitates grinding and milling,
and converts the drug into a more convenient form for
commercial handling.
Proper and successful drying involves two main principles:

Control of temperature
and
Regulation of air flow.

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 3. Drying contd..

Control of the drying operation is determined by the nature of

the material to be dried and by the desired appearance of the
finished product. The plant material can be dried either by the
sun or by the use of artificial heat.

With some natural products, such as vanilla, processes of

fermentation or sweating are necessary to bring about
changes in the constituents. Such drugs require special drying
processes, usually called "curing."

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 4. Garbling

Garbling is the final step in the preparation of a crude drug.

Garbling consists of the removal of extraneous matter, such as
other parts of the plant, dirt, and added adulterants.

This step is done to some extent during collection, but should

be carried out after the drug is dried and before the drug is
baled or packaged. Although garbling may be done by
mechanical means in some cases, it is usually a semiskilled
operation.

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 5: Packaging, storage, and preservation
The packaging of drugs depends on their final disposition.
In commerce, if transportation, storage, and ultimate use for
manufacturing purposes are involved, it is customary to
choose the type of packaging that provides ample protection
to the drug and gives economy of space.
Leaf and herb material is usually baled with power balers into
a solid compact mass that is then sewn into a burlap cover.
Senna leaves from India come in bales of 400 lb; stramonium
from Argentina in bales of 700 lb.
Drugs that are likely to deteriorate from absorbed moisture
(digitalis, ergot) are packed in moisture-proof cans. Gums,
resins, and extracts are shipped in barrels, boxes, or casks.

56
5: Packaging, storage, and preservation contd…
Proper storage and preservation are important factors in
maintaining a high degree of quality of the drug. Hard-packed
bales, barks and resinous drugs usually reabsorb little
moisture. But leaf, herb and root drugs that are not well
packed tend to absorb amounts of moisture that reach 10, 15,
or even 30% of the weight of the drug. Excessive moisture not
only increases the weight of the drug, thus reducing the %age
of active constituents, but also favors enzymatic activity and
facilitates fungal growth.
Light adversely affects drugs that are highly colored,
rendering them unattractive and possibly causing undesirable
changes in constituents.
The oxygen of the air increases oxidation of the constituents of
drugs, especially when oxidases are present. Therefore, the
warehouse should be cool, dark, and well ventilated with dry
air. 57
5: Packaging, storage, and preservation contd…

The protection of drugs against attacks by insects must not be

overlooked. The insects that infest vegetable drugs belong
chiefly to the orders Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Diptera.
For destruction of insects and prevention of their attacks, a
number of methods have been employed.
The simplest & the most efficient method is to expose the
drug to a temperature of 65°C which not only prevents insect
attacks, but also many other forms of deterioration.
For the fumigation of large lots of crude drugs, such as those
stored in warehouses and manufacturing plants, the use of
methyl bromide has met with considerable success.
Small lots of drugs may readily be stored in tight, light-
resistant containers e.g. tin cans, covered metal bins, or amber
glass containers.
58
5: Packaging, storage, and preservation contd…

Drugs should not be stored in wooden boxes or in drawers and

never in paper bags. Not only is deterioration hastened, but
odors are communicated from one drug to another, attacks by
insects are facilitated, and destruction by mice and rats may
occur.

If drugs in small quantities are stored in tight containers,

insect attack can he controlled by adding to the container a
few drops of chloroform or CCl4 from time to time.

In the case of digitalis and ergot, whose low moisture content

must be maintained at all times, the insertion of a suitable
cartridge or device containing a non-liquefying, inert,
dehydrating substance may be introduced into the tight
container.
59
5: Packaging, storage, and preservation contd…

Because high temperatures accelerate all chemical reactions,

including those involved in deterioration, drugs must always
be stored at as low temperature as possible.

The ideal temperature is just above freezing, but since this is

impractical in most cases, the warehouse or other storage
place should be as cool as possible.

Certain drugs such as the biologics, must be stored at a

temperature between 2 and 8ċ.

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 Animal Drugs

Animal drugs are produced from wild or domesticated

animals. Wild animals must be hunted (whale, musk deer) or
fished for (cod and halibut), and thus, in a sense, their
collection parallels the collection of vegetable drugs.

Many animal drugs, however, are produced from

domesticated animals &, therefore, correspond to the
cultivated vegetable drugs. When drugs consist of insects, the
drugs are either collected from wild insects (cantharides) or
definite attempts are made to cultivate them, i.e., to furnish
the insects with food and shelter and to maintain optimum
conditions for their propagation (honeybee).

61
 Animal Drugs contd..

Drugs such as lanolin and milk products, as well as hormones,

endocrine products, and some enzymes, are obtained from
domesticated pigs, sheep, or cattle.

The slaughterhouse is the usual source of glandular products

and enzymes, and the larger packing establishments have
departments for the recovery and refinement of these
therapeutic agents and pharmaceuticals.

Processing and purification of the animal drugs vary with the

individual drug.

62
 Adulteration of Crude Drug
• The term 'adulteration' or debasement of an article covers a
number of conditions, which may be deliberate or
accidental. Usually in crude drugs, this practice includes
substitution of the original crude drugs partially or fully
with other substances which is either free from or inferior in
therapeutic and chemical properties.
1) Inferiority is a natural substandard condition (e.g. where a
crop is taken whose natural constituent is below the
minimum standard for that particular drug) which can be
avoided by more careful selection of the plant material.

63
 Adulteration of Crude Drug contd..
2) Spoilage is a substandard condition produced by microbial
or other pest infestation, which makes a product unfit for
consumption, which can be avoided by careful attention to
the drying, and storage conditions.
3) Deterioration is an impairment of the quality or value of an
article due to destruction or abstraction of valuable
constituents by bad treatment or aging or to the deliberate
extraction of the constituents and the sale of the residue as
the original drugs.
4) Admixture is the addition of one article to another through
accident, ignorance or carelessness e.g. inclusion of soil on
an underground organ or the co-collection of two similar
species. 64
 Adulteration of Crude Drug contd..
5) Sophistication is the deliberate addition of spurious or
inferior material with intent to defraud; such materials are
carefully produced and may appear at first sight to be
genuine e.g. powder ginger may be diluted with starch with
addition of little coloring material to give the correct shade
of yellow color.
6) Substitution is the addition of an entirely different article in
place of that which is required e.g. supply of cheap
cottonseed oil in place of olive oil.

65
 Types of Adulteration Of Crude Drugs
Different methods used for adulteration may be grouped as follows:

1) Substitution with inferior commercial varieties.

2) Adulteration by artificially manufactured substitutes.

3) Substitution by exhausted drugs.

4) Substitution by superficially similar but cheaper natural substances.

5) Adulteration by addition of worthless heavy materials.

6) Addition of synthetic principles.

7) Usage of vegetative matter from the same plant.

66
 Types of Adulteration Of Crude Drugs contd..
1. Substitution with Inferior Commercial Varieties
Due to morphological resemblance to the authentic drugs,
different inferior commercial varieties are used as
adulterant which may or may not have any chemical or
therapeutic potential as that original natural drug e.g.
Arabian Senna (Cassia angustifolia), dog Senna (Cassia
obovata) and avaram (Cassia auriculata) have been used to
adulterate Senna (Cassia senna); Japanese ginger (Zingiber
mioga) to adulterate medicinal ginger (Zingiber officinale).
2. Adulteration by Artificially Manufactured Substitutes
To provide the general form and appearance of various
drugs, some materials are artificially manufactured and are
used as substitute of the original one, e.g. artificial invert
sugar for honey; paraffin wax after yellow coloration
substituted for bees wax. 67
 Types of Adulteration Of Crude Drugs contd..
3. Substitution by Exhausted Drugs
Here the same plant material is mixed which is having no
active medicinal components as they have already been
extracted out. This practice is most common in case of
volatile oil containing materials like clove, fennel etc., where
the dried exhausted material resembles the same like
original drug (similarly with drugs like Cascara sagrada and
ginger). Sometimes when coloring matters have been
extracted or removed during exhaustion, the residue is re-
colored with artificial dyes as is done with saffron and red
rose petals.

68
 Types of Adulteration Of Crude Drugs contd..
4. Substitution by Superficially Similar but Cheaper Natural
Substances
Usually here the adulterated product has no relation with
the genuine article, may or may not have any therapeutic
or chemical component desired, e.g. leaves of species -
Ailanthus are substituted for belladonna, senna, mint etc.;
Leaves of Phytolacca and Scopolia for belladona; Leaves of
Xanthium for stramonium and dandelion for henbane;
Indian dill with European dill or caraway etc.
5. Adulteration by Addition of Worthless Heavy Materials
A large mass of stone mixed with Liquorice root, pieces of
limestone are found in asafoetida and lead shot has
occurred in pieces of opium etc.

69
 Types of Adulteration Of Crude Drugs contd..
6. Addition of Synthetic Principles
Sometimes to fortify inferior natural products, synthetic
principles are added e.g. adding citral to oil of lemon;
benzyl benzoate to balsam of Peru etc.
7. Usage of Vegetative Matter from the Same Plant
This is done by mixing adventitious matters or naturally
occurring with the drug in excessive amount or parts of
plant other than that which constitutes the drugs. For
example liver warts and epiphytes growing in bark portion
are mixed with Cascara or Cinchona; stems of buchu are
sometimes cut into short lengths and added to the drug.

70
 Deterioration of Crude Drugs
• Besides being adulterated by different means as discussed earlier, the
crude drugs are prone to deterioration on storage. The shelf-life of crude
drugs are influenced by many factors which include not only the quality
of storage conditions but also the stability of the secondary (2°)
metabolites present therein. Several factors are to be considered for the
detrimental effects on the stored products.
• Several primary environmental factors relating to storage can produce
detrimental effects on stored products e.g.
1) Light,
2) Moisture / humidity,
3) Temperature &
4) Oxygen etc.
But more deterioration usually results from a combination of these
factors, which leads to the development of living organism including
molds, mites, bacteria etc. 71
 Primary Factors for Deterioration
1. Light
Photo-decomposition occurs with santonin, the principal constituents of
wormseed, which on exposure to light darkens and eventually becomes
black. In general, drugs should be protected by suitable light-proof
wrapping or by the use of amber colour containers. Powdered rhubarb
stored in clear glass jars rapidly changes as the exposed surfaces
turning from yellow to more reddish colour.

For these detrimental effects, WHO has specified that medicinal plant
materials requiring protection from light should be maintained in a
light resistant container that shields the contents from the effects of
light. Alternatively, the container maybe placed inside a suitable light
resistant (opaque) covering and/or stored in a dark place.

72
 Primary Factors for Deterioration contd..
2. Moisture/Humidity
Moisture present in drugs depends largely upon the amount of moisture
in the atmosphere, which is usually expressed in the terms of humidity.
When the atmosphere is completely saturated, the humidity is 100%,
when half saturated it is 50% and so on. Drugs stored in non-airtight
containers are termed air-dry and contain about 10-12% of water
depending on the humidity of the atmosphere. This amount of water is
sufficient to activate the enzymes present in some dried plant materials,
such as Digitalis and bring about the decomposition of the active
glycosides. Such drug should therefore be stored with a dehydrating
agent or in sealed containers immediately after drying.
Squill contains a hygroscopic mucilage and the powder there from, if
exposed to the atmosphere, will pickup moisture and become a sticky
mass.
Therefore strict humidity control is necessary while storing; low
moisture may be maintained, if necessary by the use of desiccant in the
container provided that direct contact with the product is avoided.

73
 Primary Factors for Deterioration contd..
3. Temperature
It has a marked effect which is sometime unsuspected. Many enzymatic
changes in the plant secondary metabolites proceed more rapidly at the
slightly raised temperature up to about 45°C. Obviously those drugs
containing volatile constituents in unprotected structures, e.g. plants
belonging to Labiatae family and the petals of rose and chamomile all
loose oil with an increase in temperature. Absorbent cotton wool
contains a small amount of fatty material which is the residual
component from the natural fiber. At a raised temperature these
molecules become re-oriented, spreading themselves over the surface of
the fiber to form an impervious layer. Thus cotton wool, once fully
absorbent will gradually become completely non-absorbent because of
the effect of temperature.

74
 Primary Factors for Deterioration contd..
4. Air Oxidation
Direct oxidation of the constituents of crude drug is sometime brought
about by the oxygen of the air, e.g. Linseed oil rapidly become
resinified as like the oil of Turpentine and oil of Lemon. Usually this
conversion is applied to the essential oil with terpenoid derivatives and
we can find the resinous deposit build-up around the stoppers used in
dispensing bottle containing this oil. Beside this, the rancidification of
fixed oils e.g. cod-liver oil, which involves the formation of unstable
peroxides, is also an oxidative process. Thus, these types of materials
require storage in a well-filled, airtight container.

75
 Secondary Factors for Deterioration
• Living organisms usually develop in stored drugs where the conditions
are satisfactory for them. From a hygienic point of view, such
contaminated material should be destroyed irrespective of whether or
not the active principles of drug have been effected. The more common
of such organisms belongs to the groups of bacteria, moulds, mites,
nematodes, worms, insects etc.
1) Bacteria and Moulds
2) Mites and Nematode Worms
3) Insects/Moths
4) Coleoptera or Beetles

76
 Secondary Factors for Deterioration contd..
1. Bacteria and Moulds
Dried herbs are particularly liable to be contaminated with the spores
of the bacteria and moulds, which are always present in the air. Under
satisfactory storage conditions their presence causes no problem, but it
is generally accepted that the viable count permissible for crude drugs
should be the same as that for the food stuff. The effect produced by
bacteria are not always very visible with the exception of some
chromogenic species of bacteria, e.g. Bacillus prodigious, which
produces red patches in starchy materials. However, bacterial growth
is usually accompanied by the crude drug by growth of moulds whose
presence is quickly evident by the characteristic smell and by the mass
of clinging particles entrapped in the mycelial hyphae.

77
Secondary Factors for Deterioration contd..
Dusty cotton wool, which is formed by bacterial attack causing the
trichomes to break into short length, rendered it to be very brittle. In
order to identify a particular mould or bacteria, which is proliferating
in a stored product, it is necessary to culture it on a suitable medium
with a view to obtain fruiting bodies for examination. However, if the
drug to be examined is infested rapidly, then it may be possible to make
microscopic preparation directly from the sample. Usually the moulds
encountered with poorly stored drugs include the genera Mucor (e.g.
grey mould, M. mused), Rhizopus (e.g. black mould, R. nigricans),
Penicillium (e.g. blue mould, P. glaucum), Aspergillus (e.g. green mould,
A. repens) and Saccharomyces.

78
 Secondary Factors for Deterioration contd..
2. Mites and Nematode Worms
If found in stored drugs, mites are usually present in countless numbers
upto 1.0 mm in length. Different mites found usually include
Tyroglyphces siro (Cheese mite); Aleurobius farinae (Flour mite) and
Glycyphagus spinipes (Cantharides mite). All these mites can be
examined microscopically by clearing the sample of powder containing
them with chloral hydrate reagent. The best known examples of
nematode worms are "Vinegar eel" − Turbatrix aceti, Anguillula aceti,
Anguina tritici which are found in wheat flour or in the crude drug
containing starchy materials. These worms are visible to the unaided
eye as minute threads continually curling and twisting in the medium
they inhabit.

79
 Secondary Factors for Deterioration contd..
3. Insects/Moths
A few species of the Lepidiptera attack the stored crude drugs and
cause damage at the larval stage, where the infestation can spread
rapidly due to the mobility of the adults. The moths involved are
unspectacular in appearance, 22-30 mm in length with off-white wings
e.g. Ephestia kuehniella (Flour moth); E. ellutella (Cocoa moth).
Besides this some other insects, cockroaches, ants and others are
sometimes found to cause deterioration to the stored products.
4. Coleoptera or Beetles
These are the insects that constitute the largest order of the animal
kingdom comprising about 2,50,000, species of which about 600 have
been found to be associated with stored food product or drugs.
Stegobium paniceum is one beetle, which is found in many drugs
including gentian, liquorice and rhubarb as well as leafy drugs and
seeds. Belonging to the same family is Lasioderma serricorne (tobacco
or cigar beetle) which is reddish brown in colour, 2 to 2.5 mm in length
and found in many stored crude drugs including ginger and liquorice. 80
 Control Measures for Deterioration
• The container used for storage and its closure must not interact
physically or chemically with the material within in any way which
would alter its composition. A well closed container must protect the
contents from extraneous matter or from loss of the material while
handling and a tightly closed container must protect the material from
efflorescence, deliquescence or evaporation under normal condition of
handling or storage. Storage area should be kept clean and spillages not
allowed to enter cracks or in accessible crevices. Periodic spraying of the
premises with insecticides will help to prevent the spread of infestation.

• The principles, which apply to the control of infestation in warehouses,

are equally applicable to small-scale storage. Good house keeping is
utmost essential. Each stock should be inspected regularly and the
material found to be contaminated is best to be destroyed by burning. In
this respect a quick turn over to eliminate the effects of deterioration due
to both the primary and secondary factors as mentioned above are
desirable.
81
 Control Measures for Deterioration contd..
• Cool, dry condition is the most suitable for the retardation of living
organisms. As all leaves organisms require water for the development,
perfectly dry drugs should be immune from secondary deterioration.
Sometimes the crude drugs purchased by the herbalist may already have
been sterilized, which is most commonly achieved by treatment of the
bulk consignment with ethylene oxide or methyl bromide under
controlled conditions.
– Drugs so treated, should comply with an acceptable limit for toxic
residues e.g. for Senna pods 50 ppm of ethylene oxide is the limit.

82