Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Peter A. Scholle
Director, New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources,
New Mexico Institute of Mining & Technology, Socorro, NM 87801
Dana S. Ulmer-Scholle
Senior Research Scientist, New Mexico Institute of Mining &
Technology, Socorro, NM 87801
AAPG Memoir 77
Published by
The American Association of Petroleum Geologists
Tulsa, Oklahoma, U.S.A.
2003
Copyright © 2003
By the American Association of Petroleum Geologists
All rights reserved
Printed in Canada
ISBN: 0-89181-358-6
AAPG grants permission for a single photocopy of an item from this publication for personal use. Authorization
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Dana S. Ulmer-Scholle developed an early love of carbonate rocks and fossils while
growing up on the classic Upper Ordovician outcrops around Cincinnati, Ohio. She re-
ceived a B.S. degree in 1981 from the University of Cincinnati (under the tutelage of Drs.
Wayne Pryor and Paul Potter). While at the University of Cincinnati, an Amoco Fellow-
ship provided her with an opportunity to work at Amoco Oil and Gas Co. each summer
during her undergraduate career. Dana completed an M.S. degree at Southern Methodist
University in Dallas, TX, in 1983, working on the Mississippian Arroyo Peñasco Group
of New Mexico (with Robert Laury). After a stint working for ARCO Exploration Co.,
she returned to SMU for a Ph.D. (received in 1992). Her dissertation research, done with
Peter Scholle and Robert Laury, concentrated on evaporite-related diagenesis in upper
Paleozoic carbonate rocks from New Mexico, Wyoming and Greenland.
Dana has worked, or consulted, for a number of companies including ARCO
Exploration, ARCO International, Mobil Research, and Maersk Oil and Gas. She was
the technical editor for SEPM Special Publications from 1994-1997 and managed
SMU’s student computer labs for several years where she developed an interest in
computer-based learning. She had co-led student trips to the Cayman Islands as well as
AAPG Field Seminars (with Peter and Robert Goldstein) to the Permian Reef Complex
in West Texas/New Mexico and Mississippian and Pennsylvanian bioherms in New
Mexico. Dana is a Senior Research Scientist at the New Mexico Institute of Mining
and Technology and is an adjunct faculty member in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences. She currently teaches
carbonate-related courses including petrography, depositional/diagenetic models, and field studies. Her research interests continue
to include carbonate sedimentology and diagenesis, petrography, low-temperature isotope and trace element geochemistry, fluid
inclusion analysis, and fluid flow histories in carbonate rocks. Since arriving at New Mexico Tech, however, she has also become
involved in environmental investigations that include heavy-metals bioremediation.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction .............................................................................vi
Primary Constituents
Skeletal Grains/Bioclasts
1. Microbes and Calcareous Algae ...................................1
Calcimicrobes and cyanobacteria ....................................................2
Marine green algae ........................................................................12
Charophytes ...................................................................................18
Red algae .......................................................................................22
,,
Phylloid algae ................................................................................28
2. Foraminifers .....................................................................33
Agglutinated forms ........................................................................36
Small calcareous benthics..............................................................38
Large benthics ...............................................................................41
Encrusting forms............................................................................46
Planktics ........................................................................................48
3. Other Micro- and Nannofossils ..................................51
Calpionellids ..................................................................................52
Coccolithophores/calcareous nannoplankton ................................54
Calcispheres ...................................................................................60
Tunicate spicules ...........................................................................63
Radiolarians ...................................................................................64
Diatoms and other siliceous algae .................................................67
Dinoflagellates and related groups ................................................72
4. Annelids and Related Groups .....................................75
Serpulids and sabellariids ..............................................................76
Cornulites, tentaculites and styliolinids .........................................80
5. Sponges and Related Groups ......................................83
Archaeocyaths ...........................................................................84
Sponges..........................................................................................88
Stromatoporoids.............................................................................96
6. Corals, Octocorals, and Hydrozoans .....................101
Tabulate corals .............................................................................102
Rugose corals ..............................................................................107
Scleractinian corals ......................................................................113
Octocorals ....................................................................................118
Hydrozoans ..................................................................................121
7. Bryozoans ........................................................................123
8. Brachiopods ....................................................................141
9. Mollusks ...........................................................................153
Gastropods ..................................................................................154
Bivalves (pelecypods) .................................................................160
Cephalopods ................................................................................170
Scaphopods .................................................................................174
10. Echinoderms ......................................................................177
Echinoids .....................................................................................178
Crinoids .......................................................................................184
Blastoids ......................................................................................189
Holothurians ................................................................................190
.
Asteroids and ophiuroids .............................................................190
11. Arthropods .........................................................................193
Trilobites .....................................................................................194
Ostracodes ...................................................................................198
.
Barnacles .....................................................................................202
12. Problematica.................................................................207
Receptaculitids ............................................................................208
Nuia .............................................................................................209
Palaeoaplysina ............................................................................209
Tubiphytes ...................................................................................211
Lithocodium ................................................................................212
Hensonella...................................................................................213
18. Matrix
Micrite, microspar, and micritic precipitates ...............................265
Carbonate Classification
20. Carbonate Rock/Sediment Classifications............283
Folk (1959/1962)..........................................................................284
Dunham, Embry and Klovan, Wright ..........................................286
Examples .....................................................................................288
21. Carbonate Porosity Types and Classification ...293
Diagenesis
22. Diagenetic Processes and Terminology ...............303
23. Syngenetic/Eogenetic Marine Diagenesis...........313
Bio-alteration and micrite envelopes ...........................................315
High-Mg calcite cements .............................................................317
Aragonite cements .......................................................................319
Hardgrounds.................................................................................322
Internal sediment .........................................................................323
Botryoidal cements ......................................................................324
Other cements ..............................................................................327
24. Eogenetic Meteoric Diagenesis ..............................331
Vadose fabrics ..............................................................................333
Phreatic fabrics ............................................................................339
Calcrete/caliche/paleosol/paleokarst fabrics................................343
Travertines and other fabrics .......................................................348
25. Mesogenetic/Telogenetic Burial Diagenesis .....351
Mechanical and chemical compaction features ...........................354
Fractures ......................................................................................362
Cements .......................................................................................364
Paragenetic relationships .............................................................367
26. Dolomite and Siderite ...............................................371
Dolomite ......................................................................................373
Baroque (saddle) dolomite ..........................................................386
Leached and/or calcitized dolomite .............................................388
Siderite .........................................................................................391
27. Sulfates and Chlorides ..............................................393
28. Silica Replacement and Cementation .................407
29. Other Diagenetic Materials.....................................417
Sulfides and oxides ......................................................................419
Fluorite.........................................................................................422
Phosphate and glauconite ............................................................423
Authigenic feldspar ......................................................................425
Hydrocarbons...............................................................................425
Glossary.....................................................................................................449
Index .............................................................................................................461
viii PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
INTRODUCTION
Carbonate petrography — the study of limestones, dolomites variety of shell morphologies and wall structures. The changing
and associated deposits under optical or electron microscopes assemblages of organisms through time (see diagram near the
—greatly enhances field studies or core observations and can end of this introduction), coupled with the randomness of thin
provide a frame of reference for geochemical studies. Petrography section cuts through complex shell forms, add to the difficulty of
is an especially powerful tool because it enables the identification identifying skeletal grains. Furthermore, because many primary
of constituent grains, the detailed classification of sediments and carbonate grains are composed of unstable minerals (especially
rocks, the interpretation of environments of deposition, and the aragonite and high-Mg calcite), diagenetic alteration commonly
determination of the often complex history of post-depositional is quite extensive in carbonate rocks. The variability of inorganic
alteration (diagenesis). The last of these, the ability to determine and biogenic carbonate mineralogy through time, however,
the timing of diagenetic events such as cementation or secondary complicates prediction of patterns of diagenetic alteration.
porosity development relative to the emplacement of hydrocarbons
or metallic ores, makes petrography an important component of This book is designed to help deal with such challenges. It
geochemical and sedimentologic studies in energy- and mineral- is by no means a complete treatise or textbook — that would
resource exploration applications as well as in academic research. be essentially impossible in a single volume. It does, however,
include a wide variety of examples of commonly encountered
The petrographic study of carbonate rocks is particularly skeletal and nonskeletal grains, cements, fabrics, and porosity
useful because carbonate grains, unlike clastic terrigenous ones, types. It also encompasses a number of noncarbonate grains, that
normally are produced in close proximity (from less than a meter occur as accessory minerals in carbonate rocks or that may provide
to hundreds of meters) to the site of their ultimate deposition. important biostratigraphic or paleoenvironmental information in
In addition, carbonate grains are formed mainly by organisms, carbonate strata. With this guide, students and other workers
and thus the grains convey ecological information about the with little formal petrographic training should be able to examine
environment of formation as well as stratigraphical information on thin sections or acetate peels under the microscope and interpret
the age of the deposit. the main rock constituents and their depositional and diagenetic
history.
In some ways, carbonate petrography is not a very complex
undertaking, especially when compared to the petrography of Carbonate petrography is primarily a qualitative skill. One must
clastic terrigenous deposits. Most carbonate rocks are dominated learn to recognize the distinguishing characteristics of skeletal
by just one or two common carbonate minerals (mainly calcite and grains of various ages, cut in various orientations, and preserved
dolomite) plus a limited number of accompanying minerals — in various stages of alteration. There are no simple diagnostic
silica, detrital grains, phosphate, glauconite, and a few evaporite tests (such as measuring birefringence or an optic figure) that
precipitates. The diagram below shows the general compositions can be used to identify a bryozoan, for example. It is simply a
of the full spectrum of carbonate minerals found in modern and question of experience. Comparison of grains in thin sections with
ancient strata. photographs of identified grains, in this and other books, allows
geologists to readily identify the majority of the rock-forming
grains in their samples. A selected bibliography is provided to
��������� �� permit the interested reader to pursue details that are only briefly
������� covered in this book and to supplement the interpretive aspects
���������������
�������� of petrographic work. A chart is also provided at the end of this
chapter to facilitate accurate estimation of abundances of grains.
���������� For greater accuracy, however, quantitative point counting or
image analysis should be done and references to these methods are
������������������ �������� provided in the Techniques chapter.
���������������� �������������
�������� Most pictures in this book were chosen to illustrate typical rather
than spectacular, but unusual, examples of grains and fabrics.
���������������� For example, grains that were originally composed of aragonite
normally undergo wholesale diagenetic alteration and extensive
destruction of primary structural features. Therefore, we show
��������� �������� examples of these grains in their extensively altered state because
that is the norm for what the user will encounter. Introductory
�� �� text in each chapter provides the reader with details about original
grain mineralogies in order to help the reader anticipate such
preservation problems. Examples also were specifically chosen
In other ways, however, carbonate petrography can be quite from a variety of countries, basins, and units to provide a sense
complicated. Many different organisms produce carbonate of the global consistency of carbonate fabrics. Furthermore,
material and that requires learning how to recognize a wide examples have been included from rocks of Precambrian to
INTRODUCTION ix
Holocene age because of the enormous evolutionary changes in RL - reflected light
organisms (and, therefore, carbonate deposits and their alteration) GP - gypsum plate (Quartz Red I plate) inserted
through time. OS - organic matter stained
AS - calcite stained red with Alizarin Red S
In terms of the overall costs of energy exploration or academic AFeS - stained with a combination of Alizarin Red S and
geoscience today, the financial investment needed for petrographic potassium ferricyanide
work is relatively insignificant. A basic polarizing microscope CYS - stained with Clayton Yellow for Mg-calcite
can be purchased currently for $2000 to $25,000 depending on BSE - blue- or green-dyed epoxy filling porosity
optical quality, accessories, and other factors. Thin sections can CL - cathodoluminescence photomicrograph
be purchased for $8 to $20 each from a number of commercial FL - fluorescence photomicrograph
labs. Acetate peels (see technique section of the bibliography) MP - microprobe (back-scattered electron image)
can be made in any office in minutes from polished rock slabs, SEM - scanning electron micrograph image
and can provide a remarkable amount of information. Outcrop Mac - macroscopic photograph of rock slab or outcrop
samples, conventional cores, sidewall cores, and cuttings samples
all can be examined microscopically, although the quality of Photographic Scales
textural information decreases with decreasing sample size. Even
the investment of time involved in petrographic work need not All dimensions are given as HA = xx where HA is the full
be great relative to the potential for problem solving. Few other horizontal axis of the photograph (including, for the sake
techniques are as valuable and accurate for the identification of of uniformity, any borders within the picture area). L and
preserved, destroyed, or created porosity, or the prediction of R are used where left and right pictures occupy the frame;
depositional and diagenetic trends. T and B refer to top and bottom pictures. Dimensions are
given in micrometers (µm) or millimeters (mm). There are
Research conducted over the past several decades has outlined 1000 micrometers in a millimeter.
many principles of deposition and diagenesis in carbonate
sediments. Facies models have been established for modern (as Acknowledgments
well as ancient) reefs and other bank-margin deposits, for tidal-flat
and sabkha sedimentation, for basinal deposition, and for other Enormous thanks go to Philip W. Choquette, Alfred G. Fischer,
environments. Diagenetic studies have pointed out the influence of Robert L. Folk, Noel P. James, L. Greer Price, and William D. Raatz
syndepositional marine cementation, early freshwater diagenesis, for reviewing the entire book or large portions thereof. Individual
and later subsurface compaction-dissolution phenomena. This chapters were reviewed by Jack A. Babcock (algae), Merlynd
work has clearly shown that, although carbonate depositional and and Galina Nestell (foraminifers), Jeremy Young (miscellaneous
diagenetic patterns may be complex, commonly there is a large microfossils), Stanley A. Kling (siliceous microfossils), Carl
volume of information recorded in the rocks, which can be used to W. Stock (stromatoporoids), Ronald A. Johns (sponges), James
decipher this record. E. Sorauf (corals), Roger J. Cuffey (bryozoans), Jed E. Day
(brachiopods), G. Lynn Brewster-Wingard (mollusks), Bruce R.
Petrography, when used in close conjunction with well-log Wardlaw (conodonts), Leanne Pyle (skeletal grains), H. Curtis
analysis, seismic interpretation, regional geology, and other Monger (soil fabrics), and Nelia W. Dunbar (techniques). Both
studies, can be an invaluable tool for applying these recently groups of reviewers caught many potential errors and made
developed principles of carbonate sedimentology to ancient excellent suggestions for improvements. Noel P. James was an
rocks. Furthermore, it is best applied by the explorationist who invaluable help in sending large numbers of pictures, in helping to
is deeply involved in techniques other than petrography, for that organize the book, and as a partner in the production of interactive
person is in the best position to ask the right questions — questions digital products that will supplement this volume. Roger J. Cuffey
that petrography may be able to answer. That is the goal of this (bryozoans), Reinhold R. Leinfelder (Lithocodium), Carl W. Stock
volume. (stromatoporoids), and Graham R. Young (tabulate corals) were
wonderfully generous in providing materials for the digital projects
Explanation of Captions and allowing us to use them in this book — those sections owe much
to their guidance. Many other scientists also very kindly contributed
Each photograph in this book has a description in standard photographs (each acknowledged individually in specific figure
format. The first lines give the stratigraphic unit (including captions). Finally, we would like to express our appreciation to the
geologic age) and state or country of origin. Sample localities petrographers who spent many hours looking down a microscope
are in the United States of America unless otherwise noted. with us and whose teaching and research dedication made this
This is followed by a description of the photograph. The volume possible: A. G. Fischer, R. L. Folk, and R. G. C. Bathurst
last line of the caption gives the type of lighting used, any for P. A. S. and P. E. Potter, R. B. Koepnick, and D. E. Eby for D. S.
staining or impregnation of the thin section, and the scale of the U.-S. We can only hope that this book will aid another generation
photograph. The following caption abbreviations are used: of petrographers as effectively as we were helped.
Some photographs in this book have been electronically edited
PPL - plane-polarized light or enhanced to accentuate contrast, improve focus, or remove
XPL - cross-polarized light unwanted blemishes (air bubbles or scratches, for example).
PXPL - partially cross-polarized light None of the relevant structures, however, were altered.
x PETROGRAPHY OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Useful General References Carbonates [Developments in Sedimentology, 48]: New York, Elsevier
Scientific Publ. Co., 696 p.
These books provide general background information on Murray, J. W., ed., 1985, Atlas of Invertebrate Macrofossils: New York,
carbonate petrography, carbonate sedimentation, paleontology John Wiley & Sons, 241 p.
and related subjects that are useful for working with carbonate Reeder, R. J., ed., 1983, Carbonates: Mineralogy and Chemistry:
rocks and sediments under the microscope and interpreting their Washington, D.C., Mineralogical Society of America, Reviews in
Mineralogy, Vol. 11, 394 p.
origin and significance.
Scholle, P. A., 1978, A Color Illustrated Guide to Carbonate Rock
Adams, A. E., and W. S. MacKenzie, 1998, A Color Atlas of Carbonate Constituents, Textures, Cements, and Porosities: Tulsa, OK, American
Sediments and Rocks Under the Microscope: New York, John Wiley Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 27, 241 p.
& Sons, 180 p. Scoffin, T. P., 1987, An Introduction to Carbonate Sediments and Rocks:
Bathurst, R. G. C., 1975, Carbonate Sediments and their Diagenesis New York, Chapman & Hall, 274 p.
[Developments in Sedimentology 12]: New York, Elsevier, 658 p. Sorby, H. C., 1879, On the structure and origin of limestones: Proceedings
Blatt, H., 1982, Sedimentary Petrology: San Francisco, W. H. Freeman & of the Geological Society of London, v. 35, p. 56-95. [The original
Co., 564 p. work in this field]
Boardman, R. S., A. H. Cheetham, and A. J. Rowell, eds., 1987, Fossil Tucker, M. E., and V. P. Wright, 1990, Carbonate Sedimentology: Oxford,
Invertebrates: Palo Alto, Blackwell Scientific Publications, 713 p. Blackwell Scientific Publications, 482 p.
Brasier, M. D., 1980, Microfossils: Boston, George Allen & Unwin, 193 p. Tucker, M. E., 1991, Carbonate Petrology: An Introduction: 2nd edition:
Carozzi, A. V., 1989, Carbonate Rock Depositional Models: A Microfacies Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications, 272 p.
Approach: Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall, 604 p. Wilson, J. L., 1975, Carbonate Facies in Geologic History: New York,
Carozzi, A. V., 1993, Sedimentary Petrography: Englewood Cliffs, Springer Verlag, 471 p.
Prentice-Hall, 330 p.
Cayeux, M. L., 1935, Les Roches Sédimentaires de France. Roches The following books are more limited in their temporal or
Carbonatées (calcaires et dolomies): Paris, Masson, 436 p.
areal scope, but have many high-quality petrographic plates that
Cayeux, L., 1970, Carbonate rocks (limestones and dolomites)
Sedimentary rocks of France [translated and updated by A. V. Carozzi]: effectively show assemblages of organisms through time.
Darien, CT, Hafner Publishing Company, 394 p. Bissell, H. J., 1970, Petrology and Petrography of Lower Triassic Marine
Clarkson, E. N. K., 1998, Invertebrate Paleontology and Evolution [4th Carbonates of Southern Nevada, in [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 14]:
Edition]: Oxford, Blackwell Science, 452 p. Leiden, E. J. Brill, p. 27.
Elf-Aquitaine with A. Reeckmann, and G. M. Friedman, 1982, Exploration Carozzi, A. V., and D. A. Textoris, 1967, Paleozoic Carbonate Microfacies
for Carbonate Petroleum Reservoirs: New York, John Wiley & Sons, of the Eastern Stable Interior (U.S.A.) [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 11]:
213 p. Leiden, E. J. Brill, 41 p.
Fischer, A. G., S. Honjo, and R. E. Garrison, 1967, Electron Micrographs Cita, M. B., 1965, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary Microfaunas from the
of Limestones and their Nannofossils: Princeton, NJ, Princeton Southern Alps (Northern Italy) [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 8]: Leiden, E.
University Press, 141 p. J. Brill, 99 p.
Flügel, E., 1982, Microfacies Analysis of Limestones: New York, Cuvillier, J., 1961, Stratigraphic Correlation by Microfacies in Western
Springer-Verlag, 633 p. Aquitaine [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 2]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 34 p.
Gubler, Y., J. P. Bertrand, L. Mattavelli, A. Rizzini, and R. Passega, 1967, Fabricius, F. H., 1966, Beckensedimentation und Riffbildung an der
Petrology and petrography of carbonate rocks, in G. V. Chilingar, Wende Trias/Jura in den Bayerisch-Tiroler Kalkalpen [Int. Sed. Petrog.
H. J. Bissell, and R. W. Fairbridge, eds., Carbonate Rocks: Origin, Ser., v. 9]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 143 p.
Occurrence and Classification: Developments in Sedimentology 9A: Ford, A., and J. J. H. C. Houbolt, 1963, The Microfacies of the Cretaceous
New York, Elsevier, p. 51-86. of Western Venezuela [Int. Sed. Petrog. Series, v. 6]: Leiden, E. J. Brill,
Harwood, G., 1988, Microscopical techniques: II. Principles of sedimentary 55 p.
petrography, in M. Tucker, ed., Techniques in Sedimentology: Oxford, Glintzboeckel, C., and J. Rabaté, 1964, Microfaunes et Microfacies du
Blackwell Scientific Publications, p. 108-173. Permo-Carbonifere du Sud Tunisien [Internat. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 7]:
Horowitz, A. S., and P. E. Potter, 1971, Introductory Petrography of Leiden, E. J. Brill, 45 p.
Fossils: New York, Springer-Verlag, 302 p. Grunau, H. R., 1959, Mikrofazies und Schichtung Ausgewählter,
Johnson, J. H., 1951, An introduction to the study of organic limestones: Jungmesozoischer, Radiolarit-Führender Sedimentserien der Zentral-
Colorado School of Mines Quarterly, v. 46 (2), p. 1-185. Alpen [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 4]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 179 p.
Johnson, J. H., ed., 1952, Studies of organic limestones and limestone Hagn, H., 1955, Fazies und Mikrofauna der Gesteine der Bayerischen
building organisms: Colorado School of Mines Quarterly, v. 47, 1-94 p. Alpen [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 1]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 27 p.
Lippmann, F., 1973, Sedimentary Carbonate Minerals: New York, Hanzawa, S., 1961, Facies and Micro-Organisms of the Paleozoic,
Springer-Verlag, 228 p. Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sediments of Japan and her Adjacent Islands
Majewske, O. P., 1969, Recognition of Invertebrate Fossil Fragments in [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 5]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 117 p.
Rocks and Thin Sections [Internat. Sed. Petrog. Series v. 13]: Leiden, Longman, M. W., C. T. Siemers, and C. F. Jordan, Jr., eds., 1993, Modern
E. J. Brill, 101 p. Carbonates and their Ancient Counterparts in Indonesia: A Guide
Milliman, J. D., 1974, Marine Carbonates. Part 1, Recent Sedimentary to Interpreting and Understanding Carbonate Reservoirs: Jakarta,
Carbonates: New York, Springer-Verlag, 375 p. Indonesian Petroleum Association, 123 p.
Moore, C. H., 1989, Carbonate Diagenesis and Porosity [Developments Perconig, E., 1968, Recognition of the Triassic and Jurassic Sediments of
in Sedimentology, 46]: New York, Elsevier, 338 p. Spain [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 10]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 63 p.
Moore, C. H., 2001, Porosity Evolution and Diagenesis in a Sequence Rey, M., and G. Nouet, 1958, Microfacies de la Région Prérifaine et de la
Stratigraphic Framework [Developments in Sedimentology, 55]: New Moyenne Moulouya (Maroc Septentional) [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 3]:
York, Elsevier, 460 p. Leiden, E. J. Brill, 44 p.
Moore, R. C., C. G. Lalicker, and A. G. Fischer, 1952, Invertebrate Fossils: Sampò, M., 1969, Microfacies and Microfossils of the Zagros Area,
New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 766 p. Southwestern Iran (from Pre-Permian to Miocene) [Int. Sed. Petrog.
Morse, J. W., and F. T. Mackenzie, 1990, Geochemistry of Sedimentary Ser., v. 12]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 102 p.
INTRODUCTION xi
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