Special theory of relativity

Mechanics (Study of motion of particles)

Classical Mechanics Quantum

(macro) Mechanics (micro)

Non-relativistic Relativistic (v~c)

(v<<c)

Special theory of
relativity
Frame of Reference
Coordinate
y system + clock = Frame of reference

clock

O x

z Coordinate system
Frames of Reference
 FRAME OF REFERENCE

Inertial frame Non-inertial frame

Obeys Newton Ist law of Does not obey Newton Ist law of motion
motion or law of inertia or law of inertia

Rest frame
Accelerating frame

Moving with Rotating frame

uniform speed
Michelson-Morley Experiment:
Michelson-Morley Experiment:

Aim: To determine the speed of earth (experimentally) w.r.t. ether.

Michelson-Morley Experiment:
−1
  2c 2  v 2
 2  v2 
t1 = + = 2 = 1 − 2  = 1 + 2 
c −v c +v c −v 2
c  c  c  c 
−1 / 2
2 2  v 2  2  v2 
t2 = = 1 − 2  = 1 + 2 
c −v
2 2 c  c  c  2c 
2  v 2  v 2
therefore ∆t = t1 − t 2 =  2= 3
c  2c  c
v 2
or ∆x = c × ∆t = 2
c
when whole set − up is rotated through 90 0
2v 2
So ( ∆x) total = 2
c
 Michelson-Morley Experiment:

Now we have to calculate the number of

interference fringes shifted from the
centre of cross wires

For this we have to use one logic as one

wavelength shifts one fringe, so if Δx
λ (∆x)total
contains Δn wavelengths then the number
of interference fringes shifted from the
centre of cross-wires is

( ∆x ) total 2v 2
∆n = = = 0.37 ≈ 0.4
λ λc 2
 Michelson-Morley Experiment:

Actual view of the

experimental set-up
The Postulates of Special theory of Relativity

On June 30, 1905 Einstein gave two postulates of special theory of

relativity on the results of Michelson-Morley experiment:

1. The Principle of Relativity:

The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference.

2. The Constancy of Speed of Light in Vacuum:

The speed of light in vacuum has the same value c in all inertial frames of
reference.

The speed of light in vacuum is actually the only speed that is absolute and the
same for all observers as was stated in the second postulate.
Transformation Equations:

Equations relating the position vectors of the same particle with reference
to the two frames of reference are called as transformation equations.

s
S’
r
v
r’

O O’
 Transformation Equations:

Transformation Equations:

Galilean Lorentz
Transformation Transformation
(v<<c) NRM (V~c) RM
Galilean Transformation:
y K y´ K´
v
vt x´
x
x O´ x´
O
x´ = x – vt
y´ = y
z´ = z
Time is absolute
t´ = t
Lorentz transformations:

where

In reverse transformation
Numericals based on Lorentz transformation:

Q1. Show that x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − c 2t 2 is invariant under Lorentz

transformation.

Hint: we have to prove that x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − c 2t 2 = x '2 + y '2 + z '2 − c 2t '2

On the basis of Lorentz transformations
Length Contraction:
Numerical problem related to Length contraction

Q A meter stick moving with respect to an observer appears only 500

mm long to her. What is its relative speed?

Hint: On the basis of length contraction.

0 = 1m V2
 = 0 1 − 2
 = 500mm = 0.5m C
Numerical problem related to Length contraction

Q A spacecraft antenna is at an angle10o relative to an axis of the

spacecraft. If the spacecraft moves away from the earth at a speed
0.7c, what is the angle of the antenna as seen from the earth?

Hint: tan (10o) = P/ 0

thisgivesPintermsof 0=….. Spacecraft antenna

Also θ P 100 P
2
V 0
 = 0 1 − 
C2 eart
V=0.7c
h

theta comes equal to 13.840 as  is small in comparison to 0.

 Length Contraction:
Length were observer is moving Length were observer is at rest
relative to the length being measured. relative to the length being
measured.

L = L0 1- v2/c2

The length of an object is measured to be shorter when it is

moving relative to the observer than when it is at rest.
Time Dilation:
 Time Dilation:

Time dilation:

t/ 0
20
t =
/

c
20 20
t= =
c −v
2 2
 v2
1/ 2
 c (C2-v2)1/2
c
1 − c 2 

  v
t/
t=
 v2 

1 − c 2 
 
Numerical Problems related to Time Dilation:
Q. An observer on a spacecraft moving at 0.700 c relative to the earth finds that a
car takes 40.0 minutes to make a trip. How long does the trip take to the driver
of the car?

Hint: on the basis of time dilation

car =0.7 c
 Numerical Problems related to Time Dilation:
Q Two observers, A on earth and B in a spacecraft whose speed is 2.00 x 10 8
m/s, both set their watches to the same time when the ship is at rest on
earth. How much time must elapse by A’s reckoning before the watches
differ by 1.00 s ?
Hint: initially t=t/=0
given that t- t/= 1 s
Our aim is to find ‘t’
For that change t/ in terms of t as

v2 v2
t = t 1 − 2 and t − t = t (1 − 1 − 2 ) = 1s
/ /
2 x 10 8 m/s
c c
Now t can be calculated as we know v = 2.00 ×108 m / s
and t comes equal to 3.93 s.
 Muon Paradox:
On the basis of Time Dilation: 0.998c
Life time is
muon can travel 2.2 µ s
vt0=(2.2 x10-6 s)(0.998c)=0.66 km

Muon frame
For earth frame the life time is
Extended 6 Km
on the basis of time dilation

t0 2.2 × 10 −6
t= = = 34.8 µs
v 2
1 − (0.998c) / c2 2
Earth
1−
c2
and vt = 0.998c × 34.8µs = 10.4 km
Numerical problem related to time dilation:

Q Find of the velocity of a spacecraft so that every day on it

will correspond to 2 days on earth?
Hint:
t 0 =1 day
t =2 days
t0
t =
2
v
1− 2
c
Numerical problem related to Length contraction:

Q How fast should a spaceship move for its length to be contracted at 99%
of its length?
Hint: on the basis of length contraction

v2
 = 0 1 − 2
c
given that 99 % of 0 = 
99 v2
× 0 =  = 0 1 − 2
100 c

From this v can be calculated .

 Relativity of Simultaneity

• Events which are simultaneous in one

frame may not be in another!
• Each observer is correctin their own
frame of reference
Relativity of simultaneity:

How relativity affect simultaneity

of events:
t1/ = t 2/ = t /
That implies ∆t / = 0

Our aim to find if ∆t = 0 or not

or ∆t = t1 − t 2 = 0 ?

x1, x2,
x/1 x/2
Relativity of simultaneity:

On the basis of Inverse Lorentz transformations:

vx1/ vx2/
t + 2
/
1 t2 + 2
/

t1 = c t2 = c
v2 v2
1− 2 1− 2
c c

c 2
(
v /
x 2 − )x1
/

∆t = ≠ 0 therefore events are not simul tan eous w.r.t S

2
v
1− 2
c
Numerical Problem related to Relativity of simultaneity:

Q. An observer detects two explosions, one that occurs near her at a certain
time and another that occurs 2.00 ms later 100 km away. Another
observer finds that the two explosions occur at the same place. What
time interval separates the explosions to the second observer?
Hint: v= 100/2 =50 km/ms=5 x 107 m/s
Appears to be
∆t = 2 ms simultaneous
100
x2/ − x1/ = 0
Km
our aim is to find ∆t /
v
∆t / +( x ' 2 − x '1 )
∆t = c2
2
1 −v
c2
and ∆t / =1.97 ms
LORENTZ VELOCITY TRANSFORMATIONS:

OR Velocity addition theorem:

s s’ v~c
u, u’ x, y, z, t and

o o’ x’, y’, z’, t’

Our aim is to find the relation between u and u’ in

terms of x, y, z components as u and u’ are along
arbitrary directions.
Addition of
Velocities:
ux´ + v
ux =
1 + (v/c2)ux´
uy´
uy =
γ [1 + (v/c2)ux´ ]
uz´
uz =
γ [1 + (v/c2)ux´ ]
Numerical problem related to Lorentz velocity
transformation:

Q. Two spacecraft A and B are moving in opposite directions, An

observer on the earth measures the speed of craft A to be 0.750 c and
the speed of craft B to be 0.850 c. Find the velocity of craft B as
observed by the crew on craft A.
Hint:
v = 0.750 c
B A
u x = −0.850c earth

our aim is to find u /x

ux − v
u x/ = = −0.977c.
v
1 − 2 ux
c
 Relativistic Inertia (“relativistic mass”)
y
V’B
y’
Y Ball A moves vertically only in frame S with
VA
speed VA , Ball B moves vertically only in
S
frame S’ with speed VB ’= VA . Ball A
z
x rebounds in S with speed VA , Ball B
S’
x’ rebounds in S’ with speed VB’ .
v
z’

Y/2
Y/2

Collision in S Collision in S’
V A T0 = 2× Y 2 VB 'T0 = Y

momentum conservation : mA V A = mBVB

Relativistic mass (cont.)
Relativistic mass (cont.)
Relativistic mass (cont.)

momentum conservation in S:
mAV A = mBV B
VB = Y T
1− (v c)
2
T = T0

mA Y T0 = mB Y T0 1− (v c) 
2

 

1− (v c)
2
mB = mA
" Relativist ic Mass" (Relativis tic Inertia)
1 −( v c )
2
m = m0
m0 = rest mass

.
Numerical problem related to relativistic mass:

Q: Find the mass of an electron (m0 = 9.1E-

31 kg)whose speed is .99c
Hint:
−31
9.1×10
m=
2
 0.99c 
1−  
 c 
Numerical problem related to relativistic mass:

Q. An electron has a kinetic energy 0.100 MeV. Find its speed

according to classical mechanics.

Hint: KE of electron =1/2 mv2 =0.100 MeV.

1/2 mv2 =0.100 x 1.602 x10-13 J
1/2 mv2 =0.100 x 1.602 x10-13 Kg m2 s-2
1/2 (9.1 x 10 -31 ) v2 = 0.100 x 1.602 x10-13 Kg m2 s-2
v2 = 2 x 0.100 x 1.602 x10-13 Kg m2 s-2 / 9.1 x 10 -31
v2 = 0.0352 x 1018

v = 1.876 X 108 m/s.

 mo m
F
dx
Momentum-energy relations:

m0 c 2 m0 v
E= p=
1 − (v c) 1− (v c)
2 2

2 2
m0 c 4 m0 v 2 c 2
E2 − p 2 c2 = −
1− (v c) 1− (v c)
2 2

2
m0 c 4  v2 2 4
= 1− 2  = m0 c
1− (v c)  c 
2

2
E = p c + m0 c 4
2 2 2

for a massless particle (photon, neutrino, ...)

E = pc
(and v = c always)
 Numerical question related to Relativistic mass and
Momentum:

Q1 Find the momentum of an electron (in MeV/c) whose speed is

0.600 c.
Hint:

m0v
p = mv =
v2
1− 2
c
9.1×10 −31 ×1030 × 0.600 c 1
p= in MeV / c as 1 Kg = ×1030 MeV / c 2
 0.600c 
2 1.79
1.79 1 −  
 c 
p = 0.381 MeV / c
Numerical problem related to relativistic mass

Q At what speed does the kinetic energy of a particle equal its rest
energy?
Hint: KE = Re st mass energy
mc 2 − m0 c 2 = m0 c 2
mc 2 = 2m0 c 2
m = 2m0
m0
= 2m0
2
v
1−
c2
1
=2
2
v
1−
c2
3
v= c
2
Numerical question related to Relativistic mass and
Momentum:

Q Find the momentum of an electron whose kinetic energy equals its

rest mass energy of 511 keV.
Hint: mc 2 − m c 2 = m c 2
0 0

m = 2m0
m0 3
= 2m0 ⇒ v = c
v2 2
1− 2
c
on the basis of this v momentumcan be calculated as
mo v 3m0 c c 3m0 c 2
p= = = 3m0 c = 3m0 c × = = 3 × 511keV / c
v 2  3 c c
1− 2 1 − 
c2  4
p = 885 keV / c.
 Relativistic Mass

It follows from the Lorentz transformation when collisions are described

from a fixed and moving reference frame, where it arises as a result of
conservation of momentum.

For v = c, m =m0

The increase in relativistic effective mass makes the

speed of light c the speed limit of the universe.
 Mass–energy equivalence

E=MC2

3-meter-tall sculpture of Einstein's 1905 E = mc2 formula at the 2006 Walk of Ideas, Germany

In physics, mass–energy equivalence is the concept that any mass has an associated energy and vice versa. In special relativity this
relationship is expressed using the mass–energy equivalence formula
where
•E = energy,
•m = mass,
•c = the speed of light in a vacuum (celeritas),
 Momentum and Energy Transformations

Consider a frame of reference S’ moving with a speed v

along positive direction of X-axis w.r.t. a frame S. Let
the origins of the two frames coincide when t=t’=0 and
then a signal of light is sent. We may write
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = c 2t 2
and x′2 + y′2 + z ′2 = c 2t ′2

These equations have the solutions given by

Lorentz transformation equations i.e.
 vx
x −vt t−
x′ = t′ = c 2

v2 y ′ = y z ′ =z
1− 2 v2
c 1− 2
c

If p is the momentum of photon of light having

components px, py, pz in frame S. then
p 2 = p x2 + p y2 + p z2
h hν E
But p= = =
λ c c
 E2
∴ 2 = p x2 + p y2 + p z2
c
2 2
E E 2
or p + p + p = 2 =  2  c
2
x
2
y
2
z
c c 
2
E
or p + p + p = c  2 
2
x
2
y
2
z
2

c 
2
 E' 
Similarly px ' + p y ' + pz ' = c  2 
2 2 2 2

c 
Comparing, we observe x, y, z and t correspond to px,
py, pz and E &
c2 E′
x’, y’, z’ and t’ correspond to p’x, p’y, p’z and 2
c
respectively.
 Therefore, the solutions can be evaluated as
v
px − 2 E
px ' = c
v2
1− 2
c
py ' = py

pz ' = pz

E vp x
−
E′ c 2
c 2

2
=
c v2
1− 2
c
E −vp x
or E ′ =
v2
1− 2
c
These are the transformation equations of momentum and energy.
The inverse transformations can be written as
v
p x '+ 2 E '
px = c
v2
1− 2
c
py = py '
pz = pz '
E ′ + vp x '
and E =
v2
1− 2
c