BarCharts,Inc.

® WORLD’S #1 ACADEMIC OUTLINE

Essential Tool for Physics Laws, Concepts, Variables & Equations, Including ✎ Sample Problems, ! Common Pitfalls & Helpful Hints

BASICS
A. Units for Physical Quantities B. Fundamental Physical Constants C. Conversion factors and alternative units
Base Units Symbol Unit Base Units Symbol Unit Unit Description
Length l, x Meter - m Mass of electron me 9.11×10–31 kg
Angle º (degree) 180º = ¹ rad
Mass of proton mp 1.67×10–27 kg
Mass m, M Kilogram - kg
Avogadro Constant NA 6.022×1023 mol–1 CGS unit (g cm2/s2)
Energy Erg
Temperature T Kelvin - K 1 erg = 10–7 J
Elementary charge e 1.602×10–19 C
Time t Second - s Electron
Faraday Constant F 96,485 C/mol Energy 1 eV = 1.602×10–19 J
Volt
Electric Current I Ampere - A (C/s)
Speed of light c 3×108 m s –1
CGS unit (g cm/s2 = erg/cm)
Derived Units Symbol Unit Force Dyne
Molar Gas Constant R 8.314 J mol–1 K–1 1 dyne = 10–5 N
Acceleration a m/s2 Boltzmann Constant k 1.38×10–23 J K–1 Volume Liter 1 L = 1 dm3
Ang. Accel. α radian/s2 Gravitation Constant G 6.67×10–11 m3 kg–1 s–2
Pressure Bar 1 Bar = 105 Pa
Ang. Momentum L kg m2/s Permeability of Space µ0 4¹×10–7 N/A2

Ang. Velocity ω radian/sec Permittivity of Space ε0 8.85×10–12 F/m Length Angstrom 1 Å = 1×10–10m

Angle θ, ϕ radian

Capacitance C Farad F (C/V)

MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS
Charge Q, q, e Coulomb C (A s) A. Vector Algebra b. Cross or Vector Product:
1. Vector: Denotes directional character using (x, y, z) C = A × B = |A| |B|sinθ e
Density ρ kg/m3 components fig 1 θ – Angle between A and B, vector e is
a. Unit vectors: i along x, j along y, k along z perpendicular to A and B
Displacement s, d, h meter - m
b. Vector A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k
Electric Field V/m A × B = Ax Ay Az
i j k
Ε c. Length of A = |A| = Ax2 +Ay2 +Az2
2. Addition of vectors A & B, add components:
Electric Flux Vm
Bx By Bz
A + B = (Ax+Bx) i + (Ay+By) j + (Az+Bz)k
Φe
✎ Sample: Vector Product:
Electromotive ✎ Sample Addition and Length Calculations: A = 2i + j B = i + 3j
Volt - V
Force (EMF) E
A=3i+4j–3k |A| =
A × B = 2 1 0 = (6 – 1) k = 5k
9 +16 +9 i j k
Energy E, U, K Joule J (kg m2 s–2) = 34 = 5.83
B= –2i+6j+5k |B| =
1 3 0
Entropy S J/K 4 +36 +25 • If A and B are in x-y plane, A × B is along
= 65 = 8.06 the + z direction
Force F Newton - N (kg m/s2 = J/m) • θ is the angle formed by AB: sinθ =
A+B=i+10 j+2k |A+B| =
C

Frequency f, ν Hertz - Hz (cycle/s) Given: |A| = 5 |B| = 10 |C| = 5

1 +100 +4 A B
= 105 = 10.25
Heat Q Joule - J Note: |A| + |B| ≥ |A + B| sinθ = 5/( 5 × 10 ) = 5/ 50 = 1/ 2
3. Multiply A & B: < AB: θ = 45º = ¹/2 radians
Magnetic Field B Tesla (Wb/m2) a. Dot or scalar product: A • B = | A| |B|cosθ = c. The Right-Hand Rule gives the orientation of
( Ax Bx) + ( Ay By ) + (Az Bz ) vector e fig 4
Magnetic Flux Φm Weber Wb (kg m2/A s2) Note: θ is the angle between A and B; B. Trigonometry
A • B = 0, if θ = ¹ /2 fig 2 1. Basic relations for a triangle fig 5
Momentum p kg m/s
✎ Sample: Scalar product: sin θ = r
y
Values Of sin, cos and tan
Potential V Voltage V (J/C) A = 5i + 2j B = 3i + 5j θ rad [º] sin θ cos θ tan θ
A • B = 3 × 5 + 2 × 5 = 15 + 10 = 25 cos θ = r x
0 [0º] 0.00 1.00 0.00
Power P, P Watt - W (J/s) |A|= 25 +4 = 29 = 5.385 ¹/6 [30º] 0.50 0.866 0.577
|B|= 9 +25 = 34 = 5.831
tan θ = x = cos
Pressure P ¹/4 [45º] 0.707 0.707 1.00
y
Pascal - Pa (N/m2)
sin

cosθ = A :B = = 0.796 sin2 + cos2 = 1 ¹/3 [60º] 0.866 0.50 1.732

Resistance R Ohm Ω (V/A)
2. Sinand Cos waves ¹/2 [90º] 1.00 0.00 ∞
25
A B 5.385 #5.83
Torque τ Nm θ = cos (0.796 ) = 37º = 0.2¹ rad fig 3
-1 fig 6 ¹ [180º] 0.00 –1.00 0.00

Velocity v m/s
1 2 y 3 e 4 5 sin and cos waves 6

Volume V
A ×B
m3
Ay 37° sin
B cos
A B
Wavelength meter - m
A y r
λ

Work W Joule - J (N m)
θ θ
Ax x A
90° = ¹/2 Right-Hand x
Rule sinθ cosθ
1
MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS (cont.) PHYSICS & MEASUREMENT
C. Geometry A. Understand Your Data • Electrostatic potential energy:
Circle: Area = ¹r 2; Circumference = 2¹r 1. Vector vs. scalar
7

a. Vector: Has magnitude and direction Uc = 1/(4¹ε0 ) r

r
Sphere: Volume = 4/3¹r 3; Area = 4¹r 2
q1 q2
q1 ... ... q2 14
b. Scalar: Magnitude only, no direction
r

Cylinder: Volume = h¹r 2 constant: 1/4¹ε0; units are J m/C 2

2. Number and unit
Triangle: Sum of angles = 180º fig 7 r in m, q1 and q2 in Coulomb
a. Physical data, constants and equations have
D. Coordinate Systems numerical values and units Units of Uc = (J m/C2)C2/m = J fig 14
r
1. One dimension (1-D): position = x fig 8 b. A correct answer must include the correct numerical 5. Using Conversion Factors
• The x position is described relative to an origin value PLUS the correct unit a. Purpose: Modify experimental data to
2. Two dimensions (2-D) fig 9 h
3. Significant figures (sigfig) match the units of constants and equations
x = r cosθ, y = r sinθ, r2 = x2 + y2 b. SI units: MKS (m-kg-s) and CGS (cm-g-s)
r
a. The # of sigfigs reflects the accuracy of experimental
a. Calculate (r, θ) from (x, y): data; calculations must accommodate this c. Common English units: Foot, pounds,
uncertainty BTU, calories
r= x2 +y2 ; θ = sin-1 c r m
b. For multiplication: The # of sigfigs in the final d. Conversion factors are obtained from an
y

b. Calculate (x, y) from (r, θ), or x and y answer is limited by the entry with the fewest sigfigs equality of two units
components of a vector “r” with angle θ; c. For addition: The # of decimal places in the final answer ✎ Sample: 100 cm = 1 m
8

x = rcosθ; y = r sinθ is given by the entry with the fewest decimal places • This equality gives two conversion factors:
✎ Sample: Generate x and y vector v = dx/dt; d. Rules for “rounding sigfigs”
–x 0 +x
1m & 100cm
• If the last digit is >5, round up
components, given: r = 5.0, θ = r (30º) • If the last digit is <5, round down
a = dv/dt 100cm 1m
•Use the 1st factor to convert “cm” to “m”
• If digit = 5, round up if preceding digit is odd
6
x = r cos b r l = 5.0 × 0.866 = 4.33 ✎ Sample: 54 cm × 100 = 0.54 m
y Polar 9
✎ Samples:
1m

1.245 + 0.4 = 1.6 (1 decimal place)

6 r cm
y = r sin b r l = 5 × 0.50 = 2.50 • Use the 2nd to convert “m” to “cm”
1.345 × 2.4 = 3.2 (2 sigfigs)
Units of basic variables ✎ Sample: 2.3 m × 100 cm = 230 cm
6
Check your work: x 2 + y 2 = r 2 θ
2.52 + 4.332 = 6.25 + 18.75 = 25.00 B. Solve the Problem Strategically
x 1m
time: second s position: meter m
It checks, r = 25.00
2 a. Two key issues:
Cartesian: (x, y)

3. Three Dimensions (3-D) 1. Understand the physics principles

Polar: (r, θ)
mass: kilogram kg volume: m3
a. Cartesian (x, y, z): The basic coordinate 2. Have a correct mathematical strategy
b. Useful steps in problem solving:
10
system density: kg/m3 Temperature: K
b. Cylindrical: (r, θ, z) fig 10 1. Prepare a rough sketch of the problem
Cylindrical
z
• Polar coordinates, with a z axis z velocity: m/s acceleration: m/s2 2. Identify relevant physical variables,
•Calculate (r, θ) from (x, y); physical concepts and constants
calculate (x, y) from (r, θ) y energy: Joule J = kg m2/s2 force: Newton N = kg m/s2 ! Pitfall - do not simply search for the
•Same process as for 2-d polar; “right” equation in your notes or text
z: same as Cartesian θ ! Pitfall: If the units are wrong, the answer is 3. Describe the physics using a
c. Spherical: (r, θ, ϕ) wrong!
r
x mathematical diagram, with
x = r sinϕ cosθ, y = r sinϕ sinθ, x = rcosθ,
Hint: Before doing the calculation: appropriate symbols and a coordinate
z = r cosϕ, r2 = x2 + y2 + z2 fig 11
y = rsinθ,
* Check all constants and variable units system
•Calculate (r, θ, ϕ) from (x, y, z)
r2 = x2 + y2
* Take special care if you derive the equation 4. Obtain the relevant physical constants
•Calculate (x, y, z) from (r, θ, ϕ) 11
4. Dimensional analysis Do you have all the essential data?
Hint: Follow the strategy for 2-d Spherical Verify that constants and variables in an equation result Hint: You may have extra
polar coordinates
z
in the correct overall unit information
E. Use of Calculus in Physics 5. The hard part: Derive or obtain a
✎ Samples: The energy unit is Joules for kinetic,
r
mathematical expression for the
ϕ
1. Methods from calculus are used in gravitational and Coulombic energy
problem; use dimensional analysis to
physics definitions, and the derivations
y
• Kinetic: K = 1 mv2 check the equation, constants and data
of equations and laws
6. The easy part: Plug numbers into the
Physical meanings of calculus expressions: x
θ
m in kg, v in m/s Units of K = kg
2
m v 12
equation and use the calculator to obtain
a. Derivative - slope of the curve:
dF] xg x = r sinϕ cosθ, m2/s2 = J fig 12 the numerical answer
dx y = r sinϕ sinθ, • Gravitational potential energy: 7. Check the final answer, using the
b. Integral - area under the curve: ∫F(x)dx z = r cosϕ, Ug = m g h Constant: g = 9.8 m/s2 original statement of the problem, your
13
m
✎ Samples: r2 = x2 + y2 + z2
m in kg, h in m sketch and common sense; are the
• Position: x or F(x) units & sign correct?
h
Units of U = kg m2/s2 = J fig 13
g
Velocity: v(x) = dF] xg
Common derivatives
Acceleration: a = dv] xg and integrals
dt

• Power and work: dt

F(x) dF] xg ∫F(x) dx MECHANICS
P = dW
A. Motion along a Straight Line B. Motion in Two and Three Dimensions
dx
• Energy and force: constant 0 constant x 1. Goal: Determine position, velocity, acceleration 1. Goal: Similar to “A,” with 2 or 3 dimensions
dt

E = ∫ Fdx 1 x2 2. Key terms: Acceleration: a = dv/dt; velocity: v = dx/dt 2. Key concept: Select Cartesian, polar or
2. Other useful expressions: x 1
spherical coordinates, depending on the type of
3. Key Equations: x = vi t + 1 at 2 vf = vi + at
motion
2
a. 1 x3
x2 2x x(t), v(t) for variable a fig 15 Sample: A projectile is launched at angle θ
d ] F :G g 2
=F dG +G dF
dx dx dx
with vri ; how do we set up the problem?
3
b.
d (F 'G) 1 dF F dG
xn n x n –1 n +1 x n +1
x x x
Step 1. Define x as horizontal and y vertical
= - 1 15
c. Partial derivative:
dx G dx G2 dx
Step 2. Determine initial vxi and vyi fig 16
ln x vxi = vri cosθ vyi = vri sinθ
a=0 a>0 a<0
= ,
2F (x, y, z) dF 1 -1
x x2
hold y & z constant
2x dx
t t t
d. Gradient Operator ∇ (Del) = ln x x ln x – x
1 16
v v v vy
∂/∂x + ∂/∂y + ∂/∂z
x r
ex ex ex
e. Integration by parts:
vi θ
∫udv = uv – ∫vdu
v0
sin(x) cos(x) –cos(x) a=0 a>0 a<0
f. Symbol for integration of
vx
cos(x) –sin(x) sin(x) Step 3. Identify ax - Gravitational force => ay = –g
closed surface or volume: #
t t t
v0

2
MECHANICS (continued)
Step 4. Identify ay - No horizontal force => ax = 0 c. Power = Work/time: W = Power∆t or ∫P(t) dt b. Moment of inertia:
Step 5. Develop x- and y-equations of motion d. Wnet = K final – K initial ; K is converted to work I = Σmi ri 2 , with ri about the center of mass along a
x = vixt + 1 a xt 2 = vit ✎ Sample: Determine the work expended in lifting specific axis
2 a 50 kg box 10 m ; given: a = g = 9.8 m/s2 Hint: I functions as the effective mass for
y = viy t + 1 ayt 2 = viy t – 1 gt 2 Equations: F = m g => W = m g d rotational energy and momentum
Calculation: W = 50 kg × 9.8 m/s2 × 10 m = 4,900 J ✎ Sample: I for bodies of mass m: fig 24
C. Newton’s Laws of Motion
2 2
F. Potential Energy & Energy Conservation
1. Goal: Examine force and acceleration
1. Goal: Use energy conservation to study the interplay
2. Key concepts: Newton’s Laws:
Twirling thin rod of length, L
of potential and kinetic energy
L 24
Law #1. A body remains at rest or in motion unless I = 1 m L2
2. Key Equations
influenced by a force
12
a. Potential energy: Energy of position: U (r);
Law #2. Forces acting on a body equal the mass
Rotating cylinder of radius, R
gravitation (U = mgh),
multiplied by the acceleration; force and I = 1 m R2
acceleration determine motion electrostatic (U a qq/r)
2 R

Law #3. Every action is countered by an opposing b. E = K + U Conservative system: No external force
Rotating sphere of radius, R

action ✎ Sample: Examine K & U for a launched rocket I = 2 m R2

R

3. Key equations: Initial: h = 0, therefore, U = m g h = 0 ❶

5

a. Law #2: F = m a or ΣF = m a ✎ Sample: Determine the I for a spherical Earth,

E = Ki = 1 m vi 2
Hint: Forces are vectors! assume uniform M ;
Next, resolve into x and y components: Kxi & Kyi
2
b. Types of forces: Body - gravity: Fg = m g Data: M = 6 ×1024 kg, r = 6.4×106 m
•Surface - friction: = Ff = µ Fn Note: Kx is constant during I = 2 M r 2 = 2 × 6×1024 kg × (6.4×106 m)2
the flight
y
✎ Sample: Ft exerted on
20
= 9.8 × 1037 kg m2
5 5
At max height: Ky = 0; U =
2

object on a horizontal plane

Fn
e. Rotational Energy = 1 I ω2
17
Ff = µ Fn = µ Fg =µ m g m g h = Kxi ❷
Final state: Rocket hits the
Ff Ft
Net force = Ft – Ff fig 17 f. Torque: τ = Iω = r × F (ang. acceleration force)
2
ground: U = 0, K = Ki ❸
x
I. Angular Momentum
m
✎ Sample: Object on plane fig 20
1 3

1. Goal: Quantify the force, energy

inclined at angle θ; G. Collisions and Linear Momentum fig 21 and momentum of rotating objects τ
examine Fg & Ff
f
F

1. Goal: Examine momentum of colliding bodies

25
2. Key variables and equations
Fn = Fg cosθ = m g cosθ a. Angular momentum:
Hint: For 2-D or 3-D, use
Ff = µ Fn = µ m g cosθ
18
L = Iω = r × p = ∫r × vdm
m

Ft = m g sinθ fig 18
e. Law #3:
F12 = –F21 or m1 a1 = – m2 a2 Ft
✎ Sample: Examine recoil of
bullet fired from a rifle
θ
Rifle recoil = a(bullet) × m (bullet)
D. Circular Motion fig 19
1. Goal: Examine body moving in a circular path;
use 2-d polar coordinates: (r, θ)
Key variables:
distance from
r m
rotation center
Cartesian components
21
Fn
2. Key Variables and Equations b. Torque: τ = r × F = dL/dt;
m r
a. Types of collisions: note: vector cross product fig 25 F
1
θ
Fg
• Elastic: Conserve energy J. Static Equilibrium and Elasticity
Ft • Inelastic: Energy lost as heat or m2 1. Case 1: Examine several forces acting on a body
• Guiding principles: Equilibrium is defined as:
deformation
b. Relative motion and frames of reference: A body Σforce = 0 & Σtorque = 0
moves with velocity v in frame S; in frame S’, the The point of balance is the center of mass
velocity is v’; if Vs’ is the velocity of frame S’ Hint: Evaluate each
relative to S, then v = Vs’ + v’ component; any net force
c. Linear Momentum: p = m v moves the object, any net
m1 m
x2 2
torque rotates the object
x1
d. Conserve K & p for conservative system (no
external forces): ✎ Sample: Beam balance
26

fig 26
Σ 1 mvi 2 = Σ 1 mvf 2 Σmvi = Σmvf
For equilibrium:
angle with 2. Case 2. Examine deformation
A F
rad
m1 x1 1= m2 x2
reference (x) axis
at
Sample 1-d problem: Two bodies collide, stick of a solid body
θ 2 2 27a

Key Equation: Stress l0= elastic ∆lmodulus × strain;

19
together and move away from the collision site fig 22
✎
ac s
rad/s angular velocity modulus: stress/strain
Conservation of momentum: Note: Force=Fforce/change (Hooke’s Law)
ω A F1
l is longitudinal
m1 v1i + m2 v2i = (m1 + m2)vf
θ
angular • Linear (Tensile) Stress: Young’s Modulus Y
27a
α rad/s2
r
acceleration Y= 1
v v2 F /A l0 ∆l
22 m2 1 m1 before collision
motion arc;
Dl/l0
fig 27a
Note: Force Fl isAlongitudinal
s m
F1
s = r θ (θ in rad)
m1 m2 vf after collision 27a
f. Impulse: I = F∆t or ∫F(t)dt
Hint: For a full rotation, s = 2¹r = circumference g. Momentum change: pfin = pinit + I
l∆x
0 ∆l

of a circle of radius r H. Rotation of a Rigid Object

Note: Force Fl is longitudinal
2. Tangential acceleration & velocity: vt = r ω; a t = r α; 1. Goal: Examine the rotation of a rigid body of a • Shape Stress: Shear ModulusA S
Ft

along path of motion arc defined shape and mass S= t

27b

3. Centripetal acceleration: ac = vr ; directed towards

F /A ∆x
2. Key variables and equations :
2
Dx/h
the center fig 19 a. Center of mass: xcm , ycm , zcm fig 27b
h
Ft
✎ Sample: Determine vt at the Earth’s equator A
xcm = ycm = zcm =
27b
Equation: vt = rω Data: r = 6.378 × 106 m
Rmi xi Rmi yi Rmi zi
Fixed face
ω = 2¹ rad/day; 1 day = 24 × 60 × 60 sec = 86,400 s
∆x
✎ Sample: Calculate the center of mass for a 1 kg
Rmi Rmi Rmi
h Force Ft is tangential to face A
Note:
Convert ω to SI: ω = 2¹ rad/day × 1 day/86,400 s = & a 2 kg ball connected by a 1.00 m bar Ft
7.3 × 10-5 rad/s ball 1: x1 = 0.00, m1 = 1 kg; m1 x1 = 0.00 kg m
A 27b
Calculate vt:
Fixed face
ball 2: x2 = 1.00 m 2 = 2 kg; m2 x 2 = 2.00 kg m Note: Force Ft is tangential to face A
vt = rω = 6.378 × 106 m × 7.3 × 10-5 rad/s vt = 465 m/s Σm i = 1 kg + 2 kg = 3 kg • Volume Stress: Bulk Modulus B
h
E. Energy and Work Σm i xi = m1 x1 + m2 x2 = 0.00 + 2.00 = 2.00 kg m V
1. Goal: Examine the energy and work associated B= n
F /A
xcm = = = 0.66 m
Fixed face
with forces acting on an object
Rmi xi 2.00kg m D V/ V
fig 27c
2. Key equations:
Rmi 3.00kg Note: Force Ft is tangential to face A
Hint: The center of mass is nearer the heavier
27c
a. Kinetic energy: 1 mv 2; energy of motion
V
ball fig 23 Fn
b. Work: Force acting over a distance
2

•For F(x): Work = ∫F(x) dx

0.66m 23
0.33m
•For a constant force: W = F d cosθ = F × r
27c

•θ is the angle between the F and r

VV – ∆V F
1 kg 2 kg n

•W maximum for θ = 0 (note: sin(θ = 0) = 1) center

of mass Note: Force Fn is normal to face A
27c
3 V – ∆V
MECHANICS (continued) WAVE MOTION
K. Universal Gravitation A. Descriptive Variables
1. Goal: Examine gravitational energy and force fig 28 1. Types: Transverse, longitudinal, traveling, standing, harmonic
r
2. Case 1: Bodies of mass M1 & M2 separated by r a. General form for transverse traveling wave: y = f (x – vt) (to the
M1 ... ... M2 28

3. Key equations: right) or y = f (x + vt) (to the left)

a. Gravitational Energy: Ug = r1 2 b. General form of harmonic wave: y = Asin(kx – ωt) or y = Acos(kx – ωt)
m 29
GM M
c. Standing wave: Integral multiples of m fit the length of the
b. Gravitational force: Fg = oscillating material
GM1 M2 h 2
d. General wave equation:
r2
c. Acceleration due to gravity: g = G M(earth)/r 2
d2 y 1 d2 y
=
e. Superposition Principle: Overlapping waves interact => constructive
dx2 v2 dt2
For objects on the Earth’s surface, g = 9.8 m/s2
and destructive interference
✎ Sample: Verify “g” at the Earth’s surface
30
Harmonic Wave Properties
Equation: g = G M(earth)/r2 Wavelength λ (m) Distance between peaks
Given: M = 6 ×1024 k, r = 6.4×106 m Period T (sec) Time to travel one λ
k

Calculation: = = 9.8 ms 2 Frequency f (Hz) f= 1

6.67 #10-11 m3 kg-1 #6 #1024 kg m
]6.4 #106 mg2 T
4. Case 2: A body interacts with the Earth fig 29 HOOKE’S
Angular Frequency ω (rad/s) ω = 2r = 2¹ f
5. Key Equation: LAW
Wave Amplitude A Height of wave
T
a. Gravitational potential energy: Ug = m g h; object on
the Earth’s surface, h = 0; Ug = 0 Speed v (m/s) v = λf
b. Weight = gravitational force; Fg = m g k (m–1) k = 2r
31
Wave number
l

✎ Sample: Calculate escape velocity, vesc , for an orbiting

m
2. ✎ Sample: Determine the velocity and period of a wave with
rocket of mass m at altitude h
m
λ = 5.2 m and f = 50.0 Hz
Hint: K = Ug at point of escape; r = h + r (earth) F1 32 Equations: v = λ f T= 1
Data: λ = 5.20 m; f = 50.0 Hz
f
1 m v 2 = GmM ; therefore, v = 2GM
2 esc esc Calculations: v = λ f = 5.20 m × 50.0 = 260 m/s
Note: vesc varies with altitude, but not rocket mass T = 1 = 1 Hz = 0.02 s
r r A2
A1
L. Oscillatory Motion B. Sound Waves
f 50

1. Goal: Study motion & energy of oscillating body 1. Wave nature of sound: Compression wave displaces the medium
P F2 F1 32
2. Simple harmonic motion (1-d) carrying the wave
a. Force: F = –k∆ x (Hooke’s Law) 2. General speed of sound: vA=2 t B;
P1 33
Air
b. Potential Energy: Uk = 1 k∆ x2 Surface note: B = Bulk
A 1 Modulus (measure of volume compressibility)
For a gas: v = P ; note: γ = (ratio of gas heat capacities)
2 ρ cRT F2
c. Frequency = 1 k fig 30
h Liquid
Cp

✎ Sample: Calculate speed of sound in Helium at 273 K

P2 M Cv

3. Simple Pendulum
2r m
Helium: Ideal gas, γ = 1.66; M = 0.004 kg/mole
a. Period: T = 2¹ gl
Air 34
v=
Surface cRT
b. Potential energy: Ug = m g h V ρ Liquid
M

c. Frequency = fig 31 =
g 1.66 # 8.314 kg m2 /s2 # 273K
1
0.004kg
4. For both cases: = 941, 900 m 2 /s 2 = 971 m/s note: applies to the units
2r l Fb
a. Kinetic energy: K = 1 m v2 3. Loudness as intensity and relative intensity
b. Conservation of Energy: E = U + K
2 35 a. Absolute Intensity (I = Power/Area) is an inconvenient measure of
M. Forces in Solids and Liquids loudness
P1
P2

1. Goal 1: Examine properties of solids & liquids b. Relative loudness: Decibel scale (dB): β = 10 log I ; I0 is the
threshold of hearing; β(I0) = 0
V1 V2 I0
a. Density of a solid or liquid: ρ = mass A 2
c. Samples: Jet plane: 150 dB; Conversation: 50 dB; a change in 10 dB
represents a 10−fold increase in I
A1
3 3
volume
•Common unit: g/cm ; g/L; kg/m
4. Doppler effect: The sound frequency shifts due to relative motion
Flow Through a Hose
• . Sample: A piece of metal, 1.5 cm × 2.5 cm × 4.0 cm, has a mass of 105.0 g;
f'
of source and listener;
determine ρ v0 - listener speed; vs - source speed; v - speed of sound
f

Equation: ρ = m
= v -v = v +v
f ' v +v0 f ' v -v0
Data: m = 105.0 g, V = 1.5 × 2.5 × 4.0 cm3 = 15 cm3
V
f s f s

Calculate: ρ = 105.0/15.0 g/cm3 = 7.0 g/cm3

b. Pressure exerted by a fluid: P = force Key: Identify relative speed of source and listener
c. Pascals’s Law: For an enclosed fluid, pressure is equal at all points in the vessel
area

. Sample: Hydraulic press: F = P/A for enclosed liquid; A is the surface area of
the piston inserted into the fluid THERMODYNAMICS
Equation: A1F1 = A2 F2; cylinder area determines force fig 32 A. Goal: Study of work, heat and energy of a system fig 36
d. A column of water generates pressure, P increases with depth; Key Variables
Equation: P2 = P1 + ρgh fig 33 Heat: Q +Q added to the system
e. Archimedes’ Principle: Buoyant force, Fb , on a object of volume V submerged
Work: W +W done by the system
in liquid of density ρ: Fb = ρVg fig 34
Energy: E System internal E
2. Goal 2: Examine fluid motion & fluid dynamics
36
a. Properties of an Ideal fluid: Non-viscous, incompressible, steady flow, no turbulence Enthalpy: H H = E + PV Q W
At any point in the flow, the product of area and velocity is constant: A1v1 = A2v2
Entropy: S Thermal disorder
b. Variable density: ρ1A1v1 = ρ2 A2v2; illustrations: gas flow through a smokestack,
Temperature: T Measure of thermal E
system
water flow through a hose fig 35
∆E

c. Bernoulli’s Equation: For any point y in the fluid flow, P + 1 ρv 2 + ρ g y = constant Pressure: P Force exerted by a gas
•Special case: Fluid at rest P1 – P2 = ρ g h Volume: V Space occupied
2

4
THERMODYNAMICS (continued) ELECTRICITY & MAGNETISM
Types of Processes E. The Kinetic Theory of Gases A. Electric Fields and Electric Charge
1. Goal: Examine kinetic energy of gas molecules 1. Goal: Examine the nature of the field generated by an
∆E = 0, Q =W
Isothermal ∆T = 0 2. Key Equations: E = 1 Mv 2 and E = 3 RT electric charge, and forces between charges
PV = constant
2. Key Variables and Equations
∆E = –W a. Coulomb C : “ampere sec” of charge
2 2
Adiabatic Q=0 a. Speed, vrms = 3RT
PV γ = constant
b. e - charge on an electron; 1.6022 × 10–19 C
✎ Sample: Calculate the speed of
M
W = P∆V, c. Coulomb’ Law - electrostatic force: F = 1 e
Isobaric: ∆P = 0 Helium at 273 K
q1 q2
∆H = Q • Vector direction defined by e
Helium: M = 0.004 kg/mole
4rf0 r2

∆E = Q; d. Electric Field: E = F
Isochoric ∆V =0 vrms = 3RT =
W=0
q
M Hint: Calculation shortcut:
B. Temperature & Thermal Energy
F = 9 × 109N
1. Goal: Temperature is in Kelvin, absolute
3 # 8.314 kg m2 /s2 # 273 K q1 ]C gq2 ]C g

temperature: T(K) = T( ºC) + 273.15 Note: q in Coulombs and r in meters

0.004 kg r]m g2
vrms = 1, 702, 292 m/s = 1305 m/s
Note: T(K) is always positive; lab temperature 3. Superposition Principle: Forces and fields are
must be converted from ºC to Kelvin (K) b. Kinetic energy for Ideal Gas: K = 3 RT composites of contributions from each charge
✎ Sample: Convert 35º C to Kelvin:
c. For real gas: Add terms for vibrations F = R Fi , E = R Ei ; Hint: Forces and electric fields
2
T(K) = T(ºC) + 273.15 = 35 + 273.15 =
and rotations are vectors
308.15 K
2. Thermal Expansion of Solid, Liquid or Gas F. Entropy & 2nd Law of Thermodynamics B. Gauss’s Law
a. Goal: Determine the change in the length 1. Goal: Examine the driving force for a process 1. Goal: Define electric flux, Φe
(L) or volume (V ) as a function of 2. Key Variables: 2. Key Variables and Equations:
temperature a. Entropy: S, thermal disorder; dS = dQ
a. Gauss’s Law: Φe = # E × dA = Q
b. Solid: DL = α∆T b. S(univ) = S(system) + S(thermal bath)
T
b. The electric flux, Φe , depends on the total charge in
f0
3. Guiding Principle: 2nd Law of
c. Liquid: DV = β∆T the closed region of interest
L
Thermodynamics:
C. Electric Potential & Coulombic Energy
For any process, ∆Suniv > 0; one exception:
V
d. Gas: ∆V = 1. Goal: Determine Coulombic potential energy
∆Suniv = 0 for a reversible process
^T2 -T1h nR
2. Key Variables and Equations:
P
4. Examples: a. Potential energy: U = 1 q1 q2
3. Heat capacity: C = or Q = C∆T a. Natural heat flow: Q flows
Q
4rf0 r
a. Special cases: Cp–constant P; Cv–constant V from Thot to Tcold fig 38 38 b. Potential: V(q1) = q = 1 q1
DT
U
Thot
• Ideal Gas: ∆Suniv = ∆Shot + ∆Scold =
4rf0 r
Note: The potential is scalar, depending on |r|
2

Cp = 5 R; Cv = 3 R; γ = = 5 = 1.667 – + = Q hot cold c. For an array of charges, qi, V total = ΣVi

Cp
Q Q T -T Q
b. Carnot’s Law: For ideal gas: Cp – Cv = R d. Shortcut to U(r ): U = 9 × 109J
2 2 Cv 3 Thot Tcold Thot Tcold
• ∆E = Cv ∆T; ∆H = Cp∆T
q1 (C) q2 (C)
hint: ∆Suniv > 0 for a r (m )
• Exact for monatomic gas, modify for
Tcold
natural process 3. Continuous charge distributions: V = 1 ∫ dq fig 41
molecular gases
b. Phase change: ∆S =
4rf0 r
Sample: Conducting sphere,
Radius R, Charge Q
Q (phase change ) ✎ 41
37 T (phase change ) R

c. Ideal Gas S(T ): ∆S = nCp ln 2 V= 1 for r ≤ R

Boyle's Law Charles' Law Q
T
T1 4rf0 R
Volume (L)

Volume (L)

d. Ideal Gas: S(V ): ∆S = n R ln V = 1 Q for r > R

V2 V kQ
4rf0 r kQ R r
G. Heat Engines 4. Dielectric effect: V & F depend on R
V1

1. Goal: Examine Q the dielectric constant, κ; replace

C. Ideal Gas Law; PV = nRT fig 37
Pressure (Pa) Temperature (K)

and W of an 39 hot ε0 with κε0 for the material;

1. Goal: Simple equation of state for a gas
Q Thot r
engine V(κ) = V (vacuum)
2. Key Variables: P(Pa), V(m3), T (K ), n moles of 2. Thermal Engine:
1
Conducting Sphere
gas (mol); gas constant R = 8.314 J mol–1 K–1
l
The engine W F(κ) = F (vacuum)
1
! Pitfall: Common errors in T, P or V units transfers Q from a D. Capacitance and Dielectrics
l d 42
3. Key Applications: hot to a cold 1. Goal: Study capacitors, plates with Q V
a. P Ä 1 , T fixed: Boyle’s Law reservoir, and Tcold charge Q separated by a vacuum or
produces W fig 39
Qcold
dielectric material fig 42
b. P Ä T, V fixed
V A
3. Efficiency of 2. Key Equations:
c. V Ä T, P fixed: Charles’ Law a. Capacitance, C = Q , V is the
engine: p = =1–
d. Derive thermodynamic relationships
Qcold
measured voltage
W

D. Enthalpy and 1st Law of Thermodynamics

V
b. Parallel plate capacitor, vacuum, with area A,
Qhot Qhot

1. Goal: Determine Q, ∆E and W; W and Q

depend on path; ∆ E is a state variable, spacing d : C = ε0 A ; E = A
P Carnot Cycle 40 Q
independent of path c. Parallel plate capacitor, dielectric κ, with area A,
A d f0
Qhot
2. Guiding Principle:
spacing d: C = κε0 A
a. 1st Law of Thermodynamics: ∆E = Q – W
B ∆T = 0

• Key idea: Conservation of Energy

d
3. Capacitors in series: 1 = / 1
Thot
b. Examine the T, P, W & Q for the problem W
3. Enthalpy: H = E + PV; ∆H = ∆E + P∆V 4. Capacitors in parallel: Ctot = ΣCi fig 43
Ctot Ci

a. ∆H = Q for ∆P = 0 (constant pressure)

b. Variable temperature: ∆H = ∫Cp d T
D ∆T = 0

c. For constant Cp: ∆H = Cp ∆T

Tcold Two Capacitors in Series
Qcold C 43

4. Work: W = ∫PdV
V
4. Idealized heat engine: Carnot Cycle fig 40
C1 1 = 1 + 1 C1 C2

a. W depends on the path or process

or C tot =
a. Four steps in the cycle: two isothermal,
C2 Ctot C1 C 2 C1 +C2
b. Ideal Gas, Reversible, Isothermal: two adiabatic; for overall cycle: ∆E = 0
W = n RTln V2 and ∆S = 0
Two Capacitors in Parallel

b. Efficiency = 1 – cold
c. Ideal Gas, Isobaric: W = P∆V
V1 T C1 C2 C = C +C
Thot tot 1 2

5
ELECTRICITY & BEHAVIOR OF LIGHT

Customer Hotline #
MAGNETISM (continued) A. Basic Properties of Light

1.800.230.9522
E. Current and Resistance 1. Goal: Examine light and its interaction with matter
Reflection and Refraction
Incident
1. Goal: Examine the current, I, quantity of charge, Q, 2. Key variables:
Ray 47

resistance, R; determine the voltage and power dissipated a. c: speed of light in a vacuum
θ1
2. Key Equations:
b. Index of refraction: n; nc = speed of light in medium Reflected
θr θ2
a. Total charge, Q = It
44 Refracted

b. V = I R, or R = V c. Light as electromagnetic wave: λf = c

Two Resistors in Series Ray n1 n2 Ray

Light characterized by “color” or wavelength

c. Resistors in Series:
I Normal
d. Light as particle: e = h f ; energy of photon
R1

Rtot = Σ Ri fig 44
Rtot = R1+R2
3. Reflection and Refraction of Light fig 47
R2
d. Resistors in Parallel: a. Law of Reflection: θ1 = θr fig 48 θ
b. Refraction: Bending of light ray as it passes from n1 to n2
θ1 r
1 = Σ 1 fig 44
Two Resistors in Parallel

•Snell’s Law: n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2 , n1, n2 are the indices of refraction of

Rtot Ri R1 R2 48
e. Power = IV = I R
1 = 1 + 1
2 Rtot R1 R2 two materials fig 49
F. Direct Current Circuit
1. Goal: Examine a circuit c. Internal Reflectance: sinθc = n2
n Normal
R1 R2
containing battery,
or R tot =
Light passing from material of higher n to a lower n may be
R 1 +R2
1

resistors and capacitors; trapped in the material

determine voltage and current properties 4. Polarized light: E field is not spherically symmetric
θ1 θ1 > θ2
2. Key Equations and Concepts: a. Examples: Plane/linear polarized, circularly polarized
n1
Air
b. Polarization by reflection from a dielectric surface at angle θc ; Glass

quickstudy.com
a. EMF: Circuit voltage; E = Vb + IR; battery voltage

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information
hundreds of titles at
Vb = I r, r internal battery resistance Brewster’s Law: tanθc = n2
n n2

free downloads &

b. Junction: Connection of 3 or more conductors
θ2
B. Lenses and Optical Instruments
c. Loop: A closed conductor path
1

1. Goal: Lenses and mirrors generate images of objects

49
d. Resistors in series or parallel => replace with Rtot
2. Key concepts and variables
e. Capacitors in series or parallel => replace with Ctot
a. Radius of curvature: R = 2f Lens and Mirror Properties
3. Kirchoff’s Circuit Rules b. Optic axis: Line from base of object Parameters + sign - sign
a. For any Loop: ΣV = Σ I R; through center of lens or mirror

Note: Due to the condensed nature of this guide, use as a quick reference guide, not as a replacement for assigned course work.
I2 45
Hint: Conserve energy converging lens diverging lens
f focal length
I1
c. Magnification: M = ss' concave mirror convex mirror
b. For any Junction: Σ I = 0; I3

storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the publisher. © 2005 BarCharts, Inc. Boca Raton, FL 1007
Hint: Conserve charge; d. Laws of Geometric Optics: s object dist. real object virtual object
I1 = I2 + I3

define “+” flow fig 45 1 + 1 = 1 ; s =- h

s’ image dist. real image virtual image
G. Magnetic Field: B

U.S.$5.95 CAN.$8.95
s s' f s' h'
1. Key concepts: e. Combination of 2 thin lenses: h object size erect inverted
a. Moving charge => Magnetic Field B 1 = 1 + 1 or f= f1 f2
h’ image size erect inverted
b. Magnetic Flux: Φm = # BdA f f1 f2 f1 +f2
3. ✎ Sample Guidelines for ray tracing:

PRICE
c. Force on charge, q and v, moving in B:
a. Rays that parallel optic axis pass through “f ”
F = qv × B = qvBsinθ; v parallel to B => F = 0 ; v
b. Rays pass through center of the lens unchanged
perpendicular to B => F = qvB
c. Image forms at convergence of ray tracings

Author: Mark Jackson, PhD. Chemical Physics

d. Magnetic Moment of a Loop: M = I A
e. Torque on a loop: τ = M × B
✎ Sample ray tracings: fig 50, a,b,c

M.A. Physics, Harvard University

f. Magnetic Potential Energy: U = – M • B
g. Lorentz Force: Charge interacts with E and B;
Plane mirror: Law of Reflection
50a Spherical Concav
F = qE + qv × B
Converging Lens

H. Faraday’s Law and Electromagnetic Induction -

s s' s s'
50b
Key Equations:
O I
h h'

1. Faraday’s Law: Induced EMF: = # E ds =

f
θ
E

CREDITS
Object θ Image f

–d Φm /dt
O R f
I

2. Biot-Savart Law: Conductor induces B; current I,

length dL: dB = 4r IdL
I
n0
× rr3 Plane mirror: Law of Reflection
3. Sample: Long conducting wire: B(r) = 4r r
50a Spherical Concave Mirror
Converging Lens
C.
s Interference of Light Waves
ISBN-13: 978-142320695-8
n0 I

I. Electromagnetic Waves- Key Equations and Concepts: 1. Goal: Examine constructive and destructive interference of
s s' s'
50b 50c
1. Transverse B and E fields; E = c
ISBN-10: 142320695-9

light waves
O I

θ2. Key Variables and Concepts:

h h'
B f

a. Constructive interference: fig 51

y Object θ Image f
E/B Wave
b. Destructive interference: fig 52
46 O R f
I

c. Huygens’ Principle: Each portion of wave front acts as a

source of new waves
I

3. Diffraction of light, from a grating with spacing d, produces

x
B an interference pattern; dsinθ = mλ; (m = 0, 1, 2, 3,...)
4. Single-slit experiment, slit width a ; destructive interference
z
2. c =
for sinθ = mm a ; (m = 0, ±1, ±2...)
1

3. Electromagnetic Wave: c = f λ fig 46

n0 f0

J. Maxwell’s Equations: 5. X-ray

y diffraction from a crystal with
y atomic spacing dy ; 2dsinθ
y1 =ymλ; (m = 0, 1, 2, 3,...)
1. Gauss’s Law for Electrostatics: # E • d A = f ;
51 52 2
Q y
key: Charge gives rise to E
2. Gauss’s Law for Magnetism: # B • d A = 0 ;
0
y1
key: Absence of magnetic charge
3. Ampere-Maxwell Law:
x x
# B • ds = µ0 I + µ0ε0 dt ;
dU e

key: Current + change in electric flux => B

1
y2 3
4. Faraday’s Law: # E • dS = – ;
dU m
dt 6 2