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Copyright 2010 The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Inc. www.nctm.org. All rights reserved. This material may not be copied or distributed electronically or in any other format without written permission from NCTM.

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class was engaged in initial, whole-class discussions of a task to predict how many scoops of cereal it would take to fill a particular container. Before they could begin the task, the following exchange occurred between the teacher and a third-grade student. Frank asked, Are we gonna make a line plot? What made you think of a line plot, Frank? Because usually when we fill stuff up, we use a line plot. Thats what we did with the shoe[s]. Because some people might think stufflike Gavin with 1000like, everyone might have different ideas. The students had learned how to construct a line plot several weeks before but had been focusing on measurement since then. Their teacher had planned to incorporate line plots into the lesson but had not yet introduced the topic into the discussion. Instead, Frank made the connection between the current and former tasks without any prompting. Why is Franks connection so interesting? and facilitate discussions to help our students develop strengths in explaining their methods, using and interpreting multiple representations, and making connections between topics. We are excited and encouraged when we see students engaging in these behaviors, and rightfully so. Moreover, letting that victory be the highest measure of success for our students is tempting. Consider, however, that we are preparing students to enter a flat world, in which the ability to just do it is simply not enough (Friedman 2007). Advances in technology and international collaborations have redefined what skills are needed to succeed in a global community. Problem-solving and communication skills are the foundation; but individuals who excel in a flat world will be those who bring initiative to adapt and apply their skills with them into the workplace, not those who look to their environment to provide motivation for them in the workplace. We have a responsibility to enable our students to become confident, skilled, independent doers of mathematics beyond our classrooms. One must then question: What are doers of mathematics, and how do we recognize them?
teaching children mathematics September 2010

From the
By Jennifer G. Fillingim and Angela T. Barlow

Sean Locke/iStockphoto.com

Preparing for flat success

As mathematics educators, we promote student engagement in the Process Standards (NCTM 2000). We create problem-solving tasks
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Doers of mathematics
Some educators may debate whether it is necessary to consider motivation in defining a doer of mathematics. For the purposes of this article, a doer of mathematics is internally motivated. Cobb, Gresalfi, and Hodge (2009) distinguish between students who act as doers of mathematics in response to the normative identity of the classroom and those who act in response to a personal identity of themselves. Students who subscribe to the normative identity of doers of mathematics recognize the expectations of the mathematics classroom and want to be successful in that environment. Students motivations to meet these expectations include the following: Agreement to act within classroom norms Sense of responsibility to the teacher Desire to please the teacher Sense of social accountability to their classmates

Working from one or several of these factors, doers of mathematics act within the normative expectations of the math classroom: They use mathematical tools appropriately, join in group discussions, and demonstrate procedural skills and conceptual understanding with varying levels of proficiency (NRC 2001). On the surface, the picture looks complete. But if students are engaging in these behaviors solely out of a sense of obligation to the people or the expectations of the classroom, they are responding to external motivations. Without those external supports, the skills and behaviors they have learned have no meaning and are at risk of being lost once they leave that particular environment. To prepare students for success in a flat world, we must consider internal responses to internal motivations. The degree to which students invest in the behaviors of doers of mathematics is shaped by their personal identities, which represent how students see and describe themselves. Depending on the degree to which students personal identities agree or disagree with the classroom normative identity, they may reject, accept, or invest in the classroom expectations. Students who choose to invest in successful mathematical behaviors begin to synchronize their internal
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personal identities with the external normative identity, andover timethe sense of a responsibility to others matures into personal accountability (Cobb, Gresalfi, and Hodge 2009). This transformation of beliefs has serious repercussions on students individual growth and academic progress. Students systems of beliefs are transferable beyond the classroomthey take their beliefs with them when they go. And for students who incorporate successful mathematical behaviors into their personal identities, these behaviors become less what they do and more who they are as doers of mathematics. Recognizing the need to consider the motivation behind students mathematical actions forces one to ask, How can we tell if our students are engaging in these successful mathematical behaviors because of what they expect of themselves rather than because of what we expect of them? To answer this question, one of the authors (hereafter referred to as the observer) observed a class of third graders taught by the coauthor (hereafter referred to as the teacher). Observations occurred twice per week for a period of five weeks during the second half of the school year. For the majority of the nineteen students in the class, this was their first experience in a mathematics class that continuously engaged them in the Process Standards (NCTM 2000). Daily instruction included problem-solving tasks on which students worked in collaborative groups of three or four. They also participated in whole-class discussions every day and had frequent opportunities to engage in individual reflection through journal prompts. In looking for evidence of doing mathematics, focus was given to the most concrete means at hand: what the students said and what they wrote. The observer recorded classroom dialogue, from both an entire class and from collaborative student groups. She analyzed math journals during routine collection times. She also discussed observations with the teacher to fill in gaps on prior mathematical tasks that were referenced within the class. Three particular student-initiated behaviors emerged throughout the observations: Connecting to previous material Responding beyond the original question
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 Conjecturing or predicting with relevance to mathematical discussions These behaviors suggest that students have begun to internalize and act on what it means to do mathematics and thus become doers of mathematics without relying on external motivators. In the paragraphs that follow, the authors identify, describe, and define each of the behaviors along with supporting sample dialogue and written work. Afterward, they discuss a teachers role in aiding students to become internally motivated doers of mathematics.

Behavior 1: Initiate a connection to previous material

Students who actively engage in mathematical thinking will initiate connections to previous material without prompting. Often these connections may come in the form of such verbal statements as Is this like when we? or This

reminds me of Within these moments, students are building their own conceptual understanding of the relationships between different areas of mathematics and are clearly engaging in the Connections Standard (NCTM 2000). This behavior, however, becomes an indicator of doing mathematics when we consider who motivated making the connection. If a teacher asks, How is this work similar to what we did a few weeks ago? students will most likely remember the previous experience and make the connection. On the other hand, if the student instead of the teacher initiates the connection, then the student is exemplifying an internally motivated behavior for doing mathematics. Teachers must recognize these first steps and encourage students to explain when they see similarities between topics or methods. As an example, consider the classroom episode shared at the beginning of the article.

intentionally engaging and observing a class of third graders with the process Standards, the authors looked for behaviors indicating students internal motivation to do math.

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When students engage in mathematical thinking, they often go beyond addressing the question at hand to inquiring and investigating beyond the problem that was presented.

In the exchange, Frank considers the mathematics contained in the task and makes a connection to previous mathematics work. He prompts the connection to this work by asking if the class will be making a line plot. The task at handpredicting the number of scoops of cereal it will take to fill a containerseems unrelated to the previous task that he referencesmaking a line plot of the shoe lengths of the students in the class. Frank, however, recognizes underlying characteristics of the two problems. Without prompting from the teacher, he poses an internally motivated question that makes a connection between his prior knowledge and the current task, a

behavior that indicates his development as an independent doer of mathematics.

Behavior 2: Initiate a response beyond the original question

A second way that students may demonstrate internal motivation when doing mathematics is to initiate a response beyond the original question. As educators, we craft questions and design writing prompts to ascertain students development of procedural skills and conceptual understanding, and we often gauge their learning trajectory on the basis of the depth and thoroughness of their responses. We look for particular features of problem solving, such as whether students perform calculations correctly, use mathematical reasoning to justify their answers, and so on. But we must also be alert for instances in which students take it upon themselves to address a situations mathematics beyond what was originally presented. Such behavior signals that a student is developing as a doer of mathematics. Consider the example that follows. A class was investigating fraction identification and representations. The teacher posed a question about a fictional students answer to
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investigating fraction identification and representations, the teacher presented a question to the whole class about a fictional students answer to a problem.

Fig ure 1
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Fred says the shaded part of the figure above equals 2/3. is he correct? Why, or why not?

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a problem (see fig. 1). The teacher asked the students to think about their answers individually and to record their thoughts in their math journals. After several minutes, she asked for volunteers to share their responses with the rest of the class. Ethan responded, There are five boxes, and two of them are shaded, so the fraction is Ethan then held up his journal for the rest of the class to see (see fig. 2). Ethans response shows that he addressed the question fully and explained his reasoning clearly. Students abilities to recognize and address incorrect mathematics demonstrate a special combination of procedural and conceptual understanding and should be recognized as a mature success. In another students response to Freds solution, Kendra answered the question but also extended her train of thought beyond the immediate discussion (see fig. 3). The original intent of the task was to engage students in thoughtful reflection of what the fraction 2/3 represents, which both Ethan and Kendra did. Kendras journal writing, however, indicates a much fuller picture of her ability not only to describe Freds error correctly but also to suggest what fraction she thinks he should have used, given the picture that he drewan important aspect of the problem that was not addressed in the initial prompt but was later used by the teacher as a basis for further class discussion. Kendras choice to go beyond the mathematics called for in the prompt demonstrates her independent desire to engage in mathematical reasoning and to communicate her thoughts to her peers. She is developing as an internally motivated doer of mathematics.

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Figu r e 2 Figure 3

ethans teacher encouraged his ability to recognize and address incorrect mathematics in his journal entry response to the writing prompt.

kendra described Freds error correctly and also suggested the fraction that he should have used. the teacher later used kendras response as a basis for further class discussion.

Behavior 3: Initiate a conjecture

Students also reveal internal mathematical motivation when they initiate a conjecture or a prediction relevant to mathematical discussions. In these instances, students begin to lead the class through their questions, conjectures, or predictions. They are unsatisfied with merely understanding the topic at hand and desire to examine it more closely. Their curiosity is internally motivated and therefore indicates their development as doers of mathematics. Consider the following example.
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Students had been engaged in a discussion of fractions that are smaller than one-half. Several students who were uncertain began to guess randomly, One-third! Two-thirds! One-fourth! In an effort to guide them through a meaningful exploration during the next class session, the teacher introduced a task of repeated halving. She distributed long paper strips of adding machine tape and asked each student to consider his or her own piece of paper as one whole unit. Students marked the left edge of their paper with a 0 and the right edge with a 1 to indicate that they each had one unit. The teacher then asked them to fold their units in half one time and to observe how many subunits the fold had created. Students verbally described the first section as one part, with two parts making up the whole and notated it as 1/2. They described the two sections together as two parts, with two parts making up the whole and notated it as 2/2. This exploration continued as the students created fourths and eighths by repeated halving and folding. While the students were discussing how to notate the eighths sections on their units, Kendra spontaneously suggested to the whole class, I think if we fold it again, well have sixteen sections. Kendras prediction is noteworthy on two counts: She is not only engaged in the task along with her peers, but she is also looking beyond the task at hand to what might happen next. Moreover, she feels confident enough to share her thoughts with the rest of the class. Kendra has become a lead mathematician in the classroom, assessing the situation, proposing next steps, and asking questions that naturally guide her classmates toward deeper mathematical discussions. As a result of her prediction, the students attempted her suggestion, discovered that she was correct, and extended their discussion of the connections between the procedures and the results of that task.

behaviors emerge that seem to facilitate students transition to internally motivated doers of mathematics.

Model desired behaviors

In order for students to internalize mathematical behaviors, they must first learn to recognize mathematical behaviors. Teachers may consider posing questions to the class: How does this task relate to the problem in which we? What would happen if? In modeling desired behaviors, teachers help students understand that these questions are part of the process of doing mathematics. Over time, the number of teacher-initiated behaviors should decrease, and the number of student-initiated behaviors should increase as students incorporate them into their own work (McCrone 2005).

Recognize and acknowledge students behaviors

It is not enough for the teacher to model the desired mathematical behaviors. Teachers must also recognize and acknowledge these behaviors in their students. Classroom interactions often occur so quickly that independent initiations of mathematical behaviors can easily be overlooked. Through focused attention and reflection on students verbal comments and written responses, however, teachers can gain skill in this area. Once teachers learn to recognize the behaviors, they might take specific actions to encourage further maturity (see table 1). They might choose to acknowledge individuals responses as noteworthy for the mathematical behaviors they contain. Teachers might also ask students what they think about an individuals response: Do you agree or disagree? Is your response similar or different? How is your response similar or different? Similarly, by providing student exemplars, teachers move the center of authority toward the students, thus encouraging their recognition of themselves as doers of mathematics. (McClain and Cobb 2001).
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A teachers role
Without interviewing the students, we cannot say with certainty what prompted them to initiate the behaviors described. In reflecting on the classroom environment supporting their learning experiences, however, four teaching
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Encourage students
In making connections between students and professional mathematicians as problem solvers, teachers reinforce students identities as doers of mathematics. Relating classroom tasks and discussions to the concept of what mathematicians do helps students think of themselves as mathematicians. Grounding classroom math in the NCTM Process Standards promotes continual opportunities to associate behaviors such as making connections between topics, using multiple representations, and explaining ones reasoning as inherent aspects of doing mathematics (NCTM 2000).

Stein 1998). Such activities are the very essence of doing mathematics.

An observational aside
One aspect of analyzing students behavior throughout the observations became clear: the importance of considering their written and verbal responses. Neither form of communication offered a complete picture on its own. Some students were comfortable speaking in front of their peers but struggled to capture all their thoughts in their journal entries. Others were not as vocal during class discussions but were able to express themselves more clearly in pictures and words. Incorporating both forms of communication into mathematical tasks provided natural venues for students to work out their individual understanding over time as well as build from their classmates insights in a meaningful way. Opportunities to engage in both written and verbal explorations were
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Provide opportunities
Math instruction should incorporate nonroutine and open-ended tasks on a daily basis. Good problem-solving tasks that require higher levels of cognitive demand naturally offer opportunities for students to make and test conjectures, evaluate multiple solution methods, apply prior knowledge to new situations, self-reflect on the problem-solving process, and consider extensions of the work (Smith and

tAble 1

teachers can gain skill in recognizing students independent initiations of mathematical behaviors by focusing and reflecting on students verbal comments and written responses. once teachers learn the behaviors, they can take specific actions to encourage them.
Students Mathematical Behavior initiating a connection to previous material

open-ended tasks offer opportunities for students to test conjectures that demand higher levels of cognitive skill.

Suggested Teacher Action encourage reflection and sense making by asking the student to explain her reasoning to the rest of the class. Share the work with the class. highlight the additional information and use it as a basis for class discussions or writing prompts. ask the entire class to listen to the student repeat her statement. engage students in thinking about whether the conjecture or prediction is always, sometimes, or never true.

Potential Questions What do you see in this problem that reminds you of...? What do you think is similar about them? Did anyone else see something similar? What additional information has [students name] shared? Take a moment to decide in your head whether you agree or disagree with [students name]. [Teacher pauses.] now share your thoughts with your group. Do you think [students name]s prediction is true? Do you think [students name]s conjecture is always true? Will there ever be a time when this is not true?

initiating a response beyond the original question

initiating a conjecture or a prediction

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crucial components in nurturing students mathematical development as individuals and as a whole class.

Conclusion
At the surface, it may appear from these examples that students are merely engaging in the Process Standards (NCTM 2000). To look more deeply at this issue, however, is to look at the motivation behind the engagement. Our goal as mathematics educators is to have students engage in these behaviors because they are internally motivated, an indication that they have become doers of mathematics. This, as stated previously, is key to success in a flat world. When our students say the right things and demonstrate behaviors we have come to expect from good problem solvers, we are tempted to see that as the final mark of success. Preparing our students for todays demands, however, means taking this activity to a new level. Engaging our students in the Process Standards (NCTM 2000) is no longer adequate. We must additionally move students toward internalizing these processes, which means we must begin to recognize the behaviors associated with being a doer of mathematics and turn our attention toward fostering the development of such behaviors. Teachers cannot force students to transition from external to internal motivation, but we can create an environment that consistently supports students mathematical behaviors that align with the Process Standards (NCTM 2000). As a facilitator, the teacher bears the responsibility of recognizing and guiding this transition and encouraging this behavior in students future endeavors. Although teachers may lay the foundation from external to internal motivation, the ultimate goal is for students to initiate their own behaviors as doers of mathematics. In working with students to recognize and value mathematical behaviors that stem from internal
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motivation, teachers equip and enable students to succeed as doers of mathematics beyond the classroom environment. The authors list of behaviors is not exhaustive. Observe in your own classrooms and reflect on what you consider characteristic of internally motivated behaviors of doers of mathematics.
R E F E RE N C E S

the goal is for students to become self-motivated as they learn to value mathematics.

cobb, paul, melissa Gresalfi, and Lynn L. hodge. an interpretive Scheme for analyzing the identities That Students Develop in Mathematics classrooms. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 40 (January 2009): 4068. Friedman, thomas L. The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the 21st Century. 3rd ed. new York: picador, 2007. McClain, Kay, and Paul Cobb. An Analysis of Development of Sociomathematical norms in one First-Grade classroom. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 32 (may 2001): 23666. McCrone, Sharon S. The Development of Mathematical Discussions: An Investigation in a FifthGrade classroom. Mathematical Thinking and Learning 7, no. 2 (2005): 11133. national council of teachers of mathematics (nctm). Principles and Standards for School Mathematics. Reston, Va: nctm, 2000. national Research council (nRc). Adding It Up: Helping Children Learn Mathematics, edited by J. kilpatrick, J. Swafford, and B. Findell. mathematics Learning Study committee, center for Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National academy press, 2001. Smith, margaret Schwan, and mary kay Stein. Selecting and creating mathematical tasks: From Research to practice. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School 3, no. 5 (February 1998): 34450.
Jennifer G. Fillingim, jgfillin@olemiss .edu, is a doctoral candidate in mathematics education at the University of mississippi in oxford. She is interested in mathematics content development for educational media. Angela T. Barlow, abarlow@olemiss.edu, an associate professor in mathematics education at the University of mississippi in oxford, is interested in developing teacher beliefs that align with standards-based instruction. www.nctm.org

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