Job Analysis and Design

Chapter Overview
Job analysis and design is often referred to as the cornerstone of HRM, and it has become increasingly important for legal questions related to promotion and discrimination. This chapter emphasizes the major role that job analysis plays in HRM activities and programs and explains how each part of the diagnostic HRM model is affected by job analysis. Jobs are the building blocks of the organization. Therefore, it is essential that each characteristic of each job in an organization be clearly understood.

CHAPTER 6

Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Define the terms job analysis, job description, and job specification. 2. Illustrate the uses that job analysis information can have in an organizations HRM. 3. Describe four methods used to collect job analysis information. 4. Interpret job codes and information found in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. 5. List the five core job dimensions used in job enrichment programs. 6. Compare the strengths and weaknesses of the mechanistic and motivational approaches to job design. 7. Describe the ways that job descriptions are changing as the nature of jobs changes.

Barriers to Student Understanding

Students may have difficulty understanding the concepts of job analysis and job design. Each concept covers a lot of information that the students may not have been exposed to yet, due to lack of work experience. However, students should have no difficulty understanding job description, job enrichment, and job enlargement, regardless of work experience. Students may believe that only the Human Resources department deals with these topics. They need to understand that the whole organization is affected by job analysis and design.

Lecture Outline
Introduction The Vocabulary of Job Analysis The Steps in Job Analysis The Uses of Job Analysis Who Should Conduct the Job Analysis? The Use of Charts Methods of Data Collection Observation Interviews Questionnaires Job Incumbent Diary or Log Which Method to Use? Specific Quantitative Techniques Functional Job Analysis Position Analysis Questionnaire Management Position Description Questionnaire Job Descriptions and Specifications Job Analysis and Strategic Human Resource Management Job Analysis and Employee Competencies Job Design Scientific Management and the Mechanistic Approach Job Enrichment: A Motivational Approach Work-Family Balance and Job Design Job Design: The Next Challenge

Ivancevich, Human Resource Management, Ninth Edition

Key Points
To summarize the major points covered in this chapter: 1. There are six sequential steps in job analysis, starting with examining the total organization and the fit of jobs, and concluding with the preparation of a job specification. (See exhibit 6-2) 2. The uses of job analysis information seem endless. Strategic planning, recruitment, selection, training, compensation, and job design all benefit immensely from job analysis information. 3. Conducting job analysis is not for amateurs. Training is required. 4. Before conducting a job analysis, organization and process charts should be consulted to acquire an overview of the organization. 5. Four general job analysis techniques can be used separately or in combination; observation, interviews, questionnaires, and job incumbent diaries or logs. 6. The multi-method approach to job analysis uses a combination of these four general methods. It is a comprehensive approach and is currently viewed very favorably from a legal perspective. 7. Functional job analysis (FJA) is used to describe the nature of jobs, prepare job descriptions, and provide details on job specifications. The job is described in terms of data, people, and things. 8. The Dictionary of Occupational Titles is a listing of over 20,000 jobs on the basis of occupational code, title, and industry. 9. The position analysis questionnaire (PAQ) is a 195-item structured instrument used to quantitatively assess jobs on the basis of decision making, communication and social responsibilities, performing skilled activities, being physically active, operating vehicles or equipment, and processing information. The management position description questionnaire (MPDQ) is a checklist of 208 items that assesses the concerns and responsibilities of managers. Job design involves structuring job elements, duties, and tasks to achieve optimal performance and satisfaction. Job design was a concern of F. W. Taylor, the famous industrial engineer and father of what is called scientific management. Job enrichment involves designing jobs so that employees needs for growth, recognition, and responsibility are satisfied. Reengineering is more than job design. It is taking a new look at the entire flow of work through an organization. Without adaptable job descriptions, however, it cannot succeed.

10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Instructors Manual/Chapter 6

Key Terms
Students will be introduced to the following key terms: autonomy The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. A job analysis instrument that includes behaviorally anchored items that can be used by both nonexempt and exempt employees. The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job results in the individuals obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance. A job analysis method that attempts to identify what a worker does in performing a job in terms of data, people, and things. A group of positions that are similar in their duties, such as computer programmer or compensation specialist. The process of gathering, analyzing, and synthesizing information about jobs. A questionnaire that provides core information about a job, job duties, and job requirements. A mode of job design based on the view that three psychological states toward a job affect a persons motivation and satisfaction. These states are experienced meaningfulness, experienced responsibility, and knowledge of results. A jobs skill variety, identity, and task significance contribute to meaningfulness; autonomy is related to responsibility; feedback is related to knowledge of results.

common metric questionnaire (CMQ) feedback

functional job analysis (FJA) job job analysis Job Analysis Information Format (JAIF) job characteristics model

Ivancevich, Human Resource Management, Ninth Edition

job description job enlargement

The job analysis provides information about the job that results in a description of what the job entails. A method of designing jobs that increases the number of tasks performed by a job incumbent without increasing the level of responsibility. It is sometimes called horizontal job change. A method of designing a job so that employees can satisfy needs for growth, recognition, and responsibility while performing the job. The job characteristics model is used in establishing a job enrichment strategy. A group of two or more jobs that have similar duties. A second product of job analysis. It is a written explanation of the knowledge, skills, abilities, traits, and other characteristics necessary for effective job performance. A checklist of 208 items related to concerns and responsibilities of managers. Job analysis that combines interviews, on-site observation, task surveys, and statistical analysis of the survey responses. The responsibilities and duties performed by an individual. There are as many positions as there are employees. A structured questionnaire of 194 items used to quantitatively assess jobs. It assesses information input, mental processes, work output, relationships, job contacts, and various other characteristics. A chart that displays how jobs are linked or related to each other. The degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities in carrying out the work and involves the use of a number of an individuals skills and talents.

job enrichment

job family job specification

management position description questionnaire (MPDQ) multi-method job analysis approach position

position analysis questionnaire (PAQ)

process chart skill variety

Instructors Manual/Chapter 6

strategic job analysis task

A form of job analysis that tries to predict what a job will look like in the future. A coordinated and aggregated series of work elements used to produce an output (units of production or service to a client). The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. That is, doing a job from beginning to end with a visible outcome. The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people, whether in the immediate organization or the external environment.

task identity

task significance

Suggested Answers to Review Questions

1. What are the six steps in the job analysis process? Step 1: Examine the total organization and the fit of each job. Step 2: Determine how the job analysis and job design information will be used. Step 3: Select the jobs to be analyzed. Step 4: Collect data by using acceptable job analysis techniques. Step 5: Prepare job descriptions. Step 6: Prepare job specifications. 2. Job analysis is often referred to as the cornerstone of HRM. Do you agree? Why? Open answer, but students should mention that job analysis is the foundation upon which all other HRM activities must be constructed. How workers responsibilities and duties are segmented helps to shape and determine virtually all other facets of organizational functioning. Therefore, understanding exactly what constitutes any particular job is critical to developing HRM activities that support the organizations mission.

Ivancevich, Human Resource Management, Ninth Edition

3. How might job analysis be helpful to an organization that is being sued for sex discrimination in promotion? A good job analysis can be used to validate or assess the accuracy of organizational selection procedures. The quality of the job analysis is frequently a primary determinant of whether or not an organization has acted properly. On the basis of court decisions, a job analysis will be viewed favorably if: a. It yields a thorough, clear job description. b. The frequency and importance of task behaviors is assessed. c. It allows for an accurate assessment of the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) required by the job. d. It clearly determines which KSAOs are important for each job duty. 4. What are the advantages of using the multimethod approach to job analysis? Using the multimethod job analysis approach is relatively expensive and timeconsuming. However, it has a distinct advantage over any of the basic methods used alone: the quality of information derived from a more comprehensive approach is strongly endorsed by the courts in cases that rely on job analysis information. 5. What core information should be included in most job descriptions and job specifications? Job descriptions should include the following: a. Job titleThe title of the job and other identifying information, such as its wage and benefits classification. b. SummaryA one- or two-sentence statement describing the purpose of the job and what outputs are expected from job incumbents. c. EquipmentA clear statement of the tools, equipment, and information required for effectively performing the job. d. EnvironmentA description of the working conditions of the job, the location of the job, and other relevant characteristics of the immediate work environment, such as hazards and noise levels. e. ActivitiesIncludes a description of the working conditions of the job duties, responsibilities, and behaviors performed on the job. Also describes the social interactions associated with the work, such as size or work group and the amount of dependency.

Instructors Manual/Chapter 6

Job specifications should include the following: a. All job tasks should be identified and rated in terms of importance, using sound job analysis techniques. b. A panel of experts, incumbents, or supervisors should specify the necessary skills for performing each of the job tasks identified. c. The importance of each skill must be rated. d. Any other characteristics necessary for performing the job should be identified. These include such things as physical requirements and professional certification. e. Each skill that has been identified needs to be specifically linked to each job task. 6. What is the difference between an essential and a nonessential skill? How are these related to the Americans with Disabilities Act? Essential skills are those for which alternative ways of accomplishing the job are not possible. Nonessential skills can be accommodated by changing the structure or work methods of the job. The ADA specifies that if an individual could accomplish the job successfully after an accommodation is made, then it should be done. If, after an accommodation is made, the essential job cannot be accomplished, that individual is not qualified for the position. 7. Describe the mechanistic and motivational models of job design. What is the emphasis of each? The mechanistic approach is closely tied to the scientific management era and Taylor, who felt that work should be efficient, it should be studied, employees deserve training, and that compensation should be tied to performance. This approach emphasizes structuring jobs so that they are broken down into simple, repetitive tasks that can be learned quickly and then performed quickly and efficiently. The motivational approach is more recent, with enrichment models provided by Hackman and Oldham and Herzberg. This approach assumes that employees will be motivated by jobs that enhance their feelings of self-worth. Therefore, jobs should be redesigned so that they contain certain core job descriptions, including skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback.

Ivancevich, Human Resource Management, Ninth Edition

8. Describe the major components of the job characteristics model of job enrichment. The Hackman and Oldham job characteristics model suggests that it takes five factors together for enhancement in order to enrich a position. Those factors include skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. When each of these items are addressed, then there will be accompanying changes in responsibility and motivation. 9. Should all jobs be enriched? Why? This is a great class discussion question because students are opinionated about others motivations. Herzbergs motivation studies, What do Workers Want? are interesting topics for this discussion. This discussion usually leaves students with the understanding that it is difficult to enhance some types of jobs, which also leads to the conclusion that some jobs inherently lack motivational aspects and are in desperate need of enrichment. 10. What challenges does the concept of reengineering pose for job analysis and human resources? Many would agree that the term reengineering has been a misused term, when layoffs or downsizing were more appropriate. True reengineering closely links job analysis to the need for scrutinizing the organizations skills competencies. Coopers & Lybrands Competency Alignment Process (CAP), which is mentioned in the text, is an excellent example of how integral the HRM function is to reengineering. The CAP program includes training, redeployment and outsourcing options that are systematically analyzed for workplace effectiveness.

Instructors Manual/Chapter 6

Suggested Answers for Application Case 6-1 Job Analysis: Assistant Store Managers at Todays Fashion
1. Critically evaluate the job analysis that Mary conducted for the position of assistant store manager. Has she used appropriate methods? What are the strengths and weaknesses of her efforts? Mary had a made a good start on the job description, but it needs to be refined. Her input was based on her own experience and interviews with current assistant managers, but their input was based on their limited experience within their own departments. Better information might have been obtained by also interviewing the store manager and some of the clerks who reported to the assistant managers, and then sending a draft of the job description to them for review and approval. Some of the qualifications that Mary has specified are questionable. For instance, if the job requires being on the sales floor up to 90 percent of the time, answering questions and assisting customers, is a four-year college degree really necessary? And why are good typing and computer skills needed? Plus, some items need to be worded in more concrete terms. For instance, Ensures that the department remains professionally organized and orderly might be better worded as Ensures that all clothing is hung neatly on racks, arranged correctly by size, style, and maker. Terms like organized and orderly can mean different things to different people. 2. What kinds of factors about Todays Fashion and its operations should Mary have examined more seriously in order to improve her job analysis? Mary might have examined how assistant managers are currently trained, and what they are expected to teach others. Plus, she might have reviewed the performance reviews of some of the assistance managers in her region to see if there was a pattern of skill deficiencies or problems. She might have further delved into the turnover rates for assistant managers to see if the jobs needed to be expanded or enhanced. Plus, she should have checked to see if the assistant managers of different departments had the same responsibilities, since she herself had felt that she had been held responsible for many aspects of store management that the other managers were not.

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Ivancevich, Human Resource Management, Ninth Edition

3. Carefully read the job description and job specification that Mary prepared. Do they appear to be thorough? Do you think that they as adequate to serve as a basis for a new selection system? How well do you think these documents will work if May is sued for discrimination in her hiring practices? Why? The job description may be well written enough to do a initial screening of job applicants, but it fails to provide enough detail to be used as a true job description. Reading the description leaves me with a number of questions. What is involved in preparing the department for the day? How often is inventory taken? How, and with what materials, would I train new clerks? Is previous management experience required? How about good tenure at my previous positions? If sued for discriminatory hiring practices, I believe that Marys job description will server her well. It does not mention age, race, or gender requirements or specify any physical attributes for the job, only the ability to lift 15 pound boxes and stand or walk for up to 90 percent of the work day. However, it might be wise to add a statement such as must be authorized to work in the United States.

Instructors Manual/Chapter 6

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