HISTORY OF BIOLOGY

PERIOD/STAGES 1. PRIMITIVE PERIOD -characterized by uncritical accumulation of information, mainly derived from the practical necessities of obtaining food, materials for clothing and shelter, substances to cure ailments, and necessary information about the human body. -accumulation of knowledge was not recorded, nor were there scientific method and associated intellectual activities. 2. CLASSICAL PERIOD -began with the Greeks and continued with the Romans, marked by great curiosity about natural phenomena and ability to organize biological knowledge and record it. SCIENTISTS CONTIBUTIONS

Hippocrates

Father of Medicine

Aristotle

Greatest Ancient Scientist - Father of Biology

Theophrastus

RENAISSANCE PERIOD -took place during the 14th to 16th century curiosity about the structure of living things were rekindled -by the middle of renaissance, anatomy, physiology, botany and zoology were established. 4. MODERN PERIOD -marked by the introduction of microscope at the beginning of the 17th century.

3.

Galen- Last Great Biologists of Antiquity - Greek physician Leonardo da Vinci Michael Angelo Andreas Vesalius- founder of modern anatomy William Harvey Robert Hooke Matthias Schleiden- botanist Theodore Schwann-zoologist Anton van Leeuwenhoek Francesco Redi Lazzaro Spallanzani

-stated that diseases have natural causes & the body has the power to repair itself. -most significant biological contributions, studied hearts and brains of animals. -excelled in making observations -studied almost all areas in science. -pupil of Aristotle -carried on pioneers studies on the nature of plants -his works are the most complete biological treaties to reach us from classical period. -began to study human anatomy and carried out the 1st physiological experiments in animals. -both made accurate studies in plants and animals and human anatomy. -published his book, The Structure of the human Body -described the blood circulation in man which contributed to physiology. -formulated/conceptualized the Cell Theory -made the first microscope -disapproved the spontaneous origin of life from non living matter -experimented on the idea of Francesco Redi. -established the system of nomenclature in which all living things are arranged by genera and species. -proposed the theory of evolution -most outstanding contribution in evolution -proposed the Natural Selection as an explanation by which evolutionary changes take place. -laid the foundation of modern microbiology. -established comparative physiology. -founded comparative embryology -made studies on genetics -formulated the mutation theory -his work increased our knowledge on hormones under endocrinology. -they put ecology on a modern basis.

Carolus Linnaeus- Father of Taxonomy Jean Baptiste Lamarck Charles Darwin

Loius Pasteur- The Father of Modern Microbiology Claude Bernard and Johannes Muller Karl von Baer Gregor Mendel Hugo de Vries E.H. Starling 20th century Cowla(botanist),Clements(botanist) Shelford(zoologist)

PHYSICAL SCIENCE: SCIENTIFIC METHOD- a systematic way of solving problems PROBLEM the application of a logical process of reasoning to arrive at a model nature that is consistent with experimental results. HYPOTHESIS EXPERIMENT THEORY APPLICATION

OBSERVATION

MEASUREMENT - the process of comparing the size or unknown quantity of matter with a known quantity or chosen standard. PHYSICAL QUANTITIES William Thomson (1824-1907)-also known as Lord Kelvin stated the importance of numerical measurement: I often say that when you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge of it is meager and unsatisfactory kind. A quantitative observation or measurement, always consists of two parts: a number and a unit. Units provide a standard of comparison for a measurement. E.g. 3 kg, 4 ft. 24 hours SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENT 1. Metric System (CGS System) - the universally accepted system of measurement, also known as SI (International System or Systemme Internationale- system of units that scientists have agreed upon and is legally enforced in almost all parts of the world.) fully adopted in the Philippines on January 1, 1983, under Batas Pambansa no.8. originated in France in 1791, measurements may be expressed as fractions or multiples of ten times the base unit. 2. English System (British System) first adopted in England, also known as FPS System, derived from the names of the standard units of length (foot), weight (pound) and time (second). A. Fundamental Quantities - basic quantities, quantities that are directly measured. 7 Fundamental Quantities PHYSICAL QUANTITY Length Mass Time Electric Charge Temperature Amount of Substance Luminous Intensity Symbol for Quantity l m t Q T n I SI Base Unit meter kilogram second Coulomb Kelvin mole candela Symbol of Unit m kg s C K mol Cd

B. Derived Quantities- when the quantities are expressed as a combination of fundamental or basic quantities. Derived Quantities PHYSICAL QUANTITY Area Volume Density Speed/velocity Acceleration Force/weight Pressure Work Power Symbol for Quantity A V D v/v a F/W P W P SI Base Unit square meter Cubic meter Kilogram per cubic meter Meter per second Meter per second squared Newton Pascal Joule watt Symbol of Unit m m kg/m m/s m/s N Pa or N/m J W

Common Prefixes for Measurement Units Prefix atto femto pico Angstrom nano micro milli centi Symbol a f p A n m c Factor 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Prefix deci deca hecto kilo mega giga tera Symbol d da H k M G T Factor 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Commonly Used Physical Quantities 1. Mass & Weight Mass-quantity of matter that it contains Weight- is the force that gravity exerts on a body Balance is used to measure the mass or weight of an object. Different types of balances:  Platform and Triple Beam Balance- moderately accurate measurement is done, sensitive to 0.1 gram.  Digital/Analytical Balance- used for more accurate work, sensitive to 0.001 gram to 0.0001 gram.  Spring Balance used to measure the weight of the body directly and is given in the units of force, the Newton (N). The spring is stretched until the force of gravity acting on the body is equal to the backward pull of the spring. 2. Length & Volume Length- distance, the standard or base unit is meter. Ruler, meterstick, caliper are used to measure the length of an object. Volume- it is defined in terms of standard length. Volume of regular solids is obtained by measuring its dimensions. Volume of liquid is commonly measured using a graduated cylinder, pipette, burette, and volumetric flask. 3. Density and Specific Gravity Density- defined as the ratio of the sample s mass to its volume. Density of liquids and solids is usually expressed in grams per milliliter (g/ml) or gram per cubic meter (g/cc) and in gas, g/L. Specific Gravity or Relative Density is a ratio of that substance to the density of a reference substance. Water is the reference substance used for solids and liquids, for gases, air and hydrogen is used. It has no unit. 4. Pressure defined as a force per unit area. It is measured in Newton per square meter equal to Pascal, other units use, psi, torr and atmosphere.  Manometers- used to measure the pressure of liquids or gases.  Barometer- used to measure atmospheric pressure devised by Evangelista Torrecilli. 5. Temperature- the measure of the kinetic energy of a body, also the measure of how hot or cold a substance is.  Thermometer- used to measure temperature; alcohol and mercury are used in thermometers. Clinical thermometer- used to measure the small variations in the temperature of a human body. Temperature Scales: Water Freezing pt Boiling pt. Celsius Scale (Anders Celsius) 0 C 100 C Fahrenheit (Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit) 32 F 212 F Kelvin (William Thomson) 273 K 373 K CONVERSION- Factor-unit method having a numerator and a denominator representing a relationship is used. To convert one quantity to the other, follow the given steps: 1. Write down the given quantity. 2. Multiply/divide the given quantity by one or more factors such that the units of factors. 3. Cancel the units of the known quantities and generate the units of the desired quantity. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES- are those digits in a number with known certainty plus the digit that is uncertain. Rules Governing the Identification of Significant Figures:  All nonzero digits are significant. (346, 3 SF)  All zeros between two nonzero digits are significant. (101.02, 5 SF)  Zeros at the right of a nonzero digit but to the left of an understood decimal point is not significant. (100, 1 SF, 1020, 3 SF, 1000., 4 SF)  Zeros to the right of n understood decimal point and following a nonzero digit is significant. (1.500, 4 SF, 10.10, 4 SF)  Zeros to the right of an understood decimal point and preceding a nonzero digit are not significant. (0.005, 1 SF)  In addition and subtraction, express the final results with the last digits corresponding to that uncertain figure occurring in that component/factor with the least number of decimal places. (0.0521 + 1.3456 + 3.56 + 4.9577 = 4.96)  In multiplication and division, express the final result in as many significant figures as are contained in the factor having the least number of significant figures. (1.5 x 2.0 = 3.0, 2 SF), 22.0/3.1416 = 7.26, 3 SF)  All factors should be rounded off after computation. SCIENTIFIC NOTATION- a convenient way of expressing very large and very small numbers. M x 10 where M is a decimal number with one nonzero digit before the decimal point; and n is s whole number. FORMULA TRANSFORMATION- a rearrangement of the symbols in a given formula, a process of changing the subject of the formula. Formula- a set of algebraic symbols representing a mathematical fact, rule or principle. PRECISION- the agreement of a set of results among themselves. Two forms of deviation, Absolute deviation (AD) the difference between the measured value (Mo ) and the mean (M) for the set of several measurements. Relative Deviation- is calculated by dividing the absolute deviation by the mean. ACCURACY- refers to the closeness of a measurement to the accepted value for a specific physical quantity. Absolute error is the actual difference between the measured value and the accepted value. Relative Error is often called percentage error.

NAME:________________________________________________________________ DATE: ____________________ YEAR & SECTION:_____________________________________________________SCORE:___________________

EXERCISES: A. SIGNIFICANT FIGURE Write the number of Significant Figures the following numbers have. Write your answer in the space provided before the letter. ____a) 0.016036 ____g) 125, 000 _____b) 983 _____c) 7.0001 ____d) 1007 ____e) 706.5 ____f) 340000

_____h) 0.00005 _____i) 3, 000, 000 ____j) 102

____k) 400900 ____l) 22. 234500

B. SCIENTIFIC NOTATION I. Express the following numbers into scientific notation a) 706.5 = _____________________________________________ b) 0.00123 = ___________________________________________ c) 125, 000 = ___________________________________________ d) 0.000000034 = _______________________________________ e) 3, 000, 000, 000 = _____________________________________ f) 0.015730 = ___________________________________________ g) 13.2 = _______________________________________________ h) 0.005976 = ___________________________________________ i) 56700000007 = _______________________________________ j) 220000000000 = ______________________________________ II. Change the following scientific notation into their standard form. a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) 9.3 x 107 = ________________________________________ 3.2 x 10-3 = ________________________________________ 1.03 x 10-8 = ________________________________________ 8.09 x 1012 = ________________________________________ 3.4 x 104 = _________________________________________ 2.56 x 106 = ________________________________________ 1.097 x 10-5 = _______________________________________ 55.7 x 102 = ________________________________________ 9.86 x 10 -4 = ________________________________________ 12.78 x 109 =________________________________________

C. CONVERSION Convert the following measurements to the required unit. a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) 508 g = ____________ kg 1200 mL = __________cubic meter 10 m/s = ___________km/h 2L = ___________mL 250 mg = ___________g 40 cm = ____________m 355 micro meter = _____m 76 Gigabyte = ________ byte 5890 kg = ___________cg 12905 s = ___________h

D. FORMULA TRANSFORMATION Derive the formula for x using the following equations. Show your solution a) b) c) d) e) C= 2mx P= 2l + 2x b = ax s c = s/x A = 2xhr/3V

BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY BUSTOS CAMPUS BUSTOS, BULACAN NAME:________________________________________________________________ DATE: ____________________ YEAR & SECTION:________________________________________________________

PROJECT PROPOSAL in Environmental Science

I. II.

III.

PROJECT TITLE: RE-USE TO PRODUCE SPECIFIC TITLE:_________________________________________________________ OBJECTIVES: 1. To create new and functional things from garbage, trash, scraps and used materials. 2. To respond to the immediate garbage problem encountered by the community. 3. To develop students skills in identifying environmental problems and possible solutions. 4. To develop students creative thinking skills, resourcefulness and self-reliance. MATERIALS/BUDGET: USED MATERIALS TOOLS

IV.

ILLUSTRATION

V.

PROCEDURE:

VI.

POSSIBLE IMPLICATIONS:

VII.

RESULT/DOCUMENTATION: (1photo of maker with product and 1 of the product)

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE: SOME BASIC CHEMISTRY MATTER- anything that occupies space and has mass. MASS- refers to the quantity of matter in a body. WEIGHT- refers to the gravitational pull or attraction exerted by a large body of matter (ex. Earth) on an object. -- dependent on gravity therefore it depends upon the distance of the body from the center of the earth and so may vary from place to place. PROPERTIES OF MATTER A. Physical Properties properties of matter which can be observed without changing the substance into new kind of matter. does not alter the composition or identity of the substance undergoing change. Ex. Reliable properties- odor, color, taste, transparency. Reliable- density, boiling point, freezing point, solubility, compressibility, ability to store energy. B. Chemical Properties- properties that can be observed only when the substance undergoes a change in composition. Ex. Endothermic reaction, exothermic reaction C. Intensive Properties independent on quantity of the substance. D. Extensive Properties dependent on the quantity of the substance, ex. Mass, density PHYSICAL STATES OF MATTER Gases- substances that neither have definite shape nor definite volume. Liquid- substances that have definite volume but no definite shape, they just follow the shape of the container. Solids- materials that have definite volume and definite shape. Plasma mixture of sub-atomic particles nuclei and electrons, through nuclear fusion, temperature should be 50 to 100 million degree Celsius. 5. BEC (Bose-Einstein Condensate) substances that occurs on extremely low temperature. STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM ATOM- the basic building block of matter, extremely very small, measures only from less than one or two Angstrom. An Angstrom is equivalent to one ten-thousandth of a micron. Parts of an Atom A. Nucleus the tiny central part of an tom that contains the protons and neutrons. B. Sub-atomic Particles 1. Protons the positively charged particles of an atom, each protons carries an electronic charge of +1. 2. Neutrons the neutral particles of an atom since they have the charge. Protons and neutrons have roughly the same mass. Atomic Number the number of protons in the nucleus is unique for each element. Atomic Mass the total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus. 3. Electrons the negatively charged particles of an atom that are found outside and revolving around the nucleus. Each electron carries a charge of -1, - have very little mass. C. Shells contain electrons travelling at the same average distance from the nucleus, named after from the letters K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q starting from the innermost to the outermost. As the atomic mass from the atom increases, the number of shells also increases. CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER A. Pure substances- those substances whose composition in terms of its elemental constituents does not change when subjected to processes such as freezing, boiling, condensation, evaporation, recrystalization and solution. Ex. Copper, sugarcane and distilled water. a) Element made up of only one kind of atom, pure simple substance which cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical or physical means. 3 kinds of element 1) metal are good conductors of heat and electricity Ex. zinc, tungsten, iron, aluminum, gold, lead 2) non-metal are good insulators against heat and electricity Ex. sodium, hydrogen, oxygen, helium 3) metalloids called borderline forms of elements or intermediate elements since they possess both the characteristics of metals and non-metals. Ex. arsenic, boron, germanium, silicon b) Compound -made up of two or more different kinds of atoms, pure substances formed from the chemical combination of two or more different elements in definite proportion by mass. Classified according to source: 1) organic compounds- substances contain carbon atoms Ex. Methane, ether, ketone, esters, carbohydrates, gasoline 2) Inorganic compounds usually does not have carbon atoms Ex. carbon dioxide, water, sodium, chloride, sulfur dioxide, ammonia Classified according to reactivity 1) acids compound consisting of hydrogen and a nonmetal ion or polyatomic ion, has sour taste and turn blue litmus paper to red. Ex. muriatic acid (HCL), battery water or oil vitriol (H2 SO4 ),oxalic acid (H2 C2 O4), acetic acid (HC2 H3 O2) 2)bases- alkali, those compounds containing hydroxyl group (OH) attached to a metallic element, has a bitter taste, soapy, slippery feeling and turn red litmus paper to blue. Ex. potassium hydroxide or caustic potash (KOH) and caustic soda or lye (NaOH)limewater or calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2 ), and mik of magnesia or magnesium hydroxide (Mg (OH) 2) c) salt a compound consists of cation and nonmetal catioon/polyatomic anion. Ex. saltpeter or salitre (KNO3 ), and Calcium carbide or carburo (CAC2 ), sodium bicarbonate or baking soda (NaHCO3 ) , calcium carbonate or limestone (CaCO3 ) 1. 2. 3. 4.

Classified according to polarity 1) covalent compound formed from sharing of electrons between two nonmetals or hydrogen plus nonmetal.Ex. H2 O, CH4 and CO2 2) Ionic compound- formed from transferring of electron from one atom to another, usually formed between metallic and nonmetallic elements. Ex. NaCL and MgBr 2 Classified according to conductivity 1) Electrolytes substances when dissolved in water conduct an electric current. Ex. ionic compounds 2) Nonelectrolytes substances that do not conduct an electric current when dissolved in water, Ex. glycerin, sugar, urea B. Impure Substances a) mixture made up of two or more pure substances jumbled together either homogeneously or heterogeneously, can be separated by physical means 1) Homogeneous mixture made up of components that cannot be easily distinguished even through the aid of a powerful microscope. Ex. salt and water, water and sugar * solutions appears uniform, even under the most powerful microscope, particle\s are too small to be seen by the naked eye Ex. air, gasoline, softdrinks, brine-salt dissolved in water 2) Heterogeneous mixture made up of components that can easily be identified. Ex. Oil and water, rock or water. ice cream, chocolate chips *colloids- intermediate between suspensions and solutions, particles in colloids are suspended in the medium Ex. clouds, chocolate drink, paint . Tyndall Effect-colloids exhibit this as they scatter light. * suspensions particles of solid settle after prolonged standing because the particles are big to be seen by the naked eye. Ex. syrup, muddy water CHEMICAL BOND 1) Electrovalence or ionic bond-involves transfer of electrons from one atom to another atom so the atom either loses or gains electrons. 2) Covalence or covalent bond involves sharing of electrons, when two atoms both lack electron in their outer shells they fill up their vacancies by sharing a pair of electrons. 3) Hydrogen bond- extremely important in biological systems, forms only between a few small electromagnetic atoms like oxygen, fluorine and nitrogen. SOME INORGANIC MOLECULES 1. Water-universal solvent, 60-90% of protoplasm ORGANIC COMPOUNDS I.Carbohydrates-simplest and most abundant organic compounds, composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, primary products of photosynthesis 3 classes of carbohydrates- sugar, starches, cellulose 3 kinds of sugarMonosaccharides or simple sugars- building blocks of more complex carbohydrates. Ex. a) glucose (dextrose or blood sugar), b) fructose (fruit sugar), c) galactose (milk sugar) and d) mannose (C H O) Disaccharides or double sugars-two simple sugars bonded together. Ex. a) sucrose (table sugar) b) lactose (milk sugar), c) maltose (malt sugar) (C H O) Polysaccharides or complex sugars-made up of many glucose molecules bonded together in a long chain. Ex. a)starches-stored in potatoes, beans, grains; b) glycogen (animal starch)-are stored in the animals liver; c) cellulose- found in the cell wall of plants. II. Proteins most important organic compound that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

2. Oxygen- present in gases in the respiratory organs 3. 4. 5. 6. Carbon Dioxide Minerals Organic Salts-present in skeletons(calcium carbonate) Sodium Chloride and other salts