Gupta Empire

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Gupta Empire
Gupta R java a

CE 320CE 600s

Gupta Empire 320 - 600 A.D.

Capital

Pataliputra

Language(s)

Sanskrit

Religion

Hinduism Buddhism

Government

Monarchy

Maharajadhiraja - 240s280s - 319335 - 540550 Sri-Gupta Chandragupta I Vishnugupta

Historical era - Established - Disestablished

Antiquity CE 320 CE 600s

Today part of

India Pakistan Bangladesh Myanmar Nepal

History of South Asia History of India

Iron age (120026 BCE)[show]

Classical period (1 CE1279 BCE)[show]

Late medieval age (12061596 CE)[show]

Early modern period (15261858 CE)[show]

Regional states (11021947 BCE)[show]

Colonial period (15051961 BCE)[show]

Kingdoms of Sri Lanka (543 BCE1948 BCE)[show]

Nation histories[show]

Regional histories[show]

Specialised histories[show]

vde

The Gupta Empire (Sanskrit: , Gupta R java

a) was an Ancient Indianempire which existed approximately

from 320 to 550 CE and covered much of theIndian Subcontinent.[1] Founded by Maharaja Sri-Gupta, the dynasty was the model of a classical civilization.[2] The peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors.[3] This period is called the Golden Age of India[4] and was marked by extensive inventions and discoveries in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic,mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture.[5] Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, andChandragupta II were the most notable rulers of the Gupta dynasty.[6] The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architecture, sculptures and paintings.[7] The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata,Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields.[8][9] Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era.[10] Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural center and set the region up as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, Malay Archipelago andIndochina.[11] The earliest available Puranas are also thought to have been written around this period. The empire gradually declined because of many factors like the substantial loss of territory and imperial authority caused by their own erstwhile feudatories and the invasion by the Hunas from Central Asia.[12] After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms. A minor line of the Gupta clan continued to rule Magadha after the disintegration of the empire. These Guptas were ultimately ousted by the Vardhana ruler Harsha, who established an empire in the first half of the 7th century.
Contents
[hide]

1 Origin of the Guptas 2 Srigupta and Ghatotkacha 3 Chandragupta I 4 Samudragupta 5 Succession of Samudragupta 6 Ramagupta

7 Chandragupta II

7.1 Chandra Gupta II's campaigns against Foreign Tribes

8 Kumaragupta I 9 Skandagupta 10 Huna invasion and the decline of the empire 11 Military organization 12 Gupta administration 13 Legacy of the Gupta Empire 14 Gupta dynasty rulers 15 See also 16 Notes 17 References 18 Further reading 19 External links

[edit]Origin

of the Guptas

Main article: Origin of the Gupta dynasty Specific details about the origin or social background of the Guptas are not yet available.[13] A.S. Altekar, regarded the caste of the Guptas as Vaishya on the basis of the ancient Indian texts on law, which prescribe the name-ending with Gupta for a member of the Vaishya caste, but this injunction was more often disregarded than followed. A modern historian, K.P. Jayaswal suggested that the Guptas were Jats. His argument was based on the Pune and Riddhapura copper plate grants of Prabahvatigupta, the Vakatakaregent and the daughter of Chandragupta II. In these two inscriptions, she states that she belonged to the Dharana gotra and as it was not her husband's gotra, it is the gotra of the Guptas. His view was endorsed by another modern historian, Dasharatha Sharma, who added that the Jats of the Dharana gotra still exist in the present-day Rajasthan[14] Another modern historian, H.C. Raychaudhuri, also accepted that the Guptas belonged to the Dharana gotra. He also believed that they were possibly related to Queen Dharini, the chief consort of Agnimitra.[15][16] However, according to J. N. Singh Yadav, Dharana gotra not only belongs to the Jats, it is also a prominent gotra of the Yadavs of the present-day Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and Rajasthan states.[17] But the basis of these arguments, the earlier accepted reading of the Riddhapura copper plate inscription may be incorrect and the correct reading possibly indicates that the family of Prabhavatigupta's mother, Kuberanaga belonged to this Dharana gotra. Recently, a historian, Ashvini Agarwal, on the basis of the matrimonial alliances of the Guptas with the orthodox Brahman dynasties, assumed that they belong to the Brahman caste.[14] A number of modern scholars have also argued that Guptas were Kshatriyas, mostly based on their matrimonial alliances with the Lichchhavis and Nagas, who are presumed to have been Kshatriyas.[13]

Head of a Buddha, Gupta period, 6th century.

Recent excavations in Nepal and Deccan have revealed that Gupta suffix was common amongAbhira kings and a modern Historian D. R. Regmi linked the Imperial Guptas with Abhira-Guptasof Nepal.[18] He pointed out that Lichchhavayah, inscribed on the reverse of Samudragupta's coins is a plural term and cannot refer to Chandragupta I's Lichhavi queen, rather it is mentioned to pay allegiance to the Lichhavis of Nepal, whose feudatory, once Abhira-Guptas of Nepal were. Fa Xian was the first of the Chinese pilgrims who visited India during the reign of Chandra GuptaII. He started his journey from China in 399 CE and reached India in 405 CE. During his stay in India up to 411 CE, he went on a pilgrimage to Mathura, Kanauj, Kapilavastu, Kushinagar,Vaishali, Pataliputra, Kashi and Rajgriha and made careful observations about the empire's conditions. Fa Xian was pleased with the mildness of administration. The Penal Code was mild and offences were punished by fines only. From his accounts, the Gupta Empire was a prosperous period. The Chinese traveler Yijing (see also Xuanzang) provides more knowledge of the Gupta kingdom in Magadha. He came to north India in 672 CE and heard of Maharaja Sri-Gupta, who built a temple for Chinese pilgrims near Mi-li-kia-si-kia-pono (Mrigasikhavana). According to Yijing, this temple was "about 40 yojanas to the east of Nalanda, following the course of the Ganga".[19]

[edit]Srigupta

and Ghatotkacha

The most likely time for the reign of Sri Gupta is c. 240280 CE. A number of modern historians, which include Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay and K. P. Jayaswal, think he and his son were possibly feudatories of the Kushans.[20] His son and successorGhatotkacha ruled probably from c. 280319 CE. In contrast to their successor, Chandragupta I, who is mentioned as Maharajadhiraja, he and his son Ghatotkacha are referred to in inscriptions as Maharaja.[16] At the beginning of the 5th century the Guptas established and ruled a few small Hindu kingdoms in Magadha and around modern-day Bihar.

[edit]Chandragupta

Main article: Chandragupta I

Queen Kumaradevi and KingChandragupta I, depicted on a coin of their son Samudragupta, 335380 CE.

Ghatotkacha (reigned c. 280319 CE), had a son named Chandragupta (reigned c. 319-335 CE) (not to be confused with Chandragupta Maurya (340293 BCE), founder of the Mauryan Empire.) In a breakthrough deal, Chandragupta was married to Kumaradevi, a Lichchhaviprincessthe main power in Magadha. With a dowry of the kingdom of Magadha (capitalPataliputra) and an alliance with the Lichchhavis, Chandragupta set about expanding his power, conquering much of Magadha, Prayaga and Saketa. He established a realm stretching from the Ganges River to Prayaga (modernday Allahabad) by 321 CE. He assumed the imperial title of Maharajadhiraja.

[edit]Samudragupta
Main article: Samudragupta

Coin of Samudragupta, with Garuda pillar.British Museum.

Gold coin of Samudragupta to commemorate the Ashvamedha ritual. Tethered horse and queen carrying ritual equipment.

Samudragupta, Parakramanka succeeded his father in 335 CE, and ruled for about 45 years, till his death in 380 CE. He took the kingdoms ofAhichchhatra and Padmavati early in his reign. He then attacked the Malwas, the Yaudheyas, theArjunayanas, the Maduras and the Abhiras, all of which were tribes in the area. By his death in 380, he had incorporated over twenty kingdoms into his realm and his rule extended from the Himalayas to the river Narmada and from the Brahmaputra to the Yamuna. He gave himself the titles King of Kings and World Monarch. Historian Vincent Smith described him as the "Indian Napoleon".[21] He performed Ashwamedha yajna (horse sacrifice) to underline the importance of his conquest. The stone replica of the sacrificial horse, then prepared, is in the Lucknow Museum. The Samudragupta Prashasti inscribed on the Ashokan Pillar, now in Akbars Fort at Allahabad, is an authentic record of his exploits and his sway over most of the continent. Samudragupta was not only a talented military leader but also a great patron of art and literature. The important scholars present in his court were Harishena, Vasubandhu andAsanga. He was a poet and musician himself. He was a firm believer in Hinduism and is known to have worshipped Lord Vishnu. He was considerate of other religions and allowed Sri Lanka's Buddhist king Sirimeghvanna to build a monastery at Bodh Gaya. That monastery was called by Xuanzang as the Mahabodhi Sangharama.[22] He provided a gold railing around the Bodhi Tree.

[edit]Succession

of Samudragupta

According to A.S. Altekar, a king named Ramagupta intervened between Samudragupta and Chandragupta II. His theory is based on a tradition that, Samudragupta's eldest son Ramagupta, who succeeded him, was a weak ruler. After suffering a humiliating defeat at the hands of the Sakas, he agreed to surrender his wife Dhruvadevi or Dhurvasvamini to the Saka Chief (who, Altekar believes is Rudrasena II). But, Rama Guptas younger brother Chandra Gupta II, protested against this dishonour and went to the Saka camp disguised as the queen and assassinated the Saka Chief. After this he killed his brother Rama Gupta, married Dhruvadevi and ascended to the throne. But this theory is not supported by any contemporary epigraphic evidence. The earliest version of this narrative is found in theHarshacharita of Bana. The later versions are found in a number of texts, which include the extracts of the Devichandragupta, a historical drama of Vishakhadatta found in the Natyadarpana of Ramachandra and Gunachandra and also in the Shringaraprakasha ofBhoja I.[23] The version of this narrative given by Bana in his Harshacharita differs significantly from all the later versions, even the narrative known to the author of the Kavyamimamsa (c.900). The Harshacharita only

mentions that Chandragupta II, disguised as a female, destroyed a Saka king, who coveted the wife of another, in the very city of the enemy.[19] It does not mention anything about Ramagupta.

[edit]Ramagupta
Main article: Ramagupta Although, the narrative of the Devichandragupta is not supported by any contemporary epigraphical evidence, the historicity of Ramagupta is proved by his Durjanpur inscriptions on three Jaina images, where he is mentioned as the Maharajadhiraja. A large number of his copper coins also have been found from the Eran-Vidisha region and classified in five distinct types, which include theGaruda,[24] Garudadhvaja, lion and border legend types. The Brahmi legends on these coins are written in the early Gupta style.[25]

[edit]Chandragupta

II

Main article: Chandragupta II

Coin of Chandragupta II.

According to the Gupta records, amongst his many sons,Samudragupta nominated prince Chandra Gupta II, born of queen Dattadevi, as his successor. Chandra Gupta II, Vikramaditya (the Sun of Power), ruled from 380 until 413. Chandra Gupta II also married to a Kadamba princess of Kuntala region and a princess of Naga lineage (N gakulotpannn ), Kuberanaga. His daughter Prabhavatigupta from this Naga queen was married to Rudrasena II, the Vakataka ruler of Deccan.[26] His son Kumaragupta I was married to Kadamba princess of karnatka region . Emperor Chandra Gupta II expanded his realm westwards, defeating the Saka Western Kshatrapas of Malwa, Gujarat and Saurashtrain a campaign lasting until 409, but with his main opponent Rudrasimha III defeated by 395, and crushing the Bengal (Vanga) chiefdoms. This extended his control from coast-to-coast, estabilshed a second capital at Ujjain and was the high point of the empire.

Gold coins of Chandragupta II.

Silver coin of Chandragupta II, minted in his Western territories, in the style of the Western Satraps. Obv: Bust of king, with corrupted Greek legend "OOIHU".[27][28] Rev: Legend in Brahmi, "Chandragupta Vikramaditya, King of Kings, and a devotee of Vishnu" , around a peacock. 15mm, 2.1 grams. Mitchiner 48214823.

Despite the creation of the empire through war, the reign is remembered for its very influential style of Hindu art, literature, culture and science, especially during the reign of Chandra Gupta II. Some excellent works of Hindu art such as the panels at the Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh serve to illustrate the magnificence of Gupta art. Above all it was the synthesis of elements that gave Gupta art its distinctive flavour. During this period, the Guptas were supportive of thriving Buddhist and Jain cultures as well, and for this reason there is also a long history of non-Hindu Gupta period art. In particular, Gupta period Buddhist art was to be influential in most of East and Southeast Asia. Many advances were recorded by the Chinese scholar and traveller Faxian (Fa-hien) in his diary and published afterwards. The court of Chandragupta was made even more illustrious by the fact that it was graced by the Navaratna (Nine Jewels), a group of nine who excelled in the literary arts. Amongst these men was the immortal Kalidasa whose works dwarfed the works of many other literary geniuses, not only in his own age but in the ages to come. Kalidasa was particularly known for his fine exploitation of the shringara (romantic) element in his verse.

[edit]Chandra

Gupta II's campaigns against Foreign Tribes

4th century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa, credits Chandragupta Vikramaditya with having conquered about twenty one kingdoms, both in and outside India. After finishing his campaign in the East and West India, Vikramaditya (Chandra Gupta II) proceeded northwards, subjugated the Parasikas (Persians), then the Hunas and the Kambojas tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys respectively. Thereafter, the king proceeds across the Himalaya and reduced the Kinnaras,Kiratas etc. and lands into India proper.[29] The Brihatkathamanjari of the Kashmiri writer Kshmendra states, king Vikramaditya (Chandra Gupta II) had "unburdened the sacred earth of the Barbarians like the Sakas, Mlecchas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Tusharas, Parasikas, Hunas, etc. by annihilating these sinfulMlecchas completely".[30][31][32]

[edit]Kumaragupta

Main article: Kumaragupta I

Gold coin of Kumaragupta I.

Silver coin of the Gupta King Kumara Gupta I AD (414455) (Coin of his Western territories, design derived from the Western Satraps). Obv: Bust of king with crescents, with traces of corrupt Greek script.[33][34] Rev: Garuda standing facing with spread wings. Brahmi legend:Parama-bhagavata rajadhiraja Sri Kumaragupta Mahendraditya.

Chandragupta II was succeeded by his second son Kumaragupta I, born of Mahadevi Dhruvasvamini. Kumaragupta I assumed the title,Mahendraditya.[35] He ruled until 455. Towards the end of his reign a tribe in the Narmada valley, the Pushyamitras, rose in power to threaten the empire.

[edit]Skandagupta
Main article: Skandagupta Skandagupta, son and successor of Kumaragupta I is generally considered to be the last of the great Gupta rulers. He assumed the titles of Vikramaditya and Kramaditya.[36] He defeated the Pushyamitra threat, but then was faced with invading Hephthalites or "White Huns", known in India as the Huna, from the northwest. He repulsed a Huna attack c. 455, But the expense of the wars drained the empire's resources and contributed to its decline. Skandagupta died in 467 and was succeeded by his agnate brother Purugupta.[37]

[edit]Huna

invasion and the decline of the empire

Skandagupta was followed by weak rulers Purugupta (467473),Kumaragupta II (473476), Budhagupta (476 495?), Narasimhagupta,Kumaragupta III, Vishnugupta, Vainyagupta and Bhanugupta. In the 480's the Hephthalite King Oprah broke through the Gupta defenses in the northwest, and much of the empire in northwest was overrun by the Huna by 500. The empire disintegrated under the attacks of Toramana and his successor Mihirakula. The Hunas conquered several provinces of the empire, including Malwa, Gujarat and Thanesar. It appears from inscriptions that the Guptas, although their power was much diminished, continued to resist the Hunas. Narasimhagupta formed an alliance with the independent kingdoms to drive the Hun from most of northern India by the 530's. The succession of the sixth-century Guptas is not entirely clear, but the tail end recognized ruler of the dynasty's main line was kingVishnugupta, reigning from 540 to 550. In addition to the Huna invasion, the factors, which contribute to the decline of the empire include competition from the Vakatakas and the rise of Yashodharman in Malwa.[38]

[edit]Military

organization

The Imperial Guptas could have achieved their successes through force of arms with an efficient martial system. Historically, the best accounts of this come not from the Hindus themselves but from Chinese and Western observers. However, a contemporary Indian document, regarded as a military classic of the time, the Siva-Dhanur-veda, offers some insight into the military system of the Guptas. The Guptas seem to have relied heavily on infantry archers, and the bow was one of the dominant weapons of their army. The Hindu version of the longbow was composed of metal, or more typically bamboo, and fired a long bamboo cane arrow with a metal head. Unlike the composite bows of Western and Central Asian foes, bows of this design would be less

prone to warping in the damp and moist conditions often prevalent to the region. The Indian longbow was reputedly a powerful weapon capable of great range and penetration and provided an effective counter to invading horse archers. Iron shafts were used against armored elephants and fire arrows were also part of the bowmen's arsenal. India historically has had a prominent reputation for its steel weapons. One of these was the steel bow. Due to its high tensility, the steel bow was capable of long range and penetration of exceptionally thick armor. These were less common weapons than the bamboo design and found in the hands of noblemen rather than in the ranks. Archers were frequently protected by infantry equipped with shields, javelins, and longswords. The Guptas also had knowledge of siegecraft, catapults, and other sophisticated war machines. The Guptas apparently showed little predilection for using horse archers, despite the fact these warriors were a main component in the ranks of their Scythian, Parthian, and Hepthalite (Huna) enemies. However, the Gupta armies were probably better disciplined. Able commanders like Samudragupta and Chandragupta II would have likely understood the need for combined armed tactics and proper logistical organization. Gupta military success likely stemmed from the concerted use of elephants, armored cavalry, and foot archers in tandem against both Hindu kingdoms and foreign armies invading from the Northwest. The Guptas also maintained a navy, allowing them to control regional waters. The collapse of the Gupta Empire in the face of the Huna onslaught was due not directly to the inherent defects of the Gupta army, which after all had initially defeated these people under Skandagupta. More likely, internal dissolution sapped the ability of the Guptas to resist foreign invasion, as was simultaneously occurring in Western Europe and China.

[edit]Gupta

administration

A study of the epigraphical records of the Gupta empire shows that there was a hierarchy of administrative divisions from top to bottom. The empire was called by various names such as Rajya, Rashtra, Desha, Mandala, Prithvi and Avani. It was divided in to 26 provinces, which were styled as Bhukti, Pradesha and Bhoga. Provinces were also divided into Vishayas and put under the control of theVishayapatis. A Vishayapati administered the Vishaya with the help of the Adhikarana (council of representatives), which comprised four representatives: Nagarasreshesthi, Sarthavaha, Prathamakulika and Prathama Kayastha. A part of the Vishaya was called Vithi.[39]

[edit]Legacy

of the Gupta Empire

The Ajanta paintings were made during the Gupta period

Scholars of this period include Varahamihira and Aryabhata, who is believed to be the first to come up with the concept of zero, postulated the theory that the Earth moves round the Sun, and studied solar and lunareclipses. Kalidasa, who was a great playwright, who wrote plays such asShakuntala, which is said to have inspired Goethe, and marked the highest point of Sanskrit literature is also said to have belonged to this period.The famous Sushruta Samhita, which is a Sanskrit redaction text on all of the major concepts of ayurvedic medicine with innovative chapters on surgery, dates to the Gupta period. The flow of invasions from the Huns from central Asia aided in accelerating the demise of the glorious Gupta dynasty rule in India, although the effects of its fall was far less devastating than that of the Han or Roman at the same time. According to historian's work,

The Gupta Empire is considered by many scholars to be the "classical age" of Hindu and Buddhist art and literature. The Rulers of the Gupta Empire were strong supporters of developments in the arts, architecture, science, and literature. The Gupta Empire circulated a large number of gold coins, called dinars, and supported the Universities of Nalanda and Vikramasila.

Chess is said to have originated in this period,[40] where its early form in the 6th century was known as catura ga, which translates as "four divisions [of the military]" infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariotry represented by the pieces that would evolve into the modern pawn, knight, bishop, and rook, respectively. Doctors also invented several medical instruments, and even performed operations. The Indian numerals which were the first positional base 10 numeral systems in the world originated from Gupta India. The ancient Gupta text Kama Sutra is widely considered to be the standard work on human sexual behavior in Sanskrit literature written by the Indian scholar Vatsyayana. Aryabhata, a

noted mathematician-astronomer of the Gupta period proposed that the earth is not flat, but is instead round and rotates about its own axis. He also discovered that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight. Instead of the prevailing cosmogony in which eclipses were caused by pseudo-planetary nodes Rahu and Ketu, he explained eclipses in terms of shadows cast by and falling on Earth. These and the other scientific discoveries made by Indians during this period about gravity and the planets of the solar system spread throughout the world through trade.

[edit]Gupta

dynasty rulers

The main branch of the Gupta dynasty ruled the Gupta Empire in India, from around 320 to 550. This dynasty was founded by Srigupta. The rulers are: Srigupta Ghatotkacha Chandragupta I Nishamusgupta Samudragupta Ramagupta Chandragupta II Kumaragupta I Skandagupta Purugupta Kumaragupta II Budhagupta Narasimhagupta Baladitya Kumaragupta III Vishnugupta Vainyagupta Bhanugupta
Preceded by Kanva dynasty Magadha dynasties AD 240550 Succeeded by possibly Pala dynasty

                

GUPTA DYNASTY, GOLDEN AGE OF INDIA

By the fourth century A.D., political and military turmoil destroyed the Kushan empire in the north and many kingdoms in the south India. At this juncture, India was invaded by a series of foreigners and barbarians or Mlechchhas from the north western frontier region and central Asia. It signaled the emergence of a leader, a Magadha ruler, Chandragupta I. Chandragupta successfully combated the foreign invasion and laid foundation of the great Gupta dynasty, the emperors of which ruled for the next 300 years, bringing the most prosperous era in Indian history. The reign of Gupta emperors can truly be considered as the golden age of classical Indian history. Srigupta I (270-290 AD) who was perhaps a petty ruler of Magadha (modern Bihar) established Gupta dynasty with Patliputra or Patna as its capital. He and his son Ghatotkacha (290-305 AD) have left very little evidences of their rule and did not issue any coins of their own (although there have been reports of coins of Shrigupta which need more thorough studies). Ghatotkacha was succeeded by his son Chandragupta I (305-325 AD) who strengthened his kingdom by matrimonial alliance with the powerful family ofLichchavi who were rulers of Mithila. His marriage to Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi, brought an enormous power, resources and prestige. He took advantage of the situation and occupied whole of fertile Gangetic valley. Chandragupta I eventually assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja (emperor) in formal coronation. Most probably Chandragupta I never minted gold coins of his own, although some historians believe that gold coins depicting king (Chandragupta) and queen (Kumardevi) are minted by him. It is very likely that these coins were minted by their illustrious son, Samudragupta. Shown below is very nice example of this controversial coin where Chandragupta and Kumardevi are shown (without halo). Chandragupta is offering a ring (or putting Sindur) to his queen Kumardevi. Chandra in Brahmi script is written below left arm of King while Shri-Kumardevi is written near right hand of queen. Reverse of coin shows goddess

Ambika, sitting on Lion. The legend on reverse reads Lichchavyah, which suggests that indeed, Samudragupta took pride in being son of Lichchavi princess. His affection towards his parents is amply demonstrated while issuing this superb (commemorative?) gold coin. This coin is a rare and very special in Indian numismatics.

Kumardevi and Chandragupta I (Minted by their son Samudragupta) 335-370 AD Gold Dinar Weight: 7.8 gm Obverse: King and queen Reverse: Goddess Ambika (Durga) sitting on lion Reference: Altekar#1 Rare

SAMUDRAGUPTA (335-380 AD) Samudragupta was perhaps the greatest king of Gupta dynasty. His name appear in Javanese text `Tantrikamandaka', and Chinese writer, Wang-hiuen-tse refers that a ambassador was sent to his court by King Meghvarma of Shri Lanka, who had asked his permission to build a Buddhist monastery at Bodh Gaya for the monks traveling from Shri Lanka. But the most detailed and authentic record of his reign is preserved in the rock pillar of the Allahabad, composed by Harisena. Samudragupta enlarged the Gupta Kingdom by winning a series of battles till he was a master of northern India. Soon he defeated the kings ofVindhyan region (central India) and Deccan. He although made no attempt to incorporate the kingdoms of south of Narmada and Mahanadi rivers (southern India) into his empire. When he died his mighty empire bordered with Kushan of Western province (modern Afganistan and Pakistan) and Vakatakas in Deccan (modern southern Maharashtra). Samudragupta was a staunch Hindu and after all his military triumphs, he performed the Ashwamedha Yagna (Horse sacrifice ceremony) which is evident on some of his coins. Ashwamedha Yagna gave him the coveted title of Maharajadhiraj, the supreme king of kings. His greatest achievement can be described as the political unification of most of the northern India or Aryavarta into a formadible power.

Samudragupta 335-370 AD Gold Dinar Weight: 7.6 gm Obverse: King sacrificing at altar Reverse: Laxmi sitting MAC#4773 ff

Most certainly, Samudragupta is the father of Gupta monetary system. It is very likely that, the Kushan gold coins were circulating in the north and central India (possibly in the eastern India too), the dominion which comprised of Samudragupta's empire. It was these Kushan coins which were the source of inspiration for Samudragupta. When he introduced the first Gupta coinage, they were of the same weight standard as that of Kushan. The Kushan rulers had adopted Roman standard and minted their coins as 8 gms unit which were called as Dinara, derived from Roman name for their gold coins, Denarius Aurius. Thus, the Gupta gold coins were also named as Dinara and referred by that name in most contemporary literature. Interestingly, this obviously foreign weight standard (122.9 grains) was not very satisfactory for the rulers, thus a conscious effort was made by later Gupta rulers to mint coins in Indian weight standard, popularly calledSuvarna. The Suvarna weight standaard suggests coin of 144 grains or approximately 9.2 gms of gold. Finally, it was Skandagupta who succeed in minting Gupta gold coins in Suvarna standard (commonly called as heavy type gold coins).

Samudragupta 335-370 AD Gold Dinar Weight: 7.6 gm Obverse: Uncaparisoned horse standing to left before yupa (a sacrificial post), Yupa has pedestal in two steps. A pennon fly from Yupa, top over the horse. The mane of the horse is probably

plaited with a string of golden beads. Letter Si is under the horse, standing for Siddham.The legend reads Rajadhirajah Prithvimavitva divam jayatyaha-ritavajimedhah. Reverse: Crowned the chief queen (Mahashi) standing not nimbate, (most coins have queen nimbate) , holding in her right arm a chauri over right shoulder and in her left hand a towel, hanging by her side. A lotus is under her feet. Suchi, a sacrificial appear before queen. The legend reads Ashwamedhaparakramah Reference: Altekar plate VI, 3; BMC plate V 9, MAC#4787 Rare

Samudragupta paid considerable attention and left an extensive coinage. Samudragupta minted seven distinct types of coins: standard type (shown above), the archer type, Battle Axe type (refers to his military activities), Ashwamedha type (Commemorating the horse sacrifice ceremony) , tiger slayer type, King and queen type (shown above) and Lyrist types (shown below). All Gupta emperors minted splendid gold coins which have evoked widespread admiration for their technical and sculptural finesse. Most Gupta gold coins weighed close to 8 grams and had Shri-Laxmi (goddess of wealth) on reverse side of the coin. Both the weight standard and the concept of presence of deity on coins is almost certainly borrowed from the late Kushana gold coinage. The symbols, phrasing of Sanskrit legends (written in Bramhi script), size, weight and gold content in their coins appears to have been meticulously planned and executed. The coin shown above depicts Samudragupta, a tall man with sharp features making an offering at an altar with his right hand. Below his left arm his name Samudra is written while legends at edge of coin reads Samara Sata Vitata Vijayo Jita Ripurajito Divam Jayati (the invincible king who had won hundred battles). The legends are in Sanskrit written in Brahmi script. On reverse is Shri-Laxmi (the goddess of wealth) seated on throne. This is the earliest issue of Gupta gold staters.

Samudragupta 335-370 AD Gold Dinar Weight: 7.6 gm Obverse: King, standing looking left, holding battle-Axe (Parashu) with his left hand, resting right hand on hip. A dwarf looking upto him and standard at the left of flan. Brahmi legend `Samudra below his arm. The legend around ` Reverse: Goddess Laxmi nimbate, enthroned holding cornucopiae and a bouquet of flower, symbol to left, to right the Brahmi legend `Krtantaparasuh Reference: BMC plate IV, 8-9; Altekar plate V, 6 Rare

Beyond doubt Samudragupta was a great military general, but apart from that, his personal accomplishments are equally remarkable. He showed great magnanimity towards all those kings who were defeated. His polished intelligence and good knowledge of scriptures won him many admirers. He gathered a galaxy of poets and scholars and took effective actions to foster and propagate religious, artistic and literary aspects of Indian culture. He had good proficiency in music and was perhaps an accomplished Lyrist (Lyre or Veena is a musical instrument). This fact is amply demonstrated in his lyrist type coins. Most king took pride in trumpeting their bravery but Samudragupta is the only king in whole of Indian history who showed softer side of his personality (Kumargupta, his grandson, have copied this type and minted few Lyrist type gold coins, which are exceedingly rare). These coins are unique, very special and rare. Shown below is this coin where Samudragupta is shown playing Lyre, a kind of (harp like) string musical instrument. The legends on obverse in margin readsMaharajadhiraja Shri Samudragupta. The legends are in Sanskrit, written in Brahmi script.

Samudragupta 335-370 AD Gold Dinar Weight: 7.9 gm Obverse: King playing Veena or Lyre Reverse: Laxmi sitting MAC#4788-90 Rare

VIKRAMADITYA or CHANDRAGUPTA II (380 to 413 AD) It is very apt to say, like father like son. Samudragupta's son, Chandragupta II tried to be better than his father, and most historians agree, he was certainly successful. Vikramaditya is THE LEGENDARY emperor of India. More stories/legends are associated with him than any other ruler of India. It was during his (and his son Kumargupta) reign, India was at the pinnacle of prosperity and opulence. Although named after his grandfather Chandragupta, he took a title of Vikramaditya, which became a synonym for sovereign of tremendous power and wealth. This title was later taken up by scores of other sovereign rulers of India. Chandragupta minted prodigious number of gold coins. Even today, the largest number of Gupta coins found in various hoards are minted during his rule, a solid evidence of prosperity of his reign.

Vikramaditya or Chandragupta II 375-414 AD Gold Dinar Weight: 7.77 gm Obverse: King holding Bow, looking right Reverse: Laxmi sitting on lotus MAC#4796 ff Rare Vikramaditya succeeded his father Samudragupta (possibly there was another prince, or his elder brother who ruled briefly, and according to legends slayed by Shakas), and carried on the policy of `world conquest' of his predecessors. Political marriages occupied a prominent place in foreign policy of Gupta emperors. He married princess Kubernaga, daughter of Naga Chieftains and later gave his daughter Prabhavati in marriage to Rudrasena of powerful family of Vakatakas of the Deccan (modern Maharashtra). His most significant and well celebrated military achievement being total destruction of Kshatrapas, the Shaka (Scythian) rulers of Malawa and Saurashtra, the western India (modern Gujrath and neighbouring states). He scored a fantastic victory over the Kshatrapa rulers and incorporated these provinces into his increasing empire. The cool courage he showed in fight with Shakas and killing their king in their own city entitled him the epithets Shakari (destroyer of Shakas) or Sahasanka. He has also been credited for the era, popularly known as Vikram Samvat which commence in 58 BC. This era has been used by major Hindu dynasties and still in use in modern India.

Vikramaditya or Chandragupta II 375-414 AD Gold Dinar Weight: 7.77 gm Obverse: King holding Bow, looking right

Reverse: Laxmi sitting on lotus MAC#4796 ff Rare Vikramaditya's reign was perhaps THE most prosperous and progressive reign in the ENTIRE Indian history. The contemporary Chinese traveller and Buddhist monk Fa-hein was struck with the prosperity of subject during Gupta rule. He has admired the royal palaces and houses for dispensing charity medicine. He speaks highly of system of Government. Shown above is a beautiful example of his coin where King is hoding bow, looking right. It is a rare coin as most of his coin depicts him looking left. Shown below is another example of Vikramaditya's gold coin which shows him holding bow and arrow but looking left. Chandra (literally means moon) is written on obverse (below his arm). Also one can read Gupta on left side of coin. On reverse Laxmi is depicted, seated cross legged on lotus.

Vikramaditya or Chandragupta II 375-414 AD Gold Dinar Weight: 7.77 gm Obverse: King holding Bow, looking right Reverse: Laxmi sitting on lotus MAC#4796 ff Rare Vikramaditya minted seven distinct types of coins: Sceptre/standard type, Archer type, Chatra type, Chakravikrama type, horseman type, lion-slayer type and couch type. Shown below is another beautiful specimen of Vikramaditya where he is shown alying a lion, an absolute beauty!

Vikramaditya or Chandragupta II 375-414 AD Gold Dinar Weight: 8.01 gm Obverse: King is barebodied, a crest jewel on the forehead, curly hair falling on neck. He holds bow in right hand and strings it to ear by left hand to shoot at lion standing in front of him. The legend around read Narendrachandrah prathitaranorane jayatyajayyo bhuvi sinhavikramah Reverse: Goddess Abmika-Laxmi nimbate, seated on lion couchant to left, holding lotus in her left hand and noose in her right hand. The legend reads Simhavikramah Reference: BMC Plate 114, pl IX3 obverse; Altekar Bayana Plate Finest animated style, broad flan Very Rare in such condition KUMARGUPTA I or MAHENDRADITYA (415-455 AD) Vikramaditya was succeeded by his able son Kumargupta I. He maintained his hold over the vast empire of his forebears, which covered most of India except southern four states of India. Later he too performed the Ashwamedha Yagna and proclaimed himself to be Chakrawarti, king of all kings. Why he did not mint coins commemorating this event is not clear. Kumargupta also was a great patron of art and culture; evidence exist that he endowed a college of fine arts at great ancient university at Nalanda, which flourished during 5th to 12th century AD. Numismatic evidence suggests that during his reign the Gupta empire was at its zenith. His reign also saw tremendous creativity and thus a lot of variety in Gupta coinage. Kumargupta minted 14 distinct types of Gold coins, the largest of all Gupta rulers. Many of them, like Rhinoceros-slayer, Apratigha (parents crowning him as ruler) and Kartikeya or Peacock rider type (shown below) are unique in entire Indian numismatic history. He also minted two coin types, Tiger-slayer (shown below) and Lyrist, which his grandfather, Samudragupta minted briefly. These two types were discontinued during the reign Chandragupta.

Kumargupta I 415-455 AD Two Gold Dinars Obverse: King shooting the tiger Reverse: River goddess Ganga, feeding grapes to peacock Weight (#1): 10.26 gm with mount Reference: BMC Gupta#244, Altekar#1706ff

Weight (#2): 9.75 gm with mount Reference: BMC Gupta# 243, Altekar# 1739ff From the `Bayana Hoard' Very Rare

Shown above are two of the finest known coins of Kumargupta. On obverse, king is shown wearing short sleeved coat, Dhoti, turban, earrings, necklace, armlets, wristles and trampling tiger by his right foot. He is shooting at it with his bow held in right arm, left hand drawing the string of the bow. The tiger is shown falling backwards with gaping mouth. The legends on obverse reads Srimama Vyagrahabala Parakramaha, his majesty having the strength and valor of a tiger. The reverse show goddess , nimbate, standing, slightly bent on Makara, the mythic crocodile, holding behind her a lotus with long stalk, in her left hand. She is shown feeding a peacock with fruit (very likely the grapes) . The goddess is identified as river Ganga who is shown wearing a sari, bodice, earrings, necklace, armlets etc. The Legends written in Brahmi reads his official name, Kumarguptodhiraja. This tiger slayer type of coins are very rare and considered to be the master pieces of craftsmanship and truly represents the glory of Gupta empire and their brave emperors. Both the coins were recovered from the famous Bayana hoard.

Kumargupta I 415-455 AD Gold Dinars Weight : 8.3 gm Obverse: Kumaragupta, nimbate, standing left, feeding peacock from fruit bunch held in his right hand Reverse: Karttikeya, nimbate, seated on his peacock, Paravani, left, sprinkling incense with his right hand on altar to right, and holding spear in his left hand. Reference: BMC Guptas 250, (same reverse die); Altekar pl. XIII, 11; Bayana 1697 From the `Bayana Hoard' Very Rare

A hoard of at least 1821 (there were perhaps some more) gold coins belonging to Gupta dynasty was discovered in February 1946 near village Bayana in the Bharatpur princely state. It was first noticed by small boys scavenging for brass shell casings. These shells were of bullets fired by hunting party of Maharaja(King) of Bharatpur, Col. His Highness Shri Brajendra Sawai Maharaja Brajendra Singhji Bahadur Bahadurjung, who was fond of hunting wild life. This hoard was eventually acquired by Maharaja and a selection of coins from this hoard (mostly rare and beautiful coins) were picked up by Maharaja for making jewelry for members of Royal

family. Rest of the coins of the hoard were graciously handed over to the first president of Modern India, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, who himself was a distinguished scholar of Indian history and philosophy. Now, the coins from this hoard can be seen in the National museums of India, New Delhi, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay and Lalit Kala Bhavan in Varanasi. All the coins from this hoard were catalogued by Dr. Anant Sadashiv Altekar, which remains the best reference book for Gupta gold coins. The two beautiful coins shown above are from the bracelet of the Queen of Bharatpur (either wife or aunt of Maharaja). The original bracelet had 9 (or 8) coins.

< Kumargupta I 415-455 AD Gold Dinar Weight: 7.94 gm Obverse: King riding the horse Reverse: Goddess, feeding grapes to peacock Reference: MAC#4836 Scarce

Kumargupta also minted fine silver coins during his long reign. A exceptionally well preserved and well struck coin of him is presented below. It shows his bust in Kshatrapa style and reverse is formalized Garuda with spread wings. Garuda was royal symbol of Gupta dynasty and is seen on many of their coins. The legends on coin, written in Brahmi script reads Parama bhagvata rajadhiraj Shri Kumargupta Mahendraditya. Silver coins were mainly intended for circulation in western part of Gupta empire, which was originally incorporated by Great Vikramaditya (father of Kumargupta). Since the western region (modern Gujrath state) had well developed silver coinage, popularized by earlier Shaka rulers, the same tradition was continued, except the Shaka symbol of river and three arched hill was replaced with Garuda or peacock (Skandagupta introduced this symbol), on reverse. Unlike, the gold coins where an effort was made to show rulers on coins in their life-like form, silver coinage were more or less just standard reproduction without consideration for the ruler's actual looks.

Kumargupta 415-455 AD Silver Dramma or Rupaka Weight: 2.17 gm Obverse: Bust of King Reverse: Stylized Garuda with spread wings MAC#4845

SKANDAGUPTA (455-467 AD) Skandagupta took over the Gupta empire and soon had to face with the formidable enemy, the Huns (Hepthalites). He successfully repelled their early invasions and proved to be able king and administrator in time of crisis. Skandagupta in Junagadh rock inscription is described as `embraced by the goddess of wealth and splendor who is chosen by Shri-Laxmi, a goddess of wealth'. This theme is reflected upon his coins of King and Shri-Laxmi type. These coins show victorious king and his divine consort Shri-Laxmi (who was considered as his second wife waiting on him invisibly) standing beneath the imperial Garuda (a mythical hawk like bird) banner which signify victories of Gupta kings over barbarian Huns. The king is shown to carry a bow and arrow while Shri-Laxmi is depicted with lotus in her left hand (shall be getting this coin soon). Shown below is his silver coin minted in Kshatrapa style. Reverse is stylized humped bull with inscription Param bahagvata Shri Skandagupta Kramaditya.

Skandagupta 455-467 AD Silver Dramma Weight: 2.1 gm Obverse: Bust of King Reverse: Bull sitting MAC#4879-82

In spite of heroic efforts of SkandaGupta, Gupta empire did not survive long the shock it received from invasion of the Huns and internal uprising of Pushyamitras. Although there was some sort of unity till reign of the last king Budhagupta in the 6th century AD. Kings of Gupta dynasty were the great patrons of art, culture, languages, mathematics and science. Many of the finest paintings of ancient India were executed during Gupta period (320600 AD), the best example being the murals at Ajanta caves. The colorful and vibrant murals at Ajanta are famous not only for the meticulously observed details of nature and the urban landscape, including architecture and furnishing, elegant attire and alluring ornaments but also for perceptive delineations of a variety of human characters, expressions and moods. Ajanta caves which are located at western Maharashtra were part of local Vakataka kingdom which had matrimonial relations with imperial Guptas. The rich and sensuous life at Vakataka court and of Gupta India in general is realistically displayed in these murals. The Gupta era (329-650 AD) was also golden age for Buddhist art. The political unity of India brought by Gupta emperors, in turn initiated an artistic unity which transcended regional boundaries. Uniform artistic standards came into effect which were set chiefly by workshops in Mathura and Sarnath. Mathura andSarnath produced some of the finest specimen of Buddhist art. Gupta style of art which was marked by a finished mastery in execution and a majestic serenity in expression was spread to other countries and greatly influenced Buddhist art all over Asia. The Iron Pillar located at Meharulli, Delhi is another fine example of the great achievements of Gupta reign. In spite of being 1600 years old, this Iron Pillar is still standing without any rust. Some historians believe that this pillar was erected by Chandragupta II, Vikramaditya. The greatest Sanskrit poet Kalidasa who wroteMeghdoot and Kumarsanhita was in Vikramaditya's court. Shakuntalum, the works of Kalidasa exemplify the literary craftsmanship of this period. The Panchatantra, a collection of fables was another popular work. The Sankrit Dramas Mrichchhakatika and Mudra Rakshasa were written during Gupta reign. Celebrated astronomers Aryabhatta calculated the correct value of pi in AD 499 lived in this period. He also calculated the length of the solar year as 365.358 days and later postulated that the Earth was a sphere, rotating on it's own axis and revolving around the Sun as well as the exact cause of eclipses. Varahamira showed the importance of decimal system in treatise Bhrihatasamhita, also flourished during Gupta period. The law books of Bruhaspati, Narada and many sections of Puranas (Sanskrit scriptures) were also written in this glorious period. Administration structure during the Gupta period was exceptionally good in spite of large empire. In the Gupta administration, the governors of the provinces were more independent as compared to the Mauryans. Land taxes increased in number. Trade with the Roman empire declined after the third century AD. Indian merchants began to rely more heavily on the southeast Asian trade. Instead of Roman gold, it was the South-East asian countries which fueled Indian need for precious metals. Unfortunately, very few monuments built during Gupta reign survive today. Examples of Gupta architecture are found in the Vaishnavite Tigawa temple at Jabalpur (in Madhya Pradesh state) built in 415 AD and another temple at Deogarh near Jhansi built in 510 AD. Bhita in Uttar Pradesh State has a number of ancient Gupta temples, most are in ruins.

This section is currently under construction. I am putting together more images of coins and lot more interesting information. Come back soon! If you have any comments, please send at
Nupam.Mahajan@moffitt.org

This page is divided into following sections:

o o o o o o o o o o o o o

India's First Coinage

Coins of Indo-Greek Dynasties Coins of Kushana Dynasty Coins of Gupta Dynasty/Golden Age of India Coins of Satvahanas, Kshatrapas and Rajput Dynasties Coins of Southern Indian Dynasties Coins of Mughals and other Islamic dynasties Coins of Maratha Rulers Coins of East India Company and Modern India Coins of Princely States of India Coins of Independent Kingdoms Why a webpage for Indian coin Comments

Introduction To The Gupta Period

In the fourth century, the Gupta Empire was established. The Gupta dynasty lasted from circa 320 - circa 540 CE. In the Gupta Age, the Hindu religion strengthened. During the Gupta period the Brahmins and Buddhists lived peacefully. The Ajanta and Ellora caves were created in this period. Many classical art forms and aspects of Indian culture were further developed. Scholars wrote many papers on various subjects during this period. These papers were on thing such things as grammar, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine, to name a few. The Kamasutra, the famous paper written on the art of love, was also written in this time period. During the Gupta Age much progress was made in literature, science, and especially astronomy and mathematics. Kalidasa was a literary figure who brought Sanskrit drama to new heights. Aryabhatta, who was the first Indian to make any significant contribution to astronomy, lived in this age. Due to these many new ideas, and breakthroughs in Indian civilization, historians have called Gupta India, "The Golden Age of Indian History".

Samudra Gupta
Samudra Gupta succeeded his father Chandra Gupta I. He allowed the kings he had defeated in Southeastern India to continue ruling their territories. However, tribute had to be paid. Samudra Gupta was also the first Gupta ruler to mint coins. He issued different types of gold coins. His conquest provided him with the gold needed to mint these coins.

Chandra Gupta II

Chandra Gupta II succeeded his father in A.D.376. He extended the empire westwards and brought the ports in Western India under Gupta control.During his reign, the Gupta empire reached the height of its power and was visited by Buddhist pilgrims from China.

THE GOLDEN AGE OF INDIA

The Gupta Period was usually described as the "golden age of India" as it was a period of great military power and wealth and there was also great development in the arts and sciences.

Ajanta Caves

It was only in the 19th century, that the Ajanta group of caves, lying deep within the Sahyadri hills, cut into the curved mountain side, above the Waghora river, were discovered. A group of British officers on a tiger hunt, stumbled on these ancient works of art. They depict the story of Buddhism, spanning the period from 200 BC to 650 AD. The 29 caves were built as secluded retreats of the Buddhist monks, who taught and performed rituals in the Chaityas and Viharas, the ancient seats of learning, and nerve - centres of the Buddhist cultural movement. Using simple tools like hammer and chisel, the monks carved out the impressive figures adorning the walls of these structures. Exquisite wall - paintings and sculptures speak volumes of the India of yore. Many of the caves house panels depicting stories from the Jatakas, a rich mine of tales of the several incarnations of the Buddha. Images of nymphs and princesses amongst others, are also elaborately portrayed. Cave 1 houses some of the most well - preserved wall paintings which include two great Boddhisattvas, Padmapani and Avalokiteshvara. Caves 2 , 16 and 17 also contain amazing paintings, while Caves 1, 4, 17, 19, 24 and 26 boast of some of the most divine sculptures. The flying apsara, of Cave 17, and the image of Buddha preaching in Cave 17, are a couple of unforgettable works of art. The Ajanta caves and the treasures they house, are a landmark in the overall development of Buddhism as such.

Please Click here to view my page displaying Ajanta Cave's Paintings

The End Of The Gupta Empire
Chandra Gupta II was succeeded by his son, Kumara Gupta. He was not a good ruler therefore his empire suffered many attacks from tribes of Central Asia, especially the Huns. Although he still managed to keep the empire intact, his successor, Skanda Gupta could not defend the attacks. Therefore, the empire to fall and small kingdoms were formed.

Please click the dog at the bottom to run to the next sector, The Mughals

Ancient History
Gupta Dynasty
After the Kushanas, the Guptas were the most important dynasty. The Gupta period has been described as the Golden Age of Indian history. The first famous king of the Gupta dynasty was Ghatotkacha's son Chandragupta I. He married Kumaradevi, the daughter of the chief of the Licchavis. This marriage was a turning point in the life of Chandragupta I. He got Pataliputra in dowry from the Lichhavis. From Pataliputra, he laid the foundation of his empire and started conquering many neighbouring states with the help of the Licchavis. He ruled over Magadha (Bihar), Prayaga and Saketa (east Uttar Pradesh). His kingdom extended from the river Ganges to Allahabad. Chandragupta I also got the title of Maharajadhiraja (King of Kings) and ruled for about fifteen years. Chandragupta I was succeeded by Samudragupta in about 330 A.D., who reigned for about fifty years. He was a great military genius and is said to have commanded a military campaign across the Deccan, and also subdued the forest tribes of the Vindhya region. Samudragupta's successor Chandragupta II, also known as Vikramaditya, conquered the extensive territories of Malwa, Gujarat and Kathiawar. This provided exceptional wealth, which added to the prosperity of the Guptas. The Guptas in this period engaged in sea trade with the countries of the west. It was most probably during his reign that Kalidas, the greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist, as well as many other scientist and scholars flourished.

Decline of Gupta Dynasty

The decline of the Gupta power in northern India between the close of 5th and the 6th century A.D. gave rise to various small independent kingdoms and attracted foreign invasions of Huns. Toramara was the leader of the Huns and was successful in annexing large parts of the Gupta Empire. His son, Mihirakula was a cruel barbarian and one of the worst tyrants known. Two native powerful princes, Yasodharman of Malwa and Baladitya of Magadha crushed his power and put an end to his reign in India.

HE GUPTA PERIOD
After the downfall of the Kushana empire in about the third century and at the beginning of the 4th century AD, many independent states emerged in North India. One of these states was of the Lichchahavis of Vaisali who dominated portions of North Bengal and South Bihar. This clan obtained possession of Pataliputra, the Capital of the Kushans. Sri Gupta was the first ruler of this dominion. After him his son Ghatokacha ruled with the title of Maharaja. In the fourth century a Lichchavi princess got married to a king in the Magadha who was called Chandragupta I. The reign of Chandragupta I is said to have come to an end in about 330AD. The importance of the rule Chandragupta I centres around the influence of Kumaradevi the Lichchavi princess, coins bearing the figures of the princess speaks of the extent of her influence. Chandragupta became the king of Pataliputra and established a kingdom along the Ganges. Samudragupta Chandragupta I was succeeded by Samudragupta is about 330AD. He reigned for about fifty years. Inscriptions on a pillar erected by Ashoka gives an account of Samudragupta. After succeeding to the throne of the empire he subdued the powers revolting against his authority in the Gangetic plains and brought their dominions to his kingdoms. He is said to have commanded a military campaign across the Deccan, and also subdued the forest tribes of the Vindhya region. He performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice to establish and proclaim his supremacy. His kingdom also included Lower Bengal, upper Assam and Nepal. Tributes and homage was paid by the rulers and clans including the Malwas, the Yaudheyas, Arjunayansas, the Madras, the Abhiras in Punjab and Rajasthan and others in Madhya Pradesh. Samudragupta led an expedition to the south through the forest tracts of Madhya Pradesh to Orissa, Vishakapatnam, Godavari, Krishna and Nellore district. He is also said to have intruded into Kanchi the capital of the Pallavas. Samudragupta maintained diplomatic relations with the Kushana King of North west and the ruler of Ceylon. His friendly relation with Ceylon is proved by the fact that King Meghavarna of Ceylon sent an embassy to Samudragupta. With gifts, seeking permission to erect a splendid monastery near the holy tree at Bodh Gaya for the pilgrims from Ceylon. This structure constructed with the permission of Samudragupta was known as Mahabohi Sangharvama. Samudragupta's personal skill was exceptional especially in music and song. He was also well known for his poetry and had composed many work which had a reputation of a professional author. He was a devotee of Vishnu and thus can be called a Brahmanical Hindu. All these and his role as a monarch qualifies him to be called a hero of hundred battle by a court poet in the Allahabad inscriptions. Vincent Smith has elevated Samudragupta in Indian history as the Napoleon of India. His tradition of (Milito) religious toleration reflects in the Allahabad inscription and speaks thus " put to Shama the preceptor of the lord of the gods. Brahaspati by his sharp and polished intellect and Tamburu and Narad by lovely performance." Samudragupta had several sons. His rule is presumed to have been till about 375AD. Samudragupta was succeeded by his elder son Ramagupta who was said to have been murdered by Chandragupta II, who did so owing to his brother Ramaguptas uncouth act of surrendering his queen Dhruvadevi to the Saka ruler who subdued him. Thus Chandragupta ascended the throne of Patilaputra in about 375AD. On assuming the throne of the Gupta empire he took to the title of Vikramaditya. Chandragupta II was a conquerer like his father Samudragupta. His diplomatic tactics in giving his daughter in marriage to Rudrasena II. TheVakattaka king of Deccan helped greatly in securing the vital territory for himself which could prove advantageous in the event of an attack upon the saka satraps of the west from the north. Chandragupta Vikramaditya's miltary conquests includes the conquest of Malwa, Gujarat and Saurashtra which were under the Saka rule. He defeated Rudrasimha III the last of the western satrap ruler and annexed his territories. This provided exceptional wealth which added to the prosperity of the Guptas. The Guptas at his period had sea trade with the countries of the west. Broach, Sopara, Cambay were ports that facilitated trade. During this period, Ujjain appears to have been the inland centre upon which most of the trade routes converged. Chandragupta occupied the throne for nearly forty years. Pataliputra was a flourishing city. The Gupta administration at this period was mild. Under the Guptas the King assumed a divine character. Chandragupta II was also identified with Vikramaditya of Ujjain. Raja Bikram of popular legend was also a patron of the nine gems including Kalidsa and Varahamihira.

Kumaragupta I was successor of Chandragupta II known as Mahendraditya Kumargupta I, he ruled from 415 AD to 455 AD. He reigned for about 40 years. His empire extended from North Bengal to Kathiawar and from the Himalayas to the Narmada. To the south his kingdom extended as far as the Satara district of the Deccan. He also performed the Ashwameda sacrifice. Towards the end of his rule, the Pushyamitras who were people located near Mekala in the Nerbudda valley became powerful and wealthy. The Pushamitras brought about a temporary eclipse of the Gupta power.This attack on the Guptas were repulsed by Skandagupta who is considered as the last great Gupta ruler. After the succession of Skandagupta he had to subdue the Huns, Skandagupta assumed the title of Vikramaditya. During his campaign against the Huns Skandagupta had to meet great expenses which resulted in the reduction in the issue of gold coins. The Gupta period in Indian history is termed as the Golden Age of India. This period extends from 320 to 480 AD. It extends through the reigns of Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, Chandragupta II, Vikramaditya, Kumaragupta and Skandagupta.The Gupta dynasty continued its existence after the death of Skandagupta. He was succeeded by his son Narasimhagupta followed by Kumaragupta II. Kumaragupta II was followed by Budhagupta. His territory extended from Bengal to central India. The last Gupta ruler was Bhanugupta. During his reign the Hunas wrested Malwas from the Guptas. After his decline in 467Ad the succeeding rulers were weak and could not check the invasion of the Huns and other tribes. After the death of Bhanugupta in 570AD the Gupta empire declined and broke off. The Gupta period has been described as the golden age of Indian history. It extended from the period of 320AD to 480AD. During this period literature, art and science flourished. Religious toleration and freedom of worship speaks greatly of the Guptas. The great writings of Kalidasa which include Ritusamhara and Meghauta in Sanskrit literature at its highest quality. The Gupta period is also regarded as a period of Hindu renaissance. Ashoka had succeeded in making Buddhism as the religion as the majority people in Northern India. On doing this neither Brahmanical Hinduism of Jainism died out owing to Ashokas religious toleration propagated by Ashoka. After Ashoka all the rulers that followed showed religious toleration which only added to the prosperity of the territories they ruled. The Guptas though showed a preference to their family deity Vishnu pursued the policy of perfect freedom of worship. Music, architecture, sculpture and painting was at its best during the period of Gupta rule. The stoner temples of which one at Deogarh in Jhansi, a t Bhitergaon in the kanpur district are few specimens depicting gupta excellence in architecture and sculpture Another area of Gupta excellence was their metallurgical skill. Various copper statues images of Buddha reflects the craftsmanship of the gupta period. The pillar at Delhi made of iron in the time of Samudragupta is also another piece of excellence The Guptas also excellent in the filed of fine arts. All fields of fine arts received royal patronage. Another area of outmost importance during the Gupta reign is the exchange of intellectual ideas which is attributed to the royal patronage and contacts with foreign people of both east and west. Buddhism which was introduced in China from India fostered religious relations promoting constant communication. Chinese missionaries visited India to do reverence to the sacred spots of faith . These visits helped to the sacred spots of faith. These visit helped the Chinese pilgrims knowledge of Sanskrit. Besides China contacts with various islands of South Asia, Indonesia, Persia, Greece and Rome also proves the sound Gupta rule and their diplomatic tactics to provide the best of administration. All these adds to the statement that defines the Gupta period as the Golden age of India. Contemporary with the rule of the Guptas their existed various other dynastic of which the Vakatakas of Bundelkhand of Berar was one. They were Brahmanas and they dominated the entire Bundelkhand country, Central provinces, Berars, Northern Deccan up to the sea. Vindyakasthi was its first ruler. His son was Paravasena who performed numerous sacrifices along with four Ashwamedha sacrifices. Gautamiputrra was his son., Paravasena's grandson Rudrasena I. After his defeat by the Samudragupta he vacated central India and moved to the Deccan. Rudradeva's first son Rudradeva II married the daughter of ChandraguptanII , Prabhadevigupta , thus the alliance of the two families proved advantageous against the Shakas of western India. After the Death of Prabhavati. RudrasenaII Prabhavati ruled on behalf of her minor son. Harisena Vakataka came to the throne in about fifth century AD. He was well known for his conquests from the Malwa to Andhra. In about the second quarter of the sixth century AD the Vakataka power was subdued by Kalachuris of the south.

In 319 AD, the king Chandragupta II (the second) managed to unite all of northern India into a great empire again. (He was not related to the first Chandragupta, but he wanted people to think he was). Even some of the south was brought under Guptan power. The Gupta kings were not Buddhists but Hindus, following the older Indian religion. Under the Guptan kings, India was very rich and powerful. Peace allowed traders to travel safely, and there was more trade between India and China, passing through Sogdiana in Central Asia. Buddhist pilgrims and Indian and Chinese scientists also traveled between China and India. This travel may have helpedIndian mathematicians to make important advances in mathematics at this time, like inventing the number zero. But in 455 AD the Huns invaded India from the north and destroyed the Guptan Empire. After that, India was split into small kingdoms again until the Muslim invasions around 1000 AD

he Gupta period (4th - 6th Century A.D.) signs the bright period of art in India. Gupta art is characterized by restraint combined with a high beautiful sense and discipline. The Buddhist art main centre during this period were Mathura, Sarnath and Nalanda in the north.Mathura and Sarnath images of Buddhism are some of the best specimens of Indian art. The smooth folds of the clear clothes adorning the Gupta figures were done in a gorgeous style. The richly decorated halo is another special feature of the art of the Gupta figure. The delicate modelling of forms with meditative repose has rendered the Buddha and Bodhisattva figures of the Gupta period most attractive. The Gupta artists showed an equal ingenuity in the carving of metal images also. The bronze Buddha image from Sultanganj and also one from Dhanesar Khera together with a number of specimens found in north-western part of India are some excellent specimens testifying to the skill and ability of the Gupta metal carvers.

The next thousand years saw a great many kings and emperors! Some did fabulous things, like plant trees along the roads and built rest houses for travelers. Other started great public works programs. Let's take a closer look at just one of the empires - my favorite - the Gupta Empire. The Gupta Empire (320 CE to about 500 CE). The Gupta Empire existed at about the same time as the Roman Empire. It dominated northern India. The Gupta Empire was neat. Villages were protected from bandits and raids with local military squads. Each squad was made up of one elephant, one chariot, three armored cavalrymen and five foot soldiers. In times of war, all the squads were brought together to form the royal army!

The Golden Age of Ancient India - The Gupta Empire

People were happy during the Gupta period, the "Golden Age" of ancient India. They had religious freedom. They were given free medical care, which included simple surgery. Criminals were never put to death. Instead, they were fined for their crimes. Rewards of money were given to writers, artists, and scholars to encourage them to produce wonderful work, and they did. Very few of the common people were educated, but the Gupta Empire had many universities. Students came from as far away as China to study at Gupta universities! Gupta homes: In the villages and towns, homes were mostly one room huts made of wood or bamboo, with thatched roofs. Even the palaces were made of wood! Larger homes had several rooms and balconies. Gupta villages: Streets between the homes were narrow and twisted. Stalls for selling things were

located on both sides of the street. People mostly walked where they wanted to go inside their village. Villages were very noisy places. Not only were they full of happy, busy people, they were full of animals. A monkey might sneak up and steal food right out of your hand! Imagine coming home from the market, and telling your mother that the monkeys stole the food you bought, again! Art: The craftsmen worked with iron and copper. Their iron work, especially, was outstanding. Even today, statues exist from this period, made of iron, that show very little rust! Jobs: People worked on roads and other public works, but, (as they were in ancient Egypt), they were paid for their work. In the Gupta Empire, wheat was the main crop, and they kept cows for milk. This civilization produced great works of literature and marvelous works of art. Sculpture was their thing, though. They were very good at it. They were also very smart scientists. They believed the earth was a sphere, and rotated around the sun. They also figured out that the solar year had 365.358 days. (Today, our scientists think it's probably more like 365.242, which means they only missed by 3 hours!) They were great with math. Ancient India gave us the number system we use today - 9 digits, the zero, and the decimal! What did they eat? The concept of breakfast did not exist. In earlier times, meals were both vegetarian and non-vegetarian, depending upon your religious beliefs. After the coming of Buddhism, Jainism and other pacifist religion and reforms in Hinduism, vegetarian food (strictly excluding animal and fish meat) became the norm for as much as half of the population. In the

Gupta Empire, they mostly ate vegetables, cereals, fruits, breads, and drank milk. School: Older kids, who went to school, lived at school. School (ashram) life was tough. You had to do everything yourself. There were no servants. Even princes had to wash their clothes, cook their food, and follow a rigorous course of studies. They had a lot to learn. They studied math, science, engineering, literature, art, music and religion. Marriage: In ancient India, the most popular form of marriage was called Swayamvara. In this type of marriage, potential grooms assembled at the bride's house and the bride selected her spouse. Instances of Swayamvara ceremony are found in India's national epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata. There were other types of marriage as well, such as Gandharva Vivaha (love marriage) and Asura Viviha (marriage by abduction). Sports and Games: Ancient Indians invented many of the games we play today, like chess, polo, and playing cards (which are said to have gone from India to the other parts of our globe). They practiced martial arts, wrestling, and fencing. Hunting was also a favorite pastime of the nobility. What kind of pets did they have? The pets were mainly birds like parrots. The royals had peacocks. (Monkeys were not usually pets. Monkeys were mostly a nuisance, but cute!)

Clothing:
y

in Northern India: In the north, Ancient Indians

wore (some still wear) an unstitched garment called dhoti. This was a 9 meter long cloth that was draped around the legs and tied at the abdomen. Both sexes wore it the same way. Women wore bright colours. Men wore either white or dark colors. Ancient Indians did not use banks, so the family "fortune" was worn by the Vaishnav women in the northern half of India. In the north, they wore lots of jewelry. It was used both by men and women. Jewelry included armbands, waist belts, leg and ankle bangles for both sexes, ear rings, nose rings, rings on fingers and toes, crowns and other hair adornments. In 326 BCE, Alexander the Great (that great Greek!) invaded northwest India. Here's his account: They use parasols as a screen from the heat! They wear shoes made of white leather and these are elaborately trimmed, while the soles are variegated, and made of great thickness, to make the wearer seem so much taller.
y

in Southern India: In the south, however, ancient scriptures describe women as wearing saris. A sari is a single cloth wrapped around the body. It covers the woman from head to toe. A dhoti is less modest. In ancient times, it was considered very important for women to be covered from the neck down to the feet. The southern half of India has been almost exclusively Shaivite for thousands of years. Shaivites typically have very, very few possessions. A Shaivite woman would not have worn such jewelry. Shaivite men have typically worn only a loin cloth and perhaps a cloth on the head to protect from the sun, never jewelry.

Origin of the Gupta dynasty

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The history of the Gupta dynasty (Sanskrit: ) begins with its founding by Sri-Gupta around 240 CE, although dates are not well established. The empire covered most of Northern India and Eastern Pakistan, parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan and what is now western India and Bangladesh. The capital of the Guptas was Pataliputra, present day Patna, in the north Indian state of Bihar. When the Gupta dynasty ascended the throne around 320 CE, continuing until 550 CE, they consolidated northern India by subjugating the local and provincial powers that had become independent after the downfall of the Kushans. The period during the Gupta Empire is referred to as the Golden Age of India, embracing art, architecture, literature, sculpture and education.

[edit]Ancestry

of the Guptas

Furthermore it is not yet discovered whether the term Gupta indicated a surname of a specific family or referred to a clan. However Gupta Empire records and Chinese records provided by the later I-Tsing, furnished the names of the first three rulers of the Gupta Dynasty, Maharaja Sri Gupta, Maharaja Sri Ghatotkacha and Ghatotokacha's son, Maharajadhiraja Sri Chandragupta, considered the first Gupta emperor. Historian K. P. Jaiswal suggested that the Guptas belonged to the Jat tribe of Punjab. But his theory lacked conclusive proofs, and it was discarded.[1] The historian H.C. Raychaudhuri, however holds that the Guptas belonged to the Dharana Gotra. According to Raichaudhuri, the Guptas were related to queen Dharini of Agnimitra, wife of the son of king Pushyamitra Shunga. Raychoudhuri drew this theory about the pedigree of the Guptas based on the Riddhapura copper-plate inscription of Prabhabati Gupta, daughter of Chandragupta II. In her records she claimed herself to be a descendant of the Dharana Gotra. Recently, a historian, Ashvini Agarwal, on the basis of the matrimonial alliances of the Guptas with the Vakataka, assumed that they belong to the Brahman caste.[2]Another modern historian, S. Chattopaddhyaya, has put forth a different theory about the ancestry of the Guptas. According to him, in the Panchobh Copper Plate, some kings bearing the title Guptas and related to the imperial Gupta Dynasty, claimed themselves asKshatriyas. Historian D. R. Regmi, says Imperial Guptas were descendants of Abhira-Guptas of Nepal.[3][4] The controversy about whether the term "Gupta" was originally a family surname or a full or clan name is still unresolved. This is so because the name of the first king was Sri Gupta, where the term "Gupta" seemed to be a title, but the second Gupta ruler, Ghatotkacha did not use it in the same manner. However the expression "Gupta" had been systematically used by all the Gupta rulers from Chandragupta I onwards, which had led to the acceptance of the term "Imperial Gupta dynasty," with Chandragupta I considered the first emperor of the dynasty. Theories apart, in present day Bihar and India, Gupta title is exclusively used by Baniyas many of whom claim Kshtriya origin.

[edit]Original

homeland of the Guptas

There is controversy among scholars about the original homeland of the Guptas. Jayaswal has pointed out that the Guptas were originally inhabitants of Prayaga (Allahabad), Uttar Pradesh, in north India, as the vassal of the Nagas or Bhaarshivas. Thereafter they rose in prominence. Another scholar, Gayal supported the theory of Jaiswal, suggesting that the original home of the Guptas wasAntarvedi, embracing the regions of Oudh and Prayag. These historians have derived their theory from several Gupta Dynasty coins found in those regions, and this study of numismatic evidences led to the theory that the Guptas were the original inhabitants of that region of northeastern India. However another historian of this time in Indian history, Ganguli, has offered a different view about the original Gupta homeland. According to him the Guptas homeland is further south, the Murshidabad region of Bengal, and not Magadhain Bihar. He based his theory on the statement of I-Tsing, who had visited India during 675 and 695 CE. Fleet and other historians however criticize Ganguli's theory because Sri Gupta ruled during the end of the third century, but ITsing placed him at the end of the second century. Hence the theory of historians, who have provided their views based on the accounts of I-Tsing, are considered less valid than theories based on other sources such as coinage. The extent of the Gupta Empire and when they ascended the throne after the lapse of the prolonged Dark Age, is also subject of intense controversy among the scholars. Dr. R.C. Majumdar has pointed out that the picture of a stupa has been found in Nepal with the label "Mrigasthapana" Stupa of Varendri. This "Mrigasthapana" is the same as "Mrigashivana" of I-Tsing. As Sri Gupta built a temple in Mrigashivana and as the place was in Varendri, so historians have pointed out that Varendri might have been under the sway of the Guptas, when they ascended the throne. According to Dr. Ganguli, Bengal and parts of Bihar was also included in the Gupta Empire, when they were ruling from the seat of power. Another theory about the origins of the Guptas is that the Guptas originated from Bengal. The mention of "Varendra Mrigashihavan Stupa" on a mound in Nepal is a strong evidence that the Guptas originated from Bengal. Maharaja SriGupta probably ruled a portion of Northern/Southern Bengal. Later Chandragupta I established his dominion over Magadha through marital policy with the Licchavis.. From these theories, several conflicting opinions about the original homeland and the Empire of the Guptas are available. According to Allan and some other scholars, the Guptas were originally concentrated in the region of Magadha and from there they extended their sway to Bengal. According to other groups, the original homeland of the Guptas was Varendri or the Varendra Bhumi in Bengal, wherefrom they extended their Empire to Magadha. Whatever the theory is, the Imperial fabric of the Guptas initiated the Golden Age in history of ancient India and with passage of time they became the sole authority of entire Northern India.

The Classical Age - Gupta Empire and Harsha : Gupta age - Under Chandragupta I (320-335), empire was revived in the north. Like Chandragupta Maurya, he first conquered Magadha, set up his capital where the Mauryan capital had stood (Patna), and from this base consolidated a kingdom over the eastern portion of northern India. In addition, Chandragupta revived many of Asoka's principles of government. It was his son, however, Samudragupta(335-376), and later his grandson, Chandragupta II (376-415), who extended the kingdom into an empire over the whole of the north and the western Deccan. Chandragupta II was the greatest of the Gupta kings and called Vikramaditya. He presided over the greatest cultural age in India. From Pataliputra, their capital, he sought to retain political preeminence as much by pragmatism and judicious marriage alliances as by military strength. The greatest writer of the time wasKalidasa. Poetry in the Gupta age tended towards a few genres: religious and meditative poetry, lyric poetry, narrative histories (the most popular of the secular literatures), and drama. Kalidasa excelled at lyric poetry, but he is best known for his dramas. The Indian numeral system--sometimes erroneously attributed to the Arabs, who took it from India to Europe where it replaced the Roman system--and the decimal system are Indian inventions of this period. Aryabhatta's expositions on astronomy in 499 A.D. gave calculations of the solar year and the shape and movement of astral bodies with remarkable accuracy. In medicine, Charaka and Sushruta wrote about a fully evolved medical system. Indian physicians excelled in pharmacopoeia, caesarean section, bone setting, and plastic surgery including skin grafting. The Guptas fell prey, however, to a wave of migrations by the Huns, a people who originally lived north of China. Beginning in the 400's, the Huns began to put pressure on the Guptas. In 480 AD they conquered the Guptas and took over northern India. Western India was overrun by 500 A.D., and the last of the Gupta kings, presiding over a vastly diminished kingdom, perished in 550 A.D. Over the decades Huns gradually assimilated into the indigenous population and their state weakened.

upta age - The Classical Age refers to the period when most of North India was reunited under the Gupta Empire (ca. A.D. 320-550). Because of the relative peace, law and order, and extensive cultural achievements during this period, it has been described as a "golden age" that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture with all its variety, contradiction, and synthesis. The golden age was confined to the north, and the classical patterns began to spread south only after the Gupta Empire had vanished from the historical scene. The military exploits of the first three rulers--Chandragupta I (ca. 319-335), Samudragupta (ca. 335-376), and Chandragupta II (ca. 376-415)--brought all of North India under their leadership. From Pataliputra, their capital, they sought to retain political preeminence as much by pragmatism and judicious marriage alliances as by military strength. Despite their self-conferred titles, their overlordship was threatened and by 500 ultimately ruined by the Hunas (a branch of the White Huns emanating from Central Asia), who were yet another group in the long succession of ethnically and culturally different outsiders drawn into India and then woven into the hybrid Indian fabric. Under Harsha Vardhana (or Harsha, r. 606-47), North India was reunited briefly, but neither the Gupta Empire nor Harsha controlled a centralized state, and their administrative styles rested on the collaboration of regional and local officials for administering their rule rather than on centrally appointed personnel. The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule, but they also patronized Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The most significant achievements of this period, however, were in religion, education, mathematics, art, and Sanskrit literature and drama. The religion that later developed into modern Hinduism witnessed a crystallization of its components: major sectarian deities, image worship, devotionalism, and the importance of the temple. Education included grammar, composition, logic, metaphysics, mathematics, medicine, and astronomy. These subjects became highly specialized and reached an advanced level. The Indian numeral system--sometimes erroneously attributed to the Arabs, who took it from India to Europe where it replaced the Roman system--and the decimal system are Indian inventions of this period. Aryabhatta's expositions on astronomy in 499, moreover, gave calculations of the solar year and the shape and movement of astral bodies with remarkable accuracy. In medicine, Charaka and Sushruta wrote about a fully evolved system, resembling those of Hippocrates and Galen in Greece. Although progress in physiology and biology was hindered by religious injunctions against contact with dead bodies, which

discouraged dissection and anatomy, Indian physicians excelled in pharmacopoeia, caesarean section, bone setting, and skin grafting (see Science and Technology, ch. 6). The Southern Rivals When Gupta disintegration was complete, the classical patterns of civilization continued to thrive not only in the middle Ganga Valley and the kingdoms that emerged on the heels of Gupta demise but also in the Deccan and in South India, which acquired a more prominent place in history. In fact, from the mid-seventh to the mid-thirteenth centuries, regionalism was the dominant theme of political or dynastic history of South Asia. Three features, as political scientist Radha Champakalakshmi has noted, commonly characterize the sociopolitical realities of this period. First, the spread of Brahmanical religions was a twoway process of Sanskritization of local cults and localization of Brahmanical social order. Second was the ascendancy of the Brahman priestly and landowning groups that later dominated regional institutions and political developments. Third, because of the seesawing of numerous dynasties that had a remarkable ability to survive perennial military attacks, regional kingdoms faced frequent defeats but seldom total annihilation. Peninsular India was involved in an eighth-century tripartite power struggle among the Chalukyas (556-757) of Vatapi, the Pallavas (300-888) of Kanchipuram, and the Pandyas (seventh through the tenth centuries) of Madurai. The Chalukya rulers were overthrown by their subordinates, the Rashtrakutas, who ruled from 753 to 973. Although both the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms were enemies, the real struggle for political domination was between the Pallava and Chalukya realms. Despite interregional conflicts, local autonomy was preserved to a far greater degree in the south where it had prevailed for centuries. The absence of a highly centralized government was associated with a corresponding local autonomy in the administration of villages and districts. Extensive and well-documented overland and maritime trade flourished with the Arabs on the west coast and with Southeast Asia. Trade facilitated cultural diffusion in Southeast Asia, where local elites selectively but willingly adopted Indian art, architecture, literature, and social customs. The interdynastic rivalry and seasonal raids into each other's territory notwithstanding, the rulers in the Deccan and South India patronized all three religions--Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism. The religions vied with each other for royal favor, expressed in land grants but more importantly in the creation of monumental temples, which remain architectural wonders. The cave temples of Elephanta Island (near Bombay, or Mumbai in Marathi), Ajanta, and Ellora (in Maharashtra), and structural temples of Kanchipuram (in Tamil Nadu) are enduring legacies of otherwise warring regional rulers. By the mid-seventh century, Buddhism and Jainism began to decline as sectarian Hindu devotional cults of Shiva and Vishnu vigorously competed for popular support. Although Sanskrit was the language of learning and theology in South India, as it was in the north, the growth of the bhakti (devotional) movements enhanced the crystallization of vernacular literature in all four major Dravidian languages: Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, and Kannada; they often borrowed themes and vocabulary from Sanskrit but preserved much local cultural lore. Examples of Tamil literature include two major poems, Cilappatikaram (The Jewelled Anklet) and Manimekalai (The Jewelled Belt); the body of devotional literature of Shaivism and Vaishnavism--Hindu devotional movements; and the reworking of the Ramayana by Kamban in the twelfth century. A nationwide cultural synthesis had taken place with a minimum of common characteristics in the various regions

of South Asia, but the process of cultural infusion and assimilation would continue to shape and influence India's history through the centuries. Gupta Empire page. Data as of September 1995

Gupta Dynasty
After the Kushans, the Guptas were the most important dynasty. The information about Guptas is known from the archaeological remains, inscriptions and coins. Early in the beginning of the fourth century, a chief called Sri Gupta ruled a small kingdom in Magadha. He was then succeeded by his son Ghatokacha. They were mostly minor rulers in east Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

Reign of Chandragupta I (AD 320-335)

The first famous king of the Gupta dynasty was Ghatokacha's son Chandragupta I. He married Kumaradevi, the daughter of the chief of the Lichhavis. This marriage was a turning point to Chandragupta I. He got Patliputra in dowry from the Lichhavis. From Patliputra, he laid the foundation of his empire and started conquering many neighbouring states with the help of the Lichhavis. He ruled over Magadha (Bihar), Prayaga and Saketa (east Uttar Pradesh). His kingdom extended from the riverGanges to Allahabad. Chandragupta I also got the title of Maharajadhiraja (King of Kings) and ruled for about fifteen years. An important act of Chandragupta I was the holding of an assembly of councillors and members of the royal family at which Prince Samudragupta was formally nominated as the successor of the Gupta empire.