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LECTURE 3:

INTERPHASE MASS TRANSFER AND


DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT
Dr Aradhana Srivastava,
Associate Professor and Group Leader,
Chemical engineering Group,
BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus
2
INTERPHASE MASS TRANSFER
So far we only discussed mass transfer of
species in single phase (gas or liquid)
Many mass-transfer operations involve the
contact of two insoluble phases to permit mass
transfer
In such cases, the thermodynamic equilibrium
between phases is important
Mass transfer is derived by the deviation from
the equilibrium state
If equilibrium between the phases is established,
there would be no net mass transfer
3
EQUILIBRIUM RELATION
There are equations that describes the
equilibrium relation between the concentration of
certain component in the liquid and gas phase at
certain temperature and pressure
Raoults Law(gas-liq mixture)

Henrys Law (gas-liq dilute solution)

Distribution-law (liquid-liquid)
A A A A A
P x P y p = =

pressure vapor
A
t coefficien activity
A A
pressure total
A
pressure partial
A
P x P y p = =
A A A
Hx P y p = =
2 , 1 , liquid A liquid A
Kc c =
4
DIFFUSION BETWEEN PHASES
Consider the absorption of ammonia from a
mixture with air using liquid water, in a wetted
wall column
The ammonia-air mixture enters the column
from the bottom and flow upward and water
flow downward on the inner wall of the column
The concentration of the ammonia in the mixture
decreases as it flow upward
the concentration of the ammonia in water increases
as it flow downward
under steady state conditions, the concentration at
any point of the column does not change with time
NH3-Air
Water
NH
3
-H
2
O
5
TWO-RESISTANCE THEORY
The ammonia (solute) diffuses from
the gas phase to the liquid through an
interface
There is a concentration gradient in
the direction of mass transfer in each
phase
On concentrations on the interface
(y
A,i
and x
A,i
, are assumed to be in
equilibrium)
This simply means the mass transfer
resistance is only in the fluid phase
and no resistance across the interface
Water
I
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e

Bulk NH
3
-Air
y
A, G

y
A,i

x
A,i

x
A,G

6
PHASE TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
N
NH3
can be expressed in terms
of
k-type coefficients:






y
A,i
= f(x
A,i
)
( ) ( )
A y A,G A,i x A,i A,L
N k y y k x x = =
Water
I
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e

Bulk NH
3
-Air
y
A, G

y
A,i

x
A,i

x
A,G

( )
( )
A,G A,i
x
y
A,L A,i
y y
k
k
x x

y
A,G

x
A,i

y
A,i

x
A,L

A,i
A,i
y
y is the interface concentration in the gas phase side
x is the interface concentration in the liquid phase side
k

is the gas phase mass trans

fer
Wher
coe i
:

e
ffic
x
en
k is the liquid phase mass transfer coeffic
t
ient
7
OVERALL-MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
The interface concentration is
hard to accurately measure
The flux can be estimated in
terms of overall mass transfer
coefficient as follow

Water
I
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e

Bulk NH
3
-Air
y
A, G

y
A,i

x
A,i

x
A,G

( ) ( )
* *
A y A,G A x A A,L
N K y y K x x = =
*
A A,L
*
A A,G
y is inequilibriumwith x
x is inequilibriumwith
re :
y
Whe
y
A,G

x
A
*

y
A
*
x
A,L

y
A,i

x
A,i

8
OVERALL AND INDIVIDUAL PHASE COEFFICIENT
If the equilibrium relation is linear
Dilute solution where Henrys Law applies

( )
A,i A,i
y m x =
* *
A A,L A,G A
y m x ; y m x = =
( )
( )
*
A y A,G A
* *
A,i A,L
A,G A A,G A,i A,i A A,G A,i
y A A A A A
N K y y
m x x
y y y y y y y y
1
K N N N N N
=


= = + = +
y y x
1 1 m
K k k
= +
x y x
1 1 1
K mk k
= +
Similarly

y
y
1
k
Resistance in gas phase
1 Total Resistance in both phases
K
=
x
X
1
k Resistance in liquid phase
1 Total Resistance in both phases
K
=
9
EFFECT OF THE GAS SOLUBILITY IN THE
MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
For highly soluble gas (the slope
of the equilibrium line, m, is small)
The major resistance is in the gas
phase

For low solubility gas (the slope
of the equilibrium line, m, is large)
The major resistance is in the
liquid phase
y
A

X
A
y y x y
1 1 m 1
K k k k
= + ~
x y x x
1 1 1 1
K mk k k
= + ~
10
EXAMPLE
In an experimental study of the absorption of NH
3
by water
in a wetted-wall column, the value of K
G
was found to be
2.7510
-6
kmol/(m
2
-s-kPa). At one point in the column, the
composition of the gas and liquid phases were 8.0 and
0.115 mol% NH
3
, respectively. The temperature was 300 K
and the total pressure was 1 atm. 85% of the total
resistance to mass transfer was found to be in the gas
phase. At 300 K, NH
3
-water solution follows Henrys law
up to 5 mol% NH
3
in the liquid with m = 1.65 when the total
pressure is 1 atm.
Calculate:
1. Flux of NH
3
2. Individual film coefficients
3. Interfacial Compositions (y
A,i
and x
A,i
)

11
SOLUTION
Given
T=300 K; P=1 atm
K
G
= 2.75x10
-6
kmol/m
2
-s-kPa
y
A,G
=0.080; x
A,L
=0.00115
.
.


y y
1 0.85
k K
=
( )
*
A y A,G A
N K y y =
* 3
A A,L
y mx 1.65* 0.00115 1.886 x10

= = =
( ) ( )
* 4 5 2
A y A,G A
N K y y 2.786 x10 0.08 0.001886 2.18 x10 kmol / m s

= = =
-6 -4 2
y G
K =K P = 2.75x10 x 101.3 = 2.786x10 kmol/m -s
12
SOLUTION
.

.
.

.


y y
1 0.85
k K
=
5
A
A,i A,G
4
y
N 2.18 x10
y y 0.08 0.01362
k 3.28 x10

= = =
4
y
4 2
y
K
2.786 x10
k 3.28 x10 kmol / m .s
0.85 0.85

= = =
y y x
1 1 m
K k k
= +
x y y y y y
m 1 1 1 0.85 0.15
k K k K K K
= = =
( )
A y A,G A,i
N k y y =
A i
,i
3 ,
A
0.01362
8.
y
3 x
m
05 x10
1.64

= = =
6
y
3 2
x
mK
1.64 x2.75 x10
k 3.05 x10 kmol / m .s
0.15 0.15

= = =
PROBLEM
The solubility of gaseous substance (Mol Wt. 26) in water
is given by Henrys law: p
A
= 10
5
x
A
, p
A
in mm of Hg.
Convert the equilibrium relation to the following forms:
(a) y
A
= m x
A
if the total pressure is 10 bar; (b) p
A
=m

C
A
,
where C
A
is in gmol/litre. Also write down the equilibrium
relation using the mole ratio unit. Assume that solution is
dilute and has a density equal to that of water (= 1000
kg/m
3
)

SOLUTION


PROBLEM
In a certain equipment used for absorption of SO2 from air by water
at one section, the gas and liquid phase concentration of the solute
are 10 mole % and 4 mass % respectively. The solution density is
6.1lb/ft
3
. Ata given temperature (40
0
C) and pressure (10 atm), the
distribution of SO
2
beetween air and water can be approximately
described as p
A
= 25 x
A
, where is the partial pressure of SO
2
in the
gas phase in atm. The individual mass transfer coefficient are k
x
=
10 kmol/hm
2
(delta x) and k
y
= 8 kmol/hm2(delta y). Calculate the
overall coefficient K
G
in kmol/hm2(delta p in mm Hg) and x
Ai
and y
Ai

at the gas-liquid interface.
SOLUTION


17
LOCAL MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
For general case
Diffusion of more than one species
No equimolar counter diffusion
The mass transfer rates are large
k-type diffusion coefficients cannot be used
F-type diffusion coefficient has to be used. General
approach is same for finding expression

A,G A,i A,L A,L
A A,G G A,L L
A,G A,G A,L A,i
y x
N F ln F ln
y x
+ +
+ +
+ +
( (
= =
( (

( (

A , L L
A ,G G
F
F
A,G A,i A,L A,L
A,G A,G A,L A,i
y x
y x
+
+
+ +
+ +
(
=
(

(

Psi values are molal ratio of a component to the total moles, and F values
are the mass transfer coefficients
18
EXAMPLE
A wetted-wall absorption tower is fed with water as the wall
liquid and an ammonia air mixture as the central-core gas.
At a particular point in the lower, The ammonia
concentration in the bulk gas is 0.60 mole fraction, that in
the bulk liquid is 0.12 mole fraction. The temperature is 300
K and the pressure is 1 atm. Ignoring the vaporization of
water, calculate the local ammonia mass-transfer flux. The
rates of flow are such that F
L
= 0.0035 kmol/m
2
-s. and F
G
=
0.0020 kmol/m
2
-s. The equilibrium-distribution data for the
system at 300 K and 1 atm is:

( )
A A A A A A A
y 10.51 x ; 0.156 0.622x 5.765 x 1 ; x 0.3 = = + s
19
SOLUTION
Given
T=300 K; P=1 atm
y
A,G
=0.60; x
A,L
=0.12
F
L
= 0.0035 kmol/m
2
-s; . F
G
= 0.0020 kmol/m
2
-s

Although this is a diffusion of A through stagnant B, the
ammonia concentration is too high to use k-type mass
transfer coefficient, F-type coefficient must be used


( )
A A A A A A A
y 10.51 x ; 0.156 0.622x 5.765 x 1 ; x 0.3 = = + s
A,G A,i A,L A,L
A A,G G A,L L
A,G A,G A,L A,i
y x
N F ln F ln
y x
+ +
+ +
+ +
( (
= =
( (

( (

A,G A,L
1 + + = =
A,i A,L
A G L
A,G A,i
1 y 1 x
N F ln F ln
1 y 1 x
( (
= =
( (

( (


( )
L
G
F
F
A,L
A,i A,G
A,i
1 x
y 1 1 y
1 x
(
=
(

(

20
SOLUTION




Graphically or numerically
y
A,i
=0.49; x
Ai
=0.23

0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
x
A
y
A
( )
A A A A A A A
y 10.51 x ; 0.156 0.622x 5.765 x 1 ; x 0.3 = = + s
A,i
A G
A,G
3
4 2
1 y
N F ln
1 y
1 0.49
2 x10 ln
1 0.6
0.4.7 x10 kmol / m s

(
=
(

(

(
=
(


=
( )
L
G
F
1.75
F
A,L
A,i A,G A,i
A,i A,i
1 x
0.88
y 1 1 y y 0.6
1 x 1 x
( (
= =
( (

( (

( )
A A A A A
y 10.51 x 0.156 0.622x 5.765 x 1 ; x 0.3 ( = + s

=
21
MATERIAL BALANCE
Consider SS mass transfer operation
involves countercurrent contact of two
immiscible phases
V is total moles of phase V
Vs is moles of A-free V
L is total moles of phase L
Ls is moles of A-free L
y is mole fraction of component A in V
x is mole fraction of component A in L
Y is the moles of A per mole A-free V
X is mole of component A per mole A-
free L
L, x, X
V, y, Y
L
2
, x
2
, X
2
V
2
, y
2
, Y
2

V
1
, y
1
, Y
1
L
1
, x
1
, X
1

Z=z
1

Z=z
2

y
Y
1 y
=

x
X
1 x
=

A = solute
22
MATERIAL BALANCE: COUNTER FLOW
Mole balance around the column


Using solute free basis

Mole balance around plane z

Using solute free basis

moles of Aentering moles of Aleaving
thecolumn thecolumn
( (
=
( (

1 1 1 1
V y Lx Vy L x + = +
1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1
V y L x V y L x + = +
S 1 S 2 S 2 S 1
V Y L X V Y L X + = +
L, x, X
V, y, Y
L
2
, x
2
, X
2
V
2
, y
2
, Y
2

V
1
, y
1
, Y
1
L
1
, x
1
, X
1

Z=z
1

Z=z
2

z
S 1 S S S 1
V Y L X V Y L X + = +
23
MATERIAL BALANCE: COUNTER FLOW
The mole balance in terms of solute free basis
can be expressed as:

or

X
1
Y
Slope=Ls/Vs
operating Line
Y
2
Y
1
X
2
X
equilibrium curve
X
1
Y
Ls/Vs
operating Line
Y
1
Y
2
X
2
X
equilibrium curve
L, x, X V, y, Y
L
2
, x
2
, X
2
V
2
, y
2
, Y
2

V
1
, y
1
, Y
1
L
1
, x
1
, X
1

Z=z
1

Z=z
2

z
Transfer from phase V
to phase L (Absorption)
Transfer from phase L
to phase V (Stripping)
S 1
S 1
L Y Y
V X X

S 1 2
S 1 2
L Y Y
V X X

24
MATERIAL BALANCE: COCURRENT FLOW
Mole balance around the column


Using solute free basis:

Using the operating line
approach:
moles of Aentering moles of Aleaving
thecolumn thecolumn
( (
=
( (

1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
V y L x Vy Lx V y L x + = + = +
L, x, X
V, y, Y
L
2
, x
2
, X
2
V
2
, y
2
, Y
2

V
1
, y
1
, Y
1
L
1
, x
1
, X
1

Z=z
1

Z=z
2

z
S 1 s 1 S S S 2 S 2
V Y L X V Y L X V Y L X + = + = +
S 1 2 1
1 2 S 1
L Y Y Y Y
X X V X X

= =

25
MATERIAL BALANCE: COCURRENT FLOW
The mole balance in terms of solute free
basis can be expressed as:

X
1
Y
Slope=-Ls/Vs
operating Line
Y
1
Y
2
X
2
X
equilibrium curve
L, x, X V, y, Y
L
2
, x
2
, X
2
V
2
, y
2
, Y
2

V
1
, y
1
, Y
1
L
1
, x
1
, X
1

Z=z
1

Z=z
2

z
Transfer from phase V
to phase L (Absorption)
Transfer from phase L
to phase V (Stripping)
S 1 2 1
1 2 S 1
L Y Y Y Y
X X V X X

= =

X
1
Y
Slope=-Ls/Vs
operating Line
Y
1
Y
2
X
2
X
equilibrium curve
26
MATERIAL BALANCE
Masses, mass fraction, and mass ratio can be
substituted consistently for moles, mole fractions, and
mole ratios in the mass balance equations
Counter flow

Cocurrent Flow


Where the prime () indicates mass based property

' ' '
S 1 2
' ' '
S 1 2
L Y Y
V X X

' ' '


S 1 2
' ' '
S 1 2
L Y Y
V X X

27
EXAMPLE: ADSORPTION OF NO
2
ON
SILICA GEL
NO
2
produced by thermal process for fixation of nitrogen, is to be
removed from dilute mixture with air by adsorption on silica gel in a
continuous adsorber. The mass flow rate of the gas entering the
adsorber is 0.5 kg/s. It contains 1.5% NO
2
, by volume, and 85% of NO
2
is to be removed. Operation to be isothermal at 298 K and 1 atm. The
entering gel will be free of NO
2
. the equilibrium adsorption data at this
temperature are:



If twice the minimum gel rate is to be used, calculate the gel mass flow
rate and the composition of the gel leaving the process for:
i. Counter flow operation
ii. Cocurrent flow operation
p
NO2,
mmHg 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Solid conc. (m),
kg NO
2
/ 100 kg gel
0 0.4 0.9 1.65 2.60 3.65 4.85
28
SOLUTION:
1. Plot the equilibrium data
Since the equilibrium data is given in
terms of mass ratios, it is easier to use
mass based equation in this case
The partial pressure data have to be
converted to mass ratio data (Y)


Now the equilibrium data become:


2 2
NO NO
' i
i i
A
i
ir i A
i
i
i
ir
i
M kg
p 46
Y Y x
M 760 p 29
y p
Y
1 y P
kg
p
= =
= =


Gel+NO
2
Air/NO
2

Gel Air/NO
2

Cocurrent
Gel Air/NO
2

Gel/NO
2
Air/NO
2

Countercurrent
X
i

, kg NO
2
/ 100 kg gel 0 0.4 0.9 1.65 2.60 3.65 4.85
Y
i
, kg
NO2
/ 100 kg
Air

29
CONTD.



Minimum gel rate


When the operating line
touches (reaches) the
equilibrium line
X
1
=0.037 (From graph)


2 2
NO NO
' 1
1 1
Air 1 Air
M kg
y 46 0.015 46
Y Y x * 0.0242
M 1 y 29 1 0.015 29 kg
= = = =

0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Y
'

,



k
g

N
O
2
/
k
g

A
i
r


(Ls/Vs) Min
operating Line
Y
1
'
Y
2
'
X
2'
X' kg NO
2
/kg gel
equilibrium curve
X
1
',
max
( )
2
NO
' '
2 1
Air
kg
Y 1 0.15 xY 0.15 * 2.42 0.0036
kg
= = =
' 2
2
kg NO
X 0.00
kg gel
=
(1-0.85)*Y
1


*100
30
CONTD.




( )
'
' '
S 1 2
' ' '
1 2
S'
' '
'
' ' 1 2
min
S S S
' '
1 2
' '
s 1 B1
'
1
'
S
'
S
' '
1 2
' ' '
1 2 S
'
S
L Y Y
X X
V
Y Y 0.0242 0.0036
L xV xV
0.037 0 X X
1 1
V V 0.5 x 0.5 0.488 kgAir / s
1 0.0242 1 Y
L (min) 0.268 kg gel / s
L 2 x0.268 0.536 kg gel / s
Y Y
0.0
X X V 0.00 0.488 x
L
e


= =

= = = =
+ +
=
= =

= + = +
2
24 0.0036
0.0186 kg NO / kg gel
0.536

=
31
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Y
'

,



k
g

N
O
2
/
k
g

A
i
r


(Ls/Vs) Min
operating Line
Y
1
'
Y
2
'
X
2
'
X' kg NO
2
/kg gel
equilibrium curve
X
1
',
max
32
COCURRENT FLOW
Y
1
=0.024
Y
2
=0.0036
X
1
=0.00
For (L
S
)
min
, (X
2
)max can be found be drawing the
operating line reaching
the equilibrium line
(X
2
)
max
=0.0034

Gel+NO
2
Air/NO
2

Gel Air/NO
2

Cocurrent
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Y
'

,



k
g

N
O
2
/
k
g

A
i
r


Slope (-Ls/Vs) Min
operating Line
X1', Y1'
X' kg NO
2
/kg gel
equilibrium curve
X2
',
max,Y2'
33
SOLUTION, CONTINUED




( )
'
' '
S 1 2
' ' '
1 2
S'
' '
'
' 1 2
min
S S
' '
2 ,max 1
'
S
' '
1 2
' ' '
2 1 S
'
S
2
L Y Y
X X
V
Y Y 0.0242 0.0036
L xV x0.488 2.957 kg gel / s
0.0034 0 X X
L 2 x 2.957 5.92 kg gel / s
Y Y
X X V
L
0.024 0.0036
0 0.488 x 0.00168 kg NO / kg gel
5.92


= = =

= =

= +

= + =
To reach the same degree of removal of NO2, countercurrent flow is much
more effective compared to cocurrent
The amount of gel needed for cocurrent flow (5.92 kg/s) is about 11 times
of that needed if countercurrent flow is used (0.536 kg/s)
34
EQUILIBRIUM-STAGE OPERATION
In many instances mass transfer devices are assembled
by interconnecting individual units (stages)
The material passes through each one of these stages
Two material streams moves countercurrently (cascades)
In each stage the two streams are contacted, mixed, and then
separated
As the stream moves between stage they come close to
equilibrium conditions
If the leaving streams from a certain stage is in equilibrium, this
stage is an ideal stage
If the stage are connected cocurrently they represent a single
stage
Batch mass-transfer operations are also a single stage
35
STAGE-OPERATIONS




The flow rate and composition of each stream are
numbered corresponding to the effluent from a
stage
X
2
is the mole ratio in stream leaving stage 2

Y
N
is the mole ratio of stream leaving
For ideal stages, the effluents from each stage are in
equilibrium
Y
2
is in equilibrium with X
2
and so on
The cascade has the characteristics of the countercurrent
process with operating line goes through points (X
0
, Y
1
) and
(X
N
, Y
N+1
)
The cas
Stage
N-1
Stage
N
Stage
2
Stage
1
V
1
V
S
Y
1

L
0
L
S
X
0

V
2
V
S
Y
2

L
1
L
S
X
1

V
N
V
S
Y
N

L
N-1
L
S
X
N-1

V
N+1
V
S
Y
N+1

L
N
L
S
X
N

n
36
NUMBER OF IDEAL STAGES
Number of ideal stages can be determined
graphically (for two component systems)
Y
X
N,
Y
N+1
X
equilibrium curve
X
0,
Y
1
X
0
X
1
X
3
Y
N+1
Y
3
Y
2
Y
1
37
NUMBER OF STAGES
For linear equilibrium line (Y
i
=mX
i
), analytical
solution is possible (Kremser):
Define Absorption factor (ratio of the slope of
the operating line to the slope of the equilibrium
line):



S
S
L
A
mV
=
For transfer from L to V (Stripping)






( )
( )
0 N 1
N N 1
0 N
N N 1
X Y / m
ln 1 A A
X Y / m
N A 1
ln 1 / A
X X
N A 1
X Y
+
+
+
(
+
(


= =

= =

For transfer from V to L


(Absorption)






N 1 0
1 0
N 1 1
1 0
Y mX 1 1
ln 1
Y mX A A
N A 1
ln A
Y Y
N A 1
Y mX
+
+
( | |
+
( |

\ .

= =

= =

38
EXAMPLE:
A flue gas flows at a rate of 10 kmol.s at 298 K
and 1 atm with a SO
2
content of 0.15 mole%.
Ninety percent of sulfur dioxide is to be
removed by absorption with pure water at 298
K. The design water flow rate will be 50%
higher than the minimum. Under these
conditions, the equilibrium line is:
i i
Y 10 X =
39
SOLUTION
Given Data
T=298 K
y
1
=y
N+1
=0.0015
x
2
=x
0
=0
m=10
V
1
=10 kmol/s
L
S
=1.5 (L
S
)
min

Single
Stage
V
1
, V
S
, y
1
, Y
1
L
2
, L
S
, x
2
, X
2
L
1
, L
S
, x
1
, X
1
V
2
, V
S
, y
2
, Y
2 C
a
s
c
a
d
e


N
V
N+1
, V
S
, y
N+1
, Y
N+1
L
0
, L
S
, x
0
, X
0
L
N
, L
S
, x
N
, X
N
V
1
, V
S
, y
1
, Y
1
2
1
3
N-1
40
SOLUTION
y
1
=y
N+1
=0.0015 Y
1
=(Y
N+1
)
cascade
=0.
0015/(1-0.0015)=0.001502

Y
2
=(Y
1
)
cascade
=(1-0.9)*Y
1
=0.00015

x
2
=(x
0
)
cascade
=0
Vs=V
1
(1-y
1
)=10*(1-0.0015)=9.985
kmol/s
From the graph
X
1, max
=0.00015
(L
S
/V
S
)
min
=(Y
1
-Y
2
)/(X
1, max
-X
2
)
= 9

L
S
min=9*9.985=89.9 kmol/s
L
S
=1.5 Ls min=134.8 kmol/s
=134.8*18=2426 kg/s
L
S
/V
S
=13.5
X
1
=X
2
+(Y
1
-Y
2
)/(L
S
/V
S
)
=10
-4
mol SO
2
/mol H
2
O
= 10
-4
*64/18=0.356x10
-3
= 0.356 g SO
2
/kg H
2
O


0
0.0002
0.0004
0.0006
0.0008
0.001
0.0012
0.0014
0.0016
0.0018
0.002
0 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.0001 0.00012 0.00014 0.00016 0.00018 0.0002
X
Y
Y2
Y1
X2
X1 max
X1
(LS/VS)
min
LS/V
S
Equilibrium
41
SOLUTION: NUMBER OF STAGES
Graphically:
N 4 stages

Analytically


N 1 0
1 0
Y mX 1 1
ln 1
Y mX A A
N A 1
ln A
+
( | |
+
( |

\ .

= =
S
S
L 13.5
A 1.35
mV 10
= = =
0.001502 10 x0.0 1 1
ln 1
0.0015 10x0.0 1.35 1.35
N 4.01 Stages
ln1.35
( | |
+
| (

\ .
= =
0
0.0002
0.0004
0.0006
0.0008
0.001
0.0012
0.0014
0.0016
0.0018
0.002
0 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.0001 0.00012 0.00014 0.00016 0.00018 0.0002
X
Y
2
1
3
4
Y1
YN+1
X0
XN
Operating
Line
Slope=LS/VS
Equilibrium line
Slope = m

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